Dr Ibrahim Kalin
English Monograph Series – Book No. 12
﷽�
Have they not journeyed in the land so that they have hearts to understand? Que ne voyagent-ils sur la terre afin d'avoir des coeurs pour comprendre? Qur’an, Al-Hajj, 22:46
Books in the Series
1. The Amman Message 2008 2. A Common Word Between Us and You 2009 3. Forty Hadith on Divine Mercy 2009 4. Jihad and the Islamic Law of War 2009 5. Body Count 2009 6. The Holy Qur’an and the Environment 2010 7. Address to H. H. Pope Benedict XVI 2010 8. Keys to Jerusalem 2010 9. Islam, Christianity and the Environment 2011 10. The First UN World Interfaith Harmony Week 2011 11. Islam and Peace 2012 12. Reason and Rationality in the Qur’an 2012 13. The Concept of Faith in Islam 2012 14. Warfare in the Qur’an 2012
Dr Ibrahim Kalin
№ 12 English Monograph Series
······································ MABDA · English Monograph Series · No. 12 Reason and Rationality in the Qur’an ISBN: 978-9957-428-48-8 ······································ Translations from English into French by Loqman Stephany and into Arabic by Samir Alsit. © 2012 The Royal Aal Al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought 20 Sa'ed Bino Road, Dabuq PO BOX 950361 Amman 11195, JORDAN www.rissc.jo/ All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanic, inclding photocopying or recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Views expressed in the Essay Series do not necessarily reflect those of RABIIT or its advisory board. Typesetting by Besim Brunçaj English and French set in Arno Pro. Arabic set in Naskh using Tasmeem. Calligraphy provided by: ITIAA (The Institute of Traditional Islamic Art and Architecture – http://www.itiaa.edu.jo) Printed by Jordanian Press LEGAL DEPOSIT NUMBER The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan National Library 2012/1/125
Contents Introduction | VII English Reason and Rationality in the Qur’an | 1 Français La Raison et l’Intellect dans le Coran | 69 ا ��� �ة �لعر ب����ي آ ا ��� �ق ا ��� �ق �ا ن �ة �ف ا �� �ق � ن � | لع���ل �و لع��ل ��ي�� �ي� ل�ر3
Introduction
F
rom November 21-23, 2011, the Royal Aal Al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought hosted the Second Seminar of the Catholic-Muslim Forum at the Baptism Site, Jordan. The Forum is one of the fruits of the ‘A Common Word’ initiative, which was launched in 2007 and which seeks to promote Muslim-Christian dialogue based on the two shared religious commandments of ‘Love of God’ and ‘Love of the Neighbour’ [see http://aCommonWord.com]. The second Forum (building on the success of the first Forum, which was held at the Vatican in 2008) brought together 24 leading scholars from each religion to discuss the following three themes: 1. Reason, 2. Faith, 3. The Human Person. On the first day, Prof. Ibrahim Kalin presented Reason and Rationality in the Qur’an, and Prof. Vittorio Possenti presented The Human Person in the Light of Reason: A Christian Perspective. On the second day , Father Francios Bousquet presented [in French], The Human Person in the Light of Faith; A Christian Perspective, and Habib Ali Jifri presented [in Arabic] The Concept of Faith in Islam. On the third day Prof. Timothy Winter presented The Human Person in Islam, and Prof. Stefan Hammer presented The Human Person: Dignity and Rights: A Catholic Perspective. On each day, the presentations were followed by friendly VII
and frank discussions which served to better understand each other’s perspective. On the second day of the event, the participants were invited to greet H.M. King Abdullah II and share matters of concern to both Muslims and Catholics. A public session on the final day had a panel of three members of each delegation answering questions put forth by the audience. The Final Joint Declaration was also issued during this session [see http://aCommonWord.com/docs/ FinalDeclarationEN.pdf] This booklet is a slightly revised version of the paper presented by Dr Ibrahim Kalin, and includes the French and Arabic translations.
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Reason and Rationality in the �ur’an Dr Ibrahim Kalin
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his paper is based on a simple argument: far from being a self-standing entity, reason functions within a larger context of existence, intelligibility and moral thinking. It articulates as much as discloses the reality of things. Rationality arises within a context of meaning and significance that goes beyond the internal workings of the individual human mind. As a situated and engaged reality, reason by itself is neither a principle nor ground of knowledge, truth or rationality because our epistemic encounter with the world takes place in a wider context of ontological relations and significance. Furthermore, the conceptual and linguistic affiliates of the word ‘aql, which make up a long list of interrelated epistemic terms, present a matrix of thinking wider than calculative and discursive rationality can account for. The Qur’an treats reason and rationality in such a wider context of thinking. Any notion of rationality that can properly be called ‘Islamic’ operates in the context of what I call the metaphysics English | 1
of creation, which states that the world has been created by an intelligent God for a purpose. It begins with the premise that the world has a beginning and end and that all shall perish except His [God’s] Face (Al-Qasas, 28:88). The beginning (al-mabda’) and the end or “return” (al-ma’ad) to God lays out a scope and horizon for our rational deliberations and moral choices. Like the universe, human beings have been created for a purpose whose fulfillment is not possible within the confines of a subjectivist ontology of human reason. The work of reason takes place against the backdrop of an ontology of rationality that links human beings to other human beings on the one hand, and to God and the universe on the other. As God’s intelligent work, the world of creation reflects His creative power. Given that God creates optimally and always for a purpose, the universe has an order and intelligibility built into it. Truth, when properly accessed, is the ‘disclosure’ of this intrinsic order and intelligibility, which God as the Creator has bestowed upon existence. When reason investigates natural phenomena and the universe, it seeks out this order and intelligibility in them because without order, structure and intelligibility we cannot know anything. To name something, without which we cannot perceive the world, means giving it a proper place and signification in the order of things. A non-subjectivist ontology of reason, which the Qur’an advocates, construes rationality as disclosing the principles of intelligibility derived from the intrinsic 2 | Kalin
qualities of the order of existence. ‘Rationality as intelligibility’ is thus markedly different from the current notions of instrumental rationality, which reduces the function of reason, the most fundamental trait of being human, to making logical use of available means to reach our stated ends.1 Rationality is then a function of existence and thinking and takes place in a communicative and intersubjective context. To say that something is intelligible means that it has a certain order and structure by which we can understand it. It also means that since it is intelligible, it can be communicated to others through language and rational arguments. This intersubjective context of rationality, which the Qur’an emphasizes on various occasions, places reason and rationality above the solitary work of a solipsistic and disengaged mind. Just as we humans are part of a larger reality, our thinking functions within a larger context of intelligibility. Using the plural form, the Qur’an explains its verses to a tribe, nation or community (qawm) who thinks and chastises those who do not use their reason (see for instance, Al-Baqarah, 2:164; Al-Ma’idah, 5:58; Al-Ra’d, 13:4; Al-Nahl, 16:12). From disclosing the intrinsic intelligibility of things to intercultural relations, rationality emerges in a network of relations and connections that go beyond the internal procedures of the human mind. 1 Cf. Milton K. Munitz, The Question of Reality (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 124.
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Subsuming reason within a larger context of existence goes against the main thrust of modern rationalism. Ever since the European Enlightenment adapted its ‘baptism of reason’ against the alleged irrationality of the Middle Ages, reason has declared its independence and developed a view of itself as the ultimate arche and ens realissimum of reality. In an age in which rationality is measured by quantifiable properties and computerized decisions, the ontological foundations of reason have radically changed, and highly idealized and eventually inhuman forms of rationality have been identified as the basis of human intelligence. In contrast to the notion of rationality as computerization, however, our most unique human quality called reason, the very quality that distinguishes us from the rest of creation and clearly privileges us over them (Al-Isra', 17:70), functions essentially and primarily in a qualitative and axiological context. Charges of ‘irrationality’ and dogmatism have been launched against Islam in part because the concept of rationality as developed in the Islamic intellectual tradition contravenes the main thrust of modern and postmodern notions of rationality that have arisen in the West since the 17th and 18th centuries. Motivated by religious zeal, most medieval Christians considered Islam to be against reason and saw it as grounded in blind faith, ignorance, violence and worldly pleasures. The Muslim faith attracted many followers, it was argued,
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not because it offered convincing arguments but because it appealed to their flesh, the lowest part of the human being. Furthermore, Islam endorsed violence on non-Muslims to convert them because it could not have produced rational arguments to convince the non-believer. Use of violence and declaration of jihad against non-Muslims showed how irrational Islam was and how Islamic faith went against the nature of things. Not surprisingly, charges of unreason and violence have survived to the modern period. Today, radically anti-Islamic and Islamophobic voices cite similar arguments to depict Islam and Muslims as irrational and violent. History, though, has its own acts of balancing. Some medieval critics of Christianity such as Peter Bayle and Henry Stubbe defended Islam as a faith closer to reason than the Catholic Church. They praised the simplicity of Islamic faith against the complexities of Christian theology and rituals and admired the advanced state of Islamic civilization. While people like Roger Bacon claimed that the Muslim philosophers al-Farabi and Ibn Sina had produced their philosophical edifice despite Islam, not because of it, and pretended to be Muslims outwardly to avoid the persecution of an intolerant religion, the anti-Catholic thinkers of the middle ages believed that Islam tolerated rational thinking and scientific inquiry more than others.2 2
See my “Roots of Misconception: Euro-American Perceptions of
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The secular critics consider Islam as essentially incompatible with the secular-humanist ethos of modernity and thus in conflict with the supposedly rational-scientific basis of modern culture. They also point to the discrepancies between traditional religions and the modern concepts of human rights, equality and freedom. The Enlightenment reason claims autonomy and self-sufficiency and rejects any outside authority such as history, tradition or religion. It does not reject religion in toto but subjects it to the scrutiny of the individual human reason. It draws boundaries for religious belief and denies any role or authority to religion outside them. Like the medieval critics, the secular critics of Islam link unreason and violence and allege that “Islamic terrorism” is a result of the irrational nature of the Islamic faith. The radical Orientalists add other things to the list: the oppression of women, violation of minority rights, freedom of press, even poverty, corruption, etc. are all somehow related to the Islamic tradition which did not allow free thinking and oppressed free inquiry, dissent and pluralism. Needless to say, this is a caricature of the Islamic tradition and based on political considerations rather than a sound analysis of historical facts. Much of the current debate about Islam, reaIslam Before and After September 11th” in Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition, Joseph Lumbard (ed.) (Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, 2009, 2nd edition), pp. 149–193.
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son, rationality and science in popular circles in the West is shaped by such simplistic yet powerful views.
The Modern Context: The Enlightenment Reason
Modernity via the Enlightenment has claimed superiority over other traditions and non-Western cultures because of its claim to ground things in reason and thus create a primarily, if not purely, rational order. In contrast to the supposedly fideistic claims of Christianity, the Enlightenment philosophes sought to justify everything on the basis of what Descartes called “clear and distinct ideas”. The question to which Kant responded with his famous essay in 1784 summed up the relevance of reason and rationality for how we were to live in the post-Medieval world: do we live in an enlightened age? Kant believed his generation lived in an “age of enlightenment” rather than in an “enlightened age”. The subtle difference between the two is not to be taken lightly. An enlightened age is one in which the defining elements of culture, society and politics follow the principle of reason. This is presumably a mature state of humanism and rationality, a world in which reason has defeated the forces of anti-reason. By contrast, an age of enlightenment is one in which the battle for the soul of humanity continues and the forces of reason fight ignorance and darkness. It refers to a process of gradual maturity and rationality, a goal towards which humanity as a whole moves. Since the reign of reason has begun, the end of history is within our reach – an end English | 7
that is certain to come when the light of reason dawns upon all humanity including non-Europeans. Kant defined enlightenment as “man’s release from his self-incurred tutelage. Tutelage is man’s inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another”. Man’s immaturity has created much of the oppression and ignorance that has shaped human history. Kant characterizes the essence of the Enlightenment as the “courage to think” for oneself freely. “Sapere aude! Have courage to use your own reason! That’s the motto of enlightenment”.3 From academic circles to populist politics, the debate about the Enlightenment reason has now become a debate about the alleged lack of rationality and humanity in Islam. In his preface to his brilliant history of the Enlightenment, Louis Dupre, “stunned by the attacks on September 11, 2001”, wondered “if there was any purpose in writing about the Enlightenment at a time that so brutally seemed to announce the end of its values and ideals”. Dupre does not mean to declare Islamic culture “unenlightened”. But he notes that “Islam never had to go through a prolonged period of critically examining the validity of its spiritual vision, as the West did during the eighteenth century”.4 Dupre does not explain 3 Kant, “What is Enlightenment?” in Kant on History, ed. Lewis White Beck, (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1963), p. 3. 4 Louis Dupre, The Enlightenment and the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004), Preface, ix.
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why Islam needs to revisit the “validity of its spiritual vision” but he clearly echoes an increasingly common view about the so-called “Islamic reformation”. There have been other more alarming voices calling for an ‘Islamic enlightenment’ to save Muslims from backwardness and the world from an irrational and dangerous religion. It is a common mistake to assume that reason has been the exclusive property of the Enlightenment thinking since the 18th century. Traditional societies have accorded reason an important place in theology, law, politics, ethics, art and other areas of human life. The Islamic intellectual tradition, for instance, has produced an immense literature on reason, rationality, logic, thinking, contemplation, scientific inquiry, and so on. From Sunni and Shiite theology to Peripatetic philosophy and Sufism, the classical works are filled with chapters on the nobility of reason, virtues of knowledge and the spiritual blessings of using one’s reason properly. The notions of reason and rationality that have developed in this tradition, however, are radically different from their modern counterparts. Traditional societies have seen reason as part of a larger reality and placed them within the wider context of existence and meaning. In order to function properly, reason has to accept its place within an order of things that is larger than the knowing subject. As I shall discuss below, the Qur’an considers human reason as part of a larger reality whose meaning cannot be encapsulated and disclosed by logical analysis, conceptual abstraction or rational discourse English | 9
alone. The timeless wisdom is that reality is always more than our epistemic constructions of it. As a mark of modernity, reason has been constructed as a self-regulating principle and the arbiter of truth from the mathematical and physical sciences to social and political orders. One modern tribute to it reads as follows: “The virtue of Rationality means the recognition and acceptance of reason as one’s only source of knowledge, one’s only judge of values and one’s only guide to action.”5 But in reality, this rarefied view of reason, so passionately defended by academic philosophers, positivists and the self-proclaimed Enlightenment rationalists, has never worked as expected. Nor has it delivered what it promised, i.e., free individuals, rational society, universal equality, scientific culture, reason-bound politics or economic justice. This in itself calls for a deep reflection about the reasonableness of the Enlightenment project of pure reason. At any rate, elements of ‘anti-reason’ seem to have crept into the new world order promised by the Enlightenment, and the modern capitalist society with its evasive impersonalism, crude individualism and structural violence, is a far cry from a rational social order. Ever since the triumph of scientism in the late 19th and early 20th century, reason as logic and rational inquiry has been hailed as a trait of modernity not because we want to grasp the reality of things in the Greek sense of the term but 5 Ayn Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness (New American Library 1964) p. 25.
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because a purely rational order is believed to enable us to have full control over the world. The instrumental rationality that defines our value schemes, educational systems, political orders and daily lives provides handy justification for control, predictability and dominion and gives a largely false sense of security, satisfaction and fulfillment.6 It asserts that things are important because they have a use-value for us. The ‘rational’ is the ‘useful’. Things have no longer intrinsic intelligibility or ‘rationality’; they have only use-value which we are free to use in any way we want. Reason in the modern period has oscillated between the two extremes of logical positivism and radical historicism. The former view, represented by the Vienna Circle and its followers, has construed reason as an absolute and timeless principle unaffected by history, custom or such human frailties as emotion and desire. Rationality simply means proving that our concepts correspond to facts. It means drawing conclusions which fit the facts at hand. In this sense, rationality is essentially ‘logical consistency’ and finds its purest expression in formal logic and scientific method.7 No other criteria count as a basis for rationality, and the value of everything from religion to art and education must be judged 6 For a view of modernity as control and predictibility, see Albert Borgmann, Crossing the Postmodern Divide (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992). 7 Cf. Charles Taylor, “Rationality” in his Philosophy and the Human Sciences, Volume 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 134.
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according to the logical and scientific dictates of this a-historic reason. Thus the values by which we are to live must be derived from the facts of nature which we must investigate through rational inquiry and logical analysis. All else is to be rejected as metaphysical nonsense. Reduced to a function of reasoning as formal logic, existence, too, is reduced to a logical term with no meaning and force outside logical-linguistic constructions.8 The second view, represented by the waves of postmodernism and constructivism since the 1960s, deconstructed reason to the point of turning it into a by-product of socialhistorical processes. Like all other human traits and enterprises, reason is a historically constructed notion whose meaning and function varies from one social setting to another. Rationality means applying the human capacity for thinking to different problem-solving situations. It has meaning only in the context of specific issues, problems or research questions. Depending on the different types of human needs, rationality takes on new meanings and new functions. The defenders of this bounded view of reason insist that this is not to belittle the significance of reason or propose an irrational way of doing things. Rather, it is to admit 8 Heidegger rejects this impowerished meaning of ‘logos’ as ‘discourse’ or ‘analysis’ without an ontological ground. Instead, he tries to recover the original Greek meaning of logos as ‘gathering’ and ‘togetherness’. See his An Introduction to Metaphysics, tr. R. Manheim, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1959), pp. 120–135.
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the limitations of human reason. In this sense, rationality does not necessarily mean drawing conclusions that fit the facts. There are cases where the “anything goes” principle is more useful and functional than some abstract and mathematical notion of reason.9 The concept of reason has had a different trajectory in the Islamic tradition and avoided the extremes of positivist absolutism and radical relativism. The reason that emerged within the Islamic Weltanschauung proposed a different mode of thinking about existence, the universe, the human state and God. It was seen as part of a larger reality rather than a self-regulating principle and self-standing tool. As I shall discuss below, it is this integrated and wholesale view of reality that underlies the Quranic mode of thinking about reason and rationality.
Ratio and Intellectus
Before moving further, a word of clarification is in order for the reason-intellect bifurcation that has come about as a re-
9 Paul Feyerabend, who in his Against the Method (1975) took upon himself to debunk the absolutist claims of positivist science, is probably the most famous proponent of the second view. Richard Rorty’s Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979) provides another constructivist critique of the Enlightenment project of pure reason. Rorty’s alternative is a sort of reason dissolved into human drama. For a discussion of the trails of modern reason in Western philosophy in the 20th century, see Stephen Toulmin, Return to Reason (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001).
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sult of a major philosophical transformation in the history of Western metaphysics. I shall not venture into this history as it requires a detailed treatment. It should be briefly pointed out, however, that ratio and intellectus came to designate two separate ways of looking at reality in the late Middle Ages and ever since then the two terms have taken different paths. Ratio has been used for logical analysis, abstraction, deduction, drawing conclusions, and other logical functions of reason. In this broad sense, ratio primarily constituted the basis of scientific knowledge and claimed precision and certainty. By contrast, intellectus came to designate intuitive and sapiential knowledge, which was now fully decoupled from rational investigation and logical analysis. By implication, it was seen as lacking a solid foundation like ratio because it spoke of such subjective terms as intuition, imagination, illumination but not proofs, evidence, and demonstration. Had it not been for the later fallout between rationalist naturalism and mystical thought in the Western tradition, this may have been nothing more than a heuristic distinction. As a matter of fact, the Thomistic tradition maintained a relationship of complementarity between ratio and intellectus and held that they were not opposed to one another but addressed to different aspects of the same reality10 But as later history shows, the two terms were employed to rep10 See Denys Turner, Faith, Reason and the Existence of God (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), especially pp. 75–88.
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resent two substantially different ways of understanding the world and making moral judgments. Ratio became the main instrument of natural sciences, which by now had divested nature of all of its intrinsic intelligibility and symbolic significance, and developed a separate modus operandi. The further estrangement of ratio from intellectus meant that ‘rational analysis’ was no longer to unveil the built-in intelligibility of things, their symbolic significance, or their spiritual value. Rationality created a new domain of truth for itself and bade farewell to our holistic experience of reality. Rationalism, coupled with naturalism and positivism, sought to reduce reality to the analytical competencies of the human mind and identified quantitative-calculative thinking as the only reliable way of knowing the reality of things. Even though contemporary Christian theologians have insisted that both ratio and intellectus together make up a proper process of knowing, the bifurcation of discursive and intuitive modes of thinking has played a key role in the secularization of the modern world-picture and the profanization of nature. Such a distinction has never occurred in the Islamic tradition. The word ‘aql means both reason and intellect in the two senses discussed above. ‘Aql is innately capable of performing the two functions of logical analysis and intuitive knowing without a contradiction. Furthermore, it is the same ‘aql that guides our will in our moral choices. It is true that in the later Islamic intellectual tradition, the philosophers have introduced a general distinction between “ratioEnglish | 15
nal investigation” (bahth) and “taste” (dhawq), i.e., realized knowledge. The two modes of thinking, however, complement each other and help us uncover the multilayered structure of reality, which, after all, demands a multidimensional yet integrated approach. In the words of Mulla Sadra who epitomizes this tradition, “true demonstration does not contradict witnessing based on unveiling (al-shuhud al-kashfi)”.11 When Muslims state, largely under the pressure of modern rationalism and out of inferiority complex against the West, that “Islam is the religion of reason/intellect”, what they mean is not that the Islamic faith, or any faith for that matter, can be reduced to human reason. Such a claim would turn faith into an empirical statement or logical proposition. Faith, by definition, must have a dimension that goes beyond reason; otherwise there would be no need for Divine revelation and the Prophets. What is beyond reason, however, does not mean anti-reason; it means supra-rational, that which transcends the cognitive competencies of the human reason. Supra-rational is not irrational because reason can 11 Mulla Sadra, al-Hikmat al-muta‘aliyah f i’l-asf ar al-‘aqliyyat al-arba‘ah, (Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-‘Arabi, 1981) I, 2, p. 315. Sadra goes on to say: “The difference between the sciences based on theory and the sciences based on vision, is like the difference between someone who knows the definition of sweetness and someone who has actually tasted sweetness; and someone who understands the definition of health and power and someone who is actually healthy and powerful.” Commentary on the Chapter al-Waqi‘ah, Tafsir, Vol. 7, p. 10. For more on this, see my Knowledge in Later Islamic Philosophy: Mulla Sadra On Existence, Intellect and Intuition, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 217–221.
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admit what lies beyond its capacities. Such an admission is not illogical because it states not ignorance, agnosticism or blind faith but a self-reflective acknowledgment of limits. Reason cannot think without certain rules and principles. Freedom is not the abolishment of all limits and rules but the exercise of reason in conjunction with virtue.12 What is unique and even astounding about human reason is that it can set its own limits to what it can and cannot know. The self-delimitation of reason is a rational act and points to the larger context of existence and intelligibility within which it functions. This is what al-Ghazali attempted with his critique of Peripatetic philosophy whereby he critically tried to draw the limits of speculative reason in the field of pure metaphysics which he believed belonged to the “invisible world” (‘alam al-ghayb). Committing himself to a similar task but working with different premises, Kant, too, sought to lay out the limits of reason in his Critique of Pure Reason: “Human reason has this peculiar fate that in one species of its knowledge it is burdened by questions which, as prescribed by the very nature of reason itself, it is not able 12 What Kant has to say about this is worth quoting in full: “If reason will not subject itself to the law it gives itself, it will have to bow under the yoke of the law which others impose on it, for without any law whatsoever nothing, not even the greatest nonsense, can play its hand for very long. Thus the inevitable consequence of declared lawlessness in thinking (an emancipation from restrictions of reason) is that freedom to think is finally lost.” Kant, “What is Orientation in Thinking?”, trans. L. W. Beck in Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason and Other Writings on Moral Philosophy (Chicago, 1949), p. 304.
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to ignore, but which, as transcending all its powers, it is not able to answer”.13
The Ontological Ground of Qur’anic Rationality
Long before the Greek philosophical texts were translated into Arabic, Muslims had an encounter with the concept of reason/intellect as outlined in the Qur’an and the Hadith. In sharp contrast to the period of the Jahiliyyah, “ignorance”, Islam represented the era of faith, knowledge, reason, justice and freedom all at once. Entering Islam meant leaving the mental and social habits of the age of ignorance, polytheism, injustice and immorality. It meant establishing a new socio-political order based on reason, justice, equality and virtue. It also required a new ontology of reason to overcome polytheistic logic and moral cynicism. And this was possible only by introducing a new Weltanschauung and a new mode of thinking. In order to understand the place of reason and rationality in the Qur’an and the later Islamic intellectual tradition, we thus need to explore the new ontological ground of reason and the mode of thinking which the Qur’an introduced and did so through stories, implorations, deductions, syllogisms, commands, warnings, praises, and promises of reward and punishment. The rich repertoire of logical deductions and
13 Kant, The Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (London, 1933), p. A viii.
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moral exhortations which we find in the Qur’an and the Hadith purport to awaken our conscience so that we can begin to use our sensate and rational faculties in a manner that befits our state of existence. The Qur’an says: And indeed We have put forth for men in this Qur’an every kind of similitude in order that they may remember (Al-Zumar, 39:27). The mathal, translated here as similitude, refers to metaphors and parables by which a fundamental message is conveyed – a message which may otherwise remain inaccessible to the human mind. But since no parable is devoid of cognitive content, this is an appeal both to reason and imagination so that we may “remember” what is essential. The path of thinking which we find in the Qur’an is not comprised of assembling of facts; nor is it a pietistic enumeration of commands and prohibitions. Rather, it is a wholesome undertaking that requires setting upon an intellectual, moral and spiritual journey. It encompasses all of our being and overcomes such dualities as the sensate versus the rational, the material versus the spiritual, the individual versus the universe, nature versus culture, and so on. The integrated mode of thinking which the Qur’an embodies in its unique style reflects the nature of reality, which is interdependent and multilayered. It urges us to see the interconnectedness of things and how one thing leads to the other in the great chain of being. The Qur’anic mode of thinking is then primarily not descriptive but prescriptive. The Qur’an does not simply deEnglish | 19
scribe things as facts or information; its suggestive stories, striking metaphors and vivid descriptions of God’s creation and interventions in history are meant to change the way we see things and our place in the world. It seeks to transform the human conscience so that we can live a life based on justified faith and virtue.14 Once this conscience is awoken and brought up to reckon with the reality of things, everything falls in place: our reason, thinking, sense organs, seeing, hearing, perceiving and moral judgments begin to come together. Reason and rationality arise within this larger context of integrated thinking and moral discernment. Far from being a principle and ground of truth by itself, reason functions within the larger context of our being in the world and the human responses we give to reality. Owing its existence to something larger than what is purely human, reason cannot know God in the sense of ‘encapsulating’ Him because as a finite being, it cannot encircle that which is infinite. God cannot be known empirically because empirical knowledge entails limit, position, relation, relativity, etc., none of which applies to God. God can be known through reason/intelligence to the extent to which the Absolute and the Infinite can be intuited, grasped and represented through formal propositions, concepts, and metaphors. To expect reason to do more than that would be 14 Cf. Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1994), p. 22.
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to transgress its own limits. If reason, like other components of reality, is part of the order of existence and not the whole of it, then it can never fully encapsulate the whole of reality. But this in no way diminishes or undermines its significance. By contrast, God is the absolute reality that encapsulates everything. He is al-Muhit, the One who encompasses everything. Thus the Qur’an says that Vision perceives Him not, but He perceives [all] vision; and He is the Subtle, the Acquainted (Al-An’am, 6:103). Like love, charity, wisdom, spirituality and art, rationality is a fundamental human response to the call of reality. It enables us to disclose the intelligible structure of the order of existence. It invites us to overcome our corporeal existence and connect with the world of nature in primarily rational and moral terms. It urges us to establish a socio-political order based on virtue, justice and freedom. The Qur’an presents a view of the human person according to which our humanity is formed by ‘rationality’ (‘aql, nutq) and those other traits that are equally central to our task to give a meaningful response to reality. In an ontological sense, this means recognizing the reality of things as they are and see them as a “trust” (amanah) from God. The human response to the Divine call of protecting His trust is to become His “vicegerent” (khalifah) on earth and thus submit to God, which is the literal meaning of islam. In the formal religious language, this submission is called ‘ibadah, worship, the supreme human act that transcends the limitations of human existence English | 21
and binds us to the Absolute and the Infinite. In this regard, the Qur’anic mode of thinking is not empirical or rationalist, historical or systematic, apodictic or pedagogical, analytical or descriptive. It is none of them and all of them at once. It combines conceptual analysis with moral judgment, empirical observation with spiritual guidance, historical narrative with eschatological expectation, and abstraction with imperative command. The Qur’an is primarily a “guidance” (hidayah) for mankind (Al-Baqarah, 2:2) and seeks to lead us from ignorance to knowledge, from darkness to light, from injustice and oppression to freedom. The Qur’anic rationality thus extends from the empirical and conceptual to the moral and the spiritual. Being rational means rejecting oppression and injustice and embracing the Divine call for justice. The Prophet of Islam has defined ‘intelligent person’ (al-kayyis) as one who “controls his ego and prepares for the afterlife”. (Tirmidhi, Al-Qiyamah, 25). In Islamic law and theology, a person must be ‘sane’ or ‘intelligent’ (aqil) in order to be responsible for his/her actions because there is no religious responsibility (taklif) without having sanity or reason (‘aql). In the Islamic tradition, this forms the basis of the moral ontology of reason and rationality and establishes a strong connection between intelligence, rationality, faith and virtue. According to Harith al-Muhasibi (d. 857), reason is “a
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disposition that is known through its deeds”.15 It acts as a principle of moral action and seeks to bring us closer to the Divine. If a person is really intelligent, reasons al-Muhasibi, he will seek to secure his salvation in this world and in the hereafter, for which he must use his reason properly. By basing his analysis on the “nobility of reason”, which is the title of his work, al-Muhasibi wants to show the unique character of human reason for establishing a justified faith and a virtuous life. A proper use of reason, illuminated by faith, leads to rational thinking and moral behavior. By the same token, faith articulated and corroborated by reason has depth and certainty. The 14th century philosopher Haydar Amuli sees perfect harmony between faith and reason and compares religion (al-shar’) and reason to the body and the spirit. Just as the spirit cannot function without the body, the body cannot find meaning, life and wholeness without the spirit. Thus “neither religion dispenses with reson nor reason with religion. Raghib al-Isfahani, quoted by Amuli, states in strikingly unambiguous terms that “reason can never find the right path without religion and religion can never have clarity without reason”.16 Logic and transcendence thus work together to reveal the nature of things and realize our hu15 Harith al-Muhasibi, Sharaf al-‘aql wa mahiyyatuhu, ed. M. A. ‘Ata (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah), 1982, p. 19. 16 Haydar Amuli, Jami’ al-esrar wa manba’ al-anwar, ed. By Henry Corbin and Osman Yahia (Tehran: Department d’iranologie de l’institut franco-iranien de recherche, 1968), pp. 372–3.
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manity. But this can happen only when we see human reason working in a larger context of thinking and contemplation.
Reason and Thinking in Context
The verb ‘a-q-l, to intellect or to use one’s reason, literally means to hold, to protect and to guard. Reason is that by which we protect ourselves from falsehood, error and evildoing. Thus ma’qal means ‘fortress’. This is the same meaning conveyed in the English phrase “intelligent person”. This basic meaning of reason is not to be taken lightly, for it underlies the essential component of thinking and contemplation as the proper human response to the call of reality. In contrast to attempts to reduce reason and rationality to logical competency and procedural ratiocination, reason as a principle of truth and as an instrument of knowledge represents an encounter with the reality of things. Thinking is not simply to enumerate the physical properties of things or the logical relations of concepts. It is more than a mere mental representation of things because, as Muslim philosophers insist, mental abstraction gives us only a picture of reality. Like all mental abstractions,this picture is frozen and can never fully measure up to the reality itself. Abstract concepts are essential for rational thinking and the formation of ideas. Thinking, however, requires more than abstraction and use of concepts. It takes place in a context of encounter with reality and puts us in a relationship with something larger than us. It means seeing, observing, listening, hearing, reflecting, contemplating, and drawing 24 | Kalin
the appropriate practical and moral conclusions. It means responding to what we encounter. It involves rational analysis but also moral commitment. In its deepest sense, thinking prevents us from seeing things as a means to an end. It challenges instrumental rationality on both ontological and spiritual grounds. As I shall discuss shortly, if the world has been created by God, then it cannot be reduced to utility. It has a substantive meaning and value independent of us. In principle, there is nothing essentially wrong with the idea that we attain a degree of rationality by following rules and procedures. Following a rule can certainly counts as rational act and comes handy in our daily lives, scientific explorations, economic decisions, political lives, etc. But while it has its uses, instrumental rationality moves at the surface of human subjectivity and does not necessarily relate us to reality. Following a rule is no guarantee for a rational outcome. We may follow a procedure and arrive at certain conclusions. The outcome, though, can be the most irrational thing and even a catastrophe. Like many autocracies, the Nazis, for instance, had a rule-bound, procedurally ‘rational’ governance of Germany. But their instrumentalist approach to religion, history, science and politics destroyed the very meaning of being human. The content and substance of what we do must also have a rational basis. The Qur’an subscribes to a substantive view of rationality by asserting that not only our instruments and procedures but also our fundamental notions and concepts should be properly rational and conform to the reality of things. The English | 25
substantive view of rationality follows from the intrinsic intelligibility of existence as God’s creation. Every rational act on our part is an act of conforming to the principle of reason built into the nature of things. Whatever violates this principle lands us in the realm of the irrational. Substantive rationality is also supported by the anthropology of reason itself. Most Muslim thinkers hold that reason responds to empirical data and abstract notions through its own innate qualities. Far from being a hypothetical tabula rasa, reason reflects the fundamental traits of existence of which it is a part. Raghib al-Isfahani divides reason into two: ‘aql matbu’, “innate reason”, and ‘aql masmu’, “acquired reason”. Masmu’ literally means that which is heard, referring to things learnt by hearing from others. It roughly corresponds to experience and refers to the context of human relations. Innate reason refers to our in-born ability to grasp the intelligible order and truth of things. It is through innate reason that we inhabit an intelligible world. Acquired reason is what we learn by ‘hearing’ from others and refers to the context of social relations and linguistic forms with which we name things. The two are intertwined but ‘innate reason’ takes precedence over ‘acquired reason’. Isfahani, who attributes this division to Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib, says that just as the light of the sun has no use when the eye is blinded, acquired reason can do no good when innate reason is corrupted.17 Reason 17
Raghib al-Isfahani, al-Mufradat fi gharib al-qur’an (Istanbul: Kahra-
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then works two-ways: in its innate form, it works from inside and out. It encounters and witnesses the visible world through its inborn qualities. This is part of fitrah, the fundamental human nature, which is our window to the world of existence and thus must be protected in order to ‘see’ right.18 In its acquired form, reason moves from outside to inside and takes in bits and pieces of empirical data and impressions from the outside world. It is the combination of the two, the inner and the outer, that gives us a fuller picture of the function of reason vis-à-vis reality. This fundamental function of reason, however, always takes place within a larger context of ontological significance and epistemic competency.19 man Yayinlari, 1986), p. 511. Both Harith al-Muhasibi and al-Ghazali refer to this two-fold definition of reason; see al-Muhasibi, Sharaf al-‘aql, p. 20. 18 Al-Farabi identifies this as one of the six meanings of ‘aql; see alFararabi, Risalah fi’l-‘aql, ed. Maurice Bouyges (Beyrouth, Lebanon: Dar el-Machreq, 1983), pp. 8–9. 19 The later philosophical tradition has developed an elaborate epistemology and anthropology of reason which includes ‘aql hayulani or ‘aql bi’l-quwwah, the material or potential intellect, ‘aql bi’l-fi’l, the actualized intellect, ‘aql mustafad, the acquired intellect, and finally ‘aql fa’’al, the active intellect. Since I cannot discuss these later interpretations here, I will only refer to the foundational texts by the philosophers. For alKindi’s discussion and classification of ‘aql, which is the first among the philosophers, see his Risalah fi’l-‘aql (‘On the Intellect’), ed. Jean Jolivet in L’Intellect selon Kindi (Leiden, Holland: E. J. Brill, 1971). Al-Farabi fully develops al-Kindi’s initial exploration in his various works; see especially Risalah fi’l-‘aql. Ibn Sina discusses ‘aql and its types and functions in his various works including the Shifa’ and Najat but also al-Mabda’
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The most fundamental function of reason/intellect is to act as a mirror to reflect the intrinsic meaning and order of things. In performing this task, the intellect has a special relationship with the Divine because it emanates from the Divine Nature. What the intellect discovers as order, necessity and intelligibility in the universe is a reflection of God’s own Nature and Will. Mulla Sadra provides a vivid description of this aspect of the intellect: The intellect, since there is no veil between it and the the First Truth [God], can witness by itself the essence of the Truth [God] … there is no veiling between the two … [God] can certainly manifest itself to the intellect and the manifestation here takes place through the lucid [unveiling] of [God’s] essence. There is no aspect or quality added to the Divine and another being added to [the intellect]. The essence of the intellect is like a polished mirror on which the form of the Truth shines. On the mirror itself, there is no existential entity except the reflected form, and the reflected form is nothing but the form related to the Truth. Therefore in the essence of the intellect there is nothing other than the form of the Truth and wa’l-ma’ad. For an extensive survey of their views against the Greek background, see Davidson, Herbert A., AlFarabi, Avicenna, and Averroes on Intellect: Their Cosmologies, Theories of the Active Intellect, and Theories of Human Intellect (New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
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its theophany. There are no two things here: the existence of the intellect and the manifestation of the Truth upon it because one being cannot have to existences. By the same token, two [distinct] forms cannot emanate from God in one single manner. Because of this, the sages (‘urafa’) have said that God does not manifest [Himself] twice in the same form. Thus it is known that the existence of the intellect is nothing but a manifestation of God the Exalted through His Form on the intellect; and the form of God’s essence is itself His own Essence, not something added to Him.20
The Vocabulary of Thinking in the Qur’an
The Qur’an uses a number of terms that are closely related to reason/intellect and thinking. Tafakkur, “thinking”, qalb, “heart”, fu’ad, “inner heart”, and lubb, literally “seed” meaning “essential heart”, are among these terms and each corresponds to a different aspect of the act of perceiving, thinking and reflecting. There are also other terms which fall within the same semantic field of ‘aql: ‘ilm, “knowledge”; fahm, “understanding”; fiqh, “perceiving/understanding”; idrak, “grasping”; shu’ur, “consciousness”; burhan, “demonstration”; hujjah, “evidence”; bayyinah, “clear evidence”; sultan, “overwhelming evidence”, furqan, “discernment”; tadabbur, “con20 Mulla Sadra, Risālat al-hashr, ed. with Persian translation by M. . Khwājawī (Tehran: Intishārāt-i Mawlawī, 1998), pp. 85–6.
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templation”; nutq, “talking/thinking”; hukm, “judgment”; hikmah, “wisdom”; and dhikr, “remembrance/invocation”. The Qur’anic usage of these terms, whose full exposition requires a separate study, establishes a context of integrated thinking in which our encounter with reality unveils different aspects of the all-inclusive reality of existence. More importantly, it leads to a mode of thinking that combines empirical observation, rational analysis, moral judgment and spiritual refinement. This rich vocabulary points to the wholeness of perceiving and thinking. In contrast to categorical distinctions between sensate perception and conceptual analysis, our natural or ‘first-order’ encounter with things takes place as a unitary experience. In perceiving things, our sense organs and reason work together. The sharp distinctions between sensate qualities, which correspond to the physical-material world, and intellectual notions, which correspond to the world of the mind, are reflections of the Cartesian bifurcation between res extensa and res cogitans and hardly give us an accurate description of the actual act of perceiving and understanding. These categories belong to the ‘second-order’ reflection upon reality whereby we make distinctions between subject and object, the knower and the known, the perceiver and the perceived, mental and material, etc. Our first-order encounter with the world takes place in a different context. The wholeness of our epistemic experience of things 30 | Kalin
stems from the wholeness of existence. Knowing as encounter means that we stand before our object of knowledge. This puts us in a special relationship with the reality of things in that we respond to it through our epistemic faculties rather than create its meaning in a a self-referential way. This meaning of knowing through reason is reflected in one of the root meanings of the word ‘aql, which is to tie, to link, to relate. Reason ties us to the truth and thus opens up a new horizon beyond the ordinary chain of causes. In a horizontal way, the human reason moves between and across facts and concepts and links them to one another. In a vertical way, it links what is below to what is higher. The Qur’an insists on the convergence of the two axes of causality: horizontal, which regulates the world of physical causes, and vertical, which introduces the ‘Divine command’ (amr) into the natural realm. There is no contradiction between the two but they follow different rules. The day and night follow each other as part of the natural order in which we live and there is no breaking of this rule. But also “when God wants something to happen, He says to it “be” and it is” (Yasin, 36:82). Each realm of existence requires a different type of thinking. The elaborate vocabulary of sensing, reasoning and thinking which the Qur’an employs is necessitated by the nature of reality itself. A multilayered and multidimensional reality cannot be perceived by a single cognitive method. It requires a larger toolset of conceptual abilities. At this point, the Qur’an speaks of ‘alam al-ghayb, “the world of the invisEnglish | 31
ible” and ‘alam al-shahadah, “the world of the visible”. The invisible world refers to that realm of existence known to God alone. God has given intimations of this world but no comprehensive knowledge of it has been made available. While not accessible to the human experience, the invisible world guides our encounter with the world of visible existence and thus functions as a signpost for our conceptual analyses and moral judgments. In a metaphysical and moral sense, it regulates the affairs of the visible world in which we live. What is striking about the Qur’anic notion of the ‘visible world’ is that a proper perception of it is based on an experience of ‘witnessing’ (mushahadah), which is different from looking and seeing. Witnessing means standing before that which presents itself. It entails looking and seeing but also attending to. It is more like the experience of looking at a landscape and having a gestalt perception of it. In contemplating a landscape, we move between parts and whole and each time discover a new relationship. In this sense, our encounter with the reality of things is a rational and conceptual process but takes place within a larger context of intelligibility and significance that goes beyond purely logical and discursive thinking. Concepts, which are not created in vacuum, correspond to different aspects of reality and emerge in our encounter with reality, which the Qur’an describes as “bearing witness to the truth”. Thus we ‘see’ the light, ‘touch’ the wood, ‘smell’ the rose, ‘taste’ the
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cherry, ‘perceive’ the dimension, ‘think of ’ the infinitude, ‘have consciousness of ’ the nearness of the water, ‘discern’ between a thing and its shadow, ‘understand’ a command, ‘respond’ to a call, ‘submit’ to truth, ‘accept’ the evidence, ‘contemplate’ the meaning of life, and so on. Each of these epistemic acts says something about our mental and conceptual abilities with which we understand the world. But more importantly, they correspond to something outside us and expand the horizon of our subjectivity.
Reason, Heart and the Human Conscience
This is comparable to the unitary experience of reality like a moving landscape rather than a particular frame taken out of it for dissection. The Qur’an identifies the heart (al-qalb) as the proper locus of the unitary experience of reality. This is where perceptual experience, conceptual thinking and moral judgment blend together. Given the sentimentalization of the ‘heart’ since the Cartesian turn in Western philosophy, it should be noted that the Qur’an assigns a clearly epistemic and intellectual function to the heart. The verses that mention the heart refer to our deep conscience by which we see reality as a whole. It combines rational thinking and moral judgment. The heart, when clean and properly guided, presides over other epistemic faculties and enlightens them about the truth. Heart and reason function as a conduit for gaining insight into the reality of things and how we should
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relate ourselves to it. It is in this context that the Arabic linguists have identified ‘aql and qalb as being synonymous.21 The goal of thinking through ‘aql and qalb is to disclose and inhabit the intelligible order from which particular beings in the universe derive their meaning. Muslim thinkers see no contradiction between reason and heart, rational thinking and contemplation, logic and transcendence. One of the major figures of the Kalam tradition, Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi begins his famous work al-Muqabasat with a prayer to God to grant him “through His Grace and Generosity the spirit of the heart through the light of the intellect (ruh al-qalb binur al-‘aql)”.22 This is not surprising if we understand how our empirical and conceptual engagement with things works. Possessing sense organs is no guarantee for perceiving things properly because the senses are subsumed under a higher epistemic principle. After all, it is our reason that makes sense of what our sense organs perceive as a raw experience. We may have an eye with which to see but may see things in a distorted manner because of, say, a nervous breakdown.23 21 Ibn al-Manzur, Lisan al-‘Arab, entries on ‘aql and qalb (Beirut: no date) Vol. I. p. 687 and Vol. XI, pp. 458–9. 22 Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi, al-Muqabasat, ed. H. Sandubo (Tunisia: Dar al-Ma’arif, 1991), p. 7. 23 Compare this with what Zarathustra says to the people who show no interest in what he has to say: “Must one first shatter their ears to teach them to hear with their eyes?”, F. Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra,
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We may have two ears but may fail to hear because we may deliberately chose not to hear certain things. We may have a sharp mind but may not arrive at the right conclusion in, say, a legal dispute because our desire to win the case may take over our judgment. Our sensate faculties thus function within a larger context of conceptual, emotional and moral conditions. The process of arriving at the truth of something entails a unitary experience and involves sensate, cognitive, psychological and moral principles and considerations. AlGhazali, following the tradition before him and basing his analysis on the Hadith, describes sense organs as “the soldiers of the heart” and says that “the heart is like the king and the soldiers are like its servants and aids”.24 Even the physically sound functioning of the sense organs depends on the soundness and cleanliness of the heart. The human person is endowed with reason and thus can have access to the reality of things. But his reason and judgment can be clouded by his ego and carnal desires. He may thus lose his ability for discernment and can delude himself into thinking that he knows and forgets the stubborn and commanding nature of the ego. Against this, the Qur’an warns:
tr. R. J. Hollingdale (Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1961), p. 45. 24 al-Ghazali, Rawdat al-talibin wa ‘umdat al-salikin, in Majmu’ah Rasa’il al-Imam al-Ghazali (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1994), p. 32.
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ave you seen the one who takes as his god his own desire? Then would you be a guardian over him? {43} Or do you think that most of them hear or reason? They are only like cattle; nay, they are even farther astray from the Path. {44} (Al-Furqan, 25:43–44). Animals serve the purpose for which they have been created. But those who have been created to worship God take their own ego as their master and worship themselves even though they have been given clear signs. This is where their ‘hearing’ and ‘reasoning’ comes to no avail.25 The Qur’an goes further and challenges those who claim to see and hear when in fact their conscience has been blinded:
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nd among them are those who listen to you. But can you cause the deaf to hear, although they will not use reason? {42} And among them are those who look at you. But can you guide the blind although they will not [attempt to] see? {43} Indeed, God does not wrong the people at all, but it is the people who are wronging themselves. {44} (Yunus, 10:42–44).
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nd We have certainly created for Hell many of the jinn and mankind. They have hearts with which
25 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-qur’an al-‘azim, (Beirut: Dar al-Ma’rifah, 2006), p. 1141.
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they do not understand, they have eyes with which they do not see, and they have ears with which they do not hear. Those are like livestock; rather, they are more astray. It is they who are the heedless. {179} (Al-A’raf, 7:179). This suggests that having sense organs is no guarantee to perceive the truth. Empirical knowledge by itself cannot reveal the truth of things. The heart and the sense organs, which are the “soldiers of the heart”, must all be sound:
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e made for them hearing and vision and hearts. But their hearing and vision and hearts availed them not from anything [of the punishment] when they were [continually] rejecting God’s signs; and they were enveloped by what they used to ridicule.” {26} (AlAhqaf, 46:26).
The failure of seeing, hearing, etc., does not stem from a biological imperfection but from the closure of the mind and the heart to the truth. According to Ibn Kathir, this is a result of the fact that one does not “benefit from these organs which God has created as a cause for guidance”.26 In some respects, this is comparable to the vain effort to explain colors to the blind. The ontological disconnect that separates the visually blind from the experience of colors 26 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, p. 659.
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makes the discourse about colors impossible. But a greater illness is the illusion that we think we see things because we have eyes when in fact we do not see.27 The Qur’an insists that ‘seeing’ as witnessing the truth requires a higher principle of intelligibility than bodily hearing and seeing:
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ndeed, you will not make the dead hear, nor will you make the deaf hear the call when they have turned their backs retreating. {80} Nor can you lead the blind out of their error, you can only make to hear those who believe in Our proofs/signs, and those who have submitted [themselves to God]. {81} (Al-Naml, 27:80–81).
