Political Science Workbook July Chapter 1 - 3

CHAPTER 1

An Introduction to Politics By John Mark H. Nuncio

―A good Catholic doesn't meddle in politics.' That's not true. That is not a good path. A good Catholic meddles in politics, offering the best of himself - so that those who govern can govern.‖ -Pope Francis

Leaning Outcome/s: 1. Develop critical thinking in defining the nature and scope of politics. 2. Explain the difference between politics as art and politics as science. 3. Promote the appreciation of the importance of politics and Political Science.

Politics besets us. Like the air that we breathe, it is indispensable and necessary but unlike this element, it is oftentimes not felt by the people exercising and engaging in the practice. It is truly a marvel of human interaction but proves to be painful as it has the dangerous capability of destruction. It is chaotic but peaceful; produces conflict but fosters understanding; hateful yet conciliatory; an alpha and an omega. The irony of politics is so confusing and confusion is such an eminent problem that must be solved. This chapter offers answers for the most curious and puzzled minds even up to the laziest soul within the four solid corners of the classrooms we go back to the basics of this highly controversial term, concept, discipline and practice.

An Answer to a Question ―Why‖ is such a natural question posed by humanity triggered by his very own curiosity. A lot of ―why‘s‖ have been thrown to the pool of reality and students who are taking the course on basic Political Science are definitely not

XAVIER UNIVERSITY

– ATENEO DE CAGAYAN

POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE WITH PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION: 1

ST

EDITION

an exemption from this common scenario. scenario . ―Why do I have have to take this pain in the head?‖ head?‖ would be the typical structure of the inquiry. This simple question does not need extensive research in order to come up with a satisfying answer since Article XIV; Sec. 3 (Paragraph 1) of the 1987 Philippine Constitution states it in a very brief but concise manner: Cons titution as part ― All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution

of the curricula.‖

Understanding the Misunderstood Rebellious teens always feel like the entire world does not understand their plight when in fact politics shares the same feeling that they have. It truly belongs to the league of the ―misunderstood.‖ Thus, for us to understand it, we must learn from the men who attempted to know it more deeply and successfully established their intimate relationship with politics.

―Man by nature is a political animal.‖

The

ancient

times

are

rich

in

intellectual

treasures germane to the concept of politics. Plato defined it as ―the study of the affairs of the polis polis (city-

-Plato state) which he defined as the most sovereign and inclusive association‖ association‖..1 The city-states, such as Sparta and Athens, which flourished in Greece, are considered to be highly advanced political communities where direct democracy (initial form of present democracy) was exercised. Aristotle Aristotle explained in his celebrated work Nicomachean Ethics Ethics that ―the end of politics is the best of ends; and the main concern of politics is to

2 XAVIER UNIVERSITY


CHAPTER 1: AN INTRODUCTION TO POLITICS

engender a certain character in the citizens and to make them good and disposed to perform noble actions.‖ 2 This entails that politics is a process of collaboration between the governor and the governed in achieving a goal that is common to all. During the Middle Ages, the church is the focus of every inquisitive mind. Even politics was translated using terms associated with the religious realm. Medieval thinker St. Thomas Aquinas Aquinas believed that politics is a natural phenomenon that cannot be evaded by man. But as a reminder, he further emphasized that ―man is not ordained to the body politic according to all tha t he is and has.‖3 Contentment and full splendor of each human individual will always be found in the arms of God. The Renaissance considered as the ―Age of Reason‖ broke the monotony of the ―Era of the Church‖ as thinkers of this period destroyed the wall that isolated human beings from the rest of the world. Niccolo Machiavelli, in The Prince, Prince, viewed politics as a clever undertaking of utilizing power effectively summed up by the notion ―the end justifies the means.‖ He asserted that good rulers sometimes have to learn "not to be good" in order to maintain the stability of the state.‖

4

The contemporary times have its fair share of people who have been enthusiastic in understanding politics. Harold Lasswell, Lasswell , an American political scientist gave one of the most widely recognized definition of this term as ―who

3 XAVIER UNIVERSITY



ST

EDITION

gets what, when and how.‖ His brief but all -encompassing description suggests the following: 1. The entities interplaying in the political system; 2. The ultimate goal to be attained and the resources to be apportioned; 3. The timelines involved in the process of ―getting there‖ and the distribution as well; and 4. The methods employed in carrying out the given objectives. Canadian modern political scientist David Easton simply defined it as the ―authoritative allocation of values,‖ which generally relates to the policy-making functions of the government in the apportioning of resources or values which are deemed to be authoritative as it binds the members of the society. Accordingly, ―values‖ in Easton‘s definition refers to any valuable thing that every person wants to seek in his entire lifetime and comprises both tangible and intangible ones. Yale University‘s very own Robert Dahl also provided an enlightening view about politics. He considered it as ―the existence of rules or authority within the state.‖5 This signifies the necessity of an established governing body within the bounds of the state that would promote the greater well-being of the people as it distributes what is due to each member. On a more local perspective, in the words of former Senator Ernesto Maceda, ―politics is the art of compromise to achieve certain ends.‖ 6 The political realm is full of various interests which tend to collide with each other

4 XAVIER UNIVERSITY



due to certain incompatibilities and these must be balanced so as to promote harmony rather than conflict within the political system. From the various views presented, we can construe that politics is: 1. Inherent in society and people cannot evade the practice of such. The term ―politicians‖ does not only encompass the people we vote during elections but also includes commoners in society; 2. Important in the affairs of the state and the government and involves power relationships; 3. An undertaking that advances the welfare of the governed but does not totally depend on the efforts of the governor; and 4. A process whose character is shaped by the people engaging in it.

Knowing the Basic Ingredients Cooking your favorite dish will not be possible without the ingredients listed in the cookbook. The ―political menu‖ would also be considered as a failure without the fundamental concepts that are considered as inseparable and necessary in the engagement on politics. 1. Power could be considered as the top-notcher in the list. It is simply defined as the capacity to make someone do what you wanted him to do which can be voluntary or involuntary in nature. Furthermore, it is described as ―the currency of all politics,‖ 7 which means that power is an integral part of the political process — without it, the state, government and other societal forms and structures will never function properly. Indeed, it is the lifeblood of the political

5 XAVIER UNIVERSITY



ST

EDITION

system. John French and Bertran Raven identified five bases or types of power 8 namely:

a. Expert power which primarily relates to the expertise of the leader ;

b. Referent power that directly corresponds to the character and innate charisma of the person having it which gravitates the followers toward him;

c. Reward power which is associated to the ability of giving rewards or merits to the members courtesy of the leader himself;

d. Legitimate power that refers to the legitimacy of the ruling individual over the members, often depending on the degree of acceptance of the latter; and

e. Coercive power which is based on the development of fear within the minds of the governed due to the consequences employed by the leader if they won‘t follow orders and mandates. 2. Authority is somewhat a by-product of power. It is defined as the ―right to command and direct, to be heard or obeyed by others and to be voluntarily accepted by the people and therefore exist without the imposition of sanctions.‖9 The ruler himself is regarded as the rightful one and that he exercises rightful power over the members which results to compliance and less friction among the ruled. Basically, ―authority is largely subjective‖ 10, heavily dependent on one‘s view of whom is rightful or not.

6 XAVIER UNIVERSITY



3. Legitimacy might be viewed as synonymous to authority but fundamentally speaking, in most cases, the former is one of the prerequisites of the latter in the political set-up. To be more specific, ―political legitimacy is a virtue of political institutions and of the decisions (e.g. policies, law) made within them.‖11 Unlike authority, it is usually based on sanctions available at the ruler‘s disposal such as doctrine, ideology, laws, and processes and to a certain extent, the use of force, in order to justify the regime. Without legitimacy, the assertion of having authority usually goes to the pit of letdown. 4. Last but not the least is influence which refers to the indirect sway of an individual as he exercises power over the others. It can be regarded as a component of power in the sense that it typically acts as a minor driving force for the people to be convinced of a particular political agendum and thus, move for the realization of the same. The amount of influence usually varies and is highly reliant on wealth, prestige, and honor as well as the linkages established by a person.

Viewpoint Matters: Approaches to Politics Politics is truly relative because not all people share the same sentiments and ideas about it. Just like beauty, it definitely depends upon the eye of the beholder. Hence, we must take into account how groups of people, particularly those in the academic and scientific world, treat and view politics in their

Summary of Approaches: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Behaviouralism Rational Choice Institutionalism Constructivism Marxism Feminism Normative Approach

7 XAVIER UNIVERSITY



ST

EDITION

own perspective and language. On this segment, eight approaches in the study of politics will be uncovered and presented. 1. In the early stages of studying politics, the Traditional/Historical Approach became the front-runner in understanding ―what is the political?‖ This approach extensively utilizes the lexicon of history in comprehending the complexities

of

the

political

landscape

covering

institutions,

structures,

governments, legal systems, etc. It stresses the vitality of chronology and tracing the roots and development of the previously stated variables so as to fathom the factors or reasons that catapulted the present conditions of the same. 2. Behaviouralism concentrates on the study of the political behavior of the individuals partaking and intermingling within the political system. Such behavior encompasses the distinct features and dynamics of the electorate, the bureaucrats,

the

policy-makers,

the

civil

society,

etc.

This

approach

―concentrates on a single, deceptively, simple question: why do people behave in the way they do?‖12 This particular viewpoint on political analysis utilizes the empirical methods of the natural sciences in which the core variable is observable behavior. 3. The rationality and self-interest of the human species is on the spotlight of the Rational Choice advocates. Rationalists tend to view political action as being driven by one‘s own instincts in the attainment of goals. Convergence between the Rationalist and Behaviouralist outlook can be seen on the light of using political behavior for understanding political phenomenon. But it is

8 XAVIER UNIVERSITY



important to note that the former also incorporates the possible outcomes of every action done by an individual within the environment where he belongs. Moreover, this approach employs the principles of the field of economics concerning the ―need to discover people‘s incentive structures in order to explain their actions.‖ 13 4. On its initial stage, the Institutional approach was more centered on the study and laying out descriptions about ―constitutions, legal systems, government structures, and their comparison over time and across countries.‖ 14 Institutionalists tend to be inclined on the traditional analysis of politics in the sense that they are limited on understanding and presenting explanations regarding the conduits of representation and policy-making or in simpler terms, the institutions found within the political arena. This traditional stance was challenged by newer approaches and In order to address such weakness, a ―new institutionalism‖ emerged from oblivion wherein conventional analysis of the structures was added with a more keen attention towards the relationship between the individuals and institutions. 5. Constructivism is based on the belief ―that people do one thing and not another due to the presence of certain social constructs.‖ 15 These social constructs acts as the cilia or filtering agent of our reactions or interpretations of the phenomena and things found in the landscape of the political. It typically includes norms, doctrines, structures, as well as the political orientation of an individual or a group of people shaping political perception.

