'
P A R T IC IP A T O R Y
!
A C T IO N
7
a rtic ip a to ry
a c tio n i d e a s a n d p r a c t i c e s .
-
i n t h e
v i e w
o f
t h i s
c h a p t e r
p a r t i c i p a t o r y
a c t i o n
i s
o u r
t o
c u r r e n t p u r p o s e s ,
w e
r e s e a r c h
;is ta k e s "
e x p lo ra tio n
a p p r o a c h e s
e a c h , n m i s
t o a c tio n
a n d
r e s e a r c h , t h e
e x p lo re
th e m
&
m o re
a c tio n In
le a rn in g ,
o a c h e s ,
a c tio ns c i e n c e ,
a n d in d u s tria l
a c tio n
s o f t s y s t e m s
c le a rly
its
political
g
s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t
H u m a n
R e la tio n s
th e
U n ite d
K in g d o m
c o n t a c t
f o r
m a n y a c tio n
( 1 9 4 6 , 1 9 5 2 ) o w n e a r l i e s t p u b l i c a tio n s
a c tio n
m a k e
lin k s
w i t h b r o a d s o c i a l m o v e m e n t s .
re la te d to
P a r t i c i p a t o r y R e s e a r c h
d e v e lo p m e n t p ra c tic e d w ith
a c tio n
t i o n a l
r e s e a r c h :
s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
o wn e r s h i p
p r o j e c t s , c o m m u n i t y - b a s e da n a l y s i s o lo g y
in
th e
U n ite d
S t a t e s l e d
a
t e m p o r a r y
A s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n o f a c t i o n r e s e a r c h , b u i l d ing
on
a
B ritish
t r a d i t i o no f
a c t i o n
r e s e a r c h
i n
o rg a n iz a tio n a l d e v e lo p m e n t c h a m p io n e d
&
A d e lm a n ,
R e c o g n itio n
in p o w e rfu l P itt,
B o rd a &
&
R a h m a n ,
W e l s h ,
" e ma n c i p a t o r y " a c tio n 1 9 8 2 ;
b e tw e e n
c ritic a l
p a rtic ip a to ry
e m a n c i p a t o r ya c t i o n a c tio n
H o r t o n , K o h l,
&
K o h l,
C r i t i c a l a c t i o n r e s e a r c h e x p r e s s e s a c o m m i t m e n t
th a t
a c tio n
to
rn
a c t i o n r e s e a r c h i s s t r o n g l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n
..
.
. : t e r a t u r e s o f e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i o n r e s e a r c h , a n d
t:.:
2 :r?
it em erges from
dissatisfactions w ith
1 9 9 2 ; S t e n h o u s e , 1 9 7 5 ; W e i n e r, 1 9 8 9 ) .
class-
::? m ?:?ad
A c tio n
= - . : -
o f
a c tio n
r e s e a r c h
h a s
a l s o
a t t e m p t e tdo
le a rn in g has
a d v o c a t e R eg
its
R e v a n s ,
origins
in th e
w o r k
w h o
ta k e
;;c o u n t
C l a s s r o o m
A c t i o n
R e s e a r c h
C lassroom :h e
q u a lita tiv e in te rp re tiv e m o d e s
In q u iry
d a ta
c o lle c tio n
w o r k
o f
t h e
m a n a g e r s
t h e y
to
by
t h a t
b r e a t h e d life
in t~
a c a d e m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p s y c h o lo g y
te a
p ra c tic a l p ro b le m s
th e y
in
tw o
tio
d u rin g
r o o m a c t i o n r e s e a r c h i s n o t j u s t p r a c t i c a l i d e a l i s t i c a l l y,
in
a
u to p ia n
w a y,
or
just
a b o u t
h o w
tra in in g
a n d (b )
in te rp re ta tio n
y
d i s a v o w
o r
s e e k
t o
d i m i n i s h
t h e
m o r e t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c o u r s e s u c h
a s
r e l e v a n c e c ritic a l
th e ir
in itia l
t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l k n o w l e d g e o f
e n a c tm e n t.
A d is tin c tio n is
th e
" re fle c tiv e
p ra c titio n e r" (A rg y ris,
c ritic a l th e o ry a s
a
S o f t S y s t e m s A p p r o a c h e s
&
E m e r y, T h o r s r u d , L e v in ,
1 9 8 5 ;
&
T r i s t ,
P a s r n o r e
&
T h o r s r u d ,
1 9 6 9 ;
1 9 7 6 ;
F o s t e r,
1 9 7 2 ;
F r i e d l a n d e r,
P A R T IC IP A T O R Y
fie ld
w a s
th e
e m e r g e d s e q u e s t e r i n g
I n d u s t r i a l A c t i o n
In d u s tria l
o f
m u c h
R e s e a r c h
a c tio n
d iffe re n t e x te n d e d
s c a l e
R e la tio n s
p ra c titio n e rs
a n d a tte n d a n c e
in B rita in
w o r k
o fte n
th e
fro m
a c tio n
a n d tique
of
itself
an d
its
predecessors
an d
to
c r i offer
a
g
r a t h e r w h e t h e r t h e y h a v e a s t r o n g a n d a u t h e n t i c th e
d o m i n a n c e
in s tru m e n ta l "m alaise
o f
o f
th e
m o d e rn ity "
re fle c tio n a s
th e y
tim e
(e.g .,
Ca rr
&
K e m m i s ,
c o lla b o ra tiv e ly
c o p a rtic ip a n ts
d e v e lo p
p e d a g o g ic a lly
is
p r o c e s s .
o v e r
p l a c e
1 9 8 6 ; K e m m i s&
th e
p a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n
N o t all
t h i s
theorists
e m p h a s i s
a c tio n
o nc o l l a b o r a t i o n ;
c o lla b o ra tiv e term s.
Participatory e d u c a tio n a l-
process. lo o k
a t
o u r
The
" s u b j e c t s "o f
participatory
o w n
i s s o c i a l ; p a r t i c i p a t o r ya c t i o n is
d ire c te d to w ard
reconstructing
K ey
re fra m in g ,
social practices. I f p r a c t i c e s a r e c o n -
s t i t u t e d i n s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n p e o p l e , c h a n g -
F e a t u r e s o f
ing
P la n n in g
s tu d y in g ,
r e s e a r c h
practices
is
a
social
process.
T o b e s u r e , o n e
a change
p a n t s i n t h e s t r u g g l e t o r e m a k e t h e p r a c t i c e s i n
quences of the change
w h i c ht h e yi n t e r a c t - f o r u m s
in
w hich
rationality
a n d d e m o c r a c y c a n b e p u r s u e d t o g e t h e r k v i t h o u t
R e v l a n n 0i n ~
an
artificial h is
separation
ultim ately
hostile
to
both.
b o o k B e t w e e n
H a b e r m a s
d e s c r i b e dt h i s
p r o c e s s
c o m m u n ic a tiv e
i n term s ( H a b e r m a s ,
1 9 9 6 ) , a t h e m e t o w h i c h w e r e t u r n l a t e r. a s
n e a t
a s
t h i s
e x p e r i e n c e . I n r e a l i t y, t h e is
likely
to
m o r e I t
s h o u l d
a l s o
b e
s t r e s s e d
t h a t
p a r t i c i p a t o r y -
a c tio n
in v o lv e s t h e
in v e s tig a tio n
-
The Action Research Spiral
n o w ."
p a rtic u la r
it
is
o u r v i e w, p a r t i c i p a t o r y a c tio n
p a rtic u la r
n o t p o s s i b l e
th e
in e v ita b le
a b s tra c tio n
c o n s titu te m a y
in te re s te d
c h a n g i n g
p r a c t i c e s
a c tio n
i n
" t h e
is
a
le a rn in g
P a rtic ip a to ry
W h a t
w
p e o p le d o
c o m m u n ic a tio n ,
w
p ro d u c tio n , a n d
w
o th e rs w
w
in te rp re t th e ir w o rld w
T h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a t o r y a c t i o n r e s e a r c h , p e o p l e c a n
c o m e
s o c i a l
t o
a n d
u n d e r s t a n d
w
th e econ om i c rea lm ,a n d
w
th e s o c io p o litic a l re a lm ,
t h a t - a n d h o w -th e ir
e d u c a tio n a l
lo c a te d
w
c i r c u m s t a n c e s , p a r t i c i p a t o r ya c t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s
b e c o m e
a l e r t
t o
c l u e s
a b o u t
w
w o rk ,a n d
w
p o w e r,
w h i c h
l a r g e l y
s h a p e , b u t
a l s o
c a n
b e
s h a p e d
b y,
h oi tw
w
s k ills , a n d
w
w
w h i c h ,
W
hile
p r e s e n t
a n d f u t u r e
re c o g n iz in g th a t
re a liz a tio n
e v e r y
s h a p e
a n d
a r e
s h a p e d
b y
t h e i r
w
s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d s o o n .
w
f o r
t u r n ,
c o m m u n ic a tio n ,
W
a
i n
c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
th e
ically
in
F i g u r e 2 3 .2 .
