Philosophy of Man PLV Students Guide

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Philosophy of Man PLV Students Guide

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Lecture Notes in Philo of Man

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Carpe Diem! (Seize the day!) …To make a difference in the world we live in, not just by being different but by pursuing the alternative… alternative… …Not just by looking for alternatives but by being the alternative… That is to earn trust by being trustworthy , to promote respect respect by being respectful, respectful, to discipline discipline oneself oneself by being responsible… responsible… To live in a life when everyday counts and never let the sun to set without making a difference…

Humanities 2: Philosophy of Man Man

Course Description This course deals with the philosophical issues that confront man in diffe fields, like his being an embodied spirit, as a knowing subject, as an eth being, as a being who stands before God, as someone who searches meanin his life, as a free agent and what his human freedom implies, etc. It de probes, likewise, into how the past and present philosophers tackle th issues in an effort to better understand man, his place in the society, and place in the universe.

As a philosophical course, the approach here is not without the sound, sometimes even critical principles of philosophers and how these principles tested in the light of modern living. Not only would this course therefore, o un the mind of the student into new vistas, previously unthought-of, but definitely compel the student to reflect by himself and thus, to philosophiz the process.

General Course Objectives 1. To understand and own the vision-mission of the institution; 2. To understand the unique nature of man not only as a rational an (tradition view) but more importantly as a person capable of realization through his openness to other person and to an Abso Person: 3. To augment his appreciation app reciation on human values such as dignity of per truth, justice, freedom, labor, love and service to others and faith;  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  4. To critically analyze and intelligently discuss various philosoph Useful  Not useful  problems. Cancel anytime.

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

Specific Objectives

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Course Outline Week No. 1

2

Lecture Topics I. Introduction

II. What is Philosophy

3

4 5 6

III. Plato’s Republic IV. Who am I (Embodied Subject) IX. What can I know? (Epistemology-knowing)

7

8 9

Sub-Topics a. Vision-Mission and Goals PLV b. University Policies, Rules Regulations c. Course Description d. Grading System e. Course Outline a. Definition b. Nature c. History and Approaches d. Difference between Wisdo Understanding and Knowledge e. Eastern and Western Philosophy. a. Am I My Body? b. Do I have a Body? a. Can I know the External World? b. Can I know myself? c. How can I acquire Knowledge? d. What does Truth mean?

Midterm Examination VII. What should I do? a. Am I free to act? – act? – Sarte Sarte  (Freedom) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  10 VIII. Do I have Rights and Social Not useful  Useful  Cancel anytime. Responsibilities? Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. 11 IX. Man as Loving Being (Social

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times

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Course Outline Week No. 1

2

Lecture Topics I. Introduction

II. What is Philosophy

3

4 5 6

III. Plato’s Republic IV. Who am I (Embodied Subject) IX. What can I know? (Epistemology-knowing)

7

8 9

Sub-Topics a. Vision-Mission and Goals PLV b. University Policies, Rules Regulations c. Course Description d. Grading System e. Course Outline a. Definition b. Nature c. History and Approaches d. Difference between Wisdo Understanding and Knowledge e. Eastern and Western Philosophy. a. Am I My Body? b. Do I have a Body? a. Can I know the External World? b. Can I know myself? c. How can I acquire Knowledge? d. What does Truth mean?

Midterm Examination VII. What should I do? a. Am I free to act? – act? – Sarte Sarte  (Freedom) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  10 VIII. Do I have Rights and Social Not useful  Useful  Cancel anytime. Responsibilities? Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. 11 IX. Man as Loving Being (Social


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17

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XIV. Can life make sense? Reading: 3 Paragraphs, Excerpts from different Philosophers. Final Examinations

Grading System: Quizzes Mid Term/ Final Exam Recitation, Project, and Reports Attitude Attendance

20% 40% 20% 10% 10% 100%


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Humanities 2: Philosophy of Man

Human Being, Being Human Introduction: 

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“Man is the measure of all things” - Protagoras, (a contemporary of Socrates)  emphasized the importance of human existence “The proper object of philosophical inquiry is man and it is by undertaking the analysis of the human situations and problems that philosophy may be able to address.”  Alexander Pope, an English poet Philosophy of Man is a holistic philosophical approach to understand the human person better by considering all the important and significant aspects related to him.  It is the study of ultimate reality, causes and principles underlying being, acquired through the use of human reason alone. You're Reading a Preview  Philosophy is an activity. Philosophizing is more important than Philosophy. Unlock full access with a free trial.

Specifically designed to develop critical thinking in students through Download Free Trialforms. Although a analysis of arguments and otherWith syllogistic considerable amount of time is given to deduction, a significant portio of the course is also allotted to inductive reasoning. Emphasis is also given in pinpointing the most common errors or fa llacies in everyday reasoning.  o The examination of some of the general principles for distinguishing Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  sound from unsound arguments. Not useful  Useful  Cancel anytime. o The study of principles governing good argument o


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WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? 1: What is Philosophy? 2: Approaches and Branches of Philosophy 3: Philosophy, Science and Religion

Philosophy is the love of wisdom (etymologically from the Greek philos mea “love,” and sophia , meaning “wisdom”). In the beginning, the term philoso was loosely used by Greek thinkers and it conveyed many things. It Pythagoras of Samos, a sage and a mystic during the 6th century BC, invented the word “philosophy.” “Philosophia” therefore, is the love of wis and philosophers are lovers of wisdom. The story goes that while Pythagoras was watching the Olympic games an amphitheater, he notices three groups of people. The first group were t to play games, to win, to compete, to fight in order to win honor, prestige fame. Pythagoras called them the “lovers of fame.” The second group of pe went to the Olympic games to make money and gain profit by selling t goods and wares inside. They were the “lovers of gain.” The third group w there to watch the games and be thrilled by the events unfolding. Pythag called them the “lovers of spectacle.” You're Reading a Preview The story does not end here, for after leaving the Olympics, Pythag Unlock full accessstill with a three free trial. groups of people in real observed, just as well, that there were There were those whose lives were lived solely for the purpose of becom There were those who live life with one aim famous: LOVERS OF FAME.Download With Free Trial become rich and wealthy: LOVERS OF GAIN. But there were also those pe who are just in a minority, who live life not to become rich or famous, but live life with one purpose in mind: to understand what life is really all ab Hence, philosophy is used to denote love of thinking, thinking attitu reflective attitude towards life. Philosophers reflect on knowledge, on  God Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title life, on death, on what man is and who man is, on right and wrong, on  soc Not useful  Useful  including and other questions. Pythagoras called these people, himsel Cancel anytime. Special offer forcourse: students: Only $4.99/month. LOVERS OF WISDOM. Pythagoras coined the term “ philosophos ” in order to differentiate t


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whose attention is fixed on reality rather than on appearances. A philosoph interested in grasping the essential nature of things. For instance philosopher was leisurely walking inside the university campus. He passed an untilled garden. He saw a small flower, plucked it out and then mad philosophical reflection. He said, “Little flower, I plucked you out from obscure garden. Little flower, I am holding you in my hand. Little flower, can understand your roots, your stem, your leaves, your petals — and all in then I can understand life and if I can understand life then I can unders God.” Thus, philosophy is defined as a reflective and reasoned attempt to infer character and content of the universe taken in its totality. We may say, t that philosophy is, “a resolute and persistent attempt to understand appreciate the universe as a whole.” Philosophy is basically an attitude and activity of the human mind have a guiding attitude towards life is to have a philosophy, since the princi which a man consciously or unconsciously adopts determines his thinking actions in dealing with the practical issues of human existence. The impuls philosophize is motivated by the desire to adopt for oneself and for othe creed to live by. The aim of such an attempt is to make our lives coherent purposive. There is no sense in philosophizing unless it affects our attitud life and its attendant problems. G.K. Chesterton, You're Reading a Previewthe noted English writer, that the most important and practical thing about man is his attitude towa UnlockThus, full access a free trial.whether a man is a pessi life and his view of the universe. itwith matters or an optimist, an empiricist, or a rationalist, a skeptic, or a believer. M than just a subject, philosophy is an With activity. There is nothing new about Download Free Trial idea that the activity of philosophizing is more important than the sub philosophy. Some two hundred years ago, the great German philosop Immanuel Kant, told his pupils: You willsemester not learn from me philosophy, to philosophize, not  Master your with Scribd but howRead Free Foron 30enquire Days Sign up to vote this title thoughts to repeat, but how to think. Think for yourselves,  & The New York Times Not useful no for yourselves, stand on your own feet. DaretoUseful think, matter Special offer forwhere students:itOnly $4.99/month. might lead you. Just dare to think.

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understanding of the distinction between reality and appearances. Man is like other animals. He is a rational being and lives in the organized lif society. He has ideals and purposes besides responsibilities towards oth Therefore, it is essential for him to know the distinction between real unreal, between right and wrong, between knowledge and opinion philosopher is a guide to humanity. He is one who apprehends the essenc reality of the world; the one who is able to grasp the eternal and immutable At this point, it is necessary to spell out the subject matter of philoso What is philosophy constituted of? The history of philosophy shows philosophers have discussed a great variety of questions. It is very difficu provide a general description which includes all these questions. However can roughly indicate the main questions with which philosophers have b concerned with. Generally, philosophers are interested in questions like: 1. Is there a God? What reasons are there to believe in God? Can we p or disprove God’s existence? (Philosophy of Religion or Philosophical Theolo 2. What is knowledge? Can we know? What is it to know? How can know? (Epistemology or Theory of Knowledge) 3. What is man? Who is man? Is man only his body or is man his s (Philosophical Psychology) 4. Are we free? Are our actions already determined? Do we have a free w (Metaphysics and Ethics) You're Reading a Preview 5. What is right? What is wrong? (Ethics or Moral Philosophy) Unlock full with a free trial. 6. What is beauty? (Aesthetics oraccess Philosophy of Art) 7. What is the good life? What is happiness? 8. Does life make sense? What is the meaning Download With Free Trialof life?

Summary:  Philosophy is the love of wisdom (etymologically from the Greek philos meaning “love,” and sophia , meaning “wisdom”).  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd  & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  during Pythagoras of Samos, a sage and a mystic the 6th century BC  Special offer forcoined students:the Only word $4.99/month. philosophy. 

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Three groups of people who are in the Olympic.

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Sophos teach their students, rhetorics and the skills to debate and argue, fo pay of course. They are not interested in Truth, as long as they win an argument. Pythagoras then don’t want to be called Sophos, or wise. He just wan  be known as the lover of wisdom – Philosophos.  “Philosophy is the study of the ultimate reality, causes and principles underlying being acquired through the use of human reason alone”.  Philosopher: one whose attention is fixed on reality rather than on appearances.   interested in grasping the essential nature of things.  Philosophy is more of attitude and activity of mind  A creed to live by… to make life coherent and purposive 

The most important and practical thing about man is his attitude towards and his view of the universe. Thus, it matters whether a man is a pessimist o optimist, an empiricist, or a rationalist, a skeptic, or a believer. More than jus subject, philosophy is an activity.  -- G.K. Chesterton

“You will not learn form me Philosophy, how to philosophize, not thoughts repeat, but how to think. Think forReading yourselves, enquire for yourselves, sta You're a Preview your own feet. Dare to think, no matter where it might lead you. Just dare Unlock full access with a free trial. think.”  --Immanuel Kant. Download With Free Trial  Philosophy refers to a way of living and thinking thinking, his attitude, beliefs and opinions constitute his philosophy.   sum of his beliefs  “the kind of philosophy a man adopts depends on the kind of man he is  --Fichte  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  Darshana- Indian Philosophy  Not useful  Useful  real nature and essence of things  Cancel anytime. 

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. 

Philosopher is a man of wisdom.

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                 

Epistemology or Theory of Knowledge: What is knowledge? Can we know? What is it to know? How can we know? Metaphysics and Ethics: Are we free? Are our actions already determined? Do we have free will? Ethics or Moral Philosophy: What is right? What is wrong? Philosophy of Art or Aesthetics: What is beauty? Philosophical Psychology or Philosophy of Man or Anthropology: What is man? Who is man? Is man only his body or is man his soul? What is a good life? What is happiness? Does life make sense? What is the meaning of life?

PHILOSOPHY--ITS APPROACHES, You're Reading a Preview MAJOR BRANCHES AND FUNCTIONS Unlock full access with a free trial.

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Objectives: Know the various approaches inWith the Free study of philosophy Download Trial Know the major branches within the subject Know some important philosophers and place in history.

There are three ways to approach the study of philosophy. And these are:

Master your semester with Scribd 1. Historical Approach – This is & The New Times majorYork periods, namely: Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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Ancient Classical Philosophy – The philosophical period emphasize

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Medieval Philosophy – This philosophical period used philosophy rationalize Christian beliefs. This was also known as the limelight of Chris philosophy which was geared in a theocentric perspective. It focused asserting the reality of God and the proofs or arguments that proves existence. St. Thomas Aquinas is one of the leading proponents of philosophical period who argued that everything that exists has its cause the first cause that could explain everything is God, the first cause.

Modern Philosophy – This period in philosophy is characterized b separation of reason from faith and which eventually led to the developmen science. This was the starting point already where philosophers imbibe systematic and empirical perspective in their philosophical discourse.

Contemporary Philosophy – This concerns the late 19th And 20th cen philosophy which generally focused with man and linguistic analysis. The 2 century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. It deals with the uphea produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the b of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, econo scientific and logical problems. You're Reading a Preview Unlock full access with a free trial.

Summary is done byFree dividing  Historical Approaches: This Download With Trial philosophy into four ma periods. Ancient Classical Philosophy —w hich emphasized a concern with the  ultimate nature of reality and the problems of virtue in a political concept. Medieval Philosophy — which used philosophy to rationalized Christian  beliefs.  Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title from fait  Modern Philosophy — characterized by a separation of reason  Useful  Not useful and which leads further to the development of  science. Cancel anytime. th th Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Contemporary Philosophy — late 19 and 20 century philosophy generally concerned with man and linguistic analysis.


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2. Through a study of individual philosophers – In this approach, has to study the ideas and thoughts of these philosophers by going thro their major works and writings. Their ideas and opinions are all expresse the books that they have written. However, to understand clearly the m writings of our philosophers, it is advisable to consult and read s commentaries or secondary materials. For example, to understand Ka Critique of Pure Reason is an exercise in futility if you do not supplement it Fr. Copleton’s History of Philosophy , Vol. 6, Part II. Philosophy is the m subject of Plato; or Aristotle’ s Metaphysics and Niconachean Ethics ; of l parts of the works of St. Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus and William Ockham; of the Meditations of Rene Descartes; of the Ethics of Spinoza; of Monadology of Leibniz; of Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding Berkeley’s Three Dialogues and Principles of Human Knowledge ; of Ka Critique of Pure Reason ; and finally, in the present century, of Moore’s Principia Ethica ; of Russel’s Our Knowledge of the External World ; of Heidegg Being and Time ; of Sartre’s Beings and Nothingness ; and of Wittgenste Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. These are some of the major writings of s major philosophers.

Summary You're Reading a Preview  Through a study of individual philosophers – Unlock full access with a free trial. Critique of Pure Reason --Kant’s   History of Philosophy , Vol. 6, Part II. --Fr. Copleton Metaphysics and Niconachean Ethics ; --Aristotle  Download With Free Trial  Quin Quae Viae (5 Proofs of God’s Existence) --St. Thomas Aquinas Meditations --Rene Descartes;   Ethics --Spinoza;  Monadology --Leibniz; Essay Concerning Human Understanding --Locke   Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  Three Dialogues and Principles of Human Read Knowledge --Berkeley  Not useful  Useful  Principia Ethica-- Moore  Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Our Knowledge of the External World -- Russel  Being and Time --Heidegger


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

I. II. III. IV. V. 

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV.

Medieval Philosophy St. Augustine (354-430) Boethius (480-524) St. Anselm (1033-1109) St. Abelard (1079-1142) St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) Modern Philosophy Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Rene Descartes (1591-1650) Baruch (Benedict) Espinoza (1632-1677) Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) John Locke (1632-1704) George Berkeley (1685-1753) David Hume (1711-1776) Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) George Hegel (1770-1831) Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) Karl Marx (1818-1883) You're Reading a Preview Soren Kierkeggard (1813-1855) Unlock full access with a free trial. Friedrich Nietzeche (1844-1900)

John Lock

DESCARTES

Contemporary Philosophy Download With Free Trial I. Bertrand Russel (1872-1970) II. G.E. Moore (1873-1958) III. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) IV. Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) V. Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title VI. Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973)  Useful  Not useful VII. Jean-Paul Sarte (1905-1980) Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. VIII. Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961) 


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MERLEAUPONTY

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Needless to say, in our study of philosophy we cannot but become philosop ourselves. For we all are philosophers as long as we are open to every poss idea, questioning and inquisitive and ever full of wonder. “To be a philosopher,” said Henry David Theoreau, “is not merely to have su thoughts, nor even to found a school, but so to love wisdom as to according to its dictates, a life of simplicity, independence, magnanimity, trust.” Francis Bacon admonishes us, “Seek ye first the good things of the m and the rest will either be supplied or its loss will not be fel t. ”Truth will make us rich, but it will make us free!

Summary  Approach through philosophical problems Some philosophers devoted much on just one or two questions while  others tried to provide answers on almost all q uestions and thus creating a whole system of philosophy.  Each particular problem or question corresponds to a particular bran in philosophy.