9 XAVIER UNIVERSITY



ST

EDITION

6. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels developed an approach which is named after Marx himself. Marxism concerns with the study of the class struggles that had occurred in the vast expanse of history and expounds on the dynamics of production and consumption and the rise of the working class as capitalism continues to exploit them. Marxists argue that organizational structures are not rational systems for performing work in the most efficient manner; rather, they are power systems designed to maximize control and profits. 16 Thus,

they

view

politics as a landscape characterized by control wherein those situated in the higher level (capitalists) tend to displace those at the bottom (proletariats). The eventual actions, normally in the form of a revolution, initiated by the oppressed individuals are driven by pressure brought about by this status quo of the hierarchy. 7. A contemporary approach yet a very striking one, feminism ―emerged as a movement and body of ideas that aimed to enhance women‘s status and power.‖17 It visualizes the area of politics via the power dynamics involved between men and women. Moreover, it emphasizes and addresses the plight of the women sector regarding the conventional scope of the political being confined in a masculine point of view. 8. Finally, we have the

normative approach that went beyond

understanding the usual inquiry of ―what it is?‖ and sees the political milieu on the more heavier issue of ―what ought to be?‖ It involves the descriptions of significant elements found in the system and continues to venture on a more

10 XAVIER UNIVERSITY



distant road by forming specific regulations or norms to guide the conduct of people, structures, organizations, etc. Indeed an approach advancing a contemplated ―right track.‖

Theories to Ponder Philosophy has been an essential part of politics and it has provided the foundations in understanding the mechanisms and interactions inside the political system. The following are the most salient and prominent political theories, most of which are of great value in international relations, that are constantly used in order to comprehend political circumstances: 1. The Social Contract Theory explains the origin and the formation of the state through a contract concluded by men living in a state of nature. The social contract has three versions: a. Thomas Hobbes in his well renowned Leviathan paints the state of nature as a chaotic society where ―the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.‖18 In the Hobbesian version, the state of nature is a competitive platform and the nature of contract is a necessary one. In addition, the chosen ruler is a supreme monarch (The Leviathan) exercising absolute powers. b. The second version was devised by English philosopher John Locke whose state of nature is not as chaotic as that of Hobbes since men are considered to be rational beings. The nature of the contract is voluntary which means that the ruler is accountable to the people by advancing their interests




ST

EDITION

and welfare. If the ruling individual proves to be inefficient and ineffective, the right of revolution can be invoked by the governed. c. Jean Jacques Rousseau proposed his own version of the social contract by asserting that the state of nature is a peaceful one. Competition was not that pervasive since nature can provide for the needs of men and every individual has compassion towards the others. The nature of the contract was a general consensus and the ruler is of the same type as that of Locke. Lastly, the government formed through the general will of the people is ―an extremely strong and direct form of democracy.‖ 19 2. The Divine Right Theory belongs to the same league as that of the social contract theory due to the reason that it also deals on the highly sensitive topic of state formation. But it goes beyond the bounds of the origin of the state since this also covers the dynamics of power being the major justification of the divine right rule of monarchs in the past. On the context of the origins of the state, it holds that the state, like mankind, was a creation of the Divine Providence. Moreover, this theory strengthens the belief that the Supreme Being, aside from crafting the state, is the main entity who designates the person or group of persons that will exercise power and rule over the populace. Divine right theorists insist that the ruler's authority was from God alone and not from the community.20 3. Political Idealism advocates the innate goodness of human beings and postulates that the state was institutionalized in order to provide and




cultivate what we call ―general welfare.‖

Idealism is grounded on morality

encompassing concepts such as justice, peace, order, equality, etc. This political philosophy takes a more optimistic stance about politics and at some point, conceptualizing a utopian social and political order where everything and everyone is guided by ―what is right.‖ 4. ―What is ideal may not be real‖ is the salient standpoint of Political Realism. This theory stresses the selfish interests propelling every person as well as the state as a whole which must be satisfied not just for greater glory but mainly because it‘s a must for survival. Realism deviates from the near perfect political view of idealists by assuming that clashes are normal phenomena and in order to achieve success, what is moral or right could be twisted for convenience. What is practical is necessary. 5. Rationalism could be contemplated as a middle ground for Idealism and Realism. It is not as ―exemplary‖ as the former and is not as ―harsh‖ as the latter. Rationalist believes in the power of the mind and reason by advocating that even though political beings have the tendency to become selfish, there is also a side in us that values reconciliation and compromise. For the case of the state, ―it can be argued that it displays a commitment to the idea that it is inappropriate to promote the national interest without any regard for international law and morality.‖21 6. Political Extremism is a very absolutist political philosophy concerning politics. It does not conform to the view of realism about assessing actual




ST

EDITION

situations nor cares for the power of reason as what rationalists try to magnify. At certain points, it resembles idealism but it is much darker due to the fact that extremists see today‘s reality the same as the reality of tomorrow and the coming days. It‘s like fitting a shoe that does not fit the size of your feet. 7. Balance of Power is a theory that is commonly used in the field of International Relations. It postulates that balance in the international political arena is realized via the existence of power levels that each state possesses — one may be hard and menacing, the others might be soft and vulnerable. Usually, the balance is attained through the formation of alliances whether permanent or temporary. Hence, the balancing process helps to maintain the stability of relations between states. 22 8. Game Theory is another significant model in comprehending the dynamic in politics. From the word itself, it considers political relationships as an endeavor where one party wins and the other suffers losses to a certain degree. Strategy is very crucial in this theory because one is assumed to be clever in evaluating the future steps of the enemy in a game characterized by ―survival Other Political Theories:

of the fittest.‖ 9. Finally, we have a theory that gives importance to the core role played by a dominant state in international politics. The Hegemonic Stability Theory holds that in the affairs of the

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Utilitarianism Liberalism Social Darwinism Just War Theory Interventionism Marxism Ethnic Conflict Theory 8. Domino Theory

international community, one state (hegemon) is




recognized as the prime mover of the entire system which can be regarded as a world leader. For a state to be a hegemon, it must have three attributes: 23 a.) the capability to enforce the rules of the system; b.) the will to do so; and c.) a commitment to a system which is perceived as mutually beneficial to the major states. REFLECTION: Janet Lim Napoles, Jinggoy Estrada, Ramon Revilla, Jr., and Juan Ponce Enrile are making headlines right now. PDAF scam has heightened the dilemma of massive graft and corruption in the country. Considering the current realities of the Philippines, is politics absolutely dirty or not?

The Clash of Art and Science The dichotomy of art and science has always been the subject of so much debate for a very long time. The disparity between these two contrasting areas is also evident in the realm of politics. Some would contend that it is political art, while other might assert that it is political science. What is really the nature of politics? Definition of terms would be very helpful in answering this disturbing question. Art is described as the ―power of performing actions especially acquired by experience, study, and observation.‖ 24 Meanwhile, science, which comes from the Latin word scire meaning ―know‖, implies a systematized body of knowledge. Both art and science deals with the understanding and learning of ―what is there‖, yet art is characterized as traditional while science is rather




ST

EDITION

contemporary. From the descriptions given, we can construe that art is guided by actual experience that keeps on improving as someone imbibes more vivid images of reality. Thus, it is more open to changes and can accommodate variations over time. On the other side of the scale, science is firm and values uniformity because of the presence of constants and methodologies that must be strictly followed for an undertaking to be considered acceptable. Furthermore, it is generally guided by the empirical and uses the gravity of numbers to solidify a scientific guess known as ―hypothesis.‖ Contemplating on these explanations, one would conclude that politics as a field of study and as a practical undertaking takes the form of both art and science as it flourishes in actuality. Political Art is normally seen through the lenses of one‘s own strategy and style which constructs a new identity that is distinct from others. This aspect of politics produces the variety in the political landscape. What is stressed in the dominion of ―politics as art‖ is the critical importance of properly using the power of the mind, commonly known as common sense, to devise a plan of action which suits the taste of others. Flexibility is a vital trait that must be developed by a political persona reminding him how to mix and match charisma, skills, influence, resources and character, etc. in order to develop the artistic side of his politics. It is safe to say that political art is truly predominant in the realm of practical politics but in the modern era, ―politics as science‖ has emerged as a very influential aspect not just in the academician‘s corner but also in the actual




application as well. As a science, politics attempts to incorporate the basic methods of the natural and physical science in the study and analysis of those enclosed within the limits of the political. Political scientists have learned the credibility and reliability of figures and numbers in the interpretation of political phenomena and now employ the methods of data acquisition or collection, usually done through surveys, and data analysis and interpretation with the aid of notable principles in mathematics specifically from the great sage statistics. In reality, political art, even though it is fairly widespread, would not be solely depending on instincts and common sense. The political

game

in

the

current

paradigm

needs

collaboration between the two aspects of politics for

―Politics is truly the art and science of government.‖

someone to become more effective and responsive in a changing environment. Right now, political individuals consult with numbers to assess the success or failure of their political campaigns via pre-election polls usually conducted by third party survey firms like SWS and Pulse Asia. Indeed, the best and efficient decision and policy-creators make an effort to strike a balance between ―politics as art‖ and ―politics as science‖ to better comprehend what not to do and what is to be done.

Political Science Defined Now that we have discerned the difference between the two aspects of politics, let us move on to a much more interesting discussion concerning the academic discipline of the political — the field of Political Science.




ST

EDITION

Basing on the study of word origin, Political Science is the crossroad of two remarkable terms coming from the rich languages of Greek and Latin: polis (city-state) and scire (know).Therefore, Political Science refers to the knowledge of the city-state, a political society which can be considered as the state‘s equivalent in the olden times. Aristotle, the regarded ―Father of Political Science‖, simply defined it as a ―political investigation‖ 25 whose main objective was to ascertain the totality of politics. Conducting such investigation would certainly require the formation of questions or inquiries that would direct the whole process of discovery. Plato, Aristotle‘s mentor, who is now considered as the parent of Political Philosophy first identified the essence of politics through the recognition of the philosopher kings‘ capability and wisdom to rule over the others. The beginnings of the discipline have assumed the personality of political philosophy until French political thinker Jean Bodin devised the term political science ―based on the organization of institution related to law .‖26 Generally speaking, defining Political Science takes two to tango. In its traditional sense, it is ―the study of the state in all its elements, aspects, and relationships that includes its government, and its organs and institutions through which the state functions.‖27 On a much modern sense, the discipline has expanded by including the political attitudes and behaviors of people, how they influence the structures and institutions, and the issues circulating in the scene of governance. It is the oldest social science and has many points of




contact with history, law, economics, and philosophy. 28 Hence, Political Science is a vital branch of social science that deals with the comprehensive study of the state covering its structures such as the government, the personalities such as officials and people, the processes involved in its local and international affairs, and the interaction among these identified actors and variables in the political system. Moreover, it is the systematic study and analysis of the sphere of politics.