P a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n
s p a c e - t i m e
p r a c t i c e i s t r a n s i e n t
e v a n e s c e n t , a n d t h a t i t c a n b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d o n l y th e
t o
in e v ita b ly
t h e
ab stract,o r
g h o s t l y s t a t u s
the
o f
t h e
g e n e r a l ,
t h e
i d e a l - o r, p e r h a p s o n e s h o u l d s a y ,
t h e u n r e a l .
a c tio n
m a y
Fo r c y c l e s
m a n y o f
p e o p l e ,
t h e
i m a g e
o f
s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n( p l a n n i n g ,
t h e
s p i r a l
o f
a c tin g
o b s e r v i n g , r e f l e c t i n g , r e p l a n n i n g , e t c . )h a sb e c o me t h e
d o m i n a n t
f e a t u r e
o f
a c t i o n
r e s e a r ca hs
a n
a
T H E
.
,..,
T H E
S O C IA L
,
IN D IV ID U A L
.
..> ,
~ o c i a ~ ' s t r u & u r e s ,
:
.
> . ..
S o c ia lm
.
e d ia
C o g n itiv e u n d e rs ta n d in g s
F ig u r e '2 3 .2 .
v i e w, r e s e a r c h
h a s
s e v e n
o t h e r
participatory a c tio n k e y
f e a t u r e s
t h a t
a r e
and
the
a ttio n
is
social.
I t r e c o g n i z e s t h a t " n o i n d i v i d u a -
possible
s o c ia liz a tio n ( H a b e r m a s , 1 9 9 2 b , p . 2 6 ) , a n d t h a t t h e p r o c e s s e s in d iv id u a tio n
th e
s e ttin g s
s o c ia liz a tio n c o n tin u e
w h ic h
fin d
to
p r a c t i c e s c o m m u n ity in d iv id u a lly
a n d
a r e
s h a p e da n d c o n s t r a i n e d
p e o p le c o lle c tiv e ly -try t o u n d e r s t a n d if
th e m
research
is
p a r t i c i p a t o r y.
P a rtic ip a to ry P a r tic ip a to r y
r e c o v e r,
a c tio n
a n d r e l e a s e
is
t h e m s e l v e s
f r o m ,
c r itic a l.
t h e th ro u g h
l a n g u a g e( d i s c o u r s e s ) ,
e x c lu s io n -re la tio n in
( o r is
th e m
w ith
o th e rs
p r a c tic a l
u n s a tis fy in g (a lie n a tin g ) w a y s
a im
s h o w,
research
a n d
o f
in
P a rtic ip a to ry
r e c o v e r,
in e ffic ie n t), u n ju s t, a n d /o r
is
e m a n c i p a t o r y.
i t
i s
a
d e l i b e r a t e
.
..
a c tio n their practices (the w orkplace) in which their practices are w h o s e
p e r s p e c t i v e sa n d
p r a c t i c e s
represented and m isrepresented) lo c a l Pa r t i c i p a t o r y a c t i o n r e s e a r c h d o e s n o t , h o w e v e r, ta k e
a n
a r m c h a i r
v i e w o f t h e o r i z i n g ; r a t h e r, i t
a n d
t o
l i v e
o u t
t h e
s l o g a n
t h a t
t h e
p e r s o n a l
p o litic a 1 . c h a n g in g the
ways
i n w h ic h
w e
i n t e r a c t
i n a
s h a r e d s o c i a l w o r l d .
b o th
a n d
p r a c t i c e . P a rtic ip a to ry
a g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o no f a c tio n p r a c t i c e ;
r a t h e r,
i t
a i m s
th e
t oa r t i c u l a t e te c h n iq u e -a
to
th e
p e o p le
th e
is
d e v e lo p
e m p h a s i z e
fo r
the
t h a t
a
s o m e w h a t
s o u n d
m u s t
in v o lv e d a c tio n
r e s e a r c h i n v o l v e s " r e a c h i n g o u t " f r o m t h e s p e c i f i c s o f p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s , a s u n d e r s t o o d
th e
d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s , t h e o r i e s , a n d
o r
th e
s ta n d p o in ts p ro v id e d
o v e r s t a t e d th e
d iffe re n t
p e r s p e c t i v e s , t h e o r i e s , a n d d i s c o u r s e s t o e x p l o r e th e y
p ro v id e
ref erenc e
to th e
i s
a c t i o n
r e s e a r c h
E xaggerated assum ptions about how m e n t
m ig h t
th ro u g h
e m p o w e r -
a c tio n a
The
falsity
d u a lis m ,
m i s t a k e
n o t
to
of a
with research seen as
dispassionate,
inform ed,and rational and with activism seen
life
We p r e s e n t t h e s e r e f l e c t i o n s o n o u r p r a c t i c e s h e r e
a n d
r e t u r nt o
thkoretical
t h e m
later
from
a
A c tio n
R e s e a r c h
different
perspective.
E m p o w e r m e n t
I n
o u r
e a r l i e s t
that
w o r k
o n
a c t i o nr e s e a r c h ,
self-reflection
to
we
b rin g
a c tio n
It o f
is
s o c i a l
true t h a t
is
a n
s i t u a t i o n s th ro u g h a c tio n w ith positivistic
m yth o f
n e u tra lity t h e
r e s e a r c h e r
th e a s
d e t a c h e d
U n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s o f t e n p l a y a n a c t i v e r o l e a c tio n
research.
p r a c t i c e s , t i c e s ,
In th e
p o l i c y
a n d
a n d
e d u c a tio n
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
p r a c -
e v a lu a tio n e n tiz a tio n ,
p a re n t
p a rtic ip a tio n
m e d
t h a t i s , t h e d e v
c ritic a l
o r d i n a r y
p e rs p e c tiv e
p e o p l e
o r,
l
p
e n t o f a n i n f o r -
o n
t o
D u a l i s m
with d e m o c r a c y
a g a i n s t
them
for
justice
r e p r e s s i v se o c i a l
a n d to o
d iffic u lt
o r
p a rtic ip a n ts( M c T a g g a r t
c o n f r o n t i n gf o r &
G
o th e r
arbutcheon-Singh,
fro m
(th in k in g -a c tiv is m ) o f
p r a c t i c e
a b o u t u n s a t i s f a c t o r yc o n d i -
th e m ,
a n d s o m e
p o litic a l
o b s e r v e r s ) .
T h u s ,
s e e i n g
t h er o l e
of
f a c i l i t a t i o n a s a n e u t r a l r o l e o b s c u r e s k e y a s p e c t s o f p r a c t i c e s a n d i m p e d e s c r i t i q u e o f t h e w a y i n
a c tio n
ta k e refuge
in th e
v ie w
th a t
p ra c tic e .
