QUALIFYING EXAM REVIEWER THEORIES FROM
VARIOUS BASIC ACCOUNTING HANDOUTS BY DLSU PROFESSORS AND STUDENTS Prepared by: Laron Yvette Vicente de Ocampo
ACTBAS1 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING Bookkeeping and Accounting Distinguished Bookkeeping – a procedural element of accounting which primarily deals with the systematic method of recording and classifying financial transaction of business Accounting – as defined by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), is the art or recording, classifying and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events that are, in part at least, of a financial character, and interpreting the results thereof
as defined by the Philippine Institute of Certified Public Accountants, is a system that measures business activities, processes given information into reports, and communicates those findings to decision-makers
Accounting as the “Language of Business” Accounting is often referred to as the language of business because it is the medium of communication between a business firm and various parties interested in its financial activities by providing quantitative financial information through financial statements. Major information needed is as follow: Financial Condition or Position – amount and kinds of its assets and liabilities Financial Performance or Results of Operations – whether the operating activities of the business resulted to net income or net loss Financing and Investing Activities – sources and applications of fund which are responsible for the changes in the financial resources of the business during a given period of time
Brief History of Accounting The development of accounting is a result of Italian merchants’ needs of information. In that commercial climate, Luca Pacioli published the first known description of double-entry bookkeeping entitled Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni et Proportionalite (Everything about Arithmetic, Geometry and Proportion) published in Venice in November 1494. The pace of accounting development increased during the Industrial Revolution as the economics of developed countries began to mass-produce goods. Merchandise was price-based on managers’ hunches about cost until competition required merchants to adopt more sophisticated accounting system. The growth of corporation during the 19th century spurred the development of accounting. Corporate owners were no longer necessary the managers of their business. Managers then, had to create accounting systems to report to the owners the status of the business. Accounting supplied the concept of income. When the government started using the income tax, it further helped accounting develop. Also, government at all levels has assumed expanded roles in health, education, labor and economics planning. To ensure that the information that it uses to make decisions is reliable, the government has required strict accountability in the business community. At the beginning of third millennium, there would still be a lot of developments in the field of accounting. The great challenge of globalization and the effects of new technologies pose a shift in the structure and pattern in this field. More and better information are now being required and therefore, accounting, being the means in communicating business and financial information must also evolve into a more efficient level.
Users of Financial Statements Internal Users – those who are directly involve in the business
Owners – those who provide the money/capital in the business who would need accounting information to properly manage and monitor the business and analyze whether or not they can expect reasonable return from their investment Management – uses accounting information to set goals for the organization, to evaluate the progress made toward those goals and to take corrective actions if necessary Employees – uses accounting information to assess the ability of the enterprise to compensate for the services, industry or labor they are contributing to the business, to provide retirement benefits and other employee opportunities and benefits
External Users – those who are indirectly involved in the business
Potential Investors – use accounting information to evaluate what income they can reasonably expect from their investment
Creditors – use accounting information to determine the business’ ability to meet scheduled payments Customers – use accounting information to know whether the business will continue operating especially when they have long-term involvement with, or are dependent on that company’s offerings of either services or goods Taxing Authorities – use accounting information to determine the amount of tax that should be charged to the business Government Regulation Agencies – use accounting information to determine regulatory activities to be imposed to the business Nonprofit Organization – use accounting information the same way the profit-oriented businesses do Other Users – use accounting information to know that amount of income the company is earning
Forms of Business Organization According to Ownership – business is classified based on owner/s investing or putting capital on a business being started