Political Science: Branches Like any other sector of science, the field of Political Science which is one of the daughters of the greater branch of social science, has developed its own subdivisions overtime. The long list includes the following: 1. Political Theory establishes the link between Political Science and the area of study known as Philosophy. This branch studies and contributes to an old and ever-evolving dialogue about the ultimate realities that shape political life and the ultimate principles that should guide it. 29 Its primary concern is to give a closer look to the basics of politics such as justice, rights, liberty, freedom, power, etc. and understand their application in reality. 2. The actions undertaken by the government is the major focus of Public Administration. It is all about how governments organize and operate, about how bureaucracies work and interact with citizens and each other. 30Public administration evaluates the behavior developed by bureaucracies and has




ST

EDITION

high regard on citizen‘s feedback concerning the program of action initiated by the government and its other instrumentalities. 3. Differentiated from the area of Public Administration, Public Policy is a branch that heavily deals with the system of regulations and laws that directs the flow and course of both governmental action and inaction. Such regulations have the ability of binding society due to the fact that it is promulgated by a structure blessed with authority and power. Yet the irony is demonstrated by the fact that public reaction can change or shape it. 4. Political Economy comprehends the influence and dynamic forces of economics in the political system. ―It is not with the body politic, but with that body social or body industrial that I have called the body economic, that political economy is directly concerned‖31 says Henry George in his celebrated work The Science of Political Economy. The thesis of this segment is the influence of economic factors such as wealth, the means of production, the distribution of wealth, goods, and services, etc. in the conduct of politics and how do they affect the political actors‘ behavior and attitudes. 5. The evaluation of political systems and governments that had flourished in the face of the Earth catches the attention of Comparative Politics. Contrasting and comparing are techniques that experts in this area employ in order to determine the degree and reasons for the success or failure of one structure or system from the other accounting factors such as geography, culture, traditions, etc.




6. International Relations emphasizes on the interaction of states and nations within the confines of the international political setting. The study of organizations and institutions whose scope is primarily international in nature, foreign policies and stance on global issues such as terrorism and global warming, and the general relations of states whether peaceful or hostile, is embraced by international relations.

In An Open Relationship If Political Science was a Facebook user, expect that its list of friends would be overwhelming because the field is undeniably friendly proven by its noteworthy connections with other areas of study. Philosophy. The discipline of Philosophy has significant multifarious contributions to the development of Political Science as a separate field of expertise in the sense that the latter ‘s foundations was molded by Political Philosophy. The political is simply guided by its wisdom as it expounds the essences of justice, love, order, morality, power, authority, etc. and sets standards that may not be completely realized in practice considering the variety of interpretation. History. Tracing the origins and developments through time is the salient concentration of History. Interdependence exists between the two disciplines and in the case of Political Science; the understanding of the present political status quo could be fully realized through the help of the historical reconstruction of the past. Accordingly, ―the historical beginnings of the




ST

EDITION

government and its institutions are necessary inputs to explain the current dynamics of the state‘s social environment.‖ 32 In addition, the visualization of future political phenomena can be predicted based on trends or patterns found in the domain of the past. Psychology. The relationship between it and Political Science can be seen on the scientific side of politics particularly in the study of political behavior. Psychology translates the bland descriptions of Political Science into deeper explanations using observable behaviors of the electorates, bureaucrats, and other entities inside the political system that serves as driving force by producing feedbacks to the institutions. In fact, a new hybrid field has been shaped from the convergence of the principles and tenets of Political Science and Psychology — the contemporary Political Psychology. Sociology. This branch of social science whose core is directed towards the study of a greater system or society has served as an essential device in uncovering the hidden aspects of politics. Man by nature is a political animal; thus, every person practices politics in a daily basis and we always belong and are influenced by the societal constructs surrounding us. For example, public opinion is crafted by the events and things occurring in the expanse of the societal set-up. The environment really molds and has a strong impact to politics. Education. Knowledge and critical thinking is very important in the political realm and education inculcates these essential things to the people. The area of education empowers individuals to step up their game and be actively




involved in the political matters. Education motivates the ―common tao‖ to be more participative in governmental processes such as elections and policymaking and abolishes the mental passiveness of being merely governed. Economics. Political Science and this discipline are intertwined by the fact that political institutions and structure specifically the government and other related organizations are deeply affected by the economic resources available at its disposal. Economics ―deals with the management of the income, supplies, and expenses of a household, community or government, or other group or organization.‖33 Economics serves as the prompter of the government in the production or generation and the apportioning of resources while Political Science manages the process by pinpointing priorities from non-priorities. Management. This field holds a prime position in all organizations. Management typically involves the basic processes of planning, coordination, staffing, budgeting, etc. which makes every organizational programs and undertakings more effective and successful. Political Science enlightens managers by giving assistance in ascertaining the prioritized goals, staffing the right people, drafting proper budgetary allocations, and providing the right measures for coordination. Engineering. This is a breakthrough discipline where the canons of Mathematics, Thermodynamics, and other empirical scientific areas of study are applied into reality as observed in the establishment of government projects that can be seen by the naked eye. Political Science advocates development




ST

EDITION

while Engineering makes development possible. The former evaluates the need of the community while the latter realizes the need via concrete structures that fosters opportunity for economic and social advancement and prosperity. Accountancy. It is the discipline which ensures that public revenues are lawfully, effectively, efficiently, and economically spent through proper auditing procedures and with due diligence. 34 The link between this academic area and Political Science is that Accountancy offers conduits for checking governmental revenue generation and spending that promotes the values of accountability and transparency among political leaders, public servants or officers, and bureaucrats. Statistics. Political Science needs Statistics more than Statistics needing it. The significance of the mathematical discipline in the context of understanding the nature of politics is seen in the move of Political Science towards becoming a more scientific-based field of specialization. Political Scientists, in the conduct of their research works, requires the higher level analysis of data that is provided by Statistics. It is not an issue of quantitative defeating qualitative but it only faces current challenges where numbers proved to be something that matters.

Importance of Political Science The rationale behind the inclusion of Political Science in the curricula of tertiary education is anchored on realizing the following goals: 1. Knowledge and Competence. Political Science offers a colossal chance to imbibe substantial knowledge and information on political concepts




and appreciate the essential functions of the government and the state in providing the best for its people. Moreover, students would be able to learn their basic rights as citizens of the country and the accompanying limitations in the exercise of the same. Individuals who explore the richness of Political Science would also appreciate the various governmental processes involved in the advancement of the general welfare particularly the complexities of legislation, administration, and interpretation of the body of rules and laws of the state. 2. Skills. This relates to the acquisition of legal skills as students would venture the wholeness of the fundamental law of the land. They would develop the keen ability in handling situations wherein conflict of interests and encroachment of rights are involved. Persons with enough knowledge of the discipline can provide basic legal assistance concerning the requisites of due process and how to recover rightful damages when there is grave abuse of discretion from authorities as well as private entities in the intervention of one‘s rights. In addition, works as a preparatory course for students who want to pursue careers in Foreign Service, government, the academe through research and teaching, etc. Filipinos are empowered by Political Science to empower their fellow Filipinos. 3. Values. Political Science supplants the seeds of nationalism and good citizenship to the young bright minds of the country as they learn their responsibilities as Filipino citizens and realizes their critical role in nation-building and catalyzing change in the society. The discipline aims inculcate into their




ST

EDITION

cerebral domain that they, as youths, are the true hope of the fatherland and that they must be aware of the dynamic environment where they belong.




ENDNOTES 1 Ricardo

S. Lazo, 2009, Introduction to Political Science , (Manila: Rex Book Store), p. 3.

2 Edward

Clayton, Aristotle: Politics, Michigan, USA,

, accessed 30 March, 2014. 3 Aquinas, Summa

Theologica, I-II, 21.4 ad 3, as cited in P. Koritansky, 2007, Aquinas: Political

Philosophy, , accessed on 15 April, 2014. 4 Dr.

L. Kip Wheeler, Niccolo Machiavelli and the Prince , updated 14 March, 2014,

, accessed 1 April, 2014. 5 Ricardo

S. Lazo, 2009, Introduction to Political Science , (Manila: Rex Book Store), p. 3.

R. Dannug and Marlo B. Campanilla, 2004, Politics, Governance and Government with

6 Roman

Philippine Constitution, (Quezon City: C & E Publishing), p. 3. 7 Thomas

M. Magstadt, 2013, Understanding Politics: Ideas, Institutions, and Issues , (USA:

Cengage Learning), p. 5. 8 Dannug 9

and Campanilla, op.cit., p. 19.

Ibid., pp. 20-21.

10 Donna

Lee Bowen, Power Vs. Authority (2003),

, accessed 10 May, 2014. 11

Political Legitimacy, 29 April 2010,

accessed 11 May, 2014 12 David

Sanders, 2010, Behavioural Analysis, in Theory and Methods in Political Science (3rd

Edition), (United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan), p. 23. 13 Levitt,

2005: 2011, Rational Choice as cited in ibid., p. 44.

14 Vivien

Lowndes, 2010, The Institutional Approach, as cited in ibid.,p. 60.

15 Craig

Parsons, 2010, Constructivism and Interpretive Theory , as cited in ibid., p. 80.

16 Braverman,

1974, as cited in Marxist Theory,

, accessed 1 May, 2010. 17 Vicky

Randall, 2010, Feminism, as cited in op.cit., p. 80.

18 Thomas

Hobbes, Leviathan, 186, as cited in Jonathan Wolff, 2006, An Introduction to Political

Philosophy, (New York: Oxford University Press), p. 8. 19 Jean

Jacques Rousseau, as cited in Social Contract Theory,

, accessed 13 May, 2014. 20 J.P.

Sommerville, Absolutism and the Divine Right of Kings




ST

EDITION

accessed 28 April, 2014. 21 Mark

Beavis, IR Paradigms, Approaches, and Theories , last updated 12 March, 2014,

, accessed 5 May, 2014. 22

Ibid.

23

Ibid. R. Dannug and Marlo B. Campanilla, 2004, Politics, Governance and Government with

24 Roman

Philippine Constitution, (Quezon City: C & E Publishing), p. 48. M. Magstadt, 2013, Understanding Politics: Ideas, Institutions, and Issues , (USA:

25 Thomas

Cengage Learning), p. 12. 26 Christopher

Fuster Bueno, Origin of Political Science,

, accessed 6 May, 2014 27Reynold

Reyes-Laurente, 2006, Essentials of Political Science 2 , (Manila: Rex Book Store), p. 8.

28 Bueno,

loc.cit.

29 Robert

G. Moser, Political Theory,

, accessed 7 May, 2014 M. Magstadt, 2013, Understanding Politics: Ideas, Institutions, and Issues , (USA:

30 Thomas

Cengage Learning), p. 17. 31 As

cited in
economy/spe109.html#p-11> accessed 3 May, 2014. 32 Roman

R. Dannug and Marlo B. Campanilla, 2004, Politics, Governance and Government with

Philippine Constitution, (Quezon City: C & E Publishing), p. 62. 33 Reynold 34

Reyes-Laurente, 2006, Essentials of Political Science 2 , (Manila: Rex Book Store), p. 18.