A lth o u g h a c tio n
d e v e lo p m e n t
is
in p a rtic ip a n ts ' c a p a c ity fo r
T h e R o l e o f t h e C o l l e c t i v e a n d m o r e
a G s t e t t n e r, p o te n c y
o f
(A ltrichter&
g e n e ra tio n earlier
1 9 9 7 ) . I t
w a s
L e w i n
w h o
o b j e c t i f i e d
d is c ip lin e d
th e
" g r o u p
a n d
p la n n e d w ith
a s
e x p e r i e n c e
u n d e r s t o o d , b o t h
c o lle c tiv e
to w a rd
t h e
s u p p o r t
a n d
e f f e c t o f a c o l l e c t i v e .
a s th e 'b b je c tific a tio n
o f
fo r s e r i o u s
a n d
a r g u e tdh e
th is p ro c e ss
c l e a r l y
o r g a n i z e d ,
a n d
p a r t i c i p a n t sto
a b i d i n g
c o n c e r n s
p e r i p h e r a l r e a c t i o n sto
h o w
d iffe re n tia te
f r o m t r a n s i e n t o r
w h a t
F a ls
B o rd a
( 1 9 8 8 )
im m ed iate p ro m o te d e c o lo n iz a tio n
c a l l e d
w i s d o m
i s
a
a tn d
m e th o d s
tra d itio n s
We the t h e
p e r s p e c f i v e
o f
t h e
i n d i v i d u a l
argued
study
of
that
in th e
these
practice
a n d
s t u d y
different
involved
re la tio n s h ip sb e t w e e n
o f
p r a c t i c e .
approaches
different
kinds
th e
to of th e
s e e p r a c t i c e
t h e w h o s e
p e r s p e c t i v e
m e m b e r s '
stitute
and
tic e s ,
o f
i n s i d e r
g r o u p ,
i n t e r c o n n e c t e ad c t i v i t i e s
r e c o n s t i t u t et h e i r
t h e
t h e
f i r s t
o w n
s o c i a l
p e r s o n (plural).
p ra c tic e
th e
c o n p r a c -
This ta k e n
p a rtic ip a to rya c tio n
I n t e r m s o f t h e s e f i v e a s p e c t s o f p r a c t i c e a n d th e
th in k .
But that is just
five
traditions in
th e
s tu d y o f
p ra c tic e ,
it
w h a t
to discursive I f
social,
historical,
an d
construction.
p a r t i c i p a t o r y
p ra c tic e
its
term s
a c t i o n
o f
e a c h
r e s e a r c h of
the
i s
fiv e
t o
e x p l o r e
a s p e c ts
T a b le
2 3 .1 .
B o th : R e fZ e x iv e -d ia le c tic a l v ie w T h e In d iv id u a l
o f in d iv id u a l-s o c ia l
T h e S o c ia l
(2 )
O b je c tiv e
P ractice as social
b e h a v i o r, s e e n i n t e r m s
in te ra c tio n
of perform ances, events,
system
and effects: B ehaviorist
S tru c tu re -fu n c tio n a lis t
(e .g ., ritu a l,
-structured):
a n d s o c i a l s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h e s i n p s y c h o l o g y
S u b je c tiv e
( 3 ) P ra c tic e a s in te n tio n a l
( 4 ) P r a c t i c e a s s o c i a l l y
a c t i o n , s h a p e d b y
s t r u c t u r e d , s h a p e d b y
m e a n i n g a n d v a l u e s :
(e m p a th e tic u n d e r s t a n d i n g ) a n d m o s t constructivist
approaches
B o th : R e fle x iv e -d ia le c tic a l
h is to ric a lly c o n s titu te d a n d
view of subjectivea g e n c y a n d s o c i a l a c t i o n :
o b je c tiv e re la tio n s a n d c o n n e c tio n s
th is
H a n d b o o k ,
different
traditions
different
research
it w ill
in
the
methods
study and
practice,
and
o b je c tiv is m
techniques,
can
p u t
of
o n
th a t
t h e s e
m a n y q u a n tita tiv e
m e t h o d s
re se a rc h e rs
a n d
p ro v id e c o n v e r t p a r t i c i p a n t s 'v i e w s
in to
w ith o u t ta k in g th e
em
p iricism o n e - s i d e d l y q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h e r s i n t h e
tice entirely "objectively:'
w a y s
i n
w h ic h
th e y
u s e
s u c h
d a t a
p a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n
a c tio n t i v e a p p r o a c h e s a r e n e v e r r e l e v a n t i n p a r t i c i p a t o r y
w ill
f r o m
t h e
th e o riz e it
a n d 1 9 8 7 b l)
m ore
l i f e w o r l d
ric h ly ,
a n d
[ H a b e r m a s
c a n
1 9 8 4 ,
re c o n s titu te d
t h r o u g h a c r i t i c a l s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s u c h a s p a r t i c i p a t o r y a c t i o n r e s e a r c h . p a rtic ip a n ts r e s e a r c h v i d u a l
u n d e r s t a n d
a n d
i t s
s o c i a l
p a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n f r o bmo t h
p r a c t i c e a s p e c t s
a n d
its
in d i-
u n d e r s t a n d
i t
t i o n i n g ) s h a p e a n d a r e s h a p e d b y t h e ' S u b j e c t i v e " conditions I n
o u r
of participants' v i e w,
q u e s t i o n s
perspectives. o f
r e s e a r c h
t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s .
M o r e o v e r , t h e y v i e w
a c tio n
in
t h e l i v e d p r e s e n t i n t o a e d u c a tio n a l
p r a c t i c e
h u m a n
a n d
f u t u r e w h e r e t h e p e o p l e
th e o ry
t h e
c o n s e -
q u e n c e s o f a c t i o n s t a k e n . T h i s
v i e w
o f
p r a c t i c e
p a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n th e ir
first-level
practicesth e y
e x a m p le ,
p a r t i c i p a n t si n
so c ia l s h a p in g
lik e -lo c a tin g
p r a c t i c e s
in v e s tig a tin g . a
in te g ra tio na r e
th e ir
a s m e ta -
F o r
p a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n
also
me t a - p r a c t i c e s
p ra c tic e s
p ra c tic e w ith in o u tw a rd ly
d ire c te d
in w a rd ly
p ra c titio n e rs , c o m m u n ity
d e v e l o p m e n t
d e v e l o p m e n t
t h r o u g h their research.
H a n d b o o k ,
th a t p r a c t i c e s ,
lo c a te d in
t i m e
a n d
s o c i a l
im p lic a tio n s th a t
o f T h e y a r e
la te r
p r o c e s s
also
o f
s p a c e
ar g ue d
for
a
v ie w
of
w e t e r m e d " s y m p o s i u m d r a w i n g
t h e
( h i s t o r y )
c h a p t e r. I n t h e
w e
o n th e
re se ar c h that
is,
m u ltip le d is c ip lin a ry
h a s
th is
p a r t i c i p a t o r ya c t i o n
p a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n
both practitioners and researchers in , say,
c o m m u n ity d e v e lo p m e n t, p r i m a r y h e a l t h
t h ed e v e l o p m e n t
o f
c a r e , o r s c h o o l - c o m m u n i t rye l a th e
m u n ic a tiv e a c tio n
th e
a n d ,
in
p a r t i c u l a r,
h is
c o n t r a r y, t h e y
C O M M U N IC A T IV E r e s e a r c h te c h n iq u e s p r o c e s s e s , o b je c t
th ro w
lig h t
a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s
o n o f
m e t h o d s
th e
t h ep a r t i c u l a r
th e y
w
idespread-kind,
a
fre q u e n tly c y n ic a l,
a n d w h e r e
t e x t o f m u t u a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n - t o
p e o p le
d e c id e fir
th e m
o f
r e c o v e r i n g
c ritiq u in g
t h e y u n d e r s t a n d w h a t o t h e r s a r e s a y i n g )
(b o th
th e ir
th e
shared know ledge represented in the discourse used by m em bers)
m u n ic a tiv e
a c tio n -b e c a u s e
o r
w h ic h are
a c c id e n ta l
u tte ra n c e s
to
a b o u tu t t e r a n c e s - u n l e s s
c o m m u n ic a tiv e
a c k n o w le d g e a t m ust
th e
strive
c o lla b o ra tiv e ly
to
o r d e r t o t r a n s f o r m i t , a s F a l s B o r d a o b s e r v e d , a n d to
transform
w h ic h tio n ,
a n d
in relation
to
w hat
to
do
in
practice
a c tio n
in v e s tig a te i t s
p l a c e
a s
c a u s e
a n d
e f f e c t
i n
t h e
c h a ra c te ris tic
P a rtic ip a to ry A c tio n R e s e a r c h
a n d
C o m m u n i c a t i v e
c o m m u n i c a t i v e
s p a c e
p o s itiv is tic
S p a c e
b e tw e e n p a rtic ip a n ts .