Having sound sensate organs is then not enough; they need to be guided by intelligence and wisdom. As Plato says in Phaedrus 250, “sight is the most piercing of our bodily senses; though not by that is wisdom seen”. The heart must be uncorrupted and untainted in order to function properly. Quoting the Qur’an and the Prophet of Islam, al-Tirmidhi (d. 910) concludes, in an important work on the heart attributed to him, that the “soundness of sensate organs is possible through the soundness of heart; their corruption comes with the corruption of the heart”.28 Thus al-sadr (“the 27 Cf. Martin Heidegger, What is Called Thinking?, tr. J. G. Gray (New York: Harper Books, 1968), p. 165. 28 Abu ‘Abdallah Muhammad ibn ‘Ali al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi, Bayan al-farq bayn al-sadr wa’l-qalb wa’l-fu’ad wa’l-lubb, (Amman: al-Markaz
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chest”), al-qalb (“the heart), al-fu’ad (“the inner heart“), and al-lubb (“the innermost intellect”), which al-Tirmidhi analyzes with great perspicacity, do not function as separate organs but rather provide a cognitive and spiritual context for our experience of the truth. A famous saying of the Prophet of Islam sums up this view of the heart and its relation to other faculties and sense organs: “Verily, there is in the body a small piece of flesh; if it is good, the whole body is good and if it is corrupted the whole body is corrupted. It is the heart.” As the proper locus of tasdiq, ‘confirmation’ or ‘corroboration’, the heart gathers together sensate and conceptual knowledge and provides a unitary experience of reality. The Qur’an thus insists on the total soundness and integrity of our sensate, psychological and mental faculties in order for us to know, and advices us to “travel on earth”. Travelling or journeying means to look at the entire landscape of existence and history in order to put things in perspective:
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o have they not traveled through the earth and have hearts by which to reason and ears by which to hear? For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are the hearts which are within the breasts.” {46} (Al-Hajj, 22:46)
al-Maliki li’l-Buhuth wa’l-Dirasat al-Islamiyyah, 2009), p. 15. For the English translation of al-Tirmidhi’s work see Nicholas Heer, trans., “A Treatise on the Heart,” in Three Early Sufi Texts, trans. Nicholas Heer et al., Revised Edition (Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2009).
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Once the heart is blinded, all else is skewed and darkened. A similar danger is to act on zann, subjective opinion or conjecture, without sound evidence and firm foundation. Reason cannot accept conjecture as truth. Whether we conduct a scientific research or investigate the grounds of religious faith, we need more than conjecture on which to build our truth-claims. The same principle applies to human relations and moral attitude (see Al-Hujurat, 49:12). Truth, not conjecture must be the basis of justification for faith:
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ay, “Are there of your ‘partners’ any who guides to the truth?” Say, “God guides to the truth. So is He who guides to the truth more worthy to be followed or he who guides not unless he is guided? Then what is [wrong] with you - how do you judge? {35} And most of them follow nothing but conjecture. Certainly, conjecture can be of no avail against the truth. Surely, God is All-Aware of what they do.” {36} (Yunus, 10:35–36; also Al-An’am, 6:116).
As the presiding principle of sensate and cognitive faculties, the heart provides ‘evidence’ (al-burhan) and gives ‘certainty’ (al-yaqin) . But this is contingent upon keeping the heart functioning properly in conjunction with reason and the soul to ensure certainty, integrity and tranquility “in the kingdom of the corporeal body of the human person” (mam-
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lakat al-badan al-insan).29 According to the spiritual anthropology of the Qur’an, one must constantly work on his heart, mind and conscience, and guard himself against falsehood. When a person persistently mistakes falsehood for truth and bases his judgment on pure conjecture and selfish desires, then he develops a certain habit of mind and loses his ability to distinguish between truth and error. When this happens, which is not rare given the enormous power of desires on reason, his heart becomes “sealed” and loses his conscience. Thus the phrase God has sealed their hearts should be understood not in a fatalistic manner whereby God has already ordained certain people to disbelief. This interpretation would go against the thrust of the Qur’anic message. Rather, when one keeps committing the same intellectual and moral mistake and does not repent, he develops a certain habit of misusing his reason, and God leaves those who deliberately persist on wrongdoing. A number of verses describe this closure of the heart/mind/conscience as a total loss of direction in both the intellectual and moral senses of the term:
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ndeed, those who disbelieve - it is all the same for them whether you warn them or do not warn them - they will not believe. {6} God has set a seal upon their hearts
29 This evocative phrase by Shah Waliullah of Delhi (d. 1762), one of the greatest scholars of the sub-continent of India, also sums up the integrative approach of classical Muslim thinkers towards the human person. See his Hujjat al-Allah al-balighah (Cairo: Dar al-Turath, nd.), Vol. II, p. 89.
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and upon their hearing, and over their vision is a veil. And for them is a great punishment. {7} (Al-Baqarah, 2:6–7).
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nd among them are those who listen to you, but We have placed over their hearts coverings, lest they understand it, and in their ears deafness. And if they should see every sign, they will not believe in it. Even when they come to you arguing with you, those who disbelieve say, “This is not but legends of the former peoples.” {25} (AlAn’am, 6:25).
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he seven heavens and the earth and whatever is in them exalt Him. And there is not a thing except that it exalts [God] by His praise, but you do not understand their [way of] exalting. Indeed, He is ever Forbearing and Forgiving. {44} And when you recite the Quran, We put between you and those who believe not in the Hereafter, an invisible veil. {45} And We have placed over their hearts coverings, lest they understand it, and in their ears deafness. And when you mention your Lord alone in the Qur’an, they turn back in aversion. {46} (Al-Isra’, 17:44–46).
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hen the hypocrites come to you, [O Muhammad], they say, “We testify that you are the Messenger of God.” And God knows that you are His Messenger, and
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God testifies that the hypocrites are liars. {1} They have taken their oaths as a cover, so they averted [people] from the way of God. Indeed, it was evil that they were doing. {2} That is because they believed, and then they disbelieved; so their hearts were sealed over, and they do not understand. {3} (Al-Munafiqun, 63:1–3). By contrast, those whose heart and conscience have been illuminated with the light of faith find peace and repose in the remembrance of God. This ‘finding’ is not something sentimental or imaginative; it touches the core of our existence and links us to God on the one hand, and to the reality of things on the other. It guides our thinking and acting in the world and saturates our lives with meaning. Thus the Qur’an says:
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hose who believe and whose hearts find repose in the remembrance of God, verily, in the remembrance of God do hearts find rest. {28} (Al-Ra’d, 13:28).
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t is He who sent down tranquility into the hearts of the believers that they would increase in faith along with their [present] faith. And to God belong the soldiers of the heavens and the earth, and ever is God Knowing and Wise. {4} (Al-Fath, 48:4).
In short, our conscience must be in the right place in orEnglish | 43
der for our reason to function properly.
Reason, Existence and the Universe
The wholesale encounter with reality is a key component of the Quranic vocabulary of thinking and stems from the essential relationship between reason and existence. The word existence (al-wujud) is not used in the Qur’an. But the conceptual framework within which the world of creation is presented points to an order of existence in which God’s creative act is disclosed. As the ground of all that exists, existence is a gift of Divine creation and derives its sustenance from God. In this sense, existence is the face of the Divine looking to the world of creation (‘alam al-khalq). The created order displays various modalities of existence, which discloses and particularizes itself into specific forms. While these forms or ‘shares of existence’ possess different qualities, they are united by the underlying reality of existence. The Qur’anic phrase kull, “everything” and “all”, frequently used in the cosmological verses, refers to this aspect of existence: everything is interrelated to one another by virtue of the fact that they are created by the same God who, as we mentioned, is Al-Muhit, the ‘one who encompasses everything’. It is in this context that reason finds its proper relationship with existence. Existence is intrinsically intelligible because God creates optimally and what He creates has
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meaning, purpose and intelligibility built into it.30 The following verse combines the purpose of creation, thinking and praying:
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o they not contemplate within themselves? God has not created the heavens and the earth and what is between them except in truth and for a specified term. And indeed, many of the people, in [the matter of] the meeting with their Lord, are disbelievers. {8} Have they not traveled through the earth and observed how was the end of those before them? They were greater than them in power, and they plowed the earth and built it up more than they have built it up, and their messengers came to them with clear evidences. And God would not ever have wronged them, but they were wronging themselves. {9} (Al-Rum, 30:8–9).
God creates with wisdom (hikmah), purpose (ghayah) and Providence (‘inayah). As the ultimate source of all existence and intelligibility, God bestows these qualities on His creation and saturates the order of creation with meaning and purpose. The celebrated saying that “the first thing God 30 This premise is also the basis of the argument that this is the best of all possible worlds which God could create. For this version of the “ahsan al-nizam” argument, see my “Mulla Sadra on Theodicy and the Best of All Possible Worlds”, Oxford Journal of Islamic Studies, 18:2 (2007), pp. 183–201.
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has created is intellect (al-‘aql)” should be understood in this context. The ‘intellect’ here refers to the universal principles of truth, order and intelligibility which God has built into the nature of things. The intellect is the first thing God has created because God creates things according to a certain order and principle. Thus “the intellect is the closest thing to the Divine”.31 In contrast to modern subjectivism, meaning is not simply a property of the mind. Just as knowledge cannot be reduced to the internal workings of the mind, as is the case with Descartes, meaning cannot be written off, a la Galileo, as a ‘secondary quality’ superimposed by the mind upon things either. Since meaning is not created but articulated and appropriated by the mind, its essence lies outside my mental constructions of it. The moral import of this premise is clear: having a meaning and purpose in a non-subjective manner entails a tremendous sense of responsibility. Admitting that we, like the universe, have been created for a purpose means accepting a moral responsibility beyond ourselves. The Qur’an addresses the human person directly to make this point:
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o you then think that We have created you without a purpose and that you will not be returned to Us? The True Sovereign is too exalted above that.
31 Muhammad ‘Ali al-Tahanawi, Kashshaf istilahat al-funun (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah), Vol. 3, Kashshaf, III, p. 307.
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{115} (Al-Mu’minun, 23:115)
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oes man think that he will be left wandering [at his own whim]? {36} (Al-Qiyamah, 75:36)
As far as the universe is concerned, God creates things and the laws by which they exist. These laws, called sunnat Allah, the “wants of God”, sustain the principles of order, harmony and continuity in the universe. It is the function of the human reason to discover these universal principles and intrinsic qualities. By applying itself to these principles, the intellect participates in the intelligible order of existence. Reason is able to discover these intrinsic modes of intelligibility because they are the intelligible principles built into the nature of reality. We can rationally and scientifically analyze the physical universe because it lends itself to such investigation in the first place. The Qur’an finds no contradiction between studying the universe as a natural phenomenon and seeing it as the supreme miracle of God. The entire universe is an ayah, a “sign” for man from God and points to something beyond itself. The Qur’an uses the same word, ayah, to refer to its verses as well as “God’s signs” (ayat Allah) in the universe, which can be compared to what the Latins have called vestigia Dei. The multiple meanings of ayah confirm the profound connections between God’s verses in the scripture and His signs in the world of creation: both come from God; both are sacred; both are to be treated English | 47
with utmost care; both require commitment. God’s signs in the two senses are directly related to reason and rationality because they are addressed to the human reason so that man can understand the reality of things (theoretical reason) and pursue virtue and happiness (practical reason). Such a basic and ‘material’ fact as counting years and keeping time is indeed a “sign” for those who ponder over the order and regularity of the universe:
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t is He who made the sun a shining light and the moon a light [for you] and determined for it phases - that you may know the number of years and account [of time]. God has not created this except in truth. He details the signs (ayat) for a people who know. {5} Indeed, in the alternation of the night and the day and [in] what God has created in the heavens and the earth are signs for a people who fear God. {6} (Yunus, 10:5–6). God presents these signs to humans so that they can use their reason and derive the logical conclusion from them, which is to believe in God. Every sign in the Qur’an and the universe invites a response from the side of the human being. As Izutsu points out, humans can read these signs properly and “confirm” (tasdiq) their truth. Or, they fail to use their reason, succumb to their desires and thus “reject” (takdhib) their truth. While the first response leads to
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sincere faith with certainty, the second lands us in disbelief (kufr) and denial.32 Misreading God’s “clear signs” disconnects us from the reality, and can imperil salvation: And they will say: ‘Had we but listened or used our intelligence, we would not have been among the dwellers of the blazing Fire!’ (Al-Mulk, 67:10). Only those who can really use their reason can understand the true meaning of “signs” and act accordingly: We have made clear to you the signs if you shall use your reason , the Qur’an says (Aal `Imran, 3:118). Those who use their reason can begin to decipher the non-linguistic language of the universe and understand how it submits to God. This deeper wisdom helps us see the difference between the one who is blind and the one who sees. The Qur’an is forceful in asserting that denying God and taking partners unto Him goes against the nature of things and violates the principle of reason:
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nd unto God Alone falls in prostration whoever is in the heavens and the earth, willingly or unwillingly, and so do their shadows in the mornings and in the afternoons. {15} Say: “Who is the Lord of the heavens and the earth?” Say: “(It is) God.” Say: “Have you then taken (for worship) protectors other than Him, such as have
32 Toshihiko Izutsu, God and Man in the Qur’an: The Semantics of the Koranic Weltanschauung (Tokyo: The Keio Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies, 1964), pp. 136-7.
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no power either for benefit or for harm to themselves?” Say: “Is the blind equal to the one who sees? Or darkness equal to light? Or do they assign to God partners who created the like of His creation, so that the creation (which they made and His creation) seemed alike to them.” Say: “God is the Creator of all things, He is the One, the Irresistible”. {16} (Al-Ra’d, 13:15–16) Once this is clarified, observation, logical analysis, contemplation and praying join together:
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nd to God belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth, and God is over all things competent. {189} Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the night and the day are signs for those of understanding. {190} Who remember God while standing or sitting or [lying] on their sides and give thought to the creation of the heavens and the earth, [saying], “Our Lord, You did not create this in vain; exalted are You [above such a thing]; then protect us from the punishment of the Fire. {191} Our Lord, indeed whoever You admit to the Fire – You have disgraced him, and for the wrongdoers there are no helpers. {192} Our Lord, indeed we have heard a caller calling to faith, [saying], ‘Believe in your Lord,’ and we have believed. Our Lord, so forgive us our sins and remove from us our misdeeds and cause us to die with the righteous. {193} Our Lord, and 50 | Kalin
grant us what You promised us through Your messengers and do not disgrace us on the Day of Resurrection. Indeed, You do not fail in [Your] promise.” {194} (Aal `Imran, 3:189–194). According to the Qur’an, the creation of the universe by God is so reasonable and self-evident that reason, unhindered by irrational causes, immediately recognizes it. This grasping of the truth through intuition (hads) underlies much of our empirical and conceptual knowledge. Those who recognize the truth when they see it do in fact use their reason in the most proper way. The Qur’an uses the phrase ulu’l-albab, “those who have deep understanding of things” to distinguish them from those who are merely interested in being smart. al-Bab, plural of lubb, meaning the essence and core of something, refers to a deeper perception of the reality of things which we understand through our reason. According to Ibn Kathir, ulu’l-albab refers to those “complete and perspicacious intellects which perceive the reality of things in their apparent reality”.33 Qurtubi describes them as those who “use their reason in contemplating proofs”.34 Once reason is put to proper use, it obtains new degrees of understanding, and the categorical distinctions between 33 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir , p. 334. 34 Abu Abdallah al-Qurtubi, al-Jami’ li-ahkam al-qur’an (Beirut: Dar Ibn Hazm, 2004), Vol I, p. 780.
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reasoning, contemplating and praying evaporate. This is when one begins to obtain certainty (al-yaqin), which leaves no doubt about the truth of something standing before us. At this point, the Qur’an puts so much emphasis on the selfevident and clear nature of the truth that it forbids forcing people into converting to Islam. Instead, they should be able to see the truth by themselves:
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here is no compulsion in religion. Verily, the Right Path has become distinct from the wrong path. Whoever disbelieves in Taghut and believes in God, then he has grasped the most trustworthy handhold that will never break. And God is All-Hearer, All-Knower. {256} (Al-Baqarah, 2:256).
The ‘language of the universe’ is revealed to human reason in the form of strict orders, laws, principles, patterns but also powerful symbols, parables and metaphors. The Qur’an sees no contradiction between strict rules of logic, which come from nothing but God’s own Nature, and the symbolism of creation. The Qur’an invites us to discover the perfect order God has created in the universe. The order and regularity that come with this is a proof for the existence of an intelligent Creator. But we are also expected to grasp the symbolic language of the universe and how it praises God at every moment.
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he seven heavens and the earth and whatever is in them exalt Him. And there is not a thing except that it exalts Him by His praise, but you do not understand (tafqahuna) their [way of] exalting. Indeed, He is ever Forbearing and Forgiving. {44} (Al-Isra’, 17:44).35
A reductionist and rationalist approach, which dwarfs our cognitive capacities and atrophies our imaginative powers, prevents us from understanding the non-discursive language of the universe. The world of creation has a constant conversation with its Creator because it is a ‘Muslim’ (Aal `Imran 3:83), i.e., that which surrenders to God. The humans share this quality with nature with one fundamental difference: they have free will (iradah) and must chose faith over disbelief, truth over falsehood, and virtue over vice.36 35 This and similar verses underlie the commonly held view in the Islamic tradition that the entire universe is alive and that “everything has soul”. See Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, p. 932. Mulla Sadra holds that “all animal, plant and inanimate natures have knowledge and consciousness by themselves, through the necessities of their essences, and their particular effects on account of their partaking of existence because existence is identical with light and manifestation. Existence is therefore united with the qualities of the perfection of existence in knowledge, power, volition, life, and the like.” Ajwibat al-masa’il al-kashaniyyah in Majmu‘ayi rasa’il-i falsafi-yi Sadr al-Muta’allihin, ed. Hamid Naji Isfahani (Tehran: Intisharat-i Hikmat, AH 1375), p. 137. For more on the ontological vitalism of Islamic cosmology, see my Knowledge in Later Islamic Philosophy, pp. 229-32. 36 Quoting a popular saying, Tahanawi describes it as follows: “God
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A person who has perfected his sense of discernment can intuit and grasp the universe praising God. This intuitive and ‘imaginative’ thinking is not outside the ken of reason because reason, as I have been arguing, can accommodate non-formal articulations of the truth and understand the non-discursive insights we gain in our encounter with reality.
Rationality and Morality
The same intuitive thinking is at work in our moral choices. Since moral principles are self-evident in most cases, we know how we need to act in such situations. But is it enough to have a self-evident argument to be able to act virtuously? Given the driving force of human emotions, even the correct use of reason alone cannot be sufficient to always make the right moral choices. The reason is that we have to combine reason and will, the two distinguishing features of being human, in order to act on what we believe. In contrast to Descartes who called the human person a “machine who thinks”, we are also beings who will. Here ‘will’ does not simply designate choosing one option or the other. It refers to our ability to make a choice from among available possibilities. But in an axiological sense, it means choosing truth has mounted reason in the angels without carnal desire, put desires in the animals without reason, and in the children of Adam both of them. Thus whoever has his reason triumph over his carnal desires, he is better than the angels, and whoever has his carnal desires triumph over his reason, he is lower than the animals”. Tahanawi, Kashshaf, Vol. 3, p. 314.
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over falsehood and good over evil. Reason and rationality in the broad sense discussed above guide our choices and form the content of our moral behavior. Rationality and morality thus go hand in hand because we are rational animals and moral beings at the same time. In the Qur’an, this point is registered in the relationship between using reason and having a moral and spiritual awareness of God. The word taqwa, usually translated as consciousness and fear of God, literally means to protect and guard oneself against danger. In the tradition, it refers to “protecting the soul from what afflicts it”.37 As explained in the Hadith, taqwa means having the majestic presence of God in one’s heart by which to protect oneself against everything false, evil and ugly. In this sense, the conceptual meanings of ‘aql and taqwa converge: they both refer to our conscious effort to protect ourselves against the inhuman and immoral consequences of evildoing, injustice and oppression. Thus “the intelligent person is the one who has consciousness (taqwa) of his Lord and who reckons with his soul”.38 This principle underlies the rational basis of choosing goodness over evil and virtue over vice. Reason has no problem with accepting ‘consciousness of God’ (taqwa) as a moral and spiritual principle because it guides our moral choices. It is only by combining intelligibility, meaning and will that 37 Isfahani, al-Mufradat, p. 833 38 Tahanawi, Kashshaf, Vol. 3, p. 314.
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we fulfill our humanity as ‘rational animals’. Moral choices make sense not because simply they are our free choices but because they let us participate in the intelligible order of existence and thus enable us to go beyond ourselves and reach out to a larger reality. According to the Islamic ethical tradition, upholding justice makes sense because justice (‘adl) means “putting things in their proper place”. Likewise, opposing injustice is reasonable because injustice (zulm) means “putting things out of their place”, i.e., destroying the order which gives meaning to things. An act is rational when it conforms to the reality of something and pays due attention to its proper place. It then makes perfect sense to protect oneself against the destructive forces of selfishness and evil-doing; acting otherwise contradicts the basis of our humanity. Summing up these points, Ibn Miskawayh says: “… since justice consists indeed giving to the right person what ought to be given in the right way, it would be inconceivable that men should not owe God, exalted is He, who granted us all these immense goods, an obligation which they should fulfill”.39 We can then conclude that it is rational to be moral. By the same token, immorality is irrational because it goes against our self-interest and violates the order of things, 39 Ibn Miskawayh, The Refinement of Character (Tahdhib al-akhlaq), tr. Constantine K. Zurayk (Beirut: The American University of Beirut, 1968), p. 106.
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which, in turn, causes us harm. The Qur’anic treatment of moral choices and how they are made within the larger context of existence establishes rationality as a key component of moral behavior. But the reverse is also true: rationality, carried to its full capacity, results in moral behavior and extends to other human beings, the universe and eventually God. According to the Qur’an, human beings have been granted reason to discern between right and wrong on the one hand, and good and evil on the other. In terms of both true knowledge and moral behavior, we use reason to make the right choices. The famous controversy among Muslim theologians over whether we know things to be true and good because they are intrinsically so or because God has created them in that way is irrelevant here. The key point is that correct thinking and moral behavior complement each other and thus reject any dichotomy between reason, rationality, belief and morality. Thus Ibn Hazm says that “knowledge has a decisive role in the implementation of virtues … knowledge has a share in each and every virtue and ignorance in each and every vice”.40 In a similar vein, Ibn Miskawayh identifies “the intelligent man” as one who seeks “virtue in his rational soul, examine the imperfections of this soul in particular, and strives to remedy them to the extent
40 Ibn Hazm, al-Ahklaq wa’l-siyar fi mudawat al-nufus, ed. Tahir Ahmad Makki ( Jeddah: Dar al-Manarah, 2007), p. 124.
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of his capacity and effort”.41
Rationality as Coherence
The move from reason and rationality to moral behavior and back is a recurrent theme in the Qur’an and forms the basis of the Islamic ethical tradition. Reason, when properly cultivated, leads to moral action; moral behavior, in turn, nurtures reason. The Qur’an considers this simple syllogism to be self-evident because it is a contradiction to accept something as right and true and then not act accordingly. So is hypocrisy: Do you order other people to be righteous and forget yourselves while you recite the Scripture? Will you, then, not reason? (Al-Baqarah, 2:44). The Qur’an condemns hypocrisy as much as disbelief and in some cases more so because hypocrisy, besides being a failure of the human will, breaks the logical connection between reason and morality and thus lands us in incoherence. O you who have believe, why do you say what you do not do? {2} It is most hateful in the sight of God that you say that which you do not do.” {3} (Al-Saf, 61:2-3). The same principle of coherence applies to belief in God. The cosmological verses in the Qur’an, which give vivid de41 Ibn Miskawayh, The Refinement of Character, p. 44. Ibn Miskawayh goes on to say that “the proper food of the rational soul is knowledge, the acquisition of intelligibles, the practice of veracity in one’s opinions, the acceptance of truth no matter where or with whom it may be, and the shunning of falsehood and lying whatever it may be or whence it may come”.
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scriptions of how God has created the universe and the human being, make a strong case for rationality as coherence because all of them without exception speak to the human reason to make the logical connection between a universe so miraculously ordered and well-functioning and the belief in the Creator who created it. Those who take partners unto God, while believing in His existence, contradict themselves. Believing in God and not heeding His guidance presents a clear case of incoherence. The following verses, while emphasizing God’s infinite mercy in creating and caring for the humankind, challenge the internal inconsistency of taking partners unto God (shirk), which is the greatest sin, and declares it to be utter irrationality. Those who think, ponder and use their reason have no difficulty in recognizing God as He deserves to be recognized.
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nd who other than Him created the heavens and the earth and sent down for you water from the sky, whereby We cause to grow lush orchards; for it is not up to you to cause their threes to grow! Is there, then, a god besides God? Yet these are the people who ascribe partners to Him. {60} And who other than Him made the earth a firm abode [for you], and set rivers traversing through it, and put firm mountains therein and sealed off one sea from the other? Is there, then, a god besides God? Indeed, most of them do not know. {61} And who English | 59
other than Him responds to the distressed one when he calls Him and He relieves him of the distress and Who has made you [mankind] His vicegerents on earth? Is there, then, a god besides God? – little do you reflect! {62} And Who other than Him guides you in the darkness of the land and the sea? And who sends forth winds heralding His mercy? Is there, then, a god besides God? Far exalted be He above what they associate with Him! {63} And who other than Him brings forth His creation and then re-creates it? And who gives you sustenance from the heaven and the earth? Is there, then, a god besides God? Say [O Muhammad!]: Bring your proof if you are right [in associating others with God]. {64} (Al-Naml, 27:60-64) These verses reveal a strongly argumentative approach and underlie the Qur’an’s insistence on coherence as a basis for a proper discourse about the relationship between man and God on the one hand, God and the universe on the other. Rationality as coherence means that we draw the correct conclusions from the correct premises. Considering the continuity of our ontological and moral presuppositions, this suggests that our empirical observations about the universe lead to their logical conclusion in a theistic context, i.e., accepting God as God and acting accordingly. The Qur’an makes profuse use of this procedural notion of rationality and applies it to cosmological, theological and legal issues. 60 | Kalin
In its numerous confrontations with the Meccan pagans, the Qur’an challenges them to think for themselves and see if their misguided thinking about God makes any sense. A rationally coherent notion of God and the universe can be obtained through correct thinking if we can use our reason cogently to read the signs in the “visible world”.
Conclusion: Is Return to Reason Still Possible?
As I have argued so far, rationality as intelligibility moves us beyond the internal workings of a single, disengaged mind and places us within a larger context of ontological significance. The metaphysics of creation establishes the Qur’anic notion of substantive rationality derived from the intrinsic intelligibility of the realm of existence. Knowledge as the disclosure of the inherent order and structure of things rejects instrumentalist and subjectivist rationality and instead sets up a context of intelligibility in which our reason and thinking function as a response to the call of reality. The ontological ground of reason enables it to participate in the intelligible order of existence and thus makes it a situated and contextualized reality. Furthermore, reason is also an inter-subjective principle and does not function in a solipsistic environment. As a book of revelation and guidance, the Qur’an treats human reason and thinking in this larger context of the created order of existence. While having full confidence in uncorrupted reason, it warns against ontological reductionEnglish | 61
ism, epistemological hubris and moral egotism. Reason is a God-given gift with which we access the reality of things. But it is unreasonable to claim that reason alone can give us meaning and freedom. One also needs spiritual guidance through which reason is to be illuminated. The heart as our deep conscience guarantees that procedural rationality, which we employ in our daily dealings, does not trump other types of reasoning and thinking. Reason nourished by faith gains a deeper insight into the reality of things because it can set its own limits and finds its proper place in the “circle of existence” (da’irat al-wujud). Faith articulated by reason and communicated through language can bring about certainty (al-yaqin), which the Qur’an deems essential for our mental and spiritual integrity. (Al-An’am, 6:75; Al-Takathur, 102:5–7). Recovering the Qur’anic path of thinking and the traditional meaning of ‘aql is an urgent task for the contemporary Muslim world. This is a task that extends to such diverse fields as law, education, art, science and politics and certainly not limited to the interests and aspirations of Muslim nations alone. The erosion of the principle of reason in late modernity has hurt human aspirations globally to create a world based on reason, justice and equality. The vacuum created by the failure of the Enlightenment reason has been filled with the new forces of global hyper-capitalism, culture of nihilism and narcissism, and scientistic hubris. As the main terms of reference of the new global order, productivity, prof62 | Kalin
it and efficiency now define what it means to live a rational life both individually and communally. The current world order creates new definitions of rationality and reasonableness through an increasingly sophisticated system of public discourse, mass education, technological innovation, instant communication and the hourly creation of countless virtual worlds, all of which give the appearance that our search for meaning has ended and that we as rational and free human beings have finally created a purely human world free from unjustified beliefs and transcendent illusions. Philosophically speaking, the inherent contradiction of rationalism is that it assumes its own ontological ground and reproduces reality in such a way as to justify a self-referential notion of human reason. Neither reality nor reason, however, warrants a self-grounding reason. Reason by nature and function operates with terms and tools both within and outside itself. As a principle of ‘tying together’, ‘gathering’ and ‘protecting’, reason always reaches out beyond itself and connects us with the larger reality of existence and human language. Pure rationalism ends up in radical solipsism and thus contradicts reason. Reason as a self-grounded principle cannot move us beyond the current state of humanity; it only reinforces and reproduces its metaphysical fallacies. A humanity so deeply enclosed upon itself to be the master of the universe while not taking the moral responsibility that comes with such a claim has created a world in which the principle of reason English | 63
has disappeared, subjective consciousness has been absolutized, and a profound alienation between the human person and his work has set in. The more we reduce everything to utility and maximize the use-value of whatever happens to be around us, the more we lose the chance to retain the meaning of logos as connecting different orders of reality and protecting ourselves from error. A new concept of reason is thus needed to recover the meaning of the human person as a ‘being who thinks’ (haywan natiq), i.e., who sees, hears, listens, encounters, responds, reacts, contemplates, and engages in other acts of human intelligence and will and never loses sight of the larger reality of which he/she is a part. Such a recovery is possible but it requires a re-assessment of the key notions and values with which we operate today. Reason as tying together, connecting and protecting will re-emerge only when we remember that reason is not about the human person or his interests or even his reasoning but rather about existence and beings, their meaning, relations and connections, and about the ways in which we respond to the call of reality.
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ay: [Know] then, that the final evidence [of all truth] rests with God alone. {149} (Al-An’am, 6:149).
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Introduction
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u 21 au 23 novembre 2011, l’Institut Royal Aal al-Bayt pour la pensée islamique accueillit le second Séminaire du Forum Catholique-Musulman au Site du Baptême du Christ en Jordanie. Le Forum est l’un des fruits de l’initiative «Une Parole commune» qui fut déclenchée en 2007 et cherche à promouvoir le dialogue entre Musulmans et Chrétiens basé sur les deux commandements religieux partagés «Amour de Dieu» et «Amour du prochain» [voir www.acommonword.com]. Le second Forum (développant la réussite du premier Forum qui fut tenu au Vatican en 2008) réunit 24 chercheurs vedettes de chaque religion afin de discuter des trois thèmes suivants: 1. la Raison; 2. la Foi; 3. la Personne humaine. Le premier jour, le professeur Ibrahim Kalin présenta «Raison et rationalité dans le Coran» et le professeur Vittorio Possenti présenta «La Personne humaine à la lumière de la raison: une perspective chrétienne.» Le second jour, l’abbé François Bousquet présenta [en français] «La Personne humaine à la lumière de la foi: une perspective chrétienne» et Habib Ali Jafri présenta [en arabe] «La Conception de la foi en Islam» Le troisième jour, le professeur Timothy Winter présenta «La Personne humaine en Islam» et le professeur Stefan Hammer présenta «La Personne humaine: dignité et droits: une perspective catholique.» Français | 67
Chaque jour, les présentations furent suivies de discussions franches et amicales qui servirent à mieux comprendre la perspective de l’autre. Le second jour de l’événement, les participants furent invités à saluer sa majesté le roi Abdullah II et à partager des questions qui préoccupent Musulmans et Catholiques. Le dernier jour, lors d’une séance publique, une équipe de trois membres de chaque délégation répondit aux questions posées par le public. La Déclaration commune finale fut également émise pendant cette séance [voir http:// acommonword.com/docs.FinalDeclarationEN.pdf ]. Ce livret est une version légèrement révisée de la communication présentée par le docteur Ibrahim Kalin, et comporte les traductions française et arabe.
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La Raison et l’Intellect dans le Coran Dr Ibrahim Kalin
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et essai part d’une idée simple : La raison, loin d’être une entité auto-suffisante, fonctionne dans un contexte étendu d’existence, d’intelligibilité et de réflexion morale. Elle dévoile la réalité des choses et la systématise en même temps. L’émergence et le développement de la rationalité s’inscrivent dans un contexte global de signification et de signifiance excédant la sphère des fonctionnalités internes à l’esprit humain individuel. Telle qu’elle est située et engagée dans la réalité, la raison n’est en soi pas davantage le principe que le fondement de la connaissance, de la vérité ou de la rationalité, et ce dans la mesure même où notre expérimentation épistémique du monde a lieu dans un contexte ontologique étendu de relations et de signifiance. En outre, les dérivés linguistiques et conceptuels du terme ‘aql, se déclinant en une longue série de termes épistémiques interconnectés, déploient une matrice de réflexion d’une amplitude supérieure à celle que fournit une rationalité réduite à une dimension strictement discursive et computationnelle. Français | 69
Le Coran aborde la raison et la rationalité dans un contexte beaucoup plus large. Toutes les notions de rationalité qui peuvent dûment être qualifiées d’ « islamiques » opèrent dans le cadre de ce que j’appelle « les métaphysiques de la création » qui établissent que le monde a été créé par un Dieu intelligent pour une raison déterminée. Un tel contexte sa fonde sur la prémisse selon laquelle le monde a un début et une fin et que Tout doit périr sauf la Face [de Dieu] (Al-Qasas, 28 :88). Le début (al-mabda’) et la fin, ou « retour » vers Dieu (al-ma’ad) sont les éléments organisateurs de la perspective et de l’horizon tant de nos délibérations rationnelles que de nos décisions morales. Comme l’univers, les êtres humains ont été créés selon une finalité dont la réalisation ne saurait advenir dans la seule sphère circonscrite par une ontologie subjectiviste de la raison humaine. Le travail de la raison s’effectue sur la base d’une ontologie de la rationalité reliant les êtres humains à leurs congénères, l’univers et leur Créateur. En ce qu’il est l’œuvre intelligente de Dieu, le monde de la création reflète Son pouvoir créateur. Dans la mesure où Dieu crée à la perfection et toujours selon un dessein précis, l’univers dispose d’un ordre et d’une intelligibilité endogènes. La vérité, lorsqu’elle est appréhendée correctement, consiste en une mise au jour de l’ordre et de l’intelligibilité intrinsèques, que Dieu, en tant que Créateur, confère à l’existence. La raison explore donc l’univers et les phénomènes naturels afin d’y découvrir cet ordre et cette intel70 | Kalin
ligibilité. Car sans ordre, structure et intelligibilité, nous ne pouvons rien connaître. Nommer quelque chose (procédé en dehors duquel nous ne pouvons pas percevoir le monde) revient à attribuer à ladite chose sa signification et sa place spécifique dans l’ordre de l’existence. Une ontologie nonsubjective de la raison (que le Coran déploie) présente cette dernière comme le procédé de dévoilement des principes d’intelligibilité dérivés des qualités intrinsèques de l’ordre de l’existence. « La rationalité en tant qu’intelligibilité » se distingue des notions courantes de la rationalité instrumentale qui réduisent la fonction rationnelle (caractéristique centrale de l’être humain) à l’exploitation logique de moyens disponibles pour atteindre des fins données.1 Elle est en effet une fonction de l’existence et de la pensée s’inscrivant dans un contexte d’intersubjectivité et d’activité communicationnelle. Dire que quelque chose est intelligible signifie que cette chose dispose d’un ordre et d’une structure définis, par l’analyse desquels nous pouvons la comprendre. Cela signifie en outre, dans la mesure où elle est intelligible, que cette chose peut être communiquée à d’autres par le biais du langage et d’arguments rationnels. Ce contexte intersubjectif de rationalité, que le Coran mentionne en diverses occurrences, ne cantonne pas la raison et la rationalité à la 1 Cf. Milton K. Munitz, The Question of Reality (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 124.
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tâche solitaire d’un esprit solipsiste et désengagé. De la même manière que les êtres humains font partie intégrante d’une réalité qui les déborde, nos fonctions cognitives s’intègrent dans un plan d’intelligibilité supérieur. Employant la forme plurielle, le Coran explique ses versets aux tribus, nations et peuples (qawm) qui pensent et châtie ceux qui échouent à se servir de leur raison (voir à titre d’exemple, Al-Baqarah, 2 :164 ; Al-Maîdah, 5 :58 ; Al-Ra’d, 13 :4 ; Al-Nahal, 16 :12). De la mise au jour de l’intelligibilité intrinsèque des choses aux relations interculturelles, l’activité rationnelle se déploie dans un réseau de relations et de connections qui excède la simple sphère des fonctionnalités internes à l’entendement humain. La subsomption de la raison sous un contexte supérieur d’existence rentre en contradiction avec la ligne théorique du rationalisme moderne. A compter du moment où l’Europe des Lumières fit son baptême de la raison pour réagir contre la prétendue irrationalité du Moyen-âge, la raison déclara son indépendance, s’autoproclamant ultime archè et ens realissimum de la réalité. A une époque où la rationalité reçoit ses standards de déterminants quantifiables et de traitements informatisés, les fondations ontologiques de la raison se sont passablement modifiées et des formes de rationalité hautement idéalisées, découvrant à l’épreuve des faits leur inhumanité foncière, furent finalement identifiées comme éléments constitutifs de l’intelligence humaine. En contraste avec la rationalité perçue comme instrument 72 | Kalin
de computation, notre qualité humaine la plus singulière cependant, que l’on désigne par le nom de raison (cette qualité précise qui nous distingue du reste de la création et qui nous privilégie clairement par rapport aux autres règnes du vivant (Cf. Al-Isra’, 17 :70), fonctionne essentiellement et primairement dans un contexte qualitatif et axiologique. Les accusations de fidéisme et d’obscurantisme qui furent portées à l’encontre de l’Islam s’expliquent en partie par le fait que la tradition intellectuelle musulmane contrevient à l’axiome central sur lequel reposent les notions de rationalité modernes et postmodernes qui ont pu émerger en Occident depuis le 16ème et 17ème siècle. Portés par leur zèle religieux, la plupart des chrétiens médiévaux tenaient l’Islam pour un ennemi farouche de la raison, convaincus qu’ils étaient que les fondements sur lequel celui-ci repose se limitent à : une foi aveugle, l’ignorance, la violence, et les plaisirs du monde. Si la foi musulmane en attirait certains, arguait-on, ce n’était pas tant en vertu d’arguments rationnels qu’en vertu d’arguments sensuels ; cette foi n’avait, autrement dit, pas sa pareille pour s’adresser aux instincts les plus bas de l’être humain. En outre, l’Islam se rendait coupable du crime d’avoir à contraindre par la force les non-musulmans à se convertir, à défaut de pouvoir produire, arguait-on encore, des preuves rationnelles susceptibles de les convaincre. Le recours à la violence et à la déclaration du jihad contre les non-musulmans achevaient de démontrer que l’Islam était une religion on ne Français | 73
peut plus irrationnelle qui s’opposait en tout à la nature des choses. Sans surprise, ces accusations de violence et de déraison subsistent à l’heure actuelle. Nous ne manquons pas aujourd’hui de polémistes islamophobes pour présenter l’Islam comme une religion violente et irrationnelle sur la base de tels clichés. L’histoire semble donc avoir ses propres voies d’équilibre. Des penseurs chrétiens de l’ère médiévale, à l’instar de Pierre Bayle ou Henry Stubbe, estimaient que l’Islam était plus proche de la raison que l’Eglise Catholique elle-même. Ils louaient la simplicité de la foi islamique (comparée aux complexités absconses de la théologie et des rituels chrétiens) et admiraient le grand développement de la civilisation islamique. Tandis que pour certains, à l’exemple de Roger Bacon, les philosophes musulmans al-Farabi et Ibn Sina avaient édifié leur système de pensée philosophique non pas à cause mais en dépit de leur Islam, lequel n’aurait d’ailleurs été pour eux qu’une feinte leur permettant d’échapper à la persécution d’une religion intolérante ; pour d’autres, penseurs anticatholiques du Moyen-âge notamment, l’Islam tolérait mieux la pensée rationnelle et l’investigation scientifique que les autres religions.2 Les critiques « séculiers » estiment quant à eux que la 2 Voir Ibrahim Kaline “Roots of Misconception: Euro-American Perceptions of Islam Before and After September 11th” in Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition Joseph Lumbard (ed.) (Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, 2009, 2nd edition), pp. 149-193.
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religion musulmane ne souscrit pas suffisamment à l’ethos séculariste et humaniste de la modernité, ni même aux critères de la rationalité prétendument scientifique de la culture contemporaine. Ils déplorent en outre une antinomie de première grandeur entre les doctrines religieuses traditionnelles et les concepts modernes de droits de l’homme, d’égalité et de liberté. La raison des Lumières revendique l’autonomie et l’autosuffisance et rejette toute autorité exogène comme l’histoire, la tradition et la religion. Ils ne rejettent pas la religion in toto, mais ne l’acceptent qu’à condition qu’elle se soumette à l’examen critique de la raison humaine individuelle, laquelle trace les frontières de la croyance religieuse, lui interdisant par là-même de tenir un rôle ou d’exercer une autorité depuis l’extérieur des dites frontières. Comme les critiques médiévaux, les critiques modernes de l’Islam soulignent la connexion conceptuelle qui relie la violence à l’irrationnel pour inférer que le « terrorisme islamique » est directement imputable à un déficit de rationalité de la foi musulmane elle-même. Les orientalistes radicaux se plaisent à rallonger la liste : oppression des femmes, violation du droit des minorités, censure de la presse, pauvreté, corruption, etc. autant d’avatars trouvant, selon eux, leur cause première dans une tradition islamique naturellement prompte à bannir la libre pensée ; à opprimer l’examen critique, le pluralisme et la dissidence… Cela n’est bien sûr qu’une grossière caricature de la tradition islamique, essenFrançais | 75
tiellement motivée par des considérations politiques, et par ailleurs affranchie de toute analyse un tant soit peu rigoureuse des réalités historiques. La plupart des débats qui ont actuellement lieu en contexte occidental – sur l’Islam, la raison, la rationalité et la science – entretiennent cette vision de l’Islam, aussi influente que simpliste.
Le contexte moderne : la raison des Lumières
La modernité via les Lumières s’est déclarée supérieure aux autres traditions et cultures non occidentales en vertu d’une prétendue disposition à pouvoir fonder toute chose en raison, et créer, par là même, un ordre principalement (si ce n’est totalement) rationnel. En contraste avec la démarche supposément fidéiste du Christianisme, les philosophes des Lumières mirent un point d’honneur à évaluer chaque chose à l’aune de ce que Descartes dénommait « les idées claires et distinctes ». La question à laquelle Kant a répondu dans son essai fameux de 1784 résume bien la manière dont, d’emblée, s’est posé le problème du statut de la raison et de la rationalité à l’orée du monde postmédiéval : vivons-nous à l’époque des Lumières ? Kant considérait en effet qu’il était davantage le contemporain d’une « phase d’ouverture vers les Lumières » que de « l’époque des Lumières » proprement dite. Cette différence subtile n’est pas à prendre à la légère. Une « époque des Lumières » est une époque au sein de laquelle la totalité des éléments constitutifs de la culture, de la société et de la politique, sont en tous points
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conformes aux axiomes de la raison. C’est donc une époque où l’humanisme et la rationalité, parvenus à pleine maturité, ont vaincu les forces de l’anti-raison. En contraste, une phase historique « d’ouverture vers » les Lumières est une époque au sein de laquelle subsiste la lutte pour l’âme de l’humanité ; et où les forces de la raison continuent à en découdre avec l’ignorance et les ténèbres. Une phase de maturation et de développement rationnel en procès par l’entremise duquel l’humanité (prise comme un tout) se dirige vers un idéal. Depuis que le règne de la raison a commencé, la fin de l’histoire est à portée de main – une fin qui pourra advenir quand la lumière de la raison se sera levée sur toute l’humanité, non-européens compris. Kant définissait les Lumières comme « la sortie de l’homme de son état de minorité. Et par « minorité », il entendait un certain état de notre volonté qui nous fait accepter l’autorité de quelqu’un d’autre pour nous conduire dans les domaines où il convient de faire usage de la raison. Il ne se rencontre dans l’histoire aucune oppression ou aberration qui ne soit directement imputable à l’immaturité de l’homme. Kant caractérise l’essence des Lumières comme « le courage de penser » librement pour soi-même. « Sapere aude ! Ayez le courage d’utiliser votre raison ! Telle est la devise des Lumières. »3 3 Kant, “What is Enlightenment?” in Kant on History, ed. Lewis White Beck, (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1963), p. 3.
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De l’académisme des cercles d’étude au populisme des interventions politiciennes, le débat actuel sur la raison des Lumières se focalise de manière quasi systématique sur le déficit supposé de l’Islam en termes d’humanisme et de rationalité. Dans la préface de sa brillante histoire des Lumières, Louis Dupré « bouleversé par les attaques du 11 septembre 2001 » se demande « s’il est encore un sens à écrire sur les Lumières à une époque qui annonce si brutalement la fin de ses valeurs et de ses idéaux ». Dupré se garde d’affirmer que la culture islamique est « anti-Lumières ». Mais il observe néanmoins que « L’Islam n’est jamais passé par une période significative d’examen critique de la validité de sa vision spirituelle comparable à celle que l’Occident a connu au cours du dix-huitième siècle. »4 Dupré n’explique pas pourquoi l’Islam devrait critiquer «la validité de sa vision spirituelle », mais il est clair que son propos fait directement écho au concept de « réforme islamique » qui gagne actuellement du terrain dans la médiasphère. D’autres voix, plus alarmistes que la sienne, se sont élevées pour plaider la cause d’un aggiornamento islamique susceptible de délivrer les musulmans de leur archaïsme, et, le monde entier, par la même occasion, de l’emprise d’une religion dangereuse et irrationnelle. 4 Louis Dupre, The Enlightenment and the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004), Preface, ix.
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On commet souvent l’erreur de croire que la pensée des Lumières est, depuis le dix-huitième siècle, la propriétaire exclusive de la raison humaine. Or, les sociétés traditionnelles ont accordé une place importante à la raison au sein de leurs théologies, de leurs systèmes juridiques, politiques, philosophiques, et autres sphères de l’activité humaine. La tradition intellectuelle islamique elle-même recèle une multitude d’écrits sur la raison, la rationalité, la logique, la pensée, l’enquête scientifique et la contemplation. Des théologies sunnites et chiites à la philosophie péripatéticienne en passant par le soufisme, il ne manque pas d’œuvres classiques, dans la tradition musulmane, pour faire l’éloge de la raison, de la connaissance, ou encore pour évoquer le bénéfice spirituel que procure un usage cohérent de la raison. Les conceptions de la raison et de la rationalité qui furent développées par cette tradition se distinguent toutefois de celles que l’on retrouve dans la modernité. Les sociétés traditionnelles envisageaient la raison comme partie intégrante d’un contexte d’existence beaucoup plus large, et les conceptions qu’elles s’en faisaient s’inscrivaient dans la perspective d’un cadre déployé d’existence et de signification. La raison, pour fonctionner correctement, doit accepter sa place au sein d’un ordre des choses incommensurable avec le sujet connaissant. Comme j’essaierai de le montrer dans ce qui suit, la raison humaine, dans la perspective du Coran, s’intègre dans un plan de réalité globale dont la signification ne saurait être mise à jour par les seuls instruments de l’analyse logique, de Français | 79
la spéculation ou de la raison discursive. L’immémoriale sagesse entend que la réalité transcende toujours les constructions épistémiques que l’on s’en donne. Chez les modernes, il est typique que la raison soit vue comme principe autorégulateur et pierre de touche des vérités mathématiques, scientifiques et politiques. Un représentant contemporain de cette vue établit ainsi que « croire en la vertu du rationalisme revient à reconnaître et accepter la raison comme source unique de connaissance, critérium unique des valeurs, et guide exclusif des actions humaines ».5 Cette vision typifiée de la raison, si passionnément défendue par les philosophes académiques, les positivistes et autres rationalistes autoproclamés des Lumières, n’a en réalité jamais fonctionné comme prévu. Non plus qu’elle n’a su offrir au monde, comme elle le promettait, des individus libres, une société rationnelle, l’égalité universelle, une culture scientifique, des politiques raisonnables ou une justice sociale et économique, etc. La question se poserait donc de savoir si le projet des Lumières est vraiment bien raisonnable. Il semble que des éléments d’anti-raison se soient immiscés dans toutes les dimensions de ce nouvel ordre du monde édifié par les Lumières ; et la société capitaliste moderne, avec son impersonnalisme hégémonique, son individualisme cru et sa violence structurelle, est aussi éloignée que possible d’un ordre social rationnel. 5 Ayn Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness (New American Library 1964) p. 25.