To be a philosopher is not merely to have subtle thoughts, nor even to f ound school, but to love wisdom as to live according to its dictates, a life of simplic independence, magnanimity and trust.” You're Reading a Preview --Henry David Thoreau Unlock full access with a free trial.

Seek ye first good things of the mind and the rest will either be supplied or loss willWith not Free be felt. Download Trial --Francis Bacon. 

MAJOR BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

 Metaphysics: branch of philosophy concerned with ultimatenature Master your semester awith Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title existence. Study of ultimate reality.  & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful I. The first philosophy

Special offer forII. students: Only $4.99/month. study of beings, of existence Ontology:

III.

Cancel anytime.

Cosmology: study of the universe, its creation and evolution.

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The scientific study of the mind and its impact on human behavior contributes to a great extent in better understanding of human natur Philosophy of Man (Anthropology) : Attempts to understand man, a an individual, knower, free being, loving, being-towards-death, beingbefore-God, being-in-the-world.

We are all philosophers as long as we are open to every possible idea, questioning and inquisitive and ever full of wonder. Truth will not make us rich, but it will make us free.

FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy undertakes a critical examination of the grounds on which be are held. A large part of the business of philosophy is to inquire what rea can do, what it cannot do, by way of supporting a particular belief. As hum beings, endowed with reason, we cannot prevent ourselves from thinking ab the frame and principles, the destiny of our lives. The right use of rea brings us nearer to the truth. Philosophy itself is founded upon a b expressed long ago by Socrates thatReading “the unexamined life is not worth living You're a Preview

Unlock with aafree trial. Another function of philosophy isfulltoaccess frame picture of the whole univers establish a complete worldview. This function distinguishes it from the scien which concentrate on a particular aspect of Nature. According to the Br Download With Free Trial evolutionary philosopher, Herbert Spencer, science is partially un knowledge while philosophy is completely unified knowledge. Philosoph defined as the effort to comprehend the universe as a whole, not a spe department of it. To know only a part is to have incomplete and distorted of things.  Read Free Foron 30to Days Sign up to vote this title The function of philosophy is not to change the world but understand  Notphilosophy useful  Useful  the context of the contemporary world and its problems, is Cancel anytime. Special offer forrelevant students: Only $4.99/month. because it helps us to realize that there are very important quest which science cannot answer, and that scientific knowledge is not suffici


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use of philosophy is to use that there are things which we thought we k and don’t know. Philosophy is to keep us thinking about things that we come to know, and to keep us modestly aware of how much that seems knowledge is not knowledge.”

Summary 

FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY “the unexamined life is not worth living.” — Socrates   (1)In Business, Philosophy inquire what reason can do, what it cannot do, by way of supporting a particular belief.  (2)Philosophy also frame a picture of the whole universe, to establish a complete worldview. I. science is partially unified knowledge while philosophy is completely unified knowledge-- Herbert Spencer SOCRATES II. Philosophy has the effort to comprehend the universe as a whole, not a special department of it.  To know only a part is to have incomplete and distorted view of things.  (3)The function of philosophy is not to chan ge the world but to understand it. You're Reading a Preview III. (4)Philosophy keeps people intellectually modest and Unlock full with a free trial. aware that there are no shortcuts toaccess knowledge, what we believe to be indisputably true may turn out to be untrue. Download With (accd. Free Trial  Basically, Philosophy has 2 reasons to Bertrand BELTRAND Russell) RUSSEL I. to keep us thinking about things that we may come to know, II. to keep us modestly aware of how much that seems like knowledge not knowledge.”  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd  & The New York Times Useful Not useful   It is quite useful to discuss science, religion and philosophy under one hea Cancel anytime.

Special offer forin students: orderOnly to $4.99/month. articulate their similarities and differences. These topics are dire

related with life. Science is generally held to be opposed to religion becaus

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by critical reflection. Science and philosophy are similar since they are b cognitive disciplines, while religion and philosophy are similar in concern themselves with the nature of man and his destiny. Further, philosophers act as guide both to scientists and men of religion that these contribute to the enrichment of human life. Philosophers h always been gifted men who looked at things in a detached manner. W Plato said, “Until philosophers are kings or kings and princes have power spirit of philosophy, human society will not cease from evil and sufferings, stressed the importance of philosophy. Philosophy is not opposed to branch of knowledge, much less to science and religion. It refers to a wa thinking, an attitude to life, hence, no aspect of human experience is with philosophy. Philosophy is mother of all sciences, it is science of sciences, s the earliest human inquiries were related to philosophical problems. Thus can say that philosophy deals with the fundamentals of life and, hence intimately related with all areas of human existence. Now we can discuss these topics separately.

Philosophy and Science

Most human beings areYou're curious. Not, I mean, in the sense that they Reading a Preview odd, but in the sense that want to find out the world around them and ab fulltherefore, access with a free trial.questions, they wonder, their own part in this world. Unlock They, ask speculate. What they want to find out may be quite simple things: What beyond the range of mountains? How many legs has a fly? Or they ma Download With Free Trial rather complicated inquiries: How does grass grow? What is coal made of? W do some liquids extinguish flames while others stimulate them? Or they ma more puzzling inquiries still: What is the purpose of life? What are we here What is the ultimate nature of truth? In what sense, if any, are our wills fre To the first two questions, the answers may be obtained bygoing Read Free Foron 30 Days Sign up to vote this title seeing, and catching one and counting, respectively. The answers tothe Usefulbe Not useful the sam  will set of questions will be so easy, but the method essentially Cancel anytime. Special offer foris students: Only $4.99/month. the method of the scientist, investigating, measuring, experimenting method that may be reasonably summed up in two words: “going and seei


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It would be a misleading oversimplification, however, to identify scie with investigating or “going and seeing” and philosophy with speculatio “sitting and thinking.” The scientist who is investigating the world around will certainly do some sitting and thinking about the results of his inqui The philosopher, who is speculating about the nature of truth, though he not do much going, is likely to do a certain amount of seeing. He must h some data for reflection. Nevertheless, it is on the whole true that for science the emphasis been on investigation, and for philosophers on speculation, and philosop have often been criticized for this reason. Science is analytical description, philosophy is synthetic interpretat Science resolves the whole into parts, the organism into organs, the obsc into the known. It does not inquire into the values and ideal possibilitie things, nor into their total final significance. It concerns itself into the na and processes of things as they are. But the philosopher is not conten describe the fact; he/she wishes to ascertain its relation to experienc general, and thus to get at its meaning and is worth; he combines thing interpretive synthesis; he/she ties to put together things which the inquis scientist has analytically taken apart. To observe processes and to const means is science; to critique and coordinate ends in philosophy. Science g us knowledge, but only philosophy can give u s wisdom. You're Reading a Preview Science is very important. The fruits of scientific research have in m Unlock to full access with a free trial. cases turned out to be applicable the solution of concrete practical proble and in civilized countries these practical applications have immeasur improved the material conditions of human life. Download With Free TrialThat science has put into hands of man power undreamed of before over the processes of nature, enabled him to utilize her forces for attainment of his purposes, so to evident to everybody, and accounts for the enormous prestige science enjoys. On the other hand, the fact is now becoming all too evident  that Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title ledger of scientific progress has a debit as well as a credit side. The power  Useful  Notcure useful or preven scientific knowledge brings has, indeed, madepossible the Cancel anytime. Special offer forof students: Only $4.99/month. many diseases; it has provided new and highly efficient means of product communication, and transportation; and it has given man all the conven


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be kept alive. And we may read further that the physician in charge reali that the child’s life could not be other than a grievous burden to himself, to parents, and to society, refrained from operating and allowed the child to Then, in letters from readers to the editors of newspapers all over the coun controversy rages about whether the physician’s action was morally righ morally wrong. And even if we do not ourselves take active part in them, we form opinions of the question. In such a controversy the participants do not merely state their m appraisal of the ph ysician’s course. They also give reasons of one kin another to support the validity of their judgment. And if these reasons ar turn challenged, each participant brings forth considerations he beli adequate to vindicate the validity of his reasons. The reasons, and the reasons for the reasons that are thus appeale as grounds for endorsing or condemning the physician’s action, constitu moral philosophy, or at least a fragment of one. And the mental activit searching for those reasons, so editing them as to purge them of inconsistencies or exaggerating errors that opponents were able to point constitute philosophizing, or philosophical reflections.

In the main, science and philosophy differ in various respects, namely: obj scope and method. You're Reading a Preview 1. Object science’s object of inquiry are tangible, material, observ Unlockphilosophy’s full access with a freeformal trial. and verifiable realities whereas object are all intang realities such as God, right and wrong, knowledge, etc. 2. Scope because science’s object Download With Free Trialare material things, its sc too, is limited by its object of study. Whereas philosophy seeks to underst the “ultimate reality, causes and principles of beings.” Philosophy is, th boundless, without limit. 3. Method science has its own method of inquiry to find knowledg uses data gathering, observation, hypothesis formulation, test Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign on up tojust vote title measurement, etc. While philosophy is more bent speculation.  Not useful  Useful  Religion Cancel anytime.


We don’t have to dwell on this aspect lengthily considering tha

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tell us that they have discovered so. There are men who claim to h experienced God — become conscious of something within them. They do pride with their religion but rather on their personal relationship with knowable God.

Science and Philosophy Philosophy  Sitting and Thinking:  Leisure is the mother of Philosophy — Thomas Hobbes  Mental Activity  Emphasis on Speculation  Synthetic Interpretation  Criticizes and coordinates ends

Science  Going and Seeing  Investigating, measuring, experimenting  Physical Activity  Investigation  Analytical Description  Observe process and constru means  Gives wisdom  Gives knowledge  Philosophers ask the question,  Scientist builds bombs and when and why we would use bombs. computes its power.  Formal object of philosophy are  Science’s objects of inquiring intangible realities tangible, material, observabl You're Reading aare Preview and verifiable realities. Unlock full access with a free trial. is limited in time and  Scope is ultimate reality, causes  Scope and principles of beings. Boundless space Download With Free Trial studies  More of speculation  Finding knowledge by use of data gathering, observation, hypothesis test and measurement.

Master your semester with Scribd Ten Commandments of Philosophy & The New York Times


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Special offer for Onlyspirit $4.99/month. Allow the of wonder to flourish in your breast I. students:

Philosophy begins in Wonder


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IV. Divide and conquer  This is the analytic method. V. Collect and construct  The important thing is to have a coherent, well-founded, tightly reasoned of beliefs that can withstand the opposition. VI. Conjecture and refute  Seek bold hypotheses and seek disconfirmations of your favorite position Karl Popper  “He who knows only his own side of the case knows little of that. If he is equally unable to refute the reasons on the opposite side, if he does not so much as know what they are, he has no ground for preferring either opinion.” — J.S. Mill VII. Revise and rebuild  be grateful to those who correct you  Principle of fallibilism , the thesis that we are very likely incorrect in many our beliefs and have a tendency toward self-deception when considering objections to our position. VIII. Seek simplicity  Prefer the simple explanation to the more complex, a ll things being equa IX. Live the Truth You're Reading a Preview  Appropriate your ideas in a personal way  “Here is a definition of (subjective) truth: holding fast to an objec Unlock full access with a free trial. uncertainty in a appropriation process of the most passionate inwardnes the truth, the highest available for an existing individual.” - Kierkegaard Download With Free Trial X. Live the Good  Let moral Truth transform your life so that you shine like a jewel glowing its own light amidst the darkness of ignorance



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Wisdom by Alfred North Whitehead

The fading of ideals is sad evidence of the defeat of human endeavor. In the schools of antiquity philosophers aspired to impart wisdom, in modern colleges our humbler aim is to teach subjects. The drop from the divine wisdom, which was the goal of the ancients, to textbook knowledge of subjects, which is achieved by the moderns, marks an educational failure, sustained through the ages. I am not maintaining Alfred Nor that through the practice of education the ancients were Whitehead more successful than ourselves. You have only to read Lucian, and to note his satiric dramatizations of the pretentions philosophers, to see that in this respect the ancients can boast over us superiority. My point is that, at the dawn of our European civilization, started with the full ideals which should inspire education, and that gradu our ideal has sunk to square with our patience. Thought knowledge is one chief aim of intellectual education, ther another ingredient, vaguer but greater, and more dominating in its importa The ancients called it “wisdom.” You cannot be wise without some bas knowledge; but you may easily acquire knowledge and remain bare of wisdo Now wisdom is the way in Reading which aknowledge is held. It concerns You're Preview handling of knowledge, its selection for the determination of relevant issues full access with a free trial. employment to add value Unlock to our immediate experience. This mastery knowledge, which is wisdom, is the most intimate freedom obtainable. ancients saw clearly — more clearly than — the necessity for domina Download With we Freedo Trial knowledge by wisdom. But, in the pursuit of wisdom in the region of prac education, they erred sadly. To put the matter simply, their popular prac assumed that wisdom could be imparted to the young by procu philosophers to spout at them. Hence, the drop of shady philosophers in schools of ancient Greece. The only avenue towards wisdom is by  freedom Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title the presence of knowledge. But the only avenue towards knowledge is   Not useful discipline in the acquirement of ordered fa ct.  Useful Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: Onlyimportance $4.99/month. of knowledge lies in its use, in our active mastery The that is to say, it lies in wisdom. It is a convention to speak of mere knowle


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Wisdom, Knowledge and Understanding, what’s the difference       

Knowledge is one chief aim of intellectual education You cannot be wise without some basis in knowledge, but you may eas acquire knowledge and remain bare of wisdom Wisdom is the way which knowledge is held – mastery of knowledge. The importance of knowledge lies in its use. It all depends on who has the knowledge and what he does with (it). In a sense, knowledge shrinks as wisdom grows, for details are swallowed up by principles. The active utilization of well-understood principles is the final posses of wisdom.

WHAT IS MAN?

According to classical definition, man is a rational animal. Man is define an integral organism comprising within his being – vegetative, sensory rational life. Man is, at one and the same time, a material and spiritual be Man is a corporeal reality, endowed with life of the soul, whose superior act has as its formal object transcendental being and the good. Man You're Readingvalue, a Preview creature made by God (efficient cause) according to His image and likenes Unlock accessHis with aeverlasting free trial. know, love and serve Him and to full share glory (final cause). is primarily a person, harmonizing all his faculties into a unified whole, crea to the image and likeness of God, has an immortal soul and destined Download With Free Trial everlasting life with God. Man is a vegetative, sentient and rational organism. a) As a vegetative organism, man, like the plants, is subject to nutrit growth and reproduction. b) As a sentient being, man, like the animals, has sense – knowledge  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title appetency.  Useful creature Not usefulon earth,  c) As a rational being, man, unlike any other Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. rationality which implies cognitive and appetitive powers. Man is also an animal but unlike them, he, alone, possesses th


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which is vegetative. Like plants, man also is a vegetative organism. animals are the possessors of a sensient soul. A sensient soul is higher th vegetative soul. Being higher than vegetative does not mean that the sens soul enables also a body to feed itself. Grow, and reproduce. Howeve develops a nervous system that allows the senses in the body to function. what makes a sensient soul higher than vegetative soul is that the latte incapable of sensation, because it does not have a nervous system, while former has nervous system. Through its nervous system, a sensient allows its beholder to experience pain and pleasure because it has feeli This is true to animals and brutes. Any brutes is a possessor of a sens soul. In this context . man is like brutes. Man is also a sensient organ Man shares his sensient soul in common with the brutes. The only differenc that whereas the brutes are only capable of feelings (i.e. feeling of pain pleasure). Man is capable, not only of feelings, but also of emotions – beca man is also a possessor of the highest grade of soul called rational. A person is an individual being. An individual being is a being whic one in itself and distinct from all other beings. All real beings are individu general entities exist only in the mind. A person is an individual possessin spiritual nature. What do we mean by a spiritual nature? Spiritual me immaterial. A spirit exists not only in itself (it is a substance), and for itse You're Reading a Preview is self-conscious), but also by itself (it posits itself). Spirit is essentially knowledge, self-volition, self-consciousness, self-position. It is EGO, or I. Unlock full access with a free trial. The “I” is open to the whole of reality. It opens up into the infinite capacity is unlimited. The human intellect is capable of knowing reality. Download With Free Trial human will too strives towards the good. The human will is free becaus strives towards the good. The "I" is essentially self-conscious. Consciousne the core of being. Every being is conscious, each according to its deg Consciousness men as active self-identity. The "I" is essentially active identity. This takes the forms of self-affirmation. I am I. This is the m Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  fundamental affirmation, to which all other affirmations owe their servitude Useful  Not useful  When we speak of man as object, we do not simply Cancel anytime. mean man as Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. object of knowledge or study. That he is such an object is self-evid


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Man as a subject is not "He" or "It", but "I". Here man is no lon considered as a thing or as an object, but as a Self. "I" is not a unive concept, it cannot be defined. "I" is a singular; yet, although it involve material component, it is, unlike the other material singulars, an intellig singular. The purely material singulars of our everyday experience can known only though sense perception, they can only be denoted, pointed "this table here, that chair there." I know myself in a much more intimate w not merely by a sense perception, by a concept or a judgment, but as subject of all my perceptions, my concepts, and my Judgments, as the so of all my conscious activities. The fact that I know myself as the subject or source of all my conscious activities explains why although I know myself intimately, this knowledge can never be exhausted.