T h e
p r o c e s s o f p a r t i c i p a t o r y a c t i o n r e s e a r c h i s o n e o f
( t h e
p r a c t i c a l k n o w le d g e -c o n s titu tiv e
c h a ra c te ris tic
h e rm e n e u tic s
i n t e r p r e t i v e s o c i a l s c i e n c e[ H a b e r m a s ,
1 9 7 2 1 ) .
k n o w le d g e -c o n s titu tiv e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , t r u e , a u t h e n t i c , a n d m o rally
rig h t
still H aberm as
a n d appropriate
less put
ways
f o r c e ) ; it,
it
is
justified b y
of
r a t h e r,
t h e
f o r c e
a s t h e
o f m u s t
b e tte r a rg u m e n t.
a b o u t
o f
t h e
t h e n w ith s ta n d the
r e s e a r c h tests
of
e l e m e n t
a n d
w isdom
t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s e n g e n d e r e dt h r o u g h
research." this
t e s t s
kind
It of
is
to
notice
research
is
that
th e
social
practice
of
a practice directed deliber-
t i c i p a t o r y a c t i o n r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s c o m m u n i c a t i v e action
into
the
field
s c i e n c e t h a t g a t h e r s k n o w l e d g e a s a p r e c u r s o r t o fo r e v e n ts
c o n tro llin g th e
u n fo ld in g authorities
or
ways
of
o t h e r s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , p e r s p e c t i v e s , a n d
t h e s e r v i c e o f a b r o a d e r p u b l i c i n t e r e s t .
P a r t i c i p a t o r y A c t i o n R e s e a r c h a n d
c o m m e n ts su g g e st,
p a rtic ip a to ry
a c t i o n r e s e a r c h d o e s n o t - o r n e e d a s p o litic a l a c tio n . m a c r o - s u b j e c t "
In h is i n T h e
th e
n o t-v a lo riz e
carrier
critique
of of
legitim ate the
P h i l o s o p h i c a l
B e t w e e n F a c ts act
in
t r a n s f o r m i n g th in g s
H a b e r m a s ( 1 9 8 7 a ,
1 9 9 6 )
c a p a b le c o m m u n ity
sim p le
th e
of
"self."
m a c h i n e r y o f
"social
D i s c o u r s e N o r m s ,
a r g u e dt h a t
self-regulation G o v e r n m e n t s
p o litic a l
in a n d th e
c o n t e m p o r a r y o rg a n iz a tio n s ,
n o w a d a y s rig h t
to
in
th e
fo rm atio n
p r o g r a m s o f a c t i o n .
to
th e o rie s
m u s t a g e n c i e s
o th e r
o f
la w a n d
g o v e r n m e n t
p e o p le
w h o
c o m p e tin g
s u b s y s t e m s
c o n t e mp o r a r y
t h a t
n o
s u c h
s i m p l e
s t e e r i n g
i s
p o s s i b l e ;
c o n t r a r y, s t e e r i n g t a k e s p l a c e - t o th e a n
o n
t h e
e x te n t th a t
in d e te rm in a te
a r r a y o f e s t a b l i s h e d p r a c t i c e s , s t r u c t u r e s , s y s t e m s o f i n f l u e n c e , b a r g a i n i n g , a n d c o e r c i v e p o w e r s . s a m e
is
t r u e
p a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n
p a rtic ip a n ts to
a d o p t
a
S c h o n ,
1 9 8 3 ,
1 9 8 7 ,
p u r p o s e o f l e a r n i n g f r o m
e x p l o r a t o r ya c t i o n .
Participatory re fle c tiv e in
action
research
th e
E d u c a tio n ,
in
w h ic h
is
scientific J o h n
and
D e w e y
D e w e y
th e
e s s e n t i a l so fr e f l e c t i o n - a n d a s
follow s:
They are,first,that the pupil has
genuine situation
o fe x p e r i e n c e - t h a t
o c c u r
to
h im
re c o n s tru c tin g
a m o n g
p a rtic ip a n ts
w h ic h
w ith
eye
to
learning
a s
a n
a c tio n
r e s e a r c h e r s ,
o th e r
h a v es e t
f o r
t h e m -
a r r a n g e m e n t s th a t
th e ir
a u th o ritie s w ith d e s t r o y s o m e
o f
t h e m . t h e
We
m i g h t
re a s o n s
a l s o
th a t
s a y, h o w e v e r,
t h a t
p a r t i c i p a t o r ay c t i o n
r e s e a r c h e r s e m p l o y a r e t h e f r u i t s o f t h e i r p r a c t i c a l
c r e t ec o n t r a d i c t i o n s
b e tw e e n
e x is tin g w a y s
tic ip a to ry a c tio n b y w ith
e n c irc lin g
it
ta k e
to
d o in g
id e n tifie d
t h e m s e l v e s a s
s i m p l y
t h e
o p p o s e d
r e a l
o b j e c t s
o f
o u r c ritiq u e -s e lf-d e c e p tio n ,
Ha b e r r n a s ' s c ritiq u e
th e p ra c tic a l
b e
n o t
c o n te x ts
o n ly se lf-re g u la tin g
a n d
d isfig u re d p e o p le
a s in v e s tig a tio n s
a
u n d e rta k e n
c o n s e q u e n c e th e
o f
t h e
a c tio n o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f p a r t i c i p a t o r y a c t i o n
w ith
c o n tra d ic to ry ,
c o n te s te d ,
F ro m
c o n flic t-rid d e n
&
p ro je c ts c a m e b e c a u s e w a n te d
in to
e s t a b l i s h e ds t r u c t u r e s a n d a u t h o r i t i e s to
fo r
c h a n g e
in
B r e n n a n
K em m is,
Y o ln g u
p u b lic
c a n n o tio n s
t h e
c l o s e d
a n d
p u b lic
s o m e w h a t
s o m e t i m e s g r o u p s
t e a c h e r s , t o g e t h e rw i t h
m e c h a n i c a l
w ith
c o n flic ts
d i s a g r e e m e n t s ,
b u tt h e y
a c tio n
a n d m e th o d o lo g ic a lly d riv e n
c o n s e n s u s . T h e y
h a d
h e l p
b u t
n o
m o n e y
t o
c o n -
d u c t t h e i r r e s e a r c h .
E x a m p le
G a n m a
E d u c a tio n
T h ro u g h o u t
w a n te d
to
m a k e
th e ir
p ro b le m s
in the schools is not relevan t for Yolngu d o c u m e n ts
a c tio n
d i s c o v e r e d
th a t th e a p p ro p ria te
c u rric u lu m
th e id e a s
t h e
p r a c t i c e s .
r e s e a r c h ,
fo rm
A n
t h ep r o c e s s ,
t h e
s c h o o l
a n d
T h e y
t h e
c o m m u n i t y
h o w
o f s c h o o l i n g " b o t h
c o m m u n ity
c o n d u c te d
p ra c tic e s
G a n m a
d e v e lo p e d u c a tio n ,
Y u n u p i n g u ( 1 9 9 1 ) o b s e r v e d ,
I
of it
w ill
e m p h a s i z e e m a n c ip a to ry
a s p e c t s , a n d t h a t i t w i l l t a k e a s i d e - j u s ta s
the
g
( m a n y
o f
of
t h e m
p a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n
t r a n s f o r m i n g e d u c a tio n in
.