Dannug and Campanilla, op.cit., p. 65.



CHAPTER 2

The State and Government By Roderico Y. Dumaug, Jr.

―Please, I would like to ask all those who have positions of responsibility in economic, political and social life, and all men and women of goodwill: let us be ―protectors‖ of creation, protectors of God‘s plan inscribed in nature, protectors of one another and of the environment.‖ -Pope Francis

Leaning Outcome/s: 1. Think critically on the formation of States and Governments as it exists today in the Philippines. 2. Discuss in detail the policymaking and political structures of the Philippines. 3. Compare and contrast the three inherent powers of the State as it is exercised at present in the Philippine national and local governments.

As one of the principal objects in the study of politics, the State is the most powerful political institutions within a country. It is also considered as the basic unit in the international community and the principal subject in the field of International Law. Some students believe that the term State is synonymous with the term Government but the two are different with the former being a more durable institution while the latter may easily come and go and being an element of the former. In this chapter, the basic concept of State and of the Government will be discussed in continuation and in actualization on what we learned from the previous chapter about the concept of politics. Definition of State. Anchoring on the concept of international law, State is defined as ―a group of people living together in a definite territory under an

XAVIER UNIVERSITY



ST

EDITION

independent government organized for political ends and capable of entering

into international relations.‖ 1 It is also defined by our Supreme Court as ―a

community

of

persons,

more

or

less

numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent of external control, and possessing a government to which

James Garner defined State as ―a community of persons more or less numerous occupying a definite portion of territory completely free of external control and possessing an organized government to which a great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.‖

a great body of the inhabitants render habitual obedience; a politically organized sovereign community independent of outside control bound by ties of nationhood, legally supreme within its territory, acting through a government functioning under a regime of law.‖ 2 Nation, on the other hand, from its etymology which is ‗nasci‘ meaning ‗to be born,‘ is understood in relation to birth or origin and signifies a common race characterized by a community of language and customs. To illustrate the above etymological definition of nation, several states in the world belong to one and the same nation like the Arab nation in the Middle East comprising independent countries like Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, Lebanon, Yemen and several others. There is also one state which is generally known to be composed of one nation and an example to this is the United Kingdom of their English nation. There are states also which are composed of several nations and the most famous for that is the United States of America which is considered as



CHAPTER 2: THE STATE AND GOVERNMENT

the ‗melting pot of all nations‘ for all known nations of the world comprise the American nation. It is also possible that there are nations which do not have a state of their own like the Jews before the formation of the Israeli state in 1948 especially during the first two World Wars, or of the Poles after the dissolution of their country in 1795, the Italians before the State of Italy was organized in 1870 or of the Kurdish nation currently struggling for self-determination from Iraq or Turkey. Some authors would say that the term United Nations is a misnomer because this international organization is composed actually of states and is not an organization of races or of nations. To refer it as a United States instead of a United Nations may be more confusing considering the very popular United States of America. Theoretically, state is a legal concept and the nation refers to a racial or ethnic concept. Reflection 2.1. The existence of the Philippine State can be traced back on July 12, 1898 when President Emilio Aguinaldo organized the Malolos Government, and we were widely accepted to the family of nations during the Commonwealth Period and when were given independence by the United States of America in July 4, 1946. The Philippines was one of the originally signatories for the organization of the United Nations. We understood in this chapter that the term nation refers to a particular race or ethnic origin. Do you think that there exists a unique Filipino nation? Explain.




ST

EDITION

Elements of a State. For a state to have international personality it possesses the following essential elements: 1. People are the inhabitants of the state or the human beings living within a territory. To sustain itself the term people must be of both sexes, capable of procreation and should be sufficient in numbers. In

Essential Elements of the State: 1. 2. 3. 4.

People Territory Sovereignty Government

our 1987 Constitution, the term people refer to the inhabitants 3, citizens4 and the voters5. 2. Territory refers to that fixed portion of the earth surface where the people of the state reside. Defining a state‘s territory is necessary for sovereign and jurisdictional reasons and in order to support the needs of the people in the state. Pragmatically, the territory must be big enough to support the inhabitants and small enough that it can be easily administered and defended. 3. Sovereignty is defined as the supreme and uncontrollable power of the State and the right to exercise within its territorial boundary, to the exclusion of any other state, the functions of a state. Others may equate it with the term independence. State possesses that sole right of making decisions and power to direct its own affairs, both external and internal, without the interference of other states. Sovereignty is classified into external and internal sovereignty. Internal means the power of the state to enter into international intercourse with other




states or international organizations to the exclusion of other states. Internal sovereignty means the inherent power of the state to run its internal affairs independently from the other states. Characteristically, sovereignty is permanent, exclusive, comprehensive, absolute, indivisible, inalienable and imprescriptible. The concept of imperium in reference to sovereignty means that the state‘s authority to govern embraced in the concept of sovereignty includes the passage of laws governing a territory, maintaining peace and order over it and in defending it against foreign invasion. In the concept of dominium, the states have the capacity to own or acquire property. 6 The fundamental rights of the state are the (1) right of existence and selfdefense, (2) the right of sovereignty and independence, (3) the right of equality, (4) the right of property and jurisdiction, and (5) the right of legation or diplomatic intercourse. 7 The Doctrine of Act of State originally says that a nation is independent within its territorial jurisdictions and its internal affairs may not be questioned in the courts of any other nations. This is applicable to acts that are carried out by a government office or officer authorized to exercise governmental or sovereign powers and these formal acts are supported by legislation or of an executive order.




ST

EDITION

4. Governmentis that institution or aggregate of institutions by which an independent society makes and carries out those rules of action which are necessary to enable men to live in a social state or which are imposed upon the people forming that society by those who possess the power or authority of prescribing them.8 The existence of an organized government is important because the state must have an institution to represent itself in the family of nations and to maintain social order within its territorial jurisdiction, and where the form of government is not an essential requirement. As one of the essential elements of a State, the government is an instrument through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and realized. The two functions of the government are the (1) Constituent Functions which are compulsory because it is constitutive of the very bonds of the society, and (2) Ministrant Functions which are undertaken to advance the general interest of the society9 and are merely optional. The constituent functions include: (1)

The keeping of order and in providing protection to persons and

property; (2)

The fixing of the legal relations between husband and wife and

between parents and children;




(3)

The regulation of the holding, ownership, transmission, transfer and

exchange of property, and in the determination of liabilities for debt or for crime; (4)

The determination of the contractual rights between persons;

(5)

Definition and the punishment of crime;

(6)

Administration of justice in civil cases;

(7)

The determination of the political duties, rights, privileges, and

relations of the citizens; (8)

The dealings of the state with other States: the preservation of the

state from external danger or the encroachment of its international interests. 10 The ministrant functions which are not compulsory cover the regulation of trade and industry, the establishment of standard weights and measures, laws on tariffs, navigation laws, and the like, on the regulation of labor, the construction and maintenance of roads, railways and other infrastructure projects, maintenance of postal and telegraph and waterworks systems, sanitation, including the regulation of trades for sanitary purposes, education, the care of the poor and the incapable and others. 11 In protecting its citizens, there is that Doctrine of Parens Patriae which means that the government is the guardian of the rights of the people. 12




ST

EDITION

Government is a term distinct from the word Administration because the latter refers to the group of persons in whose hands the reins of the government are held for the time being. Reflection 2.2. Can you differentiate the State of the Republic of the Philippines, the 5 th Republic of the Philippines and the administration of President Benigno S. Aquino III in terms of the manner of its formation and dissolution? Explain. Forms of Government. The following are some of the popular forms of government in the world today classified into the number of people ruling, as to the relationship between the national and the local, on the status of the rulers running the government and according to the relationship between the executive and the legislative branch. A. As to the number of people ruling 1. Monarchy is a government where the supreme power is hold by an individual or by a single sovereign as head of state through hereditary transfer of power or one who comes from a royal family. This form of government is classified into (a) Absolute Monarchy, where the monarch exercises absolute powers, and (b) Limited Monarchy, where the monarch delegates some of his powers to another government body. An example of absolute monarchy in existence today is Saudi Arabia and Brunei. United Kingdom and Japan are known to have powerful absolute monarchies before but now they are




constitutional monarchy where Queen Elizabeth of Great Britain and Emperor Akihito of Japan have limited government powers or control enshrined in their constitutions. Their major role as heads of state is their countries‘ ceremonial figures. 2. Oligarchy Oligarchy is a form of government where power is vested by few powerful persons like a dominant clan, elite or clique who rule for their own vested interests especially for the accumulation of wealth and privileges. It is usually called as the government of the few. This can be in the form of (a) Aristocracy, Plutocracy and Theocracy. 3. Democracy Democracy is a government where power is hold directly or indirectly by the citizens under a free and universal suffrage. The term democracy is taken from a Greek word dēmokratía (demos for ―people‖ and kratos for ―power‖) ―power‖) which means ‗a government of the people,‘ ‗the power of the people‘ or the ―government of discussion.‖ Values like pluralism, the rule of law, freedom and liberty, and human rights are attributed to democracy. B. As to the relationship between the national and the local 1. Unitary Unitary is a government where powers are concentrated in one central government. Central government may delegate or transfer limited power or control control to their sub-national, sub-national, tiers or local local government units. units. However, the central government still possesses supreme power to recall the powers it delegated.




ST

EDITION

2. Federal Federal is a government with self-governing regions, states, local units or tiers united by one central government usually called the federal government. There is a clear division of powers between the national and their local governments. In the federation, the self-governing status of states, regions or constituent units are guaranteed by the constitution and cannot be changed unilaterally by the central or federal government. C. As to the status of the rulers running the government 1. Civil Government Government when it is run by a civilian authority and this is usually formed after toppling a military or an authoritarian regime. 2. Military Government Government when the government is run by the members of the Armed Forces. D. As to the relations between the Executive and the Legislative Branch 1. Presidential Presidential form of government is a government where there is a complete separation of powers between the executive and the legislative branch both in tenure and prerogatives. It is also described as a government where their head of state and their head of government are held by one and the same person. 2. Parliamentary form of government is when the head of government is elected from among the members of the legislative branch to perform executive functions and conferred by the legislature complete control and administration of the law. The citizens in this government indirectly elect their country‘s chief executive through the election el ection of their legislative representatives.