Sole or Single Proprietorship – only one person makes the investment Partnership – two or more persons, who are therefore called partners, agree to operate the business Corporation – a body formed and authorized by law to act as a single person although constituted by one or more persons, called the stockholders/shareholders, and legally endowed with various rights and duties
According to Operations of Activity – business is classified based on the nature of its activities
Service Concern – rendering of services for a fee Merchandising or Trading Concern – buying and selling of goods Manufacturing Concern – processing of products or conversion of raw materials into finished goods that are then sold
Basic Accounting Concepts Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) – are concepts which are developed by the accounting profession over the years to serve as ground rules that govern how accountants measure, process and communicates financial information and to provide a consistent system of financial reporting in a constantly changing business environment
Entity Concept – business is regarded as having a separate and distinct personality from that of the owner/s – generating its own revenue, incurring its own expenses, owning its own assets and owing its own liabilities thus, personal transactions of the owner/s must not be combined with the transaction of the business
Business Transactions – events that can be measured in terms of money that affects the enterprise Monetary Concept – money is used as the unit of measure in preparing various financial reports of the company - Stable Money Concept – assumes that monetary unit does not change overtime, even if in fact it does Time Period/Periodicity Concept – divides the life of the business into regular intervals at the of which financial statements are prepared (usually one year) - Calendar Year – a twelve-month period beginning with January 1 and ending December 31 - Fiscal Year – does not start with January 1 and end on December 31 Revenue Realization Concept – income is recognized when earned regardless whether cash is received as long as it meets the following conditions: when services are fully rendered when goods or merchandise are fully delivered - Income – is the inflow of assets that results from producing goods or rendering services Accrual Concept – income be recorded when earned regardless whether cash is received and an expense be recognized when incurred Accrual Method of Accounting – attempts to record the financial effects on a company of transactions and other events and circumstances in the periods in which those transactions, events and circumstances occur rather that only the periods in which cash is received or paid by the firm Cash Basis – records a journal entry upon exchange of cash, typically does not require many adjusting entries Matching Concept – all expenses incurred to generate revenues must be recorded in the same period that the income are recorded to properly determine net income or net loss of the period Revenues – inflows of resources from providing goods or services to customers Expenses – outflows of resources incurred in generating revenue Objectivity/Reliability Concept – all transactions must be evidenced by business documents free from personal biases and independent experts can verify reports Cost Concept – assets are acquired in business transactions conducted at arm’s length transactions – transactions between a buyer and a seller at a fair value prevailing at the time of the transaction Going Concern Concept – assumes that the business is to continue its operations indefinitely meaning, the business will stay in operation for a period of time sufficient to carry out contemplated operations, contracts and commitments Conservatism Concept – assumes that when uncertainty exists, the users of financial statements are better served by understatement than by overstatement of net income and assets Consistency Concept – states that once a method is adopted, it must not be changed from year to year to allow comparability of financial statements between years and between businesses Materiality Concept – refers to relative importance of an item or event
Material – if knowledge of it would influence the decision of prudent users of financial statements Disclosure Concept – all relevant and material event affecting the financial condition/position of a business and the results of its operations must be communicated to users of financial statements in variety of ways: Parenthetical Comments/Modifying Comments - placed on the face of the financial statements Disclosure Notes – conveying additional insights about company operations, accounting principles, contractual agreements and pending litigation Supplemental Financial Statements – report more detailed information that is shown in the primary financial statements
The Accounting Profession Public Accountants – are those who serve the general public and collect professional fees for their work Private Accountants – work for a single business Certified Public Accountants (CPA) – professional accountant who earns his title through a combination of education, qualifying experience and an acceptance score in the written national examination given by the Board of Accountancy – prepares grades and gives results of the examination to the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) – who then issues licenses that allow qualifying examinees to practice accounting as CPAs Ethical Values – provide foundation on which civilized society exists whose purpose in the business world is to direct business men and women to abide by a code of conduct that facilitates public confidence in their products and services