.
.
o u r b r o a d e r d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s . i. n .
th e
s p h e r e s
o v e ra ll
w o r k s
To g e t h e r, t h e
o f
w e
m e n -
c o m m u n i c a t i o n
th e
Un d e r s t o o d in
this
w a y,
p a r t i c i p a t o r ya c t i o n
a c tio n
We
give
a
little
m ore
i n f o r m a t i o na b o u t in
1 0
f e a t u r e s o f
th e th e
p u b lic
s p h e r e s a s d i s c u s s e d b y H a b e r m a s .
I n
O c t o b e r
2 0 0 3 , s o m e
8 , 0 0 0
in
t e a c h e r s
g a t h e r e d
C o n g r e s o
I n t e r -
I n t e r n a ~ i o n a l ) . ~ e l d e r s
a n d
m e m b e r s -
p a r e n t s a n d o t h e r s - a n d
p a rtic ip a n ts c o m m u n ic a tiv e s p a c e ,
o p e n e dt h i s
a c te d
as
critical
friends
to
t h e y
th a t
c o u ld
@
b y
th e m a tiz e d
a
c o m m o n
s c h o o ls v is io n
o f
to e n a c t
Yo l n g u
t h e G a n m a
s c h o o l i n g
f o r
(both
Yo l n g u
ways) s t u d e n t s
t r a n s f o r m i n g t h o s e i n e q u i t a b l e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s .
s c h o l a r s h i p s t o d a n c e ) ,
t h e
c o n g r e s s
r e m a i n e ad u t o n o m o u s
o f i s s u e s ,
t h a t is,
p e o p l e
f r o m
a ro u n d p a rtic u la r th e m e s
m u n ic a tio n n e t w o r k s
o r g a n i z e d
c o m m u n ic a tiv e
a s
p a r t
o f
t h e
th e
(as
c o lla b o ra tin g
v o lu n ta rily .
distinct
from
a
a c tio n
T h e y w ere
re la tiv e ly P a r t i c i p a t o r y a c t i o n r e s e a r c h g r o u p s a n d p r o je c ts
f r e q u e n t l y
c o m e in to
g
a c tio n in d iv id u a lly
a n d a t
p ro je c tin g
o r c o lle c tiv e ly .
th e w ere
c u ltu ra lly c o r r o s i v e
for
p rin c ip a l
a im
Yo l ng u
f o r m s d e te rm in in g w ays
m in d -th e
in
in v o lv e
fa c e -to -fa c e
w a s
n o t
b e
a
sim ilar
to
m o v e
a
c le a r
orientation
fo rw ard
e m p h a s i z e d th a t
w h a t
f o r m th is t h e i r
th ro u g h
th e ir
k in d g o a l
a n d th e
a c tio n
p u b l i cd i s c o u r s e .
In
q u a lify
th in g s -w o u ld
P a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n
to w ard
a s
p u b lic
p ro je c ts
in te rs u b je c tiv e
i n
m e r e l y
a b o u t p u b l i c s p h e r e s h a s
w h ic h
s c h o o l i n g , a n d
d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n i m p r o v e d f o r m
s c h o o lin g -it th e y
o f
t h e C 6 r d o b a c o n g r e s s , p e o p l e c a m e t o g e t h e r
o f
o t h e r,
h e lp
s h a p e
w o rld
th e
f o r m s
o f
e d u c a t i o n
th e
fu tu re .
a c h i e v e m e n t s o f
p r o g r a m s
th e y
a im e d to
e d u c a tio n officials,
invited
o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d
to
i n c l u d e a l l o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f p e o p l e a s s e ttin g s
w h e np a rtic ip a n ts re tu rn e d
f r i e n d s a n d c o n t r i b u t o r s t o a c o m m o n c a u s e c r e a t i n g
h o m e f r o m t h e c o n g r e s s .
b e tte r
o n ly
th e
p a rtie s
f o r m s
s u ite d
a te ly
( o r f r o m )
n e w
d i s c u s s i o n s
t h e
o f
e d u c a t i o n
n e e d s
d o w n
o f
t h e
re la tio n
ter m s
P a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n
t h e i r
t h e
p e o p le w h o
f a m i l i e s
a s
w e l l
w ere
a s
t e a c h e r s
th e
s c h o o l . I t w a s n o t e x c l u s i v e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t s o f
Y o ln g u
c o n t r o l e x c l u d e d
a n d
to
th e ir
th e y s a y
p o s itio n a l a u th o rity
t h e r e o f ) . P u b l i c s p h e r e s a l s o t e n d
o f
p r e s e n t
ro u tin e ly
p riv ile g e d
m a n y
s c h o o l i n g
th e
w h a t
a s
a n d
( o r
in
l a c k
a
fro m
P a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n
p ro je c ts
a n d
g r o u p s c o n s t i t u t e t h e m s e l v e s t o " o p e n
r e s p e c t
f o r
e l d e r s
a n d
the
c o n t e m p o r a r y e d u c a tio n
Y irrkala G a n m a
p ro je c t,
p a rtic ip a n ts
i n L a tin
p riv ile g e d p o s itio n s
w as
a b o u t
t h o s e to p ic s
a g r e e m e n t s lim itatio n s
B a la n d a
f o r r e a l i z i n g a f o r m
o f
e d u c a t i o n
f o r
th e
e d u c a tio n
different Yo l n g u
im p ro v e d
c h i l d r e n
a n d
t h e i r
w ith
ta k e n -fo r-g ra n te d
c o m m u n ity .
th e
th e y
w ith d ra w C o n v e r s a t i o n s
fro m w e r e
w h e n
th e
N o rth ern
p a rtic u la r o p e n
th e
-, s u p p o rtiv e
v ie w o f
w h e n
f r e e l y
c o m m u n ity 's p r o -
th e
a n d
b y q u a lify
the
n o n i n d i g e n o u s
p e o p l e
h a d
fa ile d .)
p u b l i c s p h e r e s . P a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n
p ro je c ts
fro m
re d ire c tin g lo n g -s ta n d in g
r e s e r v e s o f c r i t i c a l e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r e s s i v i s m
fre q u e n tly
l i s t e n e dt o
d e lib e ra te ly a llo w e d s p a c e , w i t h th e th e y
th e
p o w e r f u l
b e c a u s e t h e y to
e x p lo re
h a v e
th is m a r g i n a l
t a c i t u n d e r s t a n d i n gt h a t
m a y
o f
b e n e f i t
b e e n
w h a t
t o
a n d a c tin g
w ith
th e
k n o w le d g e
r e c o g n i z e t h a t c h a n g e s m i g h t b e n e e d e d . indicated,
the
Yirrkala
th e
th e
N o rth ern
e d u c a tio n
'
in
o f P a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n
p ro je c ts
w a y s
o f
b e g a n
p erm s e l v e s ,
a t
t h e
m a r g i n s
p r o c e d u r e s , t h a ti s , e x p lo ra tio n o u t
i t t e d to
a l t e r n a t i v e
in
o f
w a y s
s t r u c t u r e s
d o i n g
a c c e p t
c o u l dw o r k ,
a lte rn a tiv e t h e
s y s t e m s
t h e m - e v e n
a n d th e
s p a c e s c o n s t i t u t e dfo r
o f
t o
t h i n g s
th a t
Y o ln g u
th e m -
t h o s e
in v e s tig a tio n
d o i n g
s h o w i n g
w h ic h
for t h i n g s .