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De manière invariable depuis le triomphe du scientisme à la fin du 19ème et 20ème siècle, la raison en tant qu’instrument logique d’investigation rationnelle a été présentée comme un trait de la modernité non parce que nous voulons saisir la réalité des choses (dans le sens grec de la notion) mais parce que seul un ordre purement rationnel nous permettrait d’exercer un contrôle total sur la nature. La rationalité instrumentale qui préside à l’élaboration de nos schèmes de valeurs, de nos paradigmes pédagogiques, de nos systèmes politiques et de l’essentiel de ce qui compose nos vies quotidiennes nous fournit des justifications prêtes à l’emploi pour le contrôle, la prédiction et la domination, nous gratifiant par là-même d’une impression fallacieuse de sécurité, de satisfaction et de développement.6 Le présupposé central de ce type de rationalité est que les choses n’ont d’importance qu’en tant qu’elles ont pour nous une valeur d’usage. Le rationnel se confond avec l’utile. Les choses n’ont plus d’intelligibilité intrinsèque ou de « rationalité », elles ont seulement un aspect instrumental et se tiennent à notre libre disposition. La raison, dans la période moderne, a oscillé entre les deux pôles du positivisme logique et de l’historicisme radical. La première approche, représentée par le cercle de 6 Pour une étude de la modernité en tant que contrôle et prédictibilité, voir Albert Borgmann, Crossing the Postmodern Divide (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992).
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Vienne et ses continuateurs, conçoit la raison comme un principe absolu et intemporel, inaffecté par l’histoire, les coutumes ou ces faiblesses humaines que sont les émotions et les désirs. La rationalité ne sert, dans une telle perspective, qu’à vérifier l’adéquation de nos concepts aux faits. Elle permet d’inférer les conclusions qui s’imposent face à des données empiriques. Dans cette perspective, la rationalité est essentiellement affaire de « consistance logique » et trouve son expression la plus achevée dans la logique formelle et la méthode scientifique.7 Aucun autre critère ne définit les fondements de la rationalité ; la valeur de chaque chose, dans toutes les sphères de la vie humaine, doit être jugée à l’aune des injonctions logiques et scientifiques de cette raison anhistorique. Ainsi, les valeurs conformément auxquelles nous sommes amenés à vivre doivent être dérivées de faits empiriques soumis à l’enquête rationnelle et à l’analyse logique. Tout le reste n’est qu’un tissu inutile d’absurdités métaphysiques. Réduite à une fonction dans l’instance de laquelle elle raisonne dans les termes de la logique formelle, l’existence est également réduite à un terme logique dépourvu de signification et d’efficace en dehors de ses constructions logico-linguistiques.8 7 Cf. Charles Taylor, “Rationality” in his Philosophy and the Human Sciences, Volume 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 134. 8 Heidegger rejette cette signification prolétarisée du « logos » comme « discours » ou « analyse » dépourvu de fondement ontologique. Il tente dès lors d’exhumer la signification originale grecque du logos comme « remembrement » et « complétude ». Voir son « Introduc-
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La seconde approche, que l’on retrouve dans les courants du postmodernisme et du constructivisme des années soixante, a déconstruit la raison au point d’en faire le produit de processus sociaux-historiques. A l’instar de tout fait humain, la raison est une notion historiquement construite dont la fonction et la signification varient d’une configuration sociale à l’autre. La rationalité signifie ici la capacité humaine de penser la manière de résoudre des situations qui posent problème. Elle n’a de sens que dans le seul contexte d’évènements spécifiques, problèmes ou problématiques de recherche. En fonction des différents types de besoins humains, la rationalité adopte des significations et des fonctions nouvelles. Les défenseurs de cette approche circonscrite de la raison insistent sur le fait qu’il ne s’agit pas de limiter la signifiance de la raison ni de proposer une manière irrationnelle de faire les choses. Il s’agit plutôt d’admettre les limitations de la raison humaine. En ce sens, la rationalité ne veut pas nécessairement dire inférer des conclusions qui coïncident avec les faits. Il y a des cas où le principe du « tout convient » est plus utile et fonctionnel que quelques notions abstraites et mathématiques de la raison.9 tion à la métaphysique » 9 Paul Feyerabend, qui, dans son livre Against the Method (1975) s’est courageusement employé à déconstruire les revendications absolutistes de la science positiviste, est probablement le représentant le plus célèbre de cette seconde approche. Le livre Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature de Richard Rorty (1979) fournit une autre critique constructiviste du projet de raison pure des Lumières. Rorty propose comme alternative une
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Le concept de raison a connu une trajectoire différente dans la tradition islamique et pu éviter les extrêmes de l’absolutisme positiviste et du relativisme radical. La raison qui émergea au sein de la Weltanschauung islamique proposa un mode de penser différent concernant l’existence, l’univers, Dieu et la condition humaine. On la percevait comme une partie intégrante d’une plus large réalité plutôt que comme un principe autorégulateur. Comme je l’ai indiqué plus bas, c’est cette perspective globale et intégrative de la réalité qui sous-tend le mode coranique de penser concernant la raison et la réalité.
Ratio et Intellectus
Avant d’aller plus loin, il me semble utile de dire un mot sur la bifurcation qui eut lieu entre l’intellect et la raison en conséquence d’une transformation philosophique majeure dans l’histoire de la métaphysique occidentale. Traiter ce point en détails risquerait de nous sortir du cadre de la présente étude, et je me bornerai donc à signaler que ratio et intellectus en vinrent, vers la fin du moyen-âge, à désigner chacun une représentation différente de la réalité et que les deux termes n’ont, depuis lors, cessé d’évoluer en des voies distinctes. Ratio servait à l’analyse logique, l’abstraction, la déduction, raison en quelque sorte dissoute dans le drame humain. Pour une étude de l’évolution de la raison moderne dans la philosophie occidentale au 20ème siècle, voir Stephen Toulmin, Return to Reason (Cambridge : Harvard University Press, 2001).
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l’inférence de conclusions, et diverses fonctions logiques de la raison. Dans son acception générale, ratio constituait avant tout le fondement de la connaissance scientifique, et s’octroyait le monopole de la précision et de la certitude. Intellectus, en contraste, en vint à désigner la connaissance intuitive et sapientielle, laquelle fut alors totalement découplée de l’investigation rationnelle et de l’analyse logique. On considéra par conséquent que ce dernier ne disposait pas d’un fondement aussi solide que ratio, et ce dans la mesure même où il parle de réalités éminemment subjectives comme l’intuition, l’imagination ou l’illumination ; et non de preuves empiriques, de critères et de démonstration. N’eût été plus tard la controverse entre naturalisme rationaliste et pensée mystique qui éclata dans la tradition occidentale, tout ceci serait resté une simple affaire de distinction heuristique. En fait, la tradition thomiste défend bien l’idée d’une relation de complémentarité entre ratio et intellectus, insistant en outre sur le fait que ces deux principes ne sont pas antinomiques dans la mesure où ils se rapportent respectivement à des aspects différents d’une même réalité.10 Mais l’histoire récente nous montre que ces deux termes ont été employés pour représenter deux manières différentes de comprendre le monde et de formuler des concepts axiologiques. Ratio est devenu l’instrument privilégié 10 Voir Denys Turner, Faith, Reason and the Existence of God (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), especially pp. 75–88.
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des sciences naturelles (instrument qui a d’ores et déjà nettoyé la nature de toute son intelligibilité intrinsèque et signifiance symbolique) et développa un modus operandi. Une autre conséquence de la déconnexion de ratio et d’intellectus fut la prépondérance de l’idée selon laquelle l’analyse rationnelle n’est pas faite pour dévoiler l’intelligibilité inhérente aux choses, ni leur signifiance symbolique, ni encore leur valeur spirituelle. La rationalité, en créant un nouveau domaine de vérités exclusif, fit ses adieux à notre expérience holistique de la réalité. Le rationalisme, associé au naturalisme et au positivisme, s’associèrent pour réduire la réalité aux compétences analytiques de l’esprit humain, pour identifier la pensée calculatrice et quantitative comme seul mode valide de connaissance de la réalité des choses. Bien que des théologiens chrétiens contemporains aient souligné avec insistance que ratio et intellectus sont l’un et l’autre des instruments valides de connaissance, la bifurcation entre les modes discursifs et intuitifs a joué un rôle crucial tant dans le processus de sécularisation de la vision du monde moderne que dans le processus de désacralisation de la nature. La tradition islamique n’a jamais fait l’expérience d’une telle bifurcation. Le mot ‘aql veut aussi bien dire raison qu’intellect dans les deux sens que nous avons mentionnés plus haut. ‘Aql est en soi capable d’assurer les deux fonctions (analyse logique et connaissance intuitive) sans contradiction. En outre, c’est le même ‘aql qui guide notre volonté et nos choix moraux. Si plus tard, dans la tradition intellectu86 | Kalin
elle islamique, les philosophes ont introduit une distinction générale entre « l’investigation rationnelle » (bahath) et la « gustation » (dhawq) [connaissance qui s’effectue via la réalisation], ces deux modes de pensée, cependant, se complètent mutuellement pour nous aider à mettre au jour la structure hautement différenciée de la réalité, laquelle est, après tout, justiciable d’une approche simultanément multidimensionnelle et intégrative . Selon le mot de Mulla Sadra, un des représentants majeurs de cette tradition : « la vraie démonstration ne contredit pas le témoignage fondé sur le dévoilement (al-shuhud al-kashfi) ».11 Quand des musulmans affirment, probablement sous la pression conjuguée du rationalisme moderne et d’un complexe d’infériorité à l’égard de l’Occident, que « l’Islam est la religion de la raison/intellect », cela ne veut pas dire que la foi islamique, ou n’importe quelle autre foi d’ailleurs, se réduit à la raison humaine. Une telle revendication aurait 11 Mulla Sadra, al-Hikmat al-muta‘aliyah f i’l-asf ar al-‘aqliyyat al-arba‘ah, (Beyrouth: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-‘Arabi, 1981) I, 2, p. 315. Sadra poursuit en disant que: “La différence entre la science fondée sur la théorie et la science fondée sur la vision participe de la différence entre quelqu’un qui connaît la définition du sucré et quelqu’un qui fait réellement l’expérience du sucré ; ou de la différence entre celui qui connaît la définition de la santé et du pouvoir et celui qui est réellement puissant et en bonne santé ». Commentaire du chapitre al-Waqi‘ah, Tafsir, Vol. 7, p. 10. Pour aller plus loin dans l’étude de ce sujet, voir mon « Knowledge in Later Islamic Philosophy: Mulla Sadra On Existence, Intellect and Intuition », (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 217–221.
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pour effet de présenter la foi comme une instance empirique ou une proposition logique. La foi, par définition, doit comporter une dimension allant au-delà de la raison ; sans quoi nous n’aurions besoin ni de la Révélation divine ni des Prophètes. L’au-delà de la raison, toutefois, ne renvoie pas à l’anti-raison, mais au supra-rationnel ; à ce qui transcende les aptitudes cognitives de la raison humaine. Le supra-rationnel n’est pas l’irrationnel dans la mesure même où la raison admet spontanément ce qui se trouve (et qu’il se trouve bien quelque chose: LS) au-delà de ses capacités. Une telle concession n’a rien d’illogique : elle ne se solde pas d’ignorance, d’agnosticisme ou de foi aveugle, mais d’une accréditation autoréflexive des limites. La raison ne peut pas fonctionner sans certaines règles et certains principes. La liberté n’est pas l’abolition de toutes les limites et de toutes les règles, mais l’exercice de la raison en conjonction avec la vertu. 12 Ce qui est vraiment unique et même sidérant à propos de la raison humaine c’est qu’elle peut assigner ses propres lim12 Ce que Kant dit à ce propos vaut d’être cité exhaustivement : « Si la raison ne s’assujettit pas d’elle-même à la loi qu’elle se donne à elle-même, elle devra nécessairement s’assujettir à la loi que d’autres lui imposent, étant donné qu’en dehors de toute loi, même la plus grosse absurdité peut prospérer ad aeternam. Il s’ensuit que proclamer l’avènement d’une pensée affranchie de toute loi (une émancipation des restrictions de la raison) a pour conséquence inévitable que la liberté de penser finit par se perdre ». Kant, « What is Orientation in Thinking? » trans. L. W. Beck in Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason and Other Writings on Moral Philosophy (Chicago, 1949), p. 304.
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ites aussi bien à ce qu’elle connaît qu’à ce qu’elle ne connaît pas. L’auto-délimitation de la raison est un acte rationnel faisant signe vers le contexte d’existence et d’intelligibilité global au sein duquel elle fonctionne. C’est ce que Ghazali a tenté de faire dans sa critique de la philosophie péripatéticienne en essayant de définir, sous l’angle de l’examen critique, les limites de la raison spéculative dans le champ de la pure métaphysique qui, selon lui, relève du « monde invisible » (‘alam al-ghayb). Kant, bien que partant de prémisses différentes, s’attela à une tâche analogue en cherchant à déterminer les limites de la raison dans le cadre de sa Critique de la Raison Pure : « Il en va du destin étrange de la raison humaine que par une des modalités de sa connaissance, elle soit assaillie par des questions que – en tant que celles-ci sont prescrites par la nature précise de la raison elle-même – elle ne peut ignorer, mais – en tant qu’elles transcendent tous ses pouvoirs – elle n’est point capable de répondre. »13
Le fondement ontologique de la rationalité coranique
Bien avant que les textes philosophiques grecs n’aient été traduits en arabe, les musulmans découvrirent le concept raison/intellect comme le Coran et le hadith le mettent en exergue. En un contraste saillant avec la période de la jahiliya
13 Kant, The Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (London, 1933), p. A viii.
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(« ignorance »), l’Islam inaugurait en un même mouvement l’ère de la foi, de la connaissance, de la raison, de la justice et de la liberté. Entrer dans l’Islam revenait donc à s’affranchir des habitudes sociales et mentales de l’époque de l’ignorance, ainsi que du polythéisme, de l’injustice et de l’immoralité. Cela consistait, en outre, à établir un ordre sociopolitique fondé sur la raison, la justice, l’égalité et la vertu. Cela impliquait enfin qu’une nouvelle ontologie de la raison supplante la logique polythéiste et le cynisme moral. Afin de comprendre la place de la raison et de la rationalité dans le Coran et dans la tradition intellectuelle islamique dont il est l’inspirateur, il convient d’examiner ce nouveau fondement ontologique de la raison et le nouveau mode de pensée que le Coran a introduit à la lumière de ses récits, implorations, déductions, syllogismes, commandements, avertissements, recommandations, promesses de récompenses et de punitions. Le riche répertoire de ses inférences logiques et exhortations morales que l’on trouve dans le Coran et le hadith semble vouloir éveiller notre conscience au fait que nous devons commencer à utiliser notre sensibilité et nos facultés rationnelles d’une manière qui convienne à notre état d’existence. Le Coran dit : Nous avons certes établi à l’adresse des hommes toutes sortes d’analogie pour les inviter au rappel (Al-Zumar, 39 :27). Le mathal, traduit ici par analogie, renvoie aux métaphores et aux paraboles par l’entremise desquelles la substance du message est délivrée – un message qui resterait sinon inaccessible à l’esprit humain. Mais 90 | Kalin
dans la mesure où aucune parabole n’est jamais dépourvue de contenu cognitif, le message interpelle tant notre raison que notre imagination de telle sorte que nous pouvons toujours nous « rappeler » de ce qui est essentiel. Le chemin de pensée que nous trouvons dans le Coran ne se réduit pas à un assemblage de faits ; non plus qu’il se donne à concevoir telle une énumération piétiste d’interdits et de commandements. Il relève plutôt d’un engagement global sur la voie d’une réflexion intellectuelle, morale et spirituelle. Il intègre l’être dans sa totalité et transcende les dichotomies du type sensuel/rationnel, matériel/spirituel, individuel/universel, nature/culture, etc. Le mode de pensée intégrateur que le Coran développe dans son style unique reflète la nature de la réalité ; laquelle est interdépendante et multidimensionnelle. Il nous invite instamment à considérer l’intrication et l’inter-connectivité des choses ; ainsi que la manière dont une chose conduit à l’autre sur la grande chaîne de l’être. Le mode de pensée coranique est donc « descriptif » avant d’être « prescriptif ». Le Coran ne se limite pas à décrire les choses comme des faits d’information : ses récits suggestifs, ses métaphores vives et descriptions saisissantes de la création de Dieu (et de Ses interventions dans l’histoire) ont essentiellement pour vocation de changer la manière dont nous voyons le monde et notre place au sein de celui-ci. Il vise à transformer la conscience humaine pour nous permettre de vivre une existence fondée sur une foi Français | 91
et des vertus justifiantes.14 Lorsque cette conscience est éclose, et conduite à se reconnecter avec la réalité des choses, tout rentre dans l’ordre : raison, pensée, organes sensitifs, vue, ouïe, perceptions et jugements moraux tendent alors à s’unifier. La raison et la rationalité se déploient au sein de ce contexte global de pensée intégrée et de discernement moral. Loin d’être un principe ou un fondement de la vérité elle-même, la raison fonctionne dans le contexte le plus global de notre être, dans le monde, et dans les explications que nous nous donnons de la réalité. Empruntant son existence à quelque chose de plus grand que ce qui est purement humain, la raison ne peut pas connaître Dieu en ce sens qu’elle ne peut pas Le « comprendre », et ce dans la mesure même où un être infini ne peut contenir ce qui est infini. Dieu ne peut être connu de manière empirique car la connaissance empirique suppose limite, position, relation, relativité, etc., autant de catégories ne pouvant pas s’appliquer à Dieu. Dieu peut être connu à travers la raison et l’intelligence dans la mesure où l’Absolu et l’Infini peuvent être appréhendés, saisis, et représentés par des propositions formelles, des concepts et des métaphores. Attendre davantage de la raison reviendrait à transgresser ses limites propres. Si la raison, comme d’autres composantes de la réalité, fait partie d’un ordre d’existence et n’en est pas 14 Cf. Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1994), p. 22.
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la totalité, elle ne peut donc pas en circonscrire la totalité. Ce qui ne diminue ou ne sape en aucune manière sa signifiance et sa fonction. Par contraste, Dieu est la réalité absolue qui englobe et génère tout. Il est Al-Muhit, Celui qui embrasse toute chose. Le Coran affirme par ailleurs que Les regards ne L’atteignent pas, mais Il atteint tous les regards, Il est le Subtil, l’Informé (Al-An’am, 6 : 103). Comme l’amour, la charité, la spiritualité et l’art, la rationalité est une réponse à l’appel de la réalité. Elle nous permet de dévoiler la structure intelligible de l’ordre de l’existence. Elle nous invite à dépasser notre existence corporelle afin de nous connecter au monde de la nature en termes fondamentalement rationaux et moraux. Elle nous invite avec insistance à établir un ordre sociopolitique fondé sur la vertu, la justice et la liberté. Le Coran présente de la personne humaine une conception selon laquelle notre humanité se soutient tant d’une rationalité (‘aql, nutq) que des différentes facultés requises pour la tâche consistant à donner un sens à la réalité. D’un point de vue ontologique, cela signifie reconnaître la réalité des choses telles qu’elles sont et les considérer comme des « dépôts » (amanah) de Dieu. La réponse humaine à l’appel de Dieu lorsqu’Il nous invite à protéger ce dépôt consiste à devenir Son « lieutenant » (khalifah) sur terre, et à se soumettre à Dieu, conformément au sens littéral du mot islam. Dans la terminologie religieuse usuelle, cette soumission s’appelle ‘ibadah (culte), acte humain suprême qui transcende les limitations de l’existence Français | 93
humaine et nous relie à l’Absolu. Dans cette perspective, le mode de pensée coranique n’est pas empirique ou rationaliste, historique ou systématique, ni encore apodictique ou pédagogique, non plus qu’analytique ou descriptif. Il ne renvoie à aucun d’entre eux, et à tous en même temps. Il repose sur une combinaison de l’analyse conceptuelle et du jugement moral, de l’observation empirique et de la guidance spirituelle, de la narration historique et de la prédication eschatologique, de l’abstraction et de l’injonction impérative. Le Coran est fondamentalement une « guidance » (hidayah) pour le genre humain (Al-Baqarah, 2 :2) ayant pour vocation de nous guider de l’ignorance vers la connaissance, des ténèbres vers la lumière, de l’injustice et l’oppression vers la liberté. La rationalité coranique couvre ainsi un champ qui va de l’empirique et du conceptuel à l’éthique et au spirituel. Etre rationnel signifie donc rejeter l’oppression et l’injustice et répondre à l’appel de Dieu pour la justice. Le Prophète (s) a dit que la « personne intelligente » (al-kayyis) est celle « qui maîtrise son ego et prépare la Vie Future ». (Tirmidhi, Al-Qiyamah, 25). Au regard de la théologie islamique une personne doit être « saine d’esprit » et « intelligente » (‘aqil) pour être considérée légalement responsable de ses actes – la responsabilité religieuse (taklif) n’incombant qu’à ceux qui disposent de toute leur raison (‘aql). Dans la tradition islamique, cela forme la base de l’ontologie morale de la raison et de la rationalité, et établit une solide connexion entre l’intelligence, la rationalité, la 94 | Kalin
foi et la vertu. D’après Harith al-Muhasibi (m.857), la raison est « une disposition dont la connaissance s’actualise dans l’action ».15 Elle vaut comme principe d’action morale et a essentiellement pour rôle de nous aider à nous rapprocher du Divin. Si une personne est vraiment intelligente, observe al-Muhasibi, elle s’emploiera à sécuriser son salut dans ce monde et dans l’au-delà ; ce qu’elle ne parviendra à faire que si elle fait un usage correct de sa raison. En fondant son analyse sur la « noblesse de la raison » (qui est d’ailleurs le titre de son ouvrage) al-Muhasibi souhaite attirer notre attention sur le fait que la raison est la faculté la plus propre à établir en nos vies une foi et des vertus justifiantes. Un usage correct de la raison, illuminé par la foi, conduit à une pensée rationnelle et à un comportement moral. De la même manière, la foi articulée et corroborée par la raison est profonde et certaine. Le philosophe du 14ème siècle Haydar Amuli voit une harmonie parfaite entre la foi et la raison et compare la religion (al-shar’) et la raison au corps et à l’esprit. Tout comme l’esprit ne peut pas fonctionner sans le corps, le corps ne peut pas trouver de sens, de vie et de plénitude sans l’esprit. Ainsi « La religion ne se dispense pas la raison ni la raison de la religion. Raghib al-Isfahani cité par Amuli, établi dans des termes clairs et marquants que « la raison ne peut jamais trouver la voie droite dans la religion et la re-
15 Harith al-Muhasibi, Sharaf al-‘aql wa mahiyyatuhu, ed. M. A. ‘Ata (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah), 1982, p. 19.
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ligion ne peut jamais trouver la voie droite sans la raison. »16 La logique et la transcendance travaillent de concert pour révéler la nature des choses et réaliser notre humanité. Mais cela ne peut se produire que lorsque nous réalisons que la raison fonctionne dans un contexte plus large de pensée et de contemplation.
La raison et la pensée en contexte
Le verbe ‘a-q-l (rendre intelligible ou se servir de sa raison) signifie, littéralement, « retenir », « protéger » ou encore « garder ». La raison est ce par quoi nous nous gardons de l’erreur, du mensonge et des maléfices. Le terme ma’qal (dérivé de ‘aql : LS) signifie ainsi « forteresse ». C’est le même sens qui est contenu dans l’expression de langue anglaise « personne intelligente ». Le sens étymologique de la raison ne doit pas être pris à la légère, et ce dans la mesure où il renvoie directement à l’élément essentiel de la pensée et de la contemplation en tant que réponse adéquate à l’appel de la réalité. Se distinguant des tentatives pour réduire la raison et la rationalité à la compétence logique et aux procédures de ratiocination, la raison en tant que principe de vérité et instrument de connaissance représente un espace de rencontre avec la réalité de choses. Penser ne se 16 Haydar Amuli, Jami’ al-esrar wa manba’ al-anwar, ed. Par Henry Corbin et Osman Yahia (Téhéran : département d’iranologie de l’institut franco-iranien de recherche, 1968), pp. 372–3
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réduit pas à l’énumération des propriétés physiques des choses (ou encore) aux relations logiques des concepts. C’est plus qu’une simple représentation mentale des choses dans la mesure où, comme les philosophes musulmans le soulignent, l’abstraction mentale ne nous fournit qu’une image de la réalité. Comme toute abstraction mentale, cette image, cependant, est figée, et ne peut jamais rendre compte de la réalité elle-même. Les concepts abstraits sont essentiels tant à la pensée rationnelle qu’à la formation des idées. La pensée exige toutefois davantage que l’abstraction et l’utilisation des concepts. Elle se déploie dans un espace de confluence avec la réalité et nous met en relation avec quelque chose de plus grand que nous. Elle consiste à voir, observer, écouter, entendre, réfléchir, contempler, et tirer les conclusions morales et pratiques appropriées. Elle est ce par quoi nous répondons à ce avec quoi nous confluons. Elle engage tant l’analyse rationnelle que l’engagement moral. Dans son acception la plus subtile, la pensée est ce qui nous permet de considérer les choses toujours comme des fins et non jamais comme des moyens. Elle défie la rationalité instrumentale sur le double-terrain ontologique et spirituel. Il me reste à démontrer que si le monde a été créé par Dieu, il ne saurait être réduit à sa seule dimension utilitariste. Il est doté d’une signification substantive et d’une valeur autonome. En principe, il n’est pas d’inconvénient à croire que nous pouvons atteindre un degré de réalité en suivant des règles Français | 97
et des procédures. Se conformer à une règle a certainement valeur d’acte rationnel adapté à nos vies quotidiennes, investigations scientifiques, décisions économiques, vies politiques, etc. Mais si la rationalité instrumentale présente manifestement une utilité, reste qu’elle se contente de se mouvoir à la surface de la subjectivité humaine et ne nous met pas nécessairement en relation avec la réalité. Suivre une règle ne garantit en rien le résultat rationnel. Nous pouvons nous conformer à une procédure et parvenir à une conclusion particulière. Mais il se peut tout aussi bien que cette conclusion soit irrationnelle et nous conduise même à la catastrophe. Comme la plupart des autocrates, les Nazis, pour ne citer qu’eux, suivaient un système de règles ; les instructions « rationnelles » du gouvernement d’Allemagne. Mais leur approche instrumentaliste de la religion, de l’histoire, de la science et de la politique, ventilait la signification fondamentale de l’être humain. Le contenu et la substance de ce que nous entreprenons doit également avoir une base rationnelle. Le Coran souscrit à une approche substantive de la rationalité en postulant que non seulement nos instruments et nos procédures mais également nos concepts et nos notions fondamentaux doivent être proprement rationnels et conformes à la réalité des choses. L’approche substantive de la rationalité découle de l’intelligibilité intrinsèque de l’existence en tant que création de Dieu. Tout acte rationnel de notre part se conforme au principe de la raison édifiée 98 | Kalin
dans la nature des choses. Tout ce qui contrevient à ce principe nous précipite dans la sphère de l’irrationnel. La rationalité substantive est également supportée par une anthropologie de la raison elle-même. La plupart des penseurs musulmans s’accordent pour penser que la raison répond à des programmes empiriques et des notions abstraites inscrites dans ses qualités innées. Loin d’être une hypothétique tabula rasa, la raison reflète les traits fondamentaux de l’existence dont elle fait partie intégrante. Raghib al-Isfahani divise la raison en deux : ‘aql matbu’, « la raison innée », et ‘aql masmu’, « la raison acquise ». Masmu’ signifie, littéralement, « ce qui est entendu », et fait donc ici référence à ce qui est entendu (ou appris) de la part d’autres. Ce terme s’applique essentiellement à l’expérience et au contexte des relations humaines. La raison innée renvoie à l’aptitude spontanée dont dispose l’homme à saisir l’ordre intelligible et la vérité des choses. C’est à travers la raison innée que nous prenons place dans le monde intelligible. La raison acquise est ce que nous apprenons en entendant d’autres et fait référence au contexte des relations sociales et aux formes linguistiques à l’aide desquelles nous nommons les choses. Les deux sont étroitement jumelées, mais la « raison innée » a précellence sur la « raison acquise ». Isfahani, qui attribue cette division à l’imam Ali ibn Abi Talib, souligne que tout comme la lumière du soleil n’est pas utile à l’œil aveugle, la raison acquise ne peut rien de bon lorsque la raison inFrançais | 99
née est corrompue.17 La raison fonctionne alors dans deux sens : dans sa forme innée, elle fonctionne de l’intérieur vers l’extérieur. Elle découvre le monde visible par la médiation de ses qualités innées. C’est une des dispositions de la Fitra, la nature fondamentale qui est une fenêtre sur le monde de l’existence que nous devons préserver et entretenir pour « voir » clair.18 Dans sa forme acquise, la raison va de l’extérieur vers l’intérieur en saisissant des fragments d’impressions et de données empiriques issus du monde extérieur. C’est la combinaison des deux, l’interne et l’externe, qui nous offre une image plus complète de la fonction de la raison dans son rapport avec la réalité. La fonction première de la raison est telle qu’elle opère toujours dans un contexte plus large de signifiance ontologique et de compétence épistémique.19 17 Raghib al-Isfahani, al-Mufradat fi gharib al-qur’an (Istanbul: Kahraman Yayinlari, 1986), p. 511. Tant Harith al-Muhasibi que al-Ghazali font référence à cette définition duelle de la raison; voir al-Muhasibi, Sharaf al-‘aql, p. 20. 18 Al-Farabi identifie cela comme un des six sens de ‘aql; voir al-Fararabi, Risalah fi’l-‘aql, ed. Maurice Bouyges (Beyrouth, Lebanon: Dar elMachreq, 1983), pp. 8–9. 19 La tradition philosophique développera plus tard une épistémologie et une anthropologie élaborées de la raison qui inclut ‘aql hayulani ou ‘aql bi’l-quwwah, l’intellect potentiel et matériel, ‘aql bi’l-fi’l, l’intellect actualisé, ‘aql mustafad, l’intellect acquis, et finallement ‘aql fa’’al, l’intellect actif. Ici n’est pas le lieu de traiter tous ces points en détail, aussi me contenterai-je de communiquer au lecteur ces quelques références bibliographiques : pour la classification et l’analyse du ‘aql par al-Kindi, qui
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La raison/intellect fonctionne essentiellement à la manière d’un miroir reflétant l’ordre et la signification intrinsèques des choses. L’intellect entretient ce faisant une relation singulière avec le Divin en tant qu’il procède lui-même de la Nature Divine. Ce que l’intellect découvre en termes d’ordre, de nécessité et d’intelligibilité dans l’univers est une réflexion de la nature et volonté propres de Dieu. Mulla Sadra nous donne une description saisissante de cet aspect de l’intellect : « L’intellect, dans la mesure où il n’y a pas de voile entre lui et la Première Vérité [Dieu], peut par lui-même attester de l’essence de la Vérité [Dieu]…Il n’y a pas de voile entre les deux… [Dieu] peut certainement se manifester lui-même à l’intellect, et la manifestation advient par le dévoilement [lucide] de l’essence de [Dieu]. Aucun aspect ou qualité n’est ajouté au Divin, non plus qu’une autre instance ne se rajoute à [l’intellect]. L’essence de l’intellect est est une des premières émanant des philosophes, voir sa Risalah fi’l-‘aql (‘Sur l’Intellect’), ed. Jean Jolivet in L’Intellect selon Kindi (Leiden, Holland: E. J. Brill, 1971).Al-Farabi développe les thèses d’al-Kindi dans ses différents travaux ; voir notamment Risalah fi’l-‘aql. Ibn Sina traite des types et des fonctions du ‘aql dans ses divers travaux incluant le Shifa’ et la Najat mais également dans al-Mabda’ wa’l-ma’ad. Pour une étude approfondie de leurs thèses en liaison avec leurs sources grecques, voir Davidson, Herbert A., Al Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes on Intellect: Their Cosmologies, Theories of the Active Intellect, and Theories of Human Intellect (New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
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comme un miroir poli sur lequel brille la forme de la Vérité. Sur le miroir lui-même il n’y a pas d’entité existentielle en dehors de la forme réfléchie, et la forme réfléchie n’est rien d’autre que la forme reliée à la Vérité. Par conséquent, il n’y a, dans l’essence de l’intellect, rien d’autre que la forme de la Vérité et sa théophanie. On ne saurait distinguer l’existence de l’intellect de la Vérité qu’il manifeste (dans la mesure où un seul être ne peut avoir deux existences distinctes). De la même manière, deux formes [distinctes] ne peuvent émaner de Dieu en une guise unique. Ce qui a pu conduire les sages (‘urafa’) à affirmer que Dieu ne Se manifeste pas [Lui-même] deux fois dans la même forme. Il est dès lors admis que l’intellect n’est rien d’autre qu’une manifestation de Dieu l’Exalté à travers Sa forme sur l’intellect ; et la forme de l’essence de Dieu est elle-même Sa propre Essence, et non quelque chose qui s’ajoute à Lui ».20
Le vocabulaire de la pensée dans le Coran
Le Coran utilise un certain nombre de termes sémantiquement corrélés aux notions de raison/intellect et pensée. Tafakkur, « réflexion », qalb, « cœur », fu’ad, « cœur intime », et lubb, littéralement « graine » signifiant quant à lui le « cœur essentiel », font partie de ces termes et correspondent à un aspect différent de l’acte de percevoir, penser 20 Mulla Sadra, Risālat al-hashr, ed. Avec traduction du perse de M. . Khwājawī (Téhéran: Intishārāt-i Mawlawī, 1998), pp. 85–6.
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et réfléchir. Ces termes rentrent par ailleurs dans la même catégorie sémantique que ‘aql, ‘ilm, « connaissance » ; fiqh, « percevoir/comprendre » ; idrak, « saisir » ; shu’ur, « conscience » ; burhan, « démonstration » ; hujah, « preuve » ; bayyinah « évidence » ; sultan, « évidence irréfutable » ; furqan, « discernement » ; taddabur « contemplation » ; nutq « parler/penser » ; hukm « jugement » ; hikma « sagesse » et dhikr « souvenance/invocation ». L’utilisation coranique de ces termes, dont l’exploration nécessiterait une étude à part entière, établit un contexte de pensée intégrative au sein duquel notre confluence avec la réalité dévoile différents aspects de la réalité incluant la totalité de l’existence. Elle conduit en outre à un mode de pensée qui combine l’observation empirique, l’analyse rationnelle, le jugement moral et l’élévation spirituelle. Ce riche vocabulaire se réfère à l’ensemble du perçu et du pensé. A la différence des distinctions catégorielles entre la perception sentie et l’analyse conceptuelle, notre confluence naturelle ou de « premier ordre » avec les choses se réalise sous la forme d’une expérience unifiée. En percevant les choses, nos organes sensitifs et notre raison travaillent ensemble. Les distinctions tranchantes entre les qualités sensitives (se rapportant au monde matériel et physique) et les notions intellectuelles (se rapportant au monde de l’esprit) sont autant d’avatars de la bifurcation cartésienne entre la res extensa et la res cogitans et s’avèrent impropres à nous livrer une description fidèle de la réalité de l’acte de perception et Français | 103
de compréhension. Ces catégories relèvent de la réflexion de second ordre de réalité selon lesquelles nous opérons des distinctions entre le sujet et l’objet, le connaissant et le connu, le percevant et le perçu, le mental et le matériel, etc. Notre confluence de premier ordre avec le monde se déroule dans un contexte différent. La plénitude de notre expérience épistémique des choses émane de la plénitude de l’existence elle-même. Connaître en confluence signifie que nous nous tenons devant l’objet de connaissance. Cela nous met dans une relation spécifique avec la réalité des choses en cela que nous répondons à cette dernière par le biais de nos facultés épistémiques et non pas en créant sa signification d’une manière-autoréférentielle. La vertu épistémologique de la raison est par ailleurs mise en évidence par un des sens étymologiques du terme ‘aql, renvoyant au concept de « serrer », « relier », « lier ». La raison nous relie à la vérité et ouvre dès lors un nouvel horizon au-delà de la chaîne ordinaire des causes. Sur le plan horizontal, la raison humaine se meut dans et à travers les faits et les concepts et les relie les uns aux autres. Sur le plan vertical, elle relie ce qui est inférieur à ce qui est supérieur. Le Coran insiste sur la convergence de ces deux axes de causalité : l’horizontal qui régule la monde des causes physiques, et le vertical qui introduit le « commandement divin » (amr) dans le domaine de la nature. Il n’y a pas de contradiction entre les deux mais ils suivent des règles différentes. Le jour et la nuit se suivent mutuellement en tant que parties intégran104 | Kalin
tes de l’ordre naturel dans lequel nous vivons et cette règle ne souffre d’aucune exception. Mais également, lorsque Dieu veut que quelque chose se produise Il dit « sois » et « cela est » (Yasin, 36 :82). Chaque domaine de l’existence exige un type spécifique de pensée. Le vocabulaire élaboré de la sensation, du raisonnement, et de la pensée que le Coran emploie est rendu nécessaire par la nature de la réalité elle-même. Une réalité complexe et multidimensionnelle ne saurait faire l’objet d’une mise au jour par une méthode cognitive unique. Elle requiert un éventail plus large d’outils conceptuels. A ce stade, le Coran parle de « ‘alame al-ghayb », « le monde invisible » et de « ‘alame al-shahada », « le monde manifesté ». Le monde invisible fait référence au domaine de l’existence connu par Dieu seul. Dieu a livré des indices de ce monde mais une connaissance exhaustive de ce dernier ne nous a pas été rendue possible. Bien qu’il ne soit pas accessible à l’expérience humaine, le monde invisible guide notre confluence avec le monde de l’existence visible et fonctionne dès lors comme signe indicateur à l’usage de nos analyses conceptuelles et jugements moraux. Dans un sens moral et métaphysique, il régule les événements du monde visible au sein duquel nous évoluons. Ce qui est frappant dans la notion coranique du « monde visible » est que la perception authentique a lieu dans le cadre d’une expérience de « témoignage » (« mushahada »), ce qui se distingue du simple fait de voir et regarder. Témoigner signifie se tenir devant ce qui se Français | 105
présente à soi. Cela implique voir et regarder mais aussi être présent. Une attitude qui s’apparente à l’attitude que nous avons lorsque nous contemplons un paysage et que nous sommes soudainement saisis d’une impression gestalt. En contemplant la nature, nous nous mouvons entre le tout et la partie, et découvrons à chaque fois une nouvelle relation. De ce point de vue, notre rencontre avec la réalité des choses est un processus rationnel et conceptuel qui a lieu dans un contexte global d’intelligibilité et de signifiance qui va au-delà de la pensée purement logique et discursive. Les concepts, qui ne sont pas créés dans un vacuum correspondent plutôt à divers aspects de la réalité ; ils sont le produit de notre confluence avec la réalité, cette expérience dont le Coran nous indique qu’en la réalisant, les êtres humains « attestent de la vérité ». Dès lors, nous « voyons » la lumière, « touchons » le bois, « sentons » la rose, « goûtons » la cerise, « percevons » la dimension, « pensons » l’infinitude, « avons conscience » de la proximité de l’eau, « discernons » entre une chose et son ombre, « comprenons » une instruction, « répondons » à un appel, nous nous « soumettons » à la vérité, « acceptons » la preuve, « contemplons » le sens de la vie, et ainsi de suite. Chacune de ses actions épistémologiques est la traduction pratique d’une de nos aptitudes conceptuelles et mentales nous servant à comprendre le monde. Mais aussi et surtout, ils correspondent à quelque chose qui se trouve en dehors de nous et élargissent l’horizon de notre subjectivité. 106 | Kalin
La Raison, le Cœur, et la Conscience Humaine
Il y aurait davantage lieu de comparer cela à l’expérience unitive de la réalité d’un paysage mouvant qu’à une structure spécifique procédant d’une dissection. Le Coran identifie le cœur (al-qalb) comme le lieu de réalisation de l’expérience unitive de la réalité. Le lieu où l’expérience perpétuelle, la pensée conceptuelle et le jugement moral sont reliés. Si l’on considère le sentimentalisme, courant dans lequel est pris la notion de « cœur » depuis le tournant cartésien de la philosophie occidentale, il n’est pas inutile de remarquer que le Coran confère au cœur une fonction clairement épistémique et intellectuelle. Les versets qui mentionnent le cœur font référence à notre conscience profonde par l’entremise de laquelle nous percevons la réalité comme un tout. Elle combine la pensée rationnelle et le jugement moral. Le cœur, une fois pur et correctement guidé, préside au fonctionnement d’autres facultés épistémiques en les éclairant sur la vérité. La raison et le cœur fonctionnent comme une gaine pour conduire l’intuition dans la réalité des choses et la manière dont nous devons nous lier à ces dernières. Dans ce cadre, les linguistes arabes ont relevé une synonymie entre ‘aql et qalb.21 Le but de la pensée par le biais de ‘aql et de qalb est de dévoiler et d’investir l’ordre intelligible d’où les êtres particuliers dans l’univers tirent leur signification. Les penseurs
21 Ibn al-Manzur, Lisan al-‘Arab, entrées ‘aql and qalb (Beirut: no date) Vol. I. p. 687 and Vol. XI, pp. 458–9.
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musulmans ne voient aucune contradiction entre la raison et le cœur, ou entre la pensée rationnelle et la contemplation, ou encore entre la logique et la transcendance. Une des figures majeures de la tradition du kalam, Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi introduit son célèbre livre al-Muqabasat par une prière implorant Dieu de lui accorder « par Sa grâce et Sa bonté l’esprit du cœur par la lumière de l’intellect (ruh alqalb bi-nur al-‘aql).22 Rien de surprenant si nous comprenons comment fonctionne notre engagement conceptuel et empirique avec les choses. Posséder des organes sensitifs ne nous garantit pas de percevoir les choses correctement, étant donné que nos sens sont subsumés dans un principe épistémique supérieur. Après tout, c’est notre raison qui confère une signification à ce que nos organes perçoivent telle une expérience brute. Nous pouvons ainsi disposer d’un œil avec lequel nous voyons tout en voyant les choses d’une manière empreinte de distorsion, à cause, par exemple, d’une dépression nerveuse.23 Nous pouvons disposer de nos deux oreilles, mais quand bien même, échouer à entendre, car nous choisissons délibérément de ne pas entendre certaines choses. Nous pou22 Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi, al-Muqabasat, ed. H. Sandubo (Tunisia: Dar al-Ma’arif, 1991), p. 7. 23 Comparer cela avec ce que dit Zarathoustra à son peuple qui se désintéresse ce qu’il a à leur dire : “Doit-on leur châtrer les oreilles avant qu’ils puissent entendre avec leurs yeux?” F. Nietzsche, Ainsi parla Zarathustra, tr. française George-Arthur Goldschmidt (Flammarion, Paris)
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vons disposer d’une intelligence affûtée et ne pas arriver à la bonne conclusion parce que notre désir de l’emporter prend le dessus sur notre jugement. Le fonctionnent de nos facultés sensorielles s’inscrit ainsi dans un contexte plus étendu de conditions morales, émotionnelles et conceptuelles. La démarche nécessaire pour atteindre la vérité sur quelque chose implique une expérience unitive mettant en jeu la sensation, le cognitif, des principes et des considérations moraux et psychologiques. Al-Ghazali, suivant la tradition qui le précédait et basant son analyse sur le hadith, désigne les organes sensitifs par le terme de « soldats du cœur » et affirme que « le cœur est comme le roi et les soldats sont ses servants et ses auxiliaires ».24 Même le fonctionnement physique sain des organes sensitifs dépend de l’état de pureté et de santé du cœur. La personne humaine est dotée de raison et peut ainsi avoir accès à la réalité des choses. Mais sa raison et son jugement peuvent être obscurcis par son ego et ses désirs charnels. Elle peut dès lors perdre sa faculté de discernement et penser de manière illusoire qu’elle sait en oubliant la nature bornée et coercitive de l’ego. A l’égard de cela, le Coran avertit :
24 Al-Ghazali, Rawdat al-talibin wa ‘umdat al-salikin, in Majmu’ah Rasa’il al-Imam al-Ghazali (Beyrouth: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1994), p. 32.
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rétends-tu que celui qui s’est donné pour Dieu sa propre passion, tu aurais à te faire son répondant ? {43} Crois-tu que pour la plupart ils entendent, ou bien raisonnent ? Ils sont seulement comme les troupeaux, et plus facile encore à perdre en chemin. {44} (Al-Furqan, 25 :43-44) Les animaux s’acquittent de la tâche pour laquelle ils ont été créés. Mais ceux qui ont été créés pour adorer Dieu prennent leur propre ego pour maîtres et se vouent à eux-mêmes un culte quand bien même il leur a été octroyé des signes manifestes. Raison pour laquelle leur ouïe et leur raison ne leur sont d’aucun bénéfice.25 Le Coran va plus loin et défie ceux qui prétendent voir et entendre alors qu’en fait leur conscience est aveugle :
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l en est parmi eux qui te prêtent l’oreille. Ainsi, te feraistu entendre des sourds, s’ils ne veulent pas raisonner ? {42} Il en est parmi eux qui te regardent. Dirigeras-tu les aveugles, s’ils ne voient pas clair ? {43} Dieu n’est nullement inique envers les hommes. C’est à leur propre encontre que les hommes le sont. {44} (Yunus, 10 :4244) 25 Ibn Kathir, Tafsiral-qur’an al-‘azim (Beirut : Dar al-Ma’rifah, 2006), p. 1141.
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ui, nous avons créés pour la Géhenne bien des djinns et des humains : ils ont des cœurs pour ne pas savoir, des yeux pour ne point voir, des oreilles pour ne point entendre. Ceux-là ressemblent à du bétail, et même leur égarement va plus loin : ce sont les indifférents {179} (Al-A’raf, 7 :179)
Ces versets nous confirment l’idée selon laquelle avoir des organes sensitifs ne nous garantit aucunement de percevoir la vérité. La connaissance empirique ne peut par elle-même révéler la vérité des choses. Le cœur et les organes sensitifs, qui sont « les soldats du cœur », doivent être sains :
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ous les avons dotés de l’ouïe, du regard et du cœur. Mais ne leur servirent de rien ni le regard, ni l’ouïe, ni le cœur dès lors qu’ils récusaient les signes de Dieu : alors les étreignit cela même dont ils se raillaient. » {26} (Al-Ahqaf, 46 :26) L’inaptitude à voir, entendre, etc., n’est pas tant due à une imperfection biologique qu’à une fermeture de l’esprit et du cœur à l’égard de la vérité. D’après Ibn Kathir, cela est dû au fait qu’on ne « parvient pas à tirer parti des organes que Dieu a créés comme causes de guidance ».26 Sous certains rapports, cela est comparable à l’effort vain qui consisterait 26 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, p. 659.
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à expliquer les couleurs à un aveugle. La déconnection ontologique privant un aveugle sensoriel de l’expérience des couleurs rend pour ce dernier caduque le discours sur les couleurs. Mais plus grave encore serait l’illusion consistant à penser que nous voyons les choses parce que nous avons des yeux alors qu’en fait nous ne voyons pas.27 Le Coran insiste sur le fait que « voir » dans l’attestation de la vérité relève d’un principe d’intelligibilité supérieur à la vue et l’ouïe corporelle :
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u ne peux faire que les morts entendent, ni que les sourds entendent l’appel s’ils tournent le dos. {80} Tu n’es pas un guide des aveugles contre leur errance, tu ne peux faire entendre que ceux qui croient à Nos signes : ce sont Ceux qui-se-soumettent. {81} (AlNaml, 27 : 80-81)
Avoir des organes sensitifs sains n’est donc pas suffisant : ils doivent être guidés par l’intelligence et la sagesse. Ainsi que Platon l’affirme dans le Phèdre : « La vue est le sens le plus aigu dans nos sens corporels, bien que par cela la sagesse n’est point perçue ». Le cœur doit rester pur de toute altération pour fonctionner correctement. Citant 27 Cf. Martin Heidegger, Qu’appelle-t-on penser ?, tr. Française (Presse universitaire de France, Paris)
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le Coran et le Prophète de l’Islam, al Tirmidhi (m.910) affirme en conclusion de son maître-ouvrage sur le cœur que : « la bonne santé des organes sensitifs est fonction de la bonne santé du cœur ; leur corruption est toujours lié à la corruption du cœur ».28 Ainsi, al-sadr (« la poitrine »), al-qalb (« le cœur »), al-fu’ad (« le for intérieur »), et allubb (« l’intellect fondamental »), que al-Tirmidhi analyse avec subtilité dans son ouvrage, ne fonctionnent pas comme des organes enclavés, mais travaillent de concert pour édifier le cadre cognitif et spirituel de notre expérience de la vérité. Une célèbre parole du Prophète de l’Islam résume cette conception du cœur dans sa relation aux autres facultés et organes sensitifs « Il est assurément dans le corps un menu morceau de chair ; si celui-ci est sain, le corps est sain dans son entièreté, et s’il est corrompu le corps est corrompu dans son entièreté. Il s’agit du cœur. » En tant que locus propre du tasdiq, « confirmation » ou « attestation », le cœur réunit ensemble les connaissances conceptuelles et sensitives et fournit une expérience unitaire de la réalité. L’intégrité de nos facultés sensorielles, psychologiques et 28 Abu ‘Abdallah Muhammad ibn ‘Ali al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi, Bayan al-farq bayn al-sadr wa’l-qalb wa’l-fu’ad wa’l-lubb, (Amman: al-Markaz alMaliki li’l-Buhuth wa’l-Dirasat al-Islamiyyah, 2009), p. 15. Pour une traduction anglaise des travaux de al-Tirmidhi voir Nicholas Heer, trans, “A Treatise on the Heart,” in Three Early Sufi Texts, trans. Nicholas Heer et al., Revised Edition (Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2009).