To further reinforce this concept of man as a subject, let us turn to Jona Glover's article entitled "Persons and Consciousness" which is found in book, I: The Philosophy and Psychology of Personal Identity.

Persons and Self-Consciousness Jonathan Glover You're Reading a Preview

The word "person" is one of Unlock the most controversial in the language. Cons full access with a free trial. some of the different views expressed about what a person is. One common thought is thatDownload a human is a person, while member Withbeing Free Trial other species are not. The reason usually given for this is that our psycho is more complex than that of animals. But the kind of psycholog complexities thought to qualify someone for being a person vary. H Frankfurt, for instance, has said that matters is having second-order des Animal want things, but people also want to have some desires rather t  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  others. Daniel Dennett has suggested that having a sense of Justic Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. necessary for being a person, “to the extent that justice does not reveal itse Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. the dealings and interactions of creatures, to that extent they are not perso


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Perhaps we should expect these disputes over what a person is. Ma Mauss suggested that it is an illusion to see our conception of a person static. He thought it originated with tribal social roles, mentioning "persona" was the Latin word for a mask. He sketched out an account of the conception evolved, through the Roman idea of a person as the beare legal rights (so that slaves were not persons), and through Stoic and Chris ideas of the person having moral value, to the modem way of thinking person mainly as someone with states of consciousness. Mauss thought conception was likely to go on changing. I do not know how far Mauss g correct account of these changes. But, like the abortion debate, a story of kind illustrates how what people take to be the special features of a per may vary with other aspect of their outlook. Being "person" is a concept with boundaries that are blurred or disputed; th may be no satisfactory single answer to the question, "What is a person want to suggest that a prime feature of personhood is self-consciousnes person is someone who can have thoughts, whose natural expression uses word "I". This seems to capture one central strand in our idea of a person. since the concept is disputed, this is a suggested way of using the word, ra than a claim that it is somehow the "correct" account of it. You're Reading a Preview On this account, Hume's oyster is not a person. It has not thought "I being touched" that rises above impersonal awareness of a sensation. Unlockan full access with a free trial. the other hand, being a person does not require any moment of illuminatio the kind Jean Paul Richter had. (Perhaps Download WithRichter Free Trialknow that he was standin the front door before the flash came to him.) Self-consciousness does req consciousness and some primitive power of thought. But, provided I-thou can be had, it does not matter whether their acquisition was in a sud conscious moment or through slow, unconscious conceptual growth, You and I both have I thoughts, but those thoughts belong to two  diffe Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  people because they are not located in the same stream of consciousnes Not useful  Useful  anytime.person. This is certain unity of consciousness is required for being Cancel a single Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. it may be less misleading to think of a split brain patient as two people.


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Lesson 1: Man as Subject  A person is an individual being.  In itself, distinct from other beings. All rea l beings are individuals.  Individual possessing spiritual nature — immaterial,  in itself: substance  for itself: self-conscious by itself: posits itself   A person is a conscious I.  The human intellect is capable of knowing the reality, strives towa the good.  The I is essentially self-conscious: Self- identity  Consciousness is the core of being.  Man as object: Man considered from outside. (Objectum: to throw in front)  Being an object, man has his definitions which contains the genus (animal) and a specific difference (rational)  Man as I: a person- a subject – a meaning maker.  Man as He: (sometimes denoted to It) — is a object, a body- a receiv of other’s consciousness.  Person and Self-Consciousness (Jonathan Glover)  Person: only the human considered person, while other You'rebeings Readingare a Preview species are not. Unlock full access with a free trial.  Has second order desire — Harry Frankfurt  Has sense of justice — Daniel Dennett Download — With Free Trial Michael Tooley  Has moral considerations  Persona (Latin for Mask ),  The prime feature of personhood is self-consciousness.  Self-consciousness does require consciousness and some primi power of thought.  of on something.  Consciousness is always consciousness Read Free For 30this Days Sign up to vote title


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MAN AND HIS BODY

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my hands, I examine my appearance with my eyes," I am a unity insofar perform an act. Although all these objects of my actions are different, they all belon me; they all are, to a certain extent, I. I refer to my face- my body, appearance. All these actions originate in me and terminate in me. Yet, are not entirely in me; they involve something which is not strictly I. I perform these actions upon myself; yet the performing I and the which these actions are performed are not quite the same reality; other there would be no resistance and no difficulty. There is in me, besides performing, originating I, besides the I as subject, something which is entirely I; some not-I. But every material not-I belongs to the world, is pa the world. Hence part of me is both I and the world. That is my body. Thro my body I am part of the material world, and the material world is a part of There are certain things which I am, other which I have, others which in a certain sense I am, and in another sense I have. I am a perso have a dog. But what about my body? Shall I say, "I have my body" or " my body"? I must say both, I must correct one Statement by means of other.

Preview At first glance it seemsYou're as if Reading I coulda say, "I have a body." But, as Gabriel Marcels explains, if we to be exact, we Unlock full access withare a free trial. should say, "I have whatever I have because of my body." Having a body is the prerequisite, the indispensable condition, of all Download With Free Trial having. Since my body itself is for me a condition of all "having," I cannot truthfully say that "I have my body." Why then should I not say that I am my body? This assertion is incorrect if the intention is to identify my whole GABR being with my body. It is correct if it is taken as meaning that I  MARC Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  am also my body. Not useful  Useful  Cancel anytime. There is a difference between what I merely have and what I merely Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Some objects lie on the surface of my being. I have them more than I am


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The body is intermediary between me and the other, between the and me, between his world and me, and between my world and him. From of these, we can gather several points: 1. The body is an intermediary. 2. The other is accessible to me through my body. 3. I encounter the other as other through my body. 4. "My" body is not "a" body. 5. My body is not a mere instrument 6. My body is not isolated from me. 7. My body is not the object of "having." 8. The "I" first and foremost is a bodily "I". All of these imply that there is m me something absolutely central, w I do not have, which I only am. It is that which has all the rest and is not i had; which knows everything in me but is not itself known. For if it were by what would it be had? If known, by what would it be known. IT IS MY E MY SOUL WITH ITS INTELLECT AND WILL, MY SPIRITUAL SELF, CONSCIOUSNESS, MY ORIGINATING I.

MAN: A BODY/ HIS BODY You're Reading a Preview

Unlock access with a free trial. which is detached fro It is impossible to talk of full human existence bodily existence, for human existence always implies a bodily existence. body is basically man’s expression his presence to his fellowman in Downloadof With Free Trial world. Man’s body, therefore, is the immediate datum which gives ma primary consciousness of his own existence. In this case, not just have a b but man is a body. In fact, man is his body.

previously mentioned, human nature has inseparable levelswhich Master yourAssemester with Scribd Read Free For 30this Days Signofup to vote on title somatic, behavioral, and attitudinal. In view the inseparability  of t & The New Times on man as a body should Not useful  Useful  misunderstood levels,York the discussion not be a Cancel anytime.

Special offer forinquiry students: Only $4.99/month. which is exclusive only in the somatic level of human nature, for if

were the case, the purpose of investigating man as a whole will be defea

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The Human Body as Finitude

Human existence as a bodily existence is a finite existence. Man’s bo existence is finite since man’s thrownness in a body explains the limitatio man. Man, obviously, has many limitations; one of them can primaril located in the human body. This, man’s existence in the body proves finitude of man since man’s presence in the world is primarily a phys presence. Through his body, man is thrown in the world. And this thrown limits man in terms of time, space, and eternal (bodily) existence since man being towards death.

In the context of its limitation, man’s bodily existence is an existenc time in a two-fold dimension. First, man’s bodily existence is confined particular beginning (birth) and an inevitable end (death). Second, m bodily existence cannot occur in two places at the same time. At a partic time, man is situated in a concrete place and not simultaneously in ano place. Thus, once man is “here,” man cannot be “there” at the same time. word, through his body, man’s existence is limited and incomplete.

Further, aside from positing the idea on the finitude of the human b in the context of time, space,You're and Reading death, athe human body is also finite in Preview context of its accidental constituents like shape, size, height, weight, co Unlockconstituents full access with a free among others. These accidental oftrial. the human body, however, be easily summed up in terms of race, culture, and civilization. It is obvio true that the Easterner’s bodies are distinctively different from the Western Download With Free Trial In fact the Eastern setting, the “bodies” of the Japanese are “different” from “bodies” of the Taiwanese; the “bodies” of the Indonesians are “different” f the Singaporeans. At any rate, the point that we are trying to drive here is man’s shape, height, weight, and color also manifest the limitation of m existence form the standpoint of his body. Thus, it is absurd for aFilipin Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote titlevice-versa. dream of transforming his body to become a German’s body and 


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Man and His Condition

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these bodily transformations are good in the sense that they mean progre and development of man’s consciousnes. However, all these scientific bod manipulations remain man’s incapability to accept the truth of the finitude his body.

The Human Body as Subjectivity

The human body cannot be dissociated form man as a subject. Man’s body is not anyone else’s body, because it is embedded in man’s personhood or subjectivity. Man’s body is, therefore, infused in the subjectivity of man; man is his body. In other words, I am my body; my body is inseparably identified to me. And my body permeates the whole being in me. Since man is a subject and since man’s body is infused in his subjectivity, it necessarily follows that man’s body is not reducible to become an object body but a subject body. This is clearly emphasized by Merleau-Ponty.

MERL

PON

In the line with the contention of Merleau-Ponty, Marcel says that human body cannot be considered as the aobject You're Reading Previewof having. For Marcel, a body is totally different form having a house, a table, a chair, a pair of sh Unlock full access a free trial. of their being objects; w etc. these “having”, for Marcel, show thewith exteriority man’s having a body shows the interiority of man himself. This interiority be seen in virtue of the fact Download that man’s cannot be dislodged from m Withbody Free Trial self-consciousness. Whereas the objects of man’s external having disposables, the “object” of man’s “internal having” is not. Marcel, in the is telling that the human body is not disposable as one disposes a hous table, a chair, or a pair of shoes, among others. Further, since the human body is not a thing in the world,  it is Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title proper that it must be studied as an object of experimentation in physio  Not useful  Useful  and biology. All these sciences treat of the human body not as a subject-b Cancel anytime. Special offer forbut students: Only $4.99/month. as an object-body. In these sciences, man’s body becomes an objec observation and experimentation. Besides, these sciences treat the hu


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world, but the way whereby man makes himself accessible to others. human encounter is vested in the embodiment of man's subjectivity. Since the human encounter cannot occur without the body, the embodied subject enters into the other embodied subject. This encounte two subjects enable them to unconceal each other's worlds. One's encount another person makes him part of the meaning of the world of this person vice-versa. So in a professor's encounter of the world of the students, becomes open to their world just as the students are to me.

This can only happen, however, when such an encounter is reall authentic one.

In the discussion of the human person's relatedness, an I-It, a He/she, and an I-Thou relationships were discussed. Of these degree relationship, it is the 1-Thou that fits in an authentic human encounter. reason behind this is that in the I-Thou relationship, there is a pers encounter between two embodied subjects in virtue of their mutual openn and unconcealment of each other's embodied subjectivity. Yes, it is true tha the concrete human encounter, a person may not conceal himself or You'reto Reading a Preview inhibit himself to be transparent the other; or still, a person may hide true self to the other. But all these encounters can only happen when Unlock full access with a free trial. encounter is cursory, the one which normally occur in the I-It and I-He/ relationships. However, it Download must beWith reiterated Free Trial that it is in the I-T relationship where the authentic human encounter happens.

Summary  Lesson 2: Man as an Embodied Subject  Man and his Body: All (human) actions originate in me and terminate  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title me.  Not useful  Useful   That is my body through my body. Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.  I am part of material world, and the material world is part of me.  I have my body


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      

The other is accessible to me through my body. I encounter the other as other through my body. “My” body is not “a” body. My body is not merely instrument. My body is not isolated from me. My body is not the object of “having”. The “I” first and foremost is a bodily “I”.  My person is,  My ego  My soul with its intellect and will  My spiritual self  My consciousness  My originating I.

Man as Knowing: What is Knowledge?

He who knows not and knows not he knows not; he is a fool, shun him. You're Preview He who knows not and knows he Reading knows anot; he is ignorant, teach him. He who knows and knows notfullhe knowith ws; hetrial. is asleep, wake him. Unlock access a free He who knows and knows he knows; he is wise, follow him. Arabian proverb attributed to King Darius, Download With Free Trial The Persian.

What can we know? This is one of the philosophical questions and q we need to understand. When we perceive an object the mysterious proces  Read Free For 30this Days human knowing takes place and we end up having an idea about that ob Sign up to vote on title  What is definite with the process is the interplay between the knower Not useful  Useful  Cancel anytime. or $4.99/month. the person) and the known (that object which is perceived or Special offer forsubject students: Only object of knowing). This would lead us to different notions that the knowe


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To assert that we know something is at the same time to claim that idea is true. Thus, a formula that is widely accepted as a general philosoph definition of knowledge: A JUSTIFIED TRUE BELIEF”. A claim to knowledg successful if: (1) it is believed by someone; (2) that person can prod concrete evidence to validate his belief; and (3) this justification suppor claim that actually corresponds with the facts. So a person who corre believes a thing to be true without being able to justify his belief cannot be to know that thing, since he still will not have sufficient reason to bel himself to be correct.

We can have beliefs and still lack knowledge if our beliefs are fa Unfortunately, we can also have true beliefs and still lack knowledge beca we fail to understand how and why a belief is true. Justification invo finding such an understanding.

The questions concerning knowledge and human knowing have perennial problems of philosophy. Different philosophers have prov different answers to these questions. Needless to say, we cannot hop comprehend these difficult questions in a few paragraphs.

You're Reading a Preview The following reading from Bernard Lonergan’s Cognitional Struc Unlock full access with a freein trial. tries to pinpoint important elements involved human knowing. I think reading can be a springboard for a better comprehension of what knowledg and what it is not. Download With Free Trial

Cognitional Structure Bernard Lonergan

Master your semester with Scribd  Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Human knowing involves many district Read and irreducible activities:  se & The New York Timestouching, tasting, inquiring,  Useful  Not usefulunderstand hearing, smelling, imagining, Cancel anytime.

Special offer forconceiving, students: Only $4.99/month. reflecting, weighing the evidence and judging.

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Moreover, the combination of the operations of sense and understanding d not suffice for human knowing. There must be added judging. To o judgment is quite literally silly; it is only by judgment that there emerg distinction between fact and fiction.

Nor can one place human knowing in judging to the exclusion experience and understanding. To pass judgment on what one does understand is not human understanding, but human arrogance. To p judgment independently of all experience is to set fact aside.

Human knowing, then, is not experience alone, not understanding al not judgment alone; it is not a combination of only experience and judgm or of only understanding and judgment; finally, it is not something totally a from experience, understanding and judgment. One has to regard an insta of human knowing not as this or that operation, but as a whole whose p are operations. It is a structure and indeed, a materially dynamic structure

But human knowing is also formally dynamic. It is self-assembling. constituting. It puts itself together, one part summoning fort the next, till whole is reached. And this occurs not with blindness of natural process, consciously, intelligently, and rationally. stimulates inquiry, You're Reading aExperience Preview inquiry is intelligence bringing itself to act; it leads from experience thro Unlockinsight full access with a free concepts trial. imagination to insight; and from to the that combine in si objects both what has been gasped by insight and what in experience imagination is relevant to insight. In With turn, concepts stimulate reflection, Download Free Trial reflection is the conscious experience of rationality; it marshals the evide and weighs it either to judge or else to doubt or to renew inquiry.

Such in briefest outline is what is meant by saying that human know is a dynamic structure.  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

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Bernard Lonergan’s Cognitive Structure  Experiencing (Simple Apprehension) Seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, tasting  Inquiring   imaging  Understanding Conceiving   Reflecting  Weighing the evidence, and  Judging Note:  Experience with out understanding is stupidity There is no understanding without experience   Judging without understanding is arrogance.  Experience and understanding without judgment is silly. Judgment draws the line between facts and f ictions.  Knowledge is a product of experiencing, understanding and judg  altogether. Knowledge is a structure and, indeed, a materially dynamic  structure. And also formally dynamic. You're Reading a Preview Self-assembling, self-constituting. o Experience, then  Unlock full… access with a free trial.  Inquiry, intelligence brings itself to act then… Imagination, then…With Free Trial  Download  Insight, then… Concept, then …   Reflection, then… Conscious exigency of rationality, then   Judge whether right, to inquire again.  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

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This concept has its objective reference from which knowledge is acquire we see, hear, taste, smell and touch it. John Locke, an English empiricist, is one of the leading proponent empiricism. He asserts that the mind at birth is a “tabula rasa”, an empty s or blank paper that is devoid of anything on it. It is through experience tha begin to fill up the ideas in the mind and therefore acquire knowledge ab things. The concept of empiricism clearly negates the Rationalist’s belie innate or inborn ideas. Thus, experience is the very source of our knowledg

Rationalism

An epistemological view claiming that true knowledge is acquired through reason and not experience. Rationalists believe that knowledge is primarily acquired by a priori or preexperience processes or is innate — e.g., in the form of concepts not derived from experience. The relevant theoretical processes often go by the name "intuition”. Rationalists claim that, we know what we have thought and the mind has the ability to discover truth by itself. We do not learn things but PLATO simply remember what they already It attempts to You're Readingknow. a Preview account for all objects in nature and experiences as representations of Unlock full access with that a free trial. mind. Knowledge then is intellectual rather sensory.

