OV00

3OV_Cover_3OV Cover 6/14/12 11:08 AM Page 1

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

HANDBOOK


Third Edition

HANDBOOK

Nondestructive Testing Overview

Third Edition • Volume 10

Volume 10

Nondestructive Testing Overview Technical Editor Gary L. Workman Editor Patrick O. Moore

®

41 D 19 NDE FOU

®

American Society for Nondestructive Testing ISBN 978-1-57117-187-0

41 D 19 NDE FOU

American Society for Nondestructive Testing


Third Edition

HANDBOOK

Volume 10

Nondestructive Testing Overview Technical Editor Gary L. Workman Editor Patrick O. Moore

®

41

19 NDED

FOU

American Society for Nondestructive Testing

Copyright © 2012 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING, INCORPORATED All rights reserved. ASNT is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT. IRRSP, Level III Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, NDT Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, The NDT Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing. ACCP, ASNT, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing. American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Incorporated 1711 Arlingate Lane PO Box 28518 Columbus, OH 43228-0518 (614) 274-6003; fax (614) 274-6899 www.asnt.org

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nondestructive testing overview / technical editor, Gary L. Workman ; editor, Patrick O. Moore. -- 3rd ed. p. cm. -- (Nondestructive testing handbook ; v. 10) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-57117-187-0 (alk. paper) 1. Nondestructive testing. 2. Engineering inspection. I. Workman, Gary L. II. Moore, Patrick O. III. American Society for Nondestructive Testing. IV. Series: Nondestructive testing handbook (3rd ed.) ; v. 10. TA418.2.N65 2012 620.1'127--dc23 2012017874

Errata Errata if available for this printing may be obtained from ASNT’s Web site, , or as hard copy by mail, free on request from ASNT at the address above.

first printing 06/12

Published by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

President’s Foreword

It is often said that the world is changing at a rapid pace, and this couldn’t be truer than with respect to technology. Our profession of nondestructive testing and the means by which the various methods and techniques are applied has seen significant change and new applications in recent years. Even as our team of subject matter experts compiled the informative sections of this publication, new and emerging technologies have arisen and are being refined for application in industry. It is refreshing to know that we as NDT professionals have a staple resource that we can turn to in answering the day-to-day questions and satisfying the needs of industry. The NDT Handbook has been the marquee of resource for our industry. The dedication of unselfish volunteers and professionals who step forward makes it possible for publications like this to serve as the benchmark for NDT. Our society continues to be a mission based society. With the rapidity of technological advance, it is important that publications such as this one truly contribute to making the world a safer place through the advancement of NDT.

The knowledge herein will be shared by not only the front line technician but also engineers and researchers, by not only those interested in the broad profession but also those in a narrow specialty. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the personnel that served as contributors, editors and reviewers for making this edition possible. As you are all aware, ASNT is a volunteer society and the effort that is required to see a result such as this is often challenging. The volunteers of ASNT have met this challenge for over a half century, and the names of those who have contributed to the development and continued improvement of the NDT Handbook are etched into the foundation of ASNT. The handbooks, their media and arangement in which the information is shared with the NDT community, continue to evolve as fast as the technology that the books record. It is our goal to continue to meet the needs of our members in a timely manner. Robert Potter ASNT President, 2011-2012


iii

Foreword

Aims of a Handbook The volume you are holding in your hand is the tenth in the third edition of the Nondestructive Testing Handbook. In the beginning of each volume, ASNT has stated the purposes and nature of the NDT Handbook series. Handbooks exist in many disciplines of science and technology, and certain features set them apart from other reference works. A handbook should ideally provide the basic knowledge necessary for an understanding of the technology, including both scientific principles and means of application. The third edition of the NDT Handbook provides this knowledge through method specific volumes. The typical reader may be assumed to have completed a few years of college toward a degree in engineering or science and has the background of an elementary physics or mechanics course. Additionally, this volume allows for computer based media that enhances all levels of education and training. Standards, specifications, recommended practices and inspection procedures are discussed for instructional purposes, but at a level of generalization that is illustrative rather than comprehensive. Standards writing bodies take great pains to ensure that their

iv


documents are definitive in wording and technical accuracy. People writing contracts or procedures should consult the actual standards when appropriate. The NDT Handbook is widely used for inspector training and qualification, yet its scope serves a broader audience, academic and industrial. Noninspectors use it, too. Those who design qualifying examinations or study material for them draw on ASNT handbooks as a quick and convenient way of approximating the body of knowledge. Committees and individuals who write or anticipate questions are selective in what they draw from any source. The parts of a handbook that give scientific background, for instance, may have little bearing on a practical examination except to provide the physical foundation to assist handling of more challenging tasks. Other parts of a handbook are specific to a certain industry. The NDT Handbook provides a collection of perspectives on its subject to broaden its value and convenience to the nondestructive testing community. The present volume is a worthy addition to the third edition. The editors, ASNT staff, contributors and reviewers worked together to bring the project to completion. For their scholarship and dedication, I thank them all. Richard H. Bossi Handbook Development Director

