Idealism Idealism denies the existence of mind-independent objects. For the idealist, “to be is to be perceived”; objects are nothing more than our experiences of them. The attraction of idealism is its econom. !e don"t don"t have direct access to the external #orld, it is generall agreed; all #e can access directl are our experiences. ! h, then, postulate the existence of anthing beond our experiences$ The idealist refuses to do so, holding that our experiences don"t represent objects, but rather constitute them, that there is nothing beond them. For the idealist, then, objects onl exist insofar as the are perceived. If I shut m ees, then unless there is someone else perceiving the objects that surround me, those objects #ill cease to exist, at least until I reopen m ees and perceive them once more. %etting aside its initial implausibilit, the main difficult #ith this vie# is that it cannot explain the consistenc of our experiences of the #orld. !h, #hen I reopen m ees, do I see the same objects that I sa# before$ !hat causes me to perceive those objects rather than an others$ !h, if t#o observers loo& in a single cupboard, and then compare #hat the sa#, #ill both observers" reports tall$ 'er&ele, the most famous idealist, had both an ans#er to this problem and a #a of avoiding the absurd suggestion that evertime I blin& m stud passes out of and bac& into existence in a fraction of a second( this ans#er is )od. )od, according to 'er&ele, is constantl perceiving everthing. Though I ma blin&, and so stop perceiving m stud, )od continues to perceive it #hether m ees are open or shut. * stud, therefore, never passes out of existence, for it is al#as perceived b )od. !hat is more, )od explains the consistenc in our perceptions. Though there ma be no mind-independent objects causing our experiences, and so ensuring that our various experiences are mutuall consistent, there is nevertheless something outside us causing our experiences and ensuring that the are consistent( )od. )od thus plas a central role in 'er&ele"s idealism.
in philosop in philosophy hy,, any view that stresses the central role of the ideal or the spiritual in the interpretation interpretation of experience. It may hold that the world or reality realityexists exists essentially as spirit or consciousness or consciousness,, that abstractions abstractions and and laws are more fundamental in reality than sensory things, or, at least, that whatever exists is known in dimensions that are chiefly mental—through and as ideas. Thus, the two basic forms of idealism are metaphysical metaphysical idealism, idealism, which asserts the ideality of reality, and epistemological idealism, which holds that in the knowledge process the mind mind can can grasp only the psychic or that that its objects are conditioned conditioned by by their perceptibility perceptibility.. In its metaphysics metaphysics,, idealism is thus directly opposed to materialism —the view that that the basic substance of the world is matter matter and and that it is known primarily through and as material forms and processes. processes. In its epistemology epistemology,, it is opposed to realism realism,, which holds that in human knowledge objects are grasped and seen as they really are—in their existence existence outside outside and independently of the mind. As a philosophy often expressed in bold and expansive syntheses, idealism is also opposed to various restrictive forms of thought to skepticism skepticism,, with occasional exceptions, as in the work of the !ritish "egelian #.". !radley$ !radley$ to logical positivism, positivism , which stresses observable facts and relations and therefore spurns the speculative %pretensions& %pretensions& of every metaphysics$ and sometimes to atheism atheism,, since the idealist sometimes extrapolates the concept of mind to embrace an infinite 'ind. The essential orientation of idealism can be sensed through some of its typical tenets %Truth is the whole, or the
Absolute&$ %to be is to be perceived&$ %reality reveals its ultimate nature more faithfully in its highest (ualities )mental* than in its lowest )material*&$ %the +go is both subject and object.& •
F.H. Bradley, detail of a portrait by R.G. Eves, 1924; in the collection of erton !olle"e, #$ford.
Courtesy of the Warden and Fellows of Merton College, Oxford; photograph, Thomas-Photos
APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING IDEALISM %&&'(R )#*&!% • • • • • • • • • •
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hat idealism is may be clarified by approaching it in three ways through its basic doctrines and principles, through through its central (uestions and and answers, and through through its significant significant arguments. arguments.
Basic doctrines and principles -ix common basic conceptions distinguish idealistic philosophy
The nion o! indi"idalit# and ni"ersalit# Abstract universals —such as %canineness,& %canineness,& which expresses the common common nature or essence that essence that the members of a class )e.g., individual dogs or wolves* share with one another—are acknowledged acknowledged by many philosophers. 'any idealists, however, emphasie the concept of a concrete universal, one that is also a concrete concrete reality, reality, such as %humankind& or %literature,& that can be imagined as gatherable into one specific thing. As opposed to the fixed formal abstract universal, the concrete universal is essentially dynamic, organic, and developing. Thus, universality and individuality merge.
The contrast $et%een conte&poraneit# and eternit# hereas most philosophers tend to focus on matters of contemporary concern, concern, idealists always seek a much wider perspective that embraces epochs epochs and eras in the broad sweep of history history.. In the words of the /0th1century rationalist rationalist philosopher philosopher !enedict !enedict de -pinoa, -pinoa , they strive to view the contemporary world %under the aspect of eternity.& Thus, in spite of the extensive formative influence influence of culture, idealists claim that their philosophy transcends the parochialism of a particular culture$ and idealisms are found, in fact fact,, in all the major cultures of the world. •
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The doctrine o! internal relations and the coherence theor# o! trth It seems natural to suppose, as nonidealists usually do, that the consideration of two things in their relatedness to one another can have no effect on the things themselves—i.e., that a relation is something in addition addition to the things or terms related and is thus external. 2n that basis, truth would be defined as a relation of correspondence between correspondence between a proposition and a state of affairs. The idealist believes, however, however, that that reality is more subtle than that. that. The relationship relationship between between a mineral deposit deposit and the business cycle, for example, is an internal one the deposit of an ore changes when prices render it profitable to mine the mineral. -imilarly, it is part of the essence of a brick that it is related to a wall or pavement. Thus, terms and relations logically determine one another. 3ltimate reality is therefore a system of judgments or propositions, propositions, and truth truth is is defined in terms of the coherence of those propositions with one another to form a harmonious whole. Thus, a successful spy is judged either a hero or a villain only in relation to a total system of international international relations, an accepted philosophy accepted philosophy of history, history, and the moral judgments involved. involved. There are therefore degrees of reality and degrees of truth within a system of truth cohering by internal relations, and the truth of a judgment reflects reflects its place in in that system.
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Idealism seeks to overcome contradictions by penetrating into the overall coherent system of truth and continually creating new knowledge to be integrated with earlier discoveries. Idealism is thus friendly to all (uests for truth, whether in the natural or behavioral sciences or in art, religion, and philosophy. It seeks the truth in every positive judgment and in its contradictory as well. Thus, it traditionally uses thedialectical method of reasoning to remove the contradictions characteristic of human knowledge. -uch removal leads to a new synthetic judgment that incorporates in a higher truth the degree of truth that was present in each of the two lower judgments.
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Idealism is not reductive, as are opposing philosophies that identify mind with matter and reduce the higher level of reality to the protons andelectrons of mathematical physics. 2n the contrary, idealism
defends the principle that the lower is explained by the higher—specifically, that matter can be explained by mind but that mind cannot be explained by matter. The word spirit can be substituted for mind or even placed above it, and at one time % spiritualism& was used, especially in +urope, as a synonym for idealism.
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4early all idealists accept the principle that the evils with which humankind has to deal may become ingredients in a larger whole that overcomes them. The American "egelian 5osiah 6oyce held that the larger whole is the Absolute 'ind, which keeps evils under control as a person might hold a viper under the sole of his boot. Along with that doctrine of the sublimation or transmutation of evil, 6oyce incorporated into his metaphysics a point from the irrationalism of Arthur -chopenhauer, itself avoluntaristic form of idealism, that is to say that %the world is my idea.& -chopenhauer, however, was probably the only idealist who defended the converse principle that good is transmuted into evil. •
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Basic )estions and ans%ers In defining philosophical idealism in its historical development as a technical metaphysical doctrine, three most1difficult and irreducible (uestions arise. #rom the efforts to answer those (uestions there has been created an extensive literature that is the corpus of philosophical idealism.
Ulti&ate realit# The first of the three (uestions is metaphysical hat is the ultimate reality that is given in human experience7 "istorically, answers to this (uestion have fallen between two extremes. 2n the one hand is the skepticism of the /8th1century empiricist 9avid "ume, who held that the ultimate reality given in experience is the moment1by1moment flow of events in the consciousness of each individual. That concept compresses all of reality into a solipsistic specious present—the momentary sense experience of one isolated percipient. At the other extreme, followers of -pinoa adopted his definition of ultimate substance as that which can exist and can be conceived only by itself. According to the first principle of his system of pantheistic idealism, :od )or 4ature or -ubstance* is the ultimate reality given in human experience. In the early /;th century the :erman philosopher :eorg ilhelm #riedrich "egel said that this dogmatic absolutism was the lion
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The second (uestion to arise in defining idealism is hat is given7 hat results can be obtained from a logical interpretation and elaboration of the given7 According to idealists, the result, though it is fre(uently something external to individual experience, is, nevertheless, a concrete universal, an
order system )like the invisible lattice structure of a crystal*, or an ideality in the sense explained earlier. In "egel
Chan(e The third (uestion is hat position or attitude is a thinker to take toward temporal becoming and change and toward the presence of ends and values within the given7 According to idealists, reason not only discovers a coherent order in nature but also creates the state and other cultural institutions, which together constitute the cultural order of a modern society. Idealistic political philosophers recognie the primacy of this cultural order over the private order or family and over the public order—the governing agencies and economic institutions. The conservation and enhancement of the values of all three orders constitute the basic moral objective of every people. A useful distinction drawn by the :erman philosopher +rnst =assirer, a member of the 'arburg school of 4eo1>antianism ) see below Types of philosophical idealism estern types*, between the efficient and the formative energies of a people emphasies the way in which those moral forces function the efficient energies are the conserving, and the formative are the creative forces in society. It is on the basis of that distinction that idealists have made a contribution to international ethics, which charges that no country has a right to use its efficient energies to exercise power over another people except to further the formative energies of that people, to enrich their cultural order. +thically, then, there can be no power over without power for$ i.e., economic exploitation is wrong. 'odern idealists have also created an idealistic philosophy of history. The ?@th1century Italian idealist !enedetto =roce expressed it in the formula %every true history is contemporary history&$ and at the same time in #rance, the subjective idealist Bon !runschvicg agreed. There are close relations between the philosophy of history and the philosophy of values. •
Benedetto !roce.