Rationalism upholds the doctrine that is inborn and ideas Download Withknowledge Free Trial innate which is totally against empiricism. The prominent philosopher advocated innate idea was Plato, an ancient Greek philosopher. At the mom of birth, the mind is already furnished with a range of ideas and concepts accordingly owes nothing to experience. Inborn knowledge, however, is init dormant but with discussions, intellectual dispute, critical thinking  Free For 30this Days Sign up to vote on title argument will unfold or unveil the innate ideasRead that we have. 


Skepticism

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Summary  Different Theories of Knowledge  Empiricism- all knowledge is derived from experience.  It maintains that at birth the mind is “a white page” or “blank tablet” tabula raza. (John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Thomas Hobbes)  Idealism-external world is somehow created by the mind.  Believed that the human mind is already furnished with a rang ideas or concepts, before it encounter the world.  Material world cannot be independent with the mind.  Skepticism- knowledge is limited, either of the mind (idealism) or inaccessibility of objects (empiricism)  Knowledge can be sought but can never be found. (David Hume

As we have learned earlier. Various philosophers have offers what for them good method to acquire knowledge. We can benefit from them by stud some of these important methods that have some practical value.

1. as the dialogical DIALECTICAL METHOD You're – also Readingknown a Preview method” or the “Socratic Method”. The term “dialectic” is derived Unlock full access with a free trial. from a Socrates himself who would usually converse or argue with others, questioning them and their assumptions Specifically Download Free in Trial in this method, two interlocutors tookWith turns questioning and answering. Truth is arrived at by means of this dialectical method of asking and responding, gradually elimination the SOCRA doubtful or questionable. Socrates was known to have argued a great deal with men of his time, uncovering assumptions and questioning certainties. In men  discou Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  too readily of justice, he asked them – “What is it?” he demanded from t Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. accurate definitions, clear thinking and exact analysis.


2.

SYLLOGISTIC OR LOGICAL METHOD

this method

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3. THOMISTIC METHOD – used by St. Thomas Aquinas. The method neatly presents the problem to be solved in the form of a question, then proceeds to put its objections, seemingly to support the positive or negative answer, and then goes to the body of the argument always introduced by “I answer that…” and caps the whole method by answering the objections it had put up, thus demolishing all doubt and all opposition.

ST. THOM

4. THE METHODIC DOUBT – this method that Rene Descartes advocates is an analytical one, which emphasizes the necessity of trying to isolate the simple, and then, but only then, trying to build the complex on its basis. The aim is to arrive at certainly. Moreover, this is put forward not just as a method for philosophy but as a quite general method which all pursuit of knowledge should follow. In his First Meditation he DESCART states that we should doubt all that we know because, first, they come from our senses which can be mistaken or can deceive us, second, these can be just the result of a dream or mere hallucination.

You're Reading a Preview Descartes sets out four important rules to clear thinking: fullIaccess trial. recognize it to be so. To accept nothing as true Unlock which did with nota free clearly To divide each of the difficulties under examination into as many part possible. Download With Free Trial To carry on reflection in an order beginning with objects that are the simple and easiest to understand, in order to rise little by little, or by degr to knowledge of the most complex. To be thorough and general as to certain of having omitted nothing.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title 5. FRANCIS BACON’S RECONSTRUCTION PROJECT – & The New York Times Useful Not useful “Go to the facts themselves for everything” –  that was Bacon’s Cancel anytime.

Special offer forway students: Only $4.99/month. to acquire knowledge. To proceed to a systematic empirical

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is, does not so institute the measure of all things. We must learn to objectively, a task that requires us to be alert for occasions when emot feelings and inference are self-deceptive.

Idols of the Cave – if the “idols of the tribe” deceive humankind, e individual must reckon with his peculiar prejudices, which Bacon called “i of the cave”. Here Bacon recalls Plato’s allegory in which people imprisoned cave mistake appearance for reality. Each of us has criticized blind sp Bacon recommends that we treat with special suspicion any outlook that g us special satisfaction. We tend to believe what we like to believe, but that p does not lead to knowledge.

Idols of the Marketplace – these are errors that emerge from the word use in everyday business, from the association of men with one another. T meanings are often vague and ambiguous, but they solidify our impress and beliefs nonetheless. “Men converse by means of language; but words imposed according t the understanding of the crowd; and there arises fro had and inept formation of words, a wonderful obstruction to the mind”. Ba stresses that, “unless we guard against the ill and unfit choice of words, t impact cam force and overrule the understanding and throw all into confus

You're Reading a Preview Idols of the Theater – these are idols, which have migrated into men’s k full access with a freeand trial. also from wrong law from the various dogmas Unlock of philosophers demonstration. Many philosophical speculations claim to be true account reality, but in fact, they are Download closer toWith stage Free plays Trial depicting unreal world human creation. Specifically, Bacon faults three types of false philoso Exemplified by Aristotle, the first trusts non-empirical inference too much result is sophistry . Although experimental, the second draws from swee conclusions from too little data; its result is psuedoscience . The third m philosophy and religion indiscriminately; its result superstition .  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Summary: Special offer forstudents: Only $4.99/month. Acquisition of Knowledge o

Dialectical Method

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Syllogistic or Logical Methods  Attributed to Aristotle — the founder of Logic  By combinations of agreement and disagreement between three terms, a conclusion is reached.  Thesis + antithesis = synthesis o Thomistic Method  Problem (Is man an animal or not)  Objection (Man is mobile like all animals but he is also rational  Argument (I answer that… man is a rational animal) o The Methodic Doubt (Rene Descartes)  Form simple to complex that is based from the simplest.  Initially, all that we know are doubtful, whether because our senses are fooling us, or we are just dreaming or hallucinating. o To accept nothing as true, which I did not clearly recognize i be so.  It is not true, until it really is true. o To divide each of the difficulties under examination into as many parts as possible.  Divide and conquer… Carry on reflection from the simplest to the most complex. o  First thingsYou're first. Reading a Preview o To be thorough and general as to be certain of having omitte Unlock full access with a free trial. nothing.  Did I get them all, did I get it right, is there anything left? Download With Free Trial o Project Francis Bacon’s Reconstruction  Knowledge is Power!  Go to the facts themselves for everything.  Systematic Empirical Study  Idol: picture taken for a reality, a thought mistaken for a thing.  These idols are the cause of human error. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  o Idols of the Tribe Not useful  Useful  Cancel anytime.  Fallacies or errors of humanity in general. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.  The deception of the senses. Opinionated truth. o


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The tendency to believe on something wonderful, because was said wonderfully by a wonderful person. Sophistry- too much reasoning, too much reflection or too much non-empirical inference.  Pseudoscience- sweeping conclusions from too little d  Superstition- indiscriminate mixed of philosophy and religion.

VALIDITY OF KNOWLEDGE

The previous discussions has given us enough idea that man indeed can something as exemplified by the different theories of knowledge and philosophical ways in acquiring knowledge. As we have defined ear knowledge is a justified true belief. This clearly states that it is not enoug claim that we have knowledge of certain matters. It further obliges u establish justification of those claims we assert. This points out the need criteria by which our knowledge can be judged as true or false. Diffe criteria such as customs, traditions, consensus of majority can be cited but following discussion will deal more on the philosophical criteria in valida knowledge. You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. Correspondence theory This theory holds that true or valid knowledge is what With Free Trial conforms or corresponds toDownload facts or agrees which objective reality. This criteria of knowledge recognizes the interplay between the idea or belief that we claim to know and the facts themselves. The facts are neither true nor false but it is the knowledge or claim asserted about them. If I claim and say that BELTRAN Pedro is tall and it correspond to the objective and factual reality  RUSSEL ReadupFree Foron 30 Days title of Pedro, then it is true; otherwise, it is false. Sign Thus,toavote validthisknowledge  is  Useful  Not useful which corresponds to reality. Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: Only of $4.99/month. One the defenders of this theory is Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) he philosophized that true knowledge is the fact corresponding to the be


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theory would put it. Truth or falsity of the ideas or the judgment we as depends on its consistency with other judgments. So far as I make judgment that Pedro is a good man is consistent with other judgments tha is indeed good, such judgments finds it meaning and truth. This coher theory is substantiated with the use of Logic for validity of judgments can evaluated from the logical relations or consistency of those judgments. T truth or falsity of the knowledge that we claim to believe is established a with its coherence or consistency with other claims.

Pragmatic Theory Pragmatic theory of knowledge claims that true and valid knowledg one which is practical or useful. No matter how great an idea is, what conc for the pragmatists is how our ideas, beliefs, or knowledge is useful beneficial in its own way. Pragmatism considers the relativity of knowledg what works in one instance may not be to all. Once knowledge does not lea good consequences, knowledge is deemed worthless, hence, false unacceptable. True and valid knowledge then is what works. Among philosophers with pragmatic views include: William James, John Dewey Charles Pierce.

You're Reading a Preview Causal Reasoning full access a free trial. Francis Bacon  “To know truly isUnlock to know bywith causes”—  “The cause is the reason why something is the case, and the Download Free Trial search for the cause is theWith search for a deeper explanation.  Methods of causal reasoning Method of Agreement : the circumstances in which alone al o the instances agree, is the cause of the given phenomenon. Method of Differences: the circumstances in which alone t o two instances differ, is the cause of the phenomenon. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  the Joint Method f Agreement and Differences: If among o Useful Not useful   antecedent circumstances there is only common to all th Cancelone anytime. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. positive instances (agreement) and absent from all the negat instances (differences) there is good reason to believe that th 


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It commits itself on the what will be observed under given conditions. Likelihood: coherence with well-founded scientific principle with the relative frequency of the type of thing set forth in th hypothesis. Simplicity: the briefer description or posits fewer entities.  Entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity.

MAN AND FREEDOM

The will, in philosophy and psychology, is a term used to describe faculty of mind that is alleged to stimulate motivation of purpos activity. The concept has been variously interpreted by philosophers, accepting the will as a personal faculty or function (for example, P Aristotle, Aquinas, Descartes and Kant) and other seeing it as the externa result of the interaction of conflicting elements (for example, Spinoza, Leib and Hume). Still others describe the will as the manifestation of personality example, Hobbes, Nietzsche, and Schopenhauer). The reality of individual is denied altogether by the doctrine of determinism. Modern psycho considers the concept of the will as unscientific (as in Skinner) and has loo to other factors such as unconscious motivation You're Reading a Preview or psychological influenc explain human actions. Unlock full access with a free trial.

However, the existence of the will can be demonstrated philosophic and confirmed by data derived from With everyday experience. For example, e Download Free Trial act of real self-control is an implicit manifestation of the will. In such an ac are conscious of the fact that some tendency in us is held in check by a hi tendency. That higher tendency is the will.

this argument the following objection can be raised. Master yourAgainst semester with Scribd  Anim Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title also exercise self-control. Thus a hungry but well-trained dog will nottake & The New  Useful  Not useful meat York he seesTimes on the table. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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This, however, is not real self-control. The sight of the meat has arou

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Another proof for the existence of the will is the phenomenon voluntary attention. Voluntary attention is distinct from spontan eous atten Spontaneous attention is present in animals; it is the concentration of senses and of the mind on some object which appeals to one of the lo drives. In voluntary attention we concentrate our senses and our mind on s object which does not spontaneously interest us. We concentrate because want to concentrate, and we want to concentrate because our intellect tell that it is good to concentrate. Compare the attention you pay to an interes movie with that given to a dull but important lecture.

So the existence of the will cannot be denied. But what is the very na of the will? If a will exists, then what is it? What is its object? Let us now t to a particular excerpt in John Kavanaugh’s article entitled Human Freed for a clearer understanding of what the will really is.

Human Freedom Free choices: A Metaphysical Analysis of the Will

The Will is an intellectual tendency, You're Reading a Previewor a tendency toward intellectually known good. It is different from sense an appetite in that it is Unlock full of access withsensed a free trial. object. I know not only “chained down” by the immediacy the object as good, but I know all objects, all subjects, all that is, us good in s respect — at least insofar as itDownload exists. Anything then, because it can be see With Free Trial good, might be the object of my will — whether it is a good steak, a good per a good feeling, or a good action. It is precisely because a thing or action ca seen as having good aspects that my will goes to it or ends toward it. The reason that I find myself having a tendency toward an object in the first p is because I sense it or know it as having good things about it. It isthe “g Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title quality of the thing by which the will is drawn or moved. 


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Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. We might say, the, that the will is naturally determined to seek the g

and if I were presented with an unmitigated, simple, unqualified good, my

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a. the will is a tendency toward an intellectually known good; thus precisely the ‘good’ aspect of the object which attracts my will, b. the only object which could necessitate my will would be a good tha unconditionally good in an unqualified sense; c. in many of my choices, however, the goods from which I select as “the good for me in this decision” are all conditioned, limited qualified; d. therefore freedom of choice can be operative in my behavior.

We might note that if there should be a case in which a particular g appeared to be absolute — due to lack of knowledge or an excess of fear emotion- then freedom of choice would be inoperable, Similarly we might ourselves: if the will tends toward the known good all the time, does that m we never choose evil? If we reflect upon moments of deliberation and choic becomes rather clear that this is not the case. It is precisely in delibera upon and selection of a particular good among many-in relation to knowledge of who we are and what our potentialities may be — that m failure occurs. I can freely choose a particular good-for-me-now whic consciously know is not in continuity with my identity and potentialities.

Amid these reflections, however, weReading must not forget that we also experience You're a Preview freedom as being severely limited and modified at times. As we have s Unlock full accessWe with acannot free trial. have self-possession if knowledge is of primary importance. never arrive at an understanding of the self and its meaning. We cannot ch if we are not aware of optionDownload of different possibilities, of various alternati With Free Trial We could neither choose nor love that which we do not in some way know. might even have experienced people who seemingly never have kn goodness, nobility, kindness or sympathy and consequently were never ab exercise their freedom with respect to these values. Moreover, there are am data that point to the importance of the environment, condition  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign and up to vote title history in deprivation, habit, emotion, natural preferences, one’s own  Not useful  Useful  formation of the projects and choices. All these factors are undeniable, Cancel anytime. Special offer forthey students: Only $4.99/month. must be weighed with the factors that point to man’s freedom.


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and fundamental to our behavior. Second and more important is that there levels of human behavior which, upon reflection and analysis, indicate free as self possession and freedom of choice. These levels of behavior, moreo are not just feelings. They are the incontrovertible evidence of questioning, reflection, distance, and the awareness of goods-precisely as conditiona these actions did not exist, I could not be doing what I am doing right now.

Freedom in general means the absence of resistant. There are different kind restraint and freedom. Physical freedom is the absence of physical restra When a prisoner is released from prison, he is physically free, since he is longer restrained by the prison walls. Moral freedom is the absence of m restraint, of an obligation, of a law. Thus in this country we are morally fre criticize the government.

Psychological freedom is the absence of psychological restraint. Psycholog restraint consist in drives which force a subject to perform them. Thu hungry, untrained dog is forced by its hunger to eat the food, which is before it, a scared cat cannot help running away. These animals are not fo into their actions by any external power or moral obligation; they possess psychological freedom. A hungry man, on the contrary, can still refrain f taking food, and a soldier frightened by heavy bombardment can choose to You're Reading a Preview at his post. Men possess psychological freedom. Unlock full access with a free trial.

Psychological freedom is also called freedom of choice, since it allows free subject to choose between different Download Withcourses Free Trialof action. It has been def as that attribute of the will whereby it can act or not act (freedom of exerc can act in this way or in that way (freedom of specification).

In the whole history of philosophy, a great deal of debate has been d on whether or not our will is free. In this lesson, we will consider  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title arguments demonstrating the freedom of the will. 


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Special offer for1. students: Only $4.99/month. ARGUMENT FROM COMMON CONSENT – the great majority of

believe that their will is free. This conviction is of the utmost prac

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b.

c.

Whether one professes determinism or the freedom of the will h great practical influence on life. Why should a man try to con himself if he is convinced that cannot do it anyway? Far from shunning moral effort, great numbers of determinists m a consistent effort to be decent and honest persons. It is difficu see how there is no contradiction between the doctrines they pro and the kind of life they try to lead.

2. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ARGUMENT – we have said that most pe naturally hold that the will is free. Why do they cling to that convict Because they are directly and indirectly aware of their freedom in the very of making a free decision; they are indirectly aware of its because of the m instances of the behavior which can only be explained by admitting freedom of the will.

Direct awareness of the freedom of our decisions: In this argument we cl that at the very moment in which we are exercising our freedom we are aw of it. We do not claim, on the other hand, that we are directly aware of b able to choose freely before the choices is made or after it has been made.

The point is that we are not aware of our power of choosing freely except in You're Reading a Preview very act of exercising that power. We are aware of the possible course Unlock full access with that a free trial. action; we may know from past experience when no great difficulties l the way we are capable of choosing any of these courses. But we are conscious of our power of freeDownload choice as such, while we are exercisin With Free except Trial

Once we have reached a decision, we continue to have the impression t although we have chosen A, we could as well have selected B or C. Theref we do not claim that we have an awareness of our freedom of choice be exercising it or after having exercised it. But we possess that awareness w  Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title we are choosing, while we are deciding to take A rather than B. At thatmom  Useful  Not useful we are conscious that we are selecting A without coercion, Cancel anytime. without const Special offer forwe students: Only $4.99/month. feel that we are not being impelled by blind impulses that we are not b manipulated like a puppet.