U n iv ersity
trying
C o l l e g e ) ,
T h e y
s y s t e m s th a t
a r e
t h e r e
M e l b o u r n e , w a sa
th e
s e n s e
a n d B a tc h e lo r
w ith in e d u c a tio n
e x p e r i m e n t
s h o u l d
g
p e r m i t t e d fulfilled)
t o
that
p r o c e e d the
l e s s th a n
in
s a t i s f a c t o r y
o u t c o m e s
n o n in d ig e n o u s
s m a l l
b u t
s o m e
o r g a n i z a t i o n s( e . g . ,
In te rn a tio n a l)
A m n e s t y
lo n g -s ta n d in g
w e ll
q u a lify p u b lic T h e
C d r d o b a
f u n c t i o n a l
c o n g r e s s
f r a m e w o r k s
o f
o p e r a t e d o u ts id e
th e
in
fo r
relation
b e c a u s e
e d u c a t i o n
to
t h e y
other a r e
o u tlin e d item s
p a r t
o f
on t h e
this s o c i a l
t h a n s o c i a l m o v e m e n t s . e d u c a tio n
a n ds c h o o l i n g w e r e u n d e r s t o o d
c o n tro lle d th e i n d i c a t e d e a r l i e r, m a in ta in e d
it
i t s
is
a c o n g r e s s
o r g a n i z e r s
th e
m
for
in ister
e d u c a tio n
c r e a t e d
" b y
the
m o v e m e n t s , fo r
P ro v in c e
[ D a n i e l
p ro b le m s
b e in g
fro n te d
s o m e to,
tia tiv e s ,
state
initiatives
a lth o u g h m o s t
i ne d u c a t i o n
o f
th e
s ta te m e n ts
t h e
list
and
o r d e r
r a t h e r
a
h a d
a
f a r
w i d e r
c u r r e n c y
t h a n
m i g h t
e x p e c t e d , f o r e x a m p l e , t h r o u g ht h e m u s i c
o f
Yu n u p i n g u ' s
h a v e
s o n g s
b e e n
a n d t h a t
p o p
in d ig e n o u s
t h e i r
b e s t
to
th e
p e o p le ,
k n o w le d g e , c o m m u n itie s , G a n m a
p r o j e c t
n a m e d
w a s a
m a n i f e s t a t i o n
e x p la in e d w a y s
n o m i c a d v e n t u r e s , a n t i d e m o c r a t i c d e n i a l
o f
in
w h ic h
p r a c t i c e s , t h e
h u m a n r i g h t s , a n d e n t r e n c h e d b in d in g very
o n - t h e ms e l v e s .
different
c o n d itio n s
a re
from
r a t h e r
t h a n
t o
m a k e
t h e
b e s t
m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e d e c i s i o n f o r a l l c o n c e r n e d ) . n e g a tiv e lc ritic a l
a n d
o f
p r a c t i c e
p o s s ib le -th e o riz in g ,
c o n t e m p o r a r y p ro b le m s issues, e d u c a tio n p r o f e s s i o n a l s , b u ti t
r e m a i n s
d e t e r -
aim ing
to in fo rm
a n d
f o l l o w i n g
c o m m e n t s
s u m m a r y
s o m e o f
A s
a l r e a d y
s u g g e s t e d ,
p ra c tic e s o m e t i m e s
s u c hc o m m u n i t i e s o f
c o m e
p r e s e n t
o f
a
n e c e s s a r i l y
t h e w ays
t h e s e
in
b r i e f
w h ic h
to p ic s
e v o lv e d
d u r i n g r e c e n t y e a r s .
i n t o
E m p o w e r m e n t t h e
l i g h t
o f
t h e H a b e r m a s i a n th e o ry to
and w o u ld
th e
p ro je c t
w o rk o f
g r o u p s
o f
sys tem s
ter m s
s tru c tu re s
c itiz e n s '
o r
their t e r m s
effects) o f
fu n c tio n in g
nor
solely
in
c h a n g i n gs y s t e m s th ro u g h
a c tio n c a m p a i g n
th e
p ra c tic e im p ly in g th a t s e l v e s
a s
w o r k i n g
str u c tu r e s in
aff ected
p ro ta g o n is ts b o t h
a g a i n s t
s y s t e m
fu n c tio n s
by th e fu n c tio n in g .
d i s c o u r s e
th e m -
F ro m t h i s
stru c tu re s
i n
s t e r e o s c o p i c
fu n c tio n s
v i e w,
a re
re p ro d u c tio n
b o th ,
id e n tifie d earlier
in t h i s
c h a p t e r.
T h e
th e n o tio n
se lf-re g u la tio n
u n ifie d w h o l e s b u t r a t h e r m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f
a
n o tio n s
i d e a s
s u c h a s
d ia lo g u e ,
c o m p le m e n ta rity
a u to n o m o u s
states
to
o f s o c i a l r e p r o d u c t i o n
e x p e r t i s e t h a t m a y b e h e l p f u l t o t h e g r o u p i n i t s e n d e a v o r s .
T h e
t h e o r y
w ith
o f
o f
s y s t e m
c u l t u r a l ,
s o c i a l ,
a n d
p e r s o n a l r e p r o d u c t i o na n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t a s p i r et oa c h i e v i n gs e l f - e x p r e s s i o n , s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n ,
v ie w
th e
c o m m u n ic a tiv e
m a c r o - s u b j e c t , p e o p le in v o lv e d
In
th e
light
is
of
n o t
th e
to
H a b e r m a s i a n th e o ry
s o le ly
in
w e
l o n g e r u n d e r s t a n dth e
take
the
p a rts
facilitator
of
the
re la tio n
role
a c tio n
th e
i nr e l a t i o n t o
different
b e in g
p a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n e v a lu a tio n f r o m
a s
s o m e o n e
a i m i n g th e
p u b lic
t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s
dis co u r se
l i g h t
o f
c ritiq u e
in
p o w e r )
m u tu a lly
T h e R e s e a r c h - A c t i o n D u a l i s m
th e
lig h t
o f
th e
H a b e r m a s i a n th e o ry
life w o rld ,
a c tio n
a c tio n
n o t fro m
o f
l a b o r
b e t w e e n
r e s e a r c h
m i r r o r e d
i n
p a rtic ip a n ts
a
i n
p a rtic ip a to ry
b e a
t e c h n i c a l
s o c i a l
d i v i s i o n
d i v i s i o on f
la b o r
a n d
o f
s o c i a l
m o v e m e n t s - s t r u g g l e s u n s a tis fy in g
a c tio n
e d u c a tio n a lm o v e -
p ro je c te d th ro u g h h isto ry
p a rtic ip a to ry a c tio n i m p u l s e
t o
s u b j e c t
d e lib e ra te a c tio n
s o m e
a c tio n
m e a s u r e
c r o s s e s
a
p r a c t i c e - s o c i a l a c tio n -to
c o n tin u in g critique
by m a k in g
d e lib e ra te ly e x p lo ra to ry
ra tio n a l-p u rp o siv e
a n d rec ro ss es
th e
th e
b u t
is
ra tio n a l-p u rp o siv e it
risks
dissolving
into
the
l i g h t
o f
t h e H a b e r m a s i a n th e o ry
a
th a t
fre q u e n tly
r e l e v a n c e .
p e r s p e c
b o th
t u t e d
b y
s y s t e m s
p r o c e s s e s s i d e :
i v e s
a s s o c i a t e d
s t e e r i n g
a n d
w i t h
m e d i a ;
a s
c
e a c h
n s ( o n
i -
a r e
F o r
m u c h
e x a m p l e ,
m o re
a r o u n d
w i d e s p r e a d
t h e
h u n d r e d s - p r o b a b l y
w o r l d
t h e r e
d iffe re n t
t h e
o n
in d iv id u a l
th e s o c i a l
light
of
c ritiq u e of
m a c r o - s u b j e c t , n o t
a s
t h ec o l l e c t i v e
a
g ro u p
the
s h o u ld w ith
fix e d th e
m e m b e r s h i p - a in d e p e n d e n t, ra th e r
a s
a n ds e l f - r e g u l a t i n g
lifew o rld
of
te a c h in g
w h o le -b u t
in te rn a lly
p ro je c ts in sim
ilar
e d u c a tio n
a c tio n
p a ra lle le d
p ro je c ts
w e l f a r e ,
h e a lth , c o m m u n ity
im p e ra tiv e
a
in s titu tio n a l c o n t r o l
a b o v e th e
e x c lu s iv e g r o u p
c o n s t i t u t e d t o p e r f o r m E
o p e n
C R R E IM A G IN IN G IT IC A L
P A R T IC IP A T O R Y
a n d
a
of
in a lth o u g h o fte n
w ith
re la tio n w id e r
to
l o c a l
i s s u e s ,
w
to
ell-ju stified fo rm
th in k in g a b o u t
s o c i a l
a n d
K en
T w o
d e c a d e s
a g o ,
o r
w e
a
h o p e d
e x t e n d e d
th e
s o c i a l
a c t i o n
a n d
r e s e a r c h is
n o t
e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h
th e o rie s w o u ld L a w r e n c e
S t e n h o u s e ' s
b e .