Preface

ASNT’s Nondestructive Testing Handbook continues to include a broad range of techniques and applications, as shown in this final volume of the third edition. The primary intention in this NDT Overview volume is to draw on the very extensive and in-depth information contained in the entire edition and to bring together the core information into one volume. Thus this volume is able to provide key information to allow scientists and engineers to make the best choices across the range of NDT methods. I was chairman of ASNT’s Handbook Development Committee from 1996 through 2007. Those years saw the publication of the first seven volumes of the third edition. Hundreds of experts contributed, and it was my privilege to meet the volume coordinators and editors, the finest minds in our technology. Many NDT concepts that were primarily research topics for the second edition and some third edition volumes have now matured into well defined applications. This volume offers up-to-date techniques for signal processing techniques as well as for a broad range of applications in industries

such as welding, energy, petroleum and aerospace. The series benefits from international contributions, providing a larger knowledge base for nondestructive testing worldwide. This NDT Overview reflects changes in the way inspections are performed because of advances in computer technology. These instruments and techniques have improved data collection and analysis, both in the laboratory and in the field. These advances in technology also provide improved imaging capability and better verification of measurements with theory. This volume represents the work of many in the field who were able to contribute their time and effort to provide latest state-of-the-art information. In addition, volunteers were able to review and return comments in short order. We are indebted to both groups for bringing this volume to publication. We also wish to express our gratitude to ASNT staff for their thoroughness, diligence and timeliness in preparing this volume for publication. Gary L. Workman Technical Editor


v

Editor’s Preface

The book you are holding is the latest in a series of attempts to do something almost impossible: in a single volume to encapsulate the technology of nondestructive testing (NDT).

First Edition, 1959 Three years after its founding, the American Industrial Radium and X-Ray Society’s president, Maynard Evans, appointed a Radiographer’s Handbook Committee, authorized to prepare an applications manual for distribution free to members. In 1951, the proposed handbook on radiography was folded into plans for an NDT manual covering radiographic, ultrasonic and magnetic methods. The change in content echoed the change of society’s name to the Society for Nondestructive Testing. In 1955, the Board of Directors agreed to fund work on the Handbook of NDT. Robert McMaster was appointed editor. The book was expected to contain 500 pages, divided into sections devoted to major fields of nondestructive testing. Within each section, separate chapters covering separate methods were to be written by individual authors. In 1958, the newly organized Technical Council was given six primary functions, including: “To conduct a continuing review of the Handbook of Nondestructive Testing, directed at the revision of subsequent editions.” The book’s nearly 2000 pages would not fit in a single cover, so it was published in two volumes, in 1959.

Second Edition, 1982-1996 The second edition was published in a series of volumes appearing from 1982 to 1996. The capstone was the edition’s tenth volume, NDT Overview. NDT Overview was composed almost entirely of material that had appeared in the previous volumes. Some references had been updated; some explanations were abridged; and a comprehensive, multimethod glossary was included. NDT Overview volume soon found its audience: practitioners and students who needed a comprehensive treatment of all methods. These readers would turn to method volumes for details about specialties.

Third Edition, 1998-2012 The third edition’s NDT Overview improves over the second edition’s in several ways. 1. The introduction’s treatment of measurement units is more detailed and comprehensive. 2. There is a bibliography of NDT history, 15 pages that list publications, an authoritative place for a technology historian to start. 3. References are updated since 1996, just as the third edition has updated the second. 4. The method chapters are updated to reflect new techniques and technologies — in particular, advances made possible by digital processing and imaging. This change is conspicuous in the chapters on the visual, radiographic, ultrasonic and strain measurement methods. 5. The glossary in particular is updated and expanded. The text in each method chapter is not merely a revision of the second edition NDT Overview but has been completely recreated from third edition files. Finally, and more than before, the volume’s content is selected and edited with an eye toward practicality. The book can help a Level III who specializes in one method and may be confronted by a new inspection problem to determine what the other methods offer. Also, the examinee who studies for general NDT qualification will find much of the body of knowledge here, in one book. (Such learners need other resources, of course, in materials science and basic physics.) For these reasons, nearly everyone who practices NDT needs this book. It has been an honor to work with Gary Workman on this volume, and a pleasure to collaborate again with the various chapter coordinators. Most of them were contributors or editors in creating the original method volumes over the course of 16 years. It was also a pleasure to receive help and encouragement from ASNT staff, in particular Timothy Jones (senior manager, publications) for administrative support and Hollis Humphries (technical publications supervisor) for graphics and editing at every stage of production. Patrick O. Moore NDT Handbook Editor

vi


Acknowledgments

This book is made from the preceding nine volumes of the third edition, and it is impractical to list the hundreds of contributors and reviewers. All chapter coordinators and contributors are also reviewers but are listed once, as contributors.