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In most countries, the administration of justice is based on a belief in freedom of at least some human actions. Most courts try to find out the de of deliberation (that is, of freedom) with which a crime was committed. And punishment is generally proportional to the degree of freedom. If man is free, there is no reason for punishing a “first degree murder” more seve than the killing of a pedestrian in an automobile accident.

If I were determined, I would know nothing about it. Animals are un and totally unaware of it. In order to be aware of space, I must, in some stand outside space. I can know time only because something in me is ab time. I can speak of determinism only because I am not totally in its grip.

1. THE ETHICAL ARGUMENT – If there is no freedom, there is no m responsibility no virtue, no merit, no moral obligation, no duty, no mora The necessary connection between freedom and the spiritual realities is obvious and is demonstrated in Ethics.

This is a strong argument because the sense of duty and the belief in mor and moral obligation come naturally to man and even those who deny t existence in theory live in practice if they admitted it. You'reas Reading a Preview

Unlock full access a free trial.that the existence of free Kant, a major German Philosopher, whowith claimed was not demonstrated by theoretical reason, nevertheless was conviction f the fact of duty, which he considered beFree immediately evident to the prac Download to With Trial reason.

Among the first principles, which are virtually inborn to the human intel there is at least one that refers to the moral order. “The good must be done evil avoided.” This fundamental dictate of conscience, this moral‘ought Read Free For 30this Days Sign up toall vote on title virtually inborn every human mind. It is the basis of moral obligation  an Not useful  but implies freedom of the will since obligation  is Useful nothing the necessar Cancel anytime. Special offer fordoing students: Only $4.99/month. something freely.


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Immaterial striving is free at least in this sense that it is not determ from outside. Determinism derives from matter.

If these two principles are admitted, the argument from the freedom of the w it easy to set up:

There is in man an immaterial kind of knowledge. Hence, there must also b him an immaterial kind if striving. And since immaterial striving is free, the is in man a free kind of activity, which is called the will. Still the question remains. “Why the human will is free?”

Why the human will is free?

Man’s freedom does not consist merely in being able to do what he w to do. Many Animals can do what they want to do. But is not within t power to decide what they want to do. Man, on the other hand, is able not to do what he wants to do also decide that he wants to do one thing or anot

We must show, therefore, the fact that and the reason why the hu person does not will the things he Reading wills out of necessary; the fact that and You're a Preview reason why he will then freely. To explain clearly, we have to proceed Unlock full access with a free trial. number of stages: 1.

Man wills a thing necessarily as soon as he decided:“This is good.” Download With Free Trial

The will is a faculty whose object is the good. But the will does not know its own object, it is not a cognitive faculty; it meets its object through the intell Hence, as soon as the intellect judges: “This is good,” the will is presented w its object and must necessarily embrace it.  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd  & The New York Times  Not useful 2. Man decides necessarily that a thingisUseful good when it conforms to Special offer forstandard students: Only of$4.99/month. goodness.

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4.

No object on earth comes up to man’s standard of goodness.

On earth we never meet the perfect good. Many things are good, but they not absolutely good, they all have their limitations, their defects.

5. Hence, there is not a single object on earth with regard to which is forced to decide. “This is good.” There is not a single object in relation which we are not free.

In other words: We are free to will or not will, because we always say: “th good but not perfectl y good.” Our intellect provides us with the idea perfect good because it is the guide, which our will follows. The relation of will to the intellect is analogous to the relation between the engine and steering wheel of a car. Movement is initiated by the engine (will) but direction of the movement derives from the action of the wheel (intellect). It follows that our freedom is ultimately based on the immateriality of our and our intellect. We are free because we are spirits.

ARGUMENTS FOR DETERMINISM You're Reading a Preview

Unlock argued full access with a freeown trial. position about freedom, Though some philosophers have their other side, which is a contradictory argument, should also be presented, th i. DETERMINISM. Many modern philosophers and psychologists who deny Download With Free Trial freedom of the will are called “determinists” and their system is known “determinism.” They claim that in spite of some contrary appearances, ma forced or “determined” in all his actions.

is the with philosophical concept that every event, including Determinism Master your semester Scribd  hum Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title cognition and behavior, decision and action, is causally determined  by & The New Yorkchain Times Not useful  Useful of  unbroken of prior occurrences or by number forces which compe Cancel anytime.

Special offer forto students: Only $4.99/month. act as we do. Like the some of the natural laws of science which have

form: If X occurs then Y occurs. If a patient is sick, there must be a reaso

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In its toughest argument, Hard Determinism is the theory that beca Determinism is true, no one is free; no one has free will (or choice) and no truly acts freely. Determinism, as a philosophical doctrine, is absolu contradictory to the belief that there is such a thing as freedom of the Determinism asserts that “there is no free will, that we do things, not beca we decide to do these, but because these were determined to us by a numbe forces which compelled us to act as we do.” We could not have done otherw We cannot do these things we did. In an argumentative or syllogistic form, philosophers who advo determinism would put it this way: Determinism is true: all events are caused. 1. Therefore, all human desires and choices are caused. 2. For an action to be free it would have to be the result of a cho 3. desire or act of will which had no cause. That is, free WILL means the Will or choosing "mechanism" initiates the action. 4. Therefore there can be no free choices or free will. According to the Hard Determinists, freedom is present when a free or choice would be one which is uncaused, or happened independent of cau or completely disconnected from preceding events. The "Will" or person d the choosing and acting would have to be a primum mobile (first mover), a beginning, or an original creative activity. But, this cannot be, You're source Reading aofPreview argued, since surely actions are caused by wants and desires, wants Unlock and full access withcharacter a free trial. desires flow from our character, our is formed by environm and heredity. Thus, every actions or events have sources which are externa us and are not within our control; proof DownloadaWith Freeitself Trial for determinism and n freedom. All materialists and sensists are necessarily determinists. For them is a purely material being. But matters is perfectly determined and posses freedom. When we know a material system perfectly, we can foresee predict all further activities. Thus an astronomer predicts with great  accu Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title all future eclipses. The volcanologist can predict with a certain degre  Useful  The Not useful  happen. accuracy when and where an earthquake will materialist c Cancel anytime. Special offer forthat students: Onlyknew $4.99/month. if we the material system called “MAN” perfectly, and if we are aw of all the influences working on him, we should be able to predict all his fu


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certain manner but we end up realizing that hereditary factors have somet to do with it. Thus, we do act not because it is an act of free will but becaus the biological factors that make us and determine us to do so.

2. The Law of Causation The arguments from of determinism make it evident that it is anchored the law of causation. The law of causation is one which no man would car deny; it simply and undeniably asserts that every effect has its cause. No indeed can think otherwise. Causation, in fact, as Kant showed, is one of ways in which we must think; it is, as he says, an a priori form of thought did not learn from experience to think causally, but rather by thinking caus we help to constitute experience. Man’s decision or actions then do have t causal explanation but such cause is of physical or material aspect and no non-physical or immaterial, the free will, which the concept of freedom asse

3. The Argument from Science's Philosophy of Nature A philosophy of nature is a general theory explanatory of all the occurrence nature. Now the ideal of scientific explanation in physics, chemistry, biol physiology, and everywhere is mechanical. Events do not happen beca anybody or any will wants them to happen; they happen because they hav happen; they happen because theyReading must.a And it is the business of scienc You're Preview find this necessary connection between the occurrences of nature. Unlock full access withpart, a free trial. universe, by this hypothesis, whole and is governed by the actio mechanical law. The reign of law is universal. Man is a very small crea upon a small earth, which isDownload itself a comparatively With Free Trial small planet in one of smaller solar systems of an indefinitely large number of solar systems wh partially fill infinite space. The universe is a physical mechanism in which rules, and man is but a least part of this universal machine. How then can do otherwise than he does do? A single free-will act would introduce cap whim, chance, into a universe whose actions are so mechanically  determ Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title that an omniscient observer of the present could predict infallibly allfutu Not useful toUseful  his Thus, man is so called bound and determined act own nature Cancelby anytime. Special offer forand students: Onlyfree. $4.99/month. is not


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continued right action. He is punished, again not because he need not h done wrong, but to help him do right next time. All our instruction, repr and correction of others presupposes they may be determined by s influences. Thus, the whole outfit of ethical categories may be read deterministic terms, and indeed are so read by many ethical thinkers writers, beginning with Socrates, who held that right ideas determine r conduct.

5. The Argument from Theology The argument from theology for determinism runs somewhat as follows: Go omniscient, He therefore knows what I am going to do, there is there nothing for me to do except what He knows I am going to do, ther consequently but one reality, not two possibilities awaiting me in the fut therefore I am not free to do otherwise than I must do when the time com Thus the doctrine of the foreknowledge of God is held to exclude the freedo man's choice. But to deny that God has foreknowledge would be derogator His dignity.

6. The Argument from Psycho-social Psycho-social determinists emphasize a combination of psychological social factors as explaining human conduct. On the psychological side, You're Reading a Preview point to the different drives and tendencies which impel the individual; on full accessof withthe a freeenvironment trial. social side, to the continualUnlock pressure – words, custo fashions, propaganda, but most of all in education, in particular, educa during the first few years of life “. ManWith as Free partTrial of the social group is not fr Download deciding but merely following.

The psychologist determinists insist upon the compulsive influence motives and presented to our mind, asserting that when two motives opposed to each other, the stronger necessarily prevails. In this view,  the w Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title like a balance, which necessarily tips toward the heavier weight. Thus,  our Usefulstronger  the  Not useful necessarily chooses the greater good and follows Cancel anytime. motive. Special offer forLet students: Only $4.99/month. us expand our discussion on the psycho-social type of determinism for is the popular kind of determinism today. We assume that the actions of pe


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“The causes for human action all lie outside the man and that these causes necessitating. Man’s behavior is shaped and determined by external forces stimuli whether they are familiar or cultural sanction, verbal or non-ve reinforcement, or complex system of reward and punishment. I have nothin say about the course of action which I will take.”

In another part of Walden Two, he says “Give me the specifications and I’ll give you the man. Let us control the live our children and see what can make of them.”

Skinner did not these pronouncements without any scientific supp The power of conditioning has been recognized. The stimulus-response of Pavlov is generally regarded among scientist as very convinc Reinforcements, both positive and negative, can shape an individual or gr reaction. Forms of reward and punishments have already been adapted their utility. In other words, this phenomenon of behavior control is occur right now in our society by means of governmental, educational propagandistic control techniques, through in a less systematic manner.

To summarize, it would be good touch on John Kavanaugh’s reflectio his own e xperience, which correspond to Skinner’s You're Reading a Preview position in Walden Two Science and Human Behavior. Kavanaugh enumerates: Unlock full access with a free trial.

a. I have genetic, biological and physical structures, which influence behavior. They are part of theDownload total meWith which involved in choosing. FreeisTrial

b. I have environmental structures, which are part of me – my early and psychological development, the culture, national and ecclesias framework that I find myself situated in.

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up todemands, vote title c. I am keenly aware of external forces and which imp & The New Times  Useful  Not useful upon York me, sometimes-creating needs even valves. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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Before we and our discussion of determinism, it would be best to stud

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that environment makes character and that environment is under hu control or, as Gilbert Saldea wrote, “that man is a creature of circumsta that if you changed the environments of thirty little Hottentots and thirty l aristocratic English children. The aristocratic would become Hottentots, fo practical purposes, and the Hottentots little conservatives.”

………Autonomous man is a devise used to explain what we cannot explai any other way. He has been constructed from our ignorance, and as understanding increases, the very stuff of which he is composed vanis Science does not dehumanize man, and it must do so if it is to prevent abolition of the human species. To man as man we readily say good ridda Only be dispossessing him can we turn from the inferred to the observed, f the miraculous to the natural, from the inaccessible to the manipulable.

It is often said that in doing so we must treat that man who survives mere animal. “Animal” is a pejorative term, but only because “man” has b made spuriously honorific. Krutch has argued that whereas the traditional supports Hamlet’s exclamation, “How like a god!,” Pavlov, the behavi scientist, emphasized “How like a dog!” But that was a step forward. A go the archetypal pattern of an explanatory fiction, of a miracle-working mind the metaphysical. Man is such more than a dog, but like a dog he is wi You're Reading a Preview range of a scientific analysis. Unlock full access with a free trial.

……….Man is not made into a machine by analyzing his behavior mechanical terms. Early theories of With behavior, as we have seen, represen Download Free Trial man as a push-pull automation, close to the nineteenth century notion machine, but progress has been made. Man is a machine in the sense tha is a complex system behaving, in lawful ways, but the complexity extraordinary. His capacities to adjust to contingencies of reinforcement perhaps be eventually simulated by machines, but this has not yet  been d Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title and the living system thus simulated will remain unique in other ways. 


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Special offer for………Is students: Only $4.99/month. man then “abolished”? Certainly not as a species or as an indivi

achiever. It is the autonomous inner man who is abolished, and that is a

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Summary The Will: Its Existence and Nature  What is the Will?  The faculty of the mind that is alleged to stimulate motivation of purposeful activity.  A personal faculty or function  Externalized result of the interaction of conflicting elements.  Manifestation of personality  Does man really have will? We have because…  The higher tendency is the will  We can sometimes will an object which is repulsive to our body and sense tendencies.  Voluntary attention

The Human Freedom Free Choice: A Metaphysical Analysis of the Will John Kavanaugh  The will is an intellectual tendency, or tendency toward an intellectually known good.  It is the good quality of thing by which the will is drawn or moved.  The will is naturally determined to seek the good. You're Reading a Preview  The will tends to look for good, :. Good is attractive for the will. Unlock full access with a free trial. good in an unqualified sense can necessitat  Only the unconditionally my will. goods around usTrial are limited and conditional.  In decision making, theDownload With Free  Therefore freedom of choice can be operative in my behavior… so I make a choice according to what I think is good.  Given the fact that our will tends to look for good, and freedom is the capacity to choose among the many goods… If ever, we are presse d in situation where these is no choice, due to fear or lack of understanding  Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title does this mean our freedom is limited? Read  Not useful  Useful  is good, but not  Moral failure: when we choose what we thought Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. necessarily good.  Knowledge is of primary importance in choosing the real good.


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What does it mean to be free?  Absence of restraint.  Physical freedom: absence of physical restraint.  Moral freedom: absence of moral restraint, obligation or law.  Psychological freedom: absence psychological restraint like drives and urges.  Also known as the freedom of choice.  Freedom of exercise: given a choice on what to do.  Freedom of specification: given a choice on how to do what.

Does our WILL really free?  Argument from common consent: The judgment of common sense.  Everybody believes that the will is free.  Why should a man tries to control himself if he is convinced that he can’t.  Psychological Argument: the very fact one can make a free decision (choosing what to believe) is a proof that the will is free.  Direct awareness of the freedom of our decisions:  I know I can choose as I am choosing. I canReading make aa Preview choice even before choosing.  And still, I am awareYou're  Indirect Awareness of the freedom of the will: Unlock full access withchoice. a free trial.  I know I am free, after I made the  Ethical Argument: Freedom is free to choose wh at is good and to avoid e Download With Free Trial  Freedom = moral obligation.  Choose by Practical Reason by Immanuel Kant.  Philosophical Argument:  Knowledge evokes a corresponding kind of striving.  Immaterial striving is free.

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Why do we have free will?  & The New York Times Useful Not useful    It is not just doing what one wants to do, it is more on knowing why one Special offer forwants students:to Only do$4.99/month. it anyway. 

I will… because it’s good.

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Environmental Determinism:  Man’s behavior is shaped and determined by external forces and stim whether they are familial or cultural sanction. – Walden Two. Psychological Determinism:  Conditioning man’s behavior trough rewards and punishment.

Determining your own Destiny  They are part of the total me which is involved in choosing. (The power o will — to choose)  I have environmental structures…that I find myself situated in. (The pow of self-awareness)  I am keenly aware of external forces and demands which impinge upon sometimes creating needs even values. (The power of imagination and conscience.)

Beyond Freedom and Destiny — What is Man?  Man is a creature of circumstance, that if you changed the environments o thirty little Hottentots and little Aristocratic English children, f or all practic purposes, the aristocratic would become Hottentots, for all practical purpo and the Hottentots little concervatives.— Gilbert Saldea  Autonomous man has device used to explain what we cannot explain in You're Reading a Preview other way. Unlock full like accessawith a free trial. How god… according to Pavlov: How lik  Man — according to Hamlet: dog… thatWith he is a complex system behaving, in  Man is a machine in the sense Download Free Trial lawful ways, but the complexity is extraordinary.  Man is controlled by environment — an environment largely of his own making.  The evolution of culture is a gigantic exercise in self-control: Re-scripting your destiny.  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title


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MAN AND GOD


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The study of man in relations to God is important because man is the hig of God’s earthly creatures. And we learn something about the Creator by se what he has created. For only man is said to have been made by God in own image and likeness. Thus, a direct clue to the nature of God ough emerge from a study of man. To the extent that the copy resembles the orig we will understand God more completely as a result of our study of the hig creature.

