PAWGI Wilderness Guide Manual: Canada

Wilderness Guide Manual: Canada Fourth Edition (April 2013) Authors: Imanol Amercaray Arkyn Borg Christopher Fragassi Maarten Harteveld Joshua Wilkinson Published by: Professional Association of Wilderness Guides and Instructors Inc. P.O. Box 8721 Victoria, British Columbia Canada V8W 3S3 Telephone: 1 888 PAWGI ORG Web: www.PAWGI.org

© Copyright 2013: Professional Association of Wilderness Guides and Instructors Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted by in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Published in Canada. ISBN: 978-0-9811746-9-3 PRICE: $49.95

TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION 1A: REGULATORY COMPLIANCE - BRITISH COLUMBIA Business Registration .......................................................................................................... 1-01 Sole Proprietorship ............................................................................................................... 1-01 Partnership ........................................................................................................................... 1-02 Corporation .......................................................................................................................... 1-02 Extra-Provincial Corporation ................................................................................................ 1-03 Tax Registration .................................................................................................................... 1-03 Government Sales Tax (GST) ............................................................................................. 1-03 Provincial Sales Tax (PST) ................................................................................................. 1-04 Municipal and Regional District Tax (MRDT) ....................................................................... 1-04 Operating Licences & Registrations .................................................................................... 1-05 Business Licence ................................................................................................................ 1-05 Travel Services Licence ...................................................................................................... 1-05 Training Institution Registration ............................................................................................ 1-05 Passenger Transportation Licence ..................................................................................... 1-06 Angling Guide Licence ......................................................................................................... 1-06 Guide Outfitter Licence ....................................................................................................... 1-07 Possession and Acquisition Licence ................................................................................... 1-07 Guide Certifications .............................................................................................................. 1-08 Sea Kayak Guiding .............................................................................................................. 1-08 Mountain Guiding ................................................................................................................. 1-08 Wilderness Guiding .............................................................................................................. 1-08 Winter Guiding ..................................................................................................................... 1-08 Land Use ................................................................................................................................. 1-09 Private Land ......................................................................................................................... 1-09 Provincial Parks .................................................................................................................. 1-09 National Parks ..................................................................................................................... 1-09 Public Land (Crown Land) .................................................................................................... 1-10 Indian Reserves & First Nations Treaty Land ...................................................................... 1-10 Liability Insurance ................................................................................................................. 1-10 Workers Compensation ........................................................................................................ 1-10 Labour Regulations .............................................................................................................. 1-11 WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WILDERNESS GUIDES AND INSTRUCTORS INC.

Minimum Wages .................................................................................................................. 1-11 Deductions ........................................................................................................................... 1-11 Special Gear ........................................................................................................................ 1-11 Meal Breaks ......................................................................................................................... 1-11 Overtime ............................................................................................................................... 1-12 Free Time ............................................................................................................................. 1-12 Annual Vacation ................................................................................................................... 1-12 Vacation Pay ........................................................................................................................ 1-12 Pregnancy & Parental Leave ............................................................................................... 1-13

SECTION 1B: REGULATORY COMPLIANCE - YUKON TERRITORY Business Registration .......................................................................................................... 1-14 Sole Proprietorship ............................................................................................................... 1-14 Partnership ........................................................................................................................... 1-15 Corporation .......................................................................................................................... 1-15 Extra-Territorial Corporation ................................................................................................. 1-17 Tax Registration .................................................................................................................... 1-17 Goods and Services Tax (GST) .......................................................................................... 1-18 Operating Licences & Registrations .................................................................................... 1-18 Business Licence ................................................................................................................ 1-18 Wilderness Tourism Licence ............................................................................................... 1-18 Trade School Registration .................................................................................................... 1-19 National Safety Code .......................................................................................................... 1-19 Bus Permit ............................................................................................................................ 1-20 Yukon Outfitter Licence ....................................................................................................... 1-20 Guided Trapping Permit ...................................................................................................... 1-20 Yukon Angling Licence ........................................................................................................ 1-20 Possession and Acquisition Licence ................................................................................... 1-21 Guide Certifications .............................................................................................................. 1-21 Mountain Guiding ................................................................................................................. 1-21 Wilderness Guiding .............................................................................................................. 1-22 Land Use ................................................................................................................................. 1-22 Private Land ......................................................................................................................... 1-22 Territorial Parks ................................................................................................................... 1-22 National Parks ..................................................................................................................... 1-22 Public Land (Crown Land) .................................................................................................... 1-23 WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WILDERNESS GUIDES AND INSTRUCTORS INC.

Indian Reserves & First Nations Treaty Land ...................................................................... 1-23 Liability Insurance ................................................................................................................. 1-23 Workers Compensation ........................................................................................................ 1-23 Labour Regulations .............................................................................................................. 1-23 Minimum Wages .................................................................................................................. 1-24 Deductions ........................................................................................................................... 1-24 Eating Periods ...................................................................................................................... 1-24 Overtime ............................................................................................................................... 1-24 Days of Rest ......................................................................................................................... 1-25 Annual Vacation and Vacation Pay ...................................................................................... 1-25 Pregnancy Leave ................................................................................................................. 1-25 Parental Leave ..................................................................................................................... 1-26

SECTION 1C: REGULATORY COMPLIANCE - NORTHWEST TERRITORIES Business Registration .......................................................................................................... 1-27 Business Registration .......................................................................................................... 1-27 Partnership ........................................................................................................................... 1-28 Corporation .......................................................................................................................... 1-28 Extra-Territorial Corporation ................................................................................................. 1-30 Tax Registration .................................................................................................................... 1-31 Goods and Services Tax (GST) .......................................................................................... 1-31 Operating Licences & Registrations .................................................................................... 1-31 Business Licence ................................................................................................................ 1-31 Tourism Operator’s Licence ................................................................................................ 1-31 Northwest Territories Outfitter Licence ................................................................................ 1-32 Possession and Acquisition Licence ................................................................................... 1-32 Guide Certifications .............................................................................................................. 1-33 Mountain Guiding ................................................................................................................. 1-33 Wilderness Guiding .............................................................................................................. 1-33 Land Use ................................................................................................................................. 1-33 Private Land ......................................................................................................................... 1-34 Territorial Parks ................................................................................................................... 1-34 National Parks ..................................................................................................................... 1-34 Public Land (Crown Land) .................................................................................................... 1-34 Indian Reserves & First Nations Treaty Land ...................................................................... 1-34 Liability Insurance ................................................................................................................. 1-34 WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WILDERNESS GUIDES AND INSTRUCTORS INC.

Workers Compensation ........................................................................................................ 1-35 Labour Regulations .............................................................................................................. 1-35 Minimum Wages .................................................................................................................. 1-35 Hours of Work ...................................................................................................................... 1-35 Meal Breaks ......................................................................................................................... 1-36 Hours of Rest ....................................................................................................................... 1-36 Vacations and Vacation Pay ................................................................................................ 1-36 Pregnancy and Parental Leave ............................................................................................ 1-36

SECTION 1D: REGULATORY COMPLIANCE - CUSTOMS & IMMIGRATION Customs ................................................................................................................................ 1-37 Customs Declaration Card ................................................................................................... 1-37 Food and Edible Goods ....................................................................................................... 1-38 Plants ................................................................................................................................... 1-38 Firearms ............................................................................................................................... 1-38 Immigration ........................................................................................................................... 1-38 Work Permits ........................................................................................................................ 1-38 Study Permits ....................................................................................................................... 1-38 Visitor Visa ........................................................................................................................... 1-39

SECTION 2: RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT Legal Considerations ........................................................................................................... 2-01 Tort Law ............................................................................................................................... 2-01 Negligence ........................................................................................................................... 2-01 Duty of Care ......................................................................................................................... 2-01 Standard of Care .................................................................................................................. 2-02 Causation ............................................................................................................................. 2-03 Release of Liability ............................................................................................................... 2-03 Risk Management ................................................................................................................. 2-04 Principles of Risk Management ............................................................................................ 2-04 Identification of Hazards ....................................................................................................... 2-04 Severity of Hazards .............................................................................................................. 2-05 Controllability of Hazards ..................................................................................................... 2-06 Assessment of Hazards ....................................................................................................... 2-07 Management of Hazards ...................................................................................................... 2-10 Releases of Liability ............................................................................................................. 2-16 WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WILDERNESS GUIDES AND INSTRUCTORS INC.

Liability Insurance ................................................................................................................ 2-16 Safety Policy ......................................................................................................................... 2-16 Safety Equipment ................................................................................................................. 2-16 First Aid Kits ......................................................................................................................... 2-18 Survival Kits ......................................................................................................................... 2-18 Portable Electric Fences ...................................................................................................... 2-18 Firearms ............................................................................................................................... 2-18 Emergency Management ..................................................................................................... 2-18 Emergencies Manageable at the Expedition Level .............................................................. 2-19 Emergencies Manageable at the Organization Level........................................................... 2-19 Emergencies Requiring Outside Assistance ........................................................................ 2-19 Emergency Plans ................................................................................................................. 2-19 Incident Reports ................................................................................................................... 2-20 Victim Assistance ................................................................................................................. 2-20

SECTION 3: WILDERNESS HAZARDS Mild Hypothermia .................................................................................................................. 3-01 Moderate Hypothermia ......................................................................................................... 3-01 Severe Hypothermia ............................................................................................................. 3-01 Heat Exhaustion .................................................................................................................... 3-02 Heat Stroke ............................................................................................................................ 3-02 Falls through Ice ................................................................................................................... 3-03 Frostbites .............................................................................................................................. 3-04 Falls in Water ........................................................................................................................ 3-04 Burial in Avalanches ............................................................................................................ 3-04 Falls in Crevasses ................................................................................................................ 3-04 Falls from Scrambling Terrain ............................................................................................. 3-05 Falls in Deep Mud or Quick Sand ........................................................................................ 3-05 Rock and Mud Slides ............................................................................................................ 3-05 Tidal Movements ................................................................................................................... 3-05 Brush and Forest Fires ........................................................................................................ 3-05 Blizzards and Snow Storms ................................................................................................. 3-05 Thundershowers ................................................................................................................... 3-06 Lightning ............................................................................................................................... 3-06 Fogs and Low Lying Clouds ................................................................................................ 3-06 Flash Flooding ...................................................................................................................... 3-06 WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WILDERNESS GUIDES AND INSTRUCTORS INC.

Float Planes ........................................................................................................................... 3-07 Helicopters ............................................................................................................................ 3-08 Brown and Black Bears ........................................................................................................ 3-08 Avoiding Bear Conflicts ........................................................................................................ 3-10 In the Event of a Close Encounter ....................................................................................... 3-10 Problem Bears ..................................................................................................................... 3-15 Non-lethal Bear Deterrents .................................................................................................. 3-17 Differentiating a Grizzly Bear from a Black Bear .................................................................. 3-18 Bear Tracks .......................................................................................................................... 3-19 Polar Bears ............................................................................................................................ 3-19 Cougars ................................................................................................................................. 3-21 Avoiding Cougar Conflicts .................................................................................................... 3-21 In the Event of an Attack ...................................................................................................... 3-21 Understanding Cougars ....................................................................................................... 3-22

SECTION 4: NAVIGATION Terrain Assessment ............................................................................................................. 4-01 Route Selection and Planning ............................................................................................. 4-01 Topographic Maps ................................................................................................................ 4-01 Reading Topographic Maps ................................................................................................. 4-02 Distances ............................................................................................................................. 4-03 UTM References .................................................................................................................. 4-04 Geographic References ....................................................................................................... 4-05 Bearings ............................................................................................................................... 4-06 Map Sources ........................................................................................................................ 4-06 Compass Navigation ............................................................................................................ 4-06 Compass .............................................................................................................................. 4-06 Headings .............................................................................................................................. 4-06 Magnetic Declination/Variation ............................................................................................. 4-06 Following a Bearing .............................................................................................................. 4-08 Taking a Compass Bearing from a Map ............................................................................... 4-08 Taking a Compass Bearing from a Landmark ...................................................................... 4-09 Sun Bearing Navigation ....................................................................................................... 4-09 Celestial Navigation .............................................................................................................. 4-11

WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WILDERNESS GUIDES AND INSTRUCTORS INC.

SECTION 5A: EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: PLANNING Fitness Assessment ............................................................................................................. 5-01 Regulatory Assessment ....................................................................................................... 5-01 Environmental Assessment ................................................................................................. 5-01 Climate Assessment ............................................................................................................. 5-02 Water Assessment ................................................................................................................ 5-02 Transportation Assessment ................................................................................................ 5-03 Time Allocated for Travel ..................................................................................................... 5-03 Protection Against Insects .................................................................................................. 5-04 Gear and Equipment ............................................................................................................. 5-04 Clothing ................................................................................................................................ 5-04 Sleeping Bags ...................................................................................................................... 5-04 Tents .................................................................................................................................... 5-05 Stoves .................................................................................................................................. 5-05 Shorts ................................................................................................................................... 5-05 Rain Gear ............................................................................................................................. 5-05 Parkas .................................................................................................................................. 5-05 Toiletries ............................................................................................................................... 5-06 Guide Equipment ................................................................................................................. 5-06 Client Equipment .................................................................................................................. 5-06 Activity-Specific Equipment .................................................................................................. 5-06 Food and Supplies ................................................................................................................ 5-06 Caloric Needs ....................................................................................................................... 5-06 Nutritional Needs .................................................................................................................. 5-07 Types of Food ...................................................................................................................... 5-07 Drinking and Cooking Water ................................................................................................ 5-08 Fuel Supplies ....................................................................................................................... 5-08 Self-Assessment ................................................................................................................... 5-08 Fitness .................................................................................................................................. 5-08 Skills ..................................................................................................................................... 5-09 Knowledge ........................................................................................................................... 5-09 Experience ........................................................................................................................... 5-10 Training ................................................................................................................................ 5-10 Addressing Qualification Shortfalls ...................................................................................... 5-10 Difficulty Level Assessment ................................................................................................ 5-11 WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WILDERNESS GUIDES AND INSTRUCTORS INC.

Beginner Level ..................................................................................................................... 5-11 Intermediate Level ................................................................................................................ 5-11 Advanced Level .................................................................................................................... 5-11 Participants’ Screening ........................................................................................................ 5-11

SECTION 5B: EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: LEADING Participants’ Screening ........................................................................................................ 5-13 Legal Documents .................................................................................................................. 5-13 Release of Liability ............................................................................................................... 5-13 Medical Questionnaire ......................................................................................................... 5-13 Participants’ Briefings ........................................................................................................... 5-14 Equipment Checks ............................................................................................................... 5-14 General Equipment .............................................................................................................. 5-15 Safety Equipment ................................................................................................................. 5-15 Food and Supplies Check .................................................................................................... 5-15 Route Selection ..................................................................................................................... 5-15 Water Treatment ................................................................................................................... 5-15 Effectiveness of Various Water Treatment Methods ............................................................ 5-16 Food Storage ......................................................................................................................... 5-16 Bear Proof Containers .......................................................................................................... 5-16 Hanging Food ....................................................................................................................... 5-17 Other Methods of Storage .................................................................................................... 5-17 Food Preparation .................................................................................................................. 5-17 Waste Management .............................................................................................................. 5-17 Human Waste Management ................................................................................................ 5-17 Organic Waste Management ............................................................................................... 5-18 Waste Water Management .................................................................................................. 5-18 General Waste Management ............................................................................................... 5-18 Personal Hygiene .................................................................................................................. 5-18 Camp Selection ..................................................................................................................... 5-18 Route Re-assessment .......................................................................................................... 5-19 Situational Awareness and Hazard Anticipation ............................................................... 5-19 Wildlife Conflicts ................................................................................................................... 5-19

SECTION 6: SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS Winter Environments ............................................................................................................ 6-01 WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WILDERNESS GUIDES AND INSTRUCTORS INC.

Overview .............................................................................................................................. 6-01 Preparation ........................................................................................................................... 6-01 Equipment and Clothing ....................................................................................................... 6-01 Transportation to Site ........................................................................................................... 6-02 Site Selection ....................................................................................................................... 6-03 Camp Set Up and Maintenance ........................................................................................... 6-03 Food and Nutrition ................................................................................................................ 6-05 Drinking Water ..................................................................................................................... 6-06 Personal Hygiene ................................................................................................................. 6-06 Human Waste Management ................................................................................................ 6-07 Organic Waste Management ............................................................................................... 6-07 Waste Water Management .................................................................................................. 6-08 General Waste Management ............................................................................................... 6-08 Local Area Travel ................................................................................................................. 6-09 Wildlife Management ............................................................................................................ 6-10 Dismantling Camp ................................................................................................................ 6-10 Environmental Impact Self Assessment ............................................................................... 6-12 Summer Environments ........................................................................................................ 6-16 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 6-16 Preparation ........................................................................................................................... 6-16 Equipment and Clothing ....................................................................................................... 6-16 Transportation to Site ........................................................................................................... 6-17 Site Selection ....................................................................................................................... 6-17 Camp Set Up and Maintenance ........................................................................................... 6-18 Food and Nutrition ................................................................................................................ 6-19 Drinking Water ..................................................................................................................... 6-19 Personal Hygiene ................................................................................................................. 6-20 Human Waste Management ................................................................................................ 6-21 Organic Waste Management ............................................................................................... 6-21 Waste Water Management .................................................................................................. 6-21 General Waste Management ............................................................................................... 6-22 Local Area Travel ................................................................................................................. 6-22 Wildlife Management ............................................................................................................ 6-23 Insect Management .............................................................................................................. 6-24 Dismantling Camp ................................................................................................................ 6-24 Environmental Impact Self Assessment ............................................................................... 6-25 WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WILDERNESS GUIDES AND INSTRUCTORS INC.

Supplier List .......................................................................................................................... 6-29


WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA

SECTION 1 REGULATORY COMPLIANCE

SECTION 1A

REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: BRITISH COLUMBIA

REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: BRITISH COLUMBIA Business Registration If you intend to do business in British Columbia, whether or not you are based in the province, Small Business BC states that you are required to register your business within three months, unless you operate a business solely under your own name. There are several types of business registrations in BC, each better suited for different needs and situations. For the purpose of this guide, only the most common business registrations outlined by the One Stop BC Business Registry will be addressed, namely Sole Proprietorships, Partnerships, Corporations, and Extra-provincial Corporations.

Sole Proprietorship This is the most cost efficient and simple form of business registration, as it allows you to simply register a business or trade name under your own name. Accounting and tax requirements are simplified, and the maintenance costs of sole proprietorships are lower than those of a corporation. As a sole proprietor, however, you are the sole owner of the business, and you are therefore personally liable for all the actions of your business. This may include any debt incurred by the business, or any judgement issued against the business. In fact, you and your business are the same entity. Instructions to register a sole proprietorship in British Columbia are as follows: Step 1: Go to http://www.bcbusinessregistry.ca/nameapproval.htm to reserve a business name. The fee for this service is $30 (BC Ministry of Finance, “Corporate Registry”). Step 2: Once your business name has been approved, go to http://www.bcbusinessregistry.ca/registrations.htm to register your sole proprietorship. You must enter your business name exactly as it was approved, as well as the name approval number starting with “NR”. The fee is $40 (BC Ministry of Finance, “Corporate Registry”). Step 3: A Statement of Registration will be immediately emailed to you in PDF format.


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A Sole Proprietorship registration in British Columbia is valid for life, and no further filings, annual or otherwise, are required to keep your business active. Please note that a Sole Proprietorship does not provide any protection on the business name you are using, and does not prevent any other company from using a very similar name.

Partnership A Partnership is very similar to a Sole Proprietorship, except that it involves several owners or “partners”, and that as a result, ownership and liability are shared by the partners. The steps to register a Partnership are identical to the steps required to register a Sole Proprietorship.

Corporation This is the most suitable type of business registration in wilderness tourism. A corporation can be owned entirely by you or an unlimited number of shareholders, and it allows better tax and estate planning. A corporation is an entirely separate legal entity. As a result, liability, financial or otherwise, lays with the business itself, which effectively shields you as an owner or director from most liabilities. Some exceptions do apply. As a director, you are personally responsible for HST and payroll deductions owed to the government. You could also be held liable in the event you fail your duties as a director of the company. Additionally, your financial liability could be engaged if you elect to provide a company creditor with a personal guarantee. Start up costs for corporations are typically higher. Additionally, accounting and filing requirements are more stringent, making the cost of maintaining a corporation higher than that of a Sole Proprietorship or Partnership (Province of British Columbia, “Business Corporations Act”). Instructions to register a corporation in British Columbia are as follows: Step 1: Go to http://www.bcbusinessregistry.ca/nameapproval.htm to reserve a business name. The fee for this service is $30 (BC Ministry of Finance, “Corporate Registry”). Step 2: Once your business name has been approved, go to https://www.corporateonline.gov.bc.ca/corporateonline/colin/static/ colin/ html/index.html to incorporate your company. You must enter your business name exactly as it was approved, as well as the name approval number starting with “NR”. The fee is $351.58 (BC Ministry of Finance, “Corporate Registry”). Step 3: A Statement of Registration will be immediately emailed to you in PDF for-

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: BRITISH COLUMBIA mat, and an Incorporation Certificate will be sent to you via regular mail. The Province of British Columbia requires that you maintain records for your corporation which includes shareholder and director registers, bylaws, minutes of shareholder meetings, and shareholder resolutions (“Business Corporations Act”). Annual Reports as well as any change to your company’s address or directors will have to be filed with the Corporate Registry (Province of British Columbia, “Business Corporations Act”). A Corporation in British Columbia does grant you some level of protection for your business name, ensuring nobody else uses your name at the provincial level.

Extra-Provincial Corporation Extra-provincial registration applies to any corporation located outside of British Columbia, and doing business in British Columbia. This type of registration requires an agent located in BC. This could be any BC resident or lawyer (Province of British Columbia, “Business Corporations Act”). Instructions to register an extra-provincial corporation in British Columbia are as follows: Step 1: Go to https://www.corporateonline.gov.bc.ca/corporateonline/colin/ static/colin/html/index.html to incorporate your extra-provincial company. The fee is $351.58 (BC Ministry of Finance, “Corporate Registry”). Step 2: A Statement of Registration will be immediately emailed to you in PDF format, and an Incorporation Certificate will be sent to you via regular mail. As with a BC Corporation, the Province of British Columbia requires that you file Annual Reports as well as advise the Corporate Registry in the event you change your agent (“Business Corporations Act”).

Tax Registration The taxes in effect in British Columbia, as they may apply to wilderness tourism, are GST, PST and MRDT.

Government Sales Tax (GST) The Canada Revenue Agency requires that you register for GST if your sales exceed $30,000 per year. If your sales are under $30,000, registration is optional (Canada Revenue Agency). As a GST Registrant, you are entitled to claim a refund of the GST paid on any business expense (Canada Revenue Agency), so voluntary registration may be useful. As a GST Registrant, you must charge the 5% tax on all your sales, whether they are made to Canadian residents or non-residents


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(Government of Canada, “Excise Tax Act”). GST must be reported and paid to the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) every month, every quarter, or every year based on your preferences and/or requirements from the CRA (Canada Revenue Agency). Register for GST at http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/tx/bsnss/tpcs/gst-tps/ rgstrng/vlntry-eng.html (Voluntary Registration), or http://www.craarc.gc.ca/tx/bsnss/tpcs/gst-tps/rgstrng/mndtry-eng.html (Mandatory Registration).

Provincial Sales Tax (PST) A Provincial Sales Tax of 7% applies to the sale of tangible goods, as well as services related to tangible goods, such as equipment rentals (BC Ministry of Finance, “Small Business Guide to Provincial Sales Tax”). A Provincial Sales Tax of 8%, previously known as the hotel room tax, may also apply to accommodations in British Columbia, including hotels, motels, resorts, rooming houses, bed & breakfast establishments, lodging houses, bunkhouses, cabins, condominiums, dormitories, hostels, mobile homes, trailers, vacation homes, ships, and trains. The Provincial Sales Tax of 8% does not apply to persons who offer less than 4 units, where the charge for accommodation is $30 or less a day, or $210 or less a week, where the accommodations are provided to the same person for a continuous period of more than 1 month, where accommodations are located on First Nation land purchased by a First Nation individual or band, where accommodations are provided in certain industrial camps, where accommodations are provided in a tent, where accommodations are provided in hospitals, or where accommodations are provided by a religious or charitable organization, at a summer camp or similar location (BC Ministry of Finance, “Tax Bulletin”). Additionally, accommodations that do not offer amenities such as bed linen, electricity, indoor plumbing, and/or heat (excluding wood-burning fireplaces or stoves) are exempt from the PST (BC Ministry of Finance, “Tax Bulletin”).

Municipal and Regional District Tax (MRDT) The Municipal and Regional District Tax (MRDT) of up to 2% only applies to certain areas of the province for accommodations (BC Ministry of Finance, “Tax Bulletin”). The MRDT does not apply to persons who offer less than 4 units, where the charge for accommodation is $30 or less a day, or $210 or less a week, where the accommodations are provided to the same person for a continuous period of more than 1 month, where accommodations are located on First Nation land purchased by a First Nation individual or band, where accommodations are provided in certain industrial camps, where accommodations are provided in a tent, where accommodations are provided in hospitals, or where accommodations are provided by a religious or charitable organization, at a summer camp or similar location (BC Ministry of Finance, “Tax Bulletin”).

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: BRITISH COLUMBIA Additionally, accommodations that do not offer amenities such as bed linen, electricity, indoor plumbing, and/or heat (excluding wood-burning fireplaces or stoves) are exempt from the MRDT (BC Ministry of Finance, “Tax Bulletin”).

Operating Licences & Registrations The licences and registrations that may be required for your business in BC include a Business Licence, Travel Services Licence, Training Institution Registration, Passenger Transportation Licence, Angling Guide Licence, and/or Guide Outfitter Licence.

Business Licence You will require a Business Licence to operate in most municipalities. The process is usually pretty simple and only requires the annual payment of a fee usually under $100. Please contact your municipal offices to inquire on the business licence requirements in your are. Alternatively, you may visit http:///www.bcbizpal.ca to verify if you require a business licence based on your municipality and business activities.

Travel Services Licence The Province of British Columbia requires that you obtain a Travel Services Licence if you intend to resale any travel services provided by a third party (“Business Practices and Consumer Protection Act”). For example, if you offer travel packages that include accommodations and/ or transportation services provided by another company, you must obtain a Travel Services Licence. If you only sell complete adventure package that include accommodations in your own lodges, or transportation in your vehicles, a Travel Services Licence is not required. A Travel Services Licence application requires financial statements, criminal record checks, and a letter of credit in the amount of $15,000. The cost of the licence stands at $550 for one year (Consumer Protection BC). Go to http://www.consumerprotectionbc.ca/images/content/licensing/ travel_services/forms/ts_applicationpackage.pdf to download a complete application package.

Training Institution Registration The Province of British Columbia requires registration with the Private Career Training Institutions Agency of BC (PCTIA) if you provide any type of training or education program of 40 hours or more, and if you charge tuition fees of $1,000 or more (“Private Career Training Institutions Act). Registration with PCTIA includes many requirements. The fee for registration is $2,100 a year, plus an initial contribution fee of $2,000 to the Student


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Training Completion Fund (STCF), an annual fee of up to $19,000, as well as a percentage of all tuition fees collected (Private Career Training Institutions Agency). Go to http://www.pctia.bc.ca/institutions/how-to-register to download a registration application.

Passenger Transportation Licence A Passenger Transportation Licence is required in British Columbia for the transportation of passengers in any type of vehicle. For example, you will require a Passenger Transportation Licence if you drive your clients to and from expedition sites (Province of British Columbia, “Passenger Transportation Act”). Please note that Commercial Vehicle Insurance will also be required for all vehicles used for the transportation of passengers (BC Ministry of Transportation, “Commercial Vehicle Safety”). Vehicle liability insurance in British Columbia is exclusively provided by the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia (ICBC), and it is sold through a province-wide network of Autoplan Agents. The instructions to obtain a Passenger Transportation Licence are as follow: Step 1: Go to https://pub-apps.th.gov.bc.ca/sco-public/welcome.do to apply for a National Safety Code (NSC) in the legal name of your business. You will require specifics about the vehicles you plan to operate, as well as the drivers. The cost of the NSC is $200 (BC Ministry of Transportation “Applications”). Step 2: Once you have obtained your National Safety Code, go to http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/rpt/ptola/introduction.aspx. The fee for the Passenger Transportation Licence is $200 (BC Ministry of Transportation, “Applications”).

Angling Guide Licence If you intend to operate trips that involve fishing and/or angling, the Province of British Columbia requires you to obtain an Angling Guide, or Assistant Angling Guide Licence (“Wildlife Act”). The Assistant Angling Guide Licence is issued under the sponsorship and supervision of an Angling Guide. The Angling Guide Licence can be secured on your own after completion of an Angling Guide Exam, submission of an Angling Guide Operating Plan, a fee of $450, and the payment of Day Quota Fees based on your area of operation (BC Ministry of Environment, “Permit and Authorization Service”).

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: BRITISH COLUMBIA Go to http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/pasb/applications/docs/ angling_guide.pdf to download the Angling Guide Application form.

Guide Outfitter Licence A Guide Outfitter Licence, or Assistant Guide Outfitter Licence is required for any guiding that involves hunting (Province of British Columbia, “Wildlife Act”). An Assistant Guide (Game) Licence is obtained under the sponsorship and supervision of a Guide Outfitter. In order to apply for the Guide Outfitter Licence, you will need permission to use a guiding territory from the holder of a Guiding Territory Certificate. You will also require $2,000,000 in liability insurance, you will have to pay a fee of $525, and royalties will also be due to the Province of British Columbia every year upon renewal of your licence (BC Ministry of Environment, “Permit and Authorization Service”). Go to http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/pasb/applications/docs/ guide_outfitter.pdf to download the Guide Outfitter Application form.

Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL) If you intend to possess and/or carry a firearm, whether it is for predator control, or as a Guide Outfitter, or if you want to be able to buy ammunition, you are required under federal law to obtain a Possession and Acquisition Licence (Government of Canada). A Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL) is valid for 5 years. Before you are entitled to apply for the PAL, you will need to complete a Canadian Firearm Safety Course (for unrestricted firearms, such as shotguns) and/or a Canadian Restricted Firearm Safety Course (for restricted firearms, such as hand guns). The instructions to obtain a Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL) are as follow: Step 1: Go to http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/cfp-pcaf/safe_sur/cont-eng.htm in order to obtain local information about the Canadian Firearm Safety Course (CFSC), and/or the Canadian Restricted Firearm Safety Course (CRFSC). Step 2: Once you have completed and passed the CFSC and/or CRFSC, go to http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/cfp-pcaf/form-formulaire/num-nom/921eng.htm to download and fill out a PAL application. In addition to obtaining a Possession and Acquisition Licence, you will also be required to register all firearms in your possession. Registration is automatic when you purchase a firearm from an authorized firearm dealer in Canada. In all other circumstances, you are responsible for the registration of your firearms.


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Go to http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/cfp-pcaf/reg-enr/index-eng.htm for information on firearm registration.

Guide Certifications Guide certification and/or training is required under the following circumstances.

Sea Kayak Guiding Guides operating Sea Kayaking trips in Pacific Rim National Park must hold a Certified Lead Guide certification issued only by one of the following agencies: Sea Kayak Guide Alliance of BC (SKGABC): http://www.skgabc.com Association of Canadian Sea Kayak Guides (ACSKG): http://www.acskg.ca Canadian Federation of Ocean Kayak Educators (CFOKE): http://www.cfoke.ca Sea kayaking operations on other parts of the province do not require a Lead Guide certification.

Mountain Guiding Guides undertaking mountaineering activities (such as rock climbing, mountain climbing, travel on glacier or permanent snow) in national parks and provincial parks in British Columbia require a Mountain Guide certification from IFMGA, IVBV, or UIAGM.

Wilderness Guiding Guides undertaking any other land activity (besides mountaineering) in national parks and provincial parks in British Columbia are required to meet competency and qualification standards set by Parks Canada and BC Parks. Such standards are met or exceeded by the PAWGI Certified Wilderness Guide (CWG) certification. Professional Association of Wilderness Guides and Instructors (PAWGI) http://www.pawgi.org 5.3.

Winter Guiding

If you plan winter backcountry adventures in BC, you must be able to assess the avalanche risk inherent to the province’s geography and climate. Although the law in British Columbia does not directly require you to do so,

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: BRITISH COLUMBIA the fundamental concept of duty of care in the Canadian legal system assumes that you will take all reasonable steps to minimize your clients’ exposure to the risk of avalanche. Various avalanche courses are offered by the following organization is Canada: Canadian Avalanche Association: http://www.avalanche.ca

Land Use For adventure tourism purposes, land in British Columbia can be divided in five different types: Private lands, Provincial Parks, National Parks, Public Lands (also referred to as Crown Land), and Indian Reserves and First Nation Treaty Lands (see figure 5 for land distribution in BC). Each type of land has different rules for use in Adventure tourism.

Private Land Private land that you own outside of municipal boundaries or districts may be used at your discretion for adventure tourism operations. Private land within municipal boundaries or district may be used as per municipal zoning. Lastly, owner’s permission is required to use private land that you do not own.

Provincial Parks The BC Ministry of Environment requires a Commercial Recreation Park Use Permit to operate in BC Provincial Parks (“Land Act”). The application involves a detailed Proposal for Use that includes specifics about the proposed activities, operator and staff training and qualifications, as well as environmental impact (BC Ministry of Environment, “Permit and Authorization Service”). The BC Ministry of Environment will also require Liability insurance in the amount of $2,000,000 before issuance of the Park Use Permit (“Permit and Authorization Service”). Please note that the application process may take up to 6 months. The application fee for low-impact, non-motorized activities is $250, while the application fee for high-impact, motorized activities is $3,300 (BC Ministry of Environment, “Park Use Permit”). You may download a Commercial Recreation Park Use Permit application at http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/pasb/applications/docs/parkuse/ parkuse_commercial_recreation.pdf.

National Parks A permit is needed for any type of commercial activity in Canada’s National Parks (Government of Canada, “Canada National Parks Act”). Since the application process and requirements vary for each location, you should contact each park individually for more information. Typically, the permit


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application will require a detailed Proposal for Use, and liability insurance in the amount of $2,000,000. Visit http://www.pc.gc.ca for more information.

Public Land (Crown Land) Adventure tourism activities on Crown Lands in British Columbia require an Adventure tourism Tenure (Province of British Columbia, “Land Act”). The application for a Land Tenure, which may include a mere Licence of Occupation or an actual Crown Land Lease, is extensive and can take several months. The application fee varies between $262.50 and $3,465, and is based on the intended use of the land (BC Ministry of Environment, “Land Tenure Purpose and Application Fees”). Upon approval of your application, you will have to pay the Province an annual fee of up to 8% of the BC assessed land value (minimum of $500 per year), plus royalties based on user days (BC Ministry of Environment, “Land Use Operational Policy”). Should you intend to make improvements on the land, you may also be required to provide a bond or financial guarantee to the province (BC Ministry of Environment, “Land Use Operational Policy”). You will also be required to provide liability insurance in the amount of $2,000,000 (BC Ministry of Environment, “Land Use Operational Policy”). Go to http://ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/adventure_tourism/docs/pdf/ guided_adventure_tourism_policy.pdf to access the complete BC Land Use Operational Policy for Adventure tourism. To apply for a Land Tenure, go to http://ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/adventure_tourism/docs/pdf/complete.pdf to download a complete application package.

Indian Reserves and First Nations Treaty Land Permission from Band Councils is required to operate on Indian Reserves and First Nations Treaty Lands. Contact each First Nation directly.

Liability Insurance Liability Insurance is required for most adventure tourism operations in British Columbia. The minimum amount of insurance is $2,000,000. The following insurance brokers and underwriters provide policies tailored to the adventure tourism sector: Capri Insurance: http://www.capri.ca. Oceanic Underwriters: http://www.oceanicunderwriters.com

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: BRITISH COLUMBIA The Province of British Columbia requires registration with WorkSafeBC if you have employees, or if your business is a corporation, even without employees (“Workers Compensation Act”). Registration is optional for sole proprietors and their spouses, as well as partners in partnerships and their spouses (Province of British Columbia, “Workers Compensation Act”). Upon registration, you will be assessed Insurance Premiums, based on your business activities and total payrolls (some rate samples are provided in figure 5). Should a registered principal or one of your employees experience a work injury, the individual will receive compensation from WorkSafeBC, and you will be shielded from any lawsuit and resulting potential financial hardship (WorkSafeBC). Visit http://www.worksafebc.com/insurance/registering_for_coverage/ register_with_worksafebc/default.asp to register your business.

Labour Regulations The following labour rules will apply to most situations involving adventure tourism operations.

Minimum Wage As of November 1, 2011, the minimum wage in BC is $9.50/hour (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Regulation”). The minimum wage is to increase to $10.25 by May 2012. Employers are required by law to pay their employees minimum wage, based on their daily hours of work (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”).

Deductions Only source deductions, namely Provincial and Federal Income Tax, Canadian Pension Plan, and Employment Insurance may be deducted from an employee’s pay (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”). Under no circumstances is an employer authorized to deduct any other amount, including but not limited to meal, accommodation, equipment, or cleaning costs (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”).

Special Gear If an employer requires its employees to wear special gear, such as technical climbing equipment, the employer must provide such equipment free of charge, and maintain it accordingly (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”).

Meal Breaks An employee cannot work more than 5 consecutive hours without taking a 30-minute break (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Regulation”).


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Overtime An employer must pay 1 ½ times the regular wages after 8 hours of work in a day, or 40 hours of work in a week, and 2 times the regular wages after 12 hours of work in a day (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”). An employer must also pay 1 ½ times the regular wages for up to 12 hours worked on a Statutory Holiday, and 2 times the regular pay over 12 hours worked (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”). This overtime requirement does not apply to Fishing and Hunting Guides (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Regulation”). Payment of overtime may be avoided in the following circumstances: 1. Both the employer and employee agree in writing to average the overtime worked over a period of up to 4 weeks (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”). 2. The employee requests in writing that the overtime hours worked be credited to a time bank (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”). In this case, the hours must be credited at the applicable overtime rate, and the employee is entitled to use the overtime hours credited to the time bank at any time to take time off with pay (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”). The overtime wages credited to a time bank becomes due immediately upon request by the employee, or in the event of employment termination (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”). In the event the time bank is closed at the request of the employee or employer, all hours remaining in the time bank must be either paid to the employee or taken as time off, within 6 months (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”).

Free Time An employee is entitled to a minimum of 8 consecutive hours off work between shifts (unless there is an emergency), and 32 consecutive hours off work every week, unless such hours are paid 1 ½ times the regular wages (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Regulation”).

Annual Vacation An employee is entitled to a minimum of 2 weeks vacation after 12 consecutive months or employment, and 3 weeks vacation after 5 consecutive years of employment. Vacation may be taken in periods of one or more weeks at the employee’s discretion (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”).

Vacation Pay An employee is entitled to a minimum of 4% of his/her total wages in vacation pay after 5 calendar days of employment during the year of employment, and a minimum of 6% of his/her wages in vacation pay after 5 con-

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: YUKON TERRITORY secutive years or employment (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”).

Pregnancy & Parental Leave An employee is entitled to up to 17 consecutive weeks of unpaid pregnancy leave. An employee is also entitled to up to 37 consecutive weeks of unpaid parental leave (Province of British Columbia, “Employment Standards Act”).


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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: YUKON TERRITORY Business Registration If you intend to do business in Yukon, whether or not you are based in the territory, the Partnership and Business Names Act and the Business Corporations Act state that you are required to register your business within two months, unless you operate solely under your own name (Government of Yukon). There are several types of business registrations in Yukon, each better suited for different needs and situations: Sole Proprietorships, Partnerships, Corporations, and Extra-territorial Corporations.

Sole Proprietorship This is the most cost efficient and simple form of business registration, as it allows you to simply register a business or trade name under your own name. Accounting and tax requirements are simplified, and the maintenance costs of sole proprietorships are lower than those of a corporation. As a sole proprietor, however, you are the sole owner of the business, and you are therefore personally liable for all the actions of your business. This may include any debt incurred by the business, or any judgement issued against the business. In fact, you and your business are the same entity. Sole proprietorship business names must start with a distinctive and unique element, followed by a term describing what your business does (Yukon Department of Community Services, “Corporate Affairs”). Approval of your business name is also at the discretion of Yukon Corporate Affairs (Department of Community Services, “Corporate Affairs”). Instructions to register a sole proprietorship in Yukon are as follow: Step 1: Go to http://www.gov.yk.ca/forms/forms/4500/yg4726_b.pdf to download a “Declaration of Business Name” form. Step 2: Fill out the form and mail it along with your payment to Corporate Affairs. The fee is $25 (Department of Community Services, “Corporate Affairs”). Step 3: A Confirmation of Business Name will be emailed to you in Word format. A Declaration of Business Name in the Yukon Territory is valid for 3 years,

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: YUKON TERRITORY and must be renewed within three months of the expiry date of the registration. Please note that a Sole Proprietorship does not provide any protection on the business name you are using, and does not prevent any other company from using a very similar name.

Partnership A Partnership is very similar to a Sole Proprietorship, except that it involves several owners or “partners”, and that as a result, ownership and liability are shared by the partners. Instructions to register a partnership in Yukon are as follow: Step 1: Go to http://www.gov.yk.ca/forms/forms/4500/yg4727_b.pdf to download a “Declaration of Partnership” form. Step 2: Fill out the form and mail it along with your payment to Corporate Affairs. The fee is $25 (Department of Community Services, “Corporate Affairs”). Step 3: A Confirmation of Partnership will be emailed to you in Word format.

Corporation This is the most suitable type of business registration in wilderness tourism. A corporation can be owned entirely by you or an unlimited number of shareholders, and it allows better tax and estate planning. A corporation is an entirely separate legal entity. As a result, liability, financial or otherwise, lays with the business itself, which effectively shields you as an owner or director from most liabilities. Some exceptions do apply. As a director, you are personally responsible for GST and payroll deductions owed to the government. You could also be held liable in the event you fail your duties as a director of the company. Additionally, your financial liability could be engaged if you elect to provide a company creditor with a personal guarantee. Start up costs for corporations are typically higher. Additionally, accounting and filing requirements are more stringent, making the cost of maintaining a corporation higher than that of a Sole Proprietorship or Partnership (Government of Yukon, “Business Corporations Act”). Corporate name requirements are also more stringent. You must indeed select a business name that is different from any other business name registered in Canada, in order to avoid confusion. Typically, your business name will start with a distinctive and unique element, followed by a descriptive term. Your business name must also end with a legal element such as “Limited”, “Ltd.”, “Incorporated”, “Inc.”, “Corporation”, “Corp.”, or their French


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equivalents (Government of Yukon, “Business Corporations Act”). Approval of your corporate name is based on a NUANS report, and thus, federal standards, and is at the discretion of Yukon Corporate Affairs (Department of Community Services, “Corporate Affairs”). Before you can register your corporation in Yukon, you need to obtain a NUANS report. Step 1: Go to https://www.nuans.com/rts-str/en/home-accueil_en.cgi to order a NUANS report. Click on “NUANS Real-Time”. Step 2: Request a NUANS Access Key. Once you receive the key via e-mail, log into the NUANS system. Step 3: Try different business names until you are satisfied that your name is unique, will not cause confusion with existing business names in Canada, and meets requirements outlined on the NUANS web site. Step 4: Once you have found a suitable name for your company, you may order the NUANS report. The fee for this service is $21 (Industry Canada, “NUANS”). Step 5: Contact Corporate Affairs to get your name approved based on your NUANS report. Contact information is as follow: Tel (867) 667-5314, or Toll Free in Yukon at 1-800-661-0408, Local 5314 Fax (867) 393-6251 [email protected] Once you have your NUANS report, and your name has been approved by Corporate Affairs, you may incorporate your business: Step 1: Go to http://www.gov.yk.ca/forms/forms/3000/yg3081_b.pdf to download an “Articles of Incorporation” form. Step 2: Fill out the form and mail it along with your payment to Corporate Affairs. The fee is $245 (Department of Community Services, “Corporate Affairs”). Step 3:

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: YUKON TERRITORY Additional forms may be needed and can be found at http://www.community.gov.yk.ca/corp/corpforms.html Step 4: A Certificate of Incorporation will be sent to you. The Government of Yukon requires that you maintain records for your corporation which includes shareholder and director registers, bylaws, minutes of shareholder meetings, and shareholder resolutions (“Business Corporations Act”). Annual Reports as well as any change to your company’s address or directors will have to be filed with Corporate Affairs (Department of Community Services, “Corporate Affairs”). A Corporation in Yukon does grant you some level of protection for your business name, ensuring nobody else uses your name at the territorial level.

Extra-Territorial Corporation Extra-territorial registration applies to any corporation located outside of the Yukon Territory, and doing business in Yukon. This type of registration requires an agent located in Yukon. This could be any Yukon resident or lawyer (Government of Yukon, “Business Corporations Act”). Instructions to register an extra-territorial corporation in Yukon are as follows: Step 1: Go to http://www.gov.yk.ca/forms/forms/3000/yg3048_b.pdf to download a “Statement of Registration” form. Step 2: Fill out the form and mail it along with your payment to Corporate Affairs. The fee is $320 (Department of Community Services, “Corporate Affairs”). Step 3: Additional forms may be needed and can be found at http://www.community.gov.yk.ca/corp/corpforms.html Step 4: A Certificate of Incorporation will be sent to you. As with a Yukon Corporation, the Government of Yukon requires that you file Annual Reports as well as advise the Corporate Registry in the event you change your agent (“Business Corporations Act”).

Tax Registration The GST is the only sales tax in effect in Yukon.


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Goods and Services Tax (GST) The Canada Revenue Agency requires that you register for GST if your sales exceed $30,000 per year. If your sales are under $30,000, registration is optional (Canada Revenue Agency). As a GST Registrant, you are entitled to claim a refund of the GST paid on any business expense (Canada Revenue Agency), so voluntary registration may be useful. As a GST Registrant, you must charge the 5% tax on all your sales, whether they are made to Canadian residents or non-residents (Government of Canada, “Excise Tax Act”). GST must be reported and paid to the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) every month, every quarter, or every year based on your preferences and/or requirements from the CRA (Canada Revenue Agency). Register for GST at http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/tx/bsnss/tpcs/gst-tps/ rgstrng/vlntry-eng.html (Voluntary Registration), or http://www.craarc.gc.ca/tx/bsnss/tpcs/gst-tps/rgstrng/mndtry-eng.html (Mandatory Registration).

Operating Licences, Registrations, and Permits The licences, registrations, and permits that may be required for your business in Yukon include a Business Licence, Wilderness Tourism Licence, Trade School Registration, National Safety Code, Bus Permit, Yukon Outfitter Licence, Guided Trapping Permit, and/or Yukon Angling Licence.

Business Licence You may require a Business Licence to operate in some municipalities. The process is usually pretty simple and only requires the annual payment of a fee usually under $100. Please contact your municipal offices to inquire on the business licence requirements in your are. Alternatively, you may visit http:///www.bcbizpal.ca to verify if you require a business licence based on your municipality and business activities.

Wilderness Tourism Licence The Government of Yukon requires that you obtain a Wilderness Tourism Licence if you intend to take people in the wilderness in exchange for any type of fee, reward, or other consideration (“Wilderness Tourism Licensing Act”). The following requirements must be met in order to obtain a Wilderness Tourism Licence: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Your business must be registered in Yukon You must have Workers Compensation coverage for your employees You must hold liability insurance in the amount of $1,000,000, and Guiding personnel must hold current First Aid/CPR certification

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: YUKON TERRITORY In addition, the Government of Yukon requires that you: 1. Provide a report of all trips at the end of each season 2. Provide a report of all equipment rented (if applicable) at the end of each season 3. Provide an Accident Report in the event of an accident during any trip The fee for the Wilderness Tourism Licence is $100 (Environment Yukon, “Licensing of Wilderness Tourism Operators”). Go to http://www.gov.yk.ca/forms/forms/4500/yg4830_e.pdf to download the Wilderness Tourism Licence form.

Trade School Registration The Government of Yukon requires registration with the Department of Education if you provide any type of training or education program in Yukon (“Trade School Regulation Act”). Registration with the Department of Education includes many requirements. The fee for registration is $100. You must also provide an Irrevocable Letter of Credit or a Security Bond in the amount of $10,000, as well as a fee of 1% of all projected annual tuition fees (Department of Education, “Trade School Registration”). The registration fee, letter of credit, and payment of 1% of total annual tuition fees do not apply if you are already registered in another province or territory in Canada (Department of Education, “Trade School Registration”). Go to http://www.education.gov.yk.ca/advanceded/pdf/ registering_trade_school.pdf to download a registration application.

National Safety Code A National Safety Code is required in the Yukon Territory for the transportation of passengers in vehicles with a capacity of more than 10 passengers, including the driver, or in vehicles with a registered Gross Vehicle Weight of more than 4,500 kg (Highway and Public Works, “National Safety Code”). For example, you will require a Passenger Transportation Licence if you drive your clients to and from expedition sites in a bus with more than 9 passenger seats (Highway and Public Works, “National Safety Code”). The following requirements must be met in order to obtain a National Safety Code: 1. Proof of valid insurance 2. Articles of Incorporation, or business registration and driver licence number of all principals 3. Disclosure of fleet size, and 4. Agreement to comply with all appropriate highway safety law Contact Transport Services, via email at [email protected], via phone


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at (867) 667-5297 (Toll Free in Yukon at 1-800-661-0408, local 5297), or via fax at (867) 667-5799 to obtain an application. The application fee for a National Safety Code in Yukon is $50 (Highway and Public Works, “National Safety Code”).

Bus Permit A Bus Permit is required in the Yukon Territory for the transportation of passengers in vehicles not registered in Yukon, and with a capacity of more than 10 passengers, including the driver, or a registered Gross Vehicle Weight of more than 4,500 kg (Highway and Public Works, “Bus Permits”). Permits are issued at either the Weight Station in Whitehorse, or Watson Lake. Requirements for a Bus Permit are as follow: 1. Copy of Insurance 2. Copy of Registration, and 3. Copy of valid Driver’s Licence The fee is $25 for a bus going through Yukon without picking up or dropping off passengers, and $60 plus $3 per tonne based on actual vehicle weight for buses picking up or dropping off passengers in Yukon (Highway and Public Works, “Bus Permits”).

Yukon Outfitter Licence If you intend to operate trips that involve hunting, the Government of Yukon requires that you obtain a Yukon Outfitter Licence in addition to a Wilderness Tourism Licence (“Wildlife Act”). Contact Environment Yukon, via email at [email protected], via phone at (867) 667-5652 (Toll Free in Yukon at 1-800-661-0408, local 5652), or via fax at (867) 393-7197 for more information.

Guided Trapping Permit If you intend to operate trips that involve trapping, the Government of Yukon requires that you obtain a Guided Trapping Permit in addition to a Wilderness Tourism Licence (“Wildlife Act”). You must be the current holder of a trapping concession, and you must apply in person, along with up to two clients, at the Environment Yukon office. Contact Environment Yukon, via email at [email protected], via phone at (867) 667-5652 (Toll Free in Yukon at 1-800-661-0408, local 5652), or via fax at (867) 393-7197 for more information.

Yukon Angling Licence If you intend to operate trips that involve fishing, the Government of Yukon requires that you obtain a Yukon Angling Licence in addition to a Wilderness Tourism Licence (“Wildlife Act”).

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: YUKON TERRITORY Contact Environment Yukon, via email at [email protected], via phone at (867) 667-5652 (Toll Free in Yukon at 1-800-661-0408, local 5652), or via fax at (867) 393-7197 for more information.

Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL) If you intend to possess and/or carry a firearm, whether it is for predator control, or as a Guide Outfitter, or if you want to be able to buy ammunition, you are required under federal law to obtain a Possession and Acquisition Licence (Government of Canada). A Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL) is valid for 5 years. Before you are entitled to apply for the PAL, you will need to complete a Canadian Firearm Safety Course (for unrestricted firearms, such as shotguns) and/or a Canadian Restricted Firearm Safety Course (for restricted firearms, such as hand guns). The instructions to obtain a Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL) are as follow: Step 1: Go to http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/cfp-pcaf/safe_sur/cont-eng.htm in order to obtain local information about the Canadian Firearm Safety Course (CFSC), and/or the Canadian Restricted Firearm Safety Course (CRFSC). Step 2: Once you have completed and passed the CFSC and/or CRFSC, go to http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/cfp-pcaf/form-formulaire/num-nom/921eng.htm to download and fill out a PAL application. In addition to obtaining a Possession and Acquisition Licence, you will also be required to register all firearms in your possession. Registration is automatic when you purchase a firearm from an authorized firearm dealer in Canada. In all other circumstances, you are responsible for the registration of your firearms. Go to http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/cfp-pcaf/reg-enr/index-eng.htm for information on firearm registration.


Mountain Guiding Guides undertaking mountaineering activities (such as rock climbing, mountain climbing, travel on glacier or permanent snow) in Kluane National Park and Reserve in Yukon require a Mountain Guide certification from IFMGA,


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IVBV, or UIAGM.

Wilderness Guiding Guides undertaking any other land activity (besides mountaineering) in national parks in Yukon, such as Kluane National Park and Reserve, Vuntut National Park, as well as Chilkoot Trail National Historic Site, are required to meet competency and qualification standards set by Parks Canada. Such standards are met or exceeded by the PAWGI Certified Wilderness Guide (CWG) certification or higher. Professional Association of Wilderness Guides and Instructors (PAWGI) http://www.pawgi.org

Land Use For adventure tourism purposes, land in Yukon can be divided in five different types: Private lands, Territorial Parks, National Parks, Public Lands (also referred to as Crown Land), and Indian Reserves and First Nation Treaty Lands. Each type of land has different rules for use in Adventure tourism.


Territorial Parks Environment Yukon requires a Park Use Permit to operate in Yukon Territorial Parks (“Park and Land Certainty Act”). The Permit is free. Contact Environment Yukon, via email at [email protected], via phone at (867) 667-5648 (Toll Free in Yukon at 1-800-661-0408, local 5648), or via fax at (867) 393-6223 for more information.

National Parks A permit is needed for any type of commercial activity in Canada’s National Parks (Government of Canada, “Canada National Parks Act”). Since the application process and requirements vary for each location, you should contact each park individually for more information. Typically, the permit application will require a detailed Proposal for Use, and liability insurance in the amount of $2,000,000. Visit http://www.pc.gc.ca for more information. In Yukon, an assessment by the Yukon Environmental and Socio-Economic

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: YUKON TERRITORY Assessment Board (YESAB) may be required. Visit http://www.yesab.ca for more information.

Public Land (Crown Land) No permit is required to operate on crown land in the Yukon Territory.

Indian Reserves and First Nations Treaty Land Permission from Band Councils is required to operate on Indian Reserves and First Nations Treaty Lands. Contact each First Nation directly.

Liability Insurance Liability Insurance is required for adventure tourism operations in Yukon. The minimum amount of insurance is $2,000,000 for operations in National Parks, and $1,000,000 for operations in any other area. The following insurance brokers and underwriters provide policies tailored to the adventure tourism sector: Capri Insurance: http://www.capri.ca. Oceanic Underwriters: http://www.oceanicunderwriters.com

Workers Compensation The Government of Yukon requires registration with the Yukon Workers’ Compensation Health and Safety Board (YWCHSB) if you have employees, or if your business is a corporation, even without employees (“Workers Compensation Act”). Registration is optional for sole proprietors and their spouses, as well as partners in partnerships (Government of Yukon, “Workers Compensation Act”). Upon registration, you will be assessed Insurance Premiums, based on your business activities and total payrolls. Should a registered principal or one of your employees experience a work injury, the individual will receive compensation from YWCHSB, and you will be shielded from any lawsuit and resulting potential financial hardship. Visit https://www.wcb.yk.ca/FormsAndReports/Forms/ ApplicationForRegistration.aspx to register your business.

Labour Regulations The following labour rules will apply to most situations involving adventure tourism operations.


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It is important to note that unlike other jurisdictions in Canada such as British Columbia, many labour regulations in Yukon may be waived through a written agreement between the employer and employee, or sometimes simply an agreement with just the majority of employees, as well as with an authorization from the Labour Services Director. The rights of employees in the Yukon Territory are therefore somewhat limited.

Minimum Wage As of April 1, 2012, the minimum wage in Yukon is $9.27/hour (Department of Community Services, “Minimum Wage and Minimum Wage Regulation”). Employers are required by law to pay their employees minimum wage, based on their daily hours of work (Department of Community Services, “Minimum Wage and Minimum Wage Regulation”).

Deductions Only source deductions, namely Provincial and Federal Income Tax, Canadian Pension Plan, and Employment Insurance may be deducted from an employee’s pay (Department of Community Services, “Minimum Wage and Minimum Wage Regulation”). Employees can also be charged a maximum of $5/day for room and board provided there is a written agreement (Department of Community Services, “Minimum Wage and Minimum Wage Regulation”). Under no circumstances is an employer authorized to deduct any other amount, unless authorized to do so by the Labour Services Director (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”).

Eating Periods An employee cannot work more than 5 consecutive hours without taking a 30-minute eating period if the employee is to work 10 hours or less on that day. An employee cannot work more than 6 consecutive hours without taking a 30-minute eating period if the employee is to work more than 10 hours on that day (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”).

Overtime An employer must pay 1 ½ times the regular wages after 8 hours of work in a day, 40 hours of work in a week, or 40 hours in a week less 8 hours for each holiday (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”). Payment of overtime may be waived in the following circumstances: 1. Both the employer and employee agree in writing or through a collective agreement to have the overtime hours used as time off with pay. In this case, time off should be calculated at a rate of 1 ½ times the overtime hours worked (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”). If the time off is not redeemed within 12 months, the employer must pay the employee overtime (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”).

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: YUKON TERRITORY 2. On approval from the Labour Services Director, following a collective agreement with a trade union, or following an agreement reached with the majority of employees, the hours worked in a week may be averaged over a period of 2 weeks or more (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”). 3. Following an agreement between the employer and the employee, the employee may work up to 12 hours a day, but not to exceed 80 hours over a 2 week period (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”).

Days of Rest An employee is normally entitled to 2 full days of rest in a given week. However, if an employee regularly works in excess of the daily standard hours of work, the employer may require the employee to work up to 35 continuous days without a day of rest. In this case, the employee is entitled to at least one day of rest for each continuous 7 days of work, to be taken continuously of each other (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”).

Annual Vacation and Vacation Pay An employee is entitled to a minimum of 2 weeks paid vacation after 12 consecutive months or employment, unless the employee is related to the employer (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”). The vacation must be taken within 10 months following the completion of the year of employment, and the vacation pay must be paid to the employee at least one day before the beginning of the vacation (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”). The vacation period should also be extended by one day for each holiday occurring during the vacation period, and holiday pay should be paid to the employee in addition to vacation pay (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”). This requirement is waived if the employer and employee enter a written agreement where the employee agrees not to take the annual vacation. In this case, vacation pay, in addition to any other pay, must be paid to the employee within 10 months of becoming eligible for such paid vacation (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”). If an employee has worked more than 14 days, but less than 12 months, the employer must pay the employee the equivalent of 4% of the earned wages within 7 days of termination of employment (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”).