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Basic ar(&ents #our basic arguments found in the literature of idealism may be briefly summaried.
Esse est percipi* +To $e is to $e percei"ed, According to this argument, all the (ualities attributed to objects are sense (ualities. Thus, hardness is the sensing of a resistance to a striking action, and heaviness is a sensation of muscular effort when, for example, holding an object in one
Geor"e Bereley, detail of an oil paintin" by @ohn %ibert, ") 12; in the 3ational *ortrait
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The reciprocit# ar(&ent =losely related to the esse est percipi argument is the contention that subject and object are reciprocally dependent upon each other. It is impossible to conceive of a subject without an object, since the essential meaning of being a subject is being aware of an object and that of being an object is being an object to a subject, that relation being absolutely and universally reciprocal. =onse(uently, every complete reality is always a unity of subject and object—i.e., an immaterial ideality, a concrete universal.
The &#stical ar(&ent In the third argument, the idealist holds that in the individual
for example, it was made by Clato, to whom the final leap to the form of the :ood was mystical in nature. In Indian "indu Dedanta philosophy, it was made by the 8th1century monistic theologian -hankara and by the //th1century dualistic !rahmin theist 6amanuja. In !uddhism the claims were made by the sometimes mystical extreme subjectivism of the Dijnanavada school of 'ahayana )represented by Ashvaghosha in the /st and Asanga in the Eth century* and in =hina by the Fen school and by the 0th1century scholar "ui1neng, author of its basic classic Liu-Tsu t’anch’ing )%Clatform -cripture of the -ixth Catriarch&*. In Islamic lands it was made by -ufis )mystics* —in particular, by the /Gth1century Cersian writer 5alal al19in 6umi. And in the est during the late /;th and early ?@th centuries, it was made by several distinguished idealists in :ermany, by the seminal modern theologian #riedrich -chleiermacher $ in #rance, by the evolutionary intuitionist "enri !ergson, by the philosopher of action 'aurice !londel, and by the 5ewish religious existentialist 'artin !uber $ and in +nglish1speaking countries, by the -cottish metaphysician 5ames #rederick #errier and the American "egelian illiam +. "ocking. •
Raana, bron0e sclptre, 12th centry; fro a ishn teple in )hanavr district, &ndia.
Courtesy of the Inst!tut Fran0a!s de Pond!"h1ry
The ontolo(ical ar(&ent This famous argument originated as a proof of the existence of :od. It occurred to the //th1century thinker -t. Anselm of =anterbury, as an intuitive insight from his personal religious experience, that a being conceived to be perfect must necessarily exist, for otherwise that being would lack one of the essentials of perfection. :od
an immaterial ideality or concrete universal. According to "egel, %the ideality of the finite& is %the main principle of philosophy.&
T-PES O. PHILOSOPHICAL IDEALISM !erkeley
ant, whose epochal work Kritik der reinen Vernunft )/08/$ ?nd ed. /080$ Critique of Pure Reason* presented a formalistic or transcendental idealism, so named because >ant thought that the human self, or %transcendental ego,& constructs knowledge out of sense impressions, upon which are imposed certain universal concepts that he called categories. Three systems constructed in :ermany in the early /;th century by, respectively, the moral idealist5ohann :ottlieb #ichte, the aesthetic idealist #riedrich -chelling, and "egel, all on a foundation laid by >ant, are referred to as objective idealism, in contrast to !erkeley
&anel /ant, print pblished in 'ondon, 1>12.
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All those terms form backgrounds for modern estern idealisms, most of which are based either on >antant& and were thus called >antian idealists. +dward =aird, who imported :erman idealism into +ngland, and the :erman proponent of the philosophy of %as if,& "ans Daihinger, who held that much of humans< so1called knowledge reduces to pragmatic fictions, were >antian idealists or >antian transcendentalists. 2n that tradition are based the idealisms of the austerely religious essayist Thomas =arlyle in artor Resartus )/8GGHGE* and of the 4ew +ngland transcendentalism of 6alph aldo +merson. It must be stated, however, that >ant preferred the name critical idealism to that of transcendental idealism. Another group of idealists, adopting the motto %#rom >ant forward,& founded the so1called 'arburg school of 4eo1>antian idealism. They rejected the idealisms of #ichte, -chelling, and "egel and the classical 4ewtonian dynamics presupposed by >ant and built instead upon the new (uantum and relativity theories of modern physics. #ounded in the late /;th century by "ermann =ohen, champion of a new interpretation of >ant, and his colleague, the Clatonic scholar Caul 4atorp, who applied >antant, was shared by his disciple, the more1"egelian thinker !ernard !osan(uet —whose views were based upon oteant and appealed to advances in the physical, biological, and behavioral sciences to support those revisions. The cosmological argument, for example, was restated as the continuing relation of the cosmos to a world1ground that is spiritual in essence$ thus, the concept of :od as
a first cause is rejected. The concept of the fitness of the environment to life and to human history and other scientific concepts was used to modernie the teleological argument. 4evertheless, all of that revision was kept within the framework of idealistic metaphysics and epistemology. A theistic spiritual pluralism, which interprets reality in terms of a multitude of interacting psychic monads)elementary units*, was developed by the +nglish philosopher 5ames ard. 2n the other hand, an atheistic spiritual pluralism, which holds that reality consists entirely o f individual minds and their contents, was espoused by the =ambridge "egelian 5.'. +llis 'cTaggert. 9uring the late /;th century, a movement known as American "egelian idealism arose in the 3nited -tates. It found vigorous early expression in the work of .T. "arris, a central figure in a 'idwestern group of scholars known as the -t. ouis school. In its later development, American idealism split into two branches one of the aforementioned !radley1!osan(uet type and a second of the 6oyce1 "ocking type, so called because it was founded by 6oyce and developed by his disciple "ocking. The American philosopher of religion !orden Carker !owne founded another important American school, that of personalism, a >antian1 and otean1based variety of theistic idealism similar to the spiritual pluralism of ard. hereas most previous idealisms had stressed the rational as the highest category of reality and hence as its paradigm, personalism saw in the centred structures of personhood, both finite and infinite, an even higher category, displaying dimensions richer than the rational alone.Cersonalism was influentially developed in the 3nited -tates, most notably through the 'ethodist philosopher +.-. !rightman, known for his defense of the doctrine of a finite :od, and through the journal The Personalist , edited by one of !owneantian scholar 4orman >emp -mith
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Aesthetic idealism is devoted to philosophical theories of beauty in nature and in all forms of art. !ecause -chelling claimed that art is the best approach to an understanding of philosophy, his system is designated aesthetic idealism. Axiological idealism is a name referring to such philosophies as those of ilbur '. 3rban and others who developed idealistic theories of value and valuation. +thical idealism deals with moral values, rights, and obligations. -everal of the above1mentioned philosophers, such as #ichte and :reen, as well as the Clato scholar A.+. Taylor, the theistic pluralist "astings 6ashdall, and the absolutist .6. -orley, could be called ethical idealists in the sense that they produced well1thought1out systems of ethics. The writings of the :erman philosopher of life and action 6udolf +ucken also provide an excellent example of ethical idealism. Those classifications are not exhaustive. The actual existence of so many types of philosophical idealism, however, proves its fertility and ubi(uity.
CRITICISM AND APPRAISAL 2bviously, some of the types of idealism in the above classifications conflict with one another. #or example, spiritual monism and spiritual pluralism are opposite types$ personalism rejects absolute idealism$ and atheistic spiritual pluralism is in sharp conflict with theistic spiritual pluralism. Those
and other debatable issues kept idealists in dialogue with each other, but each type tended to preserve itself. 2ver against those internal disputes stand the criticisms of the anti1idealists. The wide1ranging American realist 6alph !arton Cerry, for example, admitted that the primary approach of all philosophers to the problem of ultimate reality must be through their own thought, using their own ideas$ but that is a human predicament that was unjustifiably exploited by the idealists, according to Cerry, and turned into the %fallacious& esse est percipi argument. The famous %6efutation of Idealism& prepared by the meticulous =ambridge philosopher :.+. 'oore and a similar refutation by 6ussell rest upon the distinction between a subjectarl 'arx and his followers borrowed and adapted the dialectical argument of "egel and used it effectively to develop dialectical materialism, an archenemy of all idealisms. 'arxism posed a formidable opposition to idealism in the ?@th century. •
/arl ar$.