THE STUDY OF MAN Images of Man Man as Machine

One prevalent perspective on the human is in terms of what he is ab do. The employer, for example, is interested in the human being’s strength energy, the skills and capabilities possessed. On this basis, the empl “rents” the employee for a certain number of hours. That humans sometimes regarded as machines is particularly evident when automa results in a worker being displaced from a ajob. You're Reading Preview In this approach, persons are basically regarded as things, as mean Unlock full accessThey with a free trial.of value as long as they ends rather than ends in themselves. are useful. Download With Free Trial Man as an Animal

Another view sees man primarily as a member of the animal kingdom a derivation from some of the higher forms. He has come into being thro the same sort of process as all have other animals, an will have similar en  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times This view of man is perhaps

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Useful  Not useful most  fully developed in behavior Cancel anytime. Special offer forpsychology. students: Only $4.99/month. Here human motivation is understood primarily in terms biological drives. Knowledge of man is gained not though introspection,

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extension of the view that man is primarily a member of the animal kingdom focuses upon the material dimension of life and its needs. Man as a Pawn of the Universe

Among certain existentialists, particularly, but also in a broader segm of society, we find the idea that man is at the mercy of forces in the w which control his destiny but have no real concern for him. These are see blind forces, forces of chance in many cases. Sometimes they personal for but even then they are forces over which man has no control, and upon w he has no influence, such as political superpowers. Man as a Free Being

The approach which emphasizes the freedom of man, his abilit choose, sees the human will as the essence of the personality. This b approach is often evident in conservative political and social views. H freedom from restraint is the most important issue, for it permits ma realize his essential nature. The role of government is simply to ensure a st environment in which such freedom can be exercised. You're Reading a Preview The Christian View of Man Unlock full access with a free trial.

The Christian view of man dwells on the fact that man is a creatu God. This means, first, thatDownload is to be understood as having originated With Free Trial through a chance process of evolution, but through a conscious purposeful of God. Thus, there is a reason for man’s existence, a reason which lies in intention of the Supreme Being.

the image God is intrinsic to man. Man would notbe hu Master yourFurther, semester withof Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up tocreated vote title In the w without it.Hence, man puts his faith in the God who him.  & The New Times Useful  oh Not useful  yourself, of St. York Augustine, “Lord, you have created us for God, and our Special offer foris students: Onlyuntil $4.99/month. restless it rests in you!”

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existence of God,. Thus preparing the way for the claims of revelation. In sh it is philosophical thinking about religion.

Philosophy of religion is not an organ of religious teaching. It need no undertaken from a religious standpoint at all. It studies the concept propositions of theology and reasoning of theologians and analyzes conc such as God, holy, salvation, worship, creation, eternal life, miracle, etc. It tries to determine the nature of religious utterances in comparison with th of everyday life.

Our primary task at this point, however, is to clarify the Jew Christian concept of God, seeking a philosophical understanding of its var aspects. The term used for the main ways of thinking about God are formed around either from the Greek word theos or its Latin equivalent, deus . 1.

Atheism (Greek a – without or no; theos - God) a belief that there is no God of any kind. 2. Agnosticism (Greek a – without or no; gnostic – knowledge) – the belief that we do not have sufficient knowledge either to affirm or You're reasons Reading a or Preview deny the existence of God. Unlock fulldoubt) access withsimply a free trial.means to doubt the existe 3. Skepticism (Greek skepto – to of God. 4. Daism – refers to the idea of an “absentee” God who long ago set the Download With Free Trial universe into motion and has hereafter left it alone. 5. Theism – belief in God 6. Polytheism (Greek poly – many; theos – God) the belief among primitiv people and reaching its classic expression n Ancient Greence and Rom that there are multitude of personal gods, each holding sway a differen  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title department of life.  Notperhaps, useful  7. Pantheism – Greek pan – all; theos – God)isUseful the belief, most Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. impressively expounded by some of the poets, that God is identical with nature or with the world as a whole.


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and straying persons. The opposite view, that God, is grandfatherly, is prevalent. Here God is conceived of as an indulgent, kindly, old gentleman would never want to detract from humans enjoyment of life. These and m other conceptions of God need to be corrected, of our spiritual lives are to h any real meaning and depth.

The study of God’s nature should be seen as a means to a accurate understanding of him and hence a closer personal relationship God. When we speak of the attributes of God we are referring to those qual of God which constitute what he is. They are the very characteristics of nature. The attributes are permanent qualities. They are essentials inherent dimensions of his very nature. Divine attributes, according Aristotelian conception, are inseparable from the being a nd essence of God.

Classifications of Attributes

1. Communicable attributes. They are those qualities of God of whic least a partial counterpart can be found in his human creations. Example, which, while infinite in God, can be found in man. The incommunic are those unique qualities for which attributes, on the other hand , Reading You're a Preview counterpart can be found in humans. One example of this is omnipresenc Unlock full access with a free trial. jet and rocket travel, ma God. God is everywhere simultaneously. Even with incapable of being everywhere simultaneously. Download With Free Trial 2. A second pair of categories is the immanent or intransitive and emanant and transitive qualities. The former are those which remain wi God’s own nature. His spirituality is an example. Emanant or trans attributes are those which go out from and operate outside the nature of G affecting the creation. God’s mercy is a transitive attribute. It makes  no se Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title to think or speak of God’s mercy apart from the created beings to  whom  Useful  Not useful shows mercy. Cancel anytime.


3.

Closely related to the immediately preceding classification and someti

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faithfulness are examples. Natural Natural attributes are the non-moral non-moral superlativ God, such his knowledge and power.

The last system with some modifications will be used in this study. Instea natural and moral, however, we use the terms attributes of greatness attributes of goodness.

Attributes of Greatness

Spirituality God is spirit; that is, he is not composed of matter and does not pos physical nature. One consequence of God’s spirituality is that she does have the limitations involved with a physical body. For one thing, he is limited to a particular or spatial location. Furthermore, he is not destruct as is material nature. In biblical times, the doctrine of God’s spirituality was a counter to the prac of idolatry and of nature worship. God, being spirit, could not be presented any physical object or likeness.

Personality Philosophical Theology perceives God as personal. He is an individual be with self-consciousness and will, capable of feeling, choosing, and havin reciprocal relationship with other personal and social beings. Ano dimension of God’s personality is the fact that God has a name. God ident himself with Moses as “I Am” or “I Will be.” By this he demonstrates that h not an abstract, unknowable being, nor a nameless force but rather it refer him as a personal personal God. Further, an indication indication of the nature of God activity in which he engages. He is depicted as knowing and communica  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title with human persons. 

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God is alive. He is characterized by life. His name “I am” indicates that he

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aware that its resources and its ability to absorb pollution are both finite. infinity of God, however, speaks of a limitless being.

The infinity of God may be thought of from several angles. We think firs terms of space. Here we have what has traditionally traditionally been referred immensity and omnipresence. God is not subject to limitations of space finite objects have a location. They are somewhere. With God, however, question of whereness or location is not applicable. God is the one who brou space (and time) into being. He was before there was space. He canno localized at a particular point.

God is also infinite in relation to time. Time does not apply to God. He before time began. The question, How old is God? Is simply inappropriate. H no older now than a year ago. He is simply not restricted by the dimensio time.

God is timeless. He does not grow or develop. There are no variations in nature at different points within his existence. He has always been what he

Further, the infinity of God may also be considered with respect to object knowledge. His understanding is immeasurable. A further factor, in the of this knowledge, is the wisdom of God. Bu this is meant, that God acts in light of the facts and in light of correct values. Knowing all things, God kn what is good.

Finally, God’s infinity may also be considered in relationship to wha traditionally referred to as the omnipotence of God. By this we mean, Go powerful. God is able to do all things which are proper objects of his po What he chooses to do, he h e accomplishes, for he has the ability to do it.

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Signall-powerful up to vote title There are, however, certain qualifications of this character ch aracter  of & The New Yorkarbitrarily Times do anything whatsoever that Useful useful  Notconceive He cannot we may of. He Cancel anytime.

Special offer fordo students: $4.99/month. only Only those things which are objects of his power. Thus, he cannot do

logically absurd or contradictory. He cannot make square circles or trian

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Moral Qualities

If the Attributes of Greatness we studied in the preceding lesson w God’s only attributes, he might be conceivably be an immoral or amoral be exercising his power and knowledge in a capricious even cruel fashion. what we are dealing is a good God, one who can be trusted and loved. He attributes of goodness as well as greatness. In this lesson, we will consider moral qualities, that is, the characteristics of God as a moral being. convenient study, we will classify his basic moral attributes as purity, integ and love.

1. Holiness

There are basic aspects of God’s holiness. The first is his uniqueness is totally separate from all creation. It speaks of “the otherness of God.” Th what Louis Louis Berhof called the “majesty -holiness” of God. The other aspec God’s holiness is his absolute purity and goodness. This means that h untouched and unstained by the evil in this world. God’s moral perfectio the standard for our moral character and the motivation for religious prac The whole moral code follows from his holiness.

2. Righteousness The second dimension of God’s moral purity is his righteousness. This, were, the holiness of God applied to his relationships to other beings. righteousness of God means, first of all, that the law of God, being expression of his nature, is as perfect and righteous as he is.

3. Justice

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30 Days Sign up towith vote this title God administers his kingdom in accordance his law. That is  & The New York Times  Useful  Notisuseful requires that others conform to to it. God’s righteousness his persona Special offer forindividual students: Only $4.99/month. righteousness.

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His justice is his official righteousness, requirement that other moral agents adhere to the standards as well. God i

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a. Genuineness In a world in which so much is artificial, our God is real. He is what he app to be. God is real; he is not fabricated or constructed or imitation, as are all other claimants to deity.

b. Veracity Veracity is the second dimension of God’s fa ithfulness. God represents thin as they really are. Whether he is speaking of himself or part of his creation what God is says is the way things really are. God has appealed to his to his people to be honest in all situations. They be truthful both in what they formally assert and in what they imply.

c. Faithfulness If God’s genuineness is a matter of his being true and veracity is his telling the truth, then his faithfulness mans that he proves true. God keeps all his promises. This is a function of his unlimited power. 5. Love

You're Reading a Preview When we think in terms of God’s moral attributes, perhaps what comes firs Unlock fullare accesshere with a classifying free trial. mind is the cluster of attributes we as love. Many regar as the basic attribute, the very nature or definition of God: God is love! The basic dimension of God’s loveDownload to us are: 1) Free benevolence 2) grace 3) mercy. With Trial

a. Benevolence

Benevolence is a basic dimension of God’s his we mean the concern  of God Master your semester with Scribd Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title the welfare of those whom he loves. He unselfishly seeks our ultimate  welfa & The New York, not Times  Useful  Not useful It is agape eros type of love. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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ARGUMENTS FOR GOD’S EXISTENCE

The various arguments for the existence of God can be divided into two the ontological arguments and the cosmological arguments for God’s existe In the ontological arguments, they focus attention upon the idea of God proceeds to unfold its inner implications. However, in the cosmolog arguments, they start from some general nature of the world around us argue that there could not be a world with these particular characteris unless there were also the ultimate reality which we call “God”. Let us turn to these.

ONTOLOGICAL ARGUMENT – the ontological argument for the existenc God was first developed by St. Anselm, one of the Christian Church’s m original thinker and the greatest theologian ever to have been Archbisho Canterbury.

Anselm begins by concentrating the Christian concept of God into the form “a being that which nothing greater can be conceived.” It is clear tha “greater” Anselm means moreReading perfect, rather than spatially bigger. You're a Preview argument can be found in the second chapter of his Proslogion . It runs: Unlock full access with a free trial.

Therefore, if that than which a greater cannot be thought is in understanding alone, this same thing With than which Download Free Trial a greater cannot be tho is that than which a greater can be thought. But obviously this is imposs Without doubt, therefore, there exists, Both in the understanding and reality, something than which greater cannot be thought.” Ans distinguishes between something, x, existing in the mind only and its exis in reality as well. If the most perfect conceivable being existed  only Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title mind, we should then have the contradiction that is possible to conceive  Notreality, useful  Useful  yet more perfect being namely, the same being existing in Cancel anytime. Special offer forwell students: Only $4.99/month. as in the mind. Therefore, the most perfect conceivable being must in reality, as well as in the mind.


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so there is not any les repugnance to our conceiving a God (tat is, a B supremely perfect) to whom existence is lacking (that is to say, to who certain perfection is lacking), than to conceive of a mountain which has valley.”

The idea of Rene Descartes here seems to be that from the notion of God on can deduce his existence. God is supremely perfect and must therefore exi

COSMOLOGICAL ARGUMENT

St. Thomas Aquinas is well known to have offered five ways to proving di existence using the cosmological arguments. The First Way argues from fact of motion to a Prime Mover. The Second Way argues form the contin being to a First Cause. The Third Way argues form the contingent being Necessary Being. The Fourth Way argues degrees of value to Absolute and the Fifth Way argues form the evidences of purposiveness in nature Divine Designer.

Argument from Motion – the key term in the First Way is “change or in the Latin of Aquinas, “motus ”. The word motus is sometimes translated as You're Reading a Preview “movement” or “motion” but “change” is perhaps the best English equivalen Unlock full access with call a free trial. For motus covers what we should normally change of quality, change o quantity, change of location or place. Download With Free Trial Argument from Cause – the Second Way turns on the notion of causation existence. “We never observe, nor ever could,” says Aquinas, “somet causing itself for this would mean that preceded itself, and this is not possi According to the Second Way, then, the mere existence of something require cause. And in that case, says Aquinas, the existence of everythingrequir Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title itself. cause that is not itself caused to exist by anything other than  Notexist useful at all, w  Useful  Because if there is no such cause, then nothing could Cancel anytime. Special offer forobviously students: Onlysome $4.99/month. things do exist. He argues:


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generated and corruptible. In Aquinas’ view, however, if everything were this, then would now have come a time when nothing existed at all, no things are generated and corruptible. Some are therefore ungenerated incorruptible, in Aquinas’ terminology, there are necessary beings.

In other words, everything in the world about us is contingent – that is to it is true of each item that is might not have existed at all or might have exi differently. The proof of this is that there was a time when it did not exi all. The existence of this page is contingent upon the prior activitie lumberjacks, transport workers, paper manufacturers, printer, author, others. Everything points beyond itself to other things. Argues Aquinas everything were contingent, there must have been a time when nothing exis In this case, nothing could ever have come to exist for there would have b no casual agency. Since there are things in existence, there mus something which is not contingent, which is necessary, which cannot e and this being we call God.”

Argument from the Degrees of Value to Absolute Value – the Fourth recognizes that certain realities can be identified of their own value. But concept of value is hierarchical in the sense that one’s degree of value can transcended by another. Such asReading the concept You're a Previewthat if there is somethin someone that is good, then there must be better or best. Thus, if there exis Unlock full accessbe witha a free trial. being that transcends man who is imperfect, then there must higher who is perfect and recognized with the Highest Value or Absolute Value. Th only acknowledged to God who is the With Absolute Value or the Summum Bon Download Free Trial (Ultimate Goodness.)

ARGUMENT FROM DESIGN (OR TELEOLOGICAL) – This argument whic the Fifth Way of St. Thomas Aquinas has always been the most popular of theistic arguments. Perhaps the most famous exposition of the argument  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title the design is that of William Paley (1743 – 1805). 


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Special offer forPaley’s students: Only $4.99/month. analogy of the watch conveys the essence of the argument.

Sup that while walking in a desert place I see a rock lying on the ground and

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Paley argues that the natural world is a complex a mechanism, and as manifestly designed, a super intelligent Designer responsible for it. This gre Designer or architect is what we call “God”.

FAITH AND REASON

We have gone through some arguments for the existence of God and poss seen some merits or flaws in these arguments. But the questions we will tr raise now are: are these arguments really important on the personal level? these essential to our faith-life? In trying to answer these questions, we can but take into the fore the question of what really faith is and its appa opposition with reason.

The opinion that religious faith as the acceptance of certain beliefs deliberate act of will are those of 17th century French thinkers Blaise Pa and Teminetennent,

1. Pascal’s Wager – Pascal’s best known contribution to philosophy is ca “Pascal’s Wager.” In this section of his Pennees, he speaks about the search God. For Pascal, that search You're is theReading quest afor the meaning of life, because Preview provides the hope that we can be redeemed from misery and death. Accor Unlock full access with a the free trial. to him, this search for God revolves around idea of a wager, a bet. Thu said: Download With Free Trial “Let us weigh the gain and the loss in wearing that God exists. Let us estim these chances. If you gain, you gain all; if you lose nothing. Wager, then, without hesitation that he exists.”

Here, Pascal argues that weScribd ought to be God exists. If we wager our Master your semester with  lives Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title God exists, we stand to gain eternal salvation if we are right and lose little i  & The New YorkIfTimes Useful that usefulis no God  lives  Not are wrong. on the other hand, we wager our there Cancel anytime.

Special offer forstand students: $4.99/month. toOnly gain little if we are right, but to lose eternal happiness if we are wr

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2. James’ Will to Believe – William James argues in his famous essay The to Believe (1897) that the existence or non – existence of God, of which t can be no conclusive evidence either way, is a matter of great importance anyone who so desires has to stake his life upon the God – hypothesis. We obliged to bet our lives upon either this or the contrary possibility. He says:

“We cannot escape the issue by remaining skeptical and waiting for more l because, although we do avoid error in that way if religion be untrue, we the good, if it is true, just as certainly as if positively choose to disbelieve

“If there is a personal God, our unwillingness to proceed on the supposi that he is real may make it impossible for us to be accepted by him.”