E. Other forms of Government 1. Dictatorship is a regime of one single leader who may have not been elected and is using force, usually the military, to keep in power and to be in control. In this government, there is no respect on public opinion or of the individual human rights. 2. Totalitarian is a government ruled by a single political party where citizens are forced to vote for the party and candidates chosen by the government. This is an extreme form of an authoritarian government. 3. Republican is a representative form of government where its powers and authority are directly or indirectly derived from the people. 4. Theocracy is a government where the rulers are claiming to be ruling based on a set of religious ideas or as agent of a God or deity. 5. De Jure is a government which has rightful title founded upon a constitution but no power or no control either because the same has been withdrawn from it or because it has not yet actually entered into the exercise thereof. 6. De Facto a government which actually exercises power or control but without legal title. 13 It is operating against the duly constituted government. In understanding the forms of government, it is important to know the distinctions between the Head of State and the Head of Government. The former is the national leader of country who will represent the nation in the international community while the latter is the chief executive who leads in




ST

EDITION

running the domestic affairs of the government. In a Presidential form of government, the head of state and the head of government is hold by one and the same person who is the President like in the case of the United States of America and of the Philippines. It is quite different in the parliamentary form of government where the head of state is usually the King, Queen, Emperor or President who is performing ceremonial functions only while their head of government is another leader usually named as Prime Minister or Chancellor like in the case of Germany. Principles Governing the Operations of the three branches of Government. Governments, usually in democratic and republican states, are divided into three branches namely the Legislative which has the power to make laws, the Executive with the powers to execute and enforce the laws and the Judiciary with the power to interpret the meaning, application and enforcement of the laws. In democracy, the following are the principles governing the operations of these three branches: 1. Separation of Powers – Principle of dividing government powers into three parts namely the legislative power to the legislative branch, executive power for the executive branch and judicial powers to the judiciary. No single person or groups

of

persons

hold

more

than

one

government powers, hence, in this principle,

Principles governing the operations of government: 1. Separation of Powers 2. Principles of Checks and Balances 3. Blending of Powers




concentration and overlapping of powers are held unconstitutional. 2. Principles of Checks and Balances – The powers of the three branches of the government are equal and balanced with each other and it means that no branch will have so much power capable of dominating the other. Although each has designated separate powers, the other branch has the power to check the other to ensure that no branch will control the government or exceed in the exercise of its powers, and this is actualized through their sharing of powers. 3. Blending of Powers -The three branches are not independent from each other rather they are interdependent with each other. A branch cannot exist without the presence of the other branch. Legislative measure passed by the legislative branch becomes a law when signed by the Chief Executive, and its intents and purposes are actualized when enforced or implemented by the executive branch. Its legal acceptance is checked through the judiciary‘s power to interpret it when confronted with questions on constitutionality, legality or propriety. The Three Fundamental Powers of the State. In this chapter, we have already discussed the concept of State, the organization of its Government to bring about its will and purposes, the Administration which will run the affairs in the government and the several forms of government. These over-all concepts can better be realized with the exercise of the state‘s three fundamental powers which are the Police Power, Eminent Domain and Taxation. Upon the formation




ST

EDITION

of the State as an international entity, simultaneously, these three powers commence to exist without a need of it to be expressly conferred by another state, by the legislature or by a constitution. This is one of the unique natures of the three powers that it is inherent in the state. A. Police Power is a power called the ‗law of overruling necessity‘ which means the power of the state in promoting the public welfare by restraining the use of Liberty and

Three Inherent Powers of the State: 1. Police Power 2. Power of Eminent Domain 3. Power of Taxation

Property. The bases for the exercise of this power are the public necessity, and the right of the State and of the public to self-protection and self-preservation. Its justification is the Latin maxim ‗ salus populi est suprema lex‘ which means that the welfare of the people is the supreme law. It is the legislature who generally exercises this power. The President or the Chief Executive, administrative bodies and the local government units also exercise police powers. The limitations in the exercise of police powers are outline in the following requisites: 1. Lawful Subjects – it is the interest of the public as differentiated from a particular class requires the basic requirement in the exercise of police power.




2. Lawful Means – the means employed are reasonably necessary for the accomplishment of the purpose and should not be unduly oppressive to the people. 3. When it is exercised by a delegate – police power can be validly exercised when expressly granted by law through the legislature, in the case of the local government unit, within its territorial boundaries (except to protect water supply), and must not be contrary to law. B. Power of Eminent of Domain is the power of the State to acquire private property for public use upon payment of just compensation. The basis in the exercise of this power is the necessity of the property for public use. Congress has the power, generally, to exercise eminent domain. The President, local legislative bodies, public and quasi corporations can also exercise this power. In the valid exercise of this power, it follows the compliance of two stages. First is the determination of the authority on the part of government or corporation to exercise the power and the propriety of its exercise. Second is the determination of just compensation. The following are the requisites in the exercise of the power of eminent domain. 1. Necessity 2. Private property




ST

EDITION

3. Taking 4. Public Use 5. Payment of Just Compensation, and 6.

Due Process where the owner of the property to be acquired is given

the opportunity to be heard. C.

Power of Taxation is the power by which the State raises revenue to

defray the necessary expenses of the government. It is also defined as the power to demand from the members of the society their proportionate share or contribution in the maintenance of the government.14 The scope of taxation includes persons, property or occupation within the taxing jurisdiction of the taxing authority, and its basis is the ―lifeblood theory‖ which means that taxes are the lifeblood of the government and such power is emanating from the necessity of the government to survive. Like the other two powers, taxation is exercised generally by the legislature and can be exercised also by the President 15 and delegated to the local legislative bodies 16. For the valid exercise of the power of taxation, it has inherent and constitutional limitations. 1. Inherent limitations in the exercise of taxation a. Should be for public purpose b. Power cannot be delegated




c. Territoriality or the situs of taxation d. Exemption of the government from taxation e. International comity 2. Constitutional limitations a. Due process of law b. Equal protection of the law c. Uniformity, equitability and progressivity of taxation d. Non-impairment of contracts e. Non-imprisonment for non-payment of poll tax f. Origin of appropriation, revenue and tariff bills in the lower house g. Non-infringement of religious freedom h. Delegation of legislative authority to the President to fix tariff rates, import and export quotas, tonnage and wharfage dues i.

Tax exemption of properties actually, directly and exclusively used for religious, charitable and educational purposes

j.

Need for majority votes of all members of Congress in case of legislative grant of tax exemptions

k. Non-impairment of the Supreme Court‘s jurisdiction in tax related cases, and l.

Tax exemption of revenues and assets of, including grants, endowments,

donations,

or

contributions

to,

educational

institutions.




ST

EDITION

Double Taxation means additional taxes are laid on the same subject by the same taxing jurisdiction during the same taxing period and for the same purpose.17 License fee on the other hand is different from a tax in the sense that the basis of the former is the police power to regulate while the latter is for the government to raise revenue. The amount to be collected in the imposition of fees must be limited only to the cost of issuing the license and the necessary inspection while the tax rates or amounts are unlimited provided that they are not confiscatory. The objects of taxation are persons and property while fees are paid for the privilege of doing something but such privilege is revocable. For the non-payment of taxes, the business or activity does not become illegal but becomes illegal when failure to pay the fees.

SUBJECT Scope of Power

Who May Exercise Necessity to Exercise

Property Taken

DISTINCTIONS POLICE POWER EMINENT DOMAIN Regulates both Affects only the Liberty and Property Rights Property Only the Maybe exercised Government by Private Entities Public necessity Necessity of the and the right of public for the use the State and of of private the public to selfproperty preservation and self-protection Property is intended Property taken is for noxious wholesome and is purposed and when used for public taken must be purposes. destroyed.

TAXATION Affects only the Property Rights Only the Government Public necessity

Property taken is wholesome and is used for public purposes.




Compensation

Compensation is the intangible, altruistic feeling that the individual has contributed to the public good.

Compensation is full and fair equivalent of the property taken.

Effects on Contracts

Contracts may be impaired

Contracts may be impaired

Compensation is the protection and public improvements instituted by the government for the taxes paid. Contracts may be impaired




ST

EDITION

ENDNOTES 1 Isagani

A. Cruz, 1998, International Law, 8th Edition. (Quezon City: Central Lawbook Publishing

Company,), p. 29. 2 CIR

v. Campos Rueda, 42 SCRA 23

3 Article

2, Article 3 and Article 13 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

4 Preamble, 5 Article 6 Lee

7, Article 16 and Article 18 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

Hong Hok vs. David, 48 SCRA 372

7 Cruz, 8 US

Article 2 and Article 3 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

op. cit. p. 92.

v. Dorr, 2 Phil 332

9 Bacani

v. NACOCO, 100 Phil. 468

10Woodrow

Wilson (n.d.), The Functions of Government. Retrieved April 18, 2014 from

http:www.history-world.org/govfunc.htm. 11Ibid. 12 Government 13 Lawyers 14 Isagani

of Philippine Islands v. El Monte de Piedad, 35 SCRA 738

League for a Better Philippines v. Aquino, GR No. 73748, May 22, 1986

A. Cruz, 1995, Constitutional Law, 6th Edition, (Quezon City: Central Lawbook Publishing

Co., Inc), p. 81. 15 Section

23 (2) and Section 28 (2), Article 6 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

16 Section

5 of Article 10 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

17 Cruz,

Constitutional Law, op. cit., p. 86.

Bibliography 1987 Philippine Constitution. (n.d.). Bacani v. NACOCO, 100 Phil 468. CIR v. Campos Rueda, 42 SCRA 23. Cruz, I. A. (1995). Constitutional Law. Quezon City: Central Lawbook Publishing. Cruz, I. A. (1998). International Law. Quezon City: Central Lawbook Publishing Company. Government of Philippine Island v. El Monte de Piedad, 35 SCRA 738. Lawyers League for a Better Philippines v. Aquino, GR No. 73748 (Supreme Court May 22, 1 986). Lee Hong Hok v. David, 48 SCRA 372. Willson, W. (n.d.). The Functions of Government. Retrieved April 18, 2014, from www.historyworld.org/govfunc.htm: www.history-world.org/govfunc.htm



CHAPTER 3

Foundations of Philippine Politics and Government: Philippine Political History and Filipino Values By Roderico Y. Dumaug, Jr.

―Let us remember Paul VI‘s words: ―For the Catholic Church, no one is a stranger, no one is excluded, and no one is far away.‖(Homily for the closing of the Second Vatican Council, 8 December 1965) Indeed, we are a single human family that is journeying on t oward unity,

making the most of solidarity and dialogue among peoples in the multiplicity of differences.‖ -Pope Francis

Leaning Outcome/s: 1. Write clearly and with purpose the issues affecting Philippine politics. 2. Analyze contemporary problems in the country like poverty, corruption and rebellion in light of the conceptual frameworks in this chapter. 3. Describe the importance of the political history and Filipino values in analyzing current political problems of the country.

In the previous chapters, we learned the basic concepts of politics and of the formation of states and governments. For now we have an idea on the important role of politics in our society and, likewise, that by understanding the concepts of states and governments in the previous chapter we are inculcating the value of loving this country or nationalism which means the nation‘s interest should be above personal interests. In applying those concepts, we have to go deeper in the Philippine context through learning the foundations of our politics and governance.