Courtesy of the trustees of the (r!t!sh Museum; photograph, 2)) Freeman 3 Co) td)
Idealists considered all of the foregoing criticisms to be external. Instead of answering them in detail, some idealists preferred to challenge the critics to make genuinely constructive efforts to build an ade(uate substitute for idealism—a system to be reached by seriously working at the problems from within philosophy. To produce such a substitute would re(uire careful reconsideration of the arguments of at least some of the above idealistic systems. Although it is now on the wane, at least in estern culture, the great idealist tradition has survived many other historical periods of turmoil and has often been reborn in prolonged periods of settled and peaceful social conditions. ill it rise again7 2nly the future holds the answer. !ut idealism shows evidence of being, perhaps, a reflection of some permanent aspect of the human spirit, and it may then be a perennial philosophy. In any case, it seems highly unlikely that such a rich heritage of philosophical thought will vanish entirely. FEEDBACK
.or General or /orld Philosophies The term metaphysics literally means beyond the physical. This area of philosophy focuses on the nature of reality. 'etaphysics attempts to find unity across the domains of experience and thought. At the metaphysical level, there are fourJ broad philosophical schools of thought that apply to education today. They are idealism, realism, pragmatism )sometimes called experientialism*, and existentialism. +ach will be explained shortly. These four general frameworks provide the root or base from which the various educational philosophies are derived. # $ fifth metaph"sical school of thought% called cholasticism% is largel" applied in Roman Catholic schools in the educational philosoph" called &Thomism'& !t combines idealist and realist philosophies in a framework that harmoni(ed the ideas of $ristotle% the realist% with idealist notions of truth' Thomas $quinas% )*++-)*,% was the theologian who wrote &umma Theologica%& formali(ing church doctrine' The cholasticism moement encouraged the logical and philosophical stud" of the beliefs of the church% legitimi(ing scientific inquir" within a religious framework'
Two of these general or world philosophies, idealism and realism, are derived from the ancient :reek philosophers, Clato and Aristotle. Two are more contemporary, pragmatism and existentialism. "owever, educators who share one of these distinct sets of beliefs about the nature of reality presently apply each of these world philosophies in successful classrooms. et us explore each of these metaphysical schools of thought. Idealism Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only true reality, the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and everlasting, the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind. Clato, father of Idealism, espoused this view about E@@ years !=, in his famous book, The Republic. Clato believed that there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is also the world of appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and sound, that is changing, imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often referred to as the duality of mind and body. 6eacting against what he perceived as too much of a focus on the immediacy of the physical and sensory world, Clato described a utopian
society in which education to body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which they are capable as an ideal. In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the sensory world must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To understand truth, one must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute 'ind. Clato also believed that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the 3niversal !eing. The birth process checks this perfection, so education re(uires bringing latent ideas )fully formed concepts* to consciousness. In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individualKs abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and -ocratic dialogue )a method of teaching that uses (uestioning to help students discover and clarify knowledge*. Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole1part logic are used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. =haracter is developed through imitating examples and heroes. Realism 6ealists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality is the world of physical objects. The focus is on the bodyLobjects. Truth is objective1what can be observed. Aristotle, a student of Clato who broke with his mentorKs idealist philosophy, is called the father of both 6ealism and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand objective reality through the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data. Aristotle believed that to understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not change. #or example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in the mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties with all other roses and flowers )its form*, although one rose may be red and another peach colored. Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be able to reason about physical events and aspects. The exercise of rational thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind. The 6ealist curriculum emphasies the subject matter of the physical world, particularly science and mathematics. The teacher organies and presents content systematically within a discipline, demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration and recitation. -tudents must also demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using
observation and experimentation. =urriculum should be scientifically approached, standardied, and distinct1discipline based. =haracter is developed through training in the rules of conduct. Pragmatism )+xperientialism* #or pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this late /;th century American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. 3nlike the 6ealists and 6ationalists, Cragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving, a becoming view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what works. Cragmatism is derived from the teaching of =harles -anders Ceirce )/8G;1/;/E*, who believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.
5ohn 9ewey )/8M;1/;M?* applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. "e believed that learners must adapt to each other and to their environment. -chools should emphasie the subject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and circumstance. 9ifferent cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order. =haracter development is based on making group decisions in light of conse(uences. #or Cragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands1on problem solving, experimenting, and projects, often having students work in groups. =urriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. 6ather than passing down organied bodies of knowledge to new learners, Cragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge to real situations through experimental in(uiry. This prepares students for citienship, daily living, and future careers. Existentialism The nature of reality for +xistentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual. The physical world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and individual standards rather than external standards are central. +xistence comes before any definition of what we are. e define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. e should not accept anyone elseKs
predetermined philosophical system$ rather, we must take responsibility for deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we make meaning of our lives. There are several different orientations within the existentialist philosophy. -oren >ierkegaard )/8/G1/8MM*, a 9anish minister and philosopher, is considered to be the founder of existentialism. "is was a =hristian orientation. Another group of existentialists, largely +uropean, believes that we must recognie the finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile planet, rather than believing in salvation through :od. 2ur existence is not guaranteed in an after life, so there is tension about life and the certainty of death, of hope or despair. 3nlike the more austere +uropean approaches where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the certainty of the end of existence, American existentialists have focused more on human potential and the (uest for personal meaning. Dalues clarification is an outgrowth of this movement. #ollowing the bleak period of orld ar II, the #rench philosopher, 5ean Caul -artre, suggested that for youth, the existential moment arises when young persons realie for the first time that choice is theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their (uestion becomes ho am I and what should I do7 6elated to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of personal choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in which the learner must confront othersK views to clarify his or her own. =haracter development emphasies individual responsibility for decisions. 6eal answers come from within the individual, not from outside authority. +xamining life through authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning experiences. +xistentialists are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be measured, tracked, or standardied. -uch educators want the educational experience to focus on cre ating opportunities for self1direction and self actualiation. They start with the student, rather than on curriculum content.
Existentialism is a philosoph that emphasi+es individual existence, freedom and choice. It is the vie# that humans define their own meaning in life, and tr to ma&e rational decisions despite existing in an irrational universe. It focuses on the uestion of human existence, and the feeling that there is no purpose or explanation at the core of existence. It holds that, as there is no
God or an other transcendent force, the onl #a to counter this nothingness and hence to find meaning in life is b embracing existence.
Thus, /xistentialism believes that individuals are entirel free and must ta&e personal responsibility for themselves although #ith this responsibilit comes angst, a profound anguish or dread. It therefore emphasi+es action, freedom and decision as fundamental, and holds that the onl #a to rise above the essentiall absurd condition of humanit #hich is characteri+ed b suffering and inevitable death is b exercising our personal freedom and choice a complete rejection of 0eterminism. 1ften, /xistentialism as a movement is used to describe those #ho refuse to belong to any school of thought, repudiating of the adeuacy of an bod of beliefs or sstems, claiming them to be superficial, academic and remote from life. 2lthough it has much in common #ith 3ihilism, /xistentialism is more a reaction against traditional philosophies, such as 4ationalism,/mpiricism and 5ositivism, that see& to discover an ultimate order and universal meaning in metaphsical principles or in the structure of the observed #orld. It asserts that people actuall ma&e decisions based on #hat has meaning to them, rather than #hat is rational. /xistentialism originated #ith the 67th 8entur philosophers %9ren :ier&egaard and Friedrich 3iet+sche, although neither used the term in their #or&. In the 67ean-5aul %artre, Albert Camus 676? - 67@<, and !imone de Beauvoir 67
"ain Beliefs
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Bnli&e 4enC 0escartes, #ho believed in the primac of conciousness, /xistentialists assert that a human being is #thrown into# into a concrete, inveterate universe that cannot be Dthought a#aD, and therefore existence Dbeing in the #orldD precedes consciousness, and is the ultimate reality. /xistence, then, is prior to essence essence is the meaning that ma be ascribed to life, contrar to traditional philosophical vie#s dating bac& to the ancient )ree&s. 2s %artre put it( D2t first E*an is nothing. 1nl after#ard #ill he be something, and he himself #ill have made #hat he #ill be.D :ier&egaard sa# rationality as a mechanism humans use to counter their existential anxiety, their fear of being in the #orld. %artre sa# rationalit as a form of Dbad faithD, an attempt b the self to impose structure on a fundamentally irrational and random #orld of phenomena #the other#. This bad faith hinders us from finding meaning in freedom, and confines us #ithin everda experience. :ier&egaard also stressed that individuals must choose their own way #ithout the aid of universal$ ob%ective standards .Friedrich 3iet+sche further contended that the individual must decide #hich situations are to count as moral situations. Thus, most
/xistentialists believe that personal experience and acting on oneGs o#n convictions are essential in arriving at the truth, and that the understanding of a situation b someone involved in that situation is superior to that of a detached, objective observer similar to the concept of %ubjectivism. 2ccording to 8amus, #hen an individualGs longing for order collides #ith the real #orldGs lac& of order , the result is absurdity. Human beings are therefore subjects in an indifferent, ambiguous and absurd universe, in #hich meaning is not provided b thenatural order , but rather can be created ho#ever provisionall and unstabl b human actions and interpretations. /xistentialism can be atheistic, theological or theistic or agnostic. %ome /xistentialists, li&e 3iet+sche, proclaimed that D)od is deadD and that the concept of )od is obsolete. 1thers, li&e :ier&egaard, #ere intensel religious, even if the did not feel able to %ustify it. The important factor for /xistentialists is the freedom of choice to believe or not to believe. ,,,, 5ragmatism rejects the idea that the function of thought is to describe, represent, or mirror realit.E? Instead, pragmatists consider thought an instrument or tool for prediction, problem solving and action. 5ragmatists contend that most philosophical topicssuch as the nature of &no#ledge, language, concepts, meaning, belief, and science are all best vie#ed in terms of their practical uses and successes. The philosoph of pragmatism “emphasi+es the practical application of ideas b acting on them to actuall test them in human experiences”. E 5ragmatism focuses on a “changing universe rather than an unchanging one as the Idealists, 4ealists and Thomists had claimed”.E The #ord DpragmatismD as a piece of technical terminolog in philosoph refers to a specific set of associated philosophical vie#s originating in the late nineteenth-centur. Ho#ever, the phrase is often confused #ithDpragmatismD in the context of politics #hich refers to politics or diplomac based primaril on practical considerations, rather than ideological notions and #ith a non-technical use of DpragmatismD in ordinar contexts referring to dealing #ith matters in oneGs life realisticall and in a #a that is based on practical rather than abstract considerations.