3. Tennent’s View – A more recent philosophical theologian, F.R. Tenn identifies faith with he element of willing venture in all discovery. Tenn freely allows that there can be no general guarantee hat faith will be justi He says, “Hopeful experimenting has not produced the machine capabl perpetual motion, and Columbus steered with confidence for Utopia, he wo not have found it. “ Faith always involves risks, but it is only by such risks human knowledge. He continued:

You're Reading a Preview “The fruitfulness of a belief or of faith for the moral or religious life is on Unlock fullof access withis a free trial. thing, and the reality or existence what ideated and assumed is anoth There are instances in which a belief that is not true, in the sense of corresponding with fact, mayDownload inspire one lofty ideals and stimulate on Withwith Free Trial strive to be a more worthy person.”

4. Tillich’s “Ultimate Concern” – Another philosopher, Paul Tillich, off his ideas on the subject. He contrasts two types of philosophy of religion, w he describes as ontological and cosmological. The latter ( which isassoci Read Free For 30 Days Sign up toto vote this title with Aquinas ) thinks of God as being “ out there,” beon reached only  at  Useful  Notituseful end of a long and hazardous process of reasoning; to anytime. find him is to me Cancel Special offer forStranger. students: Only $4.99/month. For the ontological approach, which Tillich associated with Augus and Anselm, God is already present to us as the Ground of our own being


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People are, in fact, ultimately concerned about many different things example, their nation, their personal success and status; but these are primary concerns, and the elevation of a preliminary concern to the statu ultimacy is idolatry. Tillich describes ultimate concerns as follows: “Ultimate concern is the abstract translation of the great commandment: Lord, our God is one; and shall love your God with all your heart, and with your soul, and with all you mind, and with all your strength.’ The relig concern is ultimate; it exclude all other concerns from ultimate significanc makes them preliminary. The ultimate concern is unconditional, indepen of any conditions of character, desire or circumstances.”

5. Tolstoy’s Power of Life – Count Leo Tolstoy, at one point in his life alm committed suicide as a result of the senselessness and meaninglessness finds in life. In his efforts to find the real meaning of life, he found out that can only become meaningful through faith in God. He argues that faith i irrational knowledge. But it gives and provides the mean ing to life.

It would be best to note that in his search for the meaningfulness of life, he tried to solicit the help of science and philosophy, for he thought, rational knowledge might provide the answer for his question concerning life’s mean But in all these efforts, he never succeeded. Let us take a look at an excerpt You're Reading a Preview from his Confessions. Unlock full access with a free trial.

MY CONFESSION Download With Free Trial Leo Tolstoy

Life is a meaningless evil – that was incontestable, I said to myself. Bu still lived, still live, and all humanity has lived. How is that possible? Why d it live, since it can refuse to live? Is it possible Schopenhauer and I alone ar  Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title wise as to have comprehended the meaninglessness and evil of life? 


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The discussion of the vanity of life is not so cunning, and it has been

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The rational knowledge brought me to the recognition that life meaningless – my life stopped, and I wanted to destroy myself. When I loo around at people, at all humanity. I saw that people lived and asserted they knew the meaning of life. I looked back at myself: I lived so long as I k the meaning of life. As to other people, so even to me, did faith give meaning of life and the possibility of living.

Looking again at the people of other countries, contemporaries of m and those passed away, i saw again the same. Where life had been, there f ever since humanity existed, had given the possibility of living and the c features of faith were everywhere one and the same.

…Consequently, in faith alone we find the meaning and possibility of What, the, was faith? I UNDERSTAND THAT FAITH WAS NOT MERELY EVIDENCE OF THINGS NOY SEEN, AND SO FORTH, NOT REVELATION ( is only the description of one of the symptoms of faith), NOT THE RELAT OF MAN TO MAN, NOT MERELY AB\N AGREEMENT WITH WHAT A MAN W TOLD, AS FAITH WAS GENERALLY UNDERSTOOD – THAT FAITH WAS KNOWLEDGE OF THE MEANING OF HUMAN LIFE. IN CONSEQUENCE WHICH MAN DID NOT DESTROY HIMSELF, You're Reading a PreviewBUT LIVED. FAITH IS POWER OF LIFE. IF A MAN LIVES, HE BELIEVES IN SOMETHING.IF HE Unlock TO full access withFOR a free trial. NOT BELIEVE THAT HE OUGHT LIVE SOME PURPOSES, HE WOU NOT LIVE IF HE DOES NOT SEE AND UNDERSTAND THE PHANTASM THE FINITE. IF HE BELIEVES IN THAT Download With FINITE, Free Trial HE MUST BELIEVE IN INFINITE. WITHOUT FAITH ONE CANNOT LIVE.

EVIL with IN GOD’S WORLD: A SPECIAL PROBLEM Master your semester Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful

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Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Epicurus unanswered questions; “ Is God willing to prevent evil,

but not able? then is he impotent. Is God able but not willing? then is

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theologians as well admit that the problem of evil is one of the most ve problems humans face.

The evil that precipitates this dilemma is of two general types: On hand, there is what is usually called . . “natural evil.” This is evil that does involve human will and acting, but is merely an aspect of nature which se to work against man’s welfare. There are destructive forces of nature: stor floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, and the These catastrophic occurrences produce large losses of life as well as prop And much suffering and loss of human lives are caused by diseases suc cancer, multiple sclerosis, and a host of illnesses.

The other type of evil is termed “moral evil.” These are evils which ca traced to the choice and action of free moral agents. Here we find war, cr cruelty, corruption, class struggles, discrimination, slavery, injustices numerable to mention.

Themes for Dealing With the Problem of Evil

Admittedly, a total solution to the problem of evil is beyond hum ability. So what we will doYou're here it toa Preview present several themes which Reading combination will help us deal with the problem. These themes will Unlock access with a free trial. consistent with the basic tenets offull philosophical theology.

Evil as a Necessary Accompaniment of the Download With Free TrialCreation of Man. Archbis Desmond Tutu of South Africa used to say: “God created us for freedom. insists that we have to be human and to be human is to be free!” Man wo not be man if he did not have free will. This has given rise to the argument God cannot create a genuinely free being and at the same time guarantee this being will always do exactly what God desires of him. If man isto be t Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote titlesome of wh human, he must have the ability to desire to have and do things  Not useful God felt t  will not be what God wants man to have and  to Useful do. Apparently, Cancel anytime. Special offer forfor students: Only $4.99/month. reasons which were evident to him but which we can only pa understand, it was better to make human beings than androids. And evil w


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Good is to be defined in relationship to the will and being of God. Good is glorifies him, fulfills his will, and conforms to his nature.

In considering the divine dimension, we must also take note of superior knowledge and wisdom of God. Even in regard to my own welfa may not be the best judge of what is good and what is evil. My judgmen often fallible. It may seem good to me to eat sweet, sticky candy. But to dentist, it may seem quite different. It may seem good and thrilling to a chil use a match as his/her plaything, but to his/her parents using a match playing is entirely different and dangerous ma tter.

Second, we must consider the dimension of time or duration. Som the evils which we experience are actually very disturbing on a short-t basis, but in the long term work a much larger good. The pain of the dent drill and the suffering of post-surgical recovery may seem quite severe e but they are in actuality rather small in light of the long-range effects that from them. Philosophical Theology encourages us to evaluate our present temporary sufferings and the seeming evils that befall us sub specie aeterni (in the light of eternity).

Third, there is the question of the extent of the evil. We tend to be You're Reading a Preview individualistic in our assessment of good and evil. But this is a large access with ato free trial. for. The Saturday downp complex world, and God has Unlock manyfullpersons care that spoils a family picnic may seem like an evil to me, but be a much gre good to the farmers whose parched need the rains, and ultimately Downloadfields With Free Trial much greater number of people who depend upon the farmers’ crops for f What is evil from a narrow perspective may, therefore, be only inconvenience and, from a larger frame of reference, a much greater good much larger number.

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30cardinal Days Sign up to vote this title Evil in General as the Result of Sin in General. One doctrin  & The New York Times Useful  Not philosophical theology is the fact of racial sin.By this we douseful not mean the Cancel anytime.

Special offer forof students: Only $4.99/month. race against race but rather the fact that the entire human race has sin

and is now sinful. Philosophical Theology terms this as “The Fall”—man’s

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acting. There is no question that much of the pain and unhappiness of hu beings is the result of moral and natural evils.

Additional reading: EVIL by David Hume (1711 – 1776)

The whole earth, believe me, Philo, is cursed and polluted (said Demea perpetual war is kindled amongst all living creatures. Necessity, hunger, w stimulates the strong and courageous: fear, anxiety, terror, agitate the w and infirm. The first entrance into life gives anguish to the newborn infant to its wretched parent: weakness, impotence, distress, attend such stage o and ‘tis at last finished in agony and horror. Observe too, says Philo, curious artifices of nature, in order to embitter the of every living being. The stronger prey upon the weaker, and keep them perpetual terror and anxiety. The weaker too, in their turn, often prey upon stronger… and molest them without relaxation. Consider that innumer race of insects, which either are bred on the body of each animal, or fl about infix their stings in him. These insects have others still than themsel which torment them. And thus onReading each hand, before and behind, above You're a Preview below, every animal is surrounded with enemies, which incessantly s Unlock full access with a free trial. misery and destruction. Man alone, said Demea, assume to be, in part, an exception to this rule. Fo combination in society, he can easily master lions, Download With Free Trial tigers, and bears and wh greater strength and agility naturally enable these to prey upon him. On the contrary, it is here chiefly, cried Philo, hat the uniform and eq maxims of nature are most apparent. Man, it is true, can, by combinat surmount all his real enemies, and become master of the whole an creations, but does he not immediately raise up to himself imaginary  enem Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title the demons of his fancy, who haunt him with superstitious terrors,  and b  Useful  Not usefulin their eye every enjoyment in life? His pleasure, as he imagines, Cancelbecomes, anytime. Special offer forcrime; students: his Only $4.99/month. food and repose give them rage and offense; his very sleep dreams furnish new materials to anxious fear; and even death, his refuge f


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nothing in comparison of these which arise within ourselves, from distemp condition of our mind and body. How many lie under the lingering tormen diseases?... the disorders of the mind…though more secret, are not perh less dismal and vexatious. Remorse, shame, anguish, rage, disappointm anxiety, fear, dejection, despair; who has ever passed through life without c inroads from these tormentors? How many have scarcely every felt be sensations? Labor and poverty, so abhorred by everyone, are the certain lo the far greater number; and those few privileged persons, who enjoy ease opulence, never reach contempt or true felicity. All the goods in life un would not make a very happy man: but all the ills united would make a wr indeed; and anyone of them almost (and who can possess all), is sufficien render life ineligible. Were a stranger to drop, on a sudden, into this world, I would show him, specimen of its ill, a hospital full of diseases, a prison crowded with malefac and debtors, a field of battle, strewed with carcasses, a fleet floundering in ocean, a nation languishing under tyranny, famine, or pestilence. To turn gay side of life to him, and give him a notion of its pleasures, whither shou conduct him? To a ball, to an opera, to court? He might justly think that I just showing him a diversity of distress and sorrow… Ask yourself, ask any of your acquaintances, whether they would live again the last ten or twenty years of theira lives. You're Reading PreviewNo! but the next twenty, say, will be better: Unlock full access with a free trial.

And from the drags of life, hope to receive What the first sprightly running could With not Free give.Trial Download

Thus at last they find (such is the greatest of human misery: it reconciles e contradictions) that they complain, at once, of the shortness of life, and o vanity and sorrow. And is it possible, Cleanthes, said Philo, that after all these reflections,  Free For 30this Days Sign up to vote on title infinitely more, which might be suggested, Read you can still persevere  in Not useful  Useful the anthropomorphism, and assert the moral attributes ofanytime. Deity, his jus Cancel Special offer forbenevolence, students: Only $4.99/month. mercy, and rectitude, to be of the same nature with these vir in human creatures? His power we allow infinite; whatever he wills is execu


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Summary Man and God Man before God. Man as being with reason as well as with faith.

Lesson 1: Philosophy of Religion: Basic Concept  Is there a god? What is a god anyway?  Human experience cannot ignore questions concerning God. It is not important if one is a believer or not. The questions always find its way into human curiosity.  Philosophy of Religion: the branch of philosophy that specifically concerns with the aspect of God.  Again, Philo. of Religion is not limited to a believer nor religious people.  Its program is to demonstrate rationally the existence of God.  It is a philosophical thinking about religion.  It studies the concept and propositions of theology and reasoning theologians and analyzes concepts such as God, holy, salvations, worship, creation, eternal life, miracle, etc.  For the purpose of our study we will deal more on the Jewish-Christia concept of God, seekingYou're a philosophical understanding of its various Reading a Preview aspects. Unlock full access with a freeDeus trial.  God — Latin: theos,/  Atheism: (not-God-ism) denies God’s existence Download With Free denies Trial  Agnosticism (not-know-ism) neither nor agrees due to the absence of sufficient reasons. don’t know, don’t care.  Skepticism: doubting God’s existence.  Daism: absentee God, there was a God, but now, he’s gone.  Theism: Believing in God  Monotheism: Believing only in one God.  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title   Polytheism: Believing in many gods. Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime.  Pantheism: (God-is-all-ism) God is identical with nature.

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. 

What makes God a god? Jewish-Christian important and essential

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The God who loves, not for any reason, but love of the person in purest. Holy  Totally other: not my thoughts, not my way… totally his.  Totally not me… totally other. 



Lesson 2: Arguments for God’s Existence  Arguments for God’s existence, can be  Ontological (  onto- essence)  Purely philosophical: Focusing on its essence and inner implicatio God’s existence.  Discussion on the idea of God, how one can think of a god.  Cosmological ( cosmos - world)  Arguments that starts from the world around, through evidences. Things present in the world speak and point to the existence of a g 

Ontological Argument  St. Anselm is one of the Christian Church’s original thinkers. He was Archbishop of Canterbury.  In his book the Proslogion, he philosophies that God is a being th which nothing greater can Reading be conceived. You're a Preview  Whatever is the greatest entity or being, one can ever thought o full access with a free trial. which he cannot Unlock think of anything greater to which, that would god. With Free Trial don’t need any evidence from the physical wo  Ontologically, we Download just to prove that there is a god. The existence of God can be thought of, and can be reasoned — can be understood.  Rene Descarte’s Meditation  God is supremely perfect and must therefore exist. Another  ontological argument. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  If all of us believed that a triangle has three angles and threesides  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. even we don’t see one, then the fact that we can think of an idea o Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Perfect Being, reasoned that God exists as the supremely perfect being.


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Everything exist was caused to exist. Beings are beings becaus cause, which in effect be a cause of another existence. Things a series of cause and effect.  God is the first cause that started the continuous cycle of cause and effect.  God is the Uncaused cause.  Argument from contingency of Beings.  God is the necessary Being. From cause and effect, God now is reason of reasons.  Things in this world have certain purpose or necessity of existe yet God don’t have any purpose other than to exist.  His existence is the purpose of his existence. Because it is from existence that all else exist.  If God ceased to exist, everything else will lose its existence. Therefore God should exist, --it is his purpose. William Palley’s Teleological Argument: The Design.  Stemming from the above argument, things don’t only exist for a certa purpose. Palley added that; everything — its existence and purpose — in a specific design connected with other existence.  The world is a very complex mechanism where everything that exist in You're Reading Preview or Someone must have were designed to serve a purpose — Saomething designed it this way. Unlock full access with a free trial.  God is the Great Designer, the architect — the programmer. 



Download With Free Trial Lesson 3: Faith and Reason  Faith – the acceptance of certain beliefs by a deliberate act of will. The search for God is a quest for the meaning of life. (a  Pascal’s Wager— quoted from his essay Pennees)  God provides the hope, it is better to bet our life hoping that there  God, than to bet our life believing thatRead there isFor none. Free 30this Days Sign up to vote on title there  Betting our life in God, then when we die we learned that   Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. no God, and then we lose nothing. Any way there is no God, no Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. after death, no more — The end.