XAVIER UNIVERSITY



ST

EDITION

The topics in this section are relevant. Our country is facing several recurring problems since the formation of the Malolos Government more than a hundred years ago. Problems like the never ending corruption in the government, the hardening poverty especially in the rural areas and rebellion in the provinces and several others. In looking for the solution to these seemingly unsolvable problems, one approach is to go back to the foundations of our nation and examine the beginnings of the Philippine State. Generally, a study that deals on building the Filipino nation is a broad topic. In this particular chapter, however, we identified two of the most important foundations of our nation: that which is (1) our political history particularly the evolution of Philippine politics, democracy, government and of our constitution, and (2) the Filipino values which may define how we built and preserved this nation and our basis of confronting our national problems. Nationalism is such political phenomenon expressed by the people through patriotism 1, and it means the promotion of national interest above self, and whereby the will of the citizens is to associate the nation with the state‘s

The term Nationalism is sometimes used interchangeably with patriotism. The former is identified with certain special political programs while patriotism does not have any political program.

political position 2. It is also understood as ―mobility of feelings and national sensations for homeland and catching political and economic goals‖ 3. The following are some descriptions on the term nationalism:



CHAPTER 3: FOUNDATION OF PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT

1. A consciousness that one belong to a particular nation with sentiments, feeling and aspirations for its prosperity and security. 2. An ideology which includes cultural doctrine of nations and of the national will and which prescribes for the actualization of the aspirations and will of the nation. 3. A political and social movement for the achievement of the nation‘s goals and actualize the national will 4. 4. Pertains to the geographical identification of people. 5 Philippine Political History. The common definition of political history is the ―narrative and analysis of political events, ideas, movements and leaders‖ 6 and central to this historical account is ―power – its structure, use and diffusion within a society.‖7 Concisely, political history is defined as ―the study of that dynamic activity in the past experience of human societies which has direct relevance to the organizational aspects of those societies.‖ 8 In the Philippine context, the description of former Chief Justice R eynato S. Puno may best explain our nation‘s political history when he said that, ―If you look at our current news you will discover that they are repeats of past news, perhaps with some modifications but repeats nevertheless. To a movie goer, such repeats pose no problem. He simply tells himself, ―Napanood ko na iyan,‖ and simply walks away. I wish we can adopt that dismissiveness, that nonchalance, that indifference to problems that keep repeating themselves to




ST

EDITION

Filipinos from generation to generation. If we give up, if we do not care anymore, then the Filipino is ready for the requiem.‖ 9 Simply, the popular adage that a nation forgetting or not learning from its past is condemned to repeat history, to repeat the mistakes or failures in the past. Aside from the recurrence of our problems, there are inconsistencies in the way our nation is being organized and in the words of former National Security Adviser, Retired General Jose T. Almonte, he said that ― we have a factional politics, a nation ruled by men, institutions run by political personalities, civil service despoiled by politics, weak financial system, an irresponsible Congress, a monarchic and very powerful President, oligarchy, political system working at cross purpose, policymaking captive to vested interests, nationalism to justify a closed markets, patronage system and the poor remain to be a staunch supporters of patronage, a nation not producing and extreme social injustice in the urban poor sector and in the rural areas‖10 Beginnings of Philippine Democracy. Firstly, the theme that we are going to discuss which will provide us an understanding of Philippine political history is the democratization of our nation. We are going to trace the beginnings of democracy in our history.

This particular study is relevant because of the

political development today which is the rapid spread of democracy in the developing world like the Philippines. It is once theorized that the present generation is not only benefited by the end of Cold War or of the c ollapse of the




Berlin Wall or of the passing of a post-war period, but rather in the end of history as such. The present is actually marked as the end point of man‘s search for ideology and the commencement of the universalization of Western liberal history.11 Indeed there is a strong appeal among the nations for a government where the citizens have substantial participation in its formation, where they are part in choosing its political leaders, be involved in the public decision-making processes and that they can enjoy their freedoms and liberties like freedom of expression, fair trials, practice their religion, equal rights among women and the minorities and others. This concept has culminated in events like the Arab Spring that toppled down non-democratic regimes in the Middle East which have created a world opinion which says that ultimately, democratic governance is considered to be generally right 12. In our context, Philippine democracy can be simply traced by enumerating our nation‘s significant historical periods: 1. Pre-Spanish Period, until the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 2. Spanish Period, 333 years of colonization which ended in 1898 3. The American Period, almost a half century of being a colony – from 1898 to 1946 4. Japanese Period during the Second World War, 1941 - 1945 5. Contemporary Philippine Republics, counting from the 3 rd up to the current 5th Republic, 1946 up to the present




ST

EDITION

The simple periods of Philippine political history are based on the arrival of or the end of colonization in the country, and second, though introduced during the Commonwealth Period from the Americans, democracy takes its full course only very recently when we were given independence almost 70 years ago on July 4, 1946 with brief interruption during the Martial Law period. Another example for this is our pre-Spanish period. The time that God created the world or from the birth of this Universe until March 21, 1521, such long period covering possibly important events is called the Pre-Spanish period in the Philippines. We lack sufficient historical data of our distant past especially the periods before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers. The gap is wide enough and the quest is necessary. Necessary in the sense that the search may help us identify our roots and later on define our identity as one Filipino nation. Likewise our democracy is quite young. Despite being regarded as one of the first independent States in Asia, ours is still in transition. Democracy in transition, as compared to consolidated democracy, is defined ―as the interval between one political regime and another which involves the process of dissolution of an authoritarian regime and, on the other, by the installation of some form of democracy, the return to some form of authoritarian rule, or theemergence of a revolutionary alternative.‖13 In the words of Samuel Huntington in his seminal work on ―Democracy‘s Third Wave‖ said that democracies in transition as part of the wave of




democratization is described as ―a group of transitions from nondemocratic to democratic regimes that occur within a specified period of time and that significantly outnumber transitions in the opposite direction during that period of time. A wave also usually involves liberalization or partial democratization in political systems that do not become fully democratic.‖14 During the pre-Spanish, Spanish, American and Japanese Occupation, our political systems were not democratic. Except for some limited aspects during the American and Commonwealth period. In those times when we were still a colony, the country lacked the basic electoral democracy of free and fair elections, there‘s an absence of democratic government processes, conflicts were not settled peacefully and the people were not enjoying political and civil rights. After our independence from America, the Martial Law period in September 21, 1972 including the 4th Republic was non-democratic due to the dictatorial powers of Marcos enshrined in the 1973 Constitution and there was limited exercise of political rights and freedoms of the people. In totality, our almost 70 year old democracy briefly interrupted during the Marcos regime is young hence ours is in transition. Most developing countries in the world whose democracy is in transition shared the same problems like poverty, corruption, rebellion and with weak institutions. Democracy, as a political system, may not be the best but it is the only system that recognizes and respects the dignity of every person. From among




ST

EDITION

the many political systems in the world, democracy is considered compatible with the free exercise of human freedoms, liberty and other human rights. In theory, citizens in democratic states participate in the formation of their governments and in electing their leaders. Although democracy and economic development are not in any way connected like what is asserted to have occurred in India, South Korea, some of the countries in the Middle East who are endowed with abundant natural resources or even China which is nondemocratic but is the world‘s 2 nd largest economy. 15 However, it is proven that the opportunities of a person to participate in the generation of wealth are more afforded in an environment that is democratic. Timeline of Philippine Governments. The following are the timeline of the formation of the various Philippine Governments:

PERIOD

NAME OF GOV'T

1

1899 1901

1st Philippine Republic

2

1898 1902

US Military Government in the Philippines

CONSTITUTION Malolos Constitution (1899)

PRESIDENT/ HEAD OF STATE/HEAD OF GOV'T President Emilio F. Aguinaldo (1899 1901) General Wesley Meritt (1898) General Elwell S. Otis ( 1898 - 1899) Dr. Jacob Schurman (1899 1901) General Arthur MacArthur, Jr. (1900 - 1901) General Adna Chaffee (1901 -

LEGISLATURE Assembly of Representativ es

1st Philippine Commission




1902)

3

1902 1916

Government of the Philippine Islands

Philippine Organic Act (1902 - 1916)

William Howard Taft (1901 - 1904) Luke Edward Wright ( 1904 1905) Henry Clay Ide (1905-1906) James Francis Smith (1906 - 1909) William Cameron Forbes (1909 - 1913) Newton 1913)

4

5

1916 1935

1935

Government of the Philippine Islands

Commonwe

Jones Law

1935

Gilbert

Upper House: Philippine Commission (1907 - 1916; Appointed)

Lower House: Philippine Assembly ( (1907 - 1916; Elected)

Francis Burton Harrison (1913 1921) Francis Burton Harrison (1913 1921) Charles Yeater (1921) Leonard Wood (1921 - 1927) Eugene Allen Gilmore (1927) Henry L. Stimson (1927 - 1929) Eugene Allen Gilmore (1929) Dwight F. Davis (1929 - 1932) George C. Butte (1932) Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. (1932 - 1933) Frank Murphy ( 1933 - 1935) President Manuel L.

Upper House: Senate (1916 1935; Elected)

Lower House: House of Representativ es (1916 1935; Elected)

National




1946

alth Government

Constitution

6

1943 1945

2nd Philippine Republic

1943 Constitution

7

1946 1972

3rd Philippine Republic

1935 Constitution

8

1972 1981

Martial Law

1973 Constitution

Quezon (1935 – 1944, Nacionalista Party) President Sergio Osmena (1944 – 1946, Nacionalista Party)

ST

EDITION

Assembly of the Philippines (1935 - 1941; Elected)

1st Congress President Manuel of the A. Roxas (1946 – Commonweal 1948, Liberal Party) th (1945) National Assembly of President Jose P. the 2nd Laurel (1943 – 1945, Republic KALIBAPI) (1944, Appointed) President Manuel A. Roxas (1946 – 1948, Liberal Party) President Elpidio Quirino ( 1948 – Upper House: 1953, Liberal Party) Senate President Ramon Magsaysay (1953 – 1957, Nacionalista Party) President Carlos P. Garcia (1957 – 1961, Nacionalista Party) President Diosdado Lower House: Macapagal (1961 – House of 1965, Liberal Party) Representativ es President Ferdinand E. Marcos, Sr. (1965 – 1986, Nacionalista Party, KBL) President Legislative Ferdinand E. Advisory (1976 Marcos, Sr. (1965 – - 1978)




1981 1986

4th Philippine 1973 Republic Constitution

11

1986

Revolutionar y Government

12

1986 pres ent

5th Philippine 1987 Republic Constitution

9

1986 Constitution (Freedom Constitution)

1986, Nacionalista Batasang Party, KBL) Pambansa (1976 - 1978) Interim Batasang President Pambansa Ferdinand E. (1978) Marcos, Sr. (1965 – Regular 1986, Nacionalista Batasang Party, KBL) Pambansa (1984) Reestablishme President Corazon nt of the C. Aquino (1986 – Bicameral 1992, UNIDO) Legislature (1986) President Corazon C. Aquino (1986 1992) President Fidel V. Upper House: Ramos (1992 – Senate 1998, Lakas-NUCD) President Joseph E. Estrada (1998 – 2001,LAMP) President Gloria M. Macapagal-Arroyo Lower House: (2001-2010, LakasHouse of KAMPI) Representativ President Benigno es S. Aquino (2010 – 2016, Liberal Party)

Philippine Presidents. The table below shows the list of Philippine Presidents with their term of office, the Constitutions during their tenure, their VicePresidents and the province where they come from.