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We’re all tempted to use words that we’re not too familiar with. If this were the only problem, I wouldn’t have much to write about. That’s because we’re cautious with words we’re unsure of and, thus, they don’t create much of an issue for us. It’s the words that we think we’re using correctly that wreak the most havoc. We throw them around in meetings, e-mails and important documents (such as resumes and client reports, and they land, like fingernails across a chalkboard,
on everyone who has to hear or read them. We’re all guilty of this from time to time, myself included. When I write, I hire an editor who is an e!pert in grammar to review my articles before I post them online. It’s bad enough to have a roomful of people witness your blunder"it’s something else entirely to stumble in front of #$$,$$$% The point is, we can all benefit from opportunities to sharpen the saw and minimi&e our mistakes. 'ften, it’s the words we perceive as being more correct or sophisticated that don’t really mean what we think they do. There are $ such words that have a tendency to make even really smart people stumble. )ave a look to see which of these commonly confused words throw you off.
Ac c e ptv s .Ex c e pt These two words sound similar but have very different meanings. ""ept means to receive something willingly* +)is mom a""epted his e!planation or +he a""epted the gift graciously. 4x"ept signifies e!clusion* +I can attend every meeting ex"ept the one ne!t week. To help you remember, note that both ex"ept and ex"lus!on begin with ex .
A0ect "s1 E0ect To make these words even more confusing than they already are, both can be used as either a noun or a verb. et’s start with the verbs. 5e"t means to influence something or someone/ e5e"t means to accomplish something. +0our 1ob was a5e"ted by the organi&ational restructuring but +These changes will be e5e"ted on 2onday. 3s a noun, an e5e"t is the result of something* +The sunny weather had a huge e 5e"t on sales. It’s almost always the right choice because the noun a5e"t refers to an emotional state and is rarely used outside of psychological circles* +The patient’s a5e"t was flat.
Lie "s1 La# We’re all pretty clear on the l!e that means an untruth. It’s the other usage that trips us up. !e also means to recline* +Why don’t you l!edown and rest4 ay re5uires an ob1ect* +ay the book on the table. !eis something you can do by yourself, but you need an ob1ect to lay . It’s more confusing in the past tense. The past tense of l!e is"you guessed it"lay * +I lay down for an hour last night. 3nd the past tense of lay is laid* +I la!d the book on the table.
Brin( "s1 Ta'e (r!ng and ta+e both describe transporting something or someone from one place to another, but the correct usage depends on the speaker’s point of view. omebody 6r!ngs something to you, but you ta+e it to somewhere else* +(r!ng me the mail, then ta+e your shoes to your room. 6ust remember, if the movement is toward you, use 6r!ng; if the movement is away from you, use ta+e.
Ironic "s1 Coincidental 3 lot of people get this wrong. If you break your leg the day before a ski trip, that’s not !ron!""it’s "o!n"!dental (and bad luck. Iron!" has several meanings, all of which include some type of reversal of what was e!pected. 7erbal irony is when a person says one thing but clearly means another. ituational irony is when a result is the opposite of what was e!pected. '. )enry was a master of situational irony. In his famous short story The %!ft of the Mag! , 6im sells his watch to buy combs for his wife’s hair, and she sells her hair to buy a chain for 6im’s watch. 8ach character sold something precious to buy a gift for the other, but those gifts were intended for what the other person sold. That is true irony. If you break your leg the day before a ski trip, that’s"o!n"!dental) If you drive up to the mountains to ski, and there was more snow back at your house, that’s !ron!") 1
I&pl# "s1 In!er To !mply means to suggest something without saying it outright. To !nfer means to draw a conclusion from what someone else implies. 3s a general rule, the speaker9writer !mpl!es, and the listener9reader !nfers. 1
Naseos "s1 Naseated .auseous has been misused so often that the incorrect usage is accepted in some circles. till, it’s important to note the difference. .auseousmeans causing nausea/ nauseated means e!periencing nausea. o, if your circle includes ultraparticular grammar sticklers, never say +I’m nauseous unless you want them to be snickering behind your back.
Co&prise "s1 Co&pose These are two of the most commonly misused words in the 8nglish language. Compr!se means to include/ "ompose means to make up. It all comes down to parts versus the whole. When you use "ompr!se , you put the whole first* +3 soccer game "ompr!ses (includes two halves. When you use "ompose, you put the pieces first* +:ifty states "ompose (make up the ;nited tates of 3merica. 2
.arther "s1 .rther Farther refers to physical distance, while further describes the degree or e!tent of an action or situation. +I can’t run any farther , but +I have nothing further to say. If you can substitute +more or +additional, use further)
.e%er "s1 Less ;se fewer when you’re referring to separate items that can be counted/ use less when referring to a whole* +0ou have fewer dollars, but lessmoney. 1
Brin(in( it all to(ether 8nglish grammar can be tricky, and, a lot of times, the words that sound right are actually wrong. With words such as those listed above, you 1ust have to memori&e the rules so that when you are about to use them, you’ll catch yourself in the act and know for certain that you’ve written or said the right one.
Adolescent Health
5ractice Bpdate from the 3ational 2ssociation of %ocial !or&ers 'olume ($ )umber ( !eptember (**+
3ational 2ssociation of %ocial !or&ers J=< First %treet 3/ K %uite J<< !ashington, 08 L<<
Facts The perceptions held b adults and outh overestimate the percentage of teens that are sexuall experienced 8hild Trends, L<<6.
,arents$ ,eers$ and ,ressures- .dentifying the .nfluences on /esponsible !exual Decision0"a&ing %exual health is an essential part of good overall health and #ell-being. %exualit is a part of human life and human development. )ood sexual health implies not onl the absence of disease, but the abilit to understand and #eigh the ris&s, responsibilities, outcomes, and impacts of sexual actions, to be &no#ledgeable of and comfortable #ith oneGs bod, and to be free from exploitation and coercion. !hereas good sexual health is significant across the life span, it is critical in adolescent health. 2dolescence signifies the onset of phsicalMsexual maturation and reproductive capacit. Noung people have a need and a right to &no# about their bodies and to be educated and informed about their sexual health, et the face man social, political, and communit barriers to receiving and gaining access to the right information. %ex is often a challenging and difficult issue for both ouths and adults to discuss. The conseuences of not tal&ing about sex, ho#ever, can be severe( •
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/ver hour of ever da, t#o 2merican oung people contract HIO, 7@ become pregnant, and nearl ?=< more contract a sexuall transmitted disease B.%. 5ublic Health %ervice, L<<6.
The percentage of high school students #ho have had sexual intercourse has decreased from =R to =
2lthough national overall rates of teenage pregnanc have declined, nearl 6 million teenagers become pregnant ever ear 2)I, 6777. 2lthough #omen, regardless of age, income, race, and ethnicit, experience unintended pregnanc, a disproportionate number of them are lo#-income 2frican 2merican and Patina teenagers. 1ne-uarter of all ne# HIO infections in the Bnited %tates are estimated to occur in oung people under the age of L6 2dvocates for Nouth, 677A. %ixt-four percent of adolescents ages 6? to 67 reported #ith HIO are females, and A percent are ethnic minorit ouths 808, L<<<.
%ocial #or&ersG involvement #ith ouths and families often is related to a sexual health issue, including maternal and child health, unintended pregnanc, sexual abuse and assault, or other problematic behaviors that occur #ith ouths individuall or #ith their famil and communit sstem. 1ur proactive involvement on the issue is critical to help ouths navigate the barrage of conflictual messages about sex.
B30/4%T230I3) TH/ I3FPB/38/% I3 %/QB2P 0/8I%I13K*2:I3) *a&ing good decisions and responsible choices about sexual activit during the teenage ears can have immediate and lasting implications for overall health outcomes. Ho# teenagers ma&e decisions about relationships, abstaining or participating in sex, and protecting themselves and others from sexuall transmitted diseases and pregnanc is influenced b numerous factors. 5arents, peers, the media, access to education and services, and a host of other factors influence decisions and subseuent health outcomes. Bnderstanding the context of decision ma&ing and the social influences provides significant insight for effective health interventions. It gives instructive guidance for social #or&ersG individual #or& #ith ouths and families, as #ell as programmatic and polic implications. Noung people, sexuall active or not, are influenced b a range of individual and social factors(
The 4ole of 5arents and Famil 0namics The role of parents in the lives and decision-ma&ing processes of ouths is often underestimated. 2lthough the transition to greater independence is the hallmar& of this d evelopmental phase, parents clearl have a role and exert significant influence in the choices oung people ma&e about sex. •
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Teenagers are most li&el to see& sexual information from their friends @6 percent. 2lthough the are least li&el to see& information from their parents ?L percent, a significant number of teenagers ? percent express a strong desire to have more information on ho# to tal& to their parents about sex and relationships :aiser Famil Foundation, L<<
freuent use of alcohol, #hich is strongl lin&ed #ith earl sexual activit. •
For oung #omen, estrangement at home often leads them to see& and establish intimate relationships outside the famil, see&ing the #armth and support the lac& at home. 2lso, girls experiencing sexual abuse in the famil are lin&ed to increased ris& of teenage pregnanc B.%. 5ublic Health %ervice, L<<6.