Pregnancy Leave An employee who has worked at least 12 consecutive months is entitled to up to 17 consecutive weeks of unpaid pregnancy leave, as long as the request for such leave is made at least 4 weeks prior to the start of the leave, and as long as medical certificate confirming pregnancy is provided to the employer (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”).


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An employer may also require an employee to take a leave of absence at any time within the 6 weeks preceding the probable date of birth of the child (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”). Such leave of absence may also be requested earlier with the approval of the Labour Services Director if the employee is unable to perform her duties due to the pregnancy Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”).

Parental Leave An employee who has worked at least 12 consecutive months is entitled to up to 37 consecutive weeks of unpaid parental leave, if the employee is the mother or father of a newborn child, or the parent of an adopted child (Government of Yukon, “Employment Standards Act”).

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: NORTHWEST TERRITORIES

REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: NORTHWEST TERRITORIES Business Registration If you intend to do business in the Northwest Territories, whether or not you are based in the territory, the Partnership Act and the Business Corporations Act state that you are required to register your business, unless you operate solely under your own name (Government of the Northwest Territories). There are several types of business registrations in the Northwest Territories as with other jurisdictions in Canada, each better suited for different needs and situations: Business Name Registrations, Partnerships, Corporations, and Extra-territorial Corporations.

Business Name Registration This is the most cost efficient and simple form of business registration, as it allows you to simply register a business or trade name under your own name. Accounting and tax requirements are simplified, and the maintenance costs of sole proprietorships are lower than those of a corporation. As a sole proprietor, however, you are the sole owner of the business, and you are therefore personally liable for all the actions of your business. This may include any debt incurred by the business, or any judgement issued against the business. In fact, you and your business are the same entity. There are no restrictions with respect to the name you can use in the Northwest Territories, and the Corporate Registries will not conduct searches to check whether an identical or similar name is used by another business. Instructions to register a Business Name in the Northwest Territories are as follow: Step 1: Go to http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/CorporateRegistry/documents/ PAForm2.pdf to download a “Declaration of Use of a Business Name” form. Step 2: Fill out the form and mail or drop off the original along with your filing fee to Corporate Registries. The fee is $50 (Department of Justice, “Business Name Registration”). Step 3: A Confirmation of Business Name Registration will be emailed to you.


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Please note that a Business Name Registration does not provide any protection on the business name you are using, and does not prevent any other company from using a very similar name.

Partnership There are several forms of Partnerships in the Northwest Territories, including General Partnerships, Limited Partnerships, and Limited Liability Partnerships. For the purpose of this manual, we will only review the more common General Partnership. A General Partnership is similar to a Business Name Registration, except that it involves several owners or “partners”, and that as a result, ownership and liability are shared by the partners. Instructions to register a General Partnership in the Northwest Territories are as follow: Step 1: Go to http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/CorporateRegistry/documents/ PAForm1.pdf to download a “Declaration of Partnership” form. Step 2: Fill out the form and mail or drop off the original along with your filing fee to Corporate Registries. The fee is $50 (Department of Justice, “Partnership Registration”). Step 3: A Confirmation of Business Name Registration will be emailed to you.

Corporation This is the most suitable type of business registration in wilderness tourism. A corporation can be owned entirely by you or an unlimited number of shareholders, and it allows better tax and estate planning. A corporation is an entirely separate legal entity. As a result, liability, financial or otherwise, lays with the business itself, which effectively shields you as an owner or director from most liabilities. Some exceptions do apply. As a director, you are personally responsible for GST and payroll deductions owed to the government. You could also be held liable in the event you fail your duties as a director of the company. Additionally, your financial liability could be engaged if you elect to provide a company creditor with a personal guarantee. Start up costs for corporations are typically higher. Additionally, accounting and filing requirements are more stringent, making the cost of maintaining a corporation higher than that of a Business Name Registration or Partnership (Government of the Northwest Territories, “Business Corporations Act”). Corporate name requirements are also more stringent. You must indeed

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: NORTHWEST TERRITORIES select a business name that is different from any other business name registered in the Northwest Territories, in order to avoid confusion. Typically, your business name will start with a distinctive and unique element, followed by a descriptive term. Your business name must also end with a legal element such as “Limited”, “Ltd.”, “Incorporated”, “Inc.”, “Corporation”, “Corp.”, or their French equivalents (Government of Yukon, “Business Corporations Act”). Approval of your corporate name is based on a NUANS report, and thus, federal standards, and is at the discretion of Yukon Corporate Affairs (Department of Community Services, “Corporate Affairs”). It is recommended that you conduct a name search and reservation before you incorporate your business. The procedures to search and reserve a name are as follow: Step 1: Go to http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/CorporateRegistry/documents/ NSR.pdf to download the “Request for Name Search and Reservation”. Step 2: Fill out the form and mail or drop off the original along with your filing fee to Corporate Registries. The fee is $25 (Department of Justice, “Incorporation”). Step 3: You will be notified in writing whether your name is approved. Once your corporate name has been approved, you may incorporate your business. This involves filing “Articles of Incorporation”, “Notice of Registered Office”, and “Notice of Directors”. Instructions to incorporate your company are as follow: Step 1: Go to http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/pdf/CorpReg/BCA/frm01.pdf to download an “Articles of Incorporation” form, http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/ pdf/CorpReg/BCA/frm02.pdf to download the “Notice of Registered Office” form, and http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/pdf/CorpReg/BCA/frm04.pdf to download the “Notice of Directors” form. Step 2: Fill out and print the forms (in duplicate for the “Notice of Registered Office” and “Notice of Directors”, and mail them along with your payment to the Corporate Registries. The fee is $300 (Department of Justice, “Incorporation”). Step 3:


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Step 4: A Certificate of Incorporation will be mailed to you. The Government of the Northwest Territories requires that you maintain records for your corporation which includes shareholder and director registers, bylaws, minutes of shareholder meetings, and shareholder resolutions (“Business Corporations Act”). Annual Reports as well as any change to your company’s address or directors will have to be filed with Corporate Registries (“Business Corporations Act”). A Corporation in the Northwest Territories does grant you some level of protection for your corporate name, ensuring nobody else uses your name in the territory.

Extra-Territorial Corporation Extra-territorial registration applies to any corporation located outside of the Northwest Territories, and doing business in the Northwest Territories. This type of registration requires a lawyer located in the Northwest Territories to act as your registered agent (“Business Corporations Act”). Instructions to register an extra-territorial corporation in the Northwest Territories are as follows: Step 1: Unless this is a federal corporation, or a numbered corporation, a name search is required. Go to http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/ CorporateRegistry/documents/NSR.pdf to download the “Request for Name Search and Reservation”. Fill out the form and mail or drop off the original along with your filing fee to Corporate Registries. The fee is $25 (Department of Justice, “Incorporation”). Step 2: Go to http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/pdf/CorpReg/BCA/frm18.pdf to download a “Statement of Registration Extra-territorial Corporation” form, and http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/pdf/CorpReg/BCA/frm21.pdf to download the “Notice of Registered Office” form. Step 3: Fill out and print the forms (in duplicate for the “Notice of Registered Office”). Step 4: Mail the above forms, along with certified true copies of the charter of the corporation, including any amendments, a certificate of status or good standing from the incorporating jurisdiction, not more than 30 days old, as well as your payment, to the Corporate Registries. The fee is $300 (Department of Justice, “Extra-territorial Registration”). As with a Northwest Territories Corporation, the Government of the North-

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: NORTHWEST TERRITORIES west Territories requires that you file Annual Reports as well as advise the Corporate Registry in the event you change your agent (“Business Corporations Act”).

Tax Registration The GST is the only sales tax in effect in the Northwest Territories.

Goods and Services Tax (GST) The Canada Revenue Agency requires that you register for GST if your sales exceed $30,000 per year. If your sales are under $30,000, registration is optional (Canada Revenue Agency). As a GST Registrant, you are entitled to claim a refund of the GST paid on any business expense (Canada Revenue Agency), so voluntary registration may be useful. As a GST Registrant, you must charge the 5% tax on all your sales, whether they are made to Canadian residents or non-residents (Government of Canada, “Excise Tax Act”). GST must be reported and paid to the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) every month, every quarter, or every year based on your preferences and/or requirements from the CRA (Canada Revenue Agency). Register for HST at http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/tx/bsnss/tpcs/gst-tps/rgstrng/ vlntry-eng.html (Voluntary Registration), or http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/tx/ bsnss/tpcs/gst-tps/rgstrng/mndtry-eng.html (Mandatory Registration).

Operating Licences, Registrations, and Permits The licences, registrations, and permits that may be required for your business in the Northwest Territories include a Business Licence, Tourism Operator’s Licence, Northwest Territories Outfitter Licence, and Trapping Licence.

Business Licence You may require a Business Licence to operate in some municipalities. The process is usually pretty simple and only requires the annual payment of a fee usually under $100. Please contact your municipal offices to inquire on the business licence requirements in your are. Alternatively, you may visit http:///www.bcbizpal.ca to verify if you require a business licence based on your municipality and business activities.

Tourism Operator’s Licence The Government of the Northwest Territories requires that you obtain a Tourism Operator’s Licence if you provide guided commercial tourism activities in the Northwest Territories, unless such activities solely occur in a National Park (“Tourism Act”).


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The following requirements must be met in order to obtain a Tourism Operator’s Licence: 1. Your business must be registered in the Northwest Territories 2. You must hold liability insurance in the amount of $1,000,000, and 4. You must be familiar with the Tourism Act and Tourism Regulations The fee for the Tourism Operator’s Licence is $500 on application, and $150 on renewal (Industry, Tourism and Investment, “A Guide for Tourism Operators”). Go to http://www.iti.gov.nt.ca/publications/2008/tourismparks/ ApplicationfornewTourismOperatorLicence.pdf to download the Tourism Operator’s Licence application form. You can also go to http://www.iti.gov.nt.ca/publications/2011/ tourismparks/TourismOperatorsLicensingManual.pdf to download the Tourism Operator Guide. A list of Industry, Tourism, and Investment (ITI) Offices in the Northwest Territories, responsible for the issuance of Tourism Operator’s Licences, may be accessed at http://www.iti.gov.nt.ca/about-iti/regions.shtml.

Northwest Territories Outfitter Licence If you intend to operate trips that involve hunting, fishing or trapping, the Government of the Northwest Territories requires that you obtain a Northwest Territories Outfitter and/or Trapping Licence in addition to a Tourism Operator’s Licence (“Wildlife Act”). Contact the Northwest Territories Environment and Natural Resources for more information. Contact information may be accessed at http://www.enr.gov.nt.ca/_live/pages/wpPages/ContactUsRegionalOffices.aspx.

Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL) If you intend to possess and/or carry a firearm, whether it is for predator control, or as a Guide Outfitter, or if you want to be able to buy ammunition, you are required under federal law to obtain a Possession and Acquisition Licence (Government of Canada). A Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL) is valid for 5 years. Before you are entitled to apply for the PAL, you will need to complete a Canadian Firearm Safety Course (for unrestricted firearms, such as shotguns) and/or a Canadian Restricted Firearm Safety Course (for restricted firearms, such as hand guns). The instructions to obtain a Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL) are as follow: Step 1:

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: NORTHWEST TERRITORIES Go to http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/cfp-pcaf/safe_sur/cont-eng.htm in order to obtain local information about the Canadian Firearm Safety Course (CFSC), and/or the Canadian Restricted Firearm Safety Course (CRFSC). Step 2: Once you have completed and passed the CFSC and/or CRFSC, go to http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/cfp-pcaf/form-formulaire/num-nom/921eng.htm to download and fill out a PAL application. In addition to obtaining a Possession and Acquisition Licence, you will also be required to register all firearms in your possession. Registration is automatic when you purchase a firearm from an authorized firearm dealer in Canada. In all other circumstances, you are responsible for the registration of your firearms. Go to http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/cfp-pcaf/reg-enr/index-eng.htm for information on firearm registration.


Mountain Guiding Guides undertaking mountaineering activities (such as rock climbing, mountain climbing, travel on glacier or permanent snow) in Kluane National Park and Reserve in Yukon require a Mountain Guide certification from IFMGA, IVBV, or UIAGM.

Wilderness Guiding Guides undertaking any other land activity (besides mountaineering) in national parks in Yukon, such as Kluane National Park and Reserve, Vuntut National Park, as well as Chilkoot Trail National Historic Site, are required to meet competency and qualification standards set by Parks Canada. Such standards are met or exceeded by the PAWGI Certified Wilderness Guide (CWG) certification or higher. Professional Association of Wilderness Guides and Instructors (PAWGI) http://www.pawgi.org

Land Use For tourism purposes, land in the Northwest Territories can be divided in five different types: Private lands, Territorial Parks, National Parks, Public Lands (also referred to as Crown Land), and Indian Reserves and First Nation Treaty Lands. Each type of land has different rules for use in wilder-


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ness tourism.


Territorial Parks Permits for the purpose of operating in territorial parks are part of the Tourism Operator’s Licence process.

National Parks A permit is needed for any type of commercial activity in Canada’s National Parks (Government of Canada, “Canada National Parks Act”). Since the application process and requirements vary for each location, you should contact each park individually for more information. Typically, the permit application will require a detailed Proposal for Use, and liability insurance in the amount of $2,000,000. Visit http://www.pc.gc.ca for more information.

Public Land (Crown Land) Permits for the purpose of operating on crown land are part of the Tourism Operator’s Licence process.

Indian Reserves and First Nations Treaty Land Permission from Band Councils is required to operate on Indian Reserves and First Nations Treaty Lands. While such permission is acquired during the Tourism Operator’s Licence application process, it may be best to also contact each First Nation directly.

Liability Insurance Liability Insurance is required for adventure tourism operations in Yukon. The minimum amount of insurance is $2,000,000 for operations in National Parks, and $1,000,000 for operations in any other area. The following insurance brokers and underwriters provide policies tailored to the adventure tourism sector: Capri Insurance: http://www.capri.ca. Oceanic Underwriters: http://www.oceanicunderwriters.com

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Workers Compensation The Government of the Northwest Territories requires registration with the Worker’s Safety & Compensation Commission (WSCC) if you have employees, or if your business is a corporation, even without employees (“Workers Compensation Act”). Registration is optional for sole proprietors and their spouses, as well as partners in partnerships (Government of the Northwest Territories, “Workers Compensation Act”). Upon registration, you will be assessed Insurance Premiums, based on your business activities and total payrolls. Should a registered principal or one of your employees experience a work injury, the individual will receive compensation from WSCC, and you will be shielded from any lawsuit and resulting potential financial hardship. Go to http://www.wscc.nt.ca/Employers/Forms/Documents/Account% 20Registration/New%20Employer%20Account%20Registration% 20RS009.pdf to download a form to register your business.

Labour Regulations The following labour rules will apply to most situations involving adventure tourism operations. It is important to note that unlike other jurisdictions in Canada such as British Columbia, many labour regulations in the Northwest Territories may be waived through a written agreement between the employer and employee. The rights of employees in the Northwest Territories may therefore be somewhat limited.

Minimum Wage As of December 28, 2003, the minimum wage in the Northwest Territories is $8.25/hour for all employees, no matter their age or location of employment (Education, Culture, and Employment, “Minimum Wages”). Employers are required by law to pay their employees minimum wage, based on their daily hours of work (Education, Culture, and Employment, “Minimum Wages”).

Hours of Work An employer must pay 1 ½ times the regular wages after 8 hours of work in a day, 40 hours of work in a week, or 40 hours in a week less 8 hours for each holiday (Education, Culture, and Employment, “Hours of Work”). Additionally, employees are not allowed to work more than 10 hours a day or 60 hours a week without a permit, unless: 1. There has been an accident involving machinery, equipment, plant or people; 2. Urgent and essential work needs to be done to machinery, equipment


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or the plant; 3. Or there are unforeseen or non-preventable circumstances. Additionally, these work hours do not apply for people employment primarily in a management capacity (Education, Culture, and Employment, “Hours of Work”).

Meal Breaks Employees must receive a 30 minute unpaid meal break after every 5 consecutive hours of work (Education, Culture, and Employment, “Hours of Rest”).

Hours of Rest An employee is normally entitled to one full day of rest each week, on Sunday whenever possible (Education, Culture, and Employment, “Hours of Rest”).

Vacations and Vacation Pay An employee is entitled to a minimum of 2 weeks paid vacation after 12 consecutive months or employment. After 6 years of continuous employment, this is increased to 3 weeks paid vacation (Education, Culture, and Employment, “Vacations and Vacation Pay”). Vacation pay is accrued at a rate of 4% of gross earnings (including overtime) during the first 5 years of employment, and increases to 6% starting on the 6th year of employment (Education, Culture, and Employment, “Vacations and Vacation Pay”). All employees are entitled to vacation pay regardless of their length of employment, and such vacation pay is due upon the employment ending for any reason (Education, Culture, and Employment, “Vacations and Vacation Pay”).

Pregnancy and Parental Leave 12 months of continuous employment with the same employer is required to become eligible for combined pregnancy and parental leave of up to 52 weeks (women) and 37 weeks (fathers and adoptive parents). Written notice must be provided to the employer at least 4 weeks prior to the start of the pregnancy or parental leave (Education, Culture, and Employment, “Pregnancy and Parental Leave”).

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: CUSTOMS & IMMIGRATION

Customs Canada Customs laws, rules, regulations, and tariffs are very extensive. This is therefore a mere brief overview of some basic requirements.

Customs Declaration Card Any person entering Canada shall carefully read, and accurately fill out, a Customs Declaration Card.

Failure to declare certain goods, including but not limited to firearms, food, meat, fruits, flowers, plants, or soil, may result in seizures, fines, and criminal charges.


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Food and Edible Goods Foods containing beef, and manufactured outside of the United States and Canada, may not be brought into Canada. This includes all camping and dehydrated foods that are made with beef, or products derivates from beef. Further, foods containing other types of meat, and manufactured outside of the United States and Canada, may not be allowed into Canada. This includes, but is not limited to food that is made with chicken, pork, horse, and veal. Additionally, foods containing certain fruits, or specific fruits themselves such as apples, may not be brought into Canada.

Plants Most plants that are not native to Canada may not be brought into the country. Additionally, in order to protect Canada against invasive species, pests and diseases, any equipment brought into Canada, including your tent and hiking boots, must be cleaned and disinfected, and free of any soil residue.

Firearms Any firearm brought into Canada must be declared at the point of entry. The use of a firearm in Canada requires a Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL). Go to http://www.cbsa-asfc.gc.ca/noncan-eng.html for more customs information.

Immigration Work Permits Work is defined as any activity that will provide, or would be reasonably expected to provide, any type of compensation whatsoever. Compensation may be defined as the payment of wages or salary, or simply the providing of room and/or board, transportation, equipment, or gifts. In Canada, volunteering also does require a work permit. As a result, volunteering at a summer camp in British Columbia, looking after sled dogs in Yukon in exchange for room and board, or guiding in exchange for air transportation or outdoor equipment, does require a work permit.

Study Permits Study permits are required for any course or program of more than 6 months in length. Study Permits are not required for courses or programs

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REGULATORY COMPLIANCE: CUSTOMS & IMMIGRATION that will last 6 months or less, as long as the visitor status and/or visitor visa remains valid for the duration of the course or program.

Visitor Visa Visitor visa may be required based on nationality. Some foreign nationals may stay in Canada as visitors, as long as they do not work, for up to 6 months. Go to http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/visit/index.asp for permit and visa information.


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SECTION 2 RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

SECTION 2

RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT Legal Considerations Exercising the duties of a Wilderness Guide has legal implications and may involve civil liability. Should litigation arise following a serious incident, the action will most likely involve a claim for negligence. Wilderness Guides should therefore be familiar with basic legal concepts such as tort law, negligence, duty of care, standard of care, and causation. Wilderness Professionals should also be aware of the ability of releases of liability to minimize, if not eliminate, their exposure to civil liability.

Tort Law Tort Law is defined as “a civil wrong, other than a breach of contract, which the law will redress by an award of damages” (Cloutier 12). Tort Law is the basis of most litigation in adventure tourism, and it is concerned with compensation for fault-based occurrences involving injury to a person due to the fault of another person.

Negligence Negligence is defined as “the omission to do something which a reasonable man, guided upon those considerations which ordinarily regulate the conduct of human affairs, would do, or doing something which a prudent and reasonable man would not do” (Cloutier 13). In order to establish negligence, five elements must be proven: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

There must be injury to the plaintiff The defendant must have had a duty to avoid injuring the plaintiff The defendant’s conduct must have breached the standard of care required by law The conduct of the defendant must be a proximate cause of the damage There should be no factors in the plaintiff’s conduct which justify a reduction or an elimination of the damages awarded, such as being guilty of contributory negligence or voluntarily assuming the legal risk

Duty of Care Duty of Care in negligence law refers to the responsibility of one party to take reasonable care for the protection of another party (Cloutier 13). Duty of Care will apply to a Wilderness Guide in the following circumstances: 1.

The guide enters a commercial relationship with another party for compensation or other type of consideration. Example: Clients pay you to take them on a day hike or expedition in a park.


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RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT 2.

The guide supervises, controls, or take responsibility of another party, whether or not compensation or any other type of consideration is involved. Example: You volunteer to take a group of kids in the wilderness.

3.

The guide creates a dangerous situation for a party. Example: You create a rock slide by traveling on obviously unstable terrain, endangering a group of people below not related to your party.

4.

The guide voluntarily assumes responsibility for a party. Example: You come across two hikers who are lost, and decides to take them in your group and guide them back to civilization.

5.

The guide is the occupier of land or premises. Example: The situation occurs on your own land.

SECTION 2

Duty of Care will not apply to a Wilderness Guide in other circumstances. Example: You come across a group of strangers stranded in a canyon and about to drown due to raising waters. You don’t know them, have not taken responsibility for them, are not responsible for their situation, and as a result, you are not required by law to provide assistance. Note: Should you decide to render assistance, duty of care will immediately apply, and you may face potential civil liability if you bungle the rescue. Example: You see in the distance an unrelated party playing with a bear cub, not knowing the mother is on her way and about to attack them. You are not required by law to even warn the party. Note: Should you elect to warn the party and provide directions on how to avoid a bear attack, you may expose yourself to potential civil liability if the party ends up being attacked by the bear anyway.

Standard of Care Liability in negligence law is not only based on whether the defendant had an actual Duty of Care, but also whether the defendant met a reasonable Standard of Care. A reasonable Standard of Care is assessed based on what a reasonable person of normal intelligence would do in the same circumstances. As a Wilderness Guide, doing your best is therefore not an adequate defence against negligence. Instead, you are required to carry the same standard of care as that which would be expected from any other reasonable and careful Wilderness Guide (Cloutier 16). In practice, such standard of care for your activities as a Wilderness Guide is expected to be held at an expert level because of your position as a guide, and thus, the inherent representation of yourself as an expert to any client. You are also expected to operate as per custom and generally ap-

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RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT proved practice, you are expected to disclose the risks involved with any activity to the participants, and you are further expected to have sufficient knowledge and experience prior to undertaking any activity. As a Wilderness Guide, you are also expected to act within your limitations and seek expert advice when warranted. Hence the PAWGI requirement that Certified Assistant Guides gain experience and knowledge under the supervision of a Certified Wilderness Guide before they are allowed to lead trips on their own, and that Certified Wilderness Guides always operate within the limit of their skills, knowledge, experience, and training.

Causation In order for a Wilderness Guide to be liable to a party, negligence law requires that the guide’s misconduct be connected to the party’s injury (Cloutier 20). Causation can usually be established when it can be proven that a party’s injury would not have occurred without the guide’s negligent conduct (Cloutier 20).

Releases of Liability As long as “an adventure operator takes reasonable steps to bring a waiver to the attention of the plaintiff and that the document makes its identity clear and is presented and administered adequately, the courts in Canada have a history of upholding waiver contracts” (Cloutier 56). In Simpson v. Nahanni River Adventures Ltd., the plaintiff filed legal action against Nahanni River Adventures for negligence, after her husband was swept away and killed during a flash flood in a dry river bed, while on a trip with the defendant. While Nahanni River Adventures was deemed to be negligent by the court, the lawsuit was nonetheless dismissed because a waiver had been signed. As a Wilderness Guide, you are therefore required to have the PAWGI Release of Liability, Waiver of Claims, Assumption of Risks, and Indemnity Agreement (Release of Liability) reviewed, filled out, and signed by all participants, before undertaking any wilderness activity. In order for the PAWGI Release of Liability to hold in court, the following guidelines must be followed (Cloutier 57): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Provide advanced notice to the participant that signing a release will be required. Ideally, such notice should be included in all marketing materials. Send a copy of the release to the participant in advance. Educate the participant regarding the contents of the release. Provide time for the participant to review the release. Provide an atmosphere that is conducive for the participant to read, understand, and execute the release. Do not mix the release with any other documents that require signa-


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RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

SECTION 2

ture. Make sure that the participant’s signature is correct. Do not allow the participant to cross out or delete any section of the release. Have the participant sign the release in front of a witness, and have the witness sign the release as well. Make sure the participant is not under the influence of any substance while signing the release. Provide a copy of the release to the participant. Do not attempt to interpret the release for the participant. Keep the signed release for a minimum of 7 years.

It should be noted that when a release is signed by a minor, or a guardian on behalf of a minor, such release is not enforceable. It therefore does not protect the guide from civil liability, and will only serve to warn the underage participant and his or her guardians of the dangers inherent to the activity he or she is about to undertake. Under no circumstances should a participant be allowed to participate in any activity whatsoever prior to properly executing a release.

Risk Management The ability to efficiently manage risk is one of a Wilderness Guide’s most important skills. A Wilderness Guide who takes too many unconsidered risks will be reckless, while a Wilderness Guide unwilling to take any risk whatsoever will defy the very purpose of adventure.

Principles of Risk Management Although PAWGI’s Risk Management Policy recognizes the fact that risk is inherent to wilderness guiding and therefore cannot be completely eliminated, the policy also values life and physical integrity, and thus, strives to either eliminate or mitigate the most serious risks. As a result, the frequency of occurrences is not taken into consideration, as in our view, even one single fatality that could have reasonably been prevented is unacceptable. Instead, PAWGI’s Risk Management Policy is based on whether a hazard is controllable, and if so, what steps are to be taken in order to either prevent the occurrence, or control its outcome. In addition, the controllability factor is not absolute. It is indeed activityspecific, participant-type-specific, and it is based on a Wilderness Guide’s skills, knowledge, experience, and training at the time the activity is to be undertaken. As a result, a hazard deemed to be non-controllable by a novice Wilderness Guide may become controllable after the same Wilderness Guide has gained more experience. Similarly, the same hazard assessed as non-controllable with a group of inexperienced participants may become controllable with participants that are more skilled.

Identification of Hazards

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SECTION 2

RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT Every wilderness activity will inherently involve various hazards. A Wilderness Guide shall therefore identify all hazards associated with any activity to be undertaken during a trip. Once the hazards have been identified, they should be thoroughly assessed. Example: You are a Certified Wilderness Guide and you are planning to guide a group of members from the Ground Squirrel Club of America on a field trip to Kluane National Park and Reserve. One of the activities will involve backpacking on glaciers, and another activity will involve observation and photography of ground squirrels at very close range. Some of the hazards that immediately come to mind and specific to these activities are: Falling in a crevasse while traveling on a glacier Hypothermia at any time during the trip Twisting an ankle while backpacking Coming too close to a ground squirrel and getting bitten Getting blisters while hiking/backpacking Being hit by embers while around the camp fire resulting in minor burns

Severity of Hazards Hazards shall be first assessed based on their degree of severity. Severe hazards are likely to cause any of the following:    

Death Life-threatening injuries Major physical or psychological injuries Major business, financial, or personal losses

Severe hazard occurrences cannot typically be handled at the expedition or organization level. Moderate hazards are likely to cause any of the following:   

Non-life-threatening injuries that can be fully recovered from Substantial discomfort Moderate and manageable business, financial, or personal losses

Moderate hazard occurrences can typically be handled at the organization level, and sometimes, at the expedition level. Minor hazards are likely to cause any of the following:   

Minor injuries Minor discomforts Minor business, financial, or personal losses

Minor hazard occurrences can typically be handled at the expedition level. Based on our previous example, the degree of severity of each identified hazard may be assessed as follow:


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SECTION 2

Falling in a crevasse while traveling on a glacier would likely cause serious injury or death. As a result, falling in a crevasse is a severe hazard. Hypothermia at any time during the trip is a severe hazard as well because once the stage of severe hypothermia is reached in a wilderness environment, it will most likely result in death. Twisting an ankle while backpacking will cause a lot of discomfort, but the injury is typically fully recoverable. This is therefore a moderate hazard. Coming too close to a ground squirrel and getting bitten is a moderate hazard because a small animal bite should be fully recoverable for a properly vaccinated, healthy adult. Getting blisters while hiking/backpacking is a minor hazard. Being hit by embers while around the camp fire resulting in minor burns is a minor hazard.

Controllability of Hazards Whether or not a hazard associated with a specific activity and type of participants is controllable can be assessed by asking two questions: 1.

Can I, for this specific activity and type of participants, and based on my skills, knowledge, experience, and training, reasonably control the occurrence of the hazard?

2.

Can I, for this specific activity and type of participants, and based on my skills, knowledge, experience, and training, reasonably control the outcome of the hazard?