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mentales est dès lors, d’après le Coran, ce sur quoi nous nous appuyons pour connaître ; ainsi que pour « voyager sur la terre », comme il nous y convie. Voyager consiste à regarder le paysage de l’existence et de l’histoire dans sa totalité afin de mettre les choses en perspective :
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’ont-ils pas cheminé sur la terre, ayant un cœur apte à raisonner (sur ces vicissitudes), des oreilles capables d’en entendre (parler) ? Or, ce ne sont pas les regards qui sont aveugles, mais s’aveuglent les cœurs qui battent dans les poitrines. » {46} (Al-Hajj, 22 : 46)
Une fois que le cœur est aveuglé, toute la périphérie s’en trouve biaisée et obscurcie. Il est également périlleux d’agir selon le zann (opinion subjective ou conjecture) en dehors de toute preuve dûment et clairement établie. La raison ne peut accepter la conjecture en guise de vérité. Que nous poursuivions une enquête scientifique ou examinions les fondements de la foi religieuse, c’est toujours sur quelque chose de plus solide et fiable que la conjecture qu’il convient d’édifier nos propres perspectives. Les relations humaines et l’attitude morale se prévalent du même principe (voir AlHujurat, 49 :12). La vérité – et non la conjecture – doit être au fondement de la foi justifiante :
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is : « En est-il parmi vos associés qui guide au Vrai ? » Dis : « Dieu guide au Vrai. Alors celui
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qui guide au Vrai n’a-t-Il pas les titres les plus vrais à être suivi, ou celui qui bien ne se guide, sauf à être lui-même guidé ? Qu’avez-vous comme argument ? Quelle autre conclusion pouvez-vous tirer ? {36} Mais la plupart d’entre eux ne suivent qu’une conjecture. Or la conjecture ne dispense en rien du Vrai. Dieu est connaissant de ce qu’ils pratiquent ». {36} (Yunus, 10:35–36; Al-An’am, 6:116) Instance de contrôle des facultés sensorielles et cognitives, le cœur leste nos croyances de gage (al-burhan) et de certitude (al-yaqin). Sous réserve, toutefois, que le dit cœur fonctionne correctement en conjonction avec la raison et l’âme afin de maintenir certitude, intégrité et tranquillité dans le royaume de l’organisme corporel de la personne humaine » (mamlakat al-badan al-insan).29 Lorsqu’un individu falsifie la vérité sciemment et de manière continuelle, élaborant son jugement sur les seules bases de ses conjectures et de ses désirs égoïstes, il enclave son esprit dans un habitus de pensée qui le prive de son aptitude à faire le départ entre l’erreur et la vérité. Lorsque cela arrive, ce qui n’est pas rare étant donné le grand pouvoir d’influence que les désirs ont sur la raison, un sceau se dépose sur son cœur, qui perd 29 Cette sentence éloquente de Shah Waliullah de Dehli (m. 1762), un des plus grands savants du sous-continent indien, synthétise également l’approche intégrative vis-à-vis de la personne humaine propre aux penseurs musulmans classiques. Voir son Hujjat
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alors sa conscience. Ainsi l’expression coranique « Dieu a scellé leurs cœurs » ne doit pas être comprise dans la perspective fataliste selon laquelle Dieu aurait déjà décrété de toute éternité que certaines personnes ne seront jamais croyantes. Une telle interprétation contredirait le sens du message coranique. On doit plutôt comprendre que si un individu s’obstine à commettre sciemment la même erreur intellectuelle et morale sans se reprendre, il prend l’habitude d’utiliser sa raison à mauvais escient – et Dieu abandonne à leur sort ceux qui s’entêtent délibérément à faire le mal. De nombreux versets évoquent cette fermeture du cœur/esprit/ conscience comme une perte complète de direction au double sens intellectuel et moral du terme :
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uant à ceux qui dénient, égal est pour eux que tu leur donnes l’alarme ou ne la donnes : ils ne croient pas. {6} Dieu leur a posé un sceau sur le cœur et sur l’ouïe, une taie sur les regards ; ils vont à un châtiment terrible » {7} (Al-Baqarah, 2 :6–7).
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l en est parmi eux qui t’écoutent, sauf que Dieu a mis sur leur cœur des voiles, afin qu’ils ne pénètrent pas (le message), et dans leurs oreilles une profonde surdité. Ils ont beau voir tant de signes, ils n’y croient pas, si bien que venant à toi seulement pour disputer, ils dénient : « Ce ne sont là que légendes d’Anciens {25} (Al-An'am, 6 :25).
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es sept cieux Le glorifient, et la terre, et leurs habitants. Il n’est aucune chose qui par la louange ne Le glorifie : seulement vous ne pénétrez pas leur glorification. Il est toutefois Longanime, Tout pardon. {44} Quand tu psalmodies le Coran, Nous posons entre toi-même et ceux qui ne croient pas à la vie dernière un rideau caché {45} Nous avons mis des voiles sur leurs cœurs, de sorte qu’ils ne le comprennent pas: et dans leurs oreilles, une lourdeur. Et quand, dans le Coran, tu évoques Ton Seigneur l’Unique, ils tournent le dos par répulsion. {46} (Al-Isra’, 17 :44–46).
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uand les hypocrites te sont venus, ils ont dit : « Nous témoignons que tu es l’Envoyé de Dieu ». Or Dieu sait que tu es bien Son Envoyé et Dieu témoigne que les hypocrites, pour sûr, ne font que mentir. {1} La foi n’était pour eux qu’une couverture ; ils se sont détournés du chemin de Dieu : qu’affreuse était leur action ! {2} C’est qu’ils ont cru, puis dénié : un sceau fut alors posé sur leur cœur, de sorte qu’ils ne peuvent rien pénétrer {3} (Al-Munafiqun, 63 :1–3).
Ceux en revanche dont le cœur et la conscience ont été illuminés par la lumière de la foi trouvent la paix et le repos dans la souvenance de Dieu. Un tel apaisement n’est pas quelque chose de sentimental ou d’imaginaire ; cela touche le cœur de notre existence et nous relie à Dieu d’une part, et Français | 117
à la réalité des choses d’autre part. Cette tranquillité du cœur guide nos pensées et nos actes dans le monde, de même qu’elle emplit nos existences de significations. C’est en ce sens que le Coran affirme que :
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eux qui croient, de qui le cœur se rassérène au Rappel de Dieu. De quoi d’autre que du Rappel de Dieu sérénité peut-elle venir au cœur ? {28} (Al-Ra’d, 13 : 28).
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ui qui fait descendre la sérénité au cœur des croyants pour que, déjà croyants, ils grandissent dans la croyance. A Dieu les armées des cieux et de la terre. Dieu est Connaissant et Sage {4} (Al-Fath, 48 :4).
La conscience doit trouver sa juste configuration pour que la raison fonctionne correctement.
La Raison, l’existence et l’univers
La confluence de l’être et de la réalité, participant de la relation essentielle entre la raison et l’existence, mobilise un registre clef du vocabulaire coranique. Le mot existence (alwujud) n’apparaît pas dans le Coran. Mais la configuration conceptuelle au sein de laquelle le monde de la création est présenté fait signe vers un ordre d’existence au sein duquel se dévoile l’acte créateur. En tant que source de tout ce qui existe, l’existence est un présent de la création Divine. En ce sens, l’existence est le versant du Divin tourné vers le monde
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de la création (‘alam al-khalq). L’ordre créé se décline selon les diverses modalités de l’existence, qui se manifestent et se particularisent dans des formes spécifiques. Toutes ces formes ou « fragments d’existence » ont des qualités hétérogènes, mais n’en demeurent pas moins unies par la réalité essentielle de l’existence. Le vocable coranique kull (« tout/ totalité ») apparaissant dans un certain nombre de versets cosmologiques, fait précisément référence à cette dimension de l’existence : toutes les choses sont reliées entre elles en vertu du fait qu’elles sont créées par le même Dieu qui est, comme nous l’avons mentionné, Al-Muhit, « celui qui embrasse toute chose ». C’est dans ce contexte que la raison trouve sa relation particulière à l’existence. L’existence est intrinsèquement intelligible car Dieu créé de manière optimum et que ce qu’Il a créé a un sens, une raison d’être et une intelligibilité propre.30 Le verset suivant nous rappelle que la création, la pensée et la prière ont en commun une même raison d’être :
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ue n’ont-ils réfléchi au fond d’eux-mêmes sur ce que Dieu a créé les cieux et la terre et leur entre-deux que dans le Vrai et jusqu’à un terme fixé, même si beau-
30 Cette prémisse est également au fondement de l’argument selon lequel notre monde est le meilleur des mondes possibles que Dieu pouvait créer. Pour cette version de l’argument de “ahsan al-nizam” voir mon “Mulla Sadra on Theodicy and the Best of All Possible Worlds”, Oxford Journal of Islamic Studies, 18:2 (2007), pp. 183–201.
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coup d’humains dénient la rencontre de leur Seigneur ? {8} Que n’ont-ils parcouru la terre et considéré quelle fut la fin de leurs devanciers ? Pourtant ceux-ci les surpassaient en force, ils l’ont mise en valeur plus que ceux-là ne font ; et leurs envoyés leur vinrent avec les preuves ; et alors ce n’est pas Dieu qui leur fut injuste, mais ils le furent à eux-mêmes. » {9} (Al-Rum, 30 : 8–9) Dieu crée selon une sagesse (hikma), une finalité (ghaya) et une Providence (’inaya). En tant que source ultime de toute existence et de toute intelligibilité, Il apprête la création de qualités et en sursature l’ordre de sens et de finalités. L’adage fameux statuant que « La première chose que Dieu a créé est l’intellect (al-‘aql) » est à comprendre en contexte. L’intellect fait ici référence aux principes universels de la vérité, de l’ordre et de l’intelligibilité selon lesquels Dieu a configuré la nature des choses. L’intellect est la première chose que Dieu a créée parce que Dieu crée les choses conformément à un certain ordre et principe. Ainsi « l’intellect est la chose la plus proche du Divin ». 31A la différence du subjectivisme moderne, la signification n’est pas simplement une propriété de l’esprit. De la même manière que la connaissance ne saurait être réduite aux fonctionnements internes de l’esprit, comme c’est le cas chez Descartes, la signification 31 Muhammad ‘Ali al-Tahanawi, Kashshaf istilahat al-funun (Beyrouth: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah), Vol. 3, Kashshaf, III, p. 307.
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ne saurait non plus être rayée d’un trait de plume, à la Galilée, à titre de « qualité secondaire » surimposée par l’esprit sur les choses. Dans la mesure où la signification n’est pas créée, articulée et appropriée par l’esprit, son essence est à situer en dehors des constructions mentales que je m’en fais. La contribution morale de cette prémisse est claire : posséder une signification et une raison d’être selon une modalité non-subjectiviste va de pair avec un sens aigu des responsabilités. Admettre que, tout comme l’univers, nous avons été créés selon une finalité, revient à accepter une responsabilité morale à l’égard de ce qui est au-delà de nousmêmes. Le Coran nous interroge :
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ensiez-vous que Nous vous ayons créés en pure gratuité, et que de vous-mêmes il ne fût pas fait retour ? » {115} (Al-Mu’minun, 23 :115)
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’homme pense-t-il qu’on le laissera sans obligation à observer? {36} (Al-Qiyamah, 75 :36)
Dans toutes les dimensions de l’univers, Dieu créé les choses et les lois en vertu desquelles elles existent. Ces lois, que l’on nomme « sunnat Allah », les « normes de Dieu », soutiennent les principes d’ordre, d’harmonie et de continuité dans l’univers. La raison humaine a pour fonction de découvrir ces principes universaux et qualités intrinsèques. En se conformant lui-même à ces principes, l’intellect partiFrançais | 121
cipe à l’ordre intelligible de l’existence. La raison est capable de découvrir ces modes intrinsèques d’intelligibilité précisément parce que les principes intelligibles sont inscrits dans la nature de la réalité. Nous pouvons analyser l’univers physique d’une manière rationnelle et scientifique dans la mesure où il se prête d’emblée à l’investigation. Le Coran ne voit aucune contradiction à étudier l’univers en sa qualité de phénomène naturel et à voir en lui un miracle suprême de Dieu. L’univers entier est une ayat, un « signe » (adressé par Dieu à l’homme) visant au-delà de lui-même. Le Coran utilise le même terme, ayat, en référence à ses propres versets, également considérés comme « signes de Dieu » (ayat Allah) dans l’univers, que l’on pourrait rapprocher de ce que les Latins désignaient par le terme de vestigia Dei. La polysémie du terme ayat laisse entrevoir les profondes connexions qui existent entre les versets de Dieu dans les Ecritures et Ses signes dans le monde de la création : les deux proviennent de Dieu ; les uns et les autres sont sacrés, et doivent, par conséquent, être l’objet d’une authentique déférence. Les signes de Dieu, dans les deux sens du terme évoqués, sont reliés de manière étroite avec la raison et la rationalité dans la mesure où ils sont adressés à la raison humaine de sorte que l’homme puisse comprendre la réalité des choses (raison théorique) et poursuivre sa quête de vertu et de bonheur (raison pratique). Des choses aussi anodines en apparence que compter ou regarder l’heure sont en réalité des 122 | Kalin
« signes » pour ceux qui méditent sur l’ordre et la régularité de l’univers :
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est Lui qui a fait du soleil un flamboiement, de la lune une lumière, qu’Il mesure en stations pour vous faire connaître le nombre des ans et le calcul. Dieu n’a créé tout cela que dans le Vrai. Il explicite Ses signes pour ceux capables de connaître. {5} Dans l’alternance de la nuit et du jour, dans tout ce que Dieu a créé aux cieux et sur la terre résident des signes pour ceux capables de s’en prémunir. » {6} (Yunus, 10 : 5–6)
Dieu expose de tels signes aux humains pour les inviter à utiliser leur raison et dériver desdits signes la conclusion logique qui s’impose, à savoir que nous devons croire en Dieu. Chaque signe dans le Coran, et dans l’univers, appelle une réponse de la part de l’être humain. Comme Izutsu le souligne, les humains répondent à l’appel de deux manières ; soit ils font une lecture correcte des signes et en « authentifient » (tasdiq) la vérité ; soit ils échouent à se servir de leur raison, succombent à leurs désirs, et en rejettent (takdhib) la vérité. La première manière de répondre est assurément un sésame pour la sincérité et la foi ; la seconde manière conduit à l’incroyance (kufr) et à la dénégation.32 32 Toshihiko Izutsu, God and Man in the Qur’an: The Semantics of the Koranic Weltanschauung (Tokyo: The Keio Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies, 1964), pp. 136–7.
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Une lecture erronée des « signes manifestes » de Dieu peut nous déconnecter de la réalité et compromettre notre salut : « Ils disent : ‘Si nous avions écouté ou utilisé notre intelligence, nous ne serions point des hôtes de la fournaise ! » (AlMulk, 67 :10). Seuls ceux qui parviennent à faire un usage correct de leur raison peuvent comprendre la signification réelle des « signes » et agir en conséquence : « Nous vous explicitons Nos signes, pour autant que vous raisonniez. » (Aal `Imran, 3 :118) Ceux dont la raison fonctionne sont alors en mesure de comprendre le langage non-linguistique de l’univers et de saisir la manière dont il se rapporte à Dieu. Cette profonde sagesse est alors ce qui distingue celui qui est aveugle de celui qui voit. Le Coran affirme avec force que dénier Dieu en prenant des associés à la place de Dieu va contre la nature des choses et viole le principe de la raison :
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ers Dieu se prosternent en revanche tous ceux qui sont aux cieux et sur le terre, bon gré, mal gré : ainsi fait leur ombre au matin et au crépuscule. {15} Dis : Qui est le Seigneur des cieux et de la terre ? » Dis : « Dieu ». Dis : « Alors, vous vous donneriez hors de Lui des protecteurs incapables pour eux-mêmes de ce qui sert ou de qui nuit ! » Dis : « L’aveugle égalerait-il clairvoyant, et les ténèbres la lumière ? » Ou serait-ce qu’ils donnent à Dieu des associés qui aient créé comme Il a créé ? Alors c’est que pour eux « créer » prendrait un 124 | Kalin
autre sens ! Dis : « C’est Dieu qui a créé toute chose. Il est l’Unique, l’Irrésistible »{16} (Al-Ra’d, 13 : 15–16) Une fois que cela est clarifié, l’observation, l’analyse logique, la contemplation et la prière s’intègrent en une synthèse harmonieuse :
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A Dieu appartient la Royauté des cieux et de la terre, et Dieu est puissant sur toute chose. {189} En vérité, dans la création des cieux et de la terre, et dans la succession de la nuit et du jour, il y a des signes pour ceux qui sont doués d'intelligence, {190} pour ceux qui invoquent Dieu debout, assis ou couchés sur le côté et qui méditent sur la création des cieux et de la terre : " Notre Seigneur ! Tu n'as pas créé ceci en vain ! Gloire à toi ! Et préserve-nous du châtiment du Feu. {191} Notre Seigneur ! Celui que tu introduis dans le Feu, Tu le couvres d'opprobre. Pour les iniques, il n'y a pas de secoureurs. {192} Notre Seigneur ! Nous avons entendu un héraut qui lançait cet appel à la foi : " Croyez en votre Seigneur ! ", et nous avons cru. Notre Seigneur ! Pardonne-nous nos péchés ! Efface nos mauvaises actions ! Rappelle-nous à Toi avec les justes ! {193} Notre Seigneur ! Accordenous ce que Tu nous a promis par la voix de Tes envoyés ; ne nous afflige pas le Jour de la Résurrection. Certes, Tu ne manques pas à Ta promesse. "{194} (Aal `Imran, 3 : 189–194) Français | 125
L’univers créé est, selon le Coran, si finement ajusté, et sa perfection est si manifeste, que la raison, lorsqu’elle n’est pas obstruée par des causes irrationnelles, le reconnaît spontanément. Cette saisie de la vérité selon l’intuition (hads) est le fondement même de notre connaissance empirique et conceptuelle. Ceux qui reconnaissent la vérité lorsqu’ils la voient sont ceux dont la raison fonctionne de la manière la plus adéquate. Le Coran utilise l’expression ulu-albab, « ceux qui ont une compréhension profonde des choses » pour les distinguer de ceux qui aspirent simplement à être intelligents. Albab, pluriel de lubb (signifiant l’essence ou la moelle de quelque chose) se rapporte à une perception plus profonde de la réalité des choses que la raison nous donne de comprendre. D’après Ibn Kathir, ulu’l-albab fait référence à ces « intellects entiers et perspicaces qui perçoivent la réalité des choses dans leur apparente réalité ».33 Qurtubi les décrit comme ceux qui « utilisent leur raison en contemplant les preuves ».34 Une fois la raison rétablie dans sa fonctionnalité, elle développe de nouvelles potentialités de compréhension, et les distinctions catégorielles entre raisonnement, contemplation et prière, finissent par s’estomper. C’est le stade où la certitude (al-yaqin) est suffisamment prégnante pour nous affranchir du doute quant 33 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-qur’an al-‘azim (Beyrouth: Dar al-Ma’rifa, 2006), p. 334. 34 Abu Abdullah al-Qurtubi, al-Jami’ li-ahkam al-qur’an (Beyrouth: Dar Ibn Hazm, 2004), Vol I, p. 780.
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à la vérité de la réalité qui se tient devant nous. Le Coran accorde d’ailleurs une importance telle au fait que la vérité est en soi suffisamment clairement manifeste qu’il interdit de forcer les gens à se convertir à l’Islam. Ces derniers sont capables de voir la vérité par eux-mêmes :
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oint de contrainte en matière de religion : droiture est désormais bien distincte d’insanité. Dénier l’idole, croire en Dieu, c’est se saisir de l’anse la plus solide, que rien ne peut rompre. Dieu est Entendant, Connaissant. » {256} (Al-Baqarah, 2 : 256)
Le « langage de l’univers » est révélé à la raison humaine sous la forme d’ordres stricts, de lois, de principes et de modèles qui sont également autant de symboles puissants, de paraboles et de métaphores. Le Coran ne voit aucune contradiction entre les règles strictes de la logique (qui ne procèdent d’ailleurs que de la nature de Dieu) et le symbolisme de la création. Le Coran nous invite à découvrir l’ordre parfait que Dieu a créé dans l’univers. L’ordre et la régularité qui le caractérisent est la preuve de l’existence d’un Créateur intelligent. Mais nous sommes également conviés à saisir le langage symbolique de l’univers et la manière dont il loue Dieu à chaque instant :
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es sept cieux Le glorifient, et la terre, et leurs habi tants. Il n’est aucune chose qui par la louange ne Français | 127
Le glorifie : seulement vous ne pénétrez pas leur glorification. Il est toutefois Longanime, Tout pardon… » {44} (Al-Isra, 17 : 44) 35 Une approche réductionniste et rationaliste, en amenuisant nos capacités cognitives et en atrophiant nos capacités imaginatives, nous empêche de comprendre le langage non-discursif de l’univers. Le monde de la création converse en permanence avec son Créateur car il est un « muslim » (Aal `Imran, 3 : 83), i.e celui qui se soumet à Dieu. Les humains partagent cette qualité avec la nature à une différence près, fondamentale : ils disposent du librearbitre (irada) et doivent choisir entre la foi et l’incroyance, la vérité et l’erreur, la vertu ou le vice.36 Une personne qui a 35 Voir Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, p. 932. Mulla Sadra défend la thèse selon laquelle “chaque animal, chaque plante et nature inanimée est doté d’une connaissance et d’une conscience qui lui est propre, en vertu de la nécessité de leurs essences, et de leurs effets particuliers eu égard au fait qu’ils font partie intégrantes de l’existence parce que l’existence est identique à la lumière et à la manifestation. L’existence est ainsi unie aux qualités de la perfection de l’existence en connaissance, pouvoir, volition, vie, etc. » Ajwibat al-masa’il al-kashaniyyah in Majmu‘a-yi rasa’il-i falsaf i-yi Sadr al-Muta’allihin, ed. Hamid Naji Isfahani (Téhéran: Intisharat-i Hikmat, AH 1375), p. 137. Au sujet du vitalisme ontologique de la cosmologie islamique, voir mon Knowledge in Later Islamic Philosophy, pp. 229–32. 36 Citant un adage populaire, Tahanawi développe ce point de la manière suivante : « Dieu a formé la raison dans les anges sauf de tout désir charnel, mit des désirs dans les animaux sauf de toute raison, et les
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tionné son sens du discernement peut saisir intuitivement la manière dont l’univers glorifie Dieu. La réflexion intuitive et imaginative n’est pas hétérogène au domaine de la raison, celle-ci pouvant, comme je l’ai avancé plus haut, intégrer des articulations non formelles de la vérité, et saisir les intuitions non discursives émanant de notre confluence avec la réalité.
Rationalité et moralité
Le même mode de pensée intuitif est à l’œuvre dans nos décisions morales. Dans la mesure où les principes moraux vont de soi dans la plupart des cas, nous savons comment il sied d’agir dans ces situations. Mais est-ce pour autant suffisant d’avoir des informations évidentes pour agir d’une manière vertueuse ? Si l’on tient compte de la force motrice des émotions humaines, même un usage correct de la raison ne nous garantit pas de faire des choix moraux appropriés. La raison en est que nous devons combiner la raison et la volonté, les deux traits caractéristiques de l’être humain, afin d’agir conformément à nos croyances. A la différence de Descartes qui considère l’être humain comme une « machine qui pense », nous affirmons que les humains sont des êtres qui veulent. « Vouloir » ici ne désigne pas simplement le fait de choisir entre deux options. Ce terme se rapporte à cette aptitude deux [désirs et raison] dans les enfants d’Adam. Ainsi quiconque dont la raison l’emporte sur ses désirs charnels est meilleur que les anges, et quiconque dont les désirs l’emportent sur la raison est plus bas qu’un animal ». Tahanawi, Kashshaf, Vol. 3, p. 314.
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qui est la nôtre de faire un choix entre différentes possibilités envisageables. Mais dans un sens axiologique, ce terme fait également référence au fait de pouvoir choisir la vérité au lieu de l’erreur, et le bien au lieu du mal. La raison et la moralité, telles que nous les avons définies plus haut dans une perspective globale, guident nos choix et informent notre attitude morale. Rationalité et moralité vont de pair dans la mesure où nous sommes tant des animaux rationnels que des êtres moraux. Le Coran évoque ce point lorsqu’il rend compte de l’étroite solidarité entre l’activité rationnelle et la conscience spirituelle et morale de Dieu. Le mot taqwa, généralement traduit par conscience (ou « peur ») de Dieu, signifie littéralement « se protéger » ou « se prémunir » contre le danger. Dans la tradition, la taqwa consiste « à prémunir son âme contre toute cause d’affliction ».37 Ainsi que le stipule un hadith, la taqwa consiste à avoir la présence majestueuse de Dieu dans son cœur pour se protéger contre l’erreur, le mal et le vulgaire. En ce sens, les significations conceptuelles de ‘aql et taqwa convergent : elles se rapportent toutes les deux à l’idée d’un effort conscient consistant à nous prémunir contre l’erreur, le mensonge, l’injustice et l’oppression. Ainsi « La personne intelligente est celle qui a conscience (taqwa) de son Seigneur et qui soupèse scrupuleusement 37
Isfahani, al-Mufradat, p. 833
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son âme ».38 Ce principe forme la base rationnelle de notre aptitude à choisir entre le bien et le mal et entre le vice et la vertu. La raison ne voit aucune difficulté à accepter « la conscience de Dieu » (taqwa) comme un principe moral et spirituel guidant et édictant nos choix moraux. C’est seulement dès lors que nous parvenons à combiner intelligibilité, signification et volonté que nous pouvons pleinement réaliser notre humanité à titre d’ « animaux rationnels ». Les choix moraux ont un sens dans l’exacte mesure où, en plus de prouver notre liberté, ils nous donnent de participer à l’ordre intelligent de l’existence et de nous élever au-delà de nous-mêmes pour atteindre un niveau supérieur de réalité. Selon la tradition éthique musulmane, prendre fait et cause pour la justice a également un sens dans la mesure même où la justice (‘adl) consiste à « mettre chaque chose à la place qui lui convient ». De la même manière, il est parfaitement raisonnable de s’opposer à l’injustice (zulm) qui consiste à « mettre les choses à une place qui ne leur convient pas », i.e détruire l’ordre conférant aux choses leur signification. On dit d’un acte qu’il est rationnel lorsqu’il est conforme à la réalité de quelque chose et qu’il assigne à ladite chose la place qui lui est due. Ainsi est-il parfaitement sensé de vouloir se prémunir contre les forces destructrices de l’égoïsme et du mal ; agir autrement contredirait les fondements mêmes de 38