The 4ole of 5eers The peer group is an important factor in adolescent development and has some bearing on teenagersG decisions about sex. •
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2dolescents ages 6? to 6A report that the are most li&el to get information about sexual health issues from their peers :aiser Famil Foundation, L<<
Nouths #ho resist engaging in sexual activit tend to have friends #ho are abstinent as #ell. The also tend to have strong personal beliefs in abstinence and the perception of negative parental reactions. Nouths #ho are sexuall active tend to believe that most of their friends are sexuall active as #ell, that re#ards out#eigh the costs of sexual involvement, that sex overall is re#arding, and that it is all right for unmarried adolescents over age 6@ to engage in intercourse 2dvocates for Nouth, 677J.
The 4ole of the *edia The images that pervade the media television, music videos, the Internet, and the li&e, are increasingl more explicit in sexual content. •
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*ore than half =@ percent of all television sho#s contain sexual contentaveraging more than three scenes #ith sex per hour. For sho#s #ith sexual content, just 7 percent include an mention of the possible ris&s of sexual activit, or an reference to contraception, protection, or safer sex :aiser Famil Foundation, 6777. 2mong oung people 6< to 6J ears of age #ho regularl use the Internet, one-uarter had been exposed to un#anted pornograph in the past ear, and one-fifth had been exposed to un#anted sexual solicitations or approaches B.%. 5ublic Health %ervice, L<<6. 2lthough media images of sex and sexualit ma be sociall defined as a negative influence on teenage sexual decisionma&ing, there is considerable potential for the use of media in conveing messages about responsible sexual behavior. For example, more than one-half of high school bos and girls indicate learning about birth control and pregnanc prevention from television B.%. 5ublic Health %ervice, L<<6.
The 4ole of 8ommunities, %chools, and %ocial 5olic The circle of influence on sexual decision-ma&ing extends beond the individual and famil sstem. :e considerations of these extended influences include( •
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Impoverished communities that lac& sufficient emploment and educational opportunities, access to providers and medical services, and overall social disintegration are associated #ith higher sexual ris& ta&ing Fraser, 677J. %chools have uniue opportunities to provide education and information, as #ell as structured activities that discourage unhealth ris& ta&ing. )reater involvement in schools is related to decreased sexual ris& ta&ing and later initiation of sex, pregnanc, and childbearing B.%. 5ublic Health %ervice, L<<6. Noung #omen #ho #ere the least successful in high school are the most li&el to become pregnant 3ational 2ssociation of %ocial !or&ers E32%!, L<<<. %ubstance use and abuse are also factors in sexual decision ma&ing. 1ne-uarter of sexuall active high school ouths reported using alcohol or drugs during their most recent sexual encounter :aiser Famil Foundation, L<<
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The political focus abstinence-onl sexualit education has greatl impacted the nature and scope of information and services available to outh. This focus on abstinence-onl until marriage ho#ever, contradicts the beliefs of the majorit of 2mericans #ho favor comprehensive sexualit education that includes abstinence as #ell as information on contraception, pregnanc prevention, %T0s, and HIOM2I0% 2dvocates for Nouth S %I/8B%, 6777.
IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
0efining 4esponsible %exual 'ehavior( Individual and 8ommunit 4esponsibilit The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Promote Sexual Health and Responsible Sexual Behavior L<<6, has helped to frame the dialogue on sex and sexualit in a manner that highlights the importance of good sexual health and identifies core components of responsible sexual behavior that #ill positivel impact individual and public health goals. %ocial #or&ers #or&ing on behalf of health, ouths, and families can use these concepts in a manner that promotes prevention and positive outh development. Individual responsibilities include •
understanding and a#areness of oneGs sexualit and sexual development
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respect for oneGs self and oneGs partner
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avoidance of phsical or emotional harm to either oneself or oneGs partner
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ensuring pregnanc occurs onl #hen #elcomed
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recognition of tolerance and diversit of sexual values.
8ommunit responsibilit includes assurance that individuals have •
access to appropriate sexualit education
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access to sexual and reproductive health care and counseling
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the latitude to ma&e appropriate sexual and reproductive choices
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respect for diversit and freedom from stigmati+ation and violence on the basis of gender, race, ethnicit, religion, or sexual orientation.
This frame#or& can serve as the basis for #or&shops, counseling sessions, prevention programs, and other related services.
)etting the 'os Involved *uch of the attention to adolescent sexual health is dominated b teenage pregnanc prevention. 2lthough this focus is laudable, it is euall important to address the multiplicit of issues that lead oung people to earl experiences #ith sex and potential parenthood. In addition, it is important that oung people #ho need services and assistance be able to gain access to sstems of care and help before a pregnanc, #hich is often #hen oung girls are identified. 2ssisting all ouths in establishing and maintaining good sexual health reuires a focus on the appropriate sociali+ation and behaviors of both females and males. •
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)ender roles that accord higher permissiveness for males and passivit for females can negativel impact the sexual and overall health of oung girls and #omen, if the are unable to protect themselves against unintended pregnanc and sexuall transmitted diseases B.%. 5ublic Health %ervice, L<<6. Noung men are more li&el than oung #omen to become sexuall active at ounger ages, 6L percent and percent, respectivel. *ales are more li&el than females to report having had four or more sexual partners :aiser Famil Foundation, L<<
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3ot all men involved in teenage pregnancies are teenagers themselves, especiall #hen ver oung teenagers or coercive sex is involved. !hereas @? percent of sexuall active females ages 6= to67 have partners #ho are #ithin t#o ears older or ounger, the ounger the girl is #hen she has sex the first time, the greater the average age difference is li&el to be bet#een her and her partner :aiser Famil Foundation, L<<
Helping oung people establish health relationships and communication #ith their peers and partners, to be mutuall respectful of one another, and to support greater euit in relationships and sexual decision ma&ing can ma&e a difference in health outcomes.
*/3T2P H/2PTH 813%I0/42TI13% 'ecause of our uniue roles and diversified practice areas, social #or&ers have the opportunit to bring to bear more contemporar understanding of outh sexual behavior and subseuent outcomes. Issues of mental health, depression, lo# self-esteem, and feelings of hopelessness ma encourage adolescent participation in intimate relationships. The need for intimac and connection, coupled #ith the mortalit rates of oung men, particularl 2frican 2merican men, are important concepts to consider, particularl as the relate to teenage pregnanc.
2dditional !as To 'ecome Involved In Helping Nouths and 8ommunities 2chieve 4esponsible %exual 'ehavior( •
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In school settings, share information #ith other staff and health professionals on evidence-based intervention models. 2pproaches that have been effective include communit-based programs, school-based programs, clinic-based and religion-based programs B.%. 5ublic Health %ervice, L<<6. Bnderstand the connection bet#een the pschosocial aspects of sexual decision ma&ing as a point of intervention. This helps to expand the connection of issues beond the use of contraception.
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'e &no#ledgeable about health education and health services access in our local communit.
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Have resources and referral information available for ouths and families in our communit.
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2dvocate for policies that protect the confidentialit of ouths see&ing health care services. !or& #ith ouths and families to facilitate communication about responsible sexualit. 'e &no#ledgeable about the reporting policies in our state on, for example, statutor rape or suspected sexual exploitation of children. The fathers of babies born to teenage mothers are li&el to be older than the mothers( about one in five infants born to unmarried minors are fathered b men five or more ears older than the mother 2)I, 6777.
..................... F.'E ,/.)C.,1E! 2F !E34A1 /E!,2)!.B.1.56 1.
Having the Courage to Get Adequate Sexual Knowledge
In the past, having little or no sexual knowledge indicated that women were sexually inexperienced. Today inadequate sexual knowledge is one of the major reasons we engage in sexual practices without fully understanding the consequences of this behavior and the impact of poor decision-making where sexual matters are concerned. nowledge alone does not necessarily change risky behaviors, but it can provide the basis for decisions that promise sexual health. 2.
Connecting Our Family alue! to Sexual Sociali"ation and Sexual #ehavior
!arents need to take a much more active role in discussing any and all sexual topics. "ost importantly, parents need to be involved in all aspects of their children#s lives, gradually letting the children be responsible for themselves. $e cannot depend solely on schools and churches to educate our children about human sexuality. $e also need to be a part of the educational process. %rom these efforts, a new generation of knowledgeable and responsible youths can emerge. $.
%rotecting One Another &rom A'u!e and (x)loitation
&lack women are more likely to be sexually abuse than they are to get married or go to college. $e also have to stress disclosing negative incidents to a responsible person, and teach our children to do so. 'hildren should have a very specific idea of inappropriate ways of expressing affection. $e have to aggressively control our children#s exposure to any messages that would have them believe that they cannot be sexually responsible individuals. (exual irresponsibility is not a part of our culture. *.
aluing Our A'ility to Control Our Own Sexual +eci!ion ,a-ing
)dolescents are too often motivated by curiosity and the pressure to perform sexually as expressed by friends, love, interest and the media. They are not learning to control their sexuality and protect their reproductive systems in a responsible way. )dolescents who do not control their sexuality often continue these patterns as adults and abuse their sexuality or allow it to be used by others. $e need to learn how to control our sexuality and be able to select a partner who will respect us and help us avoid unwanted sexual outcomes. .
Creating /e!)ect&ul and ,utually Sati!&ying /elation!hi)! 0hat Al!o nclude! Sex
0o ou recogni+e our needs and not just our #ants$ 0o ou believe in our s&ills and our #orth as an individual$ 2ns#ering es to these uestions puts us on the path to health relationships. Health relationships involve learning ho# to compromise #ith partners and at the same time not ceding all of our control to them. 1ur cultural and religious values emphasi+e relationships in our lives. 1ur survival as #omen is contingent upon self-protection and decision-ma&ing. 1nl #hen #e respect ourselves can #e have health relationships.