If the occurrence and outcome of a hazard cannot be controlled for a specific activity and type of participants, it is a non-controllable hazard. If the occurrence or outcome of a hazard can be controlled for a specific activity and type of participants, it is a controllable hazard. The same hazard could therefore fall in either category based on the situation. Hypothermia could be a non-controllable severe hazard if a guide undertakes an expedition in the Arctic with inexperienced participants and is not trained to detect and treat hypothermia. On the other hand, hypothermia could be a controllable hazard for a guide trained to detect and treat hypothermia and who leads a trip in a temperate region with experienced participants. Based on our previous example, the controllability of each identified hazard may be assessed as follows: Falling in a crevasse (Severe Hazard): For the specific activity involving travel on glaciers, can you prevent falling in a crevasse? Your certification as a Certified Wilderness Guide specifically excludes traveling on glaciers, and you weren't trained for such activity. Even if you had some experience traveling on glaciers, you do not have the proper training, and thus, cannot

2-06


SECTION 2

RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT pretend you have the necessary skills and knowledge either. In other words, you cannot say that you will be able to prevent a participant from falling into a crevasse. Can you control the outcome of such a fall based on your skills, knowledge, experience, and training? No, you cannot. Falling in a crevasse is therefore a non-controllable severe hazard. Hypothermia (Severe Hazard): Can you prevent hypothermia during this specific activity? As a Wilderness Guide, your experience allows you to select appropriate equipment that will minimize the risk of hypothermia. You will therefore be able to prevent hypothermia. Can you control the outcome of hypothermia by ensuring it does not reach a critical stage? As a Certified Wilderness Guide, you have a working knowledge of the various stages of hypothermia. You were also trained to recognize and treat hypothermia. So, yes, you would be able to control the outcome of hypothermia. Overall, you are confident that you will not only most likely be able to prevent hypothermia, but should hypothermia occur, you will be able to recognize it and treat it immediately before it reaches a critical stage. Consequently, hypothermia is a controllable severe hazard. Twisting an ankle while backpacking (Moderate Hazard): Can you prevent participants from this group from twisting their ankle? No. Can you control the outcome of participants twisting their ankle? No. Twisting an ankle is therefore a non-controllable moderate hazard. Getting bitten by a ground squirrel (Moderate Hazard): Can you prevent ground squirrels from biting participants? Unless they are rabid, ground squirrels are not known as vicious animals. You are therefore most likely to prevent participants from being bit by simply preventing the participants from harassing wildlife. Can you control the outcome of a bite? Yes. You can ensure that the participants have their tetanus and rabies vaccinations up to date, so in the event of a bite, the consequences will be mitigated. Getting bitten by a ground squirrel is therefore a controllable moderate hazard. Blisters (Minor Hazard): Can you reasonably control blisters on your participants’ feet? No. Can you control the outcome of a blister? No. Blisters are therefore a noncontrollable hazards. Minor Burns (Minor Hazard): Can you control small burns from embers? Yes, by simply not having campfires. Minor burns are therefore controllable minor hazards.

Assessment of Hazards Once the severity and controllability of a hazard has been evaluated, the hazard can be assessed and colour-coded.

The hazards identified in our previous example can therefore be colour-coded as follow: Falling in a crevasse while traveling on a glacier (red hazard) Hypothermia at any time during the trip (orange hazard)


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SECTION 2

Twisting an ankle while backpacking (blue hazard) Coming too close to a ground squirrel and getting bitten (yellow hazard) Getting blisters while hiking/backpacking (blue hazard) Being hit by embers while around the camp fire resulting in minor burns (blue hazard) Hazard Assessment Table CONTROLLABLE

NON-CONTROLLABLE

SEVERE HAZARD

Controllable Severe Hazard

Non-controllable Severe Hazard

MODERATE HAZARD

Controllable Moderate Hazard

Non-controllable Moderate Hazard

MINOR HAZARD

Controllable Minor Hazard

Non-controllable Minor Hazard

Hazard Assessment Table (Samples) CONTROLLABLE

NON-CONTROLLABLE

SEVERE HAZARD

HYPOTHERMIA

FALL IN CREVASSE

MODERATE HAZARD

SMALL ANIMAL BITE

TWISTING ANKLE

MINOR HAZARD

MINOR BURN

BLISTERS

NOTES

2-08


SECTION 2

RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT HAZARD ASSESSMENT FLOW CHART SEVERE HAZARD

A

Likeliness of Death, life-threatening injuries, major physical or psychological injuries, and/or major business, financial, or personal losses.

1

ASK YOURSELF

2

Can I, for this specific activity and type of participants, reasonably control the occurrence of the hazard?

YES

ASK YOURSELF

Can I, for this specific activity and type of participants, reasonably control the outcome of the hazard?

NO

YES

NO

Non-Controllable Severe Hazard

Controllable Severe Hazard

MODERATE HAZARD

B

Likeliness of non-serious, non-life-threatening injuries, substantial discomfort, and/or moderate and manageable business, financial, or personal losses.

1

ASK YOURSELF

2


YES

ASK YOURSELF


NO

YES

NO

Non-Controllable Moderate Hazard

Controllable Moderate Hazard

MINOR HAZARD

C

Likeliness of minor injuries, minor discomforts, and/or minor business, financial, or personal losses.

1

ASK YOURSELF


YES

NO

Controllable Minor Hazard


2

ASK YOURSELF


YES

NO

Non-Controllable Minor Hazard

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SECTION 2

Management of Hazards Hazards shall be managed based on their colour. RED HAZARDS Red Hazards are activity-specific and participant-specific non-controllable severe hazards. Red hazards shall be eliminated by simply avoiding or modifying the activity. Management 1.

Avoid the activity associated with the red hazard in order to eliminate the red hazard. Or

2.

Modify the activity associated with the red hazard in order to turn the red hazard into an orange hazard.

In our previous example, falling in a crevasse, assessed as a red hazard, would be associated with travel on a glacier. By deciding not to travel on a glacier, you avoid the activity that could lead to a participant falling in a crevasse, and as a result, eliminate the risk altogether. NOTES

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SECTION 2

RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT ORANGE HAZARDS Orange Hazards are activity-specific and participant-specific controllable severe hazards. Orange hazards shall be managed by reducing their occurrence and/our minimizing the severity of their outcome. Management 1.

Safety Policy: Develop and implement a Safety Policy that includes clear procedures designed to minimize the risk of occurrence. Learn to detect and respond to conditions that are likely to lead to an orange hazard.

2.

Emergency Procedures: Develop and implement Emergency Procedures that clearly outline how to handle an orange hazard occurrence in order to minimize the severity of the outcome. Identify how and when rescue should be activated, or outside assistance sought.

3.

Skills: Keep your First Aid certification current. Be up to date with all professional standards. Remain medically, physically, and mentally fit.

4.

Limitations: Know the limitations of your current skills, knowledge, experience, and training. Know when to seek outside help or assistance.

5.

Equipment: Always use adequate quality equipment in good condition and properly maintained.

6.

Pre-screen participants: Including medical fitness, physical fitness, and skill level.

7.

Disclose: Ensure that your participants are fully and adequately warned and informed of the orange hazards associated with the activity. Ensure that your participants review and sign the PAWGI Release of Liability.

In our previous example, hypothermia was assessed as an orange hazard. Such hazard would therefore be managed as follow: 1.

Safety Policy: Develop a safety policy and strictly adhere to it. The policy should ensure that you personally check the equipment of each participant to verify it is adequate for the season and circumstances. Implementing required equipment lists for every participant should also be considered. Requiring the use of synthetic sleeping bags rather than down sleeping bags would also insure participants can remain somewhat warm even if their sleeping bag gets wet. Making sure participants wear rain gear in the rain will also ensure they will not experience hypothermia as soon as they stop hiking. Carrying a tent with extra capacity (e.g. 3 people instead of 2) could also provide shelter to a participant who is unlucky enough to lose his tent.


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RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT 2.

Emergency Procedures: Ensure that you know how to detect the first stages of hypothermia, and how to adequately respond and treat the condition, in order to prevent an escalation of the occurrence. If a participant is experiencing moderate hypothermia and you cannot keep the situation under control, you should make sure you know how and when to request outside help and activate a rescue if necessary.

3.

Skills: Make sure you are current with your First Aid, and you know what you are doing. Are you confident you can undertake a specific trip? Is your certification up to date? Is your First Aid still valid?

4.

Limitations: Do you get confused between the signs of hypothermia and the signs of the heat stroke? Then it may not be wise to undertake a trip that presents a risk of hypothermia! Are you experiencing difficulties in warming up a participant with hypothermia? Know when and how to seek help or assistance!

5.

Equipment: Use equipment specifically designed for the conditions. If you are undertaking the trip in winter, use a 4-season tent, rather than a 3-season tent which may either collapse under the snow, fly away in the wind, or simply not provide the necessary protection. If you require rain gear, use actual goretex materials or an acceptable equivalent, rather than a cheap jacket bought at low end store for a fraction of the cost. Use sleeping bags that are adequately rated. Taking a summer sleeping bag rated for +5°C on a winter expedition will clearly not provide the necessary protection.

6.

Pre-screen participants: Know the skill and fitness levels required for your expedition, and ensure all participants meet or exceed the requirements. Have every participant fill out a Medical Questionnaire so you can screen out medical issues.

7.

Disclose: Brief your participants about hypothermia. Explain how to prevent hypothermia, how to recognize hypothermia, and how to treat hypothermia. Tell them that hypothermia is a severe hazard that can lead to death. Make sure all participants understand the risk associated with hypothermia. Also ensure all participants review and sign a Release of Liability.

SECTION 2

NOTES

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SECTION 2

RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT YELLOW HAZARDS Yellow hazards are activity and participant-specific controllable moderate hazards. Yellow hazards should be mitigated without unduly affecting the very purpose of the activity. Management Yellow hazards should be managed with discretion. Although theoretically controllable, such hazards may simply be inherent to certain activities and areas, and may therefore have to be considered as an acceptable risk. 1.

Emergency Procedures: Develop and implement Emergency Procedures that clearly outline how to handle an yellow hazard occurrence in order to minimize the severity of the outcome. Identify how and when rescue should be activated, or outside assistance sought.

2.

Safety Procedures: Develop and implement Safety Procedures designed to minimize the risk of occurrence whenever possible or practical, without unduly affecting the nature of the activity. Learn to detect and respond to conditions that are likely to lead to a yellow hazard.

3.

Skills: Keep your First Aid certification current. Be up to date with all professional standards. Remain medically, physically, and mentally fit.

4.

Limitations: Know the limitations of your current skills, knowledge, experience, and training. Know when to seek outside help or assistance.

5.

Equipment: Always use adequate quality equipment in good condition and properly maintained.

6.

Pre-screen participants: Including medical fitness, physical fitness, and skill level.

7.

Disclose: Ensure that your participants are fully and adequately warned and informed of the yellow hazards associated with the activity. Ensure that your participants review and sign the PAWGI Release of Liability.

In our previous example, a small animal bite was assessed as a yellow hazard. Such hazard would therefore be managed as follow: 1.

Emergency Procedures: If a participant gets bitten by a ground squirrel, make sure you have procedures in place to promptly deal with the situation, including treating and evacuating the victim if necessary (although it shouldn’t get to that point).

2.

Safety Procedures: You should ensure that the participants have current rabies and tetanus vaccinations, so in case they get bitten, you don’t end up with a rabid client by the end of the trip. Other


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SECTION 2

safety procedures should avoid interfering with the participants’ enjoyment of the trip. In order to make sure nobody gets bitten by a ground squirrel, you could impose buffer zones between the animals and the participants. However, preventing the participants from interacting as they wish with an animal which is obviously the highlight and purpose of their trip (they are members of the Ground Squirrel Club of America after all), would certainly affect their enjoyment and even defy the very purpose of their trip. Therefore, although you could take various actions to prevent participants from being bitten, the risk of a bite may simply have to be accepted. After all, it is only a moderate risk that should not lead to death or a serious injury. 3.

Skills: Make sure you are current with your First Aid, and you know what you are doing. Is your First Aid still valid? Can you treat an animal bite?

4.

Limitations: Are you somebody who cannot deal with the sight of blood? If so, undertaking an activity that presents the risk of a participant being bit by a ground squirrel might not be a great idea!

5.

Equipment: Is your First Aid kit complete? Now would not be a good time to realize you don’t really have anything to treat a bite!

6.

Pre-screen participants: Have every participant fill out a Medical Questionnaire so you can screen out medical issues that could be made worse by an animal bite. Make sure each participant is up to date with their Rabies and Tetanus vaccinations.

7.

Disclose: Brief your participants about animal bites. Explain how to prevent the bites, including not getting too close to the animal, not cornering the animal, not following the animal in its den, etc... Make sure all participants understand the risk associated with harassing wildlife. Also ensure all participants review and sign a Release of Liability.

NOTES

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SECTION 2

RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT BLUE HAZARDS Blue hazards are non-controllable moderate hazards, or minor hazards. These hazards should be handled as they occur rather than be prevented. Management 1.

Guidelines: Develop and implement guidelines to deal with blue hazards at the expedition level, and the organizational level if necessary.

2.

Skills: Keep your skills up to date so you are capable of responding to any occurrence.

3.

Disclose: Advise your participants of blue hazards as needed.

In our previous example, twisting an ankle, blisters, and minor burns all were assessed as a blue hazards. Such hazards would therefore be managed as follow: 1.

Guidelines: Ensure you have guidelines in place to deal with blisters, twisted ankles, or minor burns at the expedition level whenever possible. A slightly twisted ankle, a few blisters, or a minor burn will seldom require outside assistance, let alone an evacuation. A more severely twisted ankle will however most likely require an evacuation. As a result, you should still always be ready and prepared for the worst, with an emergency plan ready.

2.

Skills: Keep your First Aid skills up to date so you can actually treat the blisters, twisted ankle, or minor burns if necessary.

3.

Disclose: Advise your participant of the blue hazards as needed. If you notice that a participant is playing with the camp fire and may get burnt, you should give him a friendly warning, without being too controlling.

NOTES


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SECTION 2

Releases of Liability The signing of a Release of Liability, such as the PAWGI Release shall be an absolute requirement before a participant undertakes any activity whatsoever. Properly written and executed Releases of Liability have been consistently upheld by Canadian courts, and are therefore an excellent protection against lawsuits.

Liability Insurance No amount of skills, knowledge, experience, and training, and no Risk Management Policy will be able to completely eliminate risk, and thus, accidents. This is particularly true in wilderness operations, where inherent hazards are always involved. A Wilderness Guide should therefore accept the fact that experiencing a serious accident in his or her career, through no fault of his or her own, is a possibility. As such accidents could possibly lead to litigation, liability insurance is therefore an integral part of any risk management policy, or wilderness guiding operation. As a matter of fact, PAWGI requires that all Certified Wilderness Guides maintain liability insurance in an amount of no less than $2,000,000. Although liability insurance is the last element of the PAWGI Risk Management Policy, it may nonetheless be one of the most important.

Safety Policies A Safety Policy shall be developed for each identified orange hazard. As a policy, it should strictly be adhered to, and it should include clear procedures designed to minimize the risk of occurrence, as well as detect and respond to conditions that are likely to lead to an orange hazard. Yellow hazards should be the subject of Safety Procedures, while blue hazards should be addressed in Safety Guidelines.

Safety Equipment The following safety equipment should be carried on every multi-day trip: PLB (Personal Locator Beacon) This portable device will send a distress signal to a satellite when activated, along with position coordinates, and will activate search and rescue in the country of occurrence. PLB’s should be purchased and registered in the country of operation. Using a foreign-purchased/registered PLB may delay or even prevent Search and Rescue activation. Additionally, based on each country capabilities and limitations, the activation of a PLB may not result in search and rescue being activated.

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SECTION 2

RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT In Canada, PLB must be, by law, promptly registered with the Canadian Forces at http://www.canadianbeaconregistry.forces.gc.ca/Logon.asp. Note: Should you wish to test your PLB, this shall only be done during the first 5 minutes of every hour. Satellite Telephone A satellite telephone will allow communications in remote areas, as long as there is no obstructions in the sky. Indeed, high mountains, dense vegetation covers, and sometimes even dense cloud cover, may affect satellite reception. Although there are several satellite telephone systems available in Canada, Iridium is the only system that offers true global coverage across Canada, and thus includes northern Canada and even polar areas. Globalstar for example will have marginal coverage in most of Yukon, and is far from offering global coverage. Note: When dialing a telephone number on an Iridium Satellite phone, the number should be dialled in international format, even if the number is local. International Access Code + Country Code + Area Code + Telephone Number For example, if you want to dial (250) 654-5678, you will need to dial as follow: +1 250 654 5678 “+” (press and hold the 0 key) is the key/sign used as the International Access Code on Motorola Iridium phones. Please note, 911 service is not available from satellite phones. Satellite Messaging A satellite messaging device will allow two way messaging subject to the typical satellite communication limitations. Although there are several systems currently on the market, the DeLorme InReach (paired with either a DeLorme GPS unit or an Android phone) is the only system that offers twoway text/email communications. Additionally, the InReach operates on the Iridium system, thereby offering true global coverage. The InReach system should not be used in lieu of a PLB due to limitations inherent to communication satellites. Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Global Positioning Systems will be of great assistance for backcountry navigation, as long as you are familiar with the use of a specific model. Typically, only 3 satellites are required to get an accurate position, and satellite access can be intermittent, making GPS operational even when sky obstructions are present.


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SECTION 2

First Aid Kits A First Aid Kit shall be carried on every trip. The specific contents and size of the kit will vary based on the trip duration and number of participants. Wilderness Guides shall be familiar with the contents of their First Aid Kit.

Survival Kits A Survival Kit should be adapted to the circumstances, and could be small enough to be carried on your person, or larger if intended for vehicles, aircraft, or extended expeditions. The following items should be considered: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Several means to start a fire. This could include a combination of any of the following: All-weather matches, all-weather lighter, regular lighter, magnesium fire starting tool, campfire fire starters, etc… Leatherman Tool and/or pocket knife Foldable or wire saw Portable axe Signalling mirror Duct tape Plastic Bag(s) Rope Emergency blanket Water purification system (must be tablets in cold environments) Fishing line Fishhooks Magnifying lens Compass Paper and Pencil Candle (cold environments) Insect Repellent and/or mosquito suit

A Survival Kit is a very personal item. Wilderness Guides should therefore adapt the contents as needed.

Portable Electric Fences Portable electric fences are required for any trip in Arctic regions or other polar bear habitats. They shall systematically be deployed around the camp as a first level of protection against polar bears.

Firearms Firearms are also required for any trip in Arctic regions or other polar bear habitats for predator control purposes. For short-range predator control, shotguns are preferable. Ammunition should consist of slugs. For longerrange predator control, a riffle may be more suitable. Should you be forced to shoot a bear, you must aim for a clean kill. Avoid shooting in the animal’s head as this rarely kills the animal. Aim instead for the centre of the neck, between the shoulders if the bear is facing you, or in

2-18


SECTION 2

RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT the low neck area if the bear is on the side. Keep shooting until the bear goes down. Note: Keep in mind that shooting a bear is an absolute last resort, and you should always endeavour to avoid conflicts. Additionally, never attempt to shoot at a bear that is attacking a participant, as you are more than likely to shoot the participant as well.

Emergency Management Wilderness Guides shall develop a sound Emergency Management plan in order to be able to efficiently handle any occurrence and minimize the severity of its outcome. Rather than developing Emergency Procedures for every single possible occurrence, Emergency Procedures should be based on the severity of the occurrence, and the level at which the emergency can be handled.

Emergencies Manageable at the Expedition Level These are minor emergencies that can typically be handled at the expedition level. The handling of these emergencies therefore entirely relies on the Wilderness Guide, and thus, his or her skills. Current First Aid training is therefore paramount.

Emergencies Manageable at the Organization Level Non-serious emergencies that are not life-threatening may be handled at the organization level. If the organization is unable to efficiently and promptly handle the emergency, however, outside assistance should be sought.

Emergencies Requiring Outside Assistance Serious emergencies with possible life-threatening implications should involve outside assistance. In other words, such emergencies should result in the immediate activation of rescue services.

Emergency Plans An Emergency Plan will include the following details: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Emergency Communication Equipment Date of last battery charge for satellite phones Battery expiration date for IPIRB’s Emergency Number to Call (must be monitored 24/7) Telephone number of the nearest RCMP detachment Emergency supplies carried (such as First Aid Kit, Survival Kit, firearm, water filter, avalanche beacon etc…) Number of participants Duration of the expedition


2-19

RISK & EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

SECTION 2

Number of days worth of food supplies Departure date Return date Departure point Return point Specific route of the trip Whether the route is known to the guide Description, name, and coordinates of several possible evacuation points Lead guide name Assistant guide name Date and time on which emergency services should be activated Any other relevant information

A copy of the PAWGI Emergency Plan is available online at http://www.pawgi.org.

Incident Reports Incident Reports shall be completed following any serious incident. Incident reports will allow the Wilderness Guide to take note of all the relevant details, including witness information, and may be very useful in the event of litigation. Incident Reports may also help prevent future occurrences. A copy of the PAWGI Incident Report is available online at http://www.pawgi.org.

Victim Assistance Whenever possible, Wilderness Guides should endeavour to assist the victim of any serious occurrence. If they cannot personally provide such assistance, guides should make arrangements to ensure the victim is assisted by another staff member at the organization level. Victim assistance includes but is not limited to riding along the victim in the medevac on the way to the hospital, getting in touch with the victim’s family and emergency contacts, making arrangement to safely store the victim’s equipment, visiting the victim at the hospital, getting frequent status updates, assisting the victim with insurance and administrative matters whenever necessary, and being supportive of the victim any way possible.

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SECTION 3 WILDERNESS HAZARDS

SECTION 3

WILDERNESS HAZARDS

WILDERNESS HAZARDS Although medical emergencies and accidents are hazards in a wilderness environment, they will not be addressed as they are beyond the scope of this manual. As per the requirements of their certification, Wilderness Guides should maintain a current Wilderness First Aid certification in order to have the skills required to handle medical emergencies and accidents. The following list of hazards inherent to wilderness environment is not exhaustive and only covers the most common hazards. Participants should be briefed on all hazards as applicable.

Mild Hypothermia Mild hypothermia is characterized by a body temperature dropping between 32°C and 35°C. The main visible symptom is shivering. Mild hypothermia should be immediately addressed in order to prevent escalation to moderate hypothermia. Mild hypothermia can be treated by providing the individual with properly insulated dry clothing, warm clothes, or even an emergency blanket. Non-alcoholic hot drinks may also be provided, and a fire may be started.

Moderate Hypothermia The body temperature dropping between 28°C and 32°C constitutes moderate hypothermia. The main visible symptoms include violent shivering, laboured and slow movements, mild confusion, and pale skin tone. The lips, ears, fingers, and toes may become blue. The victim may also become disoriented and combative, and may undergo paradoxical undressing¹. Unless treated immediately, moderate hypothermia will escalate to severe hypothermia, which is likely to cause death in a wilderness environment. The most efficient treatment for moderate hypothermia in a wilderness environment is direct skin contact. Both the victim and the Wilderness Guide should strip down to their underwear, jump together in a sleeping bag (preferably in a tent or shelter), and maintain as much body contact as possible, until the victim warms up sufficiently for all symptoms to disappear. Assistance from other participants may be required if the victim is combative. If the victim does not warm up, rescue should be activated.

Severe Hypothermia During severe hypothermia, the body temperature drops between 20°C and 28°C. The main visible symptoms include difficulties speaking, sluggish thinking, amnesia, incoherent behaviour, including terminal burrowing² and stupor. Muscle coordination becomes very poor, and motor functions are affected. The victim becomes unable to use his or her hands or to walk. The


3-01

WILDERNESS HAZARDS

SECTION 3

victim may also become extremely confused, disoriented, and combative, and may undergo paradoxical undressing¹. The exposed skin becomes blue and puffy. Major organs fail and clinical death occurs. Severe hypothermia cannot usually be treated in a wilderness environment, hence the necessity to detect and treat hypothermia at the mild stage, or in the worst case scenario, at the moderate stage. Rescue shall immediately be activated, while everything is attempted to warm up the victim. Direct skin contact is again recommended as in the treatment for moderate hypothermia. In this instance however, two people should be involved in order to provide the victim with total body contact. ¹ Paradoxical undressing occurs when a confused, disoriented and combative victim of mild to severe hypothermia begins discarding his or her clothing. ² Terminal burrowing occurs in the final stage of hypothermia when the brain stem produces a burrowing like behaviour similar to hibernation behaviour in animals. The victim will therefore tend to burry himself or herself under leaves, in crevasses, or any other small cavity.

Heat Exhaustion Heat exhaustion is characterized by a body temperature increase to 38°C. The main symptoms include pale and cool skin, sweating profusely, muscle cramps or pain, and dizziness. Victim may also complain of headaches, weakness, thirst, and nausea. The victim should be removed to a cool, shaded area away from the sun, and should rest. Clothing should be loosened or removed, and cool water applied to the skin. Cool non-alcoholic and non-caffeine beverages such as water with salt should be provided. Treating heat exhaustion is extremely important in order to avoid an escalation to a heat stroke, which is a life threatening condition that is difficult to treat in a wilderness environment.

Heat Strokes Heat stroke occurs when the body temperature increases to 40°C or more. At that point the body mechanisms that regulate heat, such has sweating, have failed. The skin is hot, flushed, and dry. Visible symptoms may also include hyperventilation, dizziness, confusion, or even hallucinations. If the body temperature is not decreased, coma may occur. If wind is present, the victim’s clothes should be soaked with water. The combination of water in contact with the skin together with adequate ventilation will cause evaporation, and thus, a decrease in body temperature. This technique may not however lower the victim’s core temperature fast enough, leading to a further degradation of the victim’s condition.

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WILDERNESS HAZARDS Another option is to immerse the victim in water with the assistance of other staff members or participants. Cool water such as that of a pond is preferable to the typically cold water of a Canadian stream. The victim should be attended continuously while in the water. If the victim is unconscious, extreme care should be given to ensure that the victim’s head remains well above water, and the airways are not obstructed or impeded in any way. The latter technique may have adverse effects, such as shock if cold water is used, or a theoretical constriction of the skin blood vessels, thereby affecting the body’s ability to release heat. However, in the absence of treatment, the victim will most likely die, and immersion in water may be the only option to try to lower body temperature. In all cases, a conscious victim should be provided with non-alcoholic, caffeine-free beverages consisting of water and salt. In the event of an evacuation by helicopter specifically, and if the helicopter ride to a medical facility is to take some time, the victim’s body temperature should be lowered before transportation. This can be achieved by soaking the victim’s clothes with water, and keeping the victim close to the helicopter while the blades are running. As long as the victim remains wet, a decrease in body temperature of 0.10°C /minute will be achieved.

Falls Through Ice Travel on ice should be avoided unless extremely low temperatures have been present for several days in a row, and the thickness, stability, and quality of the ice can be accurately assessed. Should a fall through ice occur the body will go into a “cold shock” characterized by hyperventilation, involuntary gasping, hypertension and faster heart rate. Expecting such normal response to a plunge in frigid water is important to avoid panic. In order to get out of the water without assistance, the following steps should be taken: 1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

Control your breathing Tread water to stay afloat Position yourself to face the strongest/thickest part of the ice Place your arms and elbow on top of the ice, and kick your feet in the water as hard as you can while keeping your body horizontal as if you were swimming toward the ice. Simultaneously get as much as your upper body as possible out of the water by grabbing onto the top of the ice and using your arms and elbows to lift yourself up.

If you are unable to get out of the water within 5 minutes, focus your remaining energy in positioning and keeping as much body as possible outside of the water and wait for rescue. Once outside of the water treatment for moderate hypothermia must immediately be undertaken.


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Frostbite Frostbite is most likely to occur on the toes, fingers, ears, and nose in very cold temperatures or windy conditions. Appropriate head protection covering the ears and nose shall always be worn in extremely cold temperatures especially when wind is present. Skin exposure at extremely low temperatures in windy conditions can lead to frostbite in only a few seconds. Suitable boots rated for extremely low temperatures shall be worn with several layers of loose socks ensuring proper blood flow. Boots and/or socks that are too tight will not allow good blood flow and will be conducive to frostbite. Foot and hand warmers should be used whenever practical and necessary.

Falls in Water A fall may occur while crossing a stream or river. In order to minimize the risk of drowning or the risk of hypothermia, the following procedures should be applied: 1. 2. 3.

4.

5. 6. 7.

First of all, ensure that the combination of water depth and current allows for a safe crossing. In glacier-fed streams, crossing should be done in early morning. Switch to water sandals or shoes for the crossing, as they will offer more grip under water and will not impede swimming should it become necessary. The hip belt of all backpacks should be undone prior to crossing. This will ensure that a person falling in the water will be able to jettison the backpack and thus avoid drowning. Require participants who do not know how to swim to wear a life jacket for all crossings. Cross the stream or river at its widest point where the current is the weakest. Cross the stream or river walking upstream in a diagonal line in order to face the current.

Burial in Avalanches Wilderness Guides do not have the skills and training necessary to be able to prevent burial in avalanches while traveling in regions subject to avalanches. Wilderness Guides are therefore not allowed to travel in the backcountry when a risk of avalanche exists as per the avalanche bulletins issued by the Canadian Avalanche Association (available online at http://www.avalanche.ca/cac/bulletins/regions), unless they acquire additional training through the Canadian Avalanche Association, learn recovery techniques, and carry avalanche beacons at all times.

Falls in Crevasses

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WILDERNESS HAZARDS Wilderness Guides do not have the skills and training necessary to be able to prevent falls in crevasses while traveling on glaciers or permanent snow. As a result, PAWGI Professionals are not allowed to travel on glaciers or permanent snow.

Falls from Scrambling Terrain Wilderness Guides do not have the skills and training necessary to be able to prevent falls while traveling on scrambling terrain, or in areas requiring the use of hands and body for balance. As a result, PAWGI Professionals are not allowed to travel in such areas.

Falls in Deep Mud or Quicksand Falls in deep mud or quicksand can usually be prevented by avoiding travel in muskegs, swamps, flooded areas, and marshes.