Tahanawi, Kashshaf, Vol. 3, p. 314.
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notre humanité. Opérant une synthèse de ces points, Ibn Miskaway observe ainsi que: « …dans la mesure où la justice consiste à donner de la bonne manière ce qui convient à la bonne personne, il est proprement inconcevable de penser que les hommes ne doivent rien à Dieu, exalté soit-Il, qui nous comble d’immenses bienfaits… »39 Nous pouvons ainsi conclure que ce qui est rationnel est moral. Et que, par conséquent, l’immoralité est irrationnelle dans la mesure où elle va à l’encontre de l’intérêt commun et viole l’ordre des choses d’une manière qui, par contrecoup, nous est toujours préjudiciable. Le Coran dans son traitement spécifique de la problématique des choix moraux et de leurs diverses modalités d’actuation dans le cadre global de l’existence établit que la rationalité est un élément clef du comportement moral. Et la rationalité, en retour, portée à sa pleine capacité, suscite un comportement moral qui s’étend à d’autres êtres humains, à l’univers, et, en dernière instance, à Dieu Lui-même. Selon le Coran, les êtres humains ont été gratifiés d’une raison pour leur permettre de faire le départ entre le bien et le mal d’une part, et entre le vrai et le faux d’autre part. Tant dans les termes de la connaissance véritable que dans les termes du comportement moral, nous nous servons de notre raison pour faire les bons choix. Laissons 39 Ibn Miskawayh, The Refinement of Character (Tahdhib al-akhlaq), tr. Constantine K. Zurayk (Beirut: The American University of Beirut, 1968), p. 106.
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ici de côte la controverse théologique qui opposa naguère les partisans de l’idée selon laquelle nous reconnaissons les choses comme étant bonnes et vraies parce qu’elles le sont intrinsèquement et les partisans de l’idée selon laquelle les choses sont bonnes et vraies parce que Dieu les a ainsi créées, pour nous contenter de retenir que l’attitude morale et la pensée rationnelle sont complémentaires et qu’il convient dès lors de rejeter l’idée d’une dichotomie entre raison et rationalité, ou croyance et moralité. Ainsi que Ibn Hazm le souligne : « la connaissance joue un rôle majeur dans l’implémentation des vertus… la connaissance a sa part dans toutes les vertus comme l’ignorance a la sienne dans tous les vices ».40 Dans une veine similaire, Ibn Miskawayh identifie “l’homme intelligent” comme celui qui recherche “la vertu dans son âme rationnelle, examine les imperfections de cette âme en particulier, et lutte en vue d’y remédier dans la mesure de ses capacités et de ses efforts ».41
40 Ibn Hazm, al-Akhlaq wa’l-siyar fi mudawat al-nufus, ed. Tahir Ahmad Makki ( Jeddah: Dar al-Manarah, 2007), p. 124. 41 Ibn Miskawayh, The Refinement of Character, p. 44. Ibn Miskawayh poursuit en disant que « La nourriture qui convient à l’âme rationnelle est la connaissance, l’acquisition des intelligibilités, la pratique de la véracité dans ses opinions, l’acceptation de la vérité d’où qu’elle vienne et la récusation du fallacieux et de mensonger d’où qu’ils viennent”.
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La Rationalité comme Cohérence
Le mouvement qui s’opère en va et vient entre raison/rationalité et comportement moral constitue un des thèmes récurrents du Coran de même que le fondement de la tradition éthique musulmane. La raison, lorsqu’elle est bien cultivée, conduit à l’action morale ; et le comportement moral, en retour, nourrit la raison. Le Coran tient ce simple syllogisme pour une évidence en tant qu’il est contradictoire d’accepter la vérité et la justesse d’un fait et de ne pas agir en conséquence. Ainsi en va-t-il de l’hypocrisie : « Iriez-vous prescrire à autrui la piété en vous oubliant vous-mêmes, maintenant que vous pouvez réciter l’Ecrit ? Ne raisonnez-vous pas ? » (Al-Baqarah, 2 : 44). Le Coran condamne l’hypocrisie autant que l’incroyance et parfois même davantage puisque l’hypocrisie, en outre de constituer une défaillance de la volonté humaine, brise la connexion logique entre la raison et la moralité et nous rejette, partant, dans l’incohérence. « Vous qui croyez, pourquoi dites-vous ce que vous ne faites pas ? C’est chose grandement haïssable à Dieu que de dire ce que vous ne faites pas » (Al-Saf, 61 :3). Le même principe de cohérence s’applique à la croyance en Dieu. Les versets cosmologiques du Coran, qui livrent des descriptions saisissantes de la manière dont Dieu a créé l’univers et l’être humain, établissent une liaison étroite entre rationalité et cohérence car chacun d’entre eux sans exception s’adressent à la raison humaine afin d’y établir la connexion logique entre un univers si miraculeusement or134 | Kalin
donné et fonctionnel et la croyance au Créateur qui l’a créé. Ceux qui associent quoi que ce soit à Dieu, alors qu’ils croient en Son existence, se contredisent eux-mêmes. Croire en Dieu et ne pas tenir compte de sa guidance trahit une incohérence manifeste. Les versets qui suivent, soulignant le fait que c’est par miséricorde que Dieu crée et protège le genre humain, dénonce le caractère absurde de la tendance consistant à associer Dieu à quoi que ce soit (shirk), et affirme que ladite tendance relève de la plus pure irrationalité. Ceux qui réfléchissent, méditent, font usage de leur raison, n’ont aucune difficulté à reconnaître Dieu comme Il doit l’être :
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ui qui créa les cieux et la terre, et fait pour vous de scendre une eau du ciel, dont Nous faisons pousser des vergers merveilleux, quand il n’était pas en votre pouvoir d’y faire pousser des arbres…Avec Dieu peut-il y avoir un dieu ? Mais non ! C’est un peuple d’obliquité. {60} Lui qui rend stable la terre, la sillonne de rivières, la fixe par des ancrages, interpose un seuil entre les deux mers, avec Dieu peut-il y avoir un dieu ? Mais la plupart ne le savent…{61} Lui qui exauce quand on L’invoque dans la nécessité, dissipe le mal, établit les hommes lieutenants sur la terre, avec Dieu peut-il y avoir un dieu ? Mais combien peu vous méditez ! {62} Lui qui vous dirige dans les ténèbres du continent et de la mer, envoie les vents s’épandre aux devants de Sa miséricorde, avec Français | 135
Dieu peut-il y avoir un dieu ?Dieu si haut par-dessus tout ce que l’on Lui associe… {63} Lui qui instaure la création, puis la recommence, vous attribue des biens du ciel et de la terre, avec Dieu peut-il y avoir un dieu ? Dis [O Muhammad] : « Produisez vos arguments, si vous êtes véridiques ! » {64} (Al-Naml, 27:60-64) Ces versets présentent une structure argumentative solide. En sourd l’insistance avec laquelle le Coran nous rappelle que la cohérence est le fondement de tout discours rigoureux sur la relation entre l’homme et Dieu d’une part, et la relation entre Dieu et l’univers d’autre part. La rationalité comme cohérence se rapporte à la possibilité d’inférer des conclusions valides à partir de prémisses valides. Considérant la continuité de nos présuppositions morales et ontologiques, cela suggère que nos observations empiriques sur l’univers conduisent à leurs conclusions logiques dans un contexte théiste, i.e, acceptant Dieu comme Dieu et agissant en conséquence. Le Coran fait un usage constant de cette notion opératoire de rationalité, l’étendant aux domaines de la cosmologie, de la théologie et de la loi. Dans les nombreuses occurrences où il entre en confrontation avec le paganisme des mecquois, le Coran les met au défi de penser par eux-mêmes et de considérer si leur conception erronée de Dieu a le moindre sens. Une notion rationnellement cohérente de Dieu et de l’univers peut s’élaborer dans une pensée cohérente seulement si nous parvenons à faire 136 | Kalin
un usage intelligent de notre raison pour en lire les signes dans le « monde visible ».
Conclusion : Un Retour à la Raison est-il possible ?
Ainsi que j’ai tenté de le montrer jusqu’ici, la rationalité en tant qu’intelligibilité nous porte au-delà des tâches internes d’un esprit solitaire et désengagé et nous place dans un contexte plus large de signifiance ontologique. Les métaphysiques de la création établissent la notion coranique et, de fait, abrahamique, d’une rationalité substantive dérivée d’une intelligibilité intrinsèque du domaine de l’existence. La connaissance comme mise au jour de l’ordre et de la structure inhérents des choses rejettent la rationalité instrumentaliste et subjectiviste au bénéfice du déploiement d’un contexte d’intelligibilité au sein duquel notre raison et notre réflexion fonctionnent en tant que réponse à l’appel de la réalité. Le fondement ontologique de la raison rend cette dernière apte à participer à l’ordre intelligible de l’existence et en fait par conséquent une réalité située et contextualisée. On ajoutera que la raison est également un principe intersubjectif et qu’elle ne fonctionne pas dans un environnement solipsiste. En sa qualité de livre de révélation et de guidance, le Coran traite de la raison et de la pensée humaine dans le contexte déployé de l’ordre de l’existence. Tout en accordant une pleine confiance en la raison incorruptible, il nous met en garde contre le réductionnisme ontologique, l’hubris épistémologique et l’égotisme moral. La raison est un présent Français | 137
divin grâce auquel nous avons accès à la réalité des choses. Mais il n’est pas raisonnable de penser que la raison seule peut nous servir la liberté et le sens de la vie sur un plateau. On a également besoin d’une guidance spirituelle à travers laquelle la raison parvienne à l’illumination. Le cœur en tant qu’il actualise notre degré de conscience le plus profond garantit que notre rationalité procédurale, que nous employons dans nos affaires quotidiennes, ne refoulent pas d’autres modes de raisonner et de penser. La raison, lorsqu’elle est nourrie par la foi peut approfondir son intuition de la réalité des choses car elle peut régler ses limites propres et trouver sa juste place dans « le cercle de l’existence » (da’irat al-wujud). La foi articulée par la raison et communiquée à travers le langage peut produire un sentiment de certitude (al-yaqin), laquelle contribue grandement, selon le Coran, à notre intégrité mentale et spirituelle. (Al-An’am, 6 : 75 ; AlTakathur, 102 : 5–7). Urgente est pour le monde musulman contemporain la tâche consistant à recouvrir la voie coranique de pensée et la signification traditionnelle du ‘aql. Impliquant un effort transdisciplinaire (incluant la loi, l’éducation, l’art, la science et la politique) une telle tâche n’est certainement pas limitée aux intérêts et aux aspirations des seules nations musulmanes. L’érosion du principe de raison dans la modernité avancée a passablement meurtri les aspirations humaines à la création d’un monde basé sur la raison, la justice et l’égalité. Le vacuum créé par le revers de la raison des Lumières a créé 138 | Kalin
un appel d’air où se sont engouffrées les nouvelles forces de l’hyper-capitalisme global, une culture ou se coudoient nihilisme et narcissisme, et l’hubris scientiste. Dans l’univers de références du nouvel ordre global, la productivité, le profit et l’efficacité sont les critères par lesquels se définit la vie rationnelle – qu’elle soit individuelle ou collective. Le nouvel ordre actuel formule de nouvelle définition de la raison et de ce que cela implique d’être raisonnable par l’entremise d’un système toujours plus sophistiqué de discours public, d’éducation de masse, d’innovations technologiques, de communication instantanée et d’une création continuée d’un nombre incalculable de mondes virtuels ; tout cela contribuant à nous donner l’apparence que la quête de sens a pris un terme et qu’en notre qualité d’être humain libre et rationnel, nous sommes parvenus à créer un monde purement humain libéré de toute croyance injustifiée et de toute illusion de transcendance. Philosophiquement parlant, la contradiction inhérente au rationalisme tient dans le fait qu’il assume son propre fondement ontologique et reproduit la réalité de telle sorte qu’il en vient à justifier une notion autoréférentielle de la raison humaine. Ni la réalité ni la raison, toutefois, ne sont à même de garantir une auto-fondation de la raison. La raison – tant dans sa nature qu’en sa fonction – opère selon des termes et des instruments tant à l’intérieur qu’en dehors d’elle-même. La raison en tant que principe auto-fondé est incapable de nous élever au-delà de l’état actuel de l’humanité ; elle Français | 139
ne fait que renforcer et reproduire à l’infini ses fallacies métaphysiques. Une humanité si solidement campée dans sa position de maître de l’univers qui élude les responsabilités morales que ladite position implique a créé un monde dans lequel le principe de raison a disparu, où la conscience subjective a été absolutisée, et où l’homme se retrouve radicalement aliéné de sa propre activité. Plus nous réduisons toute chose à l’utilité et maximisons la valeur d’usage de tout ce qui se présente à nous, plus nous amenuisons nos chances de percevoir que le logos est ce qui connecte les ordres divers de la réalité et nous immunise contre l’erreur. Un nouveau concept de la raison est donc requis afin de restaurer le sens de la personne humaine comme un « être qui pense » (haywan natiq) ; c’est-à-dire qui voit, entend, écoute, entre en interaction, répond, réagit, contemple, et s’engage dans les divers actes de l’intelligence humaine et de la volonté sans jamais perdre de vue la réalité globale à laquelle il ou elle appartient. Une telle restauration est donc possible mais exige une révision des valeurs et des notions clés par le biais desquelles nous opérons à l’heure actuelle. La raison comprise comme agent de liaison, connecteur et immunité ne nous reviendra que dès lors que nous nous aurons eu souvenu que la raison ne concerne pas la personne humaine ou ses intérêts ni même sa capacité de raisonnement mais plutôt l’existence et les êtres, leur signification, les relations et les connections, et les modalités selon lesquelles nous répondons à l’appel de la réalité. 140 | Kalin
D
is : Et à Dieu seul appartient la preuve décisive” {64} (Al-An’am, 6 : 149)
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���ّ ا �خ ت�ز � ا �ّ ش � ن ن ��ل � ن �ف� � �ة ��� ن ا ��ل��ش���� �خ��ص ا �لإ�� ����س�ا �ي� �و ���ع�م��ل�ه� .وك��ل��م� ا ��� �ل��ن� �ك ���ل ����ي� ء �إ �ى م� �ع� ب ي� ّ � ا ة � ا ن ت� ا �� ّ ة �� � �� ا ظ �� ف � ف ق ن ا ا ا � ل � � � � � � � � � �وع�ظ���م��ن� ق�ي��م�� ا �ل� �� ���ف� ل��ك�ل ��م� ي� ��ص�� ا ح�ف� �� ��جر ي� � حو�ل��ن����� ،د �� ر� ع ا ت � نُُ � ً �خ ت��� �� �ة �� � ا � �ت�ق � ��ع� �م��ع ن� ا �� �ش ل�� ��ع�ا ا ت� ��ا � ت ا ع� �ا م � � � � � � � �ظ � � � � ل � � � ل � � � ��ق � � م ب � ل � � � ف ه ط � ر ر و ر � ب �ب �ى و ع �ي� �أ �ل�ى � �ق ف �خ � �أ ا ن ن � �ن �ف����س�� �م ا �ل� �� ��� ا ل � ����ط� . � و وع ي � �إ�ذ ن � ا � ا � �ة ��ل � ف ع��ق � ا � ت �س�� �ا د �ة �م��ع ن � � � � � � ل � ل � � د � � �ي�د � � � � ه��ن� ك ح� م � � � ه � � �ج ع � � ل � �إ ى � و م �ج �ل �ى نً ن � ً �أ � �� ن ن ّ � �� ا �ل��ش�� �ق�ا� ،ي� �إ ���ن�ه ����ي �ى �و�����س�م� �خ��ص ا �لإ� ����س�ا �ي� �ب� �و� ح�وا ��ا ��ا ��ط�� �ص��ف�ه �ي � ف �أ ر � �أ ي ع ف ّ ُ �ف �ج�ه �و����س�جت� ��ر �و�����ش�ا ر ك ��� �ف���ع�ا �ل � �ص�غ�� �و � �وا � � � � �و��ي � �ي� ب� �وي��ن�� ���ع�ل �و��ي���ت�� ك ��خر �ى �ي ي ي � ي ي أ � �أ ً ن ن � � �� �ا غ � ��� ة �� ن ان ن � �ذ��ا �ل��ل�� ك�� ء �وا �لإ� ر ا د � ا �لإ� ���س� ����ي��ي�� ،و �ل� ي����ي� ب� ���ب�د ا �ع� ������ظره ا �ل�وا ���ق� ا �ل� كب���ر ّع � ا ت ا ة �م ة � �أ ّ � ا ة ا ��ل��ت �ه� ���ج�ز ن �م�� ���ن�� �إ �ل�ا �ن��ه�ا ت��ت� ���ط��ل ب� �إ ��ع� د � �ه�ا� .و��ه��ذه ا �ل� ��س���ع� د � ك � ء �م � ي� و �ت��ق���ي�� ��ل��ل�م���ف�ا �ه���ي� � ا �� �ل��ق�� ا ��ل��أ ��س�ا ��س ��ة ا ��ل ��ت �ن���س�� � ه�ا ا ��ل �� � �� � .ل ن ����ن�ث�ق ي�م م و ي�م �ي ي� ي ر �ب � ي و م و � ي ب �� �ًا ا � �ً ً�ا ا �قً ا � ا ا ��ل�ع���ق �م ن ���د ��ي�د � � �ح�� ن ا ه � � � � ا ا � م � � � � � �ص � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � ص ف �ي ع � ط � ل ل وو وو �إ � �ل � �ج ر �ب و�ج �ب �و ي� � �� ش خ ة �أ � � ن ن �أ � ّ � �أ نّ � ش � ا ق ن �ذ ّ � ��ق �ل� ��ت���ع��ل ��ا �ل��� خ �ح�ه ا ل����� �� �ص�ا �ل � ���ص ا �لإ� ����س�ا �ي� �و �م� �� �ص�ي �� �و ����ت� ك�ر � ا �ل�ع�� �ل ي �� ب ّق � �حت ا � ت � ا � ا � ل��ا ��ئ��ن�ا ت� � د ��ل�ا ��ل�ا �ت�ه�ا � �ع�ل�ا �ق�ا �ت�ه�ا � �ود �وا �� ك� �س��د �ل� �ل� ���ت�ه ����ب�ل ي��ت���ع�� �ل� �ب�ا �ل�و ج�� � و و � ��ى ن ّ � ت ُ � � ُ � � طه�ا� ،وي��ت���ع�� �لق� �ب�ا �ل��سب���ل ا �ل ��ت� ����س�ج��ي� ب� ��ب �ه�ا �ل��ن�د ا ء ا �ل�وا ���ق� . �و ر �وا ��ب �� � ي ع َ ْ �َُّ ةُ �َْ ا � ةُ �ُ ْ َ � �أ ن ��ف��ل�ّ� ا �ل �ج�� ا �ل�� لِ���َ ح � �غ��( 149 ا �ل� ����ع�ا �م.)149: 6 ، � ��ق�ل � ِ لهِ ب
ا �� ن ك� ل�
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ق ن �أ ً �أ ّ ���أ نّ �ث ن ا ن � ن نت ي� �و � �ص�ف���ن�ا ب������شر ��ع�ا ���ل�� ��حر ا ر ا ب� ب �ه�ى �و �ب� ن����ن�ا �ب� �و� ح��� �ع� م��ع��ى ��ق�د ا �� � ن ا �ف � ن ا ة ا َ�ً ا ن ا نً ا �خ ا � ً ا �خ ا � ً ا ن � ت ت � ا � �ل � � ��ق�د � �ه� ���ي�� �ع� �ل�م� �إ ���س� ����ي� �� �ل� ��ص�� �� ،ل��ي� م� مع���ق�د ا � ���غ�ي ر �ص��ع��ن� �ي� ا �ل � أ � � ا ا �ل ت � ة � ّ ة � م��ع�ا �ل��ي��. ا �ل�مب��ر ر � �وا �ل� �و��ه� �م �أ � �ت ن ا ق ض � ّ � ن�ز ة � ق ا ن ة ف ح��ي��ة ا �� �لف���ل��س�ف���ي��ة� ،ي ك� �و�م ن� ا ��ل ن��ا � ��م ن� ا �ل��� ����� ا�لم��ت� ��ص�ل �ل��ل�� ��ع�� ا �ل�ع���ل� ����ي�� ��ي� �أ �� ّ ت �خ � � �أ ن ت � ت ض �ود �ي� ا ل � ��خ�ا ��ص ��ب �ه�ا ����ث�م �ت��ع��ي�د ا � �س� ن�����س�ا � ا �ل�وا ���ق� ���ه�ا � ���ف��ر��� ��س�ا ��س�ه�ا ا �ل�و ج�� ع � � � � ��� � � ة ا � ف ��ع��ي��ة ا ��ل���ذ ا ��ت��ي��ة �ل��ل� � �ه�و�م ا�ل�مر ج� ��ق�ل ا �لب�������شر �ي� .ب����ي�د ع� �ب طر�� �ق�� ��م� �ل��تب��ر �ير �م� � ي �أ نّ � ��ذ � � ا ��� � � ا ّ ا ن � � ً�ا �ذ �أ ا �� �ذ �ت �� ا ��� �ق � ا �ل�وا ���ق� �وك��� �ل�ك لع� ��ق�ل �ل� ي���س�و ���غ� � ع� �ق�ل ا ���س� س ا ي�؛ ف� لع���ل � �أ � ت � �ذ ع � �ه�ا �خ ا ط�ي��ع��ت�ه �و �و�ظ �� ي ��ف���ت�ه ي�����ع��م�ل ب������شر �و ��ط �و د �وا � د ا � ��خ�ل ا ���ت�ه �و�� ر ج� � ��ب ��ب �أ ّ � ن ��ق� �م��ب�د ‘ت�را ���ب ���ط’ �و ‘� ح� ث� �إ ن� ا �ل� � ��ع��ل� � � ع� ��ج�م� ’ �و �ح�د ��س�وا ء� .و�م� �ي ل ى ع ا �ت� ا �ز �ذ � �� ف ً ئ � � ا ا ‘� ح�م�ا ���ي��ة’�� ، ���ص�ل �إ �ل�ى ��م� ي� ا ���ت�ه �و �ير�ب �ط��ن� �ب� �وا ��ق� �ج� و� � �ه�و د ا ���م� ��ي � ة ع �أ � ن�ز ة � ق ا ن ة ل� � � ة ة � � � �ل� ن ت ت ع��ل� ����ي�� ام ك��ر �ل��ل�و ج�� ا � � � � � ش � �ه� ا �ل�� ��ع�� ا �ل� � ح�� �ض� �إ �ى ب �ود �و ل�ل��غ� ا لب�����ر���ي� � .و ���� � ي� �أ � � �ت����ش�د دٍ ��ف� ا �ل�� ي���م�ا ن� �ب�ا �ل�� �ن�ا �وا ��ل���ذ ا ت� �و�م ن� ����ث�ّم �ت���ت��ن�ا �ق� ض�� ���م� ا �ل� � ع� ��ق�ل. ي إ � ً ع �أ �أ � نّ� ا ��ل�ع�� ا ت ع� �ا ه �م��ب�د �ذ ا �ت ا ��ل��أ ���س�ا �� ��ل���� � � ��س��ع�ه ن� ��ن ��ق���ل��ن�ا ��ق�ل �ب� � �ب ر ي� ي س ي س �ب و و�إ ا � ��ل ا � ة � � ن ا ن ة � ف� �� � �� �ع�ز�ز غ ا � ة � ا �م��� �ل��ط� ���ت�ه �خ� ر ا � � �ح� �ل�� ا �لإ� ���س� ����ي�� ا �لرا �ه��ن�� ���� ،ب�ل ��ق��ط ي�� � �ج ن ا ن ةٌ � ة ن غ ف ق ي�ز ن خ �ق��ة ��ع�� �ن �ف����سه�ا �����ع�مق ت ا ا ا ت �ه�� .و�إ ���س� ����ي�� �م�����ل�� ا�لم�ي�� ��� �ي�����ي�� �و�ي��ع��ي�د ا ��س�����س� � � � ب �� ل�ى أ َ ت � ّ � � �خ ا ق ���ل �ف ا ��غ �ت�د �ع�� ا ��ل��س �ا د �ة ��ع��ل ا ��ل��ع�ا ��ل� ب���ي�ن��م�ا ��ل�ا ت��� ��ح ّ��م�ل ا �لت� ك� �� ��ي� ا �ل� ��ل� ��ي� م �ي �ب� �ل� �و�� ي �ى �أ �أ �أ ت �ذ ف �ً �خ ا ��ل���ذ �ي� �ي� �� ���م� � �ك� ا ا دّ ��ع�ا ء ��ق�د � �ه� �ح�د ��ث ت� �ع�ا �ل�م�ا ا � ت��ف��ى ���ي�ه �م��ب�د ي ع � � ا ��ل��ش � ت �ف ه غ� �ة �ع � �ة �� ا �ن � �� � �ً ا ��ل�ع� � ُ� � �ف �خ خ ت � ا � � � س ه � � ا ع � �م � � � م ط � � �ق� �ق� و ر � ��ي� �ر��ب� ي�� ��ص� ي� ل� ��ق�ل و ج ��ع�ل ��ي� ل�و �ي� �� 74
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� �ة ا �ل�عر ب����ي�
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ا � �آ � ا ت � ن � �ق ا � �ة َ� �َ � �ة ��ق � �ة ت��ت� ّ � �أ� � ف �� ��ض�م ن� ا �لت�� ك����ي�د ت���ك�����ش�� ��ه��ذه �ل� ي� � ع� م�� ر ��ب� �ج �د �ل��ي� �و��ي� �و � �أ � �ق آ ن � � �ع� �ا ه ��س�ا ���ًس�ا ��لخ ا� � ا تّ ا ق � ن � ق ا ت ����ط�ا ب� �م�ل� ���ئ�م ��س��ل���ي�م ا � �ل �ر �ي� ��ع��ل�ى ا �ل� ����س� �� ا �لم� ��ط���ي� �ب� � �ب ر ن ّٰ � � ن � ن � �ة �أ ن ا ��� �ا � �ة ن � � ن ا ن ّٰ � ن � ة ��ه��� ،و �ب�� ا لله ي� �وا �ل��ك�و � م� ج���ه� ب�����ش� � لع�ل �ق� �ب�ي�� ا �لإ� ����س� � �وا لله م� ج � 70
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ّ � � �أ �ث � أ � � � ه �خ� �ف ا �ً ا �� �� ا ة �� ����ير �ع�ل��ي�ه ك�� ��ر �ل�� ن� ا �لن ����ف�ا �ق� �إ ��ل�ى � ي�����ش�د د ا �لن� ك �ج�ا ن�� ب� ك���و��ن� �إ �� �ق� ل� إل ر د � � � � � ن ا ن �ة � �ق � ا ت ا � ا � ن � ا � �أ � ا ق ّ ��ص� �ل �ل م� ��ط�ق��� �ب�ي� ن� ا �ل�ع�� ��ق�ل �و �ل� � ا �لإ� ���س� ����ي� ي���خر � ا �ل� ��� �خ�ل� ��� ،و�م ن� ����ث�م ي َ َا �أ ُّ َ ا �َّ نَ آ َ نُ � َ تَقُ �ُ نَ � ا تّ ا ق � ف � � ة ق ق ن � �ي��ل���� ب����ن�ا ��ي� �و ر ���ط�� ��ع�د �م ا �ل� ����س� �� ا �لم� ��ط���ي�� .ي� ��ي �ه� ا �ل��ذِ�ي � � �م ��وا لِ��م � �� ��و � �لو� َ��َُ َ قْ ً ا ن َ َّ �أَ ن تَقُ �ُ َ ا � ا تَ�فْ ُ نَ َي ا � ا تَ�فْ ُ نََ ع�� �ل 2ك���ر � �م���ت� �ع��د ا لل � � ���� � �ل ا ��م� �ل� � �� ��َ َ ع��ل�و � 3 ِ ��م� �ل� � �� �� و ب هِ وو � فّ ���ص��.)3-2: 61 ، (ا �ل� �أ آ ٰ � � � � �ذ � � ّ � ت ن � � ف ق ط�ق �م��ب�د ا �ل�� ا ��ب��ط ا �ل ن ن� م� ��ط���� ا ���ت�ه ��ع��ل�ى ا �لإ� ي���م�ا � �ب�ا لله�� ،ا �ل� �ي�ا ت� ر � �وي���� ب �� � ي آ ْق ّٰ � ف ً � ة �� ة ً � � ن ت � � ت �ص��ف�ا � ش ل��ي��ف���ي�� � �خ�� �ل� ا لله م���ر��ق�ا � ك ا �ل��ك�و ن����ي�� ��ي� ا � �ل� � �� �ر���ي�م ا �ل ��ي� ���ع ��ط�� �و� ل� ��قر � � ا � ك ي تُ ف ا تّ ا ً ة ح�ق� ��� ة ق ة �ق ّ ة � ق � ث �ق�ا � �� ن � � ن ا ن � �ه� ا ���س� � �ق�� �وا ����ع�� ��و���ي�� �ل��ل�ع���ل�ا ن����ي�� �ب� �و� ح�د � � ي �ص� � �ل�ل��ك�و � �وا �لإ� ����س� � ِ ن � ق ً ا � �أ نّ ت ث ا ت� ا � ن � � ن ا ن �� � �آ ا ت � عه�ا د �و � ا ��س�����ن� ء ط� ا �لإ� ����س� � ك�ي�� �م� ��ط����ي�� ،ل� � ��ه��ذه ا �ل� �ي� � �ج �مي�� � ��خ� �� ب �ة � �ز ف � �ق � ا ت ��ص�ا ��ل ا �ل� ن �م� ���ط�ق�� �ب�� ن� ك�و ن� ��ف� �غ��ا ���ي��ة ا ��ل�� �ع �ج�ا ��ي� �ن ظ� ����ا ��م�ه �ود ��ق� � ح� ��ق� ا �ل� ��� ي إ ي� ي ٍ ي �أ ٰ � �ذ � �ذ � � � � � ن ن ّ � ئ � ق ظ ن � ا ا �ل ��خ�ا ��ل ا �ل�� �ي� � ا �� ه � �خ�� �ل� ��ه� ا ا �ل � كو�� .و �و�لئ���ك �و ���� ��ف� �و �ب�ي�� ا �لإ� ي��م� � �ب� لله ا � قِ� �أ ٰ ق ق � ّ ً ن ن ن ن ف � � �ض�ا ��و� � �����س���ه�م ت�� ن��ا ���� �ود ه ��ي��ن�ا �� ض� � ا �ل���ذ�ي ن� ي� ش���رك��و� �ب�ا لله �و���ه�م ��ي ��ؤ �م ن��و� �ب� �و ج�� ا �� ض ن � ا � �ة ًّ نّ � � ن � �ؤ � ن ن ا ّٰ � ا �� ت ن ن ب��ي����ن�ا؛ �و � ا �ل��ذ�ي � �ي � م ��و� �ب� لله �و �ل� ي� ���و� �ح� �ل� ع� ��و� ��ب �ه�د ���ي�ه �و�إ ر ����ش� د ه ي�عر� �إ ض � ا تّ ا �ق ا � ن � �وا ���� �ح��ة �م ن� ��ع�د �م ا �ل� ����س� � �ل م� ��ط�ق���. ي �ف آ آ ة � �ق �وا ��ل�� ��ا ت� ا ��ل�� ��ت��ي��ة ���م� �إ�برا �ز ��ه�ا ��ل��ل � ح��م��ة ا ��ل�ل�ا ��م �� � �ح�د �ود � ي ر �خ�ل�� ي عت� ّ � � � ت ّٰ � �ذ ا �لإ�� �ن���س�ا ن� �وا �ل�ع ن��ا ���ي��ة ���ب�ه �� �ح�د �ى ا �� تل�ن��ا �ق� ض�� ا ��ل��د ا � � �خ��ل�� �ل��ل�����شر ك �ب�ا لله ،ا �ل�� �ي� � ي �أ �أ َ ّ ع�د ا ��لخ � ���ط�ي�ئ��ة ا ��ل� �ع�����ظ�م �� � ،ت��ب��ّ ن �� نّ� ا ��ل�����ش ك ��ل�ا �ع�ق��ل�ا ن����ي��ة �����ظ�ا �ه �ة ���ل�ّ�ي��ة؛ � � ّ�م�ا � ي���� و ر �ج ر �ى و ي � ب �أ �أ ّ ا ّٰ ّ ن ن ن ن ّ � ا ��ل�� ن ��� ف � ��قر �وا �ب� لله ���ه�م � �ي��� �ق��ل�و � �ف�ل�ا ��ي � � ��ر �و � �و��ي��ت� �م��ل�و � �و�ي��ع�� ��ت�� ك �ص�ع ب� �ع�لي� �ذ�ي � ي ا �� ن ك� ل�
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� ا ق ف ق � �أ نّ �أ ن �ف �� ��ل��ة ��ف �ن �ف�����س�ه ا ��ل��ع�ا �ق��ل��ة ا ��ل ��ت � ه�ا ا �ل��ع� ���ل �ي�� ��و�ل �ب� � �ع��ل��ي�ه � “ �ي��ل���ت�م��س ا � �ل��ض�ي ي� ي� �ب � ا �ن ا �نًا � ��ن ����� ظ ��ل ا ��لن �� ا ��ئ ا ��ل�ت �ف � ��ذه ا ��لن �ف �خ� ا ّ ة � �ق� ��ص �ي� �ي� �ه ��ص� ر �إ ��س� � ،وي ��ر �إ �ى � ����س � � � ��ص�� �ف�ي�ر �و�م � � ق ت ا ا � 41 ك � ��ه�د ه”. له� ��ب ��ط� ���ت�ه �و ج� � � �مي��� �
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� � �أ �خ ا �ق نّ � ن ا �� �� �ق �ا ن �ة ��ل � � � ��ق�ل �م ن� ا �ل�ع�� �إ � ا � تل� ��� ��ق�ل �وا ل�ع��ل ����ي� �إ �ى ا �ل���س� �لوك ا �ل� ��ل �ي� �و �ب� �ل�ع��ك��س � ّ ن �أ � ت��ّ �ف ا �� �ل آ ن � �� � �ر ر �ي� � ��قر � � ا � ك ��و �م� ك ل�� �ر���ي�م �و�ه�و �ي��ك�و � ���س�ا ��س ا �لإ� ر ث� �م� ض� � َّ �وأ ع � ف � ُ � �ذ ق ��ح ف ّ ق � � �ن َ ش� ��ك� ا �ل��ص ا �ل�� �خ��ل�ا ��� ا �ل�� ��س�ل�ا �م��� . �ح� ي� ��ي ��ه� ب� ا �ل�ع�� � ي� � ��إ� ���ن�ه �ي�� ��ود �إ �ل�ى ��ق�ل ب���� �ل ي إ ي أ � �ذّ � ح� ّ � ق � �أ ق � � ��ق�ل� .و�ي���ع�د ا �ل���ع��م�ل ا �ل� �خ��ل�ا ��ي�� ،وا �ل���س��ل�وك ا �ل� �خ��ل�ا ��ي� ���ب�د �و ر ه ي�����غ� ي� ا �ل�ع�� � آُ � �ذ � ا�ن � � ً � ن �ي�ا��� ،ف�م ن ا �� تل�ن��ا �ق� ض�� ب� ك� ��قر � ن� ��ه� ا ا � �لق���ي�ا ��س �ل ا � �ل� م� ��ط�ق��� ا �لب����س�ي ��ط �ب��د ��ي �ه� �م��ا � � � ي � قَ �ُ �أ �أ ا �ق � ا ��ل� ُ �� �ذ � � � �ا �ف ّ � � ا � �ل� �� �ل �� �م ��م�ا ��ع��ل ���ن�ه ص � �ي�ح� � �و� ��ص� د � ���ث�م ��ع��م�ل ب��ع�د �ل�ك ب��خ�ل � � بو ب ر �ذ ى � � قح �أَتَ�أْ ُ ُ نَ � َّ َ �ْ ّ َ تَ ن َ ْ نَ �أَ ن فُ َ ُ ق �ْ ن ا ا ا � � � � � � � � ا �� ل ا � � � � � �� � � � � ا � � � � ك ل �م��ت��� �ض�ا ه؛ و �ه� ه�و �ف� �� � :مر و � ��ن� س بِ� لبِ� ر و � ��سو� ��س � �م � ِ َ َ ْ َ �أ ن �ُ ْ تَ ْ ُ نَ �� َ َ �أ َ َ تَ ْ ُ نَ ا �ل�� ة ُن� �و ����ت�م ����ت��ل�و � ا �ل كِ�� ��ت�ا ب� ���ف�ل�ا ���ع��قِ� ��ل�و � ( 44ب � ��قر� � .)44: 2 ،وي��� كِ��ر َ � � ف � ا �� �ل آ نُ � �� ق � ا ���ك���فر� ،و ��� ب����عض�� ا �ل �ر ا �ل� �ق�د ر ��م�ا ي��ُن� كِ�� ل�� � � �ر���ي�م ا �لن ���ف�ا �� �ب ��� ��قر � � ا � ك �ح�ا �ل� ت� � ي أ ف � ة ��ك�و��ه� ،ت��ه��ذ ��ي� ا ��ل�� �خ��ل�ا �ق�� ،“The Refinement of Character” ، �ص�� 41ا �ب ن� �م��س� �ح�� .44 ب ي �أ ّ � ا ق � ة �غ �ذ ت ا � ا ئ� ة � ا ف ن �غ �ذ �ذ � � ف ق � ��ا غ �ذ � ت ف ن � � ��ثم ي��مض���� ب���ع�د �ل�ك �ي �� ��و�ل� “ :مك� ي����� �و ��لك ا � � �ه� ا�لم�ل� �م�� �ل�ه� ��إ� � �� ا ء �ه��ذه ل����س ا �ل�ع� ��ل�� �ب� �� ي�� � ي آ � � � � ف � ق ��ا ن ق �ا � ة ف � ق �ا � ض �ق �ه�و ا �ل�ع��ل� � ،وا �ل�ز �ي�ا د � ��ي� ا�لم�ع� ��و �ل� ت�� ،وا �ل� رت��ي��ا ��� �ب�ا �ل� ح� ث� ك�� � �ص�د �� ��ي� ا �ل� ر ا ء� ،و�ب ��و�ل ا �ل� ح� �ي م � � �ذ � � ن ن � ل�ك� ب� �وا �لب��ا ���ط�ل � ��يك��ف� ك� ���ا �� ،وا � ن فل�� ��و ر �م ن� ا � � �و�م� �م ن� ك� ���ا � �و�م ن� �أ�ي ن� �ج��ا ء”. ع
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ت حّ � نّ � �ق ا � �ة ا �خ �ت�ز �� �ة � � �ق �ا ن�� �ة � �� � ف ة ت �� �ِ�ج�م �م�د ا ر ك���ن�ا ا�لم�عر���ي�� �و��� �صي�� ب� و�إ � م�� ر ��ب� �� ا ل��ي� وع��ل ��ي� � �أ �أ ة � ق ت ا ��ل � ة � ف �ش ن ا ن ت ن ا ��د ر ا ����ن� ا � �خي��ا �ل��ي�� ا �لإ�� �ب��د ا �ع��ي�� �ب�ا �ل �� ���ه�م ���ض�م�و ر �م ن� �� � ���ه� � ��م��ع��ن� �م ن� � � ْ � � � � ث �ك�و ن�� .و ��ل��د �ى ��ع�ا ��ل� ا �ل ا ��ل��ل���غ��ة ���غ�ي�ر ا � خل � � ���ط�ا ب����ي��ة �ل��ل�� ��خ��ل�ق� � � �ح�د ��ي� د ا ���ئ�م م �أ �َ �أ �أ َ ّٰ � آ� ن �ق�ه �ل�� ���ن�ه ��ع�ا �ل�م ‘�م���س��ل� ’ ( � �ل ���ع�م ار �� ،)83: 3 ،ي� � ْ��س��ل� لله ���م� �خ��ا � �ل� ع م م � � � � ة ة ت ق �ص���ف�� ���م� �وا ��س�����س��ل� � .وي�����ش�ا ر ك ا �لب�� �����شر ��ب ��ه��ذه ا �ل� ط�ي���ع�� �ب ����ف�ا ر �� ع ا �ل��ب م �أ �أ نّ � �أ ن �خ ا د �ة � ة � ���س�ا ���س� �وا � ���ت�ا ر �وا ���ه�م � ي ��حر� �و�ع�لي� �ح�د� :ب� � �ل���ه�م �إ ر ي � � � �ذ ة � � �ف ا � ��� �ة 36 ��ك��فر� ،وا ��ل ا ��ل�� ي���م�ا ن� ��ع��ل ا �ل�� �� ض�ي ��ل�� ��ع��ل�ى لر ي ل� . حق� ��ع��ل�ى ا �ل��ب�ا ���ط�ل� ،وا � �ل�� �� إ َُ �ى �أ ا �� � ّ �ا ت ن � �ذ �� ا � ل � � ��ص� ر ب�م� �وا �ل�� �ي� �ك�م�ل �ع��ن�د ه ح��س ا �ل� ��س��ب�� �ق�د �و ر ه � ���ي�د ر ك �ب� �ح�د ��س ّٰ �ذ � � ف ّ ت � �ك� ن� ب� � ا ��ل �َ ا ��ل�� � �� �ح�د ��س�ي� ‘�وا ����س� ��� ح��م�د ا لله� .و �لي����س ��ه� ا ا �ل���ت� ك ���سب و ي ر � �أع ��خ ح � �أ �أّ � � ن �خ�ا � � ش ا �ل م�����ه�د ا �ل�ع����ق�ل� ،ل�� ن� ا �ل�ع����ق�ل -ك����م�ا � ���ي�ا ��ل’ � � �ح�ا �و �ل � ر �ج � � ��س �ة � �ف ت � �أ�بر�ه ن� �ه��ن�ا – �ب� � ك� م��ا ���ن�ه ا �لت��وا ��ق� �وا �ل��ت�ل�ا ��ؤ �م ���م� ���ع��ب�ي�ر ا ت� ���غ�ي ر ر �م��ي� �إ ع ن � � � ف � ت ة ن � ت ��ص�ا �ئ ���غ�� ا � خ �ق � ��ط�ا ����ي�� ا �ل �� �ج� ت����ه�ا �م ن � ل � � ا ه � ل � � � � �س � ت���� ���ص�ل �ب�ا �ل� ح� �و �ب �و �ع� ��ه�م ب � ر ي ر ب ي� ي� � � ا� ت � � ه�ن��ا �ل��ل�وا ��ق� . م�و ج�� ع ّ �أ ن �أ �ً � أ �ذ � أ ٰ ف �ت َ � �ك���ة ح��د ا ��ل ��ا ء“ :رك� �� ب� ا ّلله ��ف� ا�لم�ل�ا�ئ�� �ه�ا �ن��و�ي� �ه� ا ا �ل�� �مر ب���ع�د � �و رد ��ق�و �ل�ا �ل�� � ح�ك �� 36ي � � �م �ص�� ا �ل � ي ّ آ ف � ف ف � ق �غ � ة � ئ � � ا ��ل�ع�ق�� ��ل�ا ش���ه� �ة � ،ك�� �� ا �ل�ه�ا � ا � ش ل���ه� � ��ل�ا �ع���� �� � ،ا ن � د �م ك��� ل �ه�م�ا�� .م ن� ���ل ب� ي� � و و ر ب ي� ب � م � و ب �ل ب ل و ي� �ب � � �ق � ه ش ت ه �ف �خ � � ن � ا�ئ���ة � ن �غ � ش ت ه � �ق � ه �ف �ه� ش��� ّ �م ن ا ��ل�ه�ا ��ئ ”� � .ح�مم�� ع��ل� ����ه�و� �ه�و ��ير م� ا�لم�ل� �ك�� � ،و م� ��ل ب� ����ه�و�� ع�� � د � � � ع ل � ل � � � ب م و � � ر ي� � ف � � ة �� ّ ف ا ��لت ن ���ل��د � ،3 ح�ا ت� ا �� �لف� ن��و ن� ،الجم �ص�� �ص��ط�ل�ا � �ح�� .314 �ه�ا � ��و�ي�� ،ك���ش �ا �� ا � �
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�أ � � ن م�ز �ة ّٰ ت � م� ��� ق ا ��ل ا � �ة ا �� ا د �ة �م ن � � ك� �ص��ف�ا ت� ا لله ����ع�ا �ل�ى �و �ب�ي�� ر � ���ي� � � ح��ا �م ا �ل ن ط�� � �ص� ر �م� ل�و ر آ � ْ ت � � �ذ � � � ف � ن � � �خ � ا �ل ��خ�� �لق�؛ ��ف�ا � �ل�ق �ر � �ي��د �ع�و�ن�ا �إ �ل�ى ا ك� � �ق�ه ��������ش�ا �� ا �لن �����ظ�ا �م ا�لم��ث�ا �ل�� ا � ك� ل��ا ���م�ل ا �ل�� �ي� ��� �ل� ي ّ � ّٰ ف ف � � � � � ن �إ�ذ ن � � �ود ا لله ��ي� ا �ل��ك�و �، �إ � ا �لن �����ظ�ا �م �وا � تل�ن��ا ��س�ق� ا �ل��ب�د ي��� ���ي�ه �ل��د �ل���ي�ل ��ع��ل�ى �و ج�� �أ ع � � ة � � ن �� م�ز �ة � ا �أ ه � ت َّ ٌ ّ ا �أ � ً ن � � �خ�ا �ل�� � ك �ض�ا � ���ن�د ر ك �ل���غ�� ا �ل��ك�و � ا لر� ���ي� ح�����ي�م� .إ �ل� ���ن� م ��و���ق� �م��ن� �ي �� � قٍ ع �أ ٰ ت ّ ّ � ّ ف ة ّ � � � ق ف � ن ن � ا � � بح��م�د ا لله ��� �ك� �ل � ح���ظ�� �ب�ل� ا � ������ط�ا : �وك����ي�� ���ه�ا ���� ب�س� ِل ي ع ح َ تُ َ ّ َ َ ��س ْ���ُ �َ ا ��ل��أ ْ ض��ُ �َ �َم ن �ُ ��ل�هُ ا ��ل ّ���س َ ��ف نَّ َ ن ّ ن �ما �َوا ُت� ا ��ل� َّ ���� �س� و ر و ي� � ِ ب � � � �إِو � �ِم� بِ َ � هِ َ ع ح َ ت ْ َ َ َ ُ ْ ّ ْ َ َ َ ّ َُ َ َ ��ا نَ �ش ْ � ا َ �س ّ�ُ � �ن لا �ت��� � ح �د �َ ��ل�� ��ف�ق�ُ�هو ن� ���سبِ ي���� �ُ ْ � ّ ه � ���ي� ٍء �إِ �ل� ي���� ب ح��ه�م �إِ ��ن� ك� � ِ � بِ ��م ِهِ و كِ� �غَ ُ ًح َ �� ح��ل� ً ف 35 �م�ا � � ��و را ( 44ا �لإ� ����سرا ء.)44: 17 ، �ِ�ي
ت ّ � �أ ة �أ � � �آ ة آ ا ت � ا ئ ف �ت ث � � ا ا �ش ا � 35ش��� � ��ك�ل �ه��ذه ا �ل� �ي�� �و� �ي� � �م�� � ��ب �ه�� ��س� ��س ا �لر �ي� ا �ل��س� ���د ��ي� ا �ل��ر ا � ا �لإ� ��س�ل� �م�ي� ا ة �أ نّ ف �أ نّ �� ن ّ ت � � �ة ���ّ ش���� ء ف���ه � �” .ا �ن �ظ� ��� � :ت�ف����س�� ا ن ك�� ��ث��ير� ، �ص�� ح� ح�� � �و � “ �ك�ل ي� ٍ ي ر و �ب� � ا �ل��ك�و � �بر�م��ه �ل�ه �ي ير �ب � ر �أ نّ ��� ّ ن � � ا ئ �� ح ن ة � ن ا ت ة �� ة � ًا �ش ً ط�� ��� ا ل ح�وا ��ي��� �وا �ل� � ��ي��� �وا �ج �ل �ص�د ر ا “ � � �م�ا د �ي�� �ع�ل�م� �و�� �ع�و ر ا ل��ك� �م ا �ل�� � .932و ر �ى �م�ل�ا � �ي � �ب � ٍل � ة ب ع �ي �ز �ذ ت آ ّ � � �إ�ذ � خ ظ ل ث � د �ع�� ن ا ا ا ا ا ن ����ذ ا �ت�ه�ا �و ���ل� ا �م ا ��ه� �و� �� ر �ه� م � �ص�� ب� ح��س� � �ود، �ص�و� �� �ه� �م� ا �ل�و ج�� � ح �� � ب � بو ا �ل�و ج��و ي� ب � ا�ل�مت � �ظ� �ا ��ل �ة ا �� � � �ة �م ن ا ��� � ا �� �ق ة ا � � ا ة ف ت ا � �ن � � ا � � ا � � � � د �ود ي� � لع�ل� �و ل��د ر� �و �لإ� ر د � � م ح� ل � ، ه �ص � ه � � � ل�ك� ي�� ل�و ج � � � �م ا �ل ��و ر �وا �ل�� � و ر و و ع م � �أ �أ � � � � ف � ة ف ف ة � ن ة � ة �غ م�� �له�� ن ت � �و���ة ا�لم��س�ا �ئ��ل ا �� ك� ي�، ل��ا ���ش �ا ��ي����� ،ي� �ج�م�م�و�ع�� ر ��س�ا �ئ��ل ���ل��س��ي��� �ل� ح��ا � �و���ير �ه�ا”؛ ج�� �ص�د ر ا �ل � �وا ل ي ب�أ ن ت �ش ا ت �� ف ن � � � �ة ة ن ت� ق ف ن � ق ل ا ا ا � �ص طه ا � :ا ������ � ر ا � ا ك�� ح� �م�د �� � ح�م�� �1375 ،ه)� � ، �ه� ��� � �ج�ي� � � ح��ي ��� � ح� .137 (� � ر �ص � ي ة ن �ظ � � � م�ز � � � �ت ُ ف � � �ة ا �� � ة � �أ � ة � � �� �ود �ي�� (ا �ل� ن��ت��و�ل�و�ج�ي���) �ل��ل��ك�ون��ي��ا ت� ا �لإ� ��س�ل�ا � يم��� ،ا �� �� ر �م�ا ك���ب�� ت� ��ي�: ح�وي� ل�و ج � حو�ل ا �لي � �و�ل�ل� ���د � ي �أ � � � � ف ا�لم� �ف �ة � ا � �ف � �ف �ة ا � �ا � �ة ا �ل ت خ� ة ( Knowledge in Later Islamic Philosophyعر� �ي� ل��ل��س�� �لإ� ��س�ل يم�� م�� ر� )، � ة �م ن � ف� �ص� �ح�� .232-229 �
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� �ق � �أ نّ ن ق � � ت ف �أ ّ � � ا ا � �ل ر ���ط�ب�� �ب� �����ه�م “ا �ل���ذ�ي ن� ي���س����ع�م��ل�و � �ع� ��و�ل���ه�م ��ي� �ت� ��م�ل ا �ل��د �ل� ����ئ�ل”. ي � �ا� ت � ف �ف� ن ��ح �ف ه ُ� �ز �س��ع��م�ا ��ل ا �ل��ص ��ض� ا �ل�ع�� ��ض� ا �ل� �� �� �ي� ��حر �م ار ��ت ب� ��ق�ل ��ي� �م�و� ح�ي���م�ا ��ي �و� � �إ� ���ن� ي ع ع ح � ّ �ف � ّة ة � ���ه�م� ،وت��ت��ل�ا �ش���ى ا ��ل�ع�ل�ا ��م�ا ت� ا �� �لف��ا ر ��ق��ة ا ��ل �ح�ا د � �ب�ي� ن� ا �لت��ع�� ��قل� �ج��د ���ي�د � �م ن� ا � �ل � �أ �أ � ح ا �ز ا ��ل��� ن �ذ ن ا �وا ��ل��ت� �ّ�م� �وا ��ل��د ��ع�ا ء؛ �و� ح� ���ص�ل ��ه� ا �ع��د ��م� ��ي��ب�د ا �ل��مرء �ب��إ �ر ي ل �ق��ي� ي ف �أ � �ذ ح�ق� �� ة � ش ا ��ل���ذ � ��ا ���ي��ذ �أ � ّ �ش � ب خ � � � � � ��ق�� �م�ا �م��ن�ا. �ق�� ا �ل����� ء ا �ل�� �ي� �ي��� �ص � �� � � ي� �ل � ك ر ي� و ص ي ي �ذ � �أ ن � � آ � ف � ��� � �ة � ن � � � � ن ت ل�� �ر���ي�م ا � ك �و ��ي� ��ه� ا ا �ل����ش� � ��ي �و �ل�ي� ا � �ل� ط�ي��ع� ��قر � � ا � ك ل����ث�ي�ر �م� ا �ل ��وك���ي�د ��ع��ل�ى ب � � ا �� � خ� � ف � � ��ل حق ا ��لب��د ��ي �ه��ي��ة �وا ��لب���ّ��ن��ة ب �ت�� � �و�ل ��ي� ا �لإ� ���س�ل�ا �م، حر���م�ه �إ ك��را ه ا �ل��ن�ا ��س ��ع��ل�ى ل�د � ي ا �� ي ة � � ّ �أ ن ف �إ�ذ �ًا �ذ � ن غ �أ ن � ن حق� �ب� � �����س���ه�م: ���ب�د �ل� �م ن� �ل��ك �ي���ب����ي� � �ي��ك�و � ��وا ��ق�ا د ر �ي ن� ��ع��ل�ى ر ��ؤ ���ي�� ا �ل�
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� ّ َ َّ َّ َ � ُ ْ ُ َ �ْ َ َ َ ْ ْ �َ ْ ��ُ ْ َ ��َ ا هَ �� ا �ل��د ن ��ق�د ��تَ ��ب�� ن ا �ل ّ����ش�د �م ن ا �ل�غ� ّ �ل�ا �إِ ك� ِ�ي � ِ � ����ف�م ن� �ي���ك��فر � ر ر � � � ي ي ِ فِ يِ � �� ّ �� َ غُ� ت َ �ُ�ؤْ �م ن � ا َّ ف�َ��َ ا ْ��س�تَْ َ � َ � ا ��ْل�ُ ْ َ � ا ��ْ ُ �ثْ�قَ َ اَ ا �ن � َ َ � �و�ي� � بِ� للهِ � �ق ِ�د �م��س�ك بِ� عر �وةِ �لو��� ل ى �فِ�� بِ�ا ل��طا � ��ص�ا �م �و ِ ِ �َ َ َّ ُ �س�م �ٌ َ���ل ٌ 256ا ��ل ���� ق ة َ �ل�ه�ا �َوا لله ��� ِ ي� عِ ���ي�م ( ب �ر� .)256: 2 ، ع
ً � ً � � � ة � �� ن ا ن ف ��ك�و ن�’ �و� �و��ق�د � �ج�ا ء ت� ‘�ل���غ�� ا �ل� ح��ي�ا ����ظ�ا �هرا �إ �ل�ى ا �ل�ع�� � ��ق�ل ا �لإ� ����س� ��ي� ��ي� ة �أ �ن �أ ً ا �ف �ذ � ة ن �ق ئ ن ن ا ا ا � �ص� ر ��م�� �و ��وا ���ي� �و�م��ب� د �� �و ���م� � ،و� ك ل��� ��ي �� � �ص�و ر � �وا ���مر � �ض� �ي� �ج �ز �ق �أ ا �� ��ق �ة � ا � � ا �� � آ ن �ت ا ً ة �ض�ا ��� ن ��ص��ص �و �م��ث� ل �و���ي� � .و �ل� ���ير ى ل� �ص�و ر � ر �م�و �و�� � ��قر � � ��ع� ر�� ب ي�
� �أ � � آ �أ � ٰ � � ح�ز �م ،)2004 ،الجم ع��د ا ّلله ا � �ل�ق ��ط�ب� ،ا ��ل ح ك� ��ا �م� �ل� � ��ا �م ا � �ل�ق �ر ن� (�ب�ي�ر �و ت� :د ا ر ا �ب ن� � ���ل��د � 34ب� �و � ب ر ي� ج ع أ �ص�ف� ة ا ��ل�� � ��ل� ، �ح�� .780 و
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�أَ َ نَّ َ َ ن ُ ْ خِ � َّ �ق ْ�د �أ خْ��زَ��َْ ل��ن�ا َ ف�َ���َ ��ت�هُ �َ �َما ���� ظَّل�����ا �لِ�مِ� �� نَ �م نْ �ن��َ ا �ص� ٍر و �إِ ���ك �م� ���ت�د ���ِل ا � ر لِ ِ ي� � ي � َ ن �أَ نْ آ ُ ْ َ ُ �ْ ََّ�� َّ 192ا ن��ََّ ا �َ��س �ْ َ ا �ُمنَ ا �ًا ��ُ َ ا � �� � ا �ر�بّ ك�� � �م ن ا �� �م رب��ن� �إِ ��ن� ِمع��ن� �� ِد ي� ي��ن� ِد ي� لِ��لإِي��م� ِ� � ِ ��و َ �بِ ِ فَآ َّ َ َّ َ �غْ �َ ُ َ ���ّ ْ َ َّا َ ّ ئَا ت َ ا َ تََ فّ َ ا َ َ ��ن�ا ���ف�ا � � ْ �ل َ ��� َ�م��ن�ا �� َ ��ن�ا �ذ �نُ�� ��َ َ ��ن�ا �َو��كِ��فر �ع��ن� ��سي���� ِ����ن� �و� ��و���ن� ���م� رب و �فِ ر ب ِ َ تُ ع َ ا � �أ ��ْ ب َ ا ََّ�� َ 193ا �َ�آ��ت َ ا � َ ا �َ َ ��تََّ ا �َ َ ُ �ُ��س�� � َ �َ � ا خ�ْ �نَا �َْ َ �ل� ��ر ِر رب��ن� و ِ��ن� �م� و�ع�د ��ن� �ع��ل�ى ر ِلك و �ل� � �ي �و�م �زِ آ� ا ��ْ� َ ا َ � نَّ� َ � اَ تُ خ�ْ� �ف ُ ا �لْ�م �َ َ ن ع�ا د � � ( 194ل ���ع�م ار �.)194-189: 3 ، قِل�ي�� ��م�ةِ �إِ ��ك �ل� ��ِل� ِ ي��
نّ � ق �� ن ن َ ��ف ق ا �� �ل آ ن � ّٰ ت ا � �و ��ع��ل�ى �و �� � �� �ر���ي�م� ،إ � � ل� ��قر � � ا � ك �خ��ل�� ا �ل��ك�و � �م� قِ����ب�ل ا لله ����ع� �ل�ى �أ ة � �ا ن �أ نّ � �ٌ � ن � � ت ا ا � � � �م�ع�ق ��و�ل �ل��لغ���ا ���ي��ة� ،و�م� ا �لب��د ا ��ه�� ب ك� �م�� � � ا ل�ع� ��ق�ل ��م� �ل�م ��ع�و��ق�ه ��س�ب � ب� ّ �ذ � �ذ ة ف ّ �ا �ف �ل� �ع�ق��ل�ا ن����ي�� ��إ� ���ن�ه ���ي�د ر ك ��ه� ا �و�ي��� ��قر ���ب�ه ��ع��ل�ى ا � �ل ��و ر� .و��ه� ا ا �ل�و�ع�ي� ش� أ � � �� � ا ن �� �ل���ل حق �ع ن ���ط � �ق ا ��ل �ح�د ��س ي���� � ��ك�ل ا ��ل�� ���س�ا ��س ا �ل �ض���م ن�� ��ل � � �ج� �� ب� ك���ب�ي�ر ي� �وا �لإ� د ر ا ك �� � ر �ي� ت � � نّ � ��ق ّر �و ن� ��ا ��ل �م ن �ع��ل�م��ن�ا ا ��لج� حق� �ع��ن�د ر ��ؤ ����ت�ه �ر ��� �وا �ل ف� هو�م�ي�� .ف�إ� � ا �ل���ذ�ي ن� �ي��� �� �� م� ب � ي ي �ي ب � ن � �أ � � �أ � ت � ن ق � �ف � � ل � � ا ص � � � � � ��س� � � � � � ا ا ا ا � � ��ت � � � �ع� ل � ل و �ل� ���ت�م .و ر د حو �ل� م� �و � ع ��و ���ه�م �ع��ل�ى � ���ه�م �ي� ل�و ��ق ي ح ف � آ ع �أ أ � � ت � ن �أ � ئ � ال�مه�ت ن ف� �� �� ة � ن � � ����ل�� �� « � �ل ا � �ل� �ا » �ل� ي�ز ��ي� ا � �ل� ��قر � � ك� م م��� ���ه�م ع� �و�ل��ك � ��م��ي� ��ق�ط و �ي� �ل �ب ب� ي �أ أ � � ت �أ�ذ �ّ ن ����ي�ا ء� .وا �ل�� ��ل��ب�ا ب�� ،و��ه� � �ب� ن� �ي�� �ك�و �ن��وا ك� �و���هر ا �ل ش����� ء � ��ج�م� ‘�ل ب�’ �و����ع��ي� ج�� ي ي ع ق � ح�ق� � ة � �أ ا � ت ن ف �و�ص �ي�م��م�ه� ،ت����ش��ر �إ ��ل�ى �إ د ر ا ك ���ع�م��ق ��ل �ه�م�ه�ا ب���ع� ��و�ل��ن�ا. � ي�� �ق�� ا �ل� ���ش�ي � ء ا �ل��ي� � �� � ي ي� ق � �أ � ق � � ّ ة � �ذ �� �ة � �أ � � �أ � � ف تف �و�ي�� ��و�ل ا �ب ن� ك����ث�ي�ر ��ي� � ������س�ي�ر ه �ل� �و �ل�ي� ا �ل� �ل��ب�ا ب�� « :ي� ا �ل�ع� ��و�ل ا �لت��ا ��م�� ا �ل�� ك���ي� أ � � ا � ق ا ئق �� �ت �ه�ا ��ع��ل� �ج���ليّ��ا �ت��ه�ا»� 33.و� � ف� ا �ل ��ي� ���ت�د ر ك ا �ل� ���ش�ي � ء ب ���ه�م ا �لإ� ��م�ا �م �ص � ح��� � �� � �ي ى ف �ة ���ث��ير� ، �ص�� � 33ت�ف����س��ير ا �ب ن� ك� ح�� .334
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َ َ َ َْ �ْ ً َ � ا �ُ ُ �م�ا �َ ا ت� �َ ا ��ل��أ ْ �� َ ��� �ْ ً َ َ � �ُ ُ َ ن � ا ��ل ّ�� َ َ� ول ّلهِ ي�����س طو��ع�ا �و ك�ر��ه�ا �وظِ ����ل� �ل���ه�م �ج�د �م� فِ�ي� �س و ِ و ر ضِ� ِ �ُ ْ َ َّ ُّ �� َّ َ ا َ ت َ � �أَ ْ �ُ ا ��ْ�ُ ُ ّ َ � �آ َ ا � ل ن ا �� � � س 15 � � ا ا ا م � � �ق �ق � � � � � �د � � � � �غ � ��ص �م � � � � ل ل ل �� ل� و و �ل � ر ب ِ و ِ و ر ضِ� �ِل بِ َ ُ ِ �أََ تَّ �أَ � َ َ ْ ُ َ � أَ ْ ُ �ذ َ � ُ ن ُ ف ن � � ْ َ ا ّ ْ ا ّللهُ ���قْ �ف�ا خ� � ��� ���ت�م �ِم ن� د �و��نِ� �هِ �و�ِل��ي�ا ء �ل� ي���م�ِ�ل���كو � ِ�ل� � ��� ِ��سِ���ه�م �ل � �أَ ْ َ َ �ْ ُ �أَ ْ َ ْ نَ�فْ ً ا َ � اَ � َ ًّ �ُ ْ َ ْ َْ تَ َ � �� ��ع� �و �ل� � ���ضرا ��ق�ل ���ه�ل ي���س ��ِو�ي� ا �ل� ���ع��مى �وا �لب��صِ �� �ي�ر �م ���ه�ل � َ�خ َقُ ْ ََْ � ظُّ � �ُ َ ا ُت َ � نُّ ُ �أَ ْ َ َ ُ ْ َّ شُ َ �اَ َْ َ ���ع�� �لوا لِل ��� ك�� ء ��� �ل �� ا ك � �ت��ست ��و�ي� ا �ل����ل��م� � �وا �ل ��و ر �م ج� ��خ�� قِ�ل��هِ و هِ ر ِ ْ َّ ُ َ � قُ ُ��ّ شَ ْ ُ ْ ُ ُ �َ �ْقُ َ �َْ �َ تَ َ �ش�ا �َ�هَ ا ��ل � ٍء �َو�ه�َو ا �� �لَوا � ���ه�ْم ���ق�ل ا لله � ��خ� �ل� �ع�ل �خ�ا �لِ�� �ك��ل ���� �حِ �د � � ي �ف����� ب ِ ِ ي ِ � �ْقَ َّ ُ �ه�ا ر ( 16ا �لر��ع�د.)16-15: 13 ، ا � �ل �
�ذ � �أ ّ � � ن �ّ ض � ن �ق ��ض�ّم ا �ل�م���ش �ا ��ه�د �ة �وا ��لت�� � �� �و�ح� ي� ��ي�ت��� � ��ه� ا ،ت��ن�� ح�ل���ي�ل ا �لم� ��ط���ي� �وا �ل��ت� ��م�ل ح � � ��ض ض �وا �ل��د ��ع�ا ء ب���ع� �ه�ا �إ �ل�ى ب����ع���: َ َ ل َّ �ُ�م��ْ � ُ ا ��ل ّ��َس َ ا َ ا ت َ ا � �أ ْ �� َ ا َّ هُ �َ ََ ُ��ّ شَ ْ َ ٌ ى �ك��ِل ����ي� ٍء ��ق�دِ�ير �وِلهِ � �و �ل� ر ضِ� �و لل �ع��ل� لك ��م� �و ِ َ َ نَّ َ �خ��ْ�ل ا ��ل ّ���س َ �َ �م�ا �َ ا ت� �َ ا ��ل��أ ْ �� �َ ا �خْ�� �ل�ا �� ا ��ل��لّ�ْ�ي� �َ ا ��لنَّ�َه�ا � و ِ و ر ضِ� و �تِ فِ � ِل و � ِر � 189إِ � فِ�ي� � � قِ � أَ ُ ْ أ �َّ� نَ َ �ذُْ��ُ نَ َّ َ َ ا ً ا َ ُق ُ ً �َ �آ َا ت �ّ � �� � � َا � 190ا �ل��ذِ�ي � ���ي� ك�ر �و � ا لله قِ�ي�� ��م� �و���ع�ود ا �ل� �ي� ٍ � ِ�ل� �و لِ�ي� ا �ل� �ل��ب� بِ � أَ ْ َ ََ َ َّ ْ � َّ �ُ َ َ َ َ ُ َ ْ ّ ن � َ َ ف ُ �م�ا � ا ت� � ا �ل� �� �� َ �َ ا �ل َ ��ن�ا َ ع��ل َ ��ر �و � ��� � ى �ج� ن��و� ِ���ه�م �و��ي���ت�� ك �خ�� �لقِ� ���س و ِ و ر ضِ� رب �و�� � فِي �بِ َ َ ُ َ ْ ْ َ َ َ َ ا �خ � ق تَ َ �ذ َا � ًا ���س�َا نَ َ ف َ ا َ �ذ َ � َّ ل��ن�ا َ ّ�� َ 191 ��ن�ا ��م� �� �ل�� �ه� ا �ب� طِ ���ل� ب� �ح� ���ك � قِ�����ن� ��ع� ا ب� ا � ِر رب
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ت ّ � ق � � ا �خ �ف ق ن ف �ح�� ة ة ��ص ��ص�د ��ق� ا ب� ق ق ت �ه�ا� ،و�إ �ل� ي� � � ��و� ��ي� ا ��س��ع��م�ا �ل �ع� ��و�ل���ه�م ح��ي��� � ���قر ا ء � ي �ح�� �و��ي � و ّ ّ � غ �ك��ذ �ب� �و ن� � ��ص�ا �ع�و ن� �لر��ب��ا �ت����ه�م �و ش����ه�وا �ت����ه�م� ،و�م ن� ����ث�م �ي � ح�ق�ي ��ق�ت� ا ف� ف� � �وي��ن�� �ه�؛ ���ي� �أ أ ّ � � � � � ت � � ن ق � � ن ن ا ا ���س� ة � � ت ف ض �ق�� ن ي�، ��ص�ا د �� ���م� ا �لي ��� ��ا ���ب�� ا �ل� �و �ل�ى � ������ي� �إ �ل�ى ا �لإ� ي���م�ا � ا �ل� �ح�ي� � �ل� ج ع � � ن ف �ا � 32ا �� ��ق ة ��خل ا �� � �ة ���ي�ز ّ � ف � � � ا ا ن �ص� � ح��ب�ه ��� ا �ل���ك���فر �وا �ل�إ� ك� � �� ر� .ف� ل ار ء � ا�� �ط�ئ� � ا�لم�و���ق�� ا �ل��ث� ��ي� ��ب � ي آ �ج � �أ ن ت ّ ض ن ا ت ا ��� ٰ � � ّ �ل �� ّ � ف ت خ � ت ت ا � ا �ص��ل��ن�ا �ع ن ا �ل� ا ���ق� � �م��ن � �����عر��� ج� �� ����ن� ل����طر: �ل� �ي� � ا لله ا �لب�ي����ن� � � ���� َ � و ع �وي كُ� َ ُ ْ َ َ ُ �أ �أ � َّ نَ ْ َ � � �َّ ن َ ُ ع� ُ َ ا �� ّ َ�ا �� ���صَا َ�و��ق�ا � �لوا � �لْو ك����ن�ا � ْ����س�م� �ْو ��� ��قِ � ا �ل��س�عِ� �ي�ِر ��ل ��م� ك���ن فِي� �ح� بِ ع �أ �آ ( 10ا �ل��م��ل�ك�� �.)67:10 ،ا � ت ��س� ���ط���ي� ن � ف�����ه� ا �ل�م��ع ن� ا ��ل � �ق�ق� ‘�ل�ل�� �ي�ا ت�’ ح�� � و �ل ي ع � ي � م �أ �ى ت ي�ي � ق � � ً ن ق � ا � � ن � ��س� � ع � � ���ا ��ه�ا �إ �ل�ا ا ��ل���ذ�ي � ي ك �ق� � ي �م�ل�وا ���ع� ��و �ل�ه�م: �م��ن�ه�م ح�� �و�ي����ع��م�ل ب��م����ت ض� َ ُ ُ آ آ َ ُ ْ َ ُ � ن � ن ن َ ْ َ َّ ّ �ُ � َا ت � ن� ك� �����ت� ْم �ت�� � َ�ا ��ل ك�� ع�قِ� �� �لو � � � ( 118ل ���ع�م ار �.)118: 3 ، ��ق�د ب��ي����ن �م ا �ل� �ي� ِ �إِ � ن � ة � ة ن �أ ن ف �ش �ؤ �و �ب� � ك� م��ا � ا �ل���ذ�ي ن� ي���ع�� �ق��ل�و � � ��ي��ب�د � �وا �ب �����ك �� ي �����فر� ا �ل��ل���غ�� ���غ�ي�ر �إ �أ ٰ �ل� �� ا ن ة � ف � �ة ت ّ ت ن ن ن � � ف � ن ��ي� ي���س����س��ل� �م � لله� .و���س�ا �ع�د ��ا ��ه��ذه ا � ك� � � � � � � � � � � � ا � ل� � ك ه� ل � ك � � ح���م� م ا �ل�ل��س� ��� � �ي و � و � ي � �و و � آ �أ أ � � � � ف ة ن ن ق � �غ� ��ص�ي�ر� .وا � �ل� ��قر � � ب���ل���ي ا �ل�ع�مي ��� �ق�� ��ي� � ����نر �ى ا � �ل���فر �� �ب�ي� ن� ا �ل� ���ع��مى �وا �لب�� ّ ه � ا �� �ف ��� � �ة � �أ � �ش �أ نّ ن� ��ا ا ّٰلله � ا ت� ا �ذ ش ��ا ن ط�ي��ع� و �� �د ���ي�د ب��ت�� ك���ي�د ه � �إ� ك� ر ��خ� ���رك�� ء �م� د �و ���ن� ي��خ� ل� ب أ �أ � ن �� ا �ل� ���ش�ي �ا ء �و�ي�����ت�ه��ك �م��ب�د ا �ل�ع�� ��ق�ل: ت �ت ��� � ه���ك�و �إ�ي�ز �و���س�وGod and Man in the Qur’an: The Semantics of the ، �� 32و ش�ي � ي آ آ ٰ ّ � � ن ا ن �ف � �ق ن � ا � ا ت �ؤ ة � � � ن �ة ن �ق ( Koranic Weltanschauungا لله �وا �لإ� ���س� � �ي� ا � �ل �ر � :د �ل� �ل� � ر � �ي�� ا � �ل �ر � ا �ل��ك�و��ي�� ) �ف � � � ة ا ت �ث ف ة � ة �� �� �ص� �� ��و �ل��ل��د ر ا ��س� � ا � � �ح�� .137-136 ل�ق��ا �ي��� �وا �ل��لغ� ��و���،)1964 ، (�ط�وكي� ��و� :م� � عه�د كِ ي ي
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�آ ٰ ّ � ن �ج�ا ء �م ن� �ع��ن�د ا ّلله� ،وك�� ا �ل�� �ي�ا ت� � ��ل�ا �ه��م�ا �م�� �ق�د ��س� ،و �ي������ب�غ��� ا �ل���ت�ع�ا ��م�ل �م�ع��ه�ما � ٰ ي آ ا ت ّ ا � � نَ ْ ن ت � �ة ة فئ ة � ّ ن �أ ةً � ��ت�ز ب���ع ن��ا ���ي�� ��ا � ����ق��� ،وي��ت� ��ط��ل��ب�ا � �ما �ن�� �وا �ل� ا �م� .و� �ي� � ا لله �ب� �لمع��ي �ي�� �مر��ب����ط� � ق ا ن ة � �أ نّ ا ت ّ ة � � � � �� ت � �م��ب�ا ش���ر�ة �ب�ا �ل�ع�ق���ل �وا �ل�ع���ل� ����ي�� �ل� ���ه� �م ��و ج� ��ق�ل ا �لب�������شر�ي� ك�ي�� ي� ��س� ��ط���ي� ��ه�� �إ �ل�ى ا �ل�ع�� � � ع � �أ � �ن � � � � ن ا ن �أ ن ف ّ �� � ق ���ه�م �وا ���ق� ا �ل� ���ش�ي �ا ء (ا �ل�ع�� ا �لإ� ����س� � � �ي�� � ��ق�ل ا �ل�����ظر �ي�) ����ث�م ي����س�لك �طر ��ي�� �أ �ع � �ف نّ ق ً ا ا ًا ا ّ ًا ض�ي ��ل��ة �وا ��ل��س��ع�ا د �ة (ا �ل�ع�� ا �� �� ا � �ل�� ��ق�ل ل��ع�م��ل�ي�)� .و�إ � �وا ����ع� ��س� ��س�ي � �و‘�م� د �ي�’ �م���ث�ل آ ق ةً ف ّ � ن ة �ق ��س��� ن ح���س�ا � ��ع�د د ا ��ل ن ض�ب ���ط ا ��ل�ز �م ن �ه�و � �� ح��ي ��� �ق�� “ � ���ي��” � �ل ��و�م ��ي���ت�� ك ي� �و� ��ر �و � � ب � � ة � ن � �ق�ه: ب��ن �����ظ�ا �م ا �ل��ك�و � �ود ��ق�� ت�� ن��ا ��س�� َّ َ َ َ � �َّ ْ َ َ َ �ْ�َ َ نُ ً َ َ َّ َ ُ َ َ �َ ُ�ه�َو ا ��ل�� �ي� ج� �� ����ع�ل ا �ل����ش�م��س � ضِ�ي �ا ء �وا � �ل��ق�م َر � ��و را �و��ق�د ره �م��ن�ا �زِ �ل �ذِ ْ ْ � َ ا َ َ ا َ َقَ َّ ُ �ذَ � َ � اَّ ْ� �َقّ لِ��تَ��ْع��َلُ� َ َ َ � ّ ن ِ��� نَ �َوا ��ل ح���س� ب� ��م� � � �خ�� �ل� ا لله لِ���ك �إِ �ل� �بِ�ا �ل� �موا ��ع�د د ا �ل��سِ ي� ِ حِ� َ َ ُ فَ ّ ُ � �آ َا ت �قَ ْ َ ْ َُ �م نََ 5نّ� �� ا �خْ�� �ل�ا �� ا ��ل��لّ�ْ�ي� �َ ا ��لنَّ َ ا � �ي���ِ� �ه� ِر � إِ فِي� �تِ فِ � ِل و � � لِ� � ��و�ٍم ي���ع�ل �و ���ص�ل ا �ل� �ي� ِ ��ل َّ َ ا َ ت َ � �أَ ْ �َ �آ َا ت �ّقَ ْ َتَّقُ نَ َ َ ا َ َقَ َّ ُ � ا �� � � �و��م� � � ِ� �ل ��و�ٍم ي�� �� ��و� 6 � �وا �ل� ر��ضِ� �ل� �ي� ٍ �خ� �ل� ا لله فِ�ي� �س�م� �وا ِ ن ( ��ي �و���س.)6-5: 10 ،
�آ ّٰ ت � ق � ظ� �ت � � � ���هر ا لله �ت���ع�ا �ل�ى ��ه��ذه ا �ل�� �ي�ا ت� �ل��ل��ن�ا ��س �ل�ي� ك �م�� ن��وا �م ن� ا ��س��ع��م�ا �ل �ع� ��و�ل���ه�م ��ي �� � آ �أ ف � ّ ٰ �ة � �ج��ة ا ��ل�ع�ق��ل�ا ن����ي��ة ا �ل� ن � �� ن م� ���ط�ق���ي��ة �و��ه� ن� ��ي ��ؤ �م ن��وا ��ا ّلله� .ف � ������ستخ� �ه�ا ا � نل�تي���� ��ك�ل � ���ي� � �وا �م � ب ي ر ي ج �� ن ن ف �� ن �ف ا �� �ل آ ن عو �إ ��ل�ى ا ���ستج� ��ا ���ب��ة �م ن� � �� � �ج�ا ن�� ب� ا �لإ� ����س�ا �. � ��قر � � �و ��ي� ا �ل��ك�و � ���ت�د � � ي�� �أ �أ آ � � ت � � ن � �إ�ي�ز � �إ �ل��ي�ه �و ك���م�ا لم �و���س�و� ،ب� �و����س� ا �ل��ن�ا ��س � �ي��� ��قر ��ؤ �وا ��ه��ذه ا �ل� �ي�ا ت� ع ح ا �� ن ك� ل�
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�أَ َ ْ َ ُ � � ن َ نُ �أَ ن ُ ْ َ َ ً �ق ة ي� ح��س ب� ا �لإِ� ����س�ا � � ��ي���ترك �ُ��س�د �ى ( 36ا � �ل�ي��ا ��م��.)36: 75 ،
�أ ٰ ّ �� ن ف � � ق �ق ن ن �خ��ل�ق� ا ّلله �ت���ع�ا ��ل�ى ا �ل�� ���ش�ي �ا ء �و� �ق�د � � �و ف�ي���م�ا ي��ت���ع�� �لق� �ب�ا �ل��ك�و ����� ، �خ�ل�� ا � �ل ��وا ���ي� � �أ نّ ة ّٰ � ا �� �ق ن � ن � ت ّ ا �ل ��ت� �ت��و� �س��� ا لله ي� ا �ل ��ت� �����س��مى � �ج�د ��ه��ذه ا �ل� ���ش�ي �ا ء ب���ها؛ �و��ه��ذه ل ��وا �� � ي ي ن � �ف �� ن ت� ��ف�د ��ا ��ل�� ��م�د ا د �م��ب�ا د � ئ �ا � ا ��لن ������ظ�ا �م �وا ��ل�ا ����س � �� ا �ل��ك�و �. ر �ج� �م �وا �ل��د �وا �م ي ب إ �أ نّ ا �ظ � � ة � ��ّ ّ �ة �ك��ت�����ش�ف� ��ه��ذه ا �ل�م��ب�ا د � ئ ��ق� ا ��لب�������شر �ي� ��ف� ن� �ي�� � � � � ا � � � ا �� ك� � ل � ع � � � ل��ل��ي� � �و�إ ��ه� و ي �ف ل ي � � � ا ئ �ف ة � ا ��ل � �ص��ف�ا ت� ا ج�ل ��ق�ل ب��ت���ع�ا �م��ل�ه ���م� �و�ه �ر��ي��� .وي�����ش�ا ر ك ا �ل�ع�� و � �� ع ��ه��ذه ا�لم��ب� د �� �ي� ��ت � �ن � � ا � � �أ ش �ا � � � ف ق ا ا � � � � � � ��ق�ل ��ق� د ر ��ع��ل� ا ك������ش� � ��ه��ذه ا �ل� ��� ك� �ود� .وا ل�ع� ا �ل����ظ� �م ا�لم�ع� ��و�ل �ل�ل�و ج � �� �ل ى ة �� �ل ق � ة � �أ نّ ا � ا � ئ � ق � ة ���ا ة �ف �� ة � ا ج��ل ل�� �م��ن�� �� � �و�هر���ي�� ل� �م�ع� ��و�ل��ي�� �ل� ���ه� ا�لم��ب� د � ا�لم�ع� ��و�ل�� ا ك� ط�ي���ع�� ا �ل�وا ���ق� ؛ �� ب ي �أ ع �أ ّ � ��م�ق��د � �ن�ا ن� ن� � ق ا نً ا � ً ا �� ن � ا ّ � �أ ّ ن � ا وب و ر �ح�ل�ل �ع���ل� ����ي� �و�ع�ل�م��ي� ا �ل��ك�و � ا �ل�م� د �ي� �ل� ���ن�ه �م� ا �ل� ���س� ��س �ذ � ّ � � ا � ا �� �ل �آ ن ح ث � ا � ا � ت �ق �ق�د � �ن �ف ا ل � � ا � ه �ل ا � ء ��ق م ��ث � � � �ج�د � ه� � � � . � �س� � � � � ��� �� س ص � � � ل ل � ب و ي ر� �ي��� م و �ل � �� ا ة � � �ت ا ً �ض�ا �ب�� ن� د ر ا ���س��ة ا ��ل�� ط�ي��ع��ي��ة �و �ب�� ن� ا �لن �������ظر �إ ��ل��ي�ه �ك�و ن� �ب� �و� � � �ص�ف�ه ���ظ� �هر� ��ب ��أع� ر�� ي ي ���ج�ز ة ّٰ � ف ا �ئ� �ة ّ �� ���ن�ه �م�ع � � ا لله ا � �ل�� ���ق� . ب آ ّ ٰ ش ت � � ة ّ � ن � ف ّ ا ا ن � � � � � � �وا ل��ك�و � �بر�م��ت�ه � ���ي�� �م� ا لله �ل�ل��ن� ��س ���ي�د �ل ��ع��ل� ��� ء �ي�� ��و��ق�ه �و� �ج� �و �زه. � ى ي ي آ آ � آ ���ذ � � �ل� � ل���ل��م��ة �ن �ف����سه�ا « � ���ي��ة» ��ل�ل�� ����ش�ا �ة ��ل� � ��ا �و����ست�� ��قر � ن� ا �� ك� � ه � � � ��خ�د �م ا � �ل� ك� � � � �ت � ل ك إ ر �إ ى ي و �إ ى � ي آ ٰ ت � ن � ن ة ّ ف �� ن � � �ي�ا ت� ا لله ��ي� ا �ل��ك�و � ،ا �ل��ت� ي� ك �قا ر����ها ب���م�ا ي�����س��مى �ب�ا �ل�ل�ا ت��ي�����ي�� vestigia �م��ن� �م�� ي ا ت ا ��� ة آ ة ��� ة آ ة � � � .Deiت���ث� ت� ا �ل�م��ع�ا �ن ا �ل� ت م���ع�د د � ك� ��ص�ل� � لع�مي ��� �ق�� �ب�ي� ن� � �ي�ا ت� ل���ل��م�� “ � ���ي��” ا �ل� ي� وب �َ � ْق �أ � نْ�زَ � آ نّ �ف ّٰ �ف ت� ا ا �ا ��ل�ا ا ��ل ن�� ��ع�� ن �م ن � ل � � � � ه ه ا � � � � � � � � ا ل ا لله �ي� ك��� ��ب� �ل�م� ل و ي� ��ت� �ي� ��ع� ل�م ��خ� �� :ي� �إ � كِ� و ي� � 56
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�خ ْ � � �ئ � � � ة �� ن �ق ض � ن � ن��ز �ة � ��ذ ت ّ �ة ���ل�ق���ي��ة �إ ��ل�ى ا ��ل ا �ل �ق�ا � �ق� ا �لإ� �ل�ه��ي��»� 31.و ��ع��ل�ى ا ل����ي��� م� ا �ل� ��ع� ا �ل� ا ����ي� ح� � � ّ � � ّ ت ف ة ة ً � ة ا ��ج د � ��ن ح��د ��ي��ث��� ،ل���� ا�لم��عن�� ��م ا ��ل �ه� ك� � ���ا �ل�ع��ل� ��م�ا ��م�ا �ل� ي� ك �ص��ف�� �م��م�ي�ِ�ز � �ل��ل�ع�� �ر � ��ق� � � ، ى �م�� ي س � ل �و � ة م � � �خ��ت�ز ا ��ل�ه �إ ��ل�ى ا �ل�ع�م��ل��ي�ا ت� ا ��ل���ذ � نه� ��ة ا ��ل��د ا �خ���ل��ي��ة ك����م�ا ��ه� ا �ل � �ح�ا �ل�� �ع��ن�د د �ي ك� ا� ��ا ر ت�، � �ي ي ن ُ َّ �إ�ذ � � � � �� �ة ث ا �ن �ة ا ش � ن ا ا�لم��ع�� �ل� ي� ك ن � �ص�ف� �� ��و���ي� ’ �س� ���غ� �لي���ل�و � -و�إ � ��ع�د ‘� ى �م��� ��� ��ط��ب�ه -ح� ب �أ أ ّ ّ ُ � � � � �ذ � ن ن ق ��ف ا � ن ح��د ���ث�ه ا �ل�� �ه ن � ���م�ا ا ا � ا � �ل � � م � � � ع ا ع ء ��ق � � � �� � . � � � ��ي ض� �� م � � ل ل � وب � �ى ي عه�ا ا �ل �ل و� ��� � �ش�ي � و�إ ّ ف � ت � �ذ ة � ّ م�� � � ة ع�ن��ه ،ج� ��ق� � �ق�� ���ب�ه. �و���هره �ي��� � �خ�ا ر � ت�ر��ك�ي�ب �ا �ي� ا �ل�� � نه��ي �� ا �ل تع�ل� �� ي����عب��ر �ع��ن�ه �و�ي��ي �ج ع � ن �أ نّ � ن � �أ �خ ق � � �قّ ة ��و� ب� ك� �� �و � ا�لم� ��ض�م�و� ا �ل� ��ل�ا ��ي� �ل��ه��ذه ا�لم���د ��م�� �م ن ا �ل ض� �م��ا �� :ي� �إ � �و �ح ً �أ نْ �� ن � � � �م��ع ن �غ ا �ة � ��� � � �ة � �ذ ت �ة � ��ق�ت�ض� � ًّ ���س�ا ك� ����ب�ي�ر ا � �ي�ك�و � �ل�د ي� �ق� ���غ�ي ر ا ����ي� ي ��� ح ��ى �و �� ���ي� �ب طر� � � ك ي ي � ن ق � � �� ن ُ�خ ق � غ ة � ة � �� �أ ن �ب�ا �لم��س��ؤ �و �ل��ي��� .وا �لإ� ���قر ا ر �ب� ����ن�ا ،ك���م�ا ا �ل��ك�و �� �ِ�� ،ل���ن�ا �ل���ا ���ي�� ي����ع��ي� �ب ��و�ل ا �ل� �ؤ � �ة ا � �أ �خ �ا ق �ة � ن � ا � �أ �ن �ف ن ا � ا �� ا �� �ل آ ن � � ط� � م��س� �و �ل��ي� �ل� ��ل ���ي� م� � ��قر � � ا � ك ل�� �ر���ي�م �خ� ر �ج ����س��؛ �يو��خ� � ب ا ش ة ت�أ�� ً � �ذ � �� ن ن ن ا �لإ� ����س�ا � �م��ب� ���ر� �� ك���ي�د ا �ل��ه� ا ا�لم��ع��ى: َ �أَ َف�َ ْ ُ ْ �أَ نَّ َ ا �َ �خ��َل�ْ نَ ُ ْ �َ َثً َ �أ �نَّ ُ ْ ��لَ�ْ نَ � ا � � � �ق�ا ك ح ِ��سب�����ت�م ���م� �ع��ا �و �ك� �إِ �ي�ا �ل� � ب م م َ ْ ْ ْ َ َ ّ َ َ َ َ ف ت َ ا � ّ ُ �َ � � ُ ��َُّ � َ � ا ُ َ َ ُّ � َ ْ ���� ع� �ل�ى ا لله ا �ل�م�لك ا ل تُ� ْر��َ��ج�ُ�عو ن� 115 حق ل �� ا �إِ �ل�ه �إِ �ل� �ه�و ر ب� ا �ل���عر��شِ� ِ � �ْ َ � �ؤ � ن ن � م�و�.)116-115: 23 ، ا �ل ك �� �ر���ي�ِم ( 116ا�لم� � � ِ
� � ّ � ت �ت �� �ك�ت� ا �ل�ع��ل� يم���ة) ،الجم ��ك���ش �ا �ف� ا � � ا � � ف ن ن � � �ه�ا �ن��و�ي�� ، ���ل��د � 31ح�مم�د �ع��ل�ي� ا �ل � �ص��ط�ل�ح ا � �ل���و� �وا �ل�ع�ل�و�م (�ب�ي�ر �و� :د ا ر ا �ل�� ب �صف ّ � �ة ف ��ك���ش �ا ��� � ،III ، ا ��لث��ا ��ل ث�� ، �ح� .307
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ت ن �غ ة �� ق � ف ّ � ��ج�م� ��� ��ا ���ي�� ا ل � � ��ر �وا �ل��د ��ع�ا ء: � ��خ��ل�� �و ا �ل���ت�� ك � ع ب ي�
�أَ ن فُ �أََ �َ ْ ََتفَ َّ ُ ْ َ ا �َ �َقَ َّ ُ ا �� َّ ل����سَ�ما �َ ا ت � � � � � ا ا � و �ل�م ي�� ���ك� � ه ��س ل � ه � � � لل � � �خ � �م � � � م � و و ر � ِ ِِ فِي � نَّ َ � �أَ ْ ضَ َ َ ا َ ْ نَ ُ َ ا � اَّ ا ْ��َقّ َ �أَ َ ُّ َ ًّ َ ث � ً �ّ نَ َ ل ح �و �� � �وا �ل� ر��� �و��م� ب��ي�� � ��ج�ٍل �م����س��مى � �إِو � كِ��ي را ِم� �ه�م� �إِ �ل� �بِ� �ِ� �أَ � أَ َ َ َ َ َ � َ َّ ُ � �ْ � َّ �ا � ُ ن َ �ْ �ق�ا ء ر��ب ���ه�ْم ��ل ك� �� �فِ ا �ل��ن�ا ��سِ بِ��ِ�ل� �ر �و� � 8و �ل�م ي����سِ �ي�ر � او فِ�ي� ا �ل� ر��ضِ� ِ ِ َ َ فََ ُ � ُ َ�ْفَ قَ ْ ْ َ َ� نَ َ ةُ �ّ َ ��ا �نُ ا �أ َ َّ نْ ُ ْ �ي�ن������ظر � او ك��ي ��� ك ���ا � �ع�ا ��قِ بَ��� ا �ل���ذِ�ي ن� �ِم ن� �ب�ِ��ل�ِ��ه�م ك�� ��و ��� �ش�د �ِم����ه�م �قَُّ ًة َ �أَثَا ُ � �أَ ْ ضَ َ َ� َ ُ َ ا �أَ ْ كَث َ �م� َّا �َ َ ُ َ َ َ َتْ ُ ْ �ر ِ�م� ��و� �و �� ر � او ا �ل� ر��� �وع�مر �و��ه� ��ع�مر�و�ه�ا �و�ج��ا ء �����ه�م َ َ �أَ ُ َ ْ ا �َْ ّ َ ا ت فَ َ َ � � َ َ َ � ُ ُ ُ ُ �ُ �ُ ُ �� نَ ّ ُ ظ � ْ َ � �� ن ن ف ْ � ���م�ا ك��ا � ا لله لِ�ي� ���ِ�ل�م���ه�م �و�ل كِ��ن� ك��ا � ��وا � �����س���ه�م ر �س� � ل��ه�م �بِ� �لب�ِي����ن� ِ َ ظْ � ُ نَ � �مو� ( 9ا �لر �و�م.)9-8: 30 ، ��ي ���ِ��ل �
ٰ � � �غ � �أ ّ ��خ�� �لق ا ّلله �ت���ع�ا ��ل�ى ب� ك� �س�� ح�ا ���ن�ه ا�لم� ح���م��ةٍ �و ��ا ���ي��ةٍ �و �ع ن��ا ���ي��ةٍ� ،و �ل� ���ن�ه �� ب ��ص�د ر �يو� � � ئ � �أ ّ � � � � ف ة � َ �خ � ل��ك ا � � د � ا�لم�ع�ق � � � � ه ���ل� ه � ��ذه ا �ل � ن � �ق� �ه �ه�و �ي � ب� � �ص��ف�ا ت� �ه�ا �ي� ا �ل� ��ع��ل�ى � ��ِل ل�و ج � �و و ��ول��ي� � ، ا �ل � �ق � � ث�أ ُ �ش ن � � ا �ل� � � ق ا �ل� � ن � غ ا ة ن غ �ف �أ � ���ه�م ا � �ل ��و�ل ا �ل�م� � ��و ر� « :و �ل �وي��� ب �� �����ظ� �م ا��خ�ل�� �ب� م�ع��ى �وا �ل��� ���ي��؛ �و�ي���ب����ي� � ع ّٰ ت � � � �ف �ذ � ق ��ق� �ه��ن�ا ا ��م�ا � �خ��ل�ق� ا لله ����ع�ا �ل�ى ا �ل�ع�� � ��ق�ل» �ي� ��ه� ا ا �ل��س�ي � ��� .وي�����ش�ي�ر ا �ل�ع�� ل � ٰ � � � ��ا �ة ّ �� ّ �ة �ل���ل �ق ��ل� ا �ل�م��ب�ا د � ئ عق ��و��ل��ي��ة ا �ل ��ت� ج� � ا �� ك� �ق��ة �وا �لن ������ظ�ا �م �وا�لم� � له�ا ا لله ك�� �م��ن� ل��ل��ي� ح�ي ��� �إ ى ��ع�� � ي �أ أ أ �ف ��� � �ة � � ا � ا ��� �ق �� �ش�� ء �خ��� � ه ا ّٰ ه �ت� ا ��ل � � � ّ �� �س�� ح�ا ���ن�ه ه ا ل ء � ط� ع � � ل � � �� � � � � لل � ؛ � � � � � � � � � ع �ن �ق ف ع �ى �ل ب �ل و ل ي� �ل �ش�ي �ي� ب ي �أ � � ق �أ �� ّ � � ق � �أ ا ��ف ق �ن � �� �ق�ا ��ئ ق ن ا ا ل � � � � � ا � � � � � ا � � ل ء م ع ��ق ي��خ� �ل� �ل� ���ش�ي � و �� ���ظ� �م و�م��ب�د �ع�ي � « .ف� ���ل ر ب� ح� �� 54
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�أ ظ� ن � ّ نّ � �ف ه ن ّٰ � ن � ا �ص�� ا لله ا �ل��ب�د ي��� ���هر ��ي� � � �����ظ�ا �م �و ج�� ح� ث� �إ � ا �ل�و ج�� �ود ��ي �� � �ود ���س� ��س ع� .و�م� ي ع � �َ �ْق � � � ت� ق ن � � د ا ت� �ف� ��ّ�ن�ه �ع ���ط�ّ�ي��ة ا ��ل � ��ج�مي�� ع ا�لم�و ج��و �إ ��خ� �ل� ا �لإ� �ل�ه�ي�� ،و�ه�و ي����ل���ى �إ ��م�د ا د ه �م� ّ ٰ � � � � � �ذ �� ا ا �ن � ن � ّ ت � � �ظ �ود �ه�و �و� ا لله ����ع�ا �ل�ى� .و��ب ��ه� �ل��م�ع � ى� �ف�إ� � ا �ل�و ج�� هي� �إ �ل�ى �ج�ه ا �ل�ن �� ر ا �لإ� �ل� � � ُ ْ �� � � ق �� ض� � ن � � ا الم � �ق ن� ا �ذ ن ة� ��ع�ا ��ل�م ا ��ل ��خ� �ل�؛ �و���عر�� ا �ل����ظ� �م � ��خ�ل�و � ��م� � � تم� ��ّو ��ع�� �ل��ل�و ج�� �ود� ،و��ي ���ظ���هر ي �ج �أ �أ �أ ّ ً ً ش �ا � ا ّ � � ّ �ف � � ن ن ع�ن���ة � خ �ص�و ر ا �و ��� ك� �ص�ه�ا� .و �ي� �ح� ي� � ��ه��ذه ا �ل� � �� �ص� �ص�و ر �و �� �ل� �م�ي يو �أ أ � � � �خ ت � �� �ة � ا نّ ا تت �ّ � ا ت ق � ��ج�ز � � ت ’ا �ل� � �ود‘ �ل�ه�ا � � ا ء �م ن� ا �ل�و ج�� �ص��ف�ا � �م ��ل�ف� � ،إ �ل� ���ه� �� ��و�ح�د ب��م� � �� ��و�م آ �أ � � � ة ة ��ّ ا ��ل ت ت�ّ ق ة �ق �ع��ل��ي�ه �م ن ���س�ا ��س � ح��ي��� �ود� .وا �ل�ع��ب�ا ر � ا � �ل �ر ن����ي�� ’ �ك��ل‘ ��ي� ي��� ك �ق�� ا �ل�و ج�� ��ر ر � �أ ا ف � �آ � � �ذ � ت ة � � ن ن ت ا ا ن � � � ل � ا ���ست خ� � � � ���د ا �م�ه� �� ا �ل� �ي� � ا ل�ك�و����ي�� �����ش�ي�ر �إ ل�ى ��ه� ا ا � � �ج� �� ب� �م� ا �ل�و ج � �ود :ي� ي �ّ ش ّ ٰ �ذ ت � � ا � ق �� ض ن ح� ث� �إ ن� ا ّلله ا ���ت�ه � �ك���ل ����ي� ء ��م��ر ا ��ب ��ط ب���ع�� �خ� �ل�� �ك��ل �ض�ه ب�����ب�ع��� �م� �ي �ش � ��ذ � ّ �ش�� ��م � �� ا �ذ�� ن ا � � ح�ي ��ط». ���ي� ء� ،و�ه�و ا �ل� �ي� ،ك��م� ك�ر���« ،ب ��ك�ِل �ي� ء � � � ئ ة � �ذ �ذ �و ��ّ�ن�ه ��ب ��ه� ا ا ��ل��س�ي �ا �ق� ي� �ود؛ �و��ه� ا �ج�د ا �ل�ع�� � ��ق�ل � �ص��ل��ت�ه ا�لم�ل�ا ���م�� �ب�ا � �لو ج�� �إ �أ ٰ � � � ّ �ذ � �إ�ذ �ق�ه ا ّلله ��ع��ل ���ب�د �ن ������ظ�ا �م� ،و��م�ا ي خ� �ق�ه �ح�د ا ���ت�ه �م�ع�ق ��و�ل �خ���ل� د � ���ل�� � ا �ل�و ج � ب و � ى ع ٰ � ة ة ة � �آ �ة �� � �ة � ف �غ ا ّلله �ل�ه �م��عن��ى �و ��ا ���ي�� �و�م�ع�ق ��و�ل��ي�� ك� ل��ر��م� ���ا �م��ن�� ���ي�ه� 30.و��ه��ذه ا �ل� ���ي� ا � ك ي �أ �أ � ّ ة �أ ّ �قّ �ذ � ��ً ة � ن �ق ة � ح �ض�ا ���س�ا ��س � �ج�� ن� ��ه� ا � �� 30ه��ذه ا �لم���د ��م�� ا �لم� ��ط����ي�� �هي� �ي �أ ٰ � � � �أ ف ة ّ � � � � ّ ة � ت � ت ح��د ث���ه�ا ��ق�د � ا لله� � .ل� �ا ���ط�ل�ا ا �لن �����ظ�ا �م �ه�و ���� ل ر ��ض�ل ا �ل�ع�وا �ل�م ا �لم�م��ك��ن�� ا �ل ��ي� � � و ت ع �أ � ن � � � حّ ن � ��ع��ل� ��ه��ذه ا �ل�����س �ج��ة ’ � � ��خ��ة �م ن� �� ح��س ن� ا �لن �����ظ�ا �م‘ ،ا � ������ظر ��م�ا ك���ب����ت�ه: � ى