Honesty Integrity Promise-keeping Fidelity Fairness Caring Respect for Others Responsible Citizenship Pursuit of Excellence Accountability
MEASURING AND REPORTING FINANCIAL POSITION Forms of Statement of Financial Position Statement of Financial Position – shows what the business is worth in terms of the properties it owns, the debts it owes and the investment of its owners Account Form – assets are listed on the left side of the report and the liabilities and proprietorship on the right side Report Form – shows assets on the tope section of the statement and the liabilities and owner’s equity on the bottom section
Parts of the Statement of Financial Position Statement Heading – name of the business, kind of statement and the date Asset, Liability and Proprietorship – special captions on which items are grouped Captions – classifications of each group appearing on the left margin of the statement Account Titles – individual account titles are indented Current Assets – listed in order of their liquidity Plant, Property, Equipment – listed in order of their expected useful life Note (#) – explaining in detail the aggregated amount presented on the face of the financial statement Current Liabilities – listed in order of due date with the earliest due date appearing first Captions Indicating Totals – group of items which is indented further Single Rule Line – last figure in each group Final Totals – double ruled Peso Sign – are used (a) to the left of the first amount of a group of amounts being combined and (b)
to the left of each final total Peso Amount – shown in one column
The Accounting Equation Total Assets of the business is exactly equal in amount to the sum of the Total Liabilities and the Capital ASSETS = LIABILITIES + OWNER’S EQUITY
Assets – includes anything owned or possessed by the business which represents the resources of the business
Current Assets Cash Investment in Trading Securities Notes Receivable Interest Receivable Accounts Receivable Advances to Employees Merchandise Inventory Accrued Income Supplies on Hand Prepaid Insurance Prepaid Rent Non-Current Assets Land Building Equipment Furniture and Fixtures Accumulated Depreciation
Liabilities – economic obligations payable to an individual or an organization outside the business
Current Liabilities Accounts Payable Notes Payable Interest Payable Deferred Income Taxes Payable Non-Current Liabilities Notes Payable Long Term Installment Contracts Payable Mortgage Payable
Owner’s Equity – claim of an owner of a business over the assets of the business after the claims of the creditors have been satisfied
Capital Withdrawal
MEASURING AND REPORTING FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE Forms of Income Statement Income Statement – summary of the results of business operations covered in an interval known as the accounting period, which shows whether or not the business achieved its primary objective of earning profit or net income Natural Form – arranges all income accounts in one group, all expense accounts in another group and then deducts the total expenses from the total income in a single-step operation of subtraction to arrive at the final result of net income or net loss Functional Form – clearly shows specific sections of income, costs and expenses in a series of arithmetic operations and requires that cost of goods sold and expenses be subtracted in steps to arrive at the net income
Income Accounts Service Income – income from services rendered Other Income – refers to income from sources other than the principal line of activity of the business
Interest Income – revenue to the payee for loaning out a principal amount to a borrower Dividend Income – income earned in investing cash in stocks of other businesses
Expense Accounts Salaries – cost of services rendered by employees Rent – rental cost of office space, equipment, etc Office Supplies – refers to the cost of office supplies used Utilities – refers to the cost of light, water and telephone facilities used Taxes and Licenses – refers to all payments required to be made to the Bureau of Internal Revenue Transportation – cost incurred by office employees when commuting from the office to the place of the business of clients Traveling – used when business trips are made out of town Gas and Oil – refers to the cost of gas and oil consumed Representation – cost incurred when entertaining clients or prospective clients Depreciation – refers to the expense associated with the use of the company’s PPE
Bad Debts – allocation or provision for this future uncollectibility of some of the accounts of credit customers Donations and Contributions – refers to the contribution made to charitable institutions or any other worthwhile projects Miscellaneous – any other costs of operations that may not be sufficiently big in amount to be classified separately are charged to this account
MEASURING AND REPORTING CHANGES IN EQUITY Statement of Changes in Owner’s Equity/Capital Statement – presents a summary of the changes that occurred in the owner’s equity of the entity during a specific time period