Rock and Mud Slides Avoiding travel on, around, or below unstable terrain may help prevent exposure to rock and mud slides. Downed or uprooted trees, and exposed soil are a sign of unstable terrain.

Tidal Movements Tidal movements can create extremely strong currents and completely flood low lying coastal areas. Tide tables should therefore be thoroughly reviewed before travel is attempted in any low lying coastal area, including estuaries. Being aware of low and high tide values and times may avoid stranding, being washed out, or drowning. Fisheries and Oceans Canada provides tide tables online at http://www.waterlevels.gc.ca/english/Canada.shtml.

Brush and Forest Fires Brush and forest fires may be naturally occurring or human caused. Brush and forest fires may be started by lightning, cigarette butts, or campfires that were either improperly extinguished or got out of control. In order to avoid starting a brush or forest fire, campfires shall be avoided in dry conditions, or when they cannot be fully contained in a fire pit. Campfires should also be extinguished with water, even if they appear to be out, upon vacating an area. Smoking should also be prohibited while in the backcountry. In the event of a brush or forest fire, evacuation shall immediately be initiated, and/or rescue activated.

Blizzards and Snow Storms


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Blizzards and snow storms will lead to a partial or complete loss of visibility, and will generate conditions conducive to severe hypothermia and frostbites. An important part of planning a trip is to assess the weather conditions and forecast. If the chance of a severe occurrence exists, such as a blizzard or snow storm, the activity shall be rescheduled. In the event you are faced with a blizzard or snow storm, or the prospect of such, while on a trip, you shall seek shelter immediately.

Thundershowers Thundershowers are typically associated with heavy rains that may lead to mud slides, rock slides, or a dramatic increase in the level of creeks, streams, and rivers. Although thundershowers typically cannot be avoided, hazards associated with the severe weather occurrence can and shall be avoided. At the first sign of a thundershower, you should vacate the vicinity of creeks, streams, and rivers, as well as areas that could be destabilized by heavy rains.

Lightning Lightning may occur with or without thundershowers, and can be more severe in mountain areas. Shelter should be sought at the first sign of lightning activity. If shelter is not available, individual foot prints and heights should be minimized. This can be achieved with participants crouching on the ground, at a fair distance from each other. Laying on the ground should be avoided as it increases the body surface available to lightning. Seeking shelter under tall trees should be avoided as well.

Fog and Low Lying Clouds Stratus, nimbostratus, and stratocumulus are low clouds susceptible of greatly affecting visibility. Poor visibility can lead to being lost, or even to fall down a cliff or a slope that could not be properly assessed. Travel in low visibility shall be avoided and shelter shall be sought until the conditions improve.

Flash Flooding Flash flooding occurs when rainwater from usually heavy showers or thundershowers rushes into deep and narrow canyons, dramatically raising water levels in a matter of minutes or sometimes seconds, and flooding most of the canyon. The best way to avoid flash flooding is simply to not travel in deep narrow

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WILDERNESS HAZARDS canyons. If travel in a canyon cannot be avoided, the canyon should be evacuated, or higher grounds reached, at the first sign of cumulonimbus activity over the area or neighbouring peaks, or the first sign of rain.

Float Planes Float planes present two main dangers: contact with the propeller, and submersion in the event of a mishap. Wilderness Guides and participants shall never attempt to assist the pilot in docking an aircraft, or in performing any other task, while the engine is running. A running propeller is difficult to see, and countless passengers in Canada have died by inadvertently getting too close to a float plane’s running propeller. Similarly, no manual start of a propeller shall ever be attempted. Most fatalities associated with float plane accidents in Canada are caused by drowning. This means that the occupants typically survive the crash, but are unable to exit the aircraft. Knowledge of a few evacuation basics is therefore paramount. Prior to flying in a float plane, Wilderness Guides and participants should familiarize themselves with evacuation and emergency procedures specific to every aircraft, paying particular attention to the operation of emergency exits and all other exits. Doors’ unlocking mechanisms are typically complicated and sometimes a challenge to operate under normal circumstances, let alone, an emergency. In the not so unlikely event of a mishap while flying in a float plane, it is highly probable that not only will the aircraft sink quickly, but it will sink in an inverted position. Additionally, water will be typically frigid, murky, dark, and thus, visibility will be to a minimum. Even if the doors’ unlocking mechanisms are properly operated, the doors will not open until the cabin has filled with water, and pressure has equalized. In the event of a float plane accident, you should keep in mind the following: 1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

Always wear the passenger seat belt or harness. If a seat belt or harness is not available, refuse to board the aircraft. It is unlawful to operate a float plane in Canada without proper restraining devices for all passengers. In the event of an accident, which could be caused by something as simple as one of the floats detaching after hitting the water too hard, brace yourself. After impact, unfasten your seat belt. Expect contact with cold and dark water. Expect to end up in an inverted position. Control your breathing and remain calm. Attempt to assess whether the aircraft is inverted in order to operate the doors’ unlatching mechanisms properly. The procedure to open a door as outlined on safety cards may have to be inverted if the aircraft upside down in the water. Wait for the cabin to fill with about 2/3 of water before opening the doors. Doors will not open at first, until pressure between the inside


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10. 11.

12.

13.

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and the outside of the aircraft is equalized. If you have sufficient time, and only after your seat belt has been unfastened and you have been able unlock the door, put a life jacket on, or at least grab one, but do not inflate it! Take 3 deep breaths, hold your breath, and exit the aircraft. If you have doubts as to where the surface is, which happens frequently in an inverted aircraft, exhale a little bit of air and follow your bubbles. They will take you to the surface. Once on the surface, grab onto anything that floats. If shore is reachable, you may swim to shore. If not, you should thread water and wait for rescue. Once on shore, expect hypothermia, and take all necessary and available steps to treat the condition.

Wilderness Guides intending to fly on float planes in a regular basis should get egress training. More information can be found online at http://www.dunkyou.com.

Helicopters The use of helicopters is frequent in wilderness environments, and Wilderness Guides should be familiar with basic safety concepts. 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Helicopters shall never be approached from behind. Helicopters may be approached from the front, preferably at an angle. Do not approach without receiving a visual signal from the pilot. Do not leave without a visual or spoken instruction to do so. Stay where the pilot can see you at all times. On sloping ground always approach or leave on the downslope side for maximum rotor clearance. If blinded by swirling dust or grit, STOP – crouch lower, or sit down and wait for assistance. If disembarking while the helicopter is hovering, get out slowly and smoothly when cleared to by the pilot. Do not approach or leave a helicopter when the engine and rotors are running down or starting up. Crouch while walking for extra rotor clearance. Always remove hats. Never reach up or chase after anything that blows away. Carry long objects horizontally below waist level – never upright or on the shoulder. Always carry your backpacking by hand when approaching, loading, or unloading a helicopter.

NOTES

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NOTES


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Brown and Black Bears Avoiding Bear Conflicts Bears are wild animals and conflicts can therefore be very dangerous. The best course of action is therefore to avoid close bear encounters altogether and elect instead to observe them from a safe distance. Most bears will avoid or flee humans if made aware of their presence. Making sure the bear can hear you, smell you, and/or see you is therefore extremely important.

 Avoid travel during early morning or in the evening, when bears are 

            

most active Avoid areas where there is evidence of bear activity, such as fresh tracks, scat, claw marks or hair on trees, evidence of digging, torn up logs and stumps, day beds (shallow and cool depressions or holes, with piled up leaves or vegetation), or the presence of animal carcasses Make a lot of noise to alert bears of your presence. This can be done with a bear bell, by talking, singing etc... Be particularly alert along stream and river beds, especially during the salmon run Always use unscented cosmetics and deodorant Keep an excellent hygiene in order to eliminate body odours If you are a menstruating woman, you should use tampons instead of sanitary napkins Do not sleep in the same clothes you used to cook your meals Do not store any food, cosmetics or garbage with you in your tent Avoid the use of smelly foods. Freeze-dried foods are best Cook all foods besides freeze-dried foods at least 100 meters from your tent Never approach a bear Never feed a bear Always keep dogs on leash Stay with your group.

In the Event of a Close Encounter Your course of action will greatly vary based on the circumstances of the encounter, the bear behaviour and also the bear species. Generally, you will first have to slowly retreat, identify yourself as a non-threat, and calm down the bear. If the bear is still being aggressive, you will have to stand your ground. If all fails, you will have to play dead, unless the bear is continuing the attack, or you are dealing with a predatory bear. In such case you will have to fight the bear with all you've got. Below are different situations with more specific courses of action, keeping in mind that no encounter and no bears are alike, and that a given strategy

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WILDERNESS HAZARDS is never guaranteed to work in all circumstances. The Unaware Bear

The bear's head is down, the bear is feeding, and seems unaware of your presence.

 Quietly and slowly move away from the bear, while keeping the animal     

in sight at all times for any sign of behaviour change, or any indication that the bear has become aware of your presence Try to leave the area the way you came, or if this is not possible, make a wide detour to stay as far as possible from the bear Do not make sudden movements Do not corner the bear Do not run Do not turn your back to the bear

If you cannot avoid a bear, calmly advise it of your presence, by talking to the animal slowly and calmly, slowly waving your arms and moving away, preferably upwind. The Aware Bear The bear appears aware of your presence, but does not show any sign of aggression or stress, and is not moving directly towards you.

 Slowly move away from the bear, while keeping the animal in sight at all times for any sign of behaviour change


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 Talk to the animal slowly and calmly  Try to leave the area the way you came, or if this is not possible, make    

a wide detour to stay as far as possible from the bear Do not make sudden movements Do not corner the bear Do not run Do not turn your back to the bear

The Defensive Bear The bear is panting, growling, hissing, or huffing, quickly swinging its head, popping its jaw, displaying its teeth or claws, staring with eye contact, has its ears laid back on its head, is charging or bluffcharging from a distance, slapping its feet on the ground, swatting vegetation, or turning sideways to display its size.

The bear is perceiving you as a threat. This is most common for females with cubs, any bear defending a food cache, or any bear that is cornered or surprised. You need to convince the bear that you are not a threat nor do you intend to invade its personal space or territory.

 Do not appear threatening and talk to the animal in a calm yet firm     

voice Retreat slowly, while keeping your eyes on the bear Be sure the bear has an escape route and give the animal an opportunity to leave Do not make sudden movements Do not scream Do not throw anything at the bear

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WILDERNESS HAZARDS  Do not imitate a bear's defensive or aggressive behaviour as it would be seen as a challenge to its dominance  Do not corner the bear  Do not run  Do not turn your back to the bear In the event the bear approaches you, you must stop moving immediately and start talking to the bear again in a calm, slow and firm voice. Once the bear stops, resume moving slowly away. If this is a mature grizzly bear, you may want to climb a tall tree. Mature grizzly bear claws are not designed to climb trees and they therefore rarely do so. They can however reach very far once stretched out, or simply try to knock a tree over. Black bears and younger grizzly bears on the other hand are very proficient at climbing trees, which make the option of climbing a tree unsuitable when dealing with these types of bear. You may also attempt to drop a non-food article to temporarily distract the bear. Moving away will usually calm the bear down. However, a female grizzly bear with cubs is likely to attack. A female black bear with cubs may not attack as long as her cubs can climb a tree to safety, and do not get separated from their mother. The Curious Bear The bear is trying to identify you. It is being stationary, standing on its hind legs, or slowly swinging its head from side to side.


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 Allow the bear to identify you as a human  Slowly move away from the bear, while keeping the animal in sight at all      

times for any sign of behaviour change Talk to the animal slowly and calmly Try to leave the area the way you came, or if this is not possible, make a wide detour to stay as far as possible from the bear Do not make sudden movements Do not corner the bear Do not run Do not turn your back to the bear

In the event the bear approaches you, you must stop immediately and start talking to the bear again in a calm, slow and firm voice. Do not scream or throw anything at the bear as it may trigger an attack. Once the bear stops, resume moving slowly away. Moving away from a bear that is not showing signs of stress or defensiveness will usually prevent any further problem. The Bear Coming Towards You (within less than 50 meters) The bear is aware of your presence, is coming specifically towards you, and is now less than 50 meters from you.

The animal is most likely being dominant, aggressive, has associated humans with food, and/or has lost its fear of humans. Your response should therefore dramatically change.

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WILDERNESS HAZARDS          

Use your bear deterrent, if available Act aggressively If you are with a group, get close together Wave your arms and climb on a rock or log to look as tall as possible Shout at the bear Stare in the bear eyes Show your teeth Speak in a loud an aggressive manner Stomp your feet while taking a couple of steps towards the bear Threaten the bear with whatever you have (rocks, sticks, etc)

The Stalking Bear The bear has already identified you as a human, and does not show signs of stress or defensive behaviour. Instead, the bear shows intense interest in you, circles you, follows you, or make cautious approaches. A stalking bear is acting in a predatory way, in the sense that it may see you as a meal. This type of occurrence is rare.

          

Use your bear deterrent, if available Act aggressively If you are with a group, get close together Wave your arms Climb on a rock or log to look as tall as possible Shout at the bear Stare in the bear eyes Show your teeth Speak in a loud an aggressive manner Stomp your feet while taking a couple of steps towards the bear Threaten the bear with whatever you have (rocks, sticks, etc)

The Charging Bear The bear is coming at you at high speed, on all four legs, with its body crouched low on the ground. Although many charges are bluffs and the bear will often stop or veer off just at the last minute, it is impossible to know whether a bear is really charging you until the animal is too close. You should therefore consider a charging bear as being an attacking bear. First use your bear deterrent if available. If no bear deterrent is available, or if the bear is still charging:

 Get down on the ground on your stomach, protecting your vital organs and your face, with your hands locked behind your neck. If you have a


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backpack, it will provide extra protection

 Do not scream or struggle as you are trying to convince the bear that you are dead  Remain still and wait for the bear to leave once the attack has stopped

 If the bear keeps biting you, it is being predatory and you should therefore now fight it back as hard as you can, aiming at the nose and eyes, with the goal to hurt the animal

In the event of a charge by a predatory bear, you should not play dead, and you should fight the bear as hard as you can, with whatever you have, aiming at the nose and eyes, with the clear goal to hurt the animal, or even kill it. The Attacking Bear The bear is charging, or is placing itself in attack position by looking directly at you, possibly with its head lowered and its ears laid back on the head.

 Use your bear deterrent  Get down on the ground on your stomach, protecting your vital organs

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WILDERNESS HAZARDS and your face, with your hands locked behind your neck. If you have a backpack, it will provide extra protection  Do not scream or struggle as you are trying to convince the bear that you are dead  Remain still and wait for the bear to leave once the attack has stopped  If the bear keeps biting you, it is being predatory and you should therefore now fight it back as hard as you can, aiming at the nose and eyes, with the goal to hurt the animal In the event of an attack by a predatory bear, you should not play dead, and you should fight the bear as hard as you can, with whatever you have, aiming at the nose and eyes, with the clear goal to hurt the animal.

Problem Bears Most bear attacks involve female with cubs, young bears (2 to 3 year old), injured or older bears, as well as bears used to human food. Young bears may be curious about humans, unafraid, opportunistic, unable to forage for enough food, or may simply be attempting to establish dominance on a new territory. They may also have been driven away from a good feeding area by older bear, and may therefore become aggressive in their search for food. Injured bears or older bears are usually hungry, and therefore, may be aggressive in the presence of humans. Finally, bears that have ever experienced human food have associated humans with food, no longer fear humans as a result, and are therefore likely to become aggressive to obtain food.

Non-lethal Bear Deterrents Scare cartridges Bangers, flares, and whistling screamers, to be used with a multiple-shot pistol, are easy to carry and can be deployed quickly. Hand-held marine flares String-activated flares are a good deterrent as they affect the animal sense of sight, smell and hearing. They can also be used as a beacon in case of emergency. Bear sprays Bear sprays have been found to be far more effective on grizzly bears, when sprayed directly in the eyes or nose of the animal, than on black bears, especially those conditioned to human foods or garbage. It is also important to note that bear sprays are inadequate in strong wind, rain, or heavy brush.


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Differentiating a grizzly bear from a black bear The main characteristics used to identify the two bear species are the body and face shapes, as well as the length of the claws. Grizzly Bear (or Brown Bear) The nose of the grizzly bear has a concave or dished-in profile, with a clear depression between the end of the nose and the forehead. The ears are round and small. The grizzly also has a very distinctive shoulder hump. Finally, the claws are very long, and up to 10 cm. Some other characteristics specific to the species may not necessarily be helpful in quickly identifying a bear. Colours typically range from medium to dark brown, but may also vary from blonde to black. Although a mature grizzly bear is substantially larger than a black bear, reaching up to 500 kg in weight and over 2 m in height, size will greatly vary depending on the age of the animal. Grizzly bears also tend to favour open valleys and sometimes higher elevations, although they will gather near rivers and creeks to feed during the salmon run. Black Bear The nose of the black bear is flat, and constitutes a straight line between the eyes and the end of the nose. The ears are typically larger and pointy. Black bears do not have a shoulder hump, and their claws are much shorter, at around 4 cm. As with the grizzly bear, colour and size may not necessarily be indicative of the species. A black bear may vary greatly in colour, from almost white, to cinnamon, brown or black. A mature black bear is also typically smaller than its grizzly relative, reaching only 180 kg in weight and 1.5 m in height. Its size will however greatly vary depending on age. Black bears typically prefer forested areas and clearings in lower elevations over open valleys and higher elevations, although they may gather near

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WILDERNESS HAZARDS rivers and creeks to feed during the salmon run as well.

Bear Tracks The main differences between grizzly bear and black bear tracks are the size of the claws, the alignments of the toes, and the shape of the foot. The claws of the grizzly bear are much longer than those of the black bear. The toes of a grizzly bears are aligned, but while the toes of the black bear are not. Finally, the grizzly bear has no wedge in its instep and has a pointed heel, whereas the black bear does have a wedge in the instep, and has rounded heel. Grizzly Tracks

Bear Tracks

Polar Bears Polar bears are predatory in nature, and therefore require specific protective measures.

Non-lethal Polar Bear Deterrents Electric Fences Electric fences should be systematically used around camps when in polar


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bear habitat. Scare cartridges Bangers, flares, and whistling screamers, to be used with a multiple-shot pistol, are easy to carry and can be deployed quickly. Hand-held marine flares String-activated flares are a good deterrent as they affect the animal sense of sight, smell and hearing. They can also be used as a beacon in case of emergency.

Lethal Polar Bear Deterrents Firearms A firearm should be carried when operating in polar bear habitat. It should only be as a back up to non-lethal bear deterrents.

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Cougars Cougars are masters of camouflage. It is unlikely to ever see one in the wild, unless it is running away from you, or less likely, attacking you. Cougar attacks are extremely rare in Canada. Nevertheless, it is a good idea to understand cougar behaviour in order to better prepare yourself in the very unlikely event of an encounter.

Avoiding Cougar Conflicts Cougars are attracted to small dogs, as well as small children, which they may associate with a potential prey. The following guidelines are therefore recommended:

 Make a lot of noise to alert cougars of your presence and give the ani    

mal the option to leave the area before you are in view. This can be done with a bear bell, by talking, singing etc... Avoid hiking with small dogs, especially off-leash, in areas where cougars may be present Do not leave small dogs unattended Make sure that children are supervised at all times and are between, or close to, adults in a group Do not leave children unattended Stay with your group.

In the Event of an Attack Cougars attack at extremely fast speeds, and usually in about three bounds. The attack on prey is typically aimed at the throat or neck, and death occurs either by suffocation or broken neck, depending on the size of the prey. Do Not Run In the unlikely event of a cougar attack, do not run. You will only reassure the cougar that you are prey, and you can not outrun a cougar. Do Not Play Dead Cougars know the difference between living and non living prey, regardless of how convincing you might be. They will try to kill you by suffocation by way of your throat, and will not stop until you have stopped breathing. Fight Back You must fight back at the animal with the intention of killing it. If possible, aiming for sensitive areas of its face; the eyes and nose are the most effective target areas. The cougar must think that its own life is at risk in order for the attack to stop. If you are with a group, group members must do every-


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thing possible to deter the cougar once an attack has begun.

Understanding Cougars Cougars are generally solitary animals, unless it is a mother cougar with kits. They are also extremely elusive, and the chances of even seeing a cougar in the wild are low. Cougars are Canada's largest wild cat, reaching between 45kg and 74 kg, and usually around 2m long. The colour of the cougar ranges from a reddish to sandy brown or grey. Cougars are fast, and can reach speeds up to 50km per hour, usually reserved for hunting prey. Across Canada, cougars can be found throughout the Pacific North West, up to the Yukon border, East through the Rocky Mountains, and into South Western Saskatchewan. Further East, populations are limited to specific areas, but sightings are regular into Ontario, Quebec and the Maritimes. Cougars, like most animals in the wild, are unlikely to attack. Although cougar attacks do happen, they are extremely rare.

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SECTION 4 NAVIGATION

SECTION 4

NAVIGATION

NAVIGATION Terrain Assessment Terrain assessment will be one of the factors to consider in planning an expedition is to proceed. The type of terrain will also be decisive in establishing the participants’ required level of experience, skills, and physical fitness.

Route Selection and Planning Route selection is one of the most important aspects of expedition planning. Route selection should consider many variables, including guide’s skills, knowledge, experience, and training, the participants’ skills and physical fitness, the time allocated, the purpose of the trip, the season, wildlife corridors, streams, rivers, vegetation, muskegs, marshes, potentially hazardous terrain, and of course, elevation. In selecting a suitable route, Wilderness Guides should favour existing well marked trails, secondary trails, or routes. Wilderness Guides should also rely on the experience and feedback of other Wilderness Guides who have operated in the same area. Alternate routes should also be selected in the event environmental considerations at the time of the trip make the original route unsuitable. Travel in marshes, swamps, and muskegs shall be avoided. Besides presenting rather unpleasant travel conditions, these areas may present the danger of becoming entrapped in deep mud, or even have conditions similar to quick sands.

Topographic Maps Topographic maps will be helpful in assessing elevations, and thus, possible elevation gains. While small scale maps (with large scale numbers such as 1:250 000) will give you a general idea of the area, large scale maps (maps with small scale numbers such as 1:50 000) will show more details. For the purpose of assessing terrain, or for navigation, a map with a scale of 1:25,000 or 1:50 000 is preferable. A 1:250 000 map may indeed not show sufficient details. As a reminder: Small scale map (high scale number) = small details Large scale map (low scale number) = large details The extent of information, besides terrain, provided on topographic maps will depend on the scale of the map, as well as whether the map is in colour or black and white. Colour maps have much more details, including vegetation cover and type, waterways, human made structures, roadways, etc...


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Topographic Map of Mount Robson (Scale: 1:50,000)

b

c a

Reading Topographic Maps The most important thing to remember is that the closer the contour lines are together on a topographic map, the steeper the terrain is. A very important consideration when planning a trip. Section “a” on the map therefore shows an extremely steep slope due to the topographic lines being very close to each other, while section “b” shows a relatively flat area. Section “c”, on the other hand, shows a treed valley, with a more gentle elevation. Do you think that section “a” on the map represents a slope that could be managed for a backpacking expedition? In reality, as shown on the satellite image on the next page, the slope of Mount Robson is almost vertical. It is therefore only potentially manageable from a mountaineering point of view, but it would not even be considered as hiking route. On the other hand, section “c” shows a potential hiking route because of more widely spaced topographic lines, as well as a terrain probably stabilized by the presence of vegetation.

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NAVIGATION Satellite Map of Mount Robson (Approximate Scale of 1:50,000)

b

c a

Looking at a satellite view of the same area displayed on the previous 1:50,000 topographic map, it is now clear that section “a” does represent a steep slope/mountain, that section “b” is rather flat, and that section “c” is a treed, likely more gentle slope, that is completely manageable from a hiking point of view. As a matter of fact, the Berg Lake Trail goes through the left of section “c” on the satellite map.

Distances The following distance conversions apply to topographic maps: Scale of 1:50 000: 1 cm will equal approximately 500 m. Scale of 1:25 000: 1 cm will equal approximately 250 m. Scale of 1:250 000: 1 cm will equal approximately 2,500 m (or 2.5km). The smaller the map scale (the highest the scale number), the least suitable the map is for navigation. It is also important to note that distances on a map are only theoretical as they are in a straight line and on flat terrain. In practice however, you will rarely travel in a straight line and on flat terrain. Covering any distance on a map, due to the terrain, will therefore likely result in a longer distance of travel. As a rule of thumb, you should add 30% on any map distance to evaluate the approximate distance you will actually travel on the ground.


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Distance on a Topographic Map A topographic map displays terrain as shown from above, as if you were flying over the area. Elevation Distance Actually Traveled

Terrain

Distance Shown on the Map

0 km

10 km

As shown above, a topographic map will show distance as if the terrain was completely flat, and as a result, the distance shown on the map will only be accurate on flat terrain. If the terrain is uneven, includes hills, mountains, etc…, the distance actually traveled will increase. Do you know that a distance of 1 km on a map will actually result in an actual travelled distance of 2 km if traveling on a slope of 60°?

UTM References The UTM coordinates of landmark can be found as follow (1:50,000 scale): 87

88

89

90

74

74

73

73

72

72

71

71 87

88

89

Step 1: Find the number of the grid line to the west (left) of the landmark. The number is 88. Step 2: Estimate the number of tenths to the east (right) of this grid line. The number is 7. Step 3: Combine the figures you got in step 1 and 2. 887 is your Easting.

90

Step 4: Find the number of the grid line south (down) of the landmark. The number is 72. Step 5: Estimate the number of tenths to the north (up) of this grid line. The number is 6. Step 6: Combine the numbers in steps 4 and 5. 726 is your Northing.

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NAVIGATION Step 7: Combine the Easting and Northing, and you get the UTM coordinates of your landmark: 887726.

Geographic References Geographic references are provided in a Latitude and Longitude format (or in the case of British Columbia, Longitude and Latitude), in degrees, minutes, and seconds. Latitude may be North (N), also noted as a “-” symbol, or South (S). Longitude may be West (W), or East (E), also noted as a “-” symbol. In Canada (and the rest of North America), the Latitude will always be North (N), and the Longitude will always be West (W). The following distance conversions apply (approximations): Degrees

Latitude

Longitude

0

110.57 km

111.32 km

15

110.64 km

107.55 km

30

110.85 km

96.48 km

45

111.13 km

78.84 km

60

111.41 km

55.80 km

75

111.61 km

28.90 km

90

111.69 km

0.00 km

The distance on a topographic map for 1 degree of latitude will only slightly vary no matter the location on earth. As a rule of thumb, the following approximation applies: 1 Degree of Latitude = 60 minutes = 111.12 km 1 Minute of Latitude = 1/60th Degree = 1 nm (Nautical Mile) = 1.852 km The distance on a topographic map for 1 degree of longitude will however greatly vary depending on the location on earth, because the longitude lines get closer to each other towards the poles. This results in great variations within Canada. For example: In Cape Scott, on Vancouver Island (50º N): 1 Degree of longitude = 60 minutes = 71.19 km 1 Minute of longitude = 1/60th Degree = 1.18 km In the Richardson Mountains, in Northern Yukon (66º N): 1 Degree of longitude = 60 minutes = 45.05 km 1 Minute of longitude = 1/60th Degree = 0.75 km


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Bearings The top of topographic maps always point to the Grid North (True North), which is different from the magnetic north.

Map Sources Topographic maps in Canada are the exclusive responsibility of Natural Resources Canada. As a result, only those maps issued by the Canadian Federal Government, Department of Natural Resources, are considered accurate and may be used for navigation.

Compass Navigation Compass A compass will allow you to determine direction, take bearings, plot your route of travel on a map, sight on landmarks for straight-line traveling, and to detour in the right direction when going around obstacles. Because magnetic compasses are affected by the presence of steel and iron objects, you should make sure you remove all steel object from your pockets before you use a compass. Similarly, compasses should not be used in the vicinity of power lines, rail tracks, or other metallic structures.

Headings True north (Grid North) is the earth’s geographic north pole. True heading is therefore established in relation to the earth’s geographic north pole. True heading is the heading you would calculate on a map. Magnetic heading is established in relation to the magnetic north pole. As a result, it is the heading showing on your compass. Because the magnetic north pole is constantly moving and is not located at the earth’s geographic north pole, and because magnetic heading is affected by various factors, true headings and magnetic headings will generally be different. Based on your topographic map, you need to head directly south (180°) in order to reach your destination. This is your true heading. The heading to be followed on your compass, or magnetic heading, will however be different.