We
d e f i n i t i o n
"system atic e n q u iry m a d e
a d m i r e d o f
r e s e a r c h
p u b lic "
w e
e v i d e n c e ,
a r e
n o w th a t
th is
k in d
a n d th e
s h a r e d k n o w l e d g e o f c o m m u n i t i e s o f p r a c t i c e .
th e
c o lle c tiv e k n o w le d g e t a k e
th e
k n o w le d g e o u t c o m e s
o f
r e s e a r c ho v e r
t h e
s t r e n g t h
s tu d ie s
th a t
a n d
d i r e c t i o n fro m
p a rtic ip a to ry
e x p lo re
p r a c t i c a l o u t c o m e s o f p a r t i c i p a n t r e s e a r c h - t h e e f f e c t s o f p a r t i c i p a n t r e s e a r c h i n c h a n g i n g s o c i a l e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s , u n d e r s t a n d i n g s
d i f f e r e n t l y t h o s e b r o a dt h e m e s
h i s t o r i e s o f p r a c t i t i o n e r s , c o m -
r i g h t s ) in v e s tig a tio n s d i s q u i e t s ,
o r
i n t ol o c a l l y c o n c e r n s
m o v e m e n t s
is
le ss
u n p ro d u c tiv e
f o r
b u t
a l s o t h a t
l o c a l
felt dissatisfactions,
a l s o
o p e un p
t h e m e s
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in
o f
t o
a s k
a b o u t
th e
t h e
e x t e n t
t o
w id e n in g s p h e r e
w h i c h
t h e y
h a v e
f e d
o f s o c i a l l i f e l o c a l l y,
c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h o s e w h o m in te n d e d t o
h e l p . A s
w e
Ha b e r ma s ' s
d e s c r i p t i o no f
t h e
h o p e
n e w
w e
p u b l i c
w a y s w e r e
h a v e
s h o w n ,
d i s c o u r s e in
p u b lic
M o s t p a r t i c u l a r l y, t w o
in t h e q u i e t
o w n
lives
in
b u ild in g .
t h a t
w o u l d
m a k e
h e r o i c
t e a m s
o f
p ra c titio n e rsw h o
" c o lle c tiv e s " a s g r o u p s
t h a t
w o u l dm a k e
m a k in g
k e y
a c tiv is t
c h a n g e h i s t o r y.
h isto ry
id e n tify in g c o n d itio n s u n d e r
w h ic h
p e o p le
m a k in g m o v e m e n ts
e x p l o r a t o r y c h a n g e s . N o w, h o w e v e r, o u r c r i t i q u e s a im e d
o f t h e r e s e a r c h - a c t i o n
a t
c o lle c tiv e c a p a c ity
p e o p le
w a y s c o lle c tiv e
o f
w o r k i n g
c o m m i t m e n t .
th e m
th e ir v a rie ty
s i o n s
a r e m a d e
in
th e
d e c i-
c o n d itio n s lik e
d e s c r i b e d i n t h e l a s t s e c t i o n - t h e
m e n th e n
w e
h isto ry
m u s t a s
s e e
t h ereal
o r
g r e a t
w o m e n -
transform ations
of
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n sm a d e
p r o b l e m s (e.g.,
via ities
in
a c tio n ,
ju d g in g th e m
th e ir
ip a to ry a c tio n
o fte n
to
T h i s
a c c o u n t
o f
w h a t
a n d u n to w a rd
w e
n o w
a g r e e d - o n
c o l l e c t i v e
t i v e w a y s o f d o i n g t h i n g s - m a y see m a far c ry fro m
e m p iric a l
a n d statistical
m e t h o d st h a t
w o u l d p r o v i d e a s e c u r e s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s f o r w h a t t e a c h e r s c o u l d o r s h o u l d d o . T h o s e o t h e r a p p r o a c h e s t o r e s e a r c h h a v e p r o f o r the
w ay
it
is
w a y s
o f
w o rk in g
p ro b le m o f
i m p r o v e d
c r i t i c a l p a rtic ip a to ry
o f
p u ttin g th e
is
a lw a y s
fo r
t h e m s e l v e s
of tim es
w h ic h
liv e "
( H o d g k i n s o n , h e
a s
s a y i n g ,
the 1 9 5 7 ,
q u o te d
" C o o p e r a t i v ea c tio n
c o n s e q u e n c e s
This
is
t h a t
sim ply
Australia,
d e v e l o p m e n t in
in im p ro v in g
P h ilip p in e s ,
c o m m u n i t .y H o d g k i n s o n
b e lie v e d
th a t
a c tio n
r e s e a r c h w o u l d p r o d u c e " t e a c h e r s w h o s p e n d m u c h o f
t h e i r
t h e y
t i m e
m e a s u r i n g
a n df i g u r i n g ,
p la y in g
in f a r m s
g o v e r n a n c e
-
in
i nI n d i a ,
H o d g k i n s o n o f
g r e a t
m ig h t
it,
h u m a n
b u t
ra th e r m
a t t e r s
s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e s e
p e o p le
M A : A d d i s o n -W e s l e y.
th e
B a y n e s ,
K .
( 1 9 9 5 ) .
D e m o c r a c y
th e
C a m b r i d g e , U niversity
B r a v e t t e ,
G.
lo w
a
b a r .
Press.
( 1 9 9 6 ) .
11(3)
R eview ,
R e f l e c t i o n
3
b la c k
w o m a n 's
W e A c tio n
research
fo r
o na
1 1
a c tio n
a
C a m b rid g e
( 3 r d e d . , p p . 3 3 7
reader
3
2 ) . G e e l o n g ,
c ritic a l p a r t i c i p a t o r y a c tio n
c r itic a l: E d u c a tio n ,
a c tio n
L o n d o n : F a l me r .
C h i c h e s t e r, U K :Wi l e y.
B r e n n a n K e m m i s ( 2 0 0 3 ) . T h is
d e s c r i p t i o n is
C o r e y, S . M . ( 1 9 4 9 ) . A c t i o nr e s e a r c h , f u n d a m e n t a l a d a p te d
fro m
K e m m i s
r e s e a r c h ,
a n d e d u c a tio n a l
(2 0 0 4 ).
N ew
Y o rk :
C o lu m b ia
U n iv e rs ity ,
T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e P r e s s .
o p m e n t:
s t o r y
a b o u t
t e a c h e r
a c t i o n
L o n d o n : F a l m e r.
a c t i o n r e s e a r c h : I n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s a n d c o n s e -
New
Yo r k
a c t i o n :
S o f t
s y s t e m s
Press. M a c m illa n . a t
w o rk .
c l a s s r o o m s f r o m t e a c h e r s ' p r a c t i c a l c o n s t r u c t s : a c c o u n t Increasingprofesional
Jossey-B ass.
efictiveness. S a n F r a n c i s c o :
o f
t h e
w o r ko f
t h e
7 ( 2 ) , 2 - 2 2 .