opens with the owner’s capital balance at the beginning of the period, add net income (deduct in case of net loss), add additional investment, subtract withdrawals and the statement ends with owner’s capital balance at the end of the period
Withdrawals – withdraw assets for personal use
Temporary Withdrawal – withdraw business assets for personal use in anticipation of profits Permanent Withdrawal – capital withdrawal that is substantial in amount wherein the owner intends to remove the assets permanently from the business operations
MEASURING AND REPORTING CASH FLOWS Forms of Statement of Cash Flows Statement of Cash Flows – reports the firm’s receipt and disbursement of cash which are classified according to the company’s major activities:
Operating – cash effects of revenue and expense transactions Investing – relating to investing activities involving plant assets, intangible assets and investments Financing – result from debt and financing activities
Direct Method – list the receipts of cash from specific operating, investing and financing activities Indirect Method – normally used by companies that employ accrual method rather than cash method in their accounting system
Usefulness of the Statement of Cash Flows
Company’s ability to produce future cash flows Firm’s ability to meet current and future obligations
The reasons for the difference between net income and net cash provided (used) by operating activities The cash investing and financing transactions during the period
ACCOUNTING FOR SALARIES Recording Salary Expense Payroll Register – the summary of employees Net Pay – the remaining cash after deducting the following from the salary:
Social Security System Philhealth PAG-Ibig Withholding Income Tax
ACCOUNTING FOR PROMISSORY NOTE Promissory Note – an unconditional promise to pay a definite sum of money on demand or at a future date Components:
Maker – person who signs the note Payee – the person to whom the promise to pay is made Principal Amount – the amount loaned by the payee Interest – the cost of borrowing the principal amount Interest Period- the period of time during which interest is to be computed Interest Rate- percentage rate that is multiplied to the principal amount and the term of note Maturity Date – date when payment is due Maturity Value – sum of principal and interest Place of Issue – locality where maker executed the note
Typical Transactions
The client receives services of goods and issued promissory note as payment The client has an outstanding account and wishes to extend the payment of his account A loan is extended to a borrower who issues promissory note
Interest on Note Promissory note may either be:
Interest Bearing – provides payment for interest so that the amount paid at maturity date is the maturity value – principal plus interest Non-Interest Bearing – does not provide any payment for interest so the amount that would be paid on maturity date is exactly the same as the face value of the note
Discounting a Note Receivable Discounting a Note Receivable – endorsing a note before maturity during which the payee would receive lesser amount than the maturity value – the price the payee is willing to pay for wanting to receive cash earlier Endorsing may either be:
With Recourse – there is a contingent liability on the part of the endorser (payee), which is equal to the maturity value plus any protest fee, in any case that the bank does not collect any payment from the payer or maker of the note Without Recourse – words “Without Recourse” must appear at the back of the note - exempts the endorser for any contingent liability
Contingent Liability may be presented in the Statement of Financial Position as:
Contingent Liability on the Liability side Deduction from Notes Receivable Footnote to the Statement of Financial Position with the Notes Receivable reported at net amount Parenthetical Note in the Notes to the Financial Statements
Discounting Own Note Issued Discounting Own Note – creditor would collect interest the same day the loan was granted
GENERAL JOURNAL, GENERAL LEDGER AND TRIAL BALANCE Accounting Cycle – a series of sequential steps done every accounting period
Journalizing – chronological recording of business transactions in the journal – book of original entries Posting to the General Ledger – summary of the journalized accounts in the ledger – book of final entry – which may be posted in two forms: Standard Form Running Balance Form Chart of Accounts – lists of account titles being used by the business in its operations Preparing Trial Balance – a list of schedule of open accounts in the general ledger with their corresponding balances - prepared to verify the equality of all the debits and credits
Preparing Worksheet – an optional step in the accounting cycle but greatly aids in preparation of the financial statements Adjusting Entries – done with the purpose of updating some accounts to prevent their overstatement or understatement Preparing Financial Statements – the end points of the whole accounting cycle Closing the Books – done with the purpose of closing all the nominal accounts to the capital Preparing Post-Closing Trial Balance – presents only real accounts which will be carried on to the next accounting period Reversing Entries – done with the purpose of bringing back entries to their original amounts