Magnetic Declination/Variation The Magnetic Declination, also referred to as Magnetic Variation, is the difference between the true north, and the magnetic north. It is affected by various environmental factors including mineral deposits, and is usually substantial in northern Canada. The Magnetic Variation will dictate how you should adjust your magnetic heading in order to follow a specific true head-

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NAVIGATION ing. Any area located west of the north pole will have an East Declination, while any area located east of the North Pole will have a West Declination. The Magnetic Variation in Yukon will therefore always be East, while the Magnetic Variation in Newfoundland will always be West. A rule of thumb to remember how to calculate headings based on the magnetic variation is also: Variation West, Magnetic Best Variation East, Magnetic Least Converting True Heading to Magnetic Heading (East Declination) True Heading - (minus) Variation = Magnetic Heading Let’s say you want to follow a true heading on your map of 180° (South). The declination is 20° East. What heading should you follow on your compass? Your true heading is 180°, and the Declination is 20° East. Therefore: 180 - 20 = 160 You should set your compass to 160° Converting Magnetic Heading to True Heading (East Declination) Magnetic Heading + (plus) Variation = True Heading Let’s say you are following a heading of 180° (South) on your compass. The declination is 20° East. What is your true heading? Your compass heading is 180°, and the Declination is 20° East. Therefore: 180 + 20 = 200 Your true heading is 200° Converting True Heading to Magnetic Heading (West Declination) True Heading + (plus) Variation = Magnetic Heading Let’s say you want to follow a true heading on your map of 180° (South). The declination is 20° West. What heading should you follow on your compass? Your true heading is 180°, and the Declination is 20° West. Therefore: 180 + 20 = 200 You should set your compass to 200°


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Converting Magnetic Heading to True Heading (West Declination) Magnetic Heading - (minus) Variation = True Heading Let’s say you are following a heading of 180° (South) on your compass. The declination is 20° West. What is your true heading? Your compass heading is 180°, and the Declination is 20° West. Therefore: 180 - 20 = 160 Your true heading is 160°

Following a Bearing In order to follow a bearing, you must remain on a straight line. As this is almost impossible in the wilderness, a good way to keep as much as a straight line as possible is therefore to sight on some distant landmark in line with your desired bearing and simply travel to it. Over sighting your bearing may also be an option when there is no landmark in line with your desired bearing. Let’s say that you want to follow a heading of 0° (North), but there is no recognizable landmark at that heading. There is however a waterfall located at a heading of 20°. You could therefore follow a heading of 20° to the waterfall, and then travel west to reach your destination.

Taking a Compass Bearing from a Map Step 1: Draw a straight line on the map between your location and your destination and extending across any one of the map borders. Step 2: Center the compass where your drawn line intersects the map border, align the compass axis North South with the border line, and read the compass true bearing on your drawn line. This is the true bearing you need to follow to reach your destination.

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NAVIGATION Step 3: Convert the true bearing to the magnetic bearing based on the magnetic variation. The resulting value will be the magnetic heading to be followed to reach your destination, as shown on your compass.

Taking a Compass Bearing from a Landmark Step 1: Hold the compass level in your hand. Step 2: Point the direction of travel line at the landmark. Step 3: Turn the dial on the compass until the orienting arrow is aligned with the North end of the compass needle. Step 4: Read the bearing where the direction of travel line intersects with the compass’ dial. Step 5: To follow the select bearing, simply ensure that the orienting arrow remains aligned with the North end of the compass needle.

Sun Bearing Navigation When a compass is unavailable, or when you are at high latitudes in Canada, where compasses become unreliable, you may use the sun bearings for navigation. The premise of sun bearing navigation is that the sun position will be known based on the time of day, date, and location. For example, if you are in the Whitehorse area on June 21, 2012, at or around 3:00pm (1500 hours), the sun will be located at about 220 degrees Azimuth. This information would allow you to deduct headings for navigation. The U.S. Navy provides a Sun/Moon Altitude/Azimuth Calculator located at:


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http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/AltAz.php Sample of Sun Bearing Table Anchorage, Alaska June 21, 2012

4-10

Time (hh:mm)

Altitude

Azimuth (E of N)

00:00

- 4.5

345.9

01:00

- 5.4

359.7

02:00

- 4.5

13.5

03:00

- 2.0

27.0

04:00

2.3

40.2

05:00

7.3

53.0

06:00

13.5

65.4

07:00

20.3

77.9

08:00

27.4

90.8

09:00

34.6

104.5

10:00

41.2

119.8

11:00

46.9

137.3

12:00

50.8

157.4

13:00

52.2

179.5

14:00

50.9

201.6

15:00

47.1

221.8

16:00

41.5

239.4

17:00

34.9

254.8

18:00

27.8

268.6

19:00

20.6

281.5

20:00

13.8

294.0

21:00

7.6

306.4

22:00

2.5

319.2

23:00

- 1.9

332.3


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NAVIGATION

Celestial Navigation Celestial navigation is an extensive subject. For the purpose of this manual, we will therefore only review the pole-star (Northern Hemisphere only) as an aid to navigation. The pole-star, also called Polaris, is always located north. As a result, finding the pole-star will allow for location of the true north, and deduction of other approximate headings. The first step is to locate the Big Dipper in the night skies. Then, it is simply a matter of following a straight line from the last star of the Big Dipper to the Pole-star.


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SECTION 5 EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP

SECTION 5A

EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: PLANNING

EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: PLANNING Whether you intend to undertake an expedition to the North Pole, or a day hike in the Coastal Mountains, planning is key. An important rule with wilderness guiding is that of the 7 P’s: Prior Proper Planning Prevents Painfully Poor Performance

Fitness Assessment The first step in the trip planning process is to assess whether your physical fitness allows you to undertake a particular expedition or activity. You shall indeed ensure that your muscular strength and cardiovascular endurance will allow you to negotiate the terrain, obstacles, as well as elevation gains and losses for the selected route. Additionally, you shall assess whether you are sufficiently fit to carry a backpack fully loaded for the requirements of the expedition, for the whole duration of the expedition. Your weight shall also be assessed. If your body fat levels are too low, you may experience difficulties in keeping warm. On the other hand, if you are overweight, even slightly, you will be essentially adding weight to your equipment. 20 lbs of extra weight is like carrying 20 lbs extra in your backpack.

Regulatory Assessment Before you undertake any activity, you shall ensure that you comply with all provincial, territorial, and federal laws and regulations, and that you obtain all required licences, registrations, and permits. If you plan on hiring staff, you shall also ensure compliance with provincial and territorial labour laws, as well as Workers’ Compensation registration requirements.

Environmental Assessment An informal environmental assessment should be performed before planning any expedition. The impact on the environment of the total number of participants and the method of transportation, the ability to eliminate or minimize traces of your presence, the amount of human wastes to be generated, as well as the possibility of wildlife conflicts should always be important factor to consider before undertaking an activity.


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For example, taking a group of 30 backpackers across an alpine meadow will definitely adversely impact the fragile alpine environment, and traces of the group’s presence will be next to impossible to erase. In this instance, decreasing the size of the group should definitely be considered. Similarly, planning a trip in the calving grounds of the Porcupine Caribou herd between mid-may and early July may severely interfere with the already stressed herd, and as a result, should either be re-scheduled or reconsidered.

Climate Assessment Climate assessment will determine the best time of year to undertake an expedition, as well as the type of gear and equipment required. In addition to determining what type of clothing will be adequate for the circumstances, weather and temperatures will also determine the suitability of tents, sleeping bags, or even water filters. If below freezing temperature are to be expected, the ceramic element of a water filter will probably break, making it unusable. In such circumstances, it would therefore be best to use water treatment tablets instead of the water filter. If snow and wind are to be expected, a 3-season tent may not be suitable, and a 4-season tent may be required. Alternatively, if rain is to be expected, a synthetic sleeping bag will be preferable to a down sleeping bag. Climate assessment may also determine whether some areas will be covered with snow or ice at a given time of year. Temperatures, precipitation levels and types, as well as weather trends should therefore always be reviewed before undertaking any activity. Researching climate patterns would tell you for example that undertaking a trip on the Juan de Fuca Trail in November would most likely result in a mud bath and the likelihood of breaking a bone by slipping on a slummy boardwalk. The month of September would certainly be much preferable for such an outing . Similarly, if you intend to lead an expedition in the Richardson Mountains in Northern Yukon at the end of August, you shall brace yourself for snow and be equipped accordingly.

Water Assessment The availability of water is typically not an issue in Western Canada. However, depending on the time of year, water may still be scarce in some areas, such as the Richardson Mountains in Yukon, or Mount Edziza Park in BC. Whether the water needs of your group can be met along the selected route of the trip should therefore be verified. If water is not available in sufficient

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EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: PLANNING quantities, the route of the expedition should be modified. In addition to being absolutely unsustainable, water delivery in a wilderness environment would also be logistically very challenging.

Transportation Assessment The transportation requirements specific to your trip should be considered. Getting to the trail head, being picked up at the end of the trail (if your trip is not a loop), or being transported back to wherever you came from are all important details that should be arranged prior to the trip. Verifying that the method of transportation chosen allows for the carrying of backpacking equipment, or any other equipment specific to your trip is primordial as well. You should also assess whether additional transportation will be required at any time during your trip. Many trips have transportation requirements that can be challenging. An expedition to Mount Edziza Provincial Park in Northern BC for example will require transportation over a lake to reach the trailhead, while a trip on the West Coast trail will require a ferry ride across a stretch of open water.

Time Allocated for Travel The distance to be covered every day should also be conservative taking into consideration the participants’ age, skills, physical fitness, and carrying load. The average backpacking adult will typically cover:    

4 km/hour on flat, well marked and well maintained trails + an additional hour for every 300 metres of elevation gain + an additional half an hour added for every 300 metres of elevation loss + an additional hour for every km of unmarked route or difficult terrain

Of course, the actual time it will actually take participants to cover a certain distance is almost certain to vary on every trip. A good practice is therefore to plan conservatively for the average participant, while adding a trip extension in the event the participants travel faster than expected. Every trip should also include several rest stops, as well as snack and meal breaks. You are planning an 11.5 km trip (as shown on your topographical map) to an alpine lake in Yukon. The elevation gain is 900 metres, and about half of the trip will be on an unmarked route. How long should you allow for this trip? First, you should convert the map distance to the estimated actual distance, by adding 30%. Travel distance should therefore be about 15 km. On the basis of 4km/hour, you should allow a base of about 4 hours. As about 8 km will be on difficult terrain, you should add 8 hours. You should


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also add 3 hours for elevation gain. Total time allowed for a one way trip to the alpine lake should therefore be about 15 hours, or two days. You should therefore allow 4 days for a round trip. In the event your participants travel faster than anticipated, you should prepare a short trip extension to another point within your area of destination. This could be a second lake, a view point, or other interesting area.

Protection Against Insects The type of route, time of travel, and season of travel will determine the level of insect harassment your party will experience. Marshes, swamps, wet land areas, and other low lying areas will typically be breeding grounds for mosquitoes, and will dramatically increase the level of insect harassment. To a lesser extent, forested areas sheltered from the wind will include a high concentration of insects as well. On the other hand, areas exposed to the wind at high altitude will typically have lower concentrations of insects. Time of travel will also be important. Mosquitoes are most active at down and dusk. The route of the trip should therefore be planned to avoid being present in mosquito high density areas early in the morning and in the evening. Mosquito seasons will vary based on locations. The season could start as early as April and end as late as October in some parts of the country. In the high Arctic, mosquitoes are usually difficult to manage between May and July.

Gear and Equipment In selecting outdoor equipment, the advantages of different fabrics and materials should be thoroughly considered. Clothing should also always be worn in layers in order to be able to quickly adapt to environmental changes.

Clothing Technical and synthetic fabrics are lighter, dry faster, may retain heat when wet, but they usually offer little protection against insects. Cotton and other natural fibres are heavier, take longer to dry, and may not retain heat when wet. They however usually offer much protection against insects. Light coloured clothing should also always be privileged as mosquitoes and black flies are attracted to dark colors because they reflect heat.

Sleeping Bags Synthetic sleeping bags will not be as efficient in extremely low tempera-

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EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: PLANNING tures, but they will dry faster and retain heat when wet. Down sleeping bags on the other hand will be much more efficient at retaining heat in extreme cold, but will take longer to dry, and will no longer retain any heat when wet. Additionally, goose down will be more efficient at retaining heat than duck down. Typically, if there is any chance that you will be exposed to water in a liquid state, you should select a synthetic sleeping bag. On the other hand, if liquid water is not an issue, and extremely cold temperatures are to be expected, a goose down sleeping bag is best.

Tents The use of 4-season tents is strongly encouraged in any condition involving either snow or the prospect of snow. Additionally, when traveling in bear country, bottomless tents may be preferable in order to allow a quick escape should a bear attack occur. In contrast to 3-season tents, 4-season tents are structurally more sturdy in order to sustain snow loads and high winds, come with poles made in a material that will not break with cold, and have zippers or openings at ground level in order to be able to remove snow. 4-season tents, especially single-wall tents, do not perform well in rain or very humid conditions, when heavy condensation may become a problem. As a result, Wilderness Guides may need a 3-season tent for summer conditions, and a 4-season tent for mountain, fall, and winter conditions.

Stoves Although propane stoves may be perform well in windy condition in contrast to a fuel stove, they will stop operating at low temperatures (between –8C and –12C depending on the model). Fuel stove, on the other hand, may perform well at any temperature. Additionally, some models are capable of burning any type of fuel, from white fuel, to gasoline, and jet fuel.

Shorts The use of shorts is typically discouraged due to insect exposure, and the risk of hypothermia as soon as the sun goes down.

Rain gear Goretex fabrics should definitely be privileged as they will offer excellent protection against rain, while allowing your body to breath.

Parkas Parkas filled with goose down should be privileged for winter environments. If extremely cold temperatures are expected, such as during an Arctic expedition, only one parka should be considered: The Snow Mantra by Canada Goose. Beware of counterfeit Canada Goose parkas sold online by unau-


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thorized dealers, as these items will not offer any protection against the elements. Canada Goose parkas should as a result always be purchased through Canada Goose authorized dealers.

Toiletries Unscented soaps and deodorant should always be used in order to minimize wildlife conflicts and to reduce insect harassment. Many animals, including bears, as well as mosquitoes and black flies are attracted by strong scents.

Guide Equipment A Wilderness Guide equipment list should be more extensive and complete than that of a client, in order to cover a wide array of situations, from weather, to emergency. Additionally, because a guide spends a lot of time in the backcountry, attention should be given to comfort. Lighter equipment should as a result be selected, and when possible, some extras such as a collapsible pillow.

Client Equipment A client equipment list should include all the items that are actually necessary for a given trip, and should avoid larger and heavier safety articles that are the responsibility of the guide. Client equipment lists should frequently be reviewed adequacy and verified for completeness prior to the undertaking of any trip.

Activity-specific Equipment You should also assess all the activities to be undertaken during the trip in order to compile a list of activity-specific equipment required for the trip. For example, if the trip is to include some canoeing, in addition to canoes, you will also require life jackets, storm and waterproof bags, paddles, etc…

Food and Supplies Caloric Needs The quantity of food and supplies taken during an expedition should be a fine balance between the actual nutritional needs of the participants and the weight and volume limitations inherent to any expedition, especially expeditions where one has to carry his or her own backpack. The average sedentary adult requires between 2,000 and 2,500 base Calories per day to maintain body weight, and will burn around 500 Calories per hour of backpacking on a reasonably flat terrain, and with a moderate load. Unless you are planning on having food and supplies delivered throughout the trip, a fine balance should be reached between carrying too little or too

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EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: PLANNING much food. Without enough food, participants will be hungry. They will also most likely be miserable, have a shorter attention span, have low morale, and be prone to accidents. Too much food will result in carrying loads that are too heavy, fatigue, lethargy, and lack of energy. In assessing food supplies required for a trip, you should therefore ensure participants will not go hungry, while accepting the possibility that participants may still experience a moderate weight loss during the trip due to an energy imbalance. What you can carry in a backpack is, after all, limited. Generally, it will be very difficult to carry more than 5 to 6 days of food in a backpack when all the required equipment is carried as well. As a result, a minimum of 1,500 Calories per participant and per day should be allocated, understanding that a daily nutritional intake of 1,500 Calories during an expedition will result in a weight loss, typically manageable for a few days.

Nutritional Needs Particular attention should be given to the type of nutrients consumed during an expedition. Carbohydrates are required for energy, protein is required to repair muscles, and fat is required for various more complex body functions, including the production of testosterone in males to build and repair muscles. Most of the daily calories during an expedition, around 60%, should be coming from carbohydrates. This includes grain based food such as rice, pasta, and bread. Whole grains are preferable to refined and processed grains, as they will take longer to digest, and thus, provide energy for a longer amount of time. Their fibre content will also make you feel fuller for longer. About 15% of the daily calories should come from protein-rich foods such as meats, fish, nuts, and some beans. Finally, 25% of the daily calories should be coming from fats, including vegetable oils and animal fats. Loading on carbohydrates up to two weeks before your expedition will cause your body to store glycogen reserves that will then provide energy for your muscles during the expedition.

Types of Food Expedition food should primarily consist of dehydrated foods, assuming water will be readily available, as well as other dried foods with high nutritional density. This includes nuts, dehydrated fruits, or concentrated milk. Such foods will have the advantage of having a high ratio of nutrients per weight, and as a result, will decrease the overall weight of supplies. Additionally, dehydrated foods will minimize wildlife conflicts, especially as they relate to bears. Junk foods or food with low nutritional density should be avoided as they will take weight and space, without fulfilling the nutritional needs of participants. In the case of candies or other items high in refined sugar, they may even impede physical exercise by causing a temporary sugar high, followed


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by an absolute loss of energy. Fresh foods should also be avoided due to their weight, tendency to spoil, and inherent nature as a bear attractant. Ideally, dehydrated foods should be re-packed in order to decrease packaging weight. Wilderness Guides intending to re-pack food for logistic reasons should however seek a Food Safe certification in order to avoid food contamination.

Drinking and Cooking Water Assuming water is not scarce, and you have verified its availability throughout the route of the trip, no more than one day worth of water should be carried at any given time. Instead, water should be accessed as needed. Unless boiled for the purpose of preparing a meal, water should always purified before consumption with either portable water filters or purification tablets.

Fuel Supplies Necessary fuel supplies should be assessed in line with the type of stove being used, and in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications, and of course, your own experience. How do you assess how much fuel a specific stove will burn? Typically, you will require 130ml of fuel per day and per person on the basis of two meals per day. You should however still keep in mind that fuel consumption will vary based on the type of fuel, the stove manufacturer and the stove model, as well as the availability of oxygen, and thus, altitude. You should try your stove out before departure in order to confirm fuel consumption.

Self-Assessment At this stage of planning, the Wilderness Guide should assess whether he or she is qualified to guide the trip. Existing skills, knowledge, experience and training should be thoroughly reviewed, and any shortfall addressed. If qualification shortfalls are present and cannot be addressed, the trip shall not be undertaken.

Fitness 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Are you physically fit to guide the trip? Do you have the muscular strength required for the trip? Do you have the cardiovascular endurance required for the trip? Do you have the stamina required to guide the trip? Do you have the ideal weight to conduct the trip?

For example, the trip involves backpacking to Grizzly Lake in Tombstone Park where you must complete over 11km in a day, gaining over 800 metres of elevation, and losing 400 metres:

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EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: PLANNING     

Am I physically fit? Have I trained properly for this trip? How is my cardiovascular fitness? Do I have any back or knee problem? Am I overweight?

Skills 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Do you have the skills to guide the trip? Do you have the skills for the activities planned on the trip? Do you have the leadership skills necessary to guide the trip’s participants? Do you have the skills to deal with problems that could arise during the trip? Do you have the skills to deal with any emergency that could occur during the trip?

For example, the trip involves some canoeing and an unusually large group of participants. You need to ask yourself:      

Can I handle such a large group of participants? Do I have the required canoeing skills? Do I have the leadership skills to handle this type of participants? Do I have the skills to deal with conflict resolution with this type of participants? Do I have the skills to deals with problems that could arise during the trip, such as an overturned canoe and loss of equipment? Do I have the skills to deal with any emergency, such as a participant drowning or experiencing hypothermia?

Knowledge 1. 2. 3.

Do you have a good knowledge of the area where the trip is to be undertaken? Do you have a good knowledge of the area’s climate? Do you have a good knowledge of the type of participants that are to take the trip?

For example, you have spent the last 5 years of your career guiding catholic school girls on day hikes on Vancouver Island. This trip involves half a professional rugby team from South Africa, and is to take place in Yukon. You need to ask yourself:   

Do I have a good knowledge of Yukon, and specifically where the trip is to take place? Do I have a good knowledge of Yukon’s climate, and the type of weather I can expect during the trip? Do I have a good knowledge of the personality type of the participants?

Experience


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EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: PLANNING 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

SECTION 5A

Do you have experience guiding this type of trip? Do you have experience on that specific trail/route? Do you have experience in the area? Do you have experience in a similar area and climate? Do you have experience with the type of participants involved?

As stated in our previous example, you have spent the last 5 years taking catholic school girls on day hikes on Vancouver Island. You need to ask yourself:     

Do I actually have experience guiding multi-day trips? Do I have previous experience on this trail or route? Do I actually have experience in Yukon? Do I have previous experience in a similar area and similar climate? Do I have experience dealing with a group of professional rugby players?

Training 1. 2. 3. 4.

Do you have training to confidently undertake the trip? Do you have training to guide any activity planned during the trip? Do you have First Aid training? Do you have training dealing with problems and emergencies?

Training relevant to the trip being planned is paramount. You need to ask yourself:    

Was I trained to guide this type of trip? Was I trained to guide canoe trips? Is my First Aid up to date? Do I have the training to handle problems and emergencies that may arise during the trip?

Addressing Qualification shortfalls A Wilderness Guide shall always address any qualification shortfall uncovered during the guide assessment. If specific skills, knowledge or training are lacking, they should be acquired prior to the expedition. If a lack of experience is at issue, more experience should be gained before undertaking the trip. A Wilderness Guide who has only led day hikes on Vancouver Island should not guide people on a multi-day canoeing trip in Yukon without gaining additional area and activity-specific experience. In our example, this could simply be achieved by getting the necessary canoeing certification, and then first completing the trip with another experienced guide. To be noted that the Wilderness Guide should not attempt to acquire the necessary skills or complete the trip on his or her own. This would be unsafe, and without the necessary learning feedback, counterproductive.

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SECTION 5A


Difficulty Level Assessment At this advanced stage of planning, a Wilderness Guide should have a clear idea of the trip’s level of difficulty, and thus, the fitness and skill level required of participants. Although Wilderness Guides may use activity and circumstances-specific difficulty levels as needed, backpacking trips may generally be categorized as follow:

Beginner Level These expeditions are open to any reasonably fit individual who is able to sustain a few hours a day of continuous moderate physical exercise. Although they do not require any backpacking experience, having completed a few hiking trips is recommended. These expeditions do include some elevation gains. They are however conducted at a comfortable pace. They do not involve any particular difficulties. However, as with any expedition, some obstacle and river crossings may be required.

Intermediate Level A very good level of physical fitness, such as the ability to sustain several hours a day of continuous moderate to strenuous physical activity, is required. Previous backpacking and multi-day backcountry trip experience is strongly recommended. These expeditions may involve substantial and repetitive elevation gains throughout the day. They may involve some difficulties such as steep slopes and sometimes challenging obstacle and river crossings, as well as occasional bush walking.

Advanced Level An excellent level of physical fitness is required for participation in these expeditions, such as the ability to sustain several hours a day of continuous strenuous physical activity. Previous wilderness backpacking experience is required. These expeditions may involve frequent extreme and sudden elevation gains throughout the day. They may involve substantial difficulties such as very steep slopes, challenging obstacle and river crossings, as well as bush and river walking.

Participant Screening At the very minimum, participants should be medically screened. This can be easily achieved by requiring prospective participants to fill out the PAWGI Medical Questionnaire prior to engaging in any activity. A copy of the PAWGI Medical Questionnaire is available online at http://www.pawgi.org.


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SECTION 5A

Based on the level of skills and difficulties, participants should also be further assessed on their physical fitness and skill level.

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SECTION 5B

EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: LEADING

EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: LEADING Prior proper planning of an expedition will greatly help the undertaking of an expedition, allowing you to better focus on the enjoyment of the trip, while keeping you on the look out for unforeseen circumstances.

Participants’ screening Participants should have already been pre-screened for skills, physical fitness, and medical conditions. Prior to the start of the expedition, a final screening shall be performed to ensure that the original pre-screening was actually completed, that the participants were truthful during the original pre -screening, and that the participants’ conditions have not changed. A participant who brags that he lied on the Medical Questionnaire, or who tells you in confidence that he lied on the Medical Questionnaire should be excluded from any activity until a physician confirms the participant’s suitability for the activity. Similarly, Wilderness Guides should use judgement in visually assessing the physical fitness of candidates. A candidate who appears severely overweight and who breaths hard by only moving her equipment around may not be physically fit to undertake an advanced trip.

Legal Documents Once participants have been screened one last time, Wilderness Guides shall ensure that all legal documents are properly reviewed, executed, and stored.

Release of Liability A Release of Liability, Waiver of Claims, Assumption of Risks, and Indemnity Agreement (Release of Liability) shall be thoroughly reviewed and executed by all participants prior to participation in any activity. A copy of the PAWGI Release of Liability is available online at http://www.pawgi.org. Participants not willing to review and/or fully and properly execute a Release of Liability shall be excluded from the trip and/or any activity.

Medical Questionnaire A Medical Questionnaire is strongly recommended. Wilderness Guides should review each questionnaire to ensure the medical fitness of all participants.


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SECTION 5B

A copy of the PAWGI Medical Questionnaire is available online at http://www.pawgi.org. Participants deemed to be medically unfit by their physician shall be excluded from the trip and/or any activity.

Participants’ Briefing Fully disclosing all the risks associated with a specific activity to the participants is not only an important part of risk management, but also a demonstration of basic respect for the participants. Indeed, participants are entitled, from an ethical point of view, to know what they are about to get themselves into, and to be thoroughly advised of the hazards associated with any activity. Participants shall therefore be thoroughly briefed on all orange hazards and associated safety procedures. Videos are best, as they offer consistent briefings, and proof that the participants were actually briefed. Brochures and pamphlets are also acceptable when used in conjunction with a verbal briefing. Ideally, warnings about orange hazards should also be listed on marketing media, including web site and brochures. Representations or guarantees of safety shall be avoided, as they are not only dishonest, but also an invitation to lawsuits in the event of an incident. How could a Wilderness Guide possibly guarantee the safety of participants in a wilderness environment? Never tell a participant that you have the “industry’s best safety record”, unless this is a proven fact. Never tell a participant that he will be safe, or that you can guarantee his safety. If a participant is afraid about his safety, he should not take part in the trip or activity. In addition to disclosure of risks, briefing should of course include details about the trip, including but not limited to: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Schedule Route Goals Group and individual responsibilities

Equipment Checks Once the participants’ screening, the legal documents, the disclosure of hazards, and the safety briefings are out of the way, the last step before starting the trip is to check all equipment.

Participants’ Equipment Participants’ equipment should be checked against mandatory and recommended equipment lists. Ultimately, Wilderness Guides should ensure that a participant’s equipment and clothing is suitable for the trip and activities

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SECTION 5B

EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: LEADING about to be undertaken. Never trust a participant’s representation that she has a properly rated sleeping bag or adequate rain gear. Suitability and adequacy are highly subjective, especially for inexperienced participants, and equipment should always be checked to ensure it is suitable.

General Equipment General equipment should also be thoroughly checked, especially against the number of participants, ensuring the number of stoves or tents will be suitable for the number of participants.

Safety Equipment Safety equipment should be reviewed, especially battery charging and/or expiry. Wilderness Guides should also ensure they are well acquainted with the operation of any equipment they may be required to use during the expedition. The First Aid Kit should also be reviewed to make sure that it is complete, and that any perishable item has not gone past the expiry date. Do you know how to operate the satellite phone? Do you know how to dial from the satellite phone? If you don’t, the satellite phone will not be of much use in the event of an emergency!

Food and Supplies Check The next check will cover food and supplies. Is the amount of food sufficient for all the participants, based on the participants’ conditions and the circumstances of the trip? Is the amount of fuel adequate to operate all the fuel stoves carried on the trip, and/or to prepare food for all participants throughout the duration of the trip?

Route Selection During the planning of the expedition, you selected several routes: A primary route, as well as alternate routes. It is now time to decide which route is the most suitable for the participants, weather, as well as other environmental factors. An alternate easier route with lower elevation gains may be more suitable for participants who are not as physically fit as you anticipated. Similarly, an alternate route with no known wildlife conflicts will be preferable to a route with recently reported bear encounters.

Water Treatment


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SECTION 5B

Boiling water at high elevation may not be sufficient to properly kill all possible pathogens that may be present. This is because the actual temperature of boiling water will decrease with altitude (87.3°C at 4,000 metres, and 75.5°C at 8,000 metres). Water should therefore always be treated with either a water filter suitable for the area (not all water filter will remove all pathogens), or water purification tablets. Water purification tablets have a far greater adverse effect on the environment than water filters.

Effectiveness of Various Water Treatment Methods Effective Against / Suitable for

UV Devices

Chlorine + Silverions

Hollow fiber

Katadyn Filter medium Virupur

Katadyn Glassfiber 0.3 Micron

Katadyn Ceramic 0.2 Micron

Protozoa

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Bacteria

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Viruses

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

Clear surface water

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Turbid surface water

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Very turbid surface water

No

No

No

No

No

Yes

Removing Particles

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No batteries

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Food Storage Food storage for the purpose of avoiding spoilage will not be addressed in this manual, as it would be the subject of a Food Safe course. Instead, we will only address food storage as it relates to predators, more specifically, bears.

Bear Proof Containers Bear proof containers from Garcia Machine (http://www.backpackerscache.com) may be an excellent option in grizzly country, and may even be required for any backcountry trip in some National Parks such as Kluane National Park and Reserve in Yukon. These containers have been extensively tested with both black bears and

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SECTION 5B

EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: LEADING grizzly bears, and found to be actually “bear proof” or “bear resistant”, in the sense that bears cannot open them or destroy them. When bear proof containers are in use, all foods and toiletries should be stored inside one containers, while refuse and packaging are stored in another container. In addition, the containers should be placed at least 30 meters away from the tents or sleeping quarters.

Hanging Food When bear proof containers are either not required or impractical, food and toiletries on one hand, and food refuses and packaging on the other hand, should be hanged between two tall trees in order to prevent bears from accessing the items.

Other Methods of Storage In instances where bear proof containers or trees are not available, food, food refuses, packaging, and scented toiletries should always be stored separately outside from the tent or sleeping quarters, and at least 30 metres away from the tents or sleeping quarters. In such case, the use of pre-packaged dehydrated food should be privileged in order to avoid attracting bears.