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(dolescent %e$alityC )al the )al Before )hey al the al
Adolescence can be tough enough to get through without (uestions of sex, sexuality, and sexual identity. !ut adolescents are humans, too — no matter how alien they may seem to their parents at times. 2penly addressing the all1too1human (uestions of sexual development, sexual desire, and the nature of the adolescent
your teenager is a vitally important part of helping your teen understand herself or himself. It can help your child avoid devastating, and possibly life1threatening, errors in judgment. %Above all, it is critical that parents be truthful, honest, and available to their children,& says =harles 6. ibbelsman, '.9., #AAC, =hief of Adolescent 'edicine at >aiser Cermanente in -an #rancisco and a member of the American Academy of Cediatrics< =ommittee on Adolescence. %Carents often have their own agenda — don
)he essa"es )hey Get In today
%-eeing something in the media that is obviously sexually charged can be a springboard for conversation between adolescent and parent,& says 9r. ibbelsman. %Is the ad bad or good7 hat
%tartin" the 8iscssion -o when is the right time to start talking about sex with your child7 Iteep reminding your child that you are in her corner every step of the way. %4ever let them forget that your love is unconditional,& 9r. -eigel says. %Tell them, OI am here with you, and I love you and I will be here with you no matter what through all of this.< Nes, it
/eepin" the !hannels #pen As your child matures — physically, mentally, and emotionally — opportunities will emerge for making regular discussions about sexuality part of your continuing conversation. 2bviously, changes in your child
2ne area that should receive particular attention is %urban myths& — bits of false information that %everyone& knows, passed along from adolescent to adolescent )and even from generation to generation 9on
!onterin" the *ressre 2ne key area to emphasie is that no one has the right to pressure your daughter or son to have sex. Ceer pressure — and the media pressure that often stimulates it — can be addressed by empowering your children with your belief in their ability to withstand such pressure, a sense of values that are more important than immediate gratification, and their absolute freedom to bring any concerns to you. It is wholly natural for adolescents to have (uestions about sex and sexual identity. hile attitudes toward gay and lesbian identity )among other issues* remain tangled and complex, the crucial thing to bear in mind is that all of us have such (uestions at one time or another. %Carents need to be open about that and understand the entire spectrum of sexuality and sexual orientation, and not try to funnel them into a particular niche or area,& says 9r. ibbelsman. %Accept the adolescentnow the difference between facts and your opinion, and be clear about both.& !ut how to do it in a way that helps keep the channels open7 It
..... One in Ten Young Filipino Women Age 15 to 19 Is Already A Mother or Pregnant With First Child (Final esults !rom the "#1$ %ational &emographi' and ealth )ur*ey+
Reference Number:
"#1,-#5. Release Date: Thursday/ August "0/ "#1,
One in ten young Filipino omen age 15-19 has 2egun 'hild2earing3 0 per'ent are already mothers and another " per'ent are pregnant ith their !irst 'hild a''ording to the results o! the "#1$ %ational &emographi' and ealth )ur*ey (%&)+4 Among young adult omen age "# to ",/ ,$ per'ent are already mothers and , per'ent are pregnant ith their !irst 'hild (Ta2le 1+4 arly pregnan'y and motherhood *aries 2y edu'ation/ ealth 6uintile/ and region4 It is more 'ommon among young adult omen age 15 to ", ith less edu'ation than among those ith higher edu'ation (,, per'ent !or omen ith elementary edu'ation *ersus "1 per'ent !or omen ith 'ollege edu'ation+4 arly 'hild2earing is also more 'ommon in Caraga ($0 per'ent+ and Cagayan 7alley ($. per'ent+ than other regions4 The proportion o! young adult omen ho ha*e 2egun 'hild2earing is higher among those 'lassi!ied as 2elonging to poor households than those in ealthier households ($. per'ent !or young omen in the loest ealth 6uintile *ersus 1$ per'ent !or omen in the highest ealth 6uintile+4 The sur*ey also re*eals that one in !i*e (19 per'ent+ young adult Filipino omen age 10 to ", years had initiated their se8ual a'ti*ity 2e!ore age 104 )ome o! them ould ha*e had their !irst intimate se8ual a't 2e!ore marriage4 The sur*ey re*eals that 15 per'ent o! young adult omen age "# to ", had their !irst marriage or 2egan li*ing ith their !irst spouse or partner 2y age 104 This proportion is loer than the proportion (19 per'ent+ earlier 'ited regarding initiation 2y young omen o! an intimate se8ual a'ti*ity4 Age at !irst marriage hardly 'hanged o*er the years4 A slightly higher proportion (1. per'ent+ o! older 'ohort o! omen (age group ,#-,9+ had their !irst marriage at age 10 (Ta2le $+4
Initiation o! se8ual a'ti*ity 2e!ore age 10 is more 'ommon among young adult omen ith less edu'ation and those in poorer households4 O*er ,# per'ent o! young adult omen ith some elementary edu'ation/ 'ompared ith only . per'ent o! those ith 'ollege edu'ation/ reported ha*ing their !irst intimate se8ual a't at age 10 (Ta2le "+4 )imilarly/ $ per'ent o! young adult omen in the loest ealth 6uintile/ 'ompared ith only 1# per'ent o! those in the highest ealth 6uintile/ had their !irst intimate se8ual a't 2e!ore age 104 A'ross regions/ the proportion ranges !rom 11 per'ent in Cordillera Administrati*e egion to ". per'ent in &a*ao4 The proportion o! young adult omen reporting !irst intimate se8ual a't 2e!ore age 10 is "" per'ent !or rural areas and 1. per'ent !or ur2an areas4 Among young omen age 15 to ",/ " per'ent reported initiating their se8ual a'ti*ity 2e!ore turning 154 The "#1$ %&) is a nationally representati*e sur*ey o! almost 1/### households and 19/### omen age 15-,94 The sur*ey as 'ondu'ted !rom August 1" to O'to2er 1/ "#1$4 The "#1$ %&) is designed to pro*ide in!ormation on !ertility/ !amily planning/ and health in the 'ountry4 Other important !indings o! the "#1$ %&) ill 2e presented in a data dissemination !orum on )eptem2er "/ "#1, at Crone Pla:a Manila ;alleria/ Ortigas A*e4 'or4 A&< A*e4/ =ue:on City4
....
The 4ational Nouth =ommission, supported by the 9epartment of "ealth and the orld "ealth 2rganiation, convened the ?@/E 4ational -ummit on Teen Cregnancy last April ?E. This summit, which saw the active participation of adolescent youth, delivered a clear message Adolescent sexual and reproductive health )A-6"*, or the lack thereof, is fast becoming the defining issue of this generation of young #ilipinos. ithout a robust response from all stakeholders, the Chilippines is on track toward a full1blown, national teenage pregnancy crisis. -taggering facts support this call for concern. 6ecent )?@/E* data from the Chilippine -tatistical Authority )C-A* reveal that every hour, ?E babies are delivered by teenage mothers. According to the ?@/E Noung Adult #ertility and -exuality )NA#-* study, around /E percent of #ilipino girls aged /M to /; are either pregnant for the first time or are already mothers—more than twice the rate recorded in ?@@?. Among six major economies in the Association of -outheast Asian 4ations, the Chilippines has the
highest rate of teenage pregnancies and is the only country where the rate is increasing, per the 3nited 4ations Copulation #und. According to 5osefina 4atividad, NA#- coordinator and director of the 3niversity of the Chilippines Copulation Institute, young #ilipinos have limited access to sex education and A-6" services, especially if they are underage and unmarried. -eventy1eight percent are not using any form of contraception or protection against sexually transmitted diseases and infections when they are having sex for the first time. hile government programs aim to delay the beginning of childbearing and hasten fertility decline, teenage pregnancies continue to increase. Cerhaps it is really time for a new and more collaborative strategy7 9ata show that pregnant teenagers in the Chilippines are mostly /0 to /; years old. They live with their mothers, parents, or relatives. The father of the child is, in most cases, a teenage boy. 6easons for becoming pregnant among teenagers include unplanned sexual encounters )%getting caught up in the moment&* and peer pressure$ lack of information on safe sex$ breakdown of family life and lack of good female role models in the family$ and absence of accessible, adolescent1friendly clinics. Teenagers from poor backgrounds are disproportionately represented among pregnant teenagers. "owever, experts have argued that teenage pregnancy should be understood as a symptom of dire economic conditions rather than a cause of it. Teenage pregnancy perpetuates the cycle of poverty and ine(uality because most pregnant teenagers have no source of income and face greater financial difficulties later in life. This is because they drop out of school and are less likely to pursue further education or skills training. Teenage mothers face critical health risks, including inade(uate nutrition during pregnancy due to poor eating habits$ dangers associated with the reproductive organs not ready for birth$ and maternal death due to higher risk of eclampsia, among others. Alarmingly, while maternal deaths are decreasing in the Chilippines, teenage maternal deaths are increasing. Ten percent of pregnant teenagers died in the last year, according to the C-A. 9ata from the "2 also show a high and increasing incidence of fetal death in #ilipino mothers under ?@. At the end of the teenage pregnancy summit, the participants strongly endorsed a comprehensive sexual education curriculum$ forging a %!atang Ina& social movement$ and establishing adolescent1friendly spaces. The enactment of the 6esponsible Carenthood and 6eproductive "ealth Act was also recognied as an important step to make A-6" services more accessible to those in need. As an international child rights organiation, Clan International believes that the rights and needs of adolescent girls and boys, including their right to access A-6" services, must be ensured. In our work in the Chilippines, A-6" continues to be a priority in line with our global %!ecause I am a :irl& campaign and national !atang usog program.