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One may not be able to convince another why he believe in God, b anyone who has faith would say they choose to believe in God. F.R. Tennent’s View— Faith is the willing venture in all discoveries.  For Tennent, faith may not be justified, yet for him it is worth the  Faith always involve risks, but it is only by such risks that human knowledge is extended. Paul Tillich’s Ultimate Concern  Ontologically — God is the ground of our own being. — God is identical with us.  Cosmologically  To be ultimately concerned about God is to express our true relationship to Being.  The ultimate concern is unconditional, independent of any conditions of character, desire or circumstances. Leo Tolstoy’ Power of Life  Life can only be meaningful through faith in God.  Faith is the irrational knowledge, yet provides meaning.  My Confession  Irrational knowledge — faith — which made it possible to live.  Where life have been, there faith, ever since humanity existed…  Faith was the knowledge of meaning of human life. of life… With out faith once cannot live.  Faith is the power You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. David Hume’s EVIL  Every animal is surrounded with enemies… Download Free Trial of With man…  Man is the greatest enemy  Evil is the absence of Good.  If God is willing he can prevent evil, if God is all-powerful he can s evil, but why there is evil?  His wisdom is infinite; he is never mistaken in choosing the mean  any end. Read Free For 30 Days


MAN AND THE MEANING OF LIFE

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But is it a human imperative that a man should find meaning in his existe Can man impose a meaning in his existence? Is the meaning of hu existence something to be made or to be found? Can man finds meaningfu amidst various kinds of crises? It is in this philosophical questions that Viktor Frankl found meaning in He has proven that man can surpass different kinds of turmoils in life. W Frankl has shown is that man can develop an ability or skill to ha whatever pain, be it dire poverty, hardship, suffering, and frustration w man encounters in life. Exactly, it is his dehumanizing behindexperiences in the Nazi prison camps that prompted him to found logothera Let us read the following excerpts from the book of Viktor Frankl’s “M Search For Meaning”…

Excerpts from MAN’S SEARCH FOR MEANING Viktor Frankl

The Meaning of Life

I doubt whether a doctor can answer this question in general terms. the meaning of life differs from man to man, from day to day, and from hou You're Reading a Preview hour. What matters, therefore, is not the meaning of life in general but ra Unlock fulllife access free trial. the specific meaning of a person’s atwith a agiven moment. To put the ques in general terms would be comparable to the question posed to ch champion: “Tell me, Master, what is the best Download With Freemove Trial in the world?” There sim is no such thing as the best or even a good move apart from a partic situation in a game and the particular personality of one’s opponent. The s holds for human existence. One should not search for an abstract meanin life. Everyone has his own specific vocation or mission in life to carry o concrete assignment which demands fulfillment. Therein he  cannot Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title replaced, nor can his life be repeated. Thus, everyone’s task is as unique a   Useful  Not useful his specific opportunity to implement it. Cancel anytime.


As each situation in life represents a

challenge to man and pres

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AS YOU ARE ABOUT TO ACT NOW!”. It seems to me that there is noth which would stimulate a man’s sense of responsibleness more than maxim, which invites him to imagine first that the present is past, and seco that the past may yet to be changed and amended. Such a precept confr him with life’s finiteness as well as the finality of what makes out of both life and himself.

Logotherapy tries to make the patient fully aware of his responsibleness: therefore, it must leave to him the option for what, to on to whom he understands himself to be responsible. That is wh logotherapist is the least tempted of all psychotherapist to impose va judgments on his patients, for he will never permit the patient to pass doctor the responsibility of judging.

It is therefore up to the patient to decide whether he should interpret his task as being responsible to society or to his own conscience. There are peo however who do not interpret their own lives merely in terms of a task assig to them but also in terms of the taskmaster who has assigned it to them.

Logotherapy is neither teaching nor preaching. It is far remoed from log reasoning as it is from moral You're exhortation. put it figuratively, the role pla Reading aTo Preview by a logotherapist is that of an eye specialist rather than that of a painte full access with a free painter tries to convey to Unlock us a picture of trial. the world as he sees it; ophthalmologist tries to enable us to see the world as it really is. logotherapist’s role consist ofDownload widening and the visual field of With Freebroadening Trial patient so that the spectrum of potential meaning becomes conscious visible to him.

By declaring that man is responsible and must actualize the potential mean of his life, I wish to stress that the true meaning of life is to be discovered in  Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title world rather than within man or his own psyche, as though it werea clo Not self useful  Useful the system. I have termed this constitutive characteristic -transcend Cancel“anytime. Special offer forof students: Onlyexistence.” $4.99/month. It denotes the fact that being human always points, human is directed, to something, or someone, other than oneself – be it a meanin


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accomplishment, is quite obvious. The second and third need fur elaboration.

The second way of finding a meaning in life is by experiencing somethin such as goodness, truth and beauty - - by experiencing nature and cultur last but not the least, by experiencing another n human being in his uniqueness - - by loving him.

The Meaning of Love

Love is the only way to grasp another human being in the inner core of personality. No one can become fully aware of the very essence of ano human being unless he loves him. By his love he is enable to see the essen traits and features in the beloved person; and even more, he sees that whic potential in him, which is not yet actualized but yet ought to be actuali Furthermore, by his love, the loving person enables the beloved perso actualized these potentialities. By making him aware of what he can be an what and how he should become, he makes these potentialities come true.

In logotherapy, love is not interpreted as aamere epiphenomenon of sexual d You're Reading Preview and instincts in the sense of a so-called sublimation. Love is a primar Unlocksex full access a free trial. phenomenon as sex. Normally, is awithmode of expression for love. Se justified, even sanctified, as soon as, but only as long as, it is vehicle of Thus love is not understood Download as mere With side-effect Free Trialof sex; rather, sex is a expressing the experience of that ultimate togetherness which is called love The third way of finding a meaning in life is by suffering.

Master your semester with Scribd The Meaning of Suffering & The New York Times


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Special offer for We students: Only $4.99/month. must never forget that we may also find meaning in life even w

confronted with a hopeless situation, when facing a fate that cannot

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you?” “oh”, “he said,” for her this would have been terrible; how she would suffered! “Whereupon I replied, “ You see, Doctor, such a suffering has b spared her, and it was you who have spared her this suffering – to be sur the price that now you have to survive and mourn her.” He said no word shook my hand and calmly left my office. In some way, suffering ceases t suffering at the moment it finds a meaning, such as the meaning of a sacrif

Of course, this was no therapy in the proper sense since first, his despair no disease; and second, I could not change his fate; I could not revive his w But in that moment I did succeed in changing his attitude toward unalterable fate in as much as from that time on he could at least se meaning in his suffering. It is one of the basic tenets of logotherapy that m main concern as not to gain pleasure or to avoid pain but rather to se meaning in his life. That is why man is even ready to suffer, on the condit to be sure, that his suffering has meaning…

There are situations in which one is cut off from the opportunity to do work or to enjoy one’s life; but what never can be ruled out is unavoidability of suffering. In accepting this challenge to suffer bravely, life a meaning literally to the end. In other words, life’s meaning is unconditional one, for it even includes potential meaning of unavoid You're Readingthe a Preview suffering. Unlock full access with a free trial.

Let me recall that which was perhaps the deepest experience I had in concentration camp. The odds of surviving theTrial camp were no more than on Download With Free twenty-eight, as can easily be verified by exact statistics. It did not even s possible, let alone probable, that the manuscript of my first book, which I hidden in my coat when I arrived at Auschwitz, would ever be rescued. Th had to undergo and to overcome the loss of my mental child. And no seemed as if nothing and no one would survive me; neither a physical  Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title the ques mental child of my own! So I found myselfRead confronted with  Useful  Not useful whether under such circumstances my life wasultimately void of any mean Cancel anytime.


Nor yet did I notice that an answer to this question with which I was wrest

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most of my comrades. Their question was, “Will we survive the camp? Fo not, all this suffering has no meaning.” The question which beset me was. “ all this suffering, this dying around us, a meaning? For a life whose mea depends upon such a happenstance – as whether one escapes or n ultimately would not be worth living at all.” So for Frankl, namely: 1. 2. 3.

man can find meaning in his existence existence in a three-fold man

By doing a life-project; By experiencing value, particularly in the context of love; an By finding meaning in suffering.



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MAN IN RELATION TO HIS WORK After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Know Man’s human nature and how to find meaning into into it. 2. Understand man’s view of work and how through it, man find meaningful life.

An individual’s innate desire to know prompts him to search for truth meaning. This intellectual search is is inevitable inevitable insofar as man is alw bewildered by the tremendous paradox of human life. According to Floren Timbreza, “to philosophize means to search for meaning, and philosoph understood as man’s intellectual search for the ultimate meaning of hu existence.” Indeed, it is precisely because human life is a great problem every individual feels the need to search for an answer and this intellec quest is known as philosophy. To search for meaning is to know first the condition of man and meaningful are the human nature in the concrete human existence.

Human condition we mean; It encloses the somatic, behavioral, and attitud attitud levels of human nature. In other other words, human condition condition absorbs embraces the totality of human nature.

Secondly, By human condition condition is meant the state of being human. If th expressed in a form of a question it shall posit the question “ how is it to human/” The “how” to be human presupposes the state of being hum Thus, to talk of human condition is to consider how man exist and distinctively as a human being.  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Thirdly, If man has a distinctive way of existing and living how does  Not useful  Useful  realize this? Human condition requires not only anCancel understanding of the s the anytime. Special offer forof students: $4.99/month. beingOnly human, but also of the meaning of being human. Man should encounter the sense, purpose, and direction of being huma


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Work is one of the basic aspects of the human person's being-withothers-in-the-world. Through work, the network of human relatedness is we expressed. Thus, man works in order to supply his needs and the heeds of mankind. We cannot deny the social implications of work inasmuch as everything which man does always bears an inherent social character. But what is the meaning of work? What are its kinds? And what are i Christian implications?

THE MEANING OF WORK

Work means any activity of man whereby man exerts physical and/or other powers in order to make something. By dint of work, man exerts effor the purpose of the production of goods. Holistically, work involves the wh human person. Work, therefore, is not just a mere human activity; it is a personal human activity. It is the whole person that works and not just man hands, feet, eyes, or body. Since man as a person is an embodied subjectivi it is the whole man who is involved in work. Glenn, a recognized Catholic author, has this to say: All human effort unites in different proportions the activities of the body (muscular effort), intellect (mental effort), and will (moral effort). And any human effort, no matter what proportion of muscle, mind, and will will be nvolved, which tends partially or entirely to the production. , of goods, utilities, commodities, values... is labor or work.

If work, in the strict sense of the word, involves body, intellect, and will, th work is distinctly a human activity. Thus, non-human creatures do not w since they do not have both intellect and will. They only act in accordance  Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote their instinct patterned according to God's planRead and purpose oftitle His creation  Useful Not useful   this, Pope John Paul II in his encyclical letter "On Work" says CancelHuman anytime. Special offer forfollowing: students: Only $4.99/month.


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Man's life is built up everyday. From work it derives its specific “dignity” s the author of the encyclical letter, “On Human Work.”

Aside from considering work as something which specifies hu dignity, work can also be understood as a sacred call from God. It is not that work originates as God's punishment to man's first parents so that la is treated of as a consequence of sin. This means that even if man did not he would still be inclined to work. According to Pope Leo XI11: "Man, e before the fall, was not destined to be wholly idle, Likewise, St. Tho Aquinas argues that man has a natural inclination towards work. God, thro work, invites man to be His co-creator. Indeed, by his work, man beco God's co-creator. Thus, it is in the spectrum of Christian belief that man ha work hard in order for him to be really God's co-creator as he paints beautifies the world.

Further, work can also be considered as the founding entity of man society. It is impossible for man to live and exist if man does not work. St. P in the Bible, makes it clear: "He who does not work should not eat.” Beside man works, it would be impossible also that his produce is only intended his own satisfaction. In this case, work bears within itself a two-fold asp namely: individual or personal andReading social.a Preview It is personal m the sense that You're individual human person exerts his powers for the production of goods. Unlock full access with a free trial. the produce of man's w social in the sense that the State will benefit from Besides, the products of human effort will make the common good m secure. Download With Free Trial

KINDS OF WORK

Everything that man does which involves the process of producing goods and services that mankind needs and desires is work. In this  proc Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title work can be classified into several kinds, to wit: manual, clerical, professio  Not useful  Useful  management, entrepreneurial, invention, and intellectual. Cancel anytime.


Manual work is the most common form of work. Almost everybody wh

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Intellectual work is usually attributed to the thinkers who are labeled scholars, philosophers, including scientists.

CHRISTIAN IMPLICATIONS OF WORK

The Bible does not say that man should do nothing except work. In fa the Bible even narrates that God "rested" on the seventh day- This implies t the worker is more important than his work. It is true that after the Fall, wo becomes compulsory to man. Had man remained innocent, work should ha been his delightful concern- After the Fall, man assumes his lot to work so he can sustain himself. But this does not mean that man is cursed by God that he should do nothing but work.

It is a fundamental fact that the human person, who is the worker, is more important than his work. When work is overemphasized than the wor the worker would find his work meaningless. It is man's sense of responsibi that makes work meaningful. And man can only find an authentic sense of responsibility when his work is always intertwined with his belief in God.

To the Christian, work is performed a service to God. It is the attitu You're Reading aas Preview of the Christian that work is his grateful response to God who is the Creato full access a free trial. and Sustainer of his life. The Unlock Christian iswith not ashamed of his work since the nature of his work is not important because for him what is important is hi linkage to God in his work. InDownload this light, the Christian believes that through With Free Trial work, he glorifies God. Work, then, for the Christian is service both to God a to man.

Suffice it to say that for the Christian, each man is called by God to w (so that man acts as His co-creator) and that any kind of work is man’s  acti Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title service to God, his Creator, his Redeemer, and Sustainer. 


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4. Through work, man establishes his dignity. Through work produces his own food and thereby makes himself superior over o creatures which cannot, on their own accord, produce their own food.

5. Work is not a curse from God due to human sinfulness since, ev man did not sin, man is still inclined to work- This is emphasized by b St.Thomas Aquinas and Pope Leo XIII.

6. Work is the founding entity on man and society; work has a twoaspect, viz.: personal and social.

7. There are several kinds of work, to wit: manual, clerical, professio management, enterpriser, invention, and intellectual.

For the Christian, the worker is more important than work. Work is man's service to God; it is man's grateful response to God his Creator and Sustain The Christian is not ashamed of the nature of his work because he finds Go his work. Work is man’s way of glorifying God; it is his gesture of service to both God and his fellowman. You're Reading a Preview ALIENATED LABOR Unlock full accessMarx with a free trial. Karl

Download With Free Trial The worker becomes poorer the more wealth he produces, the more production increases in power and extent. The worker becomes a che commodity the more commodities he produces. The increase in the value of world of things is directly proportional to the decrease in the value of hum world. Labor not only produces commodities. It also produces itself  and Read Free For 30 Days Sign up to vote on this title worker as a commodity, and indeed in the same proportion as its produ  Useful  Not useful commodities in general. Cancel anytime.


This fact simply indicates that the object which labor produces, its prod

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interruptions. So much does the appropriation of the object appear as aliena that the more objects the worker produces, the fewer he can own and mor falls under the domination of his product, of capital.

All these consequences follow from the fact that the worker is related to product of his labor as to an alien object. For it is clear according to this prem The more the workers exert himself, the more powerful becomes the a objective world which he fashions against himself, the poorer he and his in world become, the less there is that belongs to him. It is the same in religion. more man attributes to God, the less he retains himself. The worker puts his into the object; then it no longer belongs to him but to the object. The greater activity, the poorer is the worker. What the product of his work is, he is not. greater this product is, the smaller he is himself. The externalization of worker in his product means not only that his work becomes an object external existence, but also that its exist outside him independently, alien autonomous power, opposed to him. The life he has given to the object confro his as hostile and alien…

Up to now we have considered the alienation, the externalization of worker only from one side: his relationship to the products of his labor. alienation is shown not only inYou're the result but also in the process of production Reading a Preview the producing activity itself. How could the worker stand in an alien relation full did accessnot with aalienate free trial. himself from himself in to the product of his creativityUnlock if he very act of production? After all, the product is only the resume of activity production. If the product of Download work is With externalization: production itself mus Free Trial active externalization, externalization of activity. Only alienation- externalization in the activity of labor itself - - is summarized in the alienatio the object of labor. constitutes the externalization Master yourWhat semester with Scribd of labor?  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  & The New York useful  Useful First isTimes the fact that labor is external to the laborer- Not - that is, it is not Cancel anytime.

Special offer forof students: Only $4.99/month. his nature - - and that the worker does not affirm himself in his work

denies himself, feels miserable and unhappy, develops no free physical

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acts independently of the individual as an alien, divine or devilish activity belongs to another. It is the loss of his own self.

The result, therefore, is that man ( the worker) feels that he is acting freely in his animal functions - - eating, drinking, and procreating, or at most in shelter and finery - - while in his human functions he feels only like an ani The animalistic becomes the human and the hu man the animalistic.

To be sure, eating, drinking and procreating are genuine human functi In abstraction, however, and separated from the remaining sphere of huma human activities and turned into final and sol ends, they are animal function

We have considered labor, the act of alienation of practical human acti in two Aspects: (1) the relationship of the worker to the product of labor as alien object dominating him. This relationship is at the sane time the relations to the sensuous external world, to natural objects as an alien world hostil him: (2) the relationship of labor to the act of production in labor. relationship is that of the worker to his own activity as alien and not belon to him, activity as passivity, power as weakness, procreation as emascula the worker’s own physical and spiritual energy, his personal life - - for what is life but activity - as an activity You're turned Reading against a Previewhim, independent of him, not belonging to him. SELF-ALIENATION, as against the alienation of the ob Unlock full access with a free trial. stated above.

A direct consequences of man’s With alienation Download Free Trialfrom the product of his w from his life activity, and from his species-existence, is the ALIENATION OF FROM MAN. When man confronts himself, he confronts other men. What h true of man’s relationship to his work, to the product of his work, and to him also holds true of man’s relationship to other men, to their labor, and the obje their labor.  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title


Special offer forSummary students: Onlyof $4.99/month. Marx Ideas Related to Work

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Philosophy of Man PLV Students Guide

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