Food Preparation From a liability point of view, food should be individually prepared by the participants. If a Wilderness Guide is to be involved with food preparation however, a Food Safe course should be attended. For the purpose of reducing bear conflicts, and whenever possible, food should be prepared away from the tents or sleeping quarters. The food preparation station should also be located downwind from the tent in order to prevent food smells from soaking into the tent’s fabric. Additionally, whenever possible, food consumption should occur outside and away from the tent or sleeping quarters. Clothing used to cook smelly foods such as meat and fish should be stored outside of the tent or sleeping quarters whenever possible, and should never be slept in, as they would constitute a bear attractant.

Waste Management The procedures outlined in this manual for waste management do not apply to Arctic environments or regions. For more information about waste management in Arctic Regions, please refer to Section 6.

Human Waste Management Liquid and solid human wastes should not be disposed within 30 metres of any body of water. Latrines or individual holes should be dug in the soil at least 30 metres from any body of water, and immediately covered with soil


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SECTION 5B

after each use. Toilet paper should be burnt on site if it is safe to do so, and covered with another layer of soil. If toilet paper cannot be burnt, it should be packed out.

Organic Waste Management For the purpose of this manual, organic waste also include paper and cardboard. Organic waste should either be fully burnt to ashes, or packed out. They should never be buried or left out to decompose in the open.

Waste Water Management Water used in the preparation of food, in the washing of dishes or clothing, or any other type of water containing organic particles should be strained before being disposed. The resulting waste water should be disposed over soil at least 30 metres away from any body of water, taking particular care to ensure that run off water will not drain into any body of water.

General Waste Management All other waste, including packaging, broken or discarded equipment, used first aid supplies, feminine hygiene products, etc… should be packed out as they cannot be fully and efficiently burnt to ashes on site.

Personal Hygiene Personal hygiene in a wilderness environment is extremely important. Besides being a potential nuisance for participants, body odours will also be an attractant for wildlife, particularly bears. Each participant should be responsible for his or her own hygiene, and ensure that hands are thoroughly washed before the handling or preparation of any food or water destined for consumption. Natural toothpastes free of fluoride, as well as biodegradable soaps should be used whenever possible, and washing with soap should be performed at least 30 metres from any body of water. Unscented deodorant shall always be used.

Camp Selection Camp selection should be made well before dusk in order to ensure all tents and shelters are set up before it gets dark. Selection of the camp site must take into consideration sustainability, safety, and convenience. Camps should be established on rocky soil or terrain in order to avoid damaging vegetation, such as delicate alpine meadows. They should be in an area that is as flat as possible, and sheltered from the elements.

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SECTION 5B

EXPEDITIONARY LEADERSHIP: LEADING Camps should never be set up too close to a body of water in order to avoid water contamination, or disaster should water levels suddenly increase. At the same time, camps should not be too far from a source of water either, in order to easily fulfil the water needs of the party. Camps should not be set up in areas that could turn into rock or mud slides in case of rain, or any area that could become dangerous should a change in conditions occur. Finally, camps should be located in an area offering good 360° views whenever practical in order to allow the party to be able to see potential predators before they are right in the camp site.

Route Re-assessment Wilderness Guides should constantly re-assess their route based on the weather, environmental conditions, or the needs of participants. A preplanned itinerary should never be written in stone, and should the need arise, a guide should always be ready to switch to an alternate route. Additionally, the route should systematically be re-assessed if questioned by a participant or staff member. You are noticing that one of your participants is physically struggling with his backpack and the demands of the hike. You could either adapt to a slower pace, or select an alternate or easier route. Similarly, rather than going over an unplanned rock slide, you may want to re-assess your route to go around it.

Situational Awareness & Hazard Anticipation Complete situational awareness of one’s environment is primordial in order to anticipate hazards. Wilderness Guides should always look far in the distance for the sight of a bear, they should look above for any indication of potential for falling rocks, ahead for any unstable terrain, and below to assess the risk of a fall. They should look in the sky for the formation of storm clouds, or otherwise bad weather. They should watch the participants for signs of fatigue, problem, or inappropriate behaviour. Wilderness Guides should simply be aware of everything and anything that goes on around them in order to anticipate hazards, and thus, better manage them.

Wildlife Conflicts Wildlife conflicts can either pose a treat to the guide and participants, a threat to the animal, or both. Bears that cause conflicts with humans are typically destroyed, even if they are in a protected area such as a park, and far from any sign of human


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SECTION 5B

presence. Striving to avoid bear conflicts is therefore not only excellent risk management, but also an ethical duty. Conflicts with animals that do not pose an obvious and immediate danger to humans should also be avoided for the sake of the animal. Specifically, wildlife should never be harassed. Harassment could simply take the form of camping too close to a group of animals, traveling among a species breeding or calving grounds, or simply generally frightening wildlife. In addition, feeding wildlife should be avoided. As a matter of fact, feeding or harassing wildlife is an offence in any National Park in Canada. Did you know that a frightened caribou running away from you in winter is likely to die? “Sudden and violent exertion causes changes in the muscle as chemicals from the functioning of the muscles build up faster than the blood can remove them” (Porcupine Caribou Management Board, “Health”), leading to the caribou dying hours, days, or weeks later. In addition to a panicked caribou being susceptible to injury, the animal can also “suffer frostbite in the lungs from panting in extreme cold” (Porcupine Caribou Management Board, “Health”).

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SECTION 6 SUSTAINABILITY

SECTION 6

SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS

SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS WINTER EXPEDITIONS Overview This section provides sustainable environmental practices for any expedition conducted in winter in an Arctic or sub-arctic environment. For the purpose of this guide, winter is defined as any period during which the ground is frozen and covered with ice or snow. The goal of such practices is to minimize, if not eliminate altogether, the human impact on this sensitive environment. From an ecological standpoint, the environmental impact in the Arctic is greatly reduced in winter due to the barrier of ice and snow protecting the sensitive plant life below. Setting up tents, trekking, or landing craft is all easier on this sensitive environment when it is done in winter. Conducting expeditions in winter is therefore greatly encouraged.

Preparation A Team Leader should be designated and should be responsible for the implementation of the sustainable environmental practices contained in this guide. All members of the expedition should be briefed and trained in sustainable practices. They should understand that sustainable environmental practices are everyone’s responsibility. Policies should also be implemented to ensure all members of the expedition are adequately dressed for the elements, and a minimum equipment list should be provided to avoid the need for fuel heating or even rescue. Expedition members should also be trained in the operation of the various pieces of equipment being used, and should understand that equipment such as stoves, manual tools, batteries, and electronics will have temperature and operational limitations.

Equipment and Clothing Best Practices: The use of quality, reliable and durable equipment is recommended for any Arctic expedition. Equipment failure may indeed lead to various problems, from the need to use artificial heat sources (inherently unsustainable), to injuries and even the possibility of requiring a rescue. Weight and volume of equipment is also a major consideration, since it will dictate the method of transportation to be used, the practicality of human powered transportation, as well as the amount of greenhouse gas emissions.


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SECTION 6

Material used in the manufacturing of the equipment is another consideration. For example, plastic components on equipment will tend to break in extremely cold weather, leading to damage, loss of use and unnecessary waste. In order to avoid the use of fossil fuels to keep warm, extreme cold weather clothing should be used. This includes sleeping bags, boots, layered clothing, warm underwear, soft shells, outer shells, and parkas specifically designed and rated for extremely cold temperatures. Unsustainable Practices: Using inadequate clothing, or equipment that is designed to be disposable is strongly discouraged. Inappropriate clothing, besides potentially leading to a life threatening situation could also lead to the need for a rescue, and therefore, undue environmental stress. Equipment failure may also result in a similar situation while generating more waste.

Transportation to Site Several factors need to be taken into consideration when selecting a transportation method to a given site. Immediate impact, such as soil and vegetation damage, direct pollution, and disturbances to wildlife, long-term impact, and greenhouse gas emissions must be taken into consideration. Best Practices: The best method of transportation from an environmental point of view remains human powered travel. Pulling a personal sled over frozen areas covered with ice or snow will inherently have a lower impact on soil damage, pollution, stress to wildlife, and will limit greenhouse gas emissions. Acceptable Practices: Human powered travel may not always be possible. In such cases, the preferred method of transportation to a winter camp site is by sea or by air. Planes, helicopters or ice breakers may be used to carry equipment, supplies and personnel. In order to prevent soil damage, the landing site should be carefully selected to ensure it is frozen, and covered with as much ice and/or snow as possible. Areas that are frozen but with exposed vegetation should be avoided. Any landing should also be conducted in an area away from any sign of wildlife to prevent undue stress to the fauna. Although greenhouse gas emissions are inherent to mechanized travel, they can be minimized through the use of more fuel efficient aircraft and ships, as well as through the reduction of cargo through proper expedition planning and careful gear selection. The use of dog sleds may also be considered if dog waste is managed like

6-02


SECTION 6

SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS human waste (See Human Waste Management Section). Unsustainable Practices: The use of snowmobiles may be considered as a last resort, due to their high impact on the environment. Tracks will often damage soil underneath thin layers of snow or ice, mechanical noises will cause stress to wildlife, and engines will generate high greenhouse gas emissions. In order to minimize soil and vegetation damage, travel on thick layers of snow and ice is best. Extreme care should be taken in filling fuel tanks in order to avoid spillage. Wildlife corridors, or any area occupied by wildlife should be avoided. Lastly, greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced through the use of more recent, more fuel efficient machines, and a reduction in gear, equipment, and supplies being transported.

Site Selection Best Practices: It is important to ensure that the camp site is established within walking distance, but at least 100 metres from a body of water. In winter, liquid water is still accessible from lakes by drilling holes through the ice. If establishing your campsite by a lake is not an option, there are various methods of collecting ice and snow, melting it, then treating it for consumption. The camp site should be located in an area sheltered from the wind if at all possible, while ensuring it is not exposed to potential rock slides or avalanche. Thick layers of snow or ice, without exposed vegetation, or rocky areas are best. Level terrain is preferred as it will be more stable and will also translate to a more comfortable camp site. The selected site should be close to any area as it relates to the goal of the expedition to avoid unnecessary travel. Although it may be difficult to determine, try to avoid wildlife corridors to prevent unnecessary wildlife conflicts. Acceptable Practices: Selecting a site far from a source of water may be acceptable if no suitable site can be found in proximity to a source of water. However, it is important that all members of the camp are physically capable of walking to a water source without the aid of mechanized travel. Unsustainable Practices: Establishing camp on exposed vegetation, in a wildlife corridor, and too far from a source of water should be avoided.

Camp Set up and Maintenance WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WILDERNESS GUIDES AND INSTRUCTORS INC.

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SECTION 6

A camp site should be set up and maintained to ensure that there is no trace of any human presence or environmental damage whatsoever upon vacation. Best Practices: The building of igloos should be encouraged. This minimizes the equipment/cargo loads, and thus, nutritional needs, resulting waste, and greenhouse gas emissions. This also prevents the anchoring of tent pegs through ice and snow, which may damage frozen flora or soil below the tent. One igloo may be sufficient to accommodate all the needs of a limited number of people. For larger groups however, several structures may have to be erected, allowing the use of one igloo as a common area and cooking quarters, and the other igloos as sleeping quarters. An additional igloo may be used as a bathroom and washroom. Please see the Human Waste Management and Waste Water Management Sections for more information. Personal equipment may be stored in sleeping quarters (with the exception of food, flavoured drinks and toiletries), and common equipment may be stored in the common area, while heavier equipment and supplies may be kept outside of the igloos. Spacing between igloos should be based on practical needs and kept to a minimum in order to reduce the size of the camp, and thus, any potential environmental foot print. It is important to note that the building of igloos should only be conducted by qualified and experienced builders, such as local people. If the skill of building an igloo has not been mastered, tents should be used as per the following guidelines. Acceptable Practices: If building igloos is either impractical or impossible, the use of tents is acceptable. 4-season tents, tested in extreme environments, such as extreme winds and temperatures, should always be used. Inadequate tents could either be damaged or destroyed in adverse weather, or fly away from the camp, thereby polluting the environment. Tents with a capacity of 3 people should always be used to minimize total foot print of the tent, while providing the potential for body heat exchange. Such tents should however only be occupied by two individuals in order to allow for the storage or personal equipment, as equipment weight will contribute to anchoring the tent on the ground, and minimize the use and depth of pegs or other anchoring devices. Storage of personal equipment in the tent should under no circumstances include food, drinks (with the exception of water), or toiletry items to prevent any wildlife conflict. A larger dome-style tent may be used as a common/cooking area. An extra 3-person tent may be used as a bathroom and washroom. Please see the Human Waste Management and the Waste Water Management Sections

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SECTION 6

SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS for more information. The tent sites should always be in an area with thick ice and/or snow, and away from any section of exposed vegetation. Spacing between tents should be based on practical need and kept to a minimum to reduce the size of the camp. Unsustainable Practices: The use of large temporary shelters designed to accommodate larger groups of people should be discouraged, as they will most likely impact the soil due to their larger foot print, will not maintain heat efficiently, and will consume more resources during transport.

Food and Nutrition Food supplies should be sufficient to fulfill the nutritional needs of each expedition member, while avoiding overeating, which will produce a higher amount of waste, and will have a potentially negative impact on the environment. Caloric expenditure should be determined on a daily basis, and the amount of food packed assessed accordingly, taking into consideration reserve supplies in case of emergency, isolation, or delayed pick up. Best Practices: Freeze dried foods should always be used for hot entrees. Nuts, beef jerky, dried fruits and other dry products are also recommended. Water required to prepare food should be obtained by heating ice or snow on a fuel or propane stove. Food should be consumed directly from the individual pouches to avoid the use of dishes as much as possible. Unconsumed food should be handled as the Organic Waste Management Section, while food pouches are managed as per the General Waste Management Section. Utensils and any dishes should be washed using a minimum amount of water and biodegradable soap, and the resulting waste should be handled as per the Organic Waste Management Section, and the Waste Water Management Section. Acceptable Practices: Freeze-dried and other dried foods may be complemented or replaced by frozen foods and meats. However, cooking should still occur through the use of fuel or propane devices. Dishes should be washed using a minimum amount of water and biodegradable soap, and the resulting waste should be handled as per the Organic Waste Management Section, and the Waste Water Management Section. If using dog sleds, dogs may be fed with raw meat, as they will generally consume all meats and bones without leaving any waste. Unsustainable Practices:


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SECTION 6

The use of fires to either boil water or cook meats and other meals should be avoided and only reserved for emergency situations.

Drinking Water Water in the winter season in the Arctic will usually be frozen, unless obtained through several feet of ice over a lake. As a result, the use of fuel to heat and boil water may be unavoidable, even if this will result in greenhouse gas emissions. Best Practices: If close to a lake, a hole should be drilled through the ice to access liquid water, which should be boiled for 5 minutes. Drinking water may also be obtained by heating and boiling ice or snow for 5 minutes. Acceptable Practices: The use of water purification tablets is acceptable but impractical. The water will need to be maintained in a liquid state as the tablets will take time to dissolve and treat the water. Additionally, accidental environmental contamination is possible. Unsustainable Practices: Bringing supplies of fresh water is strongly discouraged due to the resources and energy required for transportation.

Personal Hygiene Personal hygiene in a camp environment is important both for individuals and the camp as a whole. Each expedition member should be responsible for his or her own hygiene, and comply with proper waste management guidelines as outlined in the Organic Waste Management and Waste Water Management Sections. In order to avoid cross contamination of food with waste, it is recommended that each person be responsible for the preparation of their own meals, and that meals be prepared away from any waste. Best Practices: Personal hygiene is carried out with as little water as possible and unscented sanitary wipes are a practical way of maintaining hygiene while allowing waste to be carried out. Using deodorant alternatives such as a salt crystal in odour causing areas of the body will actually help to prevent the development of odour causing bacteria and can reduce the frequency of bathing. Oral hygiene should be attended with an all-natural ingredient toothpaste or biodegradable toothpaste, free of fluoride, and ensure that any by-product of teeth cleaning is not disposed of into the environment and is managed as per the Waste Water Management Section.

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SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS Acceptable Practices: Use sponges, water and biodegradable soap as a means of bathing instead of wipes. Soiled or waste water can be poured into the ground away from the camp site, but never into, or in proximity of, any body of water. Oral hygiene is maintained with a natural ingredient or biodegradable toothpaste, and the rinse water should be disposed of away from camp into the ground, but never into a body of water. Unsustainable Practices: As a last resort, an outdoor shower may be set up; however the temperature of the water must not exceed a temperature that would be detrimental to flora or fauna under the shower, or draining away from a shower. Runoff from a shower must not directly drain into a stream or body of water and must first be absorbed into the ground. Biodegradable soap and all-natural ingredient toothpaste or biodegradable toothpaste must be used and can be disposed of in an area away from the camp and into the ground, never into a body of water.

Human Waste Management Human waste, especially urine, have been found to contain traces of many chemicals, medicine and other compounds, linked to a wide array of environmental ailments, including interference with the reproductive process of various species. Human waste such as excrement also have the potential to introduce excess nutrients to an eco-system, thereby affecting the balance of the sensitive Arctic environment. With this in mind, contamination of a site with human waste should be avoided. Best Practices: Urination and defecation, as well as toilet paper and personal wipes, should be contained in specifically designed bags, such as WAG bags. These individual bags will solidify the waste, remove odours, and accelerate decomposition. Used bags are then to be safely stored in designated waste containers, and removed from the site upon vacation for appropriate disposal in a landfill. It is important to note that if a dog sled is to be used, dog excrement should be picked up and disposed of in the same fashion than human waste. Unsustainable Practices: The use of latrines, portable composting toilets, or holes dug in the soil or snow should be avoided. Decomposition will indeed take much longer in the Arctic than in other environments. Additionally, such practices do not prevent soil and water contamination with the chemicals, medicines and other pollutants found in human waste. It is also evident that such practices will leave substantial traces of human presence for extended periods of time.

Organic Waste Management WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WILDERNESS GUIDES AND INSTRUCTORS INC.

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The disposal of organic waste, such as food waste, in an Arctic environment may result in the addition of excess nutrients to the eco-system, and may result in adverse effects on the environment. No organic waste should be released into the environment. Best Practices: Each individual should endeavour to minimize waste from food by ensuring adequate portions based on nutritional needs. Any organic waste should be packed in biodegradable, non-paper bags, and then be stored in designated waste containers. Such containers should later be removed from the site upon vacation, and disposed of in a designated landfill. Unsustainable Practices: The disposal of organic waste in the environment is not encouraged. As with human waste, decomposition will take longer in the Arctic than other environments. It is also evident that such practices will leave substantial traces of human presence for extended periods of time.

Waste Water Management This section only covers the management of grey water, namely water used in the preparation of foods, washing of clothes and dishes, or for personal hygiene if applicable. It does not refer to black water as sustainable human waste and organic waste management practices do not involve the use of water. Best Practices: Water used in the preparation of food, in the washing of dishes or clothing, or any other type of water containing organic particles should be strained before being disposed. The resulting water should be disposed of at least 100 metres away from any body of water. Organic waste removed from the water should be managed as the Organic Waste Management Section. It is important to note that waste water should be adequately disposed of immediately following use, to avoid freezing, which would compromise the proper disposal of grey water. Unsustainable Practices: The disposal of waste water not previously strained should be avoided. The disposal of waste water, whether strained or not, should also be avoided in, or in the proximity of, any body of water whatsoever.

General Waste Management This section applies to all other non-organic, non-human and non-water waste, including but not limited to plastic, containers, packaging, oil, fuel etc...

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SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS Best Practices: No waste whatsoever should be disposed of in the Arctic environment. As a result, all waste must be stored in designated containers, and removed from the site upon vacation for disposal in a landfill. Unsustainable Practices: The burning or burying of waste must be avoided.

Local Area Travel Soil and vegetation damage, direct pollution, and disturbances to wildlife, along with long-term impact, including greenhouse gas emissions, should be avoided. Best Practices: The best method of transportation for local travel when practical is by foot, ski or snow shoes. Pulling a personal sled is also an option. Acceptable Practices: Human powered travel may not always be possible. In such cases, the preferred method of transportation is by sea or by air. Planes, helicopters or ice breakers may be used to carry equipment, supplies and people. In order to prevent soil damage, the landing site should be carefully selected to ensure it is frozen, and covered with as much ice and/or snow as possible. Areas that are frozen but with exposed vegetation should be avoided. Any landing should also be conducted in an area away from any sign of wildlife to prevent undue stress to the fauna. Although greenhouse gas emissions are inherent to mechanized travel, they can be minimized through the use of more fuel efficient aircraft and ships, as well as through the reduction of cargo through proper expedition planning and careful gear selection. Unsustainable Practices: The use of snowmobiles may be considered as a last resort, due to their high impact on the environment. Tracks will often damage soil underneath thin layers of snow or ice, mechanical noises will cause stress to wildlife, and emissions will generate high amount of greenhouse gas. In order to minimize soil and vegetation damage, travel on thick layers of snow and ice is best. Extreme care should be taken in filling fuel tanks in order to avoid spillage. Wildlife corridors, or any area occupied by wildlife should be avoided. Lastly, greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced through the use of more recent, more fuel efficient machines, and a reduction in gear, equipment and supplies being transported.


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Wildlife Management Polar bears are an important consideration in an Arctic environment, as they may actively hunt humans for food. Several steps should therefore be taken in order to avoid direct conflicts, and thus, the possibility of having to shoot a bear. Best Practices: Bears have a highly developed sense of smell. Any type of smell or scent on humans and on the camp site should therefore be minimized. Waste should be managed and stored away from sleeping quarters as per the Human Waste Management, Organic Waste Management, Waste Water Management, and General Waste Management Sections. Dry foods, versus fresh foods and meats should be selected. Re-hydrating food with boiling water versus cooking on an open fire is also preferable. The use of scented cosmetics should be avoided. Colognes and perfumes should be banned from the camp. Soaps, shampoos, deodorants and toothpastes should be unscented whenever possible. Human odours should also be avoided through excellent hygiene practices, including the mandatory use of unscented deodorants. Sanitary napkins should be handled like any other waste product, and used sanitary napkins should never be stored in sleeping quarters. In order to prevent bears from entering the camp site, the whole perimeter of the camp site should be fenced with an electrical fence. It is to be noted however that the operation of battery operated fences at very low temperatures may be problematic. Any bears spotted in the vicinity of the site should be scared away by any available non-lethal means, including the discharge of firearms or noise makers. Polar bear migrations should also be taken into consideration at the planning stage of the expedition. Other wildlife, such as foxes, wolves, muskoxen, caribou, wolverine, lemming, or snowshoe hare, typically do not present a danger to humans, as long as interaction is avoided. No wildlife should ever be fed, and any interaction should be avoided. Unsustainable Practices: Destroying wildlife as a method of preventing conflicts with humans should be used only as a last resort, and preserving wildlife is an integral part of environmentally sustainable practices.

Dismantling Camp

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SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS Dismantling camp should essentially consist in packing out everything that was packed in. This includes all human waste, organic waste and other waste, with the exception of strained grey water as per the Waste Water Management Section. Nothing should be left behind, including wood, paper, bones or any other material or substance not originally present on the site. The goal is to leave the camp site as pristine as it was originally, without any trace of a human presence.


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Environmental Impact Self Assessment This questionnaire will allow you to assess whether your practices meet sustainable environmental standards outlined in this guide. Please select one answer only for each question. 1.

With respect to the preparation of the expedition:

A. You have designated a Team Leader, responsible for the briefing and compliance of all members of the expeditions with sustainable environmental practices. (10 points) B. You have not designated a Team Leader, but members of the expeditions have been made aware of the sustainable environmental practices contained in this guide. (5 points) C. You have not designated a Team Leader, and members of the expeditions have not been briefed about sustainable environmental practices. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 2.

With respect to equipment and clothing, you intend to:

A. Bring adequate clothing for the Arctic, in order to avoid reliance on artificial sources of heat, and use good quality, reliable equipment designed to last for many more expeditions. (10 points) B. Bring inadequate clothing for the Arctic, and/or equipment that is not designed to be durable.(0 points) C. Pack light as far as clothing is concerned, as you will be using alternate sources of heat, and use disposable equipment, or equipment designed to last only for this expedition. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 3. A. B. C. D.

How will you reach the site of the expedition? By foot and/or human-pulled sled. (10 points) By air, sea, or by dog sled. (5 points) By snowmobile. (0 points) None of the above. (0 points)

4.

How do you intend to select your base/camp site?

A. We will select a site with thick ice and/or snow, without apparent vegetation, away from any wildlife corridor, and within walking distance from a source of water. (10 points) B. We will select a site with thick ice and/or snow, without apparent vegetation, away from any wildlife corridor, but far from a source of water.(5 points) C. We will select a site that is most convenient for us, whether it is covered by ice and/or snow, and/or vegetation, and whether it interferes with a wildlife corridor, and/or is in proximity of a body of water. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 5.

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How will you set up your camp?


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SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS A. We will build igloos, or have igloos built, for all our needs. (10 points) B. We will set small tents as needed. (5 points) C. We will set temporary structure designed to accommodate our whole party. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 6.

What type of food will you be using, and how will you be preparing it?

A. We will use dehydrated foods, as per our nutritional needs, prepared with water heated on fuel or propane stoves. (10 points) B. We will eat as much dehydrated food as we want, even if our food intake exceeds our nutritional needs, and/or we will eat fresh foods and meat, prepared on fuel or propane stoves. (5 points) C. We will prepare fresh foods and meats on open fires. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 7.

How will you obtain drinking water?

A. We will use lake water, and/or melt apparently clean ice and/or snow, and boil it for 5 minutes. (10 points) B. We will melt ice and/or snow and use water purification tablets. (5 points) C. We will bring our own water. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 8.

How will you ensure you maintain a high level of personal hygiene?

A. We will use wipes whenever possible, as well as biodegradable fluoride -free toothpaste. (10 points) B. We will perform sponge baths with biodegradable soap whenever necessary, and/or use regular toothpaste. (5 points) C. We will find a way to take showers as needed. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 9.

How do you intend to go to the bathroom?

A. We will use WAG bags. (10 points) B. We will use WAG bags whenever possible and while at camp, but we will urinate in the wild whenever practical. (5 points) C. We will use a latrine, or a hole in the ground, or some type of compost toilets. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 10.

How will you deal with organic wastes?

A. We will pack them, and take them with us when we leave, like everything else. (10 points) B. We will burn them. (0 points) C. We will bury them in the ground or leave them somewhere in the area. (0 points)


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D. None of the above. (0 points) 11.

How will you handle grey water, or waste water from cleaning dishes, washing clothes, or personal hygiene?

A. We will strain all organic matters from the water, pack the organic wastes, and drain the remaining water away from our living quarters, and at least 100 metres away from any body of water. (10 points) B. We will strain all organic matters from the water, pack the organic wastes, and drain the remaining water wherever is we can, even if it is close to, or in a body of water. (5 points) C. We will get rid of the waste water without draining it first, and/or in proximity of a body of water.(0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 12.

How will you handle all other waste, such as packaging, containers, bones etc…?

A. We will pack all wastes and take them with us upon leaving camp for proper disposal in a designated landfill. (10 points) B. We will burn all organic waste, and take the rest of the refuse with us upon vacating the camp. (0 points) C. We will bury some or all of the wastes as we cannot really take them with us. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 13. A. B. C. D.

How will you travel locally? We will travel by foot, snowshoes or skis. (10 points) We will travel by air and/or sea. (5 points) We will travel by snowmobile. (0 points) None of the above. (0 points)

14.

How will you handle wildlife, more specifically polar bears?

A. We will place an electric fence around the camp, and minimize all smells that could attract bears, including food, cosmetics, refuse and human scents. We will carry a firearm as a backup. (10 points) B. We will place an electric fence around the camp, but will not really be able to minimize smells. (5 points) C. We will only carry firearms so we can shoot any bear that gets too close to camp. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 15.

How will you dismantle the camp?

A. We will pack out everything we packed in, no exception. (10 points) B. We will pack out almost everything, with the exception of natural items such as wood or paper. (5 points) C. We will pack out what we can, and leave the rest behind. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) Now, please add the listed points for each answer (remember, only one

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SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS answer per question). A score of 110 or above confirms that your practices will generally comply with the sustainable environmental guidelines outlined in this guide. As a result, you may be confident that your expedition will have a limited impact on the environment. The closer your score is to 150, the more compliant and the most environmentally sustainable your expedition will be. Any score below 110 means that your expedition will have an impact on the environment, and will not meet many of the fundamental sustainable environmental guidelines listed in this guide.


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SUMMER EXPEDITIONS Overview This section provides sustainable environmental practices for any expedition conducted in summer in an Arctic environment. For the purpose of this guide, summer is defined as any period during which the ground is bare and not covered with ice or snow. Expeditions occurring in September for example would therefore be considered summer expeditions. The goal of the practices outlined in this section is to minimize the human impact on the highly sensitive Arctic environment. It is important to note that practices deemed to be Best Practices for winter expeditions, may become Acceptable Practices in a summer environment. The environmental impact of camping in the Arctic is greatly increased in summer due to the sensitive permafrost and plant life. Setting up tents, trekking, or landing craft is inherently more damaging in summer. Conducting expeditions in summer should therefore be avoided whenever possible.

Preparation A Team Leader should be designated and should be responsible for the implementation of the sustainable environmental practices contained in this guide. All members of the expedition should be briefed and trained in summer specific sustainable practices. They should understand that sustainable environmental practices are everyone’s responsibility. Policies should also be implemented to ensure all members of the expedition are adequately dressed for the elements, and a minimum equipment list should be provided to avoid the need for fuel heating or even rescue. Expedition members should also be trained in the operation of the various pieces of equipment being used, and should understand that equipment such as stoves, manual tools, batteries, and electronics will have temperature and operational limitations.