F o r d T e a c h in g R e p r i n t e d in
a c tio n
research
reader
( p p . 1
5 - 2 1 3 ) . G e e lo n g ,
( J .
m o d e r n i t y :
N o r w a y
o t h e r
(F .
t i o n a l i s t r e a s o n ( T.
E u r o p e a n
L o n d o n :T a v i s t o c k .
M c C a r t h y,
T r a n s . ) .
B e a c o n . reality
in
order f a c t s a n d n o r m s ) . F r a n k f u r t , G e r m a n y : S u h r k a m p .
C o lo m b ia n
th in k in g :
H a b e r m a s , J.
P h i l o s o p h i c a le s s a y s
B o r d a ,
O .,
W . M . H o h e n g a r t e n , T r a n s . ) .
C a m b r i d g e , M A : M I T P r e s s .
N e w D e l h i : I n d i a n S o c i a l I n s t i t u t e . F a ls
&
W
illiam
m o n o p o l y ? Participatory H e n r y, W
C .
R esearch
( 1 9 9 1 ) .
N ew
in
A sia.
I f a c tio n
w e r e
(E d .),
i l e y.
i m p r o v e d p e r f o r m a n c e . o f p a r t i c i p a t o r y action C o r n e l l
U n i v e r s i t y,
researchers.
D e p a r t m e n t
I t h a c a , N Y
o f
U r b a n
P u b lis h in g . H o d g k i n s o n , H . ( 1 9 5 7 ) . A c t i o nr e s e a r c h :
p r a c t i c e o f a c t i o n r e s e a r c h i n w o r k o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
h a u l. N e w J a c k s o n , M .
A.
G illette,
e d g e :
A
S o c ie ty
&
R .
t o
d o
T a n d o n
m o n o p o l y ? fo r
i t
b y
d o i n g
( E d s . ) ,
(p p .
i t .
I B n.
H all,
fo r
B r i s b a n e , A u s t r a l i a : A e b i s
J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l S o c i o l o g y,
L e a r n i n g
te n n is .
le a r n in g
c tio n
R e g i o n a l P l a n n i n g .
o d s :
B o s t o n :
1
A c ritiq u e . 4 ) , 1
7
1 5 3 .
Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y .
C .
( 1 9 9 1 ) .
S y s t e m s m e t h o d o l o g y f o r th e
K e m m i s , S . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . A c t i o n
C r e a t i n g k n o w l -
2 9 -3 7 ).
N ew
D e lh i:
P a rtic ip a to ry R e s e a r c h
A s i a .
K e m m i s ,
(1 9 9 1 ).
A c tio n
m o d e r n i s m s . G r e e n w o o d , th e
D .,
& L e v i n , M . ( 2 0 0 0 ) . R e c o n s t r u c t i n g
re la tio n s h ip s
b e t w e e n
u n iv e rs itie s in te rv ie w
Y.
H a n d b o o k
L in c o ln
q u a lita tiv e
S te p h e n K e m m i s .
L ife lo n g
L e a r n i n g i n E u r o p e , 3 (3 ).
for saliences.
C A : S a g e .
w ith
P a p e r p r e s e n t e d
a t t h e " P a r t i c i p a n t
K n o w in g research ties H.
into
and
the
learning
Bradbury
struggle
to
t r a n s f o rumn i v e r s i -
com m unities.
(Eds.),
In
R e a s o n
&
a n d b o o k o f a c t i o n r e s e a r c h
( p p . 1 0 3 - 1 1 3 ) . L o n d o n : S a g e .
U m e b , S w e d e n . K e m m i s , S. , & B r e n n a n
M a k in g
K e m m i s , R . ( 2 0 0 3 , O c t o b e r ) .
w ritin g
th e
his tor)^
t o g e t h e r : E x p l o r a t o r y a c tio n
o f
t h e
f u t u r e
i n p a r t i c i p a t o r y
@
action
research.
P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e C o n g r e s o
N o f f k e ,
S .
E .
a c tio n K e m m i s ,
r e s e a r c h :
T h e m e s To w a r d s
te n s io n s h i s t o r i c a l
U .S .
a n a l y s i s .
I n
S . ,
research
planner ( 3 r d
A
D e a k i n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . K e m m i s ,
( 1 9 9 7 ) .
c a s e b o o k f o r
e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m (p p .
2 -1 6 ).
L o n d o n : F a l m e r.
S . , (3 rd
e d . ) . G e e l o n g , A u s t r a l i a :
A
s o c io lo g ic a l
a lte r n a tiv e . G e n e v a :
In s titu te
D e a k i n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . K e m m i s ,
S. ,
M c T a g g a r t , R . ( 2 0 0 0 ) . P a r t i c i p a t o r y
H a n d b o o k
q u a lita tiv e
p p . 5 6 7 - 6 0 5 ) .
L e v i n ,
M .
T h o u s a n d
( 1 9 8 5 ) .
( 2 n d
e d .,
O a k s , C A : S a g e .
a r tic ip a to r y
a c tio n
A l d e r s h o t , U K : G o w e r. R a p a p o r t ,
R .
N .
( 1 9 7 0 ) .
T h r e ed i l e m m a s
in
a c tio n
i n q u i r y
i n
a c t i o n :
D e v e l o p m e n t s i n n e w p a r a d i g m
W h i t e , L . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . A l w a y s
M c G u i r e , A
P.
t o g e t h e r,
Y aka
(1 9 8 7 ). D o in g
fem in ist
p a r tic ip a to r y
A m h e r s t :
e d u c a tio n a l a c c o u n ta b ility .
U n iv ersity
th e
m e e tin g
th e
P a p e r p r e s e n t e d
A m e r i c a n
E v a lu a tio n
U n iv ersity
m e n ts
A b o rig in a l
e d u c a tio n . m e n t
C u r r i c u l u m S t u d i e s , 2 3 ,2 9 7 -3 2 5 .
M c Ta g g a r t ,
( 1 9 9 7 ) .
R . (E d .).
o f
p e o p l e .
H u m a n S y s t e m s
M a n a g e m e n t ,
a c tio n
a r tic ip a to r y
r e s e a r c h : I n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s . f e s s i o n a l s t h i n k i n a c t i o n . New
S c h o n , a c tio n
r e s e a r c h .
I n
C .
R .
P r y o r
D .
tio n e r .
ies
M c Ta g g a r t , N ew
R . ,
Ga r b u t c h e o n - S i n g h ,
d ire c tio n s
(1 9 8 6 ).
A .
York: Basic
( 1 9 8 7 ) . E d u c a tin g t h e
reflective
Books. practi-
San Francisco: Jossey- B ass.
in
e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e .
N e w Y o rk :
C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y, Te a c h e r s C o l l e g e P r e s s . in tr o d u c tio n t o c u r r i c u l u m
in a c tio n r e s e a r c h
a n d
d e v e l o p m e n t .
L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n
E d u c a tio n a l. a tio n :
E v a lu a tio n
th e O n t a r i o : H o u s e o f A n a n s i . T o rb e rt, t h e s i s ,
W i s c o n s i n - M a d i s o n .
U n i v e r s i t y
o f
( 1 9 9 1 ) .
T r a n s f o r mi n g
se&
society,
N e w b u r y P a r k , C A : S a g e .
and
scientific
inquiry.
a
and
its
im plications.
j o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d S y s t e m s
Yu n u p i n g u ,
M . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . A
( p p .
p l a n
9 8 - 1 0 6 ) .
f o r
G a n m a
r e s e a r c h . I n
G e e lo n g , A
u stralia:
D e a k i n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . (1 9 9 6 ).
N e w
a c t i o n r e s e a r c h . L o n d o n : F a l m e r .
W h y te ,
F.
(E d .).
(1 9 9 1 ).
P a r tic ip a to r y
a c tio n
d ir e c tio n s