PERIOD

CONSTITUTION

POSITION President

1

2

1899 – 1901

1935 1944

Malolos Constitution

1935 Constitution

3

1944

4

1944 1946

1943 Constitution 1935 Constitution

5

1946 1948

6

7

8

9

NAME Emilio F. Aguinaldo

Prime Minister (President of the Council Apolinario Mabini of Government); January 1899 Prime Minister (President of the Council Pedro A. Paterno of Government); May 1899 Manuel L. President Quezon ViceSergio Osmeña President

ST

EDITION

PROVINCE Luzon

Luzon

Luzon

Luzon Visayas

President

Jose P. Laurel

Luzon

President

Sergio Osmeña

Visayas

1935 Constitution

President VicePresident

Manuel A. Roxas

Visayas

Elpidio Quirino

Luzon

1948

1935 Constitution

President

Elpidio Quirino

Luzon

1949 – 1953

1935 Constitution


Elpidio Quirino

Luzon

Fernando Lopez

Visayas

President

Ramon Magsaysay

Luzon

VicePresident

Carlos P. Garcia

Visayas

1953 – 1957

1935 Constitution

1957

1935 Constitution

President

Carlos P. Garcia

Visayas

1957 – 1961

1935 Constitution


Visayas

19611965

1935 Constitution

President

Carlos P. Garcia Diosdado P. Macapagal Diosdado P. Macapagal

Luzon Luzon




10

1965 – 1972

1935 Constitution

1972 – 1976 1976 – 1981

1973 Constitution 1973 Constitution

1981 – 1986

1973 Constitution

1986

1986 Constitution (Freedom Constitution)

11

12

13

1986 – 1992

1987 Constitution

1992 – 1998

1987 Constitution

1998 – 2001

1987 Constitution

2001 – 2004

1987 Constitution

14 2004 – 2010

15

2010 – 2016

1987 Constitution

1987 Constitution

VicePresident

Emmanuel Pelaez Mindanao

President

Ferdinand E. Marcos

Luzon

VicePresident

Fernando Lopez

Visayas

President President & Prime Minister President Prime Minister President

Ferdinand E. Marcos Ferdinand E. Marcos Ferdinand E. Marcos Cesar Emilio Aguinaldo Virata Corazon C. Aquino

Luzon Luzon Luzon Luzon Luzon

Prime Minister

Salvador Laurel

Luzon

President

Corazon C. Aquino

Luzon

Salvador Laurel

Luzon

Fidel V. Ramos

Luzon

Joseph E. Estrada

Luzon

Joseph E. Estrada Gloria M. MacapagalArroyo Gloria M. MacapagalArroyo Teofisto Guingona Gloria M. MacapagalArroyo Manuel Leuterio de Castro, Jr. Benigno S. Aquino Jejomar C. Binay,

Luzon

VicePresident President VicePresident President VicePresident President VicePresident President VicePresident President Vice-

Luzon

Luzon Luzon Luzon Luzon Luzon Luzon




President

ST

EDITION

Sr.

The following are some of the salient events in the political history of Philippine leadership: 1. The first President and Vice President elected by the people – President Manuel L. Quezon and Vice President Sergio Osmeña 2. The only President who lost in a re-election to the Office to which he succeeded – President Sergio Osmeña in the 1946 Presidential Elections against President Roxas. 3. The first elected President and Vice President who came from the opposing political parties – President Diosdado P. Macapagal and his Vice President Carlos P. Garcia 4. Two women became President and swept into power by people power revolution – President Corazon Aquino in the 1986 EDSA Revolution and President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo in the 2001 EDSA II People Power 5. A President with two Vice Presidents – President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo with VP Teofisto Guingona (2001 -2004) and VP Manuel de Castro (2004 – 2010) 6. A Vice President of two Presidents and was elected thrice into such office – VP Fernando H. Lopez who was elected in 1949 as VP of




President Quirino and in 1965 and 1969 Presidential elections as VP of President Marcos. 7. The 3 Presidents who succeeded without a Vice-President for the remainder of the term to which they succeeded – Pres. Osmena after the death of Pres. Quezon in 1944, Pres. Quirino after the death of President Roxas in 1948 and President Garcia after the death of Pres. Magsaysay in 1957. 8. Three Ilocano Presidents – Presidents Quirino, Magsaysay and Marcos. 9. Children of former Presidents who ran for the Presidency – Two Presidential children lost: Sergio Osmena, Jr. who ran and lost in 1969 against Marcos and Salvador Laurel who ran and lost in the 1992 election against Ramos. Those who ran and won are MacapagalArroyo in 2004 and Benigno S. Aquino, Jr. in 2010. 10. The following are the Presidents who broke with their original political party and transferred to or formed another party when they ran and won the Presidency: Roxas from Nacionalista to Liberal, Magsaysay from Liberal to Nacionalista, Marcos from Liberal to Nacionalista, Ramos from LDP and formed Lakas NUCD-UMDP, Estrada from Liberal and formed Partido Ng Masang Pilipino, and Arroyo from LDP to form KAMPI. 11. In the 1935 Constitution, the President and Vice-President are geopolitically balanced while in the present 1987 Constitution, the




ST

EDITION

elected President and Vice-President are all from Luzon. The country never had a President from Mindanao. 12. Twelve Presidents are from Luzon, three from Visayas and none from Mindanao. 13. There were 15 Presidential elections since 1935 up to the present, 30 Senate elections since 1916 and 25 elections for the House of Representatives and 4 Assembly elections since 1907. 14. There were 10 Philippine Legislatures, 5 National Assemblies, 1 Congress of the Commonwealth and 15 Congresses of the Republic. 15. The Philippine has 80 years of bicameral congress (1907 – 1934, 1945 – 1972 and 1987 to present) and 19 years with unicameral congress (1935 – 1941, 1943 – 1944 and 1978 – 1986) 16. Before 1941, Senators were elected by Districts and from 1941 to present elections of Senators is at large. 17. There were 22 Senators elected by Districts from 1916 to 1933; 24 Senators elected in 1941, 1987 and in 1992; 8 Senators were elected from 1947 – 1971; and 12 Senators elected from 1995 to present (except in 2001 where 13 Senators were elected and the 13 th Senator served for the unexpired term of Senator Guingona who became VP of Pres. Arroyo in 2001). 18. The Philippines has 10 years of block voting (1941 – 1951), 32 years of two-party system (1907 – 1941, 1946 – 1972) and there are 58 seats in




the House of Representatives which are reserved for the party list groups. For 8 years, party list groups were appointed from 1987 – 1995 and since 1998 up to the present, they are already elected. 19. Manuel L. Quezon was the longest serving Senate President from 1916 – 1935, longest serving Speaker of the House was Sergio Osmena, Sr. from 1907 – 1922, Senator Camilo Osias was the shortest termed Senate President for 13 days and Representative Arnulfo P. Fuentebella as the shortest termed Speaker of the House of Representatives for 72 days. 20. The 1935 Constitution was ratified on May 14, 1935 with 96% (1,213,046 votes) voted ―Yes‖ and only 4% of the electorate were not in favor. 21. On April 30, 1937 plebiscite, 91% of the Filipino electorate voted ―Yes‖ in favor of granting suffrage to women. Filipino

Values.

This

is

the

second

foundation that will be discussed in this section which will help us in understanding Philippine politics and government. It must be noted that in learning this particular subject, we must relate it to the current realities of our society, the

The term Values generally means as set of principles or standards of behavior or one‘s judgment of what is important in his life. The old French of the term is the feminine past participle ‗valoir‘ and its Latin equivalent is ‗valere‘ which means ‗be worth.‘

nation and public governance, and anchor the same on the value on human dignity and the university‘s core value on ‗man and woman for others.‘




ST

EDITION

Values are also understood as things, ideas or people which are important to us; that which will shape our behavior and define who we are; the things, standards or qualities which are considered worthwhile or desirable; beliefs that people have as basis for their decision making; which will commit persons to action; and principles, standards or qualities which are considered worthwhile or desirable. Common perceptions and behavior of the people are created by values, and political culture also describes the shared values of the people in a particular political system. Rokeach defines Values as ―an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence‖ 16. It is described that a belief which is considered as a desirable mode of conduct is called an instrumental value while a belief that considers a desirable end-state is referred to as terminal value. 17 For example, if an individual considers freedom as valuable end-state of existence then he believes that freedom is better compared to slavery18. Rokeach classifies terminal values into two kinds – (1) values that are self-focused are called personal values, and (2) those values that are others-focused are called social values. Likewise, instrumental values are also of two kinds – (1) values which when violated result to twinges of conscience or a feeling of guilt for committing wrong and this is called moral




values, and (2) those which when violated will cause shame on personal inadequacy on competence or the so called self-actualization values 19. Schwartz and Bilsky made a summary on the common definition of values as: ―(1) concepts or beliefs, (b) about desirable end -states or behaviors, (c) which transcends particular situations, (d) guide selection or evaluation of behavior and events, and (e) are ordered by relative importance.‖ 20 Filipino Values. Father Gorospe, S.J. described the distinct Filipino value system as that which ―arises from our culture or way of life, our distinctive way of becoming human in this particular place and time‖ 21. He enumerated four ways in which to understand Filipino values: 1. The universality of human values including the Filipino values but there are some elements of the latter which are uniquely Filipinos. 2. Some of the elements of Filipino values are also present in other people‘s or culture‘s value system. The uniqueness of Filipino values which make it different from the other values lie on how these elements are ranked, given importance, combined or emphasized. 3. The ―universal human values in a Filipino context (historical, cultural, socio-economic, political, moral and religious) take on a distinctive set of Filipino meanings and motivations. This is true not only of the aims and goals, beliefs, convictions, and social principles of the traditional value system of the lowland rural family but also of what Fr. Horacio de




ST

EDITION

la Costa, S.J. calls the Filipino "nationalistic" tradition ( pagsasarili, pagkakaisa, pakikisama, pakikipagkapwa-tao, and pagkabayani‖22 4. Filipino values exist in the sense that the historical consciousness of these values have evolved from among our people 23. The Filipino concept of justice has evolved from inequality to equality, and to human dignity; from the tribe, to the family, and to the nation. Filipino consciousness of these different values varies at different periods of our history24. It is only in the last two decades that the Filipino people have become more conscious of overpopulation and family planning, environmental pollution and wildlife conservation, and the violation of human rights (Martial Law), active non-violence and People Power (1986 non-violent Revolution)25. Filipino values according to Enriquez are categorized into the following: 1. Filipino Core Value which is the core construct of being a Filipino and which makes up an intricate and complex system based on the concept of Asal. This value is the standard for ideal conduct of a Filipino for it is considered to be good, ethical, moral, desirable, beautiful and true. To reiterate, this is what makes a Filipino. The concept of Asalis composed of three core elements: (1) Kapwa – which pertains to relational standard or in dealing with other, (2) Damdamin –




which is the emotional standards and (3) Dangal – referring to the moral standard. Kapwa, which is the core value of Filipino personhood means ―shared self‖, a shared identity, of being one with another, such value that connects a Filipino to anyone outside him or herself and which implies an obligation to a Filipino to treat anyone as human being and as equal. 26 It is said that without Kapwa, once ceases to be a Filipino. 2. Filipino

Shared

Inner

Perception which

is

best

exemplified

in

Pakiramdam which follows with the ―shared identity‖ of Kapwa. This is the way in which a Filipino deals with other people through the use of Damdam, or such inner perceptions of the feelings and emotions of other persons. Pakiramdam means that feeling for another, being aware, sensitive and attentive to the subtle cues and non-verbal behaviors of the other person. Other definitions of Pakiramdam are the ―capacity for compassion, empathy, and sympathy; is the pivotal value of shared inner perception which refers to heightened awareness and sensitivity, a covert individual process by which a person tries to feel and understand the feelings and intentions of another; a heightened awareness and sensitivity for the other and is an active and dynamic process involving great care and deliberation, paying attention to subtle cues and non-verbal behavior, and employing mental role playing;and, simply means feeling for another or a request to feel or to be sensitive to others‖27.