e are implementing A-6" interventions in -outhern eyte and +astern -amar, where cases of teenage pregnancy are increasing. Nouth1#riendly -paces are being established to provide peer education and counseling on A-6" and rights. This is complemented by our response to eliminate gender1based violence in communities by establishing omen1#riendly -paces. These measures help prevent teenage pregnancy by disseminating the right information about the risks and impacts of teenage pregnancy on the teen mom and the infant. An exploratory study by Clan International on the rising incidence of teenage pregnancy in %Nolanda&1affected areas is also being designed. In the face of numerous challenges that #ilipino adolescents face every day— discrimination, gender1based violence, harmful gender stereotypes—they must be e(uipped with the life skills and assets to help them make the best decisions for themselves and their community. hen adolescents choose to have sex, they have a right to access not just information but also inclusive A-6" services. At the end of the day, when an adolescent, especially a girl, knows her rights, is empowered to choose, and is heard, she can improve not only her life but also the life of her immediate and future families. -o, maybe it
6ead more httpC55opinion.inIirer.net54?15teena"e-pre"nancy-
aon"-todays-Jlipino-yothKi$004'#"aaees #ollow us LinIirerdotnet on )+itter P inIirerdotnet on Faceboo ... MANI LA,Phi l i ppi nes–Young,s ex ual l yac t i v e,andcl uel es s . Th ati sho ws o meu nwa nt e dp r e gn an ci e ss t a r to uti nt h ePh i l i pp i n esan de l s e wh er e . Thepr obl em t r ac esi t sr oo t st ot hel ac kofac c es st oappr opr i at es ex ual andr epr oduc t i v eheal t h i nf or mat i onandser v i c es ,t heUni t edNat i onsPopul at i onFund( UNFPA)s ai d. " Adol es centf er t i l i t yr a t eshav edec l i nedi nt hel as tt wodec adesi nal l c ount r i eswi t hav ai l abl e dat a,wi t ht heex c ept i onoft hePhi l i ppi neswher et her ehasbeenl i t t l ec hange, "t he UNFPAr e p o r t e d i nFebr uar y .
Atpr es ent ,t her ear enear l yonebi l l i ony oungpeopl eagedbe t ween10and24l i v i ngi nt heAs i aPac i fi cr egi on,ac count i ngf ormor et hanaquar t erofi t spopul at i on. A" s i gni fi cantpr opor t i on"ar es ex ual l yac t i v e. " Whi l ef orman yt heons etofs ex ual ac t i v i t yi sas s oc i at edwi t hmar r i age,ani nc r eas i ngnumber ar ei ni t i at i ngs exbef or emar r i age, "t her epor ts ai d Ar oundonet hi r dofadol es c entpr egnanc i eswer ec onc ei v edpr i ort omar r i age,anunpubl i s hed anal y s i soft he2013Phi l i ppi neDemogr aphi candHeal t hSur v e yr epor t ed. Thebur denc ar r i edb ys uc ha dol es c ent si sgr eat erast he yha v ei ns uffic i entk no wl edgeandl i f es k i l l sr eg ar di ngs af eandc ons ens ual r e l at i ons hi ps ,t heUNFPAs ai d.( READ:Young,pr egnant , andpoor ) The yal s of a c eb ar r i e r st oa c ce s si n gs e r v i c esan dc o mmo di t i e sn ee dedt oa v oi du ns af es e xan d i t sc o n s eq ue nc e s .( READ:I sl ear ni ngs af es exuns af e?) Th eUNFPAs t r e ss e dt h atp oo rs e x u al a ndr e pr o du c t i v eh ea l t hno to nl yaff ec t st h ey o ut h phy si c al l ybutal s os oc i oec onomi c al l y . " Thes eneg at i v econs equenc ese xt endt oy oungpeopl e ’ sf ami l i esandf ut ur egener at i ons ,and c a np er pe t u at eac y c l eo fp oo rh ea l t ha ndd i s ad v an t a ge , "t h eUNFPAs ai d . Wh i l ei mp r o v eme nt si nt h ePh i l i p pi n esha v eb ee ns l o w,So ut hAs i a nc ou nt r i e sh av es ee nmu c h pr ogr es s.Thei radol es centf er t i l i t yhasf al l enbynear l y40%,par t l ybec aus eofar educ t i oni n c hi l dmar r i age. " Fer t i l i t yr at esar ehi gheri ns et t i ngswher eear l ymar r i agei spr ev al entandamongr ur al gi r l s c o mp ar e dwi t ht h os el i v i n gi nu r b ana r e as , "t h eUNFPAo bs e r v e d." Ad ol e s ce ntp r e gn an c yi s al s oas s oc i at edwi t hl es seduc at i onat t ai nmentandl owers oc i oec onomi cs t at us . "
For c ed,v i ol e nts ex Se v er a la do l e sc e ntg i r l sa ndy ou ngwo me nr e po r t e dc o er c e ds e x . I nf ac t ,i nt hePhi l i ppi nes ,15% ofadol es c entgi r l swhohads exbef or et heageof15r epor t ed t hatt hei rfi r s tenc ount erwasf or c ed.Ther at ei sonl y5% f ort hos ewhohads exov ert heageof 15.
Asar es ul t ,t he1519agegr oupi satr i s koft hef ol l owi ng: •
Ea r l yan du ni n t e nd edp r e gn an c y
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Uns af eabor t i on
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Se x ual l yt r ans mi t t eddi s eas e( STD)
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Humani mmunodefici encyvi r us( HI V)
Su c hr i s k sa r ees p ec i a l l yh i g ha mo ngy ou ngwo me nwhos el l s e x .Th eya l s oha v eh i g hr a t e s ofmul t i pl epar t ner sands ex ual v i ol enc e. Adol es c entf emal ese xwor k er saged14t o17wer emor et han3t i mes" l es sl i k e l yt onego t i at e c ondom us ewi t ht hei rc l i ent st hanadul ts exwor k er s . " I na dd i t i o n," r a t e so fv i ol e nc ea r ea l s oh i gha mo ngy o un gf e ma l es e xwo r k e r s ,me nwh oh av e s e xwi t hme n( MSM) ,a ndy o un gt r a ns g e nd erp eo pl e , "t h eUNFPAs a i d . Ar ou nd5 0% o fFi l i pi n oMSMss ai dt h ei rfi r s ts e x ua le nc o un t e rwi t hama nwa sf o r c ed .
I nfluences Ther ear ev ar i ousf ac t or si nfl uenc i ngr i s k ys ex ual beha vi or s .Oneoft hem i sal c ohol ,wi t h9% t o 12% i nt hePhi l i ppi nesr epor t i ngbi ngedr i nk i ng. Lac kofpar ent al s uppor torl i v i ngawa yf r om one' sf ami l yhasal s obeenas s oc i at edwi t hear l y i ni t i at i onofs e x . Bu ts omei n fl ue nc esc a nb eg oo d.As t u dyi nt h ePh i l i pp i n ess ho we dal i n kbe t we ende l a y ed s ex ual i ni t i at i onandha v i ngac l os er el at i ons hi pwi t hpar ent s . So mei n fl u en c e s ,me an wh i l e ,c a nb eb o t hh ar mf u la n dg oo d,t h eUNFP As u g ge s t e d." Wh i l e r el i gi oust aboosma ybeabar r i erl i mi t i ngopendi s c us s i onofs ex ual heal t handac c es st o s er v i c es ,af ami l y ’ sr e l i gi ousors pi r i t ual bel i ef scanal s obepr ot ec t i v eagai ns tr i s kysex ual behav i or s . " Ot herf ac t or st hatc oul dpr es s ur ey oungpeopl ei nt os e xar ef r i ends ,t hemedi a,andgender nor ms.
Condom ornocondom? I nt hePhi l i ppi nes ,mor et hanhal fofadol es centgi r l sr el yons hor t ac t i ngmet hodsl i k epi l l sand c ond oms . Meanwhi l e,t heus eofmor eeffec t i v emet hodsl i k ei nt r aut er i nede vi c es( I UD)andi mpl ant si s v er yl o w. No te v e r y o n eu s esc on do msei t h er .Th eUNFPAf o un dt h aty o un gp eo pl ea r e" mu c hl e s sl i k e l y " t ous ec ondomswi t hr omant i cpar t ner s ,t hi nk i ngt hatc ondomsi mpl ypr omi s c ui t y . ( READ:Ar e y o ua f r a i do fc o nd oms ?) Thi smi n ds e ti sd an ge r o usa si tc ou l dl e adt oun wa nt e dp r e gn an ci e san dSTDs . I nf ac t ,s el f r epor t edSTDamongy oungFi l i pi nomeni satl eas t3t i meshi ghert hana mongol der men. T oi mp r o v es uc hc on di t i o ns ,t h eUNFPAs u gge s t e dt h ef ol l o wi n g: •
Suppor tr es ear c honse x ual andr epr oduc t i v eheal t h.
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St r engt henl awsgr ant i ngt heyout hac c es st os ex ual andr epr oduc t i v eheal t hi nf or mat i on, c ommo di t i e s,a nds e r v i c es .
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I mpr o vese xual i t yeduc at i on.
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I nc r eas ey out hpar t i c i pat i oni npol i c y mak i ngandpr ogr ammi ng.
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I nAugus t2014,t heNat i onal St at i s t i c sOffic e( NSO)oft hePhi l i ppi nesr el eas edt hefi nal r es ul t soft he2 01 3Na t i o na lDe mo gr a ph i ca ndHe al t hSu r v e y.
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Th es u r v e ys ho wst h at1i n1 0Fi l i p i n owo me nb et we ent h ea ge so f1 5a nd1 9i sal r e ad y amot herori spr egnantwi t hherfi r s tc hi l d.
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Whyt her i s ei nt e ena gepr e gna nc yi nPhi l i ppi ne s?