Handbook Development Committee Michael W. Allgaier, Mistras Group Richard H. Bossi, Boeing Research and Technology Lisa Brasche, Iowa State University James R. Cahill, GE Sensing and Inspection Technologies Robert E. Cameron John S. Cargill, Aerospace Structural Integrity Nat Y. Faransso, KBR Gary Heath, All Tech Inspection Dietmar F. Henning, Level III Service Eric v.K. Hill, AURA Vector Consulting James W. Houf, American Society for Nondestructive Testing Morteza K. Jafari, Fugro South Timothy E. Jones, American Society for Nondestructive Testing Doron Kishoni, Business Solutions USA Richard D. Lopez, John Deere Technology and Innovation Xavier P.V. Maldague, University Laval George A. Matzkanin, Texas Research Institute Charles H. Mazel, BlueLine NDT Ronnie K. Miller, Mistras Group Scott D. Miller David G. Moore, Sandia National Laboratories Patrick O. Moore, American Society for Nondestructive Testing Robert F. Plumstead, Municipal Testing Laboratory Frank J. Sattler, Sattler Consultants Todd E. Sellmer, Washington TRU Solutions Roderic K. Stanley, NDE Information Consultants Kenneth A. Starry, IVC Technologies Satish S. Udpa, Michigan State University Mark F.A. Warchol, Texas Research Institute Glenn A. Washer, University of Missouri — Columbia Gary L. Workman, University of Alabama, Huntsville

Contributors Michael W. Allgaier, Mistras Group Richard H. Bossi, Boeing Research and Technology John K. Keve, AREVE Federal Services Timothy E. Kinsella, Dassault Falcon Jet Doron Kishoni, Business Solutions USA Richard D. Lopez, John Deere Technology and Innovation Xavier P.V. Maldague, University Laval Ronnie K. Miller, Mistras Group David G. Moore, Sandia National Laboratories John W. Newman, Laser Technology Eric I. Schwartz, Trilion Quality Systems Roderic K. Stanley, NDE Information Consultants Kenneth A. Starry, IVC Technologies Marvin W. Trimm, Savannah River National Laboratory John Tyson II, Trilion Quality Systems Lalita Udpa, Michigan State University Satish S. Udpa, Michigan State University Gary L. Workman, University of Alabama, Huntsville

Reviewers James F. Aldridge, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base Michael Burch, Mistras Group Robert E. Cameron John C. Duke, Sr., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Charles W. Eick, Horizon NDT Services Roger W. Engelbart, Boeing Aerospace Gregory W. Good, Ohio State University Trey Gordon, Boeing Research and Technology Eric v.K. Hill, AURA Vector Consulting James W. Houf, American Society for Nondestructive Testing Doron Kishoni, Business Solutions USA Ravindran Krishnamurthy, Southern Inspection Services, Chennai, India Charles P. Longo, American Society for Nondestructive Testing Eugene A. Mechtly, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Steven M. Shepard, Thermal Wave Imaging Flynn Spears, Laser Technology


vii

C Chapter 1. Introduction to Nondestructive Testing . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Part 1. Nondestructive Testing . . . . . . . . 2 Part 2. Management of Nondestructive Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Part 3. Measurement Units for Nondestructive Testing . . . . . . 19 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Chapter 2. Bibliography of Nondestructive Testing History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Nondestructive Testing in General . . . . 32 Visual Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Liquid Penetrant Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Leak Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Infrared and Thermal Testing . . . . . . . . 36 Radiographic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Electromagnetic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Magnetic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Ultrasonic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Acoustic Emission Testing . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Chapter 3. Visual Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 1. Introduction to Visual Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 2. Light and Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 3. Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 4. Direct Visual Testing . . . . . . . . . Part 5. Indirect Visual Testing . . . . . . . . Part 6. Visual Testing of Metals . . . . . . . Part 7. Visual Acceptance Criteria for Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47 48 49 55 63 69 75 87 94

Chapter 4. Liquid Penetrant Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Part 1. Elements of Liquid Penetrant Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Part 2. Liquid Penetrant Testing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Part 3. Emulsification and Removal of Excess Surface Liquid Penetrant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Part 4. Application and Operation of Developers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Part 5. Interpretation of Liquid Penetrant Indications . . . . . . 121 Part 6. Field Techniques for Liquid Penetrant Testing . . . . . . . . . . 127 Part 7. Maintenance of Liquid Penetrant Test Systems . . . . . 131 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

viii


O N T E N T S

Chapter 5. Leak Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 1. Management of Leak Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 2. Selection of Leak Test Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 3. Bubble Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 4. Mass Spectrometer Helium Leak Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 5. Leak Testing with Halogen Tracer Gases . . . . . . Part 6. Other Techniques of Leak Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 7. Leak Testing of Hermetically Sealed Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 8. Other Applications of Leak Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 6. Infrared and Thermal Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 1. Management of Infrared and Thermal Testing . . . . . . . . . . . Part 2. Principles of Infrared and