ST

EDITION

3. Filipino Shared Humanity or the Kagandahang Loob or the ―shared nobility,‖ such value which impels Filipinos to help other people who are in need of help because of such feeling that everyone is part of community or of being part to a Filipino humanity. This value can also be understood as generosity towards other people, shared inner nobility or shared humanity. This particular noble value moved Filipinos towards heroism. 4. Filipino Surface Values which can be seen from the outside and which are considered ambivalent because they can be interpreted positively or negatively. These values are used as strategies by Filipinos in building relationships exemplified through their interpersonal or group communications. 28 Surface values function like a coping mechanism which put Filipinos to give its guts and determination rather than being passive and of an escapist way in facing problems.29 The following are some of the surface values which are ambivalent, that which can be interpreted positively or negatively. The following are some of the Filipino surface values enumerated by Emerita S. Quito in her article ―The Ambivalence of Filipino Traits and Values‖ 30: (a) Hiya or shame which can be negatively interpreted ―because it arrests or inhibits one's action. This trait reduces one to smallness or to what Nietzsche calls the "morality of slaves", thus congealing the soul of the Filipino and emasculating him, making him timid, meek and weak. Positively because, it contributes to peace of mind and lack of stress by not even trying to achieve.‖31




(b) Ningas-cogon or procrastination which is ―negative by all standards, because it begins ardently and dies down as soon as it begins. This trait renders one inactive and unable to initiate things or to persevere. Positive, in a way, because it makes a person nonchalant, detached, indifferent, nonplussed should anything go wrong, and hence conducive to peace and tranquility.‖32 (c) Pakikisama or group loyalty which is ―interpreted negatively because one closes one's eyes to evils like graft and corruption in order to conserve peace and harmony in a group at the expense of one's comfort and positively because one lives for others and there‘s peace or lack of dissension is a constant goal.‖ (d) Patigasan or test of strength which is understood to be ―negative because it is stubborn and it resists all efforts at reconciliation. The trait makes us childish, vindictive, irresponsible and irrational. Actions resulting from this trait are leaving the phone off the hook to get even with one's party line; stopping the engine of the car to prove that one has the right of way; standing one's ground until the opposite party loses its patience. Positively because it is assign that we know our rights and are not easily cowed into submission. It is occidental in spirit, hence in keeping with Nietzsche's "will to power."‖33 (e) Bahala Na or resignation is considered negative, because one leaves everything to chance under the pretext of trusting in Divine providence. This trait is really laziness disguised in religious garb. It is also considered positive because




ST

EDITION

one relies on a superior power rather than on one's own. It is conducive to humility, modesty, and lack of arrogance. (f) Sakop or inclusion is viewed as ―negative because one never learns to be on one's own but relies on one's family and relatives. This trait stunts growth and prevents a person from growing on one's own. Generating a life of parasitism, this trait is very non-existential. Blaring music, loud tones are a result of this mentality. We wrongly think that all people like the music we play or the stories we tell. This mentality also makes us consider the world as one vast comfort room. Positively because one cares for the family and clan; one stands or falls with them. This trait makes a person show concern for the family to which he belongs.‖34 (g) Mañana or Bukas Na or procrastination is ―negative because one constantly postpones action and accomplishes nothing. This aggravates a situation, a problem grows beyond correction, a leak or a small break becomes a gaping hole. This arises from an indolent mentality that a problem will go away by itself. It is positive because one is without stress and tension; one learns to take what comes naturally. Like the Chinese wu-wei, this trait makes one live naturally and without undue artificiality.‖35 (h) Utang Na loob or indebtedness is understood as ―negative because one overlooks moral principles when one is indebted to a person. One who is beholden to another person will do anything to please him, thinking that by doing so he is able to repay a debt. One condones what the other person does




and will never censure him for wrongdoing. Positive because it is a recognition of one's indebtedness. This trait portrays the spirit behind the Filipino saying, "He who does not know how to look to the past will never reach his destination."‖36 (i) Kanya-kanya or of self-centeredness is considered ―negative because it is self-centered; one has no regard for others. So long as my family and I are not in need, I do not care about the world. It is positive because one takes care of oneself and one's family: "Blood is thicker than water.37 Colonial mentality or the influence of foreign values destroys our indigenous Filipino values. The exercise of the surface values together with the core values on Kapwa, Pakiramdam and Kagandahang Loob is the ideal one and may compose the true value-laden Filipino. It is said that once the surface value is affected by colonial mentality or influenced by foreign values or exercised negatively it is viewed then that will make a Filipino bad; when it is the core value on Pakiramdam then that makes him worse, and worst or no longer a Filipino when the core value Kapwa is absent.




ST

EDITION

ENDNOTES 1 James

G. Kellas, The Politics of Nationalism and Ethnicity, 2nd Edition (New York, NY: St. Martin‘s

Press Inc., 1998), p. 67 cited in Defining Nationalism, http://catarina.udlap.mx/u_dl_a/tales/documentos/lri/cruz_f_c/capitulo1.pdf, (April 18, 2014) 2 William

Bloom, Personal Identity, national identity and international relations, (Cambridge, GB:

Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 83 as cited Ibid. 3 Ata

Anbarani, Nation, Nationalism in Controversial Debates and Thought: A Review of Origin of

Nation and Nationalism, Canadian Social Science, Volume 9 No. 3, DOI:10.3968/j.css.1923669720130903.2764 4 Smith,

A. (1991 A). The ethnic origins of nations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cited in Ata

Anbarani, Nation, Nationalism in Controversial Debates and Thought: A Review of Origin of Nation and Nationalism, Canadian Social Science, Volume 9 No. 3, DOI:10.3968/j.css.1923669720130903.2764 5 Sargent,

L. T. (1999). Contemporary Political Ideologies. Orlando: Harcourt Brace cited in Ata

Anbarani, Nation, Nationalism in Controversial Debates and Thought: A Review of Origin of Nation and Nationalism, Canadian Social Science, Volume 9 No. 3, DOI:10.3968/j.css.1923669720130903.2764 6 Mary

Boatwright, New Approaches to Roman Institutional and Political History: Duke University,

http://apaclassics.org/sites/default/files/documents/MTBAPA2009.pdf (April 18, 2014). 7

Jacques Le Goff, as quoted in William E. Leuchtenburg, ―The Pertinence of Political History:

Reflections on the Significance of the State in America,‖ The Journal of American History 73:3 (December 1986), 589 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1902978) 8 G.

R. Elton, as quoted in Illkka Nordberg, Regionalism and Revenue: The Moderate Basque

Nationalist Party, the PNV, and Politico-Economic Power in Basque Country of Spain 1980-1998, University of Helsinki, http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/hum/histo/vk/nordberg/regional.pdf (April 18, 2014). 9 Chief

Justice Reynato S. Puno (Ret) (2011, May), Why Change the Constitution? Speech

presented at the Centrist Democratic Forum on Decentralization among Local Leaders, Cagayan de Oro City. 10

Jose T. Almonte, ―Is the Philippines declining?‖ in Federico M. Macaranas, PhD , ed., In Pursuit

of the Philippine Competitive Edge: An Oral History of a Continuing Journey by 50 WisdomKeepers (Makati: Asian Institute of Management Policy Center and Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, 2007), p. 24.




11 Francis

Fukuyama, The End of History, The National Interest,

http://www.kropfpolisci.com/exceptionalism.fukuyama.pdf (April 19, 2014). 12 Amartya

Sen, in Introduction to Politics of the Developing World (Boston, MA: Wadsworth

Cengage Learning, 2013), 24 (www.cengage.com). 13

O‘Donnell, Guillermo, and Philippe Schmitter. 1986. ―Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain

Democracies.‖ In O‘Donnell et al., eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule, Part 4, pp. 1-78 as cited by Scott Mainwaring in Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation: Theoretical and Comparative Issues, The Helen Kellog Institute for International Studies, November 1989. 14

Samuel P. Huntington, Democracy‘s Third Wave,

http://www.ou.edu/uschina/gries/articles/IntPol/Huntington.91.Demo.3rd.pdf accessed May 22 , 2014. 15 Michael

Schuman, Is democracy necessary for economic development? Time, November 5,

2010. http://business.time.com/2010/11/05/is-democracy-necessary-for-economic-success/, accessed May 13, 2014. 16 Rokeach,

M (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press. Page. 5 cited in Does

Management Education Make Students Better Actors? A Longitudinal Study of Change in Values and Self-Monitoring, Venkat R Krishnan (http://www.rkvenkat.org), 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid. 20 Schwartz,

S H, and Bilsky, W (1987). Toward a universal psychological structure of human

values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (3), 550-562 cited in Ibid. 21 Chapter

vi: understanding the Filipino value system by fr. vitaliano r. goros pe, S.J. cited in

http://www.crvp.org/book/Series03/III-7/chapter_vi.htm, (May 14, 2014) 22 Ibid. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 25 Ibid. 26 Dr.

Virgilio Enriquez as cited in an article entitled ―Indigenous Filipino Values: A Foundation for a

Culture of Non-Violence,‖ Paper prepared for the forum: Towards A Culture of Non-Violence, by Katrin de Guia, Ph.D., author of ―Kapwa: The Self in t he Other‖, 2005, Anvil Publishing Inc., Pasig, M.M.



Political Science Workbook July Chapter 1 - 3

Recommend Documents