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Th eWo r l dHe al t hOr g an i z at i o n ( WHO)r epor t st hatabout16mi l l i ongi r l saged15t o19 a nds o me1mi l l i o ng i r l sun de r1 5g i v eb i r t he v er yy ea r— 9 5% o fwhi c ho c cu ri nl o w-a nd mi ddl ei nc omec ount r i es .
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ThePhi l i ppi nesi sc l a ss i fi edbyt h eWo r l dBa nk asha v i n gal o we r mi d dl e i n co me e co no my ,t h ust h eWHO s ur v e ye x t en dst oou rc ou nt r y , a ndi sr e fl ec t i v eofwh atwes ee h ap pe ni n gh er e .
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Thi sal ar mi ngr i s ei nt eenagepr egnanc yi nPhi l i ppi nesma ybeat t r i but edt oeconomi c andeduc at i onal f ac t or s.
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TheNSO s ur v eyr es ul t ss t at et hatear l yi ni t i at i onofs ex ual ac t i v i t yandear l ypr egnanc yi s o f t e ns e ena mo ngwo me nb el o ng i n gt ol o we ri n c omeh ou s eh ol d s .I ti sa l s omo r e c ommo na mo ngt h os ewi t hl i t t l eo rn of o r ma le du ca t i o n.
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Ay o un gmo mi nt h ep r o v i n c ewi t hhe rt woc hi l d r e n
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Ot her sma yal s oc l ai mt hats oc i et al f ac t or sandt hemedi ama yal s opl a yar ol ei nt her i s e oft eenagepr egnanc i es .J our nal i s tT eddyLoc s i nJ r . ,i na2014edi t or i al onANC,e v en b l a me dt h er i s eoft e en ag ep r e gn an c yo ns h owb i z .
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Hec i t est hepr omi nenc eofs e xual t hemesi nt el e vi s i onandmo v i es ,da yi nandda yout , ands t at est hi sast her eas onwhyt hedes i r ef orphy si c al c ont ac ti si ngr ai nedi nt ot he mi n dsoft h ey o ut h .
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Whi l ewec ans pec ul at eont het r uer eas onsbehi ndi t ,t her eal i t yi st hatt eenage pr egnanc yi nPhi l i ppi nesi sbec omi ngf art ooc ommon.No tonl yt hi s ,butt het eenage mo msar eg et t i n gy o un ge ra swe l l .
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Gi r l sev enasy oungasgr ade5s t udent sar egi v i ngbi r t h— asi nt hec as eoft he12y ear ol dgi r l whoga v ebi r t hi nKal i bo,Ak l ani nNo v ember2014.
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Chapter 7 /esearch "ethodology 78+ 2verview of the Chapter
This stud #as conducted in order to assess the challenges post b the ne# accounting rules and practices in H: #ith regards to real estate industr. To be able to gather the necessar data, the researcher utili+ed the descriptive method, using both ualitative and uantitative approaches. Herein, the chosen responded #ere randoml selected from various real estate industr in H:. The surve methods #ere the research instruments used for the data-gathering. The emploees of real estate #ho have been chosen in this stud accomplished a surve uestionnaire to evaluate the challenges facing the real estate industr in Hong :ong. The results of the surve #ere then processed b computing the #eighted mean of each surve item. The computed values #ere compared to the Pi&ert scale for data interpretation. 4elevant literatures #ere also used to support the gathered findings. The credibilit of findings and conclusions extensivel depend on the ualit of the research design, data collection, data management, and data analsis. This chapter #ill be dedicated to the description of the methods and procedures done in order to obtain the data, ho# the #ill be analsed, interpreted, and ho# the conclusion #ill be met. This section is to justif the means in #hich the stud #as obtained and #ill
help in giving it purpose and strength as it #ill then be truthful and analtical. 2ll these #ill help in the processing of the data and the formulation of conclusions. %pecificall, this research #ill cover the follo#ing( the research design and method, the respondents or subjects to be studied #hich #ill include the sampling method, the data collection instrument, and the data analsis. These #ill be presented belo#.
3. Research !ethods
This stud utili+ed the descriptive method of research. 2s #idel accepted, the descriptive method of research is a fact-finding stud that involves adeuate and accurate interpretation of findings. 0escriptive research describes a certain present condition. 4elativel, the method is appropriate to this stud since it aims to describe the present condition of technical analsis as it is used in the stoc& mar&et. The techniue that #as used under descriptive method is the normative surve approach and evaluation, #hich is commonl used to explore opinions according to respondents that can represent a #hole population. The surve is appropriate in this stud because it enables the researcher in formulation of generali+ations. %pecificall, t#o tpes of direct-data surve are included in this stud. These are uestionnaire surve and intervie#s.Intervie#s #ith researchers, venture capital practitioners, and other colleagues in the academ #ere conducted to provide further insight about the results of the surve. The direct-data tpe of surve is a reliable source of first-hand information because the researcher directl interacts #ith the participants. The uestionnaire surve respondents #ere given ample time to assess the challenges facing the real estate in H:. Their o#n experiences #ith real estate in practice are necessar in identifing its strengths and limitations. The purpose of emploing the descriptive method is to describe the nature of a condition, as it ta&es place during the time of the stud and to explore the cause or causes of a particular condition. The researcher opted to use this &ind of research considering the desire to acuire first hand data from the respondents so as to formulate rational and sound conclusions and recommendations for the stud. 2ccording to 8res#ell 677, the descriptive method of research is to gather
information about the present existing condition. %ince this stud is focused on the perception or evaluation of the consultanc firmGs effective human resource management, the descriptive method is the most appropriate method to use.
)+o types of data +ere sedC the priary and the secondary data. )he priary data +ere derived fro the ans+ers respondents "ave in the selfadinistered Iestionnaire prepared by the researcher. &n addition, the inforation obtained fro the intervie+ also provided priary research data that spported the stdy. )he secondary data on the other hand, +ere derived fro the Jndin"s stated in pblished docents and literatres related to the research proble. )hese +ere based fro the recent literatres related to real estate in H/ and the factors that challen"e it and the accontin" rles and practices in H/ and the concepts cited by the respondents. In terms of approach, the stud emploed both ualitative and uantitative approaches. The uantitative approach focused on obtaining numerical findings #as used #ith the surve method. The intervie# on the other hand, made up the ualitative approach of the stud as this focused on personal accounts, observations, description and individual insights of the respondents. This stud emploed the combined approach so as to overcome the limitations of both approaches.
3.3 "irect#data Surve$
0irect-data surve aims on collecting pertinent data about technical analsis. 2ccordingl, direct-data surve is used to reveal the status of some phenomenon #ithin an identified class of people, organisations, or regions at a particular time through uestionnaire and intervie# to directl collect information 'ruba&er S Thomas, L<<<. The aim of the surve is to obtain pertinent data to achieve the research objective. The site of the stud #as the prime real estate industries and accountants. 4epresentative samples #ere ta&en using a random sampling approach. In this research stud, the critical examination of the H: governmentGs accounting polic regarding #as made. The responses, observation and approval of the respondents to#ards these policies #ere gathered.
In this stud, the chosen respondents #ill be selected from industries and other people #ho are related to real estate and decision#ma%ing . Intervie# uestions #ill focus on the research problems and uestions. &he dissertation used sel#administered (uestionnaire as the main tool in collecting data rom a large number o respondents.
3.) Respondents o the Stud$
The stud #ill have respondents directl from the chosen real estate industries in H:. This ma include managers, accountants and other &no#ledgeable emploees. 2ll of these participants #ere selected through random sampling. This sampling method is conducted #here each member of a population has an eual opportunit to become part of the sample. 2s all members of the population have an eual chance of becoming a research participant, this is said to be the most efficient sampling procedure. In order to conduct this sampling strateg, the researcher defined the population first, listed do#n all the members of the population, and then selected members to ma&e the sample. For this purpose, a self-administered surve uestionnaire in Pi&ert format #as given to the respondents to ans#er. Herein, t here *ere +,, participants for the uestionnaire surve and five individuals for the intervie#s. The respondents #ere given = das to complete the surve uestionnaire upon reuest. 2fter collecting the uestionnaires, the responses #ill be tallied, computed, analsed, and recorded. 1ne the other hand, for the personal intervie#s, most of the intervie#ees #ere given time according to their convenience. 8hoices #ere given for the intervie#ees #ho #ill ans#er the intervie# uestions, through phone, email, online conversation, chat or personal intervie#. There #ere onl five participants #ho #ere #illing andMor had the chance to share their time and tal& about their experience in real estate.
3.- nstrumentation 1. Content analysis
8ontent analsis #as done to analse communications in order to ans#er t#o levels of uestions K the descriptive and the interpretive. 0escriptive uestions focused on #hat the communication contains. Interpretative uestions focused on #hat the
contents #as li&el to mean. The process entailed searching through one or more communication to ans#er uestions that an investigator brings to the search 'ruba&er S Thomas, L<<<. 8ontent 2nalsis #as used to anal+e and interpret the intervie#s.
2. Statistical Treatment
The Pi&ert scale #as used to interpret items in the uestionnaire. These responses #ere based on the respondentsG assesH: 4eal /statent of the current investment process model. There #ere instances that the respondents #ere as&ed to rate the effectiveness of implementing the phases in the investment process. The range and interpretation of the five-point scale are sho#n in Table L.
5able ( 5he Five0point 1i&ert !cale !cale
/ange
.nterpretation
=
.<6 K =.<<
%trongl 2gree
?.<6 K .<<
2gree
?
L.<6 K ?.<<
Bncertain
L
6.<6 K L.<<
0isagree
6
<.<6 K 6.<<
%trongl 0isagree
!eighted mean #as used to measure the general response of the surve samples, #hether the agree to a given statement or not. The formula in computing #eighted mean is as follo#s( !here(
f K #eight given to each response x K number of responses xt K total number of responses