Equipment and Clothing Best Practices: The use of quality, reliable and durable equipment is recommended for any Arctic expedition. Equipment failure may lead to various problems, from the need to use artificial sources of heat (inherently unsustainable), overheating and dehydration, to injuries and even the possibility of requiring a rescue. Weight and volume of equipment is also a major consideration, since it will dictate the method of transportation to be used, the practicality of travel by foot, as well as possible greenhouse gas emissions. In order to keep warm or cool as required, to avoid the use of fossil fuels for

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SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS heat, and to avoid excessive use of water for personal hygiene due to excessive perspiration, appropriate clothing should be used. This includes synthetic sleeping bags, footwear, warm underwear, layered clothing, soft shells, and outer shells rated for mild to cold weather. Unsustainable Practices: Using inadequate clothing, or equipment that is designed to be disposable is strongly discouraged. Inappropriate clothing besides potentially leading to a life threatening situation could also lead to the need for a rescue, and therefore, undue environmental stress. Failing equipment may also result in a similar situation while generating more waste.

Transportation to Site Several factors need to be taken into consideration when selecting a transportation method to a given site. Immediate impact, such as soil and vegetation damage, direct pollution, and disturbances to wildlife, along with longterm impact, including greenhouse gas emissions, shall be addressed. Best Practices: The best method of transportation during the summer months, when the ground is bare, is by sea or by air. Planes, helicopters or boats/ships may be used to carry equipment, supplies and people. Acceptable Practices: For short distances, and when the use of air or sea transportation is impossible or impractical, travel may be by foot. In such case, members of the expedition should trek over a wide area side by side rather than in single file. A plant that has been stepped on once has a greater chance of recovery than one that has been stepped on repeatedly. Whenever possible, travel should also be conducted over rocky areas, in contrast to areas covered with vegetation. Unsustainable Practices: The use of ATV’s or 4x4 vehicles should be strongly discouraged as they will result in substantial damage on the vegetation and soil.

Site Selection Best Practices: It is important to ensure that the camp site is established within walking distance, but at least 100 metres from a body of water. In most areas, precipitation in the Arctic in summer is usually minimal, and should not be relied on for fresh water needs. The camp site should be located in an area sheltered from the wind if at all possible, while ensuring it is not exposed to potential rock or land slides.


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The site should also be level, as traffic over sloped areas may destabilize the permafrost, potentially leading to landslides. Rocky areas should be selected, and areas covered with vegetation should be avoided. If rocks must be removed in order to set up camp, they should be replaced in their original position upon departure. The selected site should be close to any area to be explored to avoid unnecessary travel. Although it may be difficult to determine, try to avoid wildlife corridors to avoid unnecessary wildlife conflicts. Acceptable Practices: Selecting a site far from a source of water may be acceptable if no suitable site can be found in proximity to a source of water. However, it is important that all members of the camp are physically capable of walking to a water source without the aid of mechanized travel. Unsustainable Practices: Establishing camp on exposed vegetation, on a slope, in a wildlife corridor, and too far from a source of water should be avoided.

Camp Set up and Maintenance A camp site should be set up and maintained to ensure that there is no trace of any human presence or environmental damage whatsoever upon vacation. Best Practices: Tents with a capacity of 3 people should always be used to minimize total foot print of the tent, while providing the potential for body heat exchange. Such tents should however only be occupied by two individuals in order to allow for the storage or personal equipment, as equipment weight will contribute to anchoring the tent on the ground, and minimize the use and depth of pegs or other anchoring devices. Storage of personal equipment in the tent should under no circumstances include food, drinks (with the exception of water), or toiletry items to prevent any wildlife conflict. A larger dome-style tent may be used as a common/cooking area. An extra 3-person tent may be used as a bathroom and washroom. The tent sites should always be in a rocky area, and away from any section of exposed vegetation. Spacing between tents should be based on practical need and kept to a minimum to reduce the size of the camp. Acceptable Practices:

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SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS If the camp must be set on vegetation, each tent should be moved every day to avoid melting of the permafrost, damage to the vegetation, and compaction of soil. Unsustainable Practices: The use of large temporary shelters designed to accommodate larger groups of people should be discouraged, as they will most likely impact the plant life, as well as damage soil due to their larger foot print.

Food and Nutrition Food supplies should be sufficient to fulfill the nutritional needs of each expedition member, while avoiding overeating, which will produce a higher amount of waste, and will have a potentially negative impact on the environment. Caloric expenditure should be determined on a daily basis, and the amount of food packed assessed accordingly, taking into consideration reserve supplies in case of emergency, isolation, or delayed pick up. Best Practices: Freeze dried foods should always be used for hot entrees. Nuts, beef jerky, dried fruits and other dry products are also recommended. Water should be heated on a fuel or propane stove. Food should be consumed directly from the individual pouches to avoid the use of dishes as much as possible. Unconsumed food should be handled as per the Organic Waste Management Section, while food pouches are managed as the General Waste Management Section. Utensils and any dishes should be washed using a minimum amount of water and biodegradable soap, and the resulting waste should be handled as per the Organic Waste Management, and the Waste Water Management Sections. Unsustainable Practices: The use of fires to either boil water or cook meats and other meals should be avoided and only reserved for emergency situations. Perishable food items should be avoided, as well as food packaging that cannot be compacted after use.

Drinking and Cooking Water Best Practices: Drinking water should be obtained by filtering the water resulting directly from a clean source of fresh water. Acceptable Practices: Water purification tablets may be used, as long as tablets and tablet residues are not disposed of in the environment and are handled like any waste


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as per the General Waste Management Section. Unsustainable Practices: Bringing supplies of fresh water is strongly discouraged due to the resources and energy required for transportation. Heating and boiling water for sterilization purposes in summer must be discouraged.

Personal Hygiene Personal hygiene in a camp environment is important both for individuals and the camp as a whole. Each expedition member should be responsible for his or her own hygiene, and comply with proper waste management guidelines as outlined in the Human Waste Management and Organic Waste Management Sections. In order to avoid cross contamination of food with waste, it is recommended that each person be responsible for the preparation of their own meals, and that meals be prepared away from any waste. Best Practices: Personal hygiene is carried out with as little water as possible and unscented sanitary wipes are a practical way of maintaining hygiene while allowing waste to be carried out. Using deodorant alternatives such as a salt crystal in odour causing areas of the body will actually prevent the development of odour causing bacteria and can reduce the frequency of bathing. Oral hygiene should be attended with an all-natural ingredient toothpaste or biodegradable toothpaste, free of fluoride, and ensure that any byproduct of teeth cleaning is not disposed of into the environment and is managed as per the Waste Water Management Section. Acceptable Practices: Use sponges, water and biodegradable soap as a means of bathing instead of wipes. Soiled or waste water can be poured into the ground away from the camp site, but never into, or in proximity of, any body of water. Oral hygiene is maintained with a natural ingredient or biodegradable toothpaste, and the rinse water should be disposed of away from camp into the ground, but never into a body of water. Unsustainable Practices: As a last resort, an outdoor shower may be set up; however the temperature of the water must not exceed a temperature that would be detrimental to flora or fauna under the shower, or draining away from a shower. Runoff from a shower must not directly drain into a stream or body of water and must first be absorbed into the ground. Biodegradable soap and all-natural ingredient toothpaste or biodegradable toothpaste must be used and can be disposed of in an area away from the camp and into the ground, never into a body of water.

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Human Waste Management Human waste, especially urine, have been found to contain traces of many chemicals, medicine and other compounds, linked to a wide array of environmental ailments, including interference with the reproductive process of various species. Human waste such as excrement also have the potential to introduce excess nutrients to an eco-system, thereby affecting the balance of the sensitive Arctic environment. With this in mind, contamination of a site with human waste should be avoided. Best Practices: Urination and defecation, as well as toilet paper and personal wipes, should be contained in specifically designed bags, such as WAG bags. These individual bags will solidify the waste, remove odours, and accelerate bacterial break down. Used bags are then to be safely stored in designated waste containers, and removed from the site upon vacation for appropriate disposal in a landfill. Unsustainable Practices: The use of latrines, portable composting toilets, or holes dug in the soil or snow should be avoided. Bacterial breakdown will indeed take much longer in the Arctic than in any other environment. Additionally, such practices do not prevent soil and water contamination with the chemicals, medicines and other compounds found in human waste. It is also evident that such practices will leave substantial traces of human presence for extended periods of time.

Organic Waste Management The disposal of organic waste, such as food waste, in an Arctic environment may result in the addition of excess nutrients to the eco-system, and thus, may result in adverse effects on the environment. No organic waste should be released into the environment. Best Practices: Each individual should endeavour to minimize waste from food by ensuring adequate portions based on nutritional needs. Any organic waste should be packed in biodegradable, non-paper bags, and then be stored in designated waste containers. Such containers should later be removed from the site upon vacation, and disposed of in a designated landfill. Unsustainable Practices: The disposal of organic waste in the environment is not encouraged. As with human waste, bacterial breakdown will take longer in the Arctic than other environments. Such practices will also leave substantial traces of human presence for extended periods of time.

Waste Water Management WILDERNESS GUIDE MANUAL • CANADA PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WILDERNESS GUIDES AND INSTRUCTORS INC.

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This section only covers the management of grey water, namely water used in the preparation of foods, washing of clothes and dishes, or for personal hygiene if applicable. It does not refer to black water as sustainable human waste and organic waste management practices do not involve the use of water. Best Practices: Water used in the preparation of food, in the washing of dishes or clothing, or any other type of water containing organic particles should be strained before being disposed. The resulting water should be disposed of at least 100 metres away from any body of water. Organic waste removed from the water should be managed as per the Organic Waste Management Section. Unsustainable Practices: The disposal of waste water not previously strained should be avoided. The disposal of waste water, whether strained or not, should also be avoided in, or in the proximity of, any body of water whatsoever.

General Waste Management This section applies to all other non-organic, non-human and non-water wastes, including but not limited to plastic, containers, packaging, oil, fuel etc… Best Practices: No waste whatsoever should be disposed of in the Arctic environment. As a result, all waste must be stored in designated containers, and removed from the site upon vacation for disposal in a landfill. Unsustainable Practices: The burning or burying of waste must be avoided.

Local Area Travel Soil and vegetation damage, direct pollution, and disturbances to wildlife, along with long-term impact, including greenhouse gas emissions, should be avoided. Best Practices: The best method of transportation for local travel is by foot. Travel should be conducted on rocky terrain whenever possible. Acceptable Practices: If travel must be conducted on non-rocky terrain, members of the expedition should trek over a wide area as to prevent repetitive damage on the perma-

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SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS frost or vegetation. As an alternative, travel by air or boat/ship may be considered. Unsustainable Practices: The use of ATV’s or 4x4 vehicles must be avoided due to their devastating impact on the permafrost and vegetation.

Wildlife Management Polar bears are an important consideration in an Arctic environment, as they may actively hunt humans for food. Grizzly bears and black bears may also be present at lower latitudes, although they typically do not actively hunt humans. Several steps should therefore be taken in order to avoid direct conflicts, and thus, the possibility of having to shoot a bear. Best Practices: Bears have a highly developed sense of smell. Any type of smell or scent on humans and on the camp site should therefore be minimized. Waste should be managed and stored away from sleeping quarters as per the Human Waste Management, Organic Waste Management, Waste Water Management, and General Waste Management Sections. Dry foods, versus fresh foods and meats should be selected. Re-hydrating food with boiling water versus cooking on an open fire is also preferable. The use of scented cosmetics should be avoided. Colognes and perfumes should be banned. Soaps, shampoos, deodorants and toothpastes should be unscented whenever possible. Human odours should also be avoided through excellent hygiene practices, including the mandatory use of unscented deodorants or salt crystals. Sanitary napkins should be handled like any other waste product, and used sanitary napkins should never be stored in sleeping quarters. In order to prevent bears from entering the camp site, the whole perimeter of the camp site should be fenced with an electrical fence. Any bears spotted in the vicinity of the site should be scared away by any available nonlethal means, including the discharge of firearms or noise makers. Polar bear migrations should also be taken into consideration at the planning stage of the expedition. Other wildlife, such as foxes, wolves, muskoxen, caribou, wolverine, lemming, snowshoe hare, typically do not present a danger to humans, as long as interaction is avoided. No wildlife should ever be fed, and any interaction should be avoided. Unsustainable Practices: Destroying bears as a method of preventing conflicts with humans should be used only as a last resort, as preserving wildlife is an integral part of


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environmentally sustainable practices.

Insect Management Best Practices: Mosquitoes and black flies are attracted to dark colours as they reflect heat. They are also attracted to scents. As a result, clothing should be light coloured to avoid attracting the insects, and the use of fragrance free soaps and deodorants should be encouraged. Skin exposure should be limited as much as possible, with pants tucked in socks, and shirts tucked in pants (the use of shorts is discouraged). Loose layered clothing should be selected, and loose weave technical fabrics should be avoided as they will allow insect bites through the fabric. Full insect suits/nets should be worn for best protection. Planning an expedition in September may also minimize insect nuisance, which is usually worse at high latitudes at the beginning of summer. Unsustainable Practices: The use of DEET is strongly discouraged as this chemical compound is a carcinogen with severely adverse effects on the environment. DEET will prevent insects from biting, but it will not prevent them from landing on exposed skin and in orifices. Additionally, the effects of DEET will decrease after 45 to 120 minutes depending on the concentration; this will require frequent re-applications, and make DEET impractical for protection against insects.

Dismantling Camp Dismantling camp should essentially consist of packing out everything that was packed in. This includes all human waste, organic waste and other waste, with the exception of strained grey water as per the Waste Water Management Section. Nothing should be left behind, including wood, paper, bones or any other material or substance not originally present on the site. The goal is to leave the camp site as pristine as it was originally, without any trace of a human presence.

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Environmental Impact Self Assessment This questionnaire will allow you to assess whether your practices meet sustainable environmental standards outlined in this guide. Please select one answer only for each question. 1.

With respect to the preparation of the expedition:

A. You have designated a Team Leader, responsible for the briefing and compliance of all members of the expeditions with sustainable environmental practices. (10 points) B. You have not designated a Team Leader, but members of the expeditions have been made aware of the sustainable environmental practices contained in this guide. (5 points) C. You have not designated a Team Leader, and members of the expeditions have not been briefed about sustainable environmental practices. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 2.

With respect to equipment and clothing, you intend to:

A. Bring adequate clothing for the Arctic, in order to avoid reliance on artificial sources of heat or to prevent overheating, and use good quality, reliable equipment designed to last for many more expeditions. (10 points) B. Bring regular clothing not necessarily designed to protect against the elements and/or equipment not designed to be durable. (0 points) C. Pack light as far as clothing is concerned, as you will be using alternate sources of heat, and use disposable equipment, or equipment designed to last only for this expedition. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 3. A. B. C. D. 4.

How will you reach the site of the expedition? By air or by sea. (10 points) By foot. (5 points) By ATV or 4x4 vehicle. (0 points) None of the above. (0 points) How do you intend to select your base/camp site?

A. We will look for a flat, rocky area, without vegetation, away from any wildlife corridor, and within walking distance from a water source. (10 points) B. We will look for a flat, rocky area, without vegetation, away from any wildlife corridor, but not within walking distance from a water source. (5 points) C. We will select a site that is most convenient for us, whether it is flat, rocky, and/or covered with vegetation, and/or whether it interferes with a wildlife corridor, or is in proximity of a body of water. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points)


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SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS 5.

SECTION 6

How will you set up your camp?

A. We will set small tents on rocky areas as needed. (10 points) B. We will set small tents on vegetation as needed, and will rotate the tents every day. (5 points) C. We will set temporary structure designed to accommodate our whole party. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 6.

What type of food will you be using, and how will you be preparing it?

A. We will use dehydrated foods, as per our nutritional needs, prepared with water heated on fuel or propane stoves. (10 points) B. We will eat as much dehydrated food as we want, even if our food intake exceeds our nutritional needs, and/or we will eat fresh foods and meat, prepared on fuel or propane stoves. (5 points) C. We will prepare fresh foods and meats on open fires. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 7. A. B. C. D.

How will you obtain drinking water? We will use water filters. (10 points) We will use water purification tablets. (5 points) We will boil water and/or bring our own water supply. (0 points) None of the above. (0 points)

8.

How will you ensure you maintain a high level of personal hygiene?

A. We will use wipes whenever possible, as well as biodegradable fluoride -free toothpaste. (10 points) B. We will perform sponge baths with biodegradable soap whenever necessary, and/or use regular toothpaste. (5 points) C. We will find a way to take showers as needed. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 9.

How do you intend to go to the bathroom?

A. We will use WAG bags. (10 points) B. We will use WAG bags whenever possible and while at camp, but we will urinate in the wild whenever practical. (5 points) C. We will use a latrine, or a hole in the ground, or some type of compost toilets. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 10.

How will you deal with organic wastes?

A. We will pack them, and take them with us when we leave, like everything else. (10 points) B. We will burn them. (0 points) C. We will bury them in the ground or leave them somewhere in the area. (0 points)

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SECTION 6

SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS D. None of the above. (0 points) 11.

How will you handle grey water, or waste water from cleaning dishes, washing clothes, or personal hygiene?

A. We will strain all organic matters from the water, pack the organic wastes, and drain the remaining water away from our living quarters, and at least 100 metres away from any body of water. (10 points) B. We will strain all organic matters from the water, pack the organic wastes, and drain the remaining water wherever is we can, even if it is close to, or in a body of water. (5 points) C. We will get rid of the waste water without draining it first, and/or in proximity of a body of water. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 12.

How will you handle all other waste, such as packaging, containers, bones etc…?

A. We will pack all wastes and take them with us upon leaving camp for proper disposal in a designated landfill. (10 points) B. We will burn all organic waste, and take the rest of the refuse with us upon vacating the camp. (0 points) C. We will bury some or all of the wastes as we cannot really take them with us. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 13.

How will you travel locally?

A. We will travel by foot over rocky terrain. (10 points) B. We will travel by foot over vegetation, with our group spread over a wide area, or we will travel by air and/or sea. (5 points) C. We will travel by ATV and/or 4x4 vehicle. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 14.

How will you handle wildlife, more specifically polar bears?

A. We will place an electric fence around the camp, and minimize all smells that could attract bears, including food, cosmetics, refuse and human scents. (10 points) B. We will place an electric fence around the camp, but will not really be able to minimize smells. (5 points) C. We will carry firearms so we can shoot any bear that gets too close to camp. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points) 15.

How will you manage insects?

A. We will use insect suits/nets. (10 points) B. We will use a combination of nets and insect repellent containing DEET. (5 points) C. We will primarily use DEET. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points)


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SUSTAINABILITY: ARCTIC REGIONS 16.

SECTION 6

How will you dismantle the camp?

A. We will pack out everything we packed in, no exception. (10 points) B. We will pack out almost everything, with the exception of natural items such as wood or paper. (5 points) C. We will pack out what we can, and leave the rest behind. (0 points) D. None of the above. (0 points)

Please add the listed points for each answer (remember, only one answer per question). A score of 120 or above confirms that your practices will generally comply with the sustainable environmental guidelines outlined in this guide. As a result, you may be confident that your expedition will have a limited impact on the environment. The closer your score is to 160, the more compliant and the most environmentally sustainable your expedition will be. Any score below 120 means that your expedition will have an impact on the environment, and will not meet many of the fundamental sustainable environmental guidelines listed in this guide.

6-28


SECTION 6


SUPPLIER LIST Extreme Cold Parkas Canada Goose http://www.Canada-Goose.com Extreme Cold Footwear Sorel Boots http://www.sorel.com Outdoor Equipment Mountain Equipment Co-Op http://www.mec.ca Freeze-Dried Food Backpacker’s Pantry http://www.backpackerspantry.com/ High Protein Dog Food Innova Evo http://www.naturapet.com Water Filters Katadyn http://www.katadyn.com Biodegradable Soaps and Fluoride-free Toothpaste Mountain Equipment Co-Op http://www.mec.ca WAG Bag and Portable Dry Toilet Systems http://www.thepett.ca/products/wag.html Portable Electrical Fences http://www.gallagher.ca/fence_components.aspx http://www.udap.com/bearshock.htm http://www.waterstrider.com/bear-repellent-portable-electric-fence.htm Bear Resistant Containers Garcia Machines http://www.backpackerscache.com Expedition Cases Pelican Cases http://www.pelican.ca


6-29


6-30

SECTION 6


LIST OF REFERENCES

BC Ministry of Environment. “Land Tenure Purpose and Application Fees.” gov.bc.ca. Province of British Columbia, 3 Oct. 2008. Web. 16 Feb. 2010.

Department of Community Services. “Minimum Wage and Minimum Wage Regulation.” community.gov.yk.ca. Government of Yukon, 3 Mar. 2010. Web. 31 Mar. 2010.

BC Ministry of Environment. “Land Use Operational Policy: Adventure Tourism.” gov.bc.ca. Province of British Columbia, 15 Oct. 2009. Web. 14 Feb. 2010.

Department of Education. “Trade School Registration.” education.gov.yk.ca. Government of Yukon, 18 Jan. 2008. Web. 31 Mar. 2010.

BC Ministry of Environment. “Park Use Permit and Resource Use Permit Fees.” gov.bc.ca. Province of British Columbia, 1 Oct. 2004. Web. 17 Feb. 2010.

Department of Justice. “Business Names - Business Name Registration.” justice.gov.nt.ca. Government of the Northwest Territories, 22 Feb. 2012. Web. 22 Feb. 2012.

BC Ministry of Environment. “Permit and Authorization Service Bureau.” gov.bc.ca. Province of British Columbia, 2010. Web. 14 Feb. 2010.

Department of Justice. “Business Corporations - Extraterritorial Registration.” justice.gov.nt.ca. Government of the Northwest Territories, 22 Feb. 2012. Web. 22 Feb. 2012.

BC Ministry of Finance. Corporate Registry: Fee Schedule. Victoria: Province of British Columbia, 2010. Web. 1 Feb. 2010.

Department of Justice. “Business Corporations - Incorporation.” justice.gov.nt.ca. Government of the Northwest Territories, 22 Feb. 2012. Web. 22 Feb. 2012.

BC Ministry of Finance. “PST and MRDT Guide for Accommodation Providers).” sbr.gov.bc.ca. Province of British Columbia, March 2013. Web. 1 Apr. 2013.

Department of Justice. “Business Names and Partnerships Partnership Registration.” justice.gov.nt.ca. Government of the Northwest Territories, 22 Feb. 2012. Web. 22 Feb. 2012.

BC Ministry of Finance. “Small Business Guide to Provincial Sale Tax (PST).” sbr.gov.bc.ca. Province of British Columbia, April 2013. Web. 1 Apr. 2013.

Education, Culture, and Employment. “Guide to Employment Standards”. http://www.ece.gov.nt.ca/Divisions/Labour/ PC_Guide_to_Employment_Standards.htm. Government of the Northwest Territories. Feb. 2011. Web. 22 Feb. 2012

BC Ministry of Finance. “Tax Bulletin: Municipal and Regional District Tax.” sbr.gov.bc.ca. Province of British Columbia, January 2010. Web. 29 Jan. 2010. BC Ministry of Transportation. “Applications - New Licences.” gov.bc.ca. Province of British Columbia, 2010. Web. 14 Feb. 2010. BC Ministry of Transportation. “Commercial Vehicle Safety and Enforcement.” gov.bc.ca. Province of British Columbia, 2010. Web. 14 Feb. 2010.

Government of Canada. Canada National Parks Act. Ottawa: Queen’s Printer, 2000. Web. 7 Feb. 2010. Government of Canada. Customs Act. Ottawa: Queen’s Printer, 2000. Web. 1 Apr. 2013. Government of Canada. Excise Tax Act. Ottawa: Queen’s Printer, 2010. Web. 1 Apr. 2013. Government of Canada. Firearms Act. Ottawa: Queen’s Printer, 2000. Web. 7 Feb. 2010.

Canada Revenue Agency. “General Information for GST/HST Registrants.” cra-arc.gc.ca. Government of Canada, 1 Jan. 2008. Web. 12 Feb. 2010.

Government of Canada. Immigration and Refugee Protection Act. Ottawa: Queen’s Printer, 2000. Web. 1 Apr. 2013.

Cloutier, Ross. Legal Liability and Risk Management in Adventure Tourism. Kamloops: Bhudak Consultants, 2008. Print.

Government of the Northwest Territories. Business Corporations Act. Yellowknife: Queen’s Printer, 1996. Web. 22 Feb. 2012.

Consumer Protection BC. “Travel: Apply for a Licence.” ConsumerProtectionBC.ca. Province of British Columbia, 2008. Web. 12 Feb. 2010.

Government of the Northwest Territories. Employment Standards Act. Yellowknife: Queen’s Printer, 2007. Web. 22 Feb. 2012.

Consumer Protection Branch. Fee Schedule: Travel Agents and Travel Wholesalers. Victoria: Province of British Columbia, 2010. Web. 15 Feb. 2010.

Government of the Northwest Territories. Employment Standards Regulations. Yellowknife: Queen’s Printer, 2008. Web. 22 Feb. 2012.

Environment Yukon. “Licensing of Wilderness Tourism Operators.” environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca. Government of Yukon, 13 Jan. 2010. Web. 21 Mar. 2010.

Government of the Northwest Territories. Partnerships Act. Yellowknife: Queen’s Printer, 1988. Web. 22 Feb. 2012.

Department of Community Services. “Corporate Affairs.” community.gov.yk.ca. Government of Yukon, 22 Mar. 2010. Web. 31 Mar. 2010.

Government of the Northwest Territories. Tourism Act. Yellowknife: Queen’s Printer, 2007. Web. 22 Feb. 2012. Government of the Northwest Territories. Wildlife Act. Yellowknife: Queen’s Printer, 1988. Web. 22 Feb. 2012.

Government of the Northwest Territories. Workers Compensation Act. Yellowknife: Queen’s Printer, 2007. Web. 22 Feb. 2012. Government of Yukon. Business Corporations Act. Whitehorse: Queen’s Printer, 2002. Web. 3 Mar. 2010. Government of Yukon. Employment Standards Act. Whitehorse: Queen’s Printer, 2002. Web. 3 Mar. 2010. Government of Yukon. Park and Land Certainty Act. Whitehorse: Queen’s Printer, 2002. Web. 3 Mar. 2010. Government of Yukon. Partnership and Business Names Act. Whitehorse: Queen’s Printer, 2002. Web. 3 Mar. 2010. Government of Yukon. Trade School Regulation Act. Whitehorse: Queen’s Printer, 2002. Web. 3 Mar. 2010. Government of Yukon. Wilderness Tourism Licensing Act. Whitehorse: Queen’s Printer, 1999. Web. 3 Mar. 2010. Government of Yukon. Wildlife Act. Whitehorse: Queen’s Printer, 2008. Web. 3 Mar. 2010. Government of Yukon. Workers Compensation Act. Whitehorse: Queen’s Printer, 2008. Web. 3 Mar. 2010. Highways and Public Works. “National Safety Code.” hpw.gov.yk.ca. Government of Yukon, 15 Feb. 2008. Web. 21 Mar. 2010. Highways and Public Works. “Bus Permits.” hpw.gov.yk.ca. Government of Yukon, 29 Feb. 2008. Web. 21 Mar. 2010. Industry Canada. “NUANS.” nuans.com. Government of Canada, 9 Oct. 2009. Web. 31 Mar. 2010. Industry, Tourism, and Investment. “Tourism Licensing in the Northwest Territories: A Guide for Tourism Operators”. http://www.iti.gov.nt.ca/publications/2011/tourismparks/ TourismOperatorsLicensingManual.pdf. Government of the Northwest Territories. Feb. 2011. Web. 22 Feb. 2012 One Stop BC Business Registry. “Doing Business in BC.” BCBusinessRegistry.ca. Province of British Columbia, 2010. Web. 14 Feb. 2010. Porcupine Caribou Management Board. “Health.” Taiga.net/ pcmb. Taiga Net. 2010. Web. 2 Feb. 2010. Private Career Training Institutions Agency (of British Columbia). Fee Schedule. Victoria: PCTIA, December 2006. Web. 15 Feb. 2010. Province of British Columbia. Business Corporations Act. Victoria: Queen’s Printer, 2010. Web. 2 Feb. 2010. Province of British Columbia. Business Practices and Consumer Protection Act. Victoria: Queen’s Printer, 2010. Web. 12 Feb. 2010. Province of British Columbia. Employment Standards Act. Victoria: Queen’s Printer, 2010. Web. 2 Feb. 2010. Province of British Columbia. Employment Standard Regulations. Victoria: Queen’s Printer, 2010. Web. 2 Feb. 2010. Province of British Columbia. Land Act. Victoria: Queen’s Printer, 2010. Web. 12 Feb. 2010.

Province of British Columbia. Passenger Transportation Act. Victoria: Queen’s Printer, 2010. Web. 2 Feb. 2010. Province of British Columbia. Private Career Training Institutions Act. Victoria: Queen’s Printer, 2010. Web. 2 Feb. 2010. Province of British Columbia. Wildlife Act. Victoria: Queen’s Printer, 2010. Web. 2 Feb. 2010. Province of British Columbia. Workers Compensation Act. Victoria: Queen’s Printer, 2010. Web. 2 Feb. 2010. Small Business BC. “Legal Requirements: Checklist for Starting Your Business.” SmallBusinessBC.ca. Province of British Columbia, 2009. Web. 14 Feb. 2010. WorkSafeBC. “Working with WorkSafeBC: An Overview.” WorkSafeBC.ca. Province of British Columbia, 2009. Web. 14 Feb. 2010.

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PAWGI Wilderness Guide Manual: Canada

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