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�أ ّ ّ ��ا ّٰلله �م ن ج���ه��ة � � � ا ���ق� � �أ ا ن ��ه��ة � � ��خر �ى���� ،ث�م �إ ���ن�ه ي���ه�د �ي� ع ا �ل� ���ش�ي � ء �م� ج� � و �ب و ب � � �� ا �ف �� � ا ة � �أ ا ت ا ا � ا � ن � ��ذ � ف ن �ج� ءا � ل � � � ح�� ����ن� �ب� �لم��ع� ��� .و �ل� �ل�ك � � �ك�ر ��ا �و��س�ل�وك��ن� �ي� ا ح��ي� � � ،وي��م�ل� ي ي �ف ا �� �ل آ ن � ل�� �ي� � � �ر���ي� : ��قر � � ا � ك م ْ�� َّ �أَ� اَ �َّ� نَ آ َ نُ ْ َ تَ ْ � َ نُّ ُق ُ ُ ُ ْ�� ا �ل��ذِ�ي � � �م ��وا �و�� ���ط�م�ئِ�� ��� �لو��ب ���ه�م ��بِ� ��ذِ كِ�ر ا للهِ �ل� ��بِ� ��ذِ كِ�ر �ْ ُ ُ � �ق�� �لو ب� ( 28ا �لر��ع�د.)28: 13 ، ا � �ل�
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ْ� ْ ُ َ �َّ� �أَ � ن�زَ �َ � َّ� نَ ةَ ُ ُ �ي�زْ دَ ا دُ � ا �َ�م�ا �نً�ا مُ�ؤ �م� �� نَ �ِ�ل�َ � � � ل � و �إِ ي و � ا �ل � ِ �نِ ي� � �ه�و ا �ل��ذِ ي� ��� �ل ا �ل��س كِ���ي��� فِ�ي� ��ق� بِ َ َ َ أ ََ َّ � نُ ُ ا ��ل ّ��س َ ا َ ت َ � � ْ �م�َ �َ ا ن ْ َ َّ ُ ���ا نَ ا َّللهُ �ع��ل� ً �م�ا �� � �وا �ل� ر��ضِ� �وك� � ِ�ي ع �إِ ي�م� �ِ ِ����ه�م �ولِلهِ �ج ��ود ��م� �وا ِ � � � ت ��� ً َ� حِ�يك �.)4: 48 ، �م�ا( 4 ا � �ل��ف� ح
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َ ����س ّ ُ ��َهُ ا ��ل ّ��َس َ ا �َ ا ُت ا ��ل َّ ْ ُ � �أ ضُ َ نَّ �َ ن �ّم ن �ش�َ� ْ تُ َ � ٍء ي� � و � ِ � ي� ��س�� �َوا �ل� �ْر ��� �َو�م ن� ��فِ هِ� �بِ � � ل� ��م� و � ب �إِ � َّ ُح �َ ع َّ تَ � ْ �قَ ُ نَ تَ ْ َ ّ ُ َْ � نَ ��س���َ ُ ْ َّ ُ َ ا َ ن لا � �����ف ه � � بِ� � ي ����س� بِ ح��م�دِهِ �و �ل ح��ه�م �إِ ���ن�ه ك���ا � � �و� � �إِ �ل� ي� ب ِ �كِ� ْ ح َ ح��ل ً َ ُ ً َ �إِ�ذَ �َ َ �أ َت �ْ�ُ ْآ نَ َ َ �ْ َ ا َ ْ نَ � َ َ َ ْ نَ �م�ا �غ� ف� ��و را � 44و ا ��قر � ا � �ل��قر� � ج� �ِ�ي� ��ع�ل��ن� ب����ي��ك �و�ب��ي� َ َ َ ْ َ ا َ َ ُق ُ ُ ً �َّ� نَ � اَ ُ�ؤْ نُ نَ ا � �آ َ � َ ْ ح �ج�ا �بً�ا َّ�م ْ��ست ��و را � 45و ج� ا �ل��ذِ�ي � �ل� ��ي � �م ��و� �� �ل� خِ�ر� ِ� ��ع��ل��ن� �� � ع��ل�ى ��� �لو�بِ� ِ���ه�م ةِ بِ ِ �أَ��َّ ةً �أَ ن َ � ْ �قَ ُ ُ َ آ �ذَ ن ْ َ �ْ ً َ �إِ�ذَ �ذَ�َ َ َّ ْ َ َ � �����ف ه ه � �� � ا ����ه� � ��ق ا � ا ك��� ت � ر ���ك ��� � كِ���ن�� � م ي � و و و � ر ر ِ ب فِي � و فِي َِ �أَ َ ُ �َّ �ْ ُ ْآ ْ نُفُ ً � َ ْ ْ � َ َ �ح�د ه � � �لْ ا ��َ ا � �ل���قر� ِن� �و� ع��ل�ى د �ب�ا ِر�ِ��ه�م � �� ��ورا ( 46ا �لإ� ����سرا ء، وو .)46-44: 17
�إِ�ذَ ا �َا ءَ َ ا �لْ�َُا � �قُ نَ َ ا ��ُ ا �نَشْ َ ُ نَّ� َ ��َ َ ُ ��ُ ا َّ َ ا َّ هُ �َ��ْ �َُ � �ج� ك م��ن� فِ���و� ��ق� �ل �����ه�د ��ك ل � � �س ل لل �و لل �ع�ل� َّو ْ َُ �إِ َ ر و َ هِ تَّ ي ُ م ُ َ َ ُ نَ � َ ْ ُ ُ � �َ �ذ �ا ُ � ّ ُ ن ن نَّ� َ �َ َ �س �ل�ه �َ ا لله � ش�����َ ه�د �إِ � ا �لم ن��ا فِ����قِ� ��ي� �ل ك� �� �ذِ �ب� �و� 1ا ��خ� �وا �إِ ��ك �لر� �و و ي َّ �َّ �أَْ� َ ا نَ ُ ْ ُ َّ ةً �َ َ ُّ َ ن َ ��س�ا ء � َ �م�ا نُه�ْم � َ �ص�د �وا �ع � ي��م� �����ه�م �ج���ن�� �ف� ��سبِ�����ي�ِل ا للهِ �إِ �� � َ َ �أَ َ َ َ آ � َ َ نُ َ َ ُ نَ ّ ُ َ ُ َ ف َ � ُ � ذ � ن ُ ْ َ ُ ّ �� �� �َ ك� ���ا � ��وا ي���ْ��ع�م�� �لو � 2لِ���ك �بِ� �����ه�م � �م ن��وا ����ث�م ��ك��فر �وا �� ��ط �� بِ ع �ع��ل�ى ُق ُ ْ �فَ ُ ْ � ا َ �فْ قَ ُ ا �ل� ا ف� �ق ن ن هو� ( 3م��ن� � ��و�.)3-1: 63 ، ���ه�م �ل� �ي�� ��� � ��� �لو�بِ� ِ���ه�م � ف � �أ � ن �� � �أ ش ق ق ا�ئ �و ��ي� ا�لم�� �ق�ا ب���ل� ،و�لئ���ك ا �ل���ذ�ي ن� ���ر� ت� ���ل�و ب����ه�م �و �ض��م� ر���ه�م ب�� ن��و�ر ا �لإ� ي���ما � � ٰ � ن � ن � ا ل����ط�مأ ن��� ن ي���ة ���ب��ذ ك�ر ا ّلله� ،و��ه��ذ ا ‘ا �� �لو� ي� � � �ج�د �و � ا �ل���س�ل� �م �وا � � � �ج�د ا �’ �لي����س �أ ت ً ً � ن ّ �خ �أ ���م ا ا � �����ف��عا �ل��ي�ا � ��ّي��ل�ًّ �ص��ل��ن�ا �ود �ن�ا �و��ي � �و���هر �و ج�� �يا���� ،ب�ل �إ ���ن�ه �ي�ل�ا �م��س ج�� ر و �
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ّٰ ُ َ َ ُق ُ � � �ذ � � ا ن غ ف ة � �ق آ ة �خَ َ ���ه�م ا �ل�ع��ب�ا ر � ا � �ل �ر ن����ي�� ]����ت�َم ا لله ��ع��ل�ى ��� �لْو��بِ ِ���ه�م[ �ض���م�ي�ر ه� .و �ل�� �ل��ك �ل� �ي���ب����ي� � � ف ًا َ ًا ث �أ نّ ّٰ َّ �� �أ ن ّ ن ح�� � ا لله ��ق�د ��ق�د ر ا �ل���ك���فر ��ع��ل�ى ��ا ��س �م�يع�ن���ي� �و�ج�ب��ر ���ه�م �� �ه�م� �ج�ب��ر �ي� ب�ي �أ �أ �أ ة � ا � ة ت� �ذ � ن ن ا ض �إ�ذ ن ن ا� �ع��ل��ي�ه؛ �إ � �م� ����ش� � ��ه� ا ا �ل��ت� �و �ي��ل � ي����ع� ر��� �و ج� � ��ه�� ا �لر���س� �ل�� ل ��ي� � �أ آ ا � ن �� ّ � � ت �ا ��ق � ن� � .ا �ل���ص � ��ّ�ن�ه � � عّ�ه�د ا رت� ك� �ي�ح� ��ا ب� �ح��ي� ��ي ����ظ�ل ا �ل��مرء ي���� � و �ج� ء ��ب �ه� ا � �ل� ر ح أ � � �ذ � � ة ة ة ا ةَ ا � ت ا ن ق ّ ا � ف �خ خ ت � ف ا ا ا ت ا ��ل � � ��ط�ي�ئ�� ا � �ل� ك �ه� ِ� ��ر���ي�� �وا �ل� ��ل� ���ي�� ا ���ه� �و �ل� ي�� ��و ب��� ،إ� ���ن�ه ي���ع��ت� د ��ع� د � م � �أ آ ّٰ ّ � � � � � ��ا ب� ا ��ل�� �ث�ا �م �وا ��خل ���صر �و ن� ��ع��ل� ا رت� ك� � ��ط�ا �ي�ا �ي��د �ع���ه�م ا لله �ع�� �ق��ل�ه� ،و �و�لئ���ك ا�لم� آ ى � � �ذ � ق ف ة ت � � ف ���ص�� ��ه� ا ا �لإ� ����ف�ا �ل �ل��ل�� �و��م�ا ���ه�م ���ي�ه� .و�ه��ن�ا ك � �ي�ا ت� �ع�د ���ي�د � ��� �ق��ل ب� �أ � � � �أ �خ ا �ق � ن � ��ق � ا ��ل �ض���م�� �� ��ّ�ن�ه �خ�����س ا ن� �م��ب�� ن ي� ك� ���ا ��م�ل �ب�ا �لم��ع��ى ا � ف�ل� ك �وا �ل�ع�� �ل و ��ر�ي� �وا �ل� ��ل� �ي� ر ير ب ��ع��ل� � �ح�د ��س�وا ء: ى نَّ �َّ َ َ���َ ُ ْ َ َ ٌ َ َْ ْ �أَ�أَن �ذَ ْ تَ ُ ْ �أَ ْ �َ ْ تُ ْ ُ ْ � اَ � ���ه�م ��� ر�����ه�م �م �ل�م �� ن���ذِ ر���ه�م �ل� � إِ � ا �ل���ذِ�ي ن� ��ك��فر �وا � � �سوا ء �ع�لي ِ� َ َ �أَ َ َ َ ُ ْ ُ ْ َ �ُ�ؤْ � نُ نَ � 6خَ� �َ َ ا َّ ُ َ �ع��ل ق��� �ل � ��ه�ْ �َ �ع�� ���سم� ��ه�ْ �َ �ع�� � �َ ْ �ي � م ��و� �� ت�م لله � ى و�بِ ِ� م و ل�ى عِ ِ� م و ل�ى �ب �صا ِرِ�ه�م ِ َ ا َ ٌة َ �َ ُ ْ َ �ذَ ٌ َ �� ا ��ل ���� ق ة ٌ � 7 � � ع ا � � � � � � �غِ� ����ش� و ول�ه� �ع� ب� �ظِ ��ي�م ( ب �ر .)7-6: 2 ، م
َ �أَ َّ ن �َ ْ تَ ُ �َ ْ � َ َ َ َ ْ َ ا َ َ ُق ُ َ نْ َّةً �أ ن ْ �ُ��ه�م �م ي��س����مِ � �ل��ك �و ج� � ك ن��� � �و�ِم � ��ع�ل��ن� ��ع��ل�ى ��� �لو�بِ� ِ���ه�م ِ ع �إِ ي � َ َ ْ �َ��ْ���ف�قَ�ُ ُ َ آ �ذ ن ْ َ �ْ ً َ ن َ َ ْ ُ َّ آَ �ي�� ��ل�اّ �ُ��ؤْ �مِ� نُ�� ا � َه�ا ي �� و �بِ � هوه �و فِ��ي� � ا �ِ ِ����ه�م �و��قرا � �إِو � ����ير �وا �ك�ل � �� ةٍ �ي �ُ َ َ َُ �ُ �َّ �ذَ َ �فَ ُ ْ َتَّ �إِ�ذَ َا �ؤُ َ ْ ُ َ ن ق َ ن �ك � ا � ��َ � ن � � �ح��ى ا � �ج� � �وك ي� ه� ا � � �جا ِد � �ل �و�ك �ي�� ��و�ل ا �ل��ذِ�ي � � ر و �إِ � َّ �أَ � أَ أ � َ � �ن �ل�ا �َ�س�ا ���� ��ُ ا �ل�� �ّ ��� ن ي� ( 25ا �ل� ����ع�ا �م.)25: 6 ، �إِ طِ ي ر و لِ
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�ظَ � ًّ ا نَّ � �ظَّ � َّ � اَ ُ ْ ن نَ �ْ َ ّ �شَ ًْ نَّ َّ َ َ ٌ َ َ �فْ َ ُ نَ �� ��ن� � ا �ل�� ن �ل� ي����ِ�غ�� �ِم ا ل حِق� �� ي����ئ�ا �إِ � ا لله �عِ��ل���ي�م بِ���م�ا �ي�� �ع�� �لو � �� ي� � �إِ � �أ أ ن � � ً �� ن �ض�ا ،ا �ل� ����ع�ا �م.)116: 6 ، �� ( 36ي �و���س36-35: 10 ،؛ و �ي ��
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� �أ � ن � أ � � �ذ � ف � �ذ �إ�ذ نّ � ا ن ف ا �ل�� �ي� ��ي��ب� �ل ��ي� �ت��و� � ا �ل� �ل�وا � �ل�ل�� ���ع��مى، ��ض� ��ص�ا �ل ا �ل�و ج�� �إ � ا �ل� � ���� �ود �ي� ��ي � � ��ف ف ح � ��ذ � � ا � ن ت� ة � �أ � ن � �ذ ف ����ع� ا ��خل ا �ل�� �ي� �ي���� ����ط�ا ب� ���ص�ل ا �ل���ك����ي�� ا �ل� ي� �ل� ����ير ى �ع� ج ر���ب�� ا �ل� �ل�وا � ي ج� ل � �أ �أ ن � �أ � ن �م���ست�� ً � ن �ف � �نّ � ا ا � �ظ � نّ ا ��� ك� � ح��ي�ل�ا �� .ك� �� ب�����ش� � ا �ل� �ل�وا � ل�� ا �ل� �ع��ت�ل� �ل ا �ل� كب� ر �ي �م� �ي� ا �ل�و���ه�م �ب� �ل�� � � �أ نّ � �أ � �أ ن �أ ن ا �ف �ل� ف �أ ّ ن ح�ق� � �ة � ا ن ا ا ���صر ا �ل� ���ش�ي � ء �ل� � �ل��ن� ��ع��ي�� ��� ، �ق� �ل� �ب� ن����ن�ا ��ب�� �ح��ي� ����ن� �ي� ا � ي�� ي ّ�� � آ �أ � ّ ن ��ق � ن� �� نّ� «ا ��ل�� � � ا ن � 27ؤ ح� ث� ش����ه� د ا ��ل ��ب�� حق� ي��ت� ���ط��ل ب� �� إ �ب و ��ص� ر» �م� �ي ���صًر� .و ��ي� ك��د ا � �ل� ر ب �أ �أ � � � ق � ة � ّ ���صر ا �ل�م�ا د �ي��ي ن�: �م��ب�د �ل��ل�م�ع� ��و�ل��ي�� ����س��مى �م ن� ا �ل����س�م� �وا �لب�� ع �إِ�ذَ �َّ نَّ� َ � ا تُ ْ ُ ْ�َْ تَ َ � ا تُ ْ ُ � ��ُّ�ص�َّ ا ��ل��دُّ ��َ ع�ا ء ا �َو� �لْوا � إِ ��ك �ل� �����سِ�م� ا �ل � مو ��ى �و �ل� �����سِ�م� ا �ل� م ع ع �أَ �ْ ُ ْ َ ن ضَ ا ��َت ْ ن تُ ْ ُ َ َ ُ ْ َ ن َ َ ت ا � � ا � ل � � ل � ���ه�م �إِ � �����سِ�م� ع �� ع � د � �� � � ه � ��م�د �بِ رِ�ي ن� � 80و��م�ا � � � �م� � � ل ِ ِ� ع َ �بِ ِ ي ُ َ يِ � � اَّ �َ ن �ُ�ؤْ � نُ �آَا ت َ ا �ف ُ ُّ�م ْ �ل ن �مو� ( 81ا �ل���ن��م�ل.)81-80: 27 ، ���ه�م ��سِ� � �إِ �ل� م� �ي � ِم� �بِ� �ي� ِ����ن� �
�إ�ذ ن � � ف ً �أ ةُ � � �إ�ذ �ي�ا ن �� �ك� ن �ل��ل���م ء � �وا ر� ��س���يل��م��ة� ،ت��ع�و �ز ��ه�ا ا �ل�ه�د ا ���ي�� � �لي����س ك���ا �� � �ي و � ر�أ ج � ح � ف � � � ة � ن ف ف ة � �ت ّ ���ص � ا ��ل � ك� ح���م��� .و ك���م�ا ��ق�ا �ل ��ل�ا ��ط�و� ��� ��م �ح�ا �و ر � ���ي�د ر �و��س :250 �إ �ل�ى ا �ل��ب � ر و ي ة � �أ��ث ن � �ذً � � � �ذ � � � ا ح ا ��ّ ا �ج��ل ���صر �ه�و ا ��ل � � ���س�د� ،و ��م �ل�ك �ل� «ا �لب�� ح�ا � ّ��س�� ا �ل� ك���ر � ���ف�ا ا �م ن� �ب�ي� ن� �� س و ا ��ً ا �� �ل ً ا ن قعً ا � ا ً ن �أ ن � ن � � ة ����ن �ى ا ��ل � ك� � س� �ص� ل ح���م�� ���ب�ه»� .و�ي���ب��غ��� � �ي��ك�و � ا � �ل� �ق��ل ب� � ر �ح� �ي��م� �و� �����ي� ���ط� �ه ار ي �� � �ت �ذ � ت �ف � �ح�ت � �ؤ دّ � � �ظ ��� ��ف ����م�ا ��ن����غ � ل � � � � ك ا ه � ا � �ل ح� ك � م ا � ��م� � � � � � ( . � � ��ي� � � ل ل �ت �خ � � � � � � � � م ر ي ب �ي� يو وى ى �ي ي و ي ي ص ا � ��ذ � �ُ َّ ف ً غ 27ر ا ج� �� � ار؟)، �� � :م�ا رت� ن� �ه�ا �ي��دِ ��ر�( “What is Called Thinking?” ،م� ا �ل� ي� ي���س�مى � ك ة ع ��ت غ �ص�ف� �ة ن ا � ت�ر�ج��م�� ��� .� .ر�ي� (��ي ��و� �و ر ك� :ك� ب� �ه� ر �ب ر� ،)1968 ،ح� .165 �ي �ج �ج
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ُ نَ �أَ ْ ٌُ � َّ ُْ َ �فْ قَ ُ نَ َ �َ ُ هو� ��بِ �ه�ا �َو�ل���ه�ْم ��ع�ي� ن� �ل�ا ي��ب��صِ �� ���ر �و � �ي�� � � �أُ َ َ َ َ َ َ ُ � ��ا � �أ �نْ�َ ا �َ َ َْ ن �بْ �ُ� ه ْ ْ ي�����س�م� �عو� ��بِ �ه�ا �و�لئِ���ك ك�� �ل� ��ع� �ِم �� �ل ��م � �أ �ْ َ ُ نَ ف �غ�ا فِ��� �لو � ( 179ا �ل� ���عرا ��.)179:7 ، ا �ل��
�أ �أ نّ ا �� ّ �ض� ء ا ل �و��ه��ذ ا ��ي �و� ح�ي� �ب� � ا �م��ت�ل�ا ك �ع�� �� حوا ��س �أ �ت � �ذ � ن � �ف �و �لي����س �ب� �و����س� ا �ل��ع��ل� ا �لج��ر ��� �ب�� ا ���ت�ه � �ي��ك��� ��ش� ي �ي ب ع م �أ ة � � � ّ ا �� ت ���ب�د �م ن� ��س�ل�ا ��م�� ا � �ل� �ق��ل ب� �و �ع�� �ض�ا ء ا �ل� حوا ��س ل��ي�
َ �َ ُ آ �ذَ نٌ � َّ ا ْ ��بِ �ه�ا �َو�ل���ه�م � ا � �ل� َ ُ َ �أ � َ ُّ �أ ْ � َ ُ ُ � ���ض�ل �و�لئِ���ك ���ه�م
�ا ��ض�م ن �إ د ر ا ك ا ��ل �ل� ��ي � حق�؛ �� �� � ح�ق� � �ة ا � �أ ا ء �إ�ذ � ا �ق� �ل� ���ش�ي � ؛ �ل� � ي�� � �ق��ل ب�»: ��هي� « �ج� ن��ود ا � �ل�
�َ ْ َ ََّّ َ َّ َ � َّ اُ ْ �ا �ُ ْ � َ ن ّ ��َع��لْ َ ��ن�ا ��َلُ��ه�ْ �َ��س ْم��ً � � َ�ل�َ ع�ا ��م فِ���ي�هِ �َو ج� ����ن� ك�� �م�ا �إِ � �م ك �� ��ه�م فِ�ي� �ق�د �م ك��ن � م و َ َ َ َ ���فَ ا �أ ��ْ�غ نَ َ�عنْ�ُ ْ َ �َ �أ�ْ َ ا ًا �َ �أ ف�ْ � َ ًة �َ ����س ْ�م�ُ ُ ْ �َ � ا �أ �ْ َ �ا ُ �ُ� ه ْ ��ص� ر و �ئِ �د � �م� ��ى ���ه� و �ب � عه� و �ل� �ب � �ص ر ��م م � م َ �َُْ نَ �آَا ت َّ َ َ قَ َ � ا �أَ فْ َ ��ُ ُ ّ ن �ش�َ ْ �إِ�ذْ َ � ك�ا �نُ��وا يج�� � ا للهِ �و� � � �و �ل� �ئِ��د �ت���ه�م �ِم� ��ي� ٍء � � �ح�ا �� �ح�د �و � بِ ي ِ َّ ا َ� نُ �َ ْ َت ْ �ؤُ � �أ � � ا �ف ن �ق� �.)26: 46 ، ���ا � ��وا ��بِ� �هِ ي���س��ه�زِ � �و� ( 26ا �ل� ح� بِ��ِ��ه�م �م� ك
� � �� ��ص�ا � ا ��ل����س�م� � ���غ�� �ذ ��ل��ك �ن�ا �ش��� ئ � �م ن� � � و ير �و �لي����س ��ع�د �م ا �لإ� ��ب � ر و �خ��ل�ل ب��ي ��و �ل�و�ج��ي� ع � � ق � ���نّ ن � ن ا ق � ��ذ ن �ق��ل� �ع ن ر ��ؤ ���ي��ة ا �ل �و ك حق�� .ي�� ��و�ل ا �ب ن� ك����ث�ي�ر: �� ل��� �م������ش��أه ا �����غ�ل� �� ا �ل� �ه� �وا � �ل� ب � ٰ � � ن �ف � ن ش ت ن ت ��ع��له�ا ا ّلله ��س���ً�ب�ا «ي����ع�� �ل���� �ي��� �� �ع� � ب����� ء �م ن ��ه��ذه ا ج�ل �� �وا رح� ا �ل ��ي� ج� � و ي� � ب ي� ي س ق ا ة �ذ � � ا �ل� ض �� � ة � � ه�د ا ��ل�ع��ق ن 26 ن � ن ل � � � � � � ا � ا � � � � م �م� �� ك � � � � � � � � � � م � � ��ي� � � �ن � ع له�د ا ���ي��» .وي � � ب � ج �و ب� م لك ب ج � ر �ل�� � �ص�ف� ة تف ���ث�� � ، ن �ح�� .659 ����� � 26س��ير ا �ب � ك� ير
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َ �أَ َ �أَْ تَ َ تَّ َ �ذَ �َ ُ َ ُ �أَ َ�أَ َ َ ُ � نُ َ َ � ً�ا � 44أ�ْ ن ��خ� �ل��َ ه�ه �ه�َ او ه ���ف� ن�� ت� ت����كو� ��ع��ل��ْي�هِ �َ كِو����ي� ل ر ��ي� �مِ� ا � �إِ َ م َ َ َ َ تَ ْ َ ُ �أَ نَّ َ َ �أ �أ ّ أ ْ ْ َ َ ُ ُ ْ �ث ُ ْ ���سَ ُ ن ْ �َ ْ � ن ن ْ � ا َ ك�ا ��ل�� �نْ���َع� �ا � ح��س ب� � ك� ر���ه�م ي ���م� �عو� �و ي�� � ع�قِ� � �لو� �إِ � �ه�م �إِ �ل� ِم َ �َ ْ �ُ ْ �أ ضَ ُّ �َ ً�ا 44ا �� �ف� � ا ن ( ل ر�ق� �.)44-43: 25 ، ���ب�ل ��ه�م ����ل �سبِ����ي�ل
�أ �أ �أ �أ �ً � ح��ة�� ،ف� ن� �ت��ل�ك �ت �ف�� ���ع� ��م�ا « �ي� ���ه�م ��س�و � �ح�ا �ل�ا �م ن� ا �ل�� �ن���ع�ا �م ا �ل��سا ر� �إ ل ٰ � � ن �خ���ل�ق� ت� ��ل�ه� ،و�ه��ؤ �ل�ا ء �خ���ل�ق ��وا �ل�ع��ب�ا د �ة ا ّلله �و� �ح�د ه� ،و���ه�م ي���ع��ب�د �و � ���غ�ي�ر ه � ف � � � � ن � �ذ ح ة � ن � ه � �ق ا ا �ل � �� ي���ه�م �و ر ���س�ا �ل ا �لر����س�ل �إ �ل� �ج�� �ع��ل� ح����ئ� � �وي� ش���رك��و� ��ب� ��� ،م ��ي� �م ي���ه�م؛ � ي �إ ع آ � � ت � � � ن �ف � ض ا ق 25 �� ��ق � ن� �لي���� � � ن �ل�م ي���� �ع���ه�م �سم�ع���ه�م �و �ل� �ع����ل���ه�م»���� .ث�م ي�م���ي� ا � �ل� ر �ح�د ى ا �ل��ذ�ي � �أ �ق ة � ن �ف �ة �ح�� ن ��ّ�ن�ه ��ف� ا ��ل ن � �ق�� �م ���ط�م�و���س� �ب�ز �ع�م���ه�م ي��ب�� ح��ي ��� ���صر �و � �وي����س�م�ع�و� �ي� � ي� ي �ص�ا �ئر���ه�م: ��ب � ��ا نُ ْ � اَ َّ ن �َ ْ��ستَ ُ نَ �َ ْ َ �أَ َ�أَ ن تَ تُ ْ ُ � ُّ َّ �َ َ َ � نْ ُ ���ص�م �َو� �لْو ك�� � ��وا �ل� ���ه�م �م� ي �ِم� �عو� �إِ �لي���ك ���ف� ��� �����سِ�م� ا �ل� �وِم � ع َ ُ َ ُ ُ َ َ �أَ �أ �ْ ُ ْ َ � َْ َ َ ّ ن َن � � � ْ � َ ن تَ ت ْ َ نْ �َ�ْ � ُ ن َ ي� ع�قِ� �� �لو � � 42و�ِم � �ه�م �م� ي�������ظر �إِ �لي��ك ���ف� ��� ����ه ِ�د �ي� ا �ل���ع��مي� �و� �لو نَّ َّ َ � اَ َ ْ � � ُ � َّا َ �شَ ْ �ً ا َ �َ ُ نَ َ ��ا نُ ْ � اَ ُْ نَّ ك�� � ��وا �ل� ي��ب��صِ ���ر �و� � 43إِ � ا لله �ل� ��ي ����ظِ�ل�م ا �ل��ن� ��س �� ي���ئ� �و �ل�كِ � َ ُ َ ن � َّا ��َ �أ �ن �ف�ُ� َ ُ ْ �َ ظْ �� �ل ن �مو� �� ( 44ي �و���س.)44-42: 10 ، ا �ل��ن� س ��س���ه�م �ي ��ِ� � َ �أْ َ � �� َ�ل�َ �ق ْ�د �ذ َ �نَ�ا ر و
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ف �ن � � ا � ق � ا ��خل ق ة � ف � ة ا� ق ح�ق���� ة � �أ ا ���ل����ي�� ا � �ل� ��طر���ي�� ��ع��ل�ى � � ���ه�م ا �ل����ظ� �م ا�لم�ع� ��و�ل �و� ي �ق�� ا �ل� ���ش�ي � ء� .و �ب� �ل�ع����ل � � ط� �ن����عُ�م ا ��ل��ع�ا ��ل� ا �ل�م�ع�ق �� ��ل؛ � ��ا ��ل�ع�ق��� ا �ل�م����س�م� ن��ت���ع��ّل� � � ��س�ا ����ط��ة ا ��ل��س��م�ا م ا�لم�� ب �و و م �ب و و وب ل ر � أ� ع ع ع ق � �ا ت ة � � ظ� � � �آ خ �م ن� ا �ل� �ر �ي ن� �و�ه�و ي�����ش�ي�ر �إ �ل�ى ��س�ي �ا �� ا �ل�ع�ل�ا ��ق�ا ت� ا �ل� �ج��م�ا �ع��ي�� �وا �ل� � �ل�ف�ا ��� � �أ ة � � ن ا �ل��لغ� ��و���ي�� ا �ل ��ت� ��ب �ه�ا �����س��م� ا �ل� ���ش�ي �ا ء. ي ي �أ �أ ّ ف ن �ا ن � � � � � ق �ة �ن �ق�ل�ا ن� �م��ت����ش�ا �ب ك� ط�و ’ �ل�ه � ب � �ض�ا � ار � �إ �ل� � ‘ا �ل�ع�� �س����ي� �وا �ل�ع�� ��ا � �مت��� ��ق�ل ا�لم�� ب � ع � � � �أ ف ا ن � �غ �ذ �تق � ن ��ع��ل� ‘ا �ل�ع�� ا �ل �س� ا �لرا � ب� ا �ل� � �ه� �ي� ��ه� ا ا �ل �����سي���م �إ �ل�ى �ص� � ��ق�ل م����س�م�وع’؛ �و�ي���� ب ى � ن � �أ � � ف �ق � �� ا �لإ� ��م�ا �م ��ع��ل�� �ب ن� ب �ي� ���ط�ا �ل ب� ��ي� ��و�ل�ه“ :ا �ل�ع�� ط�و �و�م����س�م�و ، ��ق�ل �ع�� �ق�ل�ا � �م �� ب � ع �ع ي � �إ�ذ � ُ � �� � ا �و �ل�ا ي��ن �����ف� ��وء ��وء ا �ل�����ش�م��س �و ض� � ا �ل�م �ي��ك �م �� ب � ط�و ،ك���م�ا �ل� ي��ن �����ف� ض� � ع �م����س�م�و ع ع ع � �إ�ذ ن � � � � ا ��ل��ع�� ن �ق�� ن ي� ���م�م ن��و ”� 17.ف� � ا �ل�ع�� ط� ��ق�ل ي�����ع��م�ل ��ب ��ط �ر ��� ي�؛ ي�����ع��م�ل ب�� ن��و ��ع�ه ا�لم�� ب � و ي ع ع � ا � � �ئ ��ل ا � �إ�ذ خ ش � ا �ّ �م ن� ا ��ل��د ا � ��ص�ه ��خ�ل �وا � ��ي �وا � � ��خ� ر ، � �ج�ه ا �ل��ع� �ل�م ا�ل�مر �ي� �وي������ه�د ه ب��و �ج َ � � � ف �ذ � �ذ � ا �� ف�ل� ��� � �ة � � ���ج�ز �ف � ة �ت � ء �م ن� ا � �ل�����طر� ا �ل ��ي� ��هي� �ن�ا �� ��ت��ن�ا �ل��ع�ا �ل�م ا � �لو ج�� �ود� ،و �ل�� �ل��ك طر��ي� ،و ه�و � �ت� ّ � � � � ش ي�� � ا ��ك� ��ص � �؛� 18و�� ن��و ��ع�ه ا�لم����س�م�و ي� ��حر ك ا �ل�ع�� �ي�ح� ح�م� ��ي��ت�ه ك�ي�� ‘����نر �ى’ ب���� �ل ��ق�ل �ج ب ب ع تح � ن �� � �� �أ ���ج�ز ا � � �� ا ت ا ��لت�� �ة � ا � � � ل � � � ل م� ا��خ� ر �إ �ى ا �ل�د ا � ��س�و�ع ب� �ك�ل � ا ء �لمع�ط��ي� � ج �ر�ب����ي� ��خ�ل� ،وي� � �ج ي ن ن ا �� ا �غ� ا � �أ ف� ن � �ف م� ا ت �ف غ� �� ا �� �ل�ق �آ ن ا ت � � ��س��ا ن��ب ��و�ل�� :ك�هر�م�ا � �ي�ا ي����ي��ل�ا ر �ي�،)1986 ، �ه�ا �ي� ،ا �ل رد � �ي� �ر ب� ر � ( 17لر ب� �ل� � �ص � ي �أ � ف ق ت ّ �ذ � ف � ئ � ق � � � ح��د ث� ا ��ل �ص�� ح�ا ر ث� الم ح��ة � .511و��د � � � � ح�ا ��س�ب�� �و �ب� �و � ح�ا �م�د ا �ل��غ�ز ا �ل�ي� �ع ن� �ه� ا ا �تل��ع �ر��� ا � ثل�ن��ا ��ي� �ل��ل�ع����ل، ي ي � �صف � � � � �ة ق ف ا �ن �ظ ح�ا ��سب�� ،ش��� �� ا �ل�ع���� � �م�ا �ه�ت ح�ا ث� ال � ي��ه� � ، ل م � � � � ا � �ح� .20 : لو ر ي� ر ر ن �ظ � � � � �� ف ا � �ذ ا ت ا �أ � � ا � ن � ت ة � ق �ة ف � ق ح�د ا�لم�ع� �ي� ا � 18يح�د د ا �ل�� ر ا ب�ي� �ه� ا �ب� �ع��ب � ره � ل��س��� �ل��ل�ع����ل؛ ا �� �� ر :ا � �لف��ا ر ا ب ��ي� ،ر ��س�ا �ل�� ��ي� ا �ل�ع����ل، ت �ص�ف� ة ت �نان �ش م��� �ق�� )1983 ، � �ح�� .9-8 ح �م� ��� � � � (�ب�ي�ر �و�� ،ل�ب�� � :د ا ر ا �ل ر ر�ير و ري س �ب يو �ج
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� �ة ا �ل�عر ب����ي�
� �أ � �خ � � ة� ت �ص َ �م�� ن ن ا ن �ة ة ا �ل� د ا ��ت��ي�� �ل��ل��د �ي ن� �وا �ل��ت�ا ير� �وا �ل��ع��ل� �وا �ل��س�ي �ا ��س�� د �مر� �م���ي�م ع��ى �إ ���س� ����ي� م ا � � ن ا ن �إ�ذ ن �م�� ن � �أ � ً �أ ن � ن نق �لإ� ����س� �� � . �و���هره ي�ج ب� �ي �� ��ض�م�و� �م�ا � �� ��و�م ���ب�ه �و ج�� �ض�ا � �ي��ك�و � �أ � ن �ل�ه�م�ا ���س�ا ��س �ع�ق��ل�ا ��ي�. ة � ق ن ة �أ �أ ت ا ��ف ق ا �� �ل آ ن ن �� ة ك��د ه ��ّ�ن�ه ��و�ع��ي�� �ل��ل� � ي�� ��و �� � ع��ل�ا ����ي�� ب��ت�� ��قر � � ���م� ������ظر� �م�و ض� � ي ع ن غ �أ � ت �أ ف ة ن ن � � ش ق � � ن ت ا � ت ا ت ��ك� ص � ا� �ي�ح� � �س� �ي������ب���ي� � ���ك�و � �ع���ل� ����ي�� ب���� �ل �لي����س� د �وا ����ن� �و�إ ج�را ء ا ����ن� ح� ب �أ � �أ � ة حة ت �ص�ّو ر ا ��ت��ن�ا �و�م�ف��ا �ه�ي�م��ن�ا ا �ل�� ��س�ا ��س�ي �� �و�م��ت���طا �ب ��ق��� ���م� �وا ���ق� ا �ل� ���ش�ي �ا ء���� ،ب�ل ��� ع ع �ة �أ � ��ً ا ت �أ ت � ن � � ة � ض �� �ع�ي��ة ��ل��ل�ع�ق��ل�ا ن����ي��ة �م ن ا �ل�م�ع�ق �� ��ل��ي��ة ا ج��ل �و�هر���ي� �� �ي و � �ض�� .و����ت� �ى ا �ل�����ظر� ا�لم�و� �و � ُّ ق ّٰ ق ا �ن � ت ا ا ن ن � � � �ود �ب� �ع��ب � ر ه � � �ل��ل�و ج � �خ�ل�� ا لله� .و�ك�ل ���ع��م�ل ���ع���ل� �ي� �م� �ج �ه��ت�ا �ه�و ُ �أ � � ���ّ ��م�ا ��ق� ا �ل�م��ن�د � ��ف ��� ة � �أ ا ���ع��م�ل �م��ت ��ط�ا �ب� �ق� ���م� ط�ي���ع�� ا �ل� ���ش�ي � ء؛ �و�ك�ل ر �ج ي� ب ع �م��ب�د ا �ل�ع�� ل �أ �ذ � � ة � � � ا�ف ه�ب ��ط ب����ن�ا �إ �ل�ى �م �ض���م�ا ر ا �ل�ل�ا �ع�ق��ل�ا ن����ي��. ي ��خ� �ل�� ��ه� ا ا�لم��ب�د ��ي � � �أ �أ � � � �ذ � ة ة ً ث ن ت ق ض ن ت ن ا �ض�ا ���ر �و �ب� �و � �لو�ج���ي�ا ا �ل� � �و � ا �ل� � ع� ��ق�ل ا ���ه�ا؛ ��و�ع��ي�� ���د �ع�م�ه�ا ��ي �� ع��ل� ����ي�� ا �ل � مو� � �إ ����س�ت � ف� ن � � ن �أ نّ � � � � �� ا ت ت� �ة ��ر � ا�لم��س�ل��م��ي� �ب� � ا �ل�ع�� ��ق�ل ي �ج�ي� ب� �لمع�ط��ي� � ج �ر�ب����ي� �و����ير �ى �م� �ع����ظ�م ا�لم�� ك �ي ي ف � ة ��م ّ ة خ� ّ � ف � ة ً ن �� ���ن�ه ‘� �ص�� �و�م�ف��ا �ه���ي�م � �ض�ا ء’ �ح�� ب��ي��� �وا � ��جر د � ب � ��ص�ه ا � �ل� ��طر���ي��� .وب���ع��ي�د ا �ع� ك��و �أ ُّ ��ج�ز ً � �ذ � ة ة � فت �ود ،ا �ل�� �ي� ي����ع�د � �ض�� ،ي���ع�� � ءا �ك��س ا �ل�ع�� �م����ر �� ��ق�ل ��س��م�ا ت� ��س�ا ��س�ي �� �ل��ل�و ج�� أ � َ � � ف ا ن � � �غ ��ق ��ل� �ع�ق���ل�� ن �م��ن�ه� .و�ي��ق� ّ����س�م ا �لرا � ب� ا �ل� � � ي�� :ع�� ط� ��ق� �م �� � �ه� ��ي� ا �ل�ع�� �ل �إ ى �ص � �ل ب ّوع أ � � �إ�ذ ق ��ق� ا�لم����س�م� ��ل� ا ��ل�� �� �ا ء ا �ل ��ت ي��ت��ع��ل�مه�ا � وع �إ ى � �و ���ع����ل �م����س�م�وع؛ ي�����ش�ي�ر ا ل���ع�� ل �ش�ي ي� �أ آ � � ا ��لت� ة �ق ً � ا �ل��مرء ب���س�م�ا �ع�ه�ا �م ن� ا �ل�� خ�ر ن�� ،و�ه�و �ت�� ر����ب�ا �ي� �ت��ل�ف� ���م� �ر���ب�� �وي�����ش�ي�ر �إ �ل�ى ع ج �ي ي � � � � � � � ة ��س�ي �ا �ق� ا �ل�ع�ل�ا ��ق�ا ت� ا �ل�� �ن��س�ا ن����ي��ة؛ ب���ي�ن��م�ا ي�����ش�ي�ر ا �ل� � �ق�د ر � ع� ط�و �إ �ل�ى ا � �ل� ��ق�ل ا�لم�� � إ بع ا �� ن ك� ل�
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� ��ت�ز �أ �خ ق ف � ا � �أ � ق � � � ه ن �� � �أ � ً �و� ك ل����ن� ي����ط�و ي� �ي �� �ض�ا ��ع��ل�ى ا �ل� ا �م ��ل�ا ��ي�� .و ��ي� �م�ع��ن� ه ا �ل� ��ع�م�� ،ي � حو�ل �أ � � ة � غ ا ة �ت� ّ � �أ ّ �� ����ير د �و ن� �ن �ظ� �� ر�ن�ا �إ ��ل�ى ا �ل�� ���ش�ي �ا ء ��ع��ل� �ن��ه�ا �و��س�ي �ل�� �ل��� ���ي��� ،و� ا �لت ف��� ك �ح�د �ى ي ى �أ ة � �أ ة � ق �ود ���ي��ة �و ر �و� ح��ي��ة ��ع��ل� � �ح�د ��س�وا ء. ا �ل�ع���ل�ا ن����ي�� ا �ل� د ا ��ت��ي�� ��ع��ل�ى ��س��س �و ج�� ى ق ً ا �إ�ذ ن � �َ ٰ � آت �خ �ن �ق�ه ا ّلله ��ف�ل�ا ي� ك� �و ك����م�ا ���س�� ��� ��ع��ل� �ن ��ق��ا ����ش�ه �ر����ب� ،ا ك� ���ا � ا �ل��ع�ا �ل�م ��ق�د ���ل�� �م�� ي �أ ى ي ّ َ ً ً ُ � �ذ � ��خ��ت�زَ ��ل ��ل� �من �ف�� ��ع��ة�� ،ف� ن� ��ل�ه د ��ل�ا ��ل��ة � � ��م��ة �م� ض� � ت ن �ل��ه� ا ا �ل��ع�ا ��ل�م ن� ي� �إ ى و �إ ��و�ع�ي���ي� وق�ي ّ �و�ه�و �م ت � ��س�� ��ق�ل �ع��ن�ا. �أ ً ف � �أ � � ة ن �ض�ي�ر ��س�ا ���س�ا ��ي� �ف�كر � ح� ث� ا�لم��ب�د � ،لي����س �ه��ن�ا ك �م ن� �� �و�م� �ي ٍ � �أ ّ � ت �إ�ذ ة ة �ج�� �م ن ا �ل�ع�ق�� �ا ن����ي�� ��ا ت����ا �ع��ن�ا �لم��ب�ا د � ئ � �و � ن����نا � ح��ق �ق���ن�ا د ر � � ��جر ا ء ا �، ل ب ب � � �إ نّ �أ نّ � ن �ش � ه �أ ن �� ّ � ً�ا �ق �ا نً ن ن �ا �ي�ا �إ � ا ��ت��ب�ا ��قا � ��و� ��م�ا �ل� ر��ي ب� � م� �� أ ���ن� � ي��ع�د ��ع�م�ل ���ع��ل ��� ع ا � �ف �ذ ح��ا ��ت��ن�ا ا ��ل �� �م��ي��ة � ا �� ت �ك���ش ا ��ف�ا ت�� ن��ا ا ��ل�ع��ل�م��ي��ة � �ق ا ا ��ت��ن�ا �س��� �و ا �ن �����ف� ورر و ع �م�ل� ���ئ�م �ي� �ي يو �أ ن نّ �� � ف � ة � ا قت ا ة �ذ � �ن ��� � �ح�� ح��ا ��ت��ن�ا ا �ل��س�ي �ا ��س�ي ��� ،و ���غ�ي�ر �ل��ك؛ �و ك ا �ل� ��� ي� � �ص� د ���ي�� �و�ي ل�� ي � � ق ا ن ة � �أ ت ة ت ا � ا ت ا � ا �أ نّ ا ت�ت� ّ ���س �� � ��ذ ت �ة �ل�ل�ع���ل� ����ي�� ا �ل� د ا ����ي�� ا ��س����ع�م� �ل� ���ه�� ،إ �ل� ���ه� � ط ا �ل� ا ����ي� ��حر ك ��ع��ل�ى �� ح �أ � � � �ق � ة �� ن ة �ا ا ��ض �و ر�ًة ��ا ��ل �� ��ض�م ن� ا ��ت��ب�ا �م��ب�د �ق��� .و �ل� ��ي � ا �لإ� ���س�ا ن����ي�� �و �ل� ت�ر��ب ��ط��ن�ا � ح�ي�� �� ر ب ع َ نت ا ن ���ص� �إ ��ل�ى ن����ت�ا ئ� ��م�ا � �ص�و��ل �� ي���� عق��ل�ا ن����ي��ة� .و��ق�د �ن���ت���ب� �إ � �ج��ة � � � � ح� ��جر ا ء ��م� �و��� ل �ج ع �أ �أ � ن ت � � ن ا �ل����� ة ّة � ن � ن �ذ � � � � ن �م�يع�ن���؛ �و ��ع��ل� ا �لر����غ�م م� �ل�ك ي ك �م��ن� � ت���ك�و � ي� �ج�� ب����ع�د ��م�ا ت���ك�و � ى � ا � ة �أ ن � ة ت �ة ة � ن � ة ف ���ا ر ���ث������ .ع��ل� ����ش� ك ����ل�� �� ��ظ���م�� ا ��س��ب��د ا د ���ي� �ع ن� ا �ل�ع�ق��ل�ا ن����ي������ ،ب�ل ��ق�د ت���ك�و � ك ى ت � ���ا ن� ��ل��ل ن��ا �ز ���ي��ة�� ،ع��ل� ��سب�����ي�ل ا �ل�م��ث�ا ��ل�� ،ق�ا �ن��و ن� ��م��ل�ز �م� ، ك� ����ث�ي�ر �ة ،ك� ح ت� � ك�� ح�م ى �أ �أ ت ّ � ن � � ة ة ن � � قا ت ان ا ‘�ع�ق��ل�ا ��’ �م ن� ا �ل ن��ا � ح��ي�� ا �لإ� ج�را ��ئ��ي�� � ك�� ���ه�م ح�م ���ب�ه �لم� ����ي� .ب����ي�د � �م��� رب�� � ي 32
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� �أ ق ��ذ ف � � ن � �ذ �و���س��ل�وك �خ��ل�ا ���� .و � ��ق�ل ب��ب��ي��ا ���ن�ه �و ث��ب��ا ���ت�ه �ه�ك� ا ��ا �لإ� ي���م�ا � ا �ل�� �ي� �ي��ق ��و�م ا �ل�ع�� ي �إ آ � نٌ �ذ � ��ذ �خ اش �ق�� ن ي�� .و����ير�ى ا � �لف�ي���ل��س�و �ف� � �إ ي���م�ا � �و ر ��س�و� �و�ي��� ح��ي�د ر � ��م��ل�ي� ا �ل� �ي� ��ع� ��� ن �أ ف � �� ن � ّ ��قر ن� ا ��لرا ب��� �ع�����شر ن� �ه��ن�ا ك ا ����س � ��ي� ا � �ل� �ج�ا �م �ت�ا �م �ب�ي� ن� ا �لإ� ي���م�ا � �وا �ل�ع�� � ��ق�ل ع� ّ � � ت ً �ا � �أ ن ت ��ق� ��ا �ج��ل � ���س�د �وا �لر �و�� .و��م�ا ��م�ا �مث���ل��م�ا �ل� ي� ك �م��ن� � � ���ؤ د �ي� �وي����ش�ب �ه ا �ل�����شرع �وا �ل�ع�� ل ب ح �أ � � �� ن �ظ � ف ت �ه�ا ���ب�د �و ن� ا �ج��ل ���ذ ��ل��ك ��ل���� � � ����س� ا �ج��ل � ���س�د ،ك�� � ���س�د ن� ي� ا �لر �وح� �و �� ي ��� � ي س �ب و �ج�د م�ع��ى ع �أ �أ � ���ت��م�ا ��لً�ا ���ب�د � ن� ا ��ل � ��� � .ل���ذ ��ل��ك “��ل�ا ���غن�� ��ا �� ش ح��ي�ا �ة � ا ك� �و � ل���ر �ع ن� ا �ل�ع�� و و و و ر ��ق�ل ب ى �أح ع آ � � � ا نَ َ � �و �ل�ا �ب�ا �ل�ع�ق���ل �ع ن� ا ��ل�����شر ”؛ �و ��ق�د ����ش�ا ر � ح��ي�د ر � ��م��ل�ي� �إ �ل�ى ��م� ���س�ب �ه �إ �ل�ى ع �أ ن � �أ ف ن ف � � �غ ش ه�� ��ل�ه نّ� “ا ��ل�ع�� �� ن �ج��ل ّ �ص���ه�ا ��� ��� ��ق�و�ل � ا� � ��ع��ل�ى �� �� ��ق�ل ل� حو ��م�د � � لرا � ب� ا �ل� � ي ي ي � � ا ت َّن � ا ا � � � � �إ�ذ � ق ن ا ت م� ���طق ش ا ا 16 ن ��ي �ه��ت�د ي� �إ �ل� �ب� �ل���ر � ،وا �ل�����شر �ل� �ي�����ب�ي�� �إ �ل� �ب� �ل�ع����ل”. � ي����ع� �� �ض�د ا �ل �� ع ع ��خ�� ا �ل� ت م���ع�ا ��ل� ��ل�� �م�ا ����ط��ة ا ��ل��ل��ث�ا �م �ع ن ���ط����ع��ة ا ��ل��أ �� �ا ء � د ا ك �ن��س�ا ن�����ت��ن�؛ا �وا ��ل � بر �ش�ي و�إ ر �إ ي � بي ي� إ �أ � � � �ح�� ن � �ن ��ل���� �ب� �و����س� ��ه��ذ ا ن� ي� ي� ����نر �ى ا �ل� � �و�� ك� ���ص�ل �إ �ل�ا � ع� ح� ��ق�ل ا �لب�������شر �ي� ي����ع��م�ل ل�� ي س ع �أ ّ �أ ف � ��ي� ��س�ي �ا �ق� �ت ف��� ك �����ير �ي� �و �ت� �م��ل�� �و����س� . ي ع
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� ّ �أ ّ َ ْ َ نَ َ ْ َ ُ َ َ � َ َ ّ ف ن ُّ � � ا ‘ا �ل� ��كِي����س’ �ب� ���ن�ه “�م ن� د ا � �ن �ف�����س�ه �و ���ع��مِ �ل �لِ�م�ا ب���ْ�ع�د ���عر �� ��ب�ي� ا �لإ� ���س�ل� �م � ت �ذ � �ف ا �� �ف� � ه �� �ق ة � � �ا �ة ة �ق �ق� �وا ل�ع���ي�د � ا �لإ� ��س�ل �م��ي� ا�لم�ْو ت�”( ،ا �ل��ر ��م� �ي� ،ا � �ل�ي��ا ��م��� .)25 ،و �ي� ل � �أ �أ ً ُ � �ك�و ن� ��ع�ا ق�� ًل�ا ك�� �تَ � �ف � حق ا �ل���مرء ن� �ي�� ��� �ي�� �ك�و ن� �م��س��ؤ �و �ل�ا �ع ن� �ع��م�ا ��ل�ه ي�����ش� ر ��ط �ي� �� ي �أ � � ف �ل�� ��ّ�ن�ه �ل�ا ت� ك� ���ل���ي�� �ب�ل�ا �ع�� ��ق�ل. ّ ث � � ا � � �أ ا َ � � � � �أ �خ ا ق � ف � �و��ه��ذ ا ي� ش��� � ��ك�ل ��ي� ا �ل���تر ا � ا �لإ� ��س�ل� م�ي� ا �ل� ���س� ��س �ل� �لو ج � �ود ا �ل� ��ل� ��ي� �ً �ق ً � � ق ان ة � ق ان ة �� ن � �ذ� �ل��ل�ع�� ��ق�ل �وا �ل�ع���ل� ����ي�� �و ��ي��ؤ ��س��س ا رت��ب��ا ���ط�ا ��و�ي�ا �ب�ي� ن� ا �ل�� ك���ا ء �وا �ل�ع���ل� ����ي�� �وا �لإ� ي���م�ا � � � ت ف �ف ض�ي ��ل��ة� .ي��ق ��و��ل ا ��ل �ح�ا ر ث� الم � � �� ح�ا ���س�ب�� ( � ��و ��ي� ��ع�ا �م � )857ع ن� ا �ل�ع�� �وا � �ل�� ��ق�ل�“ :ه�و ي �أ � � � ُ َ � � ّة � غ�� �ر���ي�ز �ة �ل�ا ي�����عر �ف� �إ �ل�ا �ب ���فِ ��ع�ا ��ل�ه”� 15.و� ��ق ��و�م ا �ل� � ع� ��ق�ل ب�م�ه�م�� �م��ب�د ا ل���ع��م�ل ي �أ �أ � ّٰ �أ ق ت �ا� ا �ل�� �خ��ل�ا ��� �و���س��ع �إ ��ل�ى ن� ي ج� ��ع��ل��ن�ا ���قر ب� �إ �ل�ى ا لله� .و �و �ف��ق� ا � �س��د �ل� �ل ي � ي � ي �أ ن � ا ق ًا � �ق ةً ف �إ�ذ �� ت ن ا ��ل�� ��م�ا �م الم ح�ا ���سب��� ،ا ك� � ���ا � ا �ل��مرء ��ع� ��ل� ح�ي ��� �ق�� ���سي����س��عى �إ ل�ى �� ��م��ي� إ ي � ه �أ ن �خ �ا ه ن� ا ه �ف �� � ن ا ا � �آ � ة � ن �أ � �ذ � � � م ا ��خ � �� ��ج � � � � � ��ل � ��ص� و ج � ��ت� �ي� ل�د ��ي� و �ل� ر ،و � � �ل ل�ك �ع�ل��ي� � ا ت � � ت � �ق��ل�ه ب� ش��� � ��ك�ل ��س��ل���ي�م� .و ر ���ي�د ا �ل � ا ث الم ح�ا ���س�ب�� ب������ن� ء � ح��ل��ي��ل�ه ي���س����ع��م�ل �ع�� �ح� ر � � ي ب �ي ن نًا � ت ف � �أ ن ُ ظ � ا ��ل��س �ة �ا ��ق� ” ،ا ��ل���ذ �ي� ج� ���هر ��م� ���ع��ل�ه �ع ��وا �� � ك�� ل�� ���ب�ه�� � ،ي �� � ��ع��ل�ى “�����شر �� ا �ل�ع�� ل ة� � � اة � ا ض ة َ ن � �ف ��ق�ل ا �لب�������شر �ي� ��ل��تر���ي�س � �إ ي���م�ا � ��س��ل���ي�م ��مب�� ّر ر �وح��ي� � �ف� � ا � �ل �ر��ي�د � �ل��ل�ع�� ����ل��. �خ� � � ت � ق ا ن � �و� ف��� ض���� ا �ل�ا ��س��ع��م�ا ��ل ا ��ل��س��ل���ي�م �ل��ل� � ��ق�ل ب�� ن��و ر ا �لإ�� ي���م�ا ن� �إ ��ل�ى �ت ف��� ك ع� �����ير �ع���ل� ��ي� ي ي
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ََ َّ َ �ُ نَ �إ�ذ ُ ّ َ َ � َ ّ ُ ْ ََ �ذ ّ � ��ز ن �ِم� �ك�ِل �م���ث�ٍل �ل�ع��ل���ه�م ��ي��ت� ك�ر �و� ( 27ا �ل ���مر .)27:39 ،ي�����ش�ي�ر ق ت ا ئ �أ ا �ة � ا �ل�م���ث� �ه��ن�ا �إ �ل�ى ����ش ��� ا ت � ��ص�� ي� � �غ� ر ���س� ���ل ��س� ��س�ي � - ��جر�ي� ��ب �ه�ا ت��ب���ل���ي ل ب ي�ه� � �و�� ص � � � � � �ذ ا ئ � ا ت ق � َّ ة � �ا �� �ص�و�ل �إ �ل�ى ا �ل�� �ه ن� ا �لب�������شر�ي� �ل�و �ل� � �ص�ي �� ��ع��ل�ى ا �ل�و� ��ضر ب� ر ���س� ���ل ر ب��م� ��ب ����ى ع� ق ة �أ � �أ �أ � ت � � � � �� ن � � �� ل�� �ن ب���م�ا ���ن�ه �ل�ا � ��ص�� �و �م��ث�ا �ل �م ن� ا�لم� ا �ل� �م��ث�ا �ل � .ك ��خ��ل�و ��� ��ض�م�و� ا �لإ� د ر ا ك�ي�� � َ تٌ � �خ ا � � ّ ا ن �ذ�� ا �ل�م�ع ��ف ،ف�� ���ن�ه ا � ت ا ��ل � �ل��ل� � �س��د ��ع�ا ء �م�� فِ�ل� ع� ��ق�ل �وا ���ي� �ل� ،ل�ع��ل��ن� «����ت� ك�ر» ��م� �ه�و ر ي� �إ �أ ا � � س � �� ��ضر �و ر ي� ���س� �ي�. � ت ف � آ ن � ا �أ �ّ ن ّ � �ذ � ف ن � ف ت ن � � � � � � � � ا ا ��ج � ل � � � � � � ك � � ل ��قر � � �ل� ��ي��ت� ل� م� �م�� �ج�د ه �ي� � ���ير ا �ل� ي� � �إ � ��سب�����ي�ل يع � �أ � ه �ت� ّ �ا ئ ا ن � � �و ��ق�ا ��� � ،و �ل� ب��ت���ع�د ا د � ��ص� ر �م �ل�ل� �وا ���مر �وا �ل ��وا �هي�؛ ����ب�ل �إ ���ن� �ع��ه�د ��س�ل���ي�م ع �أ ّ � ة ��م ت � � ش ً ا �ف � � �ة ف� ة �خ ا ق ة ق ت �ج�د ي��� ���ط�ل ب� ���ر �و ��ع� �ي� ر�ح�ل� � ك ح��ي�� �وي���س�����غر �� ��ر���ي�� �و ��ل� ���ي�� �و ر �و �ٍ ت ّ � �ّ ة �ز � ت � � ت ن ل ا ا ا ا � � ا ل�� ��م� �و������غ��ل� ��ع��ل � � � �� �� ن � ��ج�م�ل�� ا د �وا �ج���ي� � �م���ث�ل ح���سي� ب يك� ��و�����ن� ب� ك ل ي �ى � � � ن ن � � � ن ق ا �ق�ا ب���ل ا �لر �و� �ق�ا ب���ل ا �ل�ع���ل� ��ي� �وا �ل�م�ا د �ي� �م�� �م�� �ح�ا ��ي� �وا � �ل���فر د �م�� �ق�ا ب���ل ا �ل��ك�و � � � � � �ذ �ذ � � ة ة � � � �ه�ك� ا��� � .ع��ك�� ��ه� ا ا �ل���ن�م ��ط ا �ل ت �ا �ق�ا ب���ل ا �لث��ق��ا �ف��� ،و � م� ك� ط�ي���ع�� �م�� �وا �ل��ب �� ���م�ل وي س � آ ن �أ � �� �ة � � � ��ذ � �ذ � � �ف �ل��لت ف��� ك ط�ي���ع� ا �ل�وا ��ق� �����ير ا �ل�� �ي� ي�ج� ّ���س�د ه ا � �ل� ��قر � � �ب� ��س��ل�و���ب�ه ا � �ل �ر��ي�د �ب ع ا �ل� �ي� �ه�و �أ � � ا ت � ثّ �ؤ �ة �ذ � � �ض�ا �م ن� ا �ل�� � ��ج�ز ا ء �و�مت���ع�د د ا �ل�� ب � � ح�ن��ا ��ه� ا ا �ل���ن�م ��ط ��ع��ل�ى ر � ���ي� �مت��� ط�� �ق� �؛ �يو آ أ � � ش ش � ف � � � � � � ات ��ص�ا �ل ا � تل��ب �ا د �ل�ي� �ب�ي� ن� ا �ل� ���ش�ي �ا ء �وك�����ي�ف� ��ي ��ؤ د �ي� ����ي� ءٌ �إ �ل�ى ����ي� ٍء � � ا �ل� ��� ��خر ��ي� � ة � � ة � �ود. ا �ل��س��ل���س��ل�� ا �ل�ع �ظ�ي���م�� �ل��ل�و ج�� آ أ �إ�ذ ن ا �� �� ا �� ��ق �ن ����لت ف�� � ن� � ف �� ً�ا � � ف ً ا � ل���ن�م�ط ل �ر ي� ل �� ك ���ص�ل � �����ير �لي����س ��ي� ا �ل� � �م��ط و �ص����ي� ����ب�ل �ه�و ئ �أ ن�أ آ أ � ّ � ف ا ا ا ي�ه� ؛ ��ف�ا �� �ل�ق � ن� ��ل�ا � ��ق �� �م ب��م � �ت � � ��جر د �و� ���ص�� ا �ل� ���ش�ي � ء ��ع��ل�ى ���ه� �و ��ق� ��� �و يو ر ��و�ج � ي� ع ا �� ن ك� ل�
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ت � � � � � �أ ن ي� ك� �ن ا � �خ���ز ا �ل�ه �إ �ل�ى ا �ل�ع�� � ��ق�ل ا �لب�������شر �ي���� .ف�م ن� ����ش� � �م���ث�ل ��ه��ذه ا �ل��د �ع�و�ى �م�� �أ �أ ت ت � ق � � ة ة ن � ن ق ن � ن ن� � �� ح� ث� ح���ي�ل ا �ل��د �ي ن� �إ �ل�ى ب����ي�ا � ج�ر ��ي� �و ��� ض�ي �� �م� ��ط����ي�� .ا �ل�د �ي � � -م� �ي �ي ب �أ ُ � �ز � �ا ف �ك�و ن� ��ل�ه ب����ع�د ي�ت�� ا �لت��ع �ر ��ف� � -ي�ن��ب��غ�� ن� �ي�� �ج�ا �و ا �ل�ع�� � ��ق�ل� ،و�إ �ل� ���لي����س �ه��ن�ا ك ي� ي �أ � �� � � � ن � ن �ن ا ��ل���ذ �ي� �ه�و ��مت� �ج�ا �و �ز �ل��ل� � ح�� ا �لر��ا ��� �وا �ل�� �ن�ب����ي�ا ء� .و�� ك� � ل � ع� � ��ق�ل ل�� ب ي م� د ا ٍع �إ �ى ا ل�و ي �أ �أ ن ف ق � �ا ن ّ �ض�ا دٌ ��ل�ه� ،إ ن���م�ا ي����عن��� ��ّ�ن�ه �ف��و �ق�� � - عق��ل�ا ��ي� �و�ي�� ��و �� ا�لم�� �ل� ي����ع��ي� ���ن�ه �م�� �ق�د ر ا ت� ي � ف ة � � � ف �ق ق ا ن � ا ق ا نً ا �إ�ذ � � � ����س� ا�لم�عر���ي�� �ل��ل�ع�� ��ق�ل ا �لب�������شر �ي�� .و �لي����س ا � �ل ��و��-ع���ل� �ي� �ل� �ع���ل� ����ي� �ب و ع � � �� ��ا �ئنٌ � ا � �ق �ذ � � � ه ا �ل�ع�� ��ق�ل ا �لإ� ���قر ا ر ب���م�ا �ه�و ك�� � � �خ� ر �ج �د ر ا ���ت� ؛ �و��ه� ا ا �لإ� ��قر ا ر �لي����س نً �أ ةً �أ ًا �أ � ا�أ �خ � � �أ � �ا ا م ��ا � ��ل�ًف�ا �ل��ل�من� ���ط�ق �ل�� ���ن�ه �ل�ا �ي��ق ��و��ل ج� ���ه�ل� �و �ل� د ر ���ي�� �و �إ ي�م� �� ���ع��مى���� ،ب�ل � �أ � � � ت � �ق �ح�د �ود ه� .وا �ل� � �م�� ا ��ع��تر ا �ف� �ت� �ّم��ل� ّ �ذ ا ��� ب� ���ن�ه ا �لت ف��� ك ��ق�ل �ل�ا ي� ك �����ير �ب�ل�ا ��وا ��ع�د ع� ي� ي ��ل ة � ت � نّ ة ��ج�م�� ا �� �لق� د � ا �� �لق ا ئ ا � � � � � � � ا � ا � ء � ل �� ��ب ل � � � � �ع�د، ح � � � � �ي �غ �س� � � �إ �و�م��ب� د �� �م�ع�ي���؛ �و ر ي يع ي و و و �ل ت � ت ً �ف ل� �� �ة 12 ا ��س��ع��م�ا ��ل ا �ل� � �� ع� ض�ي ل� . ��ق�ل ���م�ق���ر�ن�ا �ب�ا � � �
�ذ � � �إ�ذ � ْ �أ ن ق � �ا � ن � �ص�د د �ج���د �ير �ب�ا �ل�ا �قت��ب �ا ��س �ب�ا �� ك� ل��ا ��م�ل “ :ا ���ا � �ع��ل�ى ك 12م� ك ���ا ن�� ت� � �ي�� ��و�ل�ه ��ب �ه� ا ا �ل� ت ن ُ � �ف ��ض � �� � � �ذ � �ذ َ � ق ّ ن ا ن ف ��ل ُ�خ ق ت ح ت� ���ن ا ا ن ن ن � ح�� ء � ل����س�ه�� ،س�ي � ��طر �إ ل�ى ا �ل� � ��� ا �ل�ع����ل ا ��ه �ل��ل��� � ��و� ا �ل� �ي� ي���س��ه � � �م ي �ضِ� ير ع �أً �أ ح�ت ا �� �لق��ا �ن�� ن ا ��ل���ذ � � �ف�� ض ���ه �ع��ل��ه ا ��ل��آ خ� � ن��� ،ل��أ �ن�ه ��ل�ا �� ق��ا �ن�� ن� �� -ا ���ا ن� �� -ل�ا ش���� ء� ، � ك � رو ي� ي و ب ي �ي ى و� ي� ي ر ا ��ل��� خس ف ة � ��ن �أ ن ����ث ت ��� � ً�ا � �م ن �ث ّ �ف ا �� نل�ت���� �ة ا �ل � ح�ت �ة � �ذ ا �� غ� ا � �ن ��ا ��� ا �ل� ��كب��ر �ى ،ي� ك �م�� � ي ب�� ط�و�ل؛ و � �م � ي ج � ي م�� �ل�ه� ا ل�ي�� ب� ا�لم�ع�ل� ي ف � �ْ � �� �ف �� ن ة �� �ن� ت ا �ق � ن ق ا ��� �ق ا � � �ة ا ��ت�ف �ل��ل�ق��ا �ن��و ن� ��� ا �ت� ل�ف���ك�ير (ا �ع�� � م� �ي ��ود ل ض�ي � حر� ���ا ن�� ت�، �ه�ا �ي��” .ك ع���ل) ��هي� � ل����ك�ير �ي� ا ل � ي �� ع ي �ف ت� � ت � �ة � ف � ”?�( “What is Orientation in Thinkingم�ا ا �لت��و�ج�ي��ه �� ا � � ل����ك��ير؟)� ،ر�ج �م� �ل� .و. ي ب��ي���ك� ،ض��م ن� Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason and Other Writings on � أ �ا ا ت �أ خ ت� ح ��ل ا �� �لف���ل��س�ف���ة ا ��ل�� �خ��ل�ا ق����ة � ن ن ق � ق ا �ل�ع ع��د ي ���� �( Moral Philosophyد ا �ل�ع����ل �م��ل�ي� �وك��� �ب� � �ر�ى ��و
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��ح �أ ّ ف � � � �خ��ا ا ��ت��نا ا ���أ �خ�� �ا ��ق���ة�� � .ص �� ا � �ي� � ���ن�ه ��ي� ا �ل���تر ا ث� ا � ف�ل� ك �ل ل ي و �ي ر ��ر�ي� ا �لإ� ��س�ل� �م�ي� ح �أ � ف ا � ة ف ً ً ن � ث � �ذ ق �أ � � ا �ل�م��ت� خ� ��ق�د ����طر� ا � �ل��ل� ��س��ف�� �� ��ق�ا �ع�ا ��م�ا ��� ا ب�ل�� ح� �وا �ل�� �و ��� ،ي� ا �ل��ع��ل� ر ر ب ي� ح م � َ َ �ذ � � � نّ ن� َ � � ف � ت �ّ��م�ل�ا ن� ���ع��ض� ه�م�ا ا ��ل���ع��ض ن � �����ير ��ه��ذ�ي � �ي ك � ا �ل�م�د ر ك؛ �و���م� �ل�ك �ف�إ� � �م ��ط�� ا �ل ��� ك ب � ب � ي ع ة ا �� �� � ا ت ا ��ل ت �ف �� ن ا �ة �������ش�ف� �� ن����ي��ة ا ��ل� ا ���ق� � ت �و���ع�ني��ا ن����ن�ا ��ع��ل ك� �ه� ���ي� ط�� ع ا �لم���ع�د د � ل� ب �ق� � ��ي� �ي� ا ل � ب و ي �ى ة �� نّ ت � ا� � � مق��ا ���ب��ة �ذ ا ت� �أ ����ع�ا د �مت ���ل��م�ا ت� ��م�ل�ا � ��ا ��م��ل��ة� .و�ب ك� � � �ه�ا �مت� ك� � � � ك � � � ل� � � ع�د ل د � � � � ط � �� ب ب ر و � ب ن �ل� �ذ � �ذ � � حق� �ق � ا � ا ��ل�ف ّ � ��ص�د ر ا ا �ل�� �ي� ي�ج� ���س�د ��ه� ا ا �ل���تر ا ث�“ :ا �ل���بر �ها � ا � � ي���� �ل� ي��خ� � ي �� � � ف �ش ش 11 � � ا ا �ل����ه�ود ل�ك�� ���”. ي ت ّ � �� ة ن �����غ ���ط ا ��ل�ع�ق��ل�ا ن����ي��ة ا ��ل ���صر� ا�لم��س��ل�م�و ن�� ، �� ح ت� ض� �ح�� ن � � ح�د ��ي��ث�� �و �م� و ي� �ي ح �أ ّ ت � � ّ � � �� ن ة � � ا ن ا ن � �ق�د � ا �ل ���ق�� � � �ج� ه ا �ل����غر ب�� ،ب� � “ا �لإ� ���س�ل� �م د �ي � ا �ل�ع�� ��جر ا ء �ع�� � ��ق�ل” ،ل�م ص �أ �أ �أ نّ � ق ن � ن � �ة � ن � �� � � � ا ن �ي ك ��ه� ا �ل����ظر ��ه��ذه، ��ن� ��� �ص�د ���ه�م � ا �ل��د �ي � ا �لإ� ��س�ل� �م�ي�� ،و �ي� د �ي � م� �و ج �
� ة � ت ا � ة �ف � �أ ف ا � ق � ة � �أ ة �ت ت ا �ص�د ا ،ا ��ل � ك�� ح��ا ء ا �ل��را ث� � 11م�ل� � ر ح�م�� ا �لم��ع� �لي��� �ي� ا �ل� ��س��� ر ا �ل�ع���لي��� ا �ل� رب���ع���( ،ب�ي�ر �و� :د ا ر �إ �ي ض آ � � �أ �صف � ف � � ة ق �ف خ ق ن ا ��ل�ع ��� )1981 ،ا �ل �ج�زء ا �ل� �و �ل� � ،2 ، � �ح�� � .315و ��ي� �م�و� ��� � �ر �ي�� ��و�ل�“ :وا � �ل ر�� �ب�ي�� �ع��ل�و�م رب ي �أ �� ن �أ أ � ع �ّ �ل� �ذ � ّ� ن � �ا ة � � ن �أ ن � �ذ �ق � ح��د � �ص�ا ر� ،مك�ا �ب�ي�� � ي���ع��ل� � ا �لن ظ� ����ا ر �و�ب��ي ن� �ع��ل�و�م �و �ي� ا �ل� ��ب � ح�د اح�ل �و� �وب�ي� � ي�� �و � م �أ �أ � ّ � �ا ة � ف ن �ّ ��ة � ا ��ل��س��ل��� ن ة ن ن � ن ��ص حً�ا ��س��ل���ط�ا �نً�ا”؛ �م�ل�ا ا ��ل ح��د ا �ل��ص �ح�� ��م �ر�ق� �ب�ي� ن� � �ت��د ر ك � ط��� �و�ب��ي� � ت���ك�و � ي ح�ل �و� � ،و ك� �ح و � ّ ف � �ذ � �ش �أ ن �ن �ظ �� � � � � ة ة ة ف ق ت ���ل��د ا �ل��س�ا ��� � ، ل����س��ير�� ،س�و ر� ا �ل�وا ���ع�� ،الجم �ص� � �ص�د ر ا ،ا � � � �ح�� � .10و�ل��ل�م�ز ���د �� حو�ل �ه� ا ا �ل�� � � ،ا �� ر ي بع ت � � ا � � ك�� ب ي� �Knowledge in Later Islamic Philosophy: Mulla Sadra On Exist ا �ل�م� ف �ة �ف ا �� �ف � �ف �ة ا � � �ا � �ة ا �ل� ت �أ خ ة �ص�د ر ا ( ence, Intellect and Intuitionعر�� �ي� ل��ل��س�� �لإ� ��س�ل يم�� م�� �ر� � :م�ل�ا � ن �ف �� � � �ة �م ��� ة ا ة �أ�� ف ن �� �ود �وا ��ل�ع�ق��� �وا ��ل �ص� � م �ح� ،)2010 د، حو�ل ا �ل�و ج�� � ط��ع�� �ج�� �م�ع�� �ك��س� ��و ر ح�د ��س)��( ،ي ��و��ي�و ر ك :ب ل � .221-217
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�أ ّ � � ة �ّ � �ة � ا � �ة ق � ة �س�ق ن� � � �و�هر���ي� �ود �ل� �ل� ط�ي���ع�� �م ن� �ك���ِل ��م�ا �ل��د ��ي �ه�ا �م ن� �م�ع� ��و�ل��ي�� ج�� ��جر د ا �ل��ب � ب �� � َّ �أ آ � نف ً ة َ ا ت ا ا � � � � � � ��ص�ل�� .و�ه��ن� ك ��ب�� ��ع�د � � ��خر ل�لع� ر �م�ز ���ي��� ،و ��ط�و ر ���س�ل�و ب� ���ع��م�ل �م ���� ��ق�ل �أ � ٍف قُ ّ ت � � ن � � ا�ا ت �ا � ��ص�د ���ب�ه ن� ‘ا �ل�� �ل� � ح��ل���ي�ل ا �ل�ع�ق��ل�ا ��ي�’ �ل�م ي����ع�د �س��د �ل� �ل�ي� �ع ن� ا �ل�ع�� ��ق�ل ا�لم�عر ��ي� ��� �أ �ش �أ �أ � ق � ة ��ا ة ف � �أ � ن � ف ن ا ا ن �ق� ب� �ع� ا�لم�ع� ��و�ل��ي�� ا � ك� �م ن� �� � ���ن�ه � �ي��ك�����ش�� ا �ل ��� ل�� �م��ن�� ��ي� ا �ل� ���ش�ي � ء �و �أ � ت � ق ا ن �ة ن � ا ً � ن � ا ��ت ا �� م�ز �ة �أ � ت ا �� � ة �ق�ا �ج�د � ا �ل� � ح��ي��� .و��ق�د �و� ع��ل� ����ي� �� ��ط� � م�ه� ا لر �و �ه� ا لر� ���ي� �و ق�ي� � ع� د �ل� ل � ً � ت � �ش ة ة � ً ّ ت � ق �خ �ج���د ���ي�د ا �ل���ل � ح�ي ��� ��ص�ا ��ب �ه�ا �و �ود �ع ت� ج� ب�ر�����ن�ا ا �ل���م�و�ل��ي�� �ل�� �لوا ���ق� � .و��س�ع ت� �ق�� ��ا � ع ن � � ة � ت�ز � � ن�ز ة � ق ا ن ة �ق ة ا � ن�ز ���ع��ي��ة �إ ��ل�ى ا � ط�ي��ع��ي�� �وا �ل�و ض� � �خ�� ا �ل ا �ل�� ��ع�� ا �ل�ع���ل� ����ي�� �م� ر �و ���ن�� �ب� �ل�� �ع��ت��ي� ا �ل��ب � ت ّ � �ذ � � ��ك��ف�ا ء ا ت� ا ��ل�� ا �ل�وا ���ق� �إ ��ل�ى ا ��ل�� ح��لي���ل��ي��ة ��ل��ل�� �ه ن� ا �لب�������شر�ي� �و� �ح�د د ت� ا �لت ف��� ك �����ير ع � �أ �أ ّ � � �ث �ق �� � � ة ��م -ا ��ل ا �� ك�� � ل� ح��ي�د �لم�عر��ف�� �وا ���ق� ا اء � � ح���س�ا ب ��ي� �ب� ���ن�ه ا �لمن��ه � ا�لم�و ��و� ا ل�و � ع �ل� ���ش�ي ��أ .و�ع��ل�ى ي �ج �أ �أ ّ ّ � ح��ي�� ن �م��ع�ا نّ �� ًا ن ن ن � ا ت ن �م���س� �صر ن� � ���صر �وا ��ع��ل�ى � ك��ل� �م� ا �لر����غ�م �م� � �ل� �ه�و����ي��ي� ي� ي� �ّ �ي � � � ف �ان ً ا�ا ت �ا � �ح�� �ة ة �� ��ق�ل ا�لم�عر ��� ي� ش��� ك� ��ق�ل �ل� � ا �ل�ع�� �س��د �ل� �ل�ي� �وا �ل�ع�� ��ل� � �م��ع�ا ���س�ي�ر �و ر � صي�ح� ي ت � ة � �أ ّ ت ّ �أ ن � � ����ي ا ��لخ ��ل�� �����ط�ا ب �� �وا ��ل � � �ص���ل ا�لم�عر��ف��� ،إ �ل�ا ن� � �ش�� �ع ب� ���م�ا ��ط ا �لت ف��� ك �ح�د ���سي� ��ق�د �� ر ح� ي ي ً �أ ة� � ت ة � � ً ف �ة �أ ّ �ص�و ر �ة ا ��ل � ح��د ��ي��ث�� �ل��ل��ع�ا �ل�م �و ج� �ر��ي�د ا � �لق��د ��س�ي � د �ى د �و ر ا ��س�ا ��س�ي �ا ��ي� �ع��ل�م��ن�� ا �ل� � ن ا �� ��� ة ط�ي���ع��. ع� ل ب نّ �ذ � � � �ف ث � � ا � �إ�ذ � � ق � ���ص�ل �ق ��ط �ي� ا �ل���تر ا � ا �لإ� ��س�ل� م�ي�؛ �إ � �م���ث�ل ��ه� ا ا � �ل���فر �� �ل�م يح� ا �أ � � ه �ف ا � � ن ن � � � ن � � � ث آ ن � ً �ت���عن�� ك� ����ل��م��ة ‘ � � ��ق�ل’ ��م� ����ش�ي ر �إ �ل��ي� �ي� �لمع��ي ��ي� ا �ل�ل��ذ�ي � � ع� ح�ه�م�ا � � ���ف�ا، ��جر ى ب � ي� �أ � � ت �ة ح��ل���ي� ا �ل� ن ��ف�ا ��ل�ع�ق��� ��ا � ف�ل� ���ط �ة ��ق�ا د ر ��ع��ل د ا ء �و�ظ �� ي ����ف��ت ا ��ل� م� ���ط�ق�� �وا �ل�م�ع ��ف��ة ا ��ل � � ح��د ��س�ي � ل ي� ي� ر لب ر �ى ت �ف �ذ � � �ف ه ا ��� � �ذ ه � ��ذ � �ا ت ا ن � �ا � ة ّ ه � � � ل ا ا � � � �� ع ا � ب�ل ����ب� �ي � .و ��ع�ل و ��ع��ل�ى �ل�ك �إ� ��ن� � ��ق�ل ��ت� ل� ي� �ي �و� �ج� �إ ر د ��نا �ي� 20
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ا �ل�م��ع ن� �� نّ ا ��ل�ع�ق �ا ن�� �ة �ف �أ ا ا �ه ت� ا �� ��� �من ��� �ق � ت��ج�د �أ �ن� ت �ى ف�إ� � ��ل ��ي� �ي� ��س� ��س�ه� �ي� ‘ ر �بط �ط���’ و� � ���ص� ���ع��ب�ي�ر ي �أ ع� ت ّ � ف � � � � ا �ن � � ا �ل��ع��ل��م � 7.و ��لي���� �م ن� �م�ع�ا ��ي���ير � � � ��خر ى ���ع�د �ص�و ر ي� �و �لم��ه �ل�ه�ا ��ي� ا�لم��ن ��ط�ق� ا �ل� س ي� �أ ة ّ �أ �ج ُ � � �� �ش�� � ن � � ن �� � ف ن � �� ��س�ا ���ًس�ا �ل��ل�ع�ق��ل�ا ن����ي��ة� ،و�ج� ب� ن� ي� ك�� ح�م ��ع��ل�ى ق�ي��م� �ك�ِل �ي� ء م� ا �ل�د �ي � �إ ل�ى ا � �ل��� ي ف ًا � � ا ت � ن � ة � ة � �ذ � � ا ��لت� � �� �ق� �ل�ل� ��م�ل� ء ا � ا �ل م� ��ط�ق���ي�� �وا �ل�ع��ل�م��ي�� �ل��ه� ا ا �ل�ع�� ��ق�ل ا �ل�ل�ا �ت�ا ري�خ���. �و �ع�ل���ي�م �و�� إ � ي ُ �أ �أ ت � ن ت � ا �ئ ا � ��� � �ة ن �و�م ن� ����ث�ّم ي�ج� ب� � ���س���م�د ا � �لق����ي�م ا �ل ��ت� �ع��ل�ني��ا � �ن��عي�� ش����ه�ا �م ن� �و ��ق� �� ط�ي��ع� ع لب ي ت ا ��ل�ت ��ت�� �ّ ن ا � ت �ق م� ���ط�ق� ؛ � ��م�ا �ن �ص�ا ��ؤ ��ه�ا ��عب��ر ا �ب�ل�� ح ث� ا ��ل�ع�ق��ل�ا �ن� �وا ��ل�� �س��� ح��ل���ي�ل ا �ل �ي� و �ي� ي �ع�ي � ي نّ غ � ف ن ً ً �ذ � � �ود �ض�ه �ب� �و� ��س�و�ى �ل��ك �ي���ب��غ��� ر ���� �ص��ف�ه ���هر ا ءً ��ي�ب����ي�ا �م�ا �و ر ا ��ئ��ي�ا� .و�إ � ا �ل�و ج�� ُ ي ��ا � ن � � � � � � �ص�و ر �ي� ،ف��إ� ���ن�ه � �ت �� ��ل � �ظ �� ��� �ة �� �ا � ت ا �� ا �ل� � �ق��ل� ك�� �ل ك����م�ا ا � ع م� ��ط�ق� ا �ل� �خ��أ�زِ ل �إ �ى و ي �ف� ل�ل �س��د �ل� ل � ي� ًا � � � � � ُ َت � � ت �� �خ�ا ي� � �من� ���ط�ق�� �ب�ل�ا د �ل�ا ��ل��ة �و �ل�ا ��ق�و�ة � �ض� �إ �ل�ى م� �ص���ط��ل ��خ���ز �ل ��ي �� � � ا �ل��ر ا ي�ك� ب� ي� ر �ج ح � ا � ن �� � �ق �ة ا �ل��لغ� � �ة 8 �لم�ط���ي� ��و��ي� . �أ ّ � �أ ّ ت ن �ل� �ذ � � � �ة � ن��ز �ة � ت ��م�ا ا �لر �ي� ا �ل��ث�ا ��� ا �ل�� �ي� ��م��ث��ل�ه � �مو� �ج�ا � ��م�ا ب����ع�د اح�د ا ���ث� �وا �ل� ��ع� � ي ف َّ �ذ ت ن ا ت � �� � ن � � �ة ة � ف �ل� ش ن � � � � ا � � � ا � ا � � ل ل ل � ع � � ��ق ��ق �ق�د � �ج� ر � ع���ر � � ك�ك � �ل �إ �ى د ر� ا �ل�نب��ا ��ئ��ي�� �م��ن� ��س�ي����ي � � �ي � � ا ن ة �ف ت ت ك��ا ���ب�ه � 7ا � � ��ج� ����� :شا �ر �ل�ز �ت�ا �ي��ل�و�ر ”( “Rationalityا �ل���ع�� �ق�ل� ����ي��) �� ر ع � � ين ا ن ة ل� � � ة ف ( Philosophy and the Human Sciencesا � �ل���ل��س���ف�� �وا �ل��ع��ل�و�م ا �ل� ����س� ����ي��) ،ام � �ج��ل��د � إ �ف ن � � ة ة � ة � � �ص� �ح�� .134 ا �ل��ثا �ي� ( ،ك���مب��ر د �� :م���طب����ع�� �ج��ا �م��ع�� ك�مب��ر د �،)1985 ، �ج �ج �أ �أ ��ت � � � � �ذ � غ غ ة ف � � ن ق خ ن ض ا ا ا � � � ل� � ��س) �� ��ه ’ا ل � � ��ط� ب�‘ �و ’ا � �ص � ك� � ح�لي���ل‘ ل��ل�م�� ’�( ‘logosل�و � �و ب � 8ير ����� �ه� �ي��د ��ر �ه� ا ا�لمع��ى ا � �ل�� � ر ن �أ ت ا ة � ن � ن ا ن � �أ � �ً �ذ ل��ل �ة �ص��ل� �� ك� �ود �ي�� .و� ح�ا �و �ل �ب��د �ل�ا �م ن� ��ل��ك ا ��س��ع� د � ا�لم�ع��ى ا �لي ��و�� ��ي� ا �� �م� � � � ل د �و � ��س�ا ��س �و ج�� ي ي� � � � ���ض ’� � ‘logosه� ’ا�ج �ل ت �ن �ظ � ��م� ك��ا �ب�ه An Introduction to Metaphysics و و ع‘ �و ’ا �ل� �م‘ .ا �� ر ن ا ف ن � ن � �� �ة ة ة � ي�ز ق ن ا ا ا ا (�م�د خ��� ��ل� ا �ل��م�ت � ي�� ��ف�� �ي����)��� ،تر�ج �م�� ر�� .م� ���ه� ��م�� ( ،ي ��و�ه� ��� �و�ل��ن�د � :م�ط���ب�ع�� � �جا ���م�ع� � ل �إ ى ي �ف � ة �ص� �ح�� .135-120 ��ي���ي�ل،)1959 ،
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�أ � � � ف ��ل �ة � �ق �أ ن ا ن ن �ق��ة ا �ل�� ���ش�ي �ا ء �ب�ا �لم��عن��ى ا �ل�� غ��ر� ��ق�� �ل�� ك� ح��ي��� ���ه�م ����ن� �ر ���ي�د � � ل�� ��م� � ،ل�ك� إ ي ي� ن � ��ا � � �ة � ة ب���س��� ا �ل�ا �عت����ق�ا د ب��ن ������ظ�ا �م �ع�ق��ل�ا ��ن� ب� ح ت� ي ج� ��ع��ل��ن�ا ��م��ت��ل�ك ��س�ي ����طر� ك�� م�ل� ب ب ي ت ّ � � �ق�د � ا ��ل� �ق �ا ن�� �ة ا � �أ ا ��ت �ة ا ��ل�ت ت�ح�د ��مخ �� � ت � ق ��ع��ل�ى ا �ل��ع�ا �ل�م� .و� ��� م ع��ل ��ي� �ل� د ��ي� �ي� � د �� � ط��ط�ا � ا � �ل����ي�م أ � ً ً � �وا ��لنُ �ُ������ظ�م ا �لت��ع���يل�م��ي��ة �وا ��ل�� �ن� ��ظ����م��ة ا ��ل��س �ا ��س ��ة �وا ��ل ح�وا ت� ا �لي ��و�م��ي��ة �تب��ر ����ير ا � �ج�ا �ه�ز ا � �ي � �ي �ي � � ُ ّ � � ��ف ا �ل� ت م�ن��ا �و ��ل �ل��ل��س�ي �����طر�ة �وا �لت�نب��ّ���ؤ �وا �ل�ه�ي�م��ن��ة� ،و�ت��ع ���ط� �م��عن��ى �م�ز � ����ًف�ا �إ ��ل�ى � ح�د و ي� �ٍ ي� ي ّ �أ نّ � أ ا �� ا � 6ت ّ � �أ ن � � � � ���صر� �م��ؤ ك� � � ا ه � ا ���د �ة � ا �ل�� ���ش�ي �ا ء � م � � � � ل �� . � � �ض �ل� و �ي� � ك����ب�ي ر ل�ل � و ر�� ح و إ �ش�بّ ع �أ ن � ن ة � �إ�ذ � ن � ة ن� ت� ن �ذ َت �ه ة ن ح� ث� �إ � �ل�ه�ا ق�ي���م�� ا ��ت���ف�ا �ب�ا �ل����س�ب �� �ل��ن�ا؛ ‘ا �ل�ع�ق��ل�ا �ي�’ ���ك�و � ا � �م��ي�� �م� �ي �أع ق ان ة � ا ق �ة ف ا � �أ ا � � اف � �ه ���ي��ة ،ن���م�ا �ه�و ‘ا �ل��ن� ��� ’� �� .ل� ���ش�ي � ء �ل�م ي���ع�د �ل�ه� �م�ع� ��و�لي��� �و ‘�ع���ل� ����ي��’ ج��و ر �إ ع �أ ن � ن � ا �ل�� � �ذ ��ح ا ��ف ا �ل�ا � ت �� ا ة ن ��ل�ه�ا ق�ي���م��ة ا ن��ت��ف��ا �و � حو ا �ل�� �ي� ن�ر ���ي�د. �ه�ا �ع��ل�ى � ح ن� � ر ر ي� �س��ف� د � �م � �أ ع � � � �ة ن �ت �� ّ �ف ّ � ن��ز �ة �� ض �ة ��ق� ��ف� ا ��ل ح�ق���ب��ة ا ��ل ت �� � ا �� � � ح�د ��ي��ث� �ب�ي�� ��طر �ي� ا �ل� ��ع� ا ل�و� ���ع��ي� �و��ق�د �� ر جح لع� ل ي ِ �إ�ذ � �أ ت ّ � � �أ � م� ���ط�ق� ��ة � ا ���ن��ز � ��ة ا ��لت��ا �خ � ��ا ��ل��ي��ة .ا �لر �ي� ا �ل�� �و �ل ا ��ل���ذ �ي� ��م��ث��ل�ه ���ي��ة ا �لرا د �ي ك� ا �ل ن ��ي و ل �ع ير �أ �أ �أ � ق �أ�ز � � ا ثّ � ّ �ق��ة ف�ي�ي����ن�ا �و ت��ب��ا �ع�ه�ا ف� ّ����سر ا �ل� � � ع� ح�� �ل� ��ق�ل �ب� ���ن�ه �م��ب�د �م ���ط�� �ل� �و �ل�ي� �ل� ��ي��ت��أ�ر ا � ا �خ �أ ا � ا ت �أ ��� ا ت ا �� ض ف � �� ا �� �� �ة �ب� �ل��ت� ير� �و �ب� �ل��ع� د ا � �و بِ ِ س��م� � ل� �����ع�� ا �لب�������شر �ي� �م���ث�ل ا ل�ع� �ط�ف� �أ ّ �� �ق �ا ن �ة �ت��� ن � ا � �ة ث ا ت ن ف ا � ا ت � ا � � ة � �غ ة �ق�� ���م� �وا �لر� ��ب��� .وا ل�ع��ل ����ي� ع��ي� ب�ب����س� ���ط� �إ ����ب� � � �م��� ه�ي�م��ن� �م� ��ط� ب�� �ذع �أ � � � � �ذ �ت���ع ن � ا ت ن �س�����ت�ا � ا �ل�� �ي� �ي�ل�ا ����ئ�م ا �ل�و��ق�ا �ئ�� ا �ل��ت� �ب�� ن� �ي��د ��ي��ن�ا� .و��ب ��ه� ا ا �ل�وا ���ق� � ،و ��� ا �ل� � ع ي ي ي �ج ع �أ ح��د ا �ث��ة �� �نّ�ه�ا �� 6ل�ل�ا ّ ���ط�ل�ا �ع�� � � ة ن �ظ � �خ ا �ص��ة ��ا ��ل � ع ل�ى و ج � ب � �ه�� �� �� ر �� � ب � ( Crossing the Postmodern Divideعب ��و ر � غ �ج��ا �م�ع��ة ���ش�ي ك� �و.)1992 ، ��ا � �
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ت ن ف ة � ق ا ن ة � ا ت فَ َ � � ا �� �لقَ� �� ��َل ��ا ��ل�ع�ق��� ��ا � ت �� � ���ب�ه���� “ :ع��ي� ��� ع��ب �ا ر ه �م� ��ص�د ر ض�ي �ل�� ا �ل�ع���ل� ����ي�� اَ �ل� ��ع��ر ا � و ب و ب ل ب َ َ َ َ � � ق� َ � � � ح ك� ح��ي�د �ل��ل��ع��ل� �و َ� ا �ل�� �ن���س�ا ِن� ا ��ل�و� ���م�ه ا �ل�و� ح��ي�د ��ع��ل� ا � �ل����ي�م �و�مر����ش�د ه ا �ل�و� ح��ي�د إ ى م � ة �ن �ذ � �� 5ف � � �ف ا �� ت �خ � � ��ة ب�خ �ل��ل� ���ع�ل”� .و� ك �ص�و��ص ا �ل�ع�� ل��ن� ��ي� ا �ل�وا ���ق� ��ه� ا ا �لر ��ؤ ���ي�� ا �ل�� ب �و��ي �� ��ق�ل -ل��ي� ع �أ � ن ن ����ن�ا �ف ن ن �� ن �ه�ا ب �ح�م�ا ���س��ة �ع�ا ��ل��ي��ة ف��ل�ا �� �س��ف��ة ك� ���ا د ي��مي ��و� �م ن� ا �ل�و ض� � �ع � ي ���ع��ي��ي� �و�م� ا �ل��ذ�ي � �أ ح �أ ����م�ا ���ع��ل ن�� ن� �ن �ف����س���ه�م ��ت��ب�ا ��م��ذ �ه� ا ��ل�ع�ق��ل�ا ن����ي��ة ا �� تل�ن �� ر ���ي��ة �� -ل� �ت����ع��م� ��ق ���ط ك� م و ي و ل ب ع َّ �أ �أ �ي ة � �أ �ق �ا ن �ة �ه�و �مت��و ���ق� ؛ �و ��ل�م �ت��فِ� ب���م�ا �و ��ع�د ت� ���ب�ه� ،ي� ب� حر���ي�� ا �ل� ���فر ا د �و �ع��ل ����ي� � ة �أ � � ة � � �أع � ف ة � ة �أ � ��ت�ز ال�جم ����ت�م� �و ا�لم���س�ا �وا � ا �ل����ش�ا �م��ل�� �و ا �لث��ق��ا �ف�� ا �ل�ع��ل�م��ي�� �و ا �ل� ا �م ا �ل�ع�� ��ق�ل ��ي� ع �ذ �ذ � ا �ة �أ ا ��� � �ة � ا �قت ا ة �� ت �أ ّ ا �ل��س�ي � ���س� �و ل�ع�د ا �ل� ا �ل� �� �ص� د ���ي��� .و��ه� ا �ب�� ا ���ت�ه ���ي�د �ع�و �إ ل�ى �� ��م�ل �أ ا � ق ل� � � � ضّ ن ت ا ا � � �� � �ل�ع��� م ���ع�م ق � ن �م� �ق �� �ة � ��ش � ا � ���ي ا ل �� ي��� ب ����ش� � ع��و�أل��ي� م��� ر وع ل� ��و� ر ��خ� ص ب� �ل �ح��� .و�ع��ل�ى ّ � ق ان ة ن ت � � �� �ح�ا ��ل���� ،ب�د � ن� �ع��ن�ا � َ �ك� ���ل � �صر �م ن� ‘ا �ل�ل�ا �ع���ل� ����ي��’ ��ق�د ا ����س��ل� �إ �ل�ى ا �لن����ظ�ا �م ي و ِ نّ ل� � �أ �� ا �� �ل� � �ذ � � � ن ا ث ���د ���ي�د ا �ل�� �� � ��ع�د ���ب�ه ا � تل� �� ����ي ؛ � � �جم ا ��ل��ع�ا �ل�م ا ج�ل ����ت�م� ا �لر س��م� ل�� ا � �ح�د ��ي� و ر و ي و ي � �إ ع ��ّ ن�ز ي � ا ��ش ا �� ف � �� ا ن ة � � �ة � ن �� ه ا ��ل ن �ة �ف خ ن � � ل � � � � ه ل � ا � �ل ع � � ا ا �ك � � �� �� � � � � � � � �ي�د � �ص� ��ي� �مر و��غ� و رد ي����ت� � �ب�� �ع��ت�ه ا ل�ل � �ج� و �ف� ب ي ��و ي� ب ع� �ل � ن ن � � ا �ت ا � ق ا ن ا �لب���ع�د �ع� �����ظ� �ٍم ا ج���م� ع�ي� �ع���ل� �ي�. �أ � ا �� � ن � �ذ ن ��ص�ا ر ��م��ذ �ه� ا �ل�ع��ل�م��ي��ة ��ف� �وا � ��قر � ا �ل��ت�ا ��س� � ��خر ل� �و�م��ن� ا ��ت�� ب ي �أع �ش �أ �أ � � نق � � ة � ق ن ��ق ن� ا ��ل� ش �ع�����شر �و �وا ����ئ�ل ا � �ل� ع���ر �ي ن� �ل�م ت�� �������ط� ا�لم��ن�ا د ا � �ب�ا �ل�ع����ل��� � �� ،ن�ه ����ش� � ر ع �ن � ة � ح ث� ا ��ل� �ق ا � ن ا ت طق �وا ��بل�� ع� �ا ر ه ��س��م��ة �م ن ��س��م�ا ت� ا ��ل � ح��د ا ���ث�� �لي����س ب���سب�� ب� ع��ل� �ي�� ،ب� � �ب � ا �لم� �� �� � ف � �ذ �ت �ة � �أ �� �ة ض�ي ��ل��ة � ح ب� ا �ل�� ا ت�)( ،ا �لم��ك��ب � ا �ل� �مر ك �� �ي�� 5اِ�ي ن� ر ا �ن��د��� ( The Virtue of Selfishness ، �ي �ص�ف� ة ���د ���د �ة� ،)1964 ، ��ل �ح�� .25 اج ي
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ا � �أ �غ ة ن � ت ف ل�ا �ة �ع ّ ا �إ�ذ ا � ن � �� ���ب� �ح�د ��ث ت� ��ي� �� “ ،2001/9/11م� ك ���ا � �ه��ن� �ل��ك �ي� ��ا ���ي�� �م� ا � ك�� �أ ف ة ة �ز � ���صر ا � تل�ن ��و����ير ��� �م ن ���ب�د ا ��ّ�ن�ه ي����ع��ل ن �ب� �و� ح���ش�ي �� ك� ����ب�ي�ر �ة �ن��ه�ا ���ي�� ق�ي���م�ه �ع ن� �ع� � � ي �أ �أ ّ ّ � � ُُ ن � قا فة � ا ة ن ا ق ��ص�د د �و�بر ���ي�ه � ��ي � �و�م��ث��ل�ه”� .و �ل� �ي���� ���صرح� �ب� � ا �ل���ث��� ��� ا �لإ� ��س�ل� �م��ي�� “���غ�ي�ر �� � ّ �ت �أ ّ � ت ة �ن ا ��ل�� ���س�ل�ا �م ��ل���ي�م ّ ب���م � � ة � ّ � ة ن ل� �م��س����ن�ي�ر � ”� ،و ك ���ن�ه ��ك� ب� ���ن�ه “�ل�م �ي ك �ح�ل�� �م ��ط�و�ل�� �م� ر ر ��� إ � � � � � � ا �خ �ق�د �ي� �ل��ص �ح��ة ر ��ؤ ����ت�ه ا �لر �و� � ح��ي��ة� ،مث���ل��م�ا �ف����ع�ل ا �ل����غر ب� � ا �ل� �ت��ب �ا ر ا �لن ��� � �خ�ل�ا �ل ي � ّ �� ا ح��ت�ا ��قر ن� ا ��ل��ث�ا �م ن� �ع�����شر”� 4.و ��ل�م ��ي��ب�� ن� د �و�بر ���ي�ه �ل��م�ا �ذ ا ي� ا � �ل� � ا �لإ� ���س�ل� �م ي �ج � �ة �ؤ ه �� � ة �أ ّ �� � �إ ��ل�ى �إ ��ع�ا د �ة �ن �������ظر ��ف� “��ص ح��ي��” ،ب����ي�د ���ن�ه ����ي د د � ض� �ح� ر � ��ي��ت� ا لر �و ي ر �ب �و �وح � ة � �ش ا �ئ� �ة ن� � �ت�ز ا � � �� � ا � ّ ا � � ��ص�ل�ا � ��ه�� �ن ������ظر �� � � � حو م� ��ي�د � � حول �م� ي����س��مى “ �لإ� � �ع ع � � � � ل �و ج � � ى ح �أ ت �أ � ق � ة �أ��ث �� � ن ا ت � ا ا � �ص�وا � � � ��خر ى �م��� �ل� ا �لإ� ��س�ل� م�ي�”� .و��ق�د ك�� ��� �ه��ن� ك � �ق�� ك���ر ���ت�د �ع�و ا ��ل� ا ��َ �م ن ن � ا ��ل ت�� ن ����ي �� �ا �م ��ن ���ق��ذ ا �ل�م��س��ل � ن �م ن ا ��لت�� ف ��خ��ل�� �و �ع� ل�م � د �ي � �ل� �إ �ى “ ��و ر �إ س�ل �ي�” ي � ��م�ي� � � �ق �ا � ن خ� � ����ط�ي�ر. ع��ل �ي� �و َ �أ �أ ً � ّ � � � � ت ن ت ن ة ض � � ف ئ ي�ز ا � ����ط� ا �ل����ش�ا ��� ا �ف�� ا �� � ا �ل�ع�� ��ا �و�م ن ا � خل � ��ق�ل ك�� � ��م�� � � � �����فر د ��ب �ه� ا �ل��ت����ك�ي�ر ع ر � � � ن � ت �ذ ل ا �ة � ف � ن ق م ت � � ت ت ا ا �م ن � � � � � � � ا ج� � � � � � ا � � ل ا � تل�ن ��و����ير ي� �م��ن� ل� �ق�د ح� �م�ع� � ���لي��د ���ي� ��قر � ا �ل��ث� م� ع�����شر؛ �� � َ �ا �نًا � ًّا �ف � �ا � ت ا �� � ا �ن ن ا �� ا �ة ا � �أ � ا ق ��ق�ل � ك� ا �ل�ع�� �ق� ��و� �و ل��س�ي � ���س� �و �ل� � م�� � م�ه�م� �ي� ا �ل�ل ه�و� �و ل� �خ�ل� �� � � ا ت �أ ��ل��ل ا ة � ث � ن�ت � ة ن � � ف ن ا ا ن �وا �� �لف�� �و�م �ج� �ل� � � ��خر �ى � � ح��ي� � ا �لإ� ���س� ����ي��� .و��ق�د �أ�� � � ا �ل���تر ا � ا � �ل� ك ��ر�ي� � �ج � � 4ل�و���س د �و �ب ر �ي�هThe Enlightenment and the Intellectual Foundations of ، ي � � ف� ة � � ث ق ا ف ة �ل� � � � ث �ة ن ا ف ن �� ن ن ن ق �� �ر�� �ل� � ل��� ��� اح�دي���� )��( ،ي ��و�ه� ��� �ول��د �: �صر ا � تل� ��و�ير �وا � �ل ��وا �ع�د ا � �ل� ك � ( Modern Cultureع� ي � �ق �ة ة � �� ة � ا �ل ط��ع�� �ج��ا �م�ع�� ي��ي���ل ،)2004 ،م��د م� .ix ، م� ب
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�أ � � � � ن ا ن ة ت ا ت �ق ���هَ � ا �� �� � ا ��ق� ا ج��ل �م ن� � � � � �ل و ل��ظ�ل� �م؛ �و�ه�و ��ج�ل ر �وح ا �لإ� ���س� ����ي�� �و� ����ق� ���ل ��و�ى ا �ل�ع�� ل ٌ ت � � ّ ف �� ض � �وا ��ل�ع�ق��ل�ا ن����ي��ة�� :ه�د �ف� ت��� ي�����ش�ي�ر �إ �ل�ى �ع�م��ل��ي��ةٍ �م ن� ا �ل��ت�د ر � ��ي� ا �ل�ن��� ��حر ك �ج ��ج �أ �أ ّ ن� � فن �ه�ا ���ي��ة ا ��ل��ت�ا ر�خ� حوه ا �ل�� �ن��س�ا ن����ي��ة �ج��م��ع�ا ء� .و ب���م�ا ن� �ع��ه�د ا �ل� � ع� ��ق�ل ��ق�د ���ب�د � � � إ ي ت ف ن � �أ ن ا ة �ا ة � ن ا ��ب�ز غ ن قا ا تا � ا ��ص� ر � ��ي� �م��� �و �ل �ي��د ��ي��ن� ��� -ه� ���ي�� �ل� ر��ي ب� �� د ��م�� ح�ي���م� ��ي� � � ��و ر أ � ��ق ��ع�� ا ��ل�� �ن��س�ا ن����ي��ة �ج��م��ع�ا ء ��م ن ��ف �ذ ��ل��ك ���غ�� ا ��ل�� � ����ي�� ن �� ي�. ب � ي� ير و ر ب ا ل�ع� �ل ل�ى إ �أ ت ّ � � ن ا ن � ن �� ا �ة ���ا ن��ْ ت� ا �� تل�ن ��و����ير �ب� ��ّ�ن�ه « � �و ��ق�د ���عر �ف� ك� �ص� ���ي� ��حر ر ا �لإ� ����س� � م� ا ل�و� � ا ��ل�ت ���ل � ف ��ج�ز ا � � �ن �ا ن �ع ن ا � ا � ت �ص�ا ���ي��ة ��ه� �ع � �س��ع�ا ���ن��ة �ب ف����ه�م�ه � �لإ� ���س � � �ل� �ه�ا �لن������س�ه؛ �وا �ل�و� �ي� �ج ب � ي �أ � �آ �ن ض � � ن ن � خ � ا ن ن � � د �و ن� �ت��و�ج ��ي�ه �م� ا �ل� �ر �»� .و�ق�د �و� � ا �لإ� ����س� � ا � ك � �ج�د ��ع�د �م ���� ل����ث�ي�ر �ي �ج �� ن ش ّ � ا ت ا �خ� �� ش �ة �صف ���ا ن��ْ ت �م ن ا �� �� � � ��ل � � � � � � � � � ا � � � ��� �� ه � ل � � � ك � � . ��� � ك � � �ي � � � ل ج و ر و ر � ل��ظ�ل�م �وا ج����ه�ل ا �ل�ل��ذ�ي � ي ب ر �ي �أ �أ �أ � � ة � ا �� تل�ن �� ����ير �� ��ّ�ن�ه «ا ��ل � ��جر �ة ��ع��ل� ا �لت ف��� ك � �����ير» ب حر���ي��� Sapere aude! “ .ي� و ب ى �أ ت ت �أ �ذ �ن 3 ��ج ّر ��ع��ل ن� ����ست�� � ��خ�د �م �ع�� � �ق��ل�ك! ��ه� ا �ه�و �ش�� ��ع�ا ر ا � تل� ��و����ير”. � ى � � �أ أ � ��ا � �ة ��ل � ا �ة ا �� �ش � �ة ا ا � �آ ن � �و�م ن� ا �ل� �و���س�ا ��ط ا �ل� ك�� د ي�م��ي� �إ �ى ا �ل��س�ي � ���س� ل�� بع ��و���ي� � ، ��ص� ر �ل� � � �� ن ا ش � � �تن � ن ق ا ً ا � � � ا ف �� � �ق �ا ن �ة حو�ل �ع�� حو�ل ا �ل� �ت����ق�ا ر ا�ل�م�ز �ع�و�م ل�ل�ع��ل ����ي� ا ل��� ��ق�ل ا �ل� ��و���ير � ���� ����ش� � �ق� ��� � �ف ق ّ � � ت ا � � ف ة � ا � �ن ا ن�� � � ا � �ا � � � ء � � � � ه �� ه � و َّ�لإ� ��س� ��ي� �ي� �لإ� ���س�ل م .و ���س� ل ل�وي���س د و�بر ��ي� �ي� �م��د �م��ت� �ع��ل�ى � �خ � ق � �� �تن � ا ت ا �� ت �أ�ذ � ا �ل ه �م��ؤ � �ل�ف�ه �ع ن� ا �ل��ت�ا ير� ا�لم�����شر �� �ل�ع� ���صر ا �ل� ��و����ير� ،و��ق�د �ه�ل��ت�ه ��ج ��م� � ل ��ي� ف �ْ ن �تن ا ���ا ن�� ت�? ” ، � 3إ ي��م�ا � ��و �ي��ل ك �( “What is Enlightenmentم� �ه�و ا �ل� ��و�ير؟) ��ي� ت � � ْ � �خ ن ���ة � ن ش ت ح ر �ل�و��� �وا ��ي ت� ���ك��( ،ي ��و� �و ر ك ��� :ك��� ( Kant on Historyك���ا ��� � �� :ت ا � � ر حول ا �ل�� ير ) ،ر�ي ي س بِ �ي �ف � ة �� ن � ن �ص� �ح�� .3 �م�ا ك��يم��ل�ا � �ل��ل�� ش���ر،)1963 ،
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أ ة � م��ع��ّ� �ة � ق ق �إ ��ل�ى ا �� تل� �ا ��ي��ن�ا ت� ��� ن ا ��ل�� د ��ا ن� ا ��لت��ق���لي��د ���ي��ة �وا �ل�م�ف��ا �ه���ي�م ا ��ل � ح��د ��ي��ث�� ا �ل ت ل� �ق� ب ح� ��و �� ي �ب ب ي� ّ � � ن ا ن � ا ة �� � ا ت �ق �ا � �ة ة � ن ت � ل � � ا �لإ� ����س� � �وا�لم���س� �وا � �وا � حر���ي��� .و���ي�د ع�ي� ع� ��ق�ل ا �ل� ��و����ير ا �ل� ��س���ل �ل��ي� � �خ �أ � ض �أ �� �ف ة � �ذ ة ة ة � �خ ا ا � �وا ل� ��ك��ا ���ي�� ا �ل�� ا ��ت��ي�� �و �ير �ف��� ي� ��س�� � ل��ط�� �� ر�ج���ي�� �م���ث�ل ا �ل��ت� ير� �و ث �أ � ا � ض �� ن � � ة تف ً � � �ض � ه �ل� خ ا � ن ا �ل���تر ا � �و ا �ل��د �ي �؛ �و�ه�و �ل� �ير �ف�� ا �ل�د �ي � � �ص�ي �ل� ����ب�ل ي � ��ج�م�ل�� �و� ���� ���ع� �إ �ى � ن � � � ً �� �ل ت َ � � ن ا � ت� ��ق�ل ا �لإ�� �ن���س�ا ��� ا � �ل���فر د �ي�� ،و ر����س�م � �س�� ��قر ا ء ا �ل�ع�� �ح�د �ود ا ل� �م�ع ����ق�د ا �ل�د �ي ��ي� �ي ي �أ �أ �أ �خ�ا ر � ��ه��ذه ا ��ل � ل���ط��ة ��ل��ل��د �ي ن� � �ح�د �ود. �و �ي� ب �ى �ي� د �و ر �و ��س�� � � �ج �ة نّ � نّ � � � �� ا �و ��ع��ل�ى ����ش�ا ك����ل�� � ����ق�ا د ا �ل�ع� �ص�و ر ا �ل�و��س ��ط�ى� ،ير���ب ��ط � ����ق�ا د ا �لإ� ���س�ل� �م ن �أ نّ � ن ن �� ة � ف �ي�ز � ق ا �ل�ع��ل��م�ا ��ي��و� �ب�ي� ن� ا �ل�ل�ا �ع���ل�ا ن����ي�� �وا �ل�ع���ن�� �و ���ع�م�و� �ب� � «ا �لإ� ر ��ه�ا ب� ن�� ت�� ة � � � � ة � �� ا ��ل�� ��س�ل�ا �م��» ي�� ط�ي���ع��ة ���غ�ي�ر ا �ل� � عق��ل�ا ن����ي�� �ل��ل��د �ي ن� ا �لإ� ��س�ل�ا �م�ي�. � �ج�� �ل�ل��ب إ ي ن �أ ا �أ � � ��ل � ق ا ئ� �ة � ض �ف ا �ل� ت ش ��ق ن ا �ل� ت � � ا ء �� �م �� ��خ م�� م ��ث س � � �ش�د � � د �� �� �� � : � � ��� ل � � �� م � � � � ى � � و ر �إ ى �و�ي ي رو �ل �ش�ي �أ أ � � � ة ة ق ة � � ق ق �ح�ت ن ت �ا ا ��ض� ��� ا ت � حر���ي�� ا �ل��ص �ه�ا ك � ح� ��و �� ا �ل� ���ل��ي�ا � �و� طه� د ا �ل��مر � � ،وا �� � � ح� �ف��� ،و �ى �أ ّ �� ن ا � ً ا �ذ � �ة �� � �ف �خ ��ق � ا �� �ف ح�د ��م�ا ��ا ��ل��ت ا �ث ت ا ل � � ل � �م ا � � �ج ��ص� � � ل ا � �ل �� ر و ���س� د� ،إ ..ب� ��ه� ي �ع� � � ل� �إ �ى � ب ر �تق ّ �أ ّ ه � ن ا � � �ا �م �� ��ذ � �� ��ن �����س� ا �ت ف ��ك��ر ا ��ل � ���ا � �ي��� �لإ� ��س�ل �ي� ا ل� ي� ل�م �ي ك ��حر �و ���ن� ك �� ي م ��ق�م� ا �ل ����� � �ب� �ل����ي �صي� ع ح � ا �خ ف �أ نّ � � �ذ � ت ة ف �غ ت �ش ا ا ��ل � � � ��حر �وا �ل�ا �خ���ت�ل�ا �ف� �وا �ل��ع�د د ���ي��� .و �ل� ي ��� � ��ه� ا ��� �و���ي�ه �م��ب� �ل� ��ي�ه ى �أ ن � ن ة �ًا ت ��ل��ل���ت ا ث� ا ��ل�� ��س�ل�ا �م� � �م��بن�� ��ع�� ا � ت ع��ب �ا ر ا � ��س�ي �ا ��س�ي �� ���ب�د �ل� �م ن� � �ي��ك�و � ر إ ي� و ي� ل�ى ت ً � � �ن ق ا ا ت � � �ة ة ئ �خ ت ا �م��س��ت��ن�د ا �إ ��ل�ى � ح��ل���ي�ل ��س��ل���ي�م �ل�و��ق�ا ��� �� ير���ي��� .و�م�ع����ظ�م ا �ل ���� ����ش� � ا �لرا �ه��ن� ف �أ � � قع ة � � � � �� �ت حو�ل ا �لإ� ���س�ل�ا �م �وا �ل�ع�� ��ق�ل �وا �ل�ع���ل�ا ن����ي�� �وا �ل��ع��ل� ا �ل ��ي� ���ت�د �و ر ��ي� �و���س�ا ��ط � م �آ ّ ّ ة ف � � ة � َّ � ة �ع�ا ��م�� ��ي� ا �ل����غر ب� �م��ت� ث�أ�ر�ة ��ب ��ه��ذه ا �ل�� ر ا ء ا�لمب����س���ط�� �و ���غ�ي�ر ا �ل�وا �ق��ع��ي�� ���م� ع ا �� ن ك� ل�
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ْ �َ ْ فَتَ ُ � نَ �أَ �َ �َْ َ ُ � �ف� � � � � ا ا �لأ �ر�ضِ� ���كو� ل�مَ ي�ِ��س�ي ر �و فِ�ي �� ُ ْ ُق ُ ٌ َ ْ ع���ُ�ل نَ� � َه�ا � � ل���ه�م �� �لو ب � ي��� قِ و بِ � ��س �ة ا �ل � ح��ج 46 :22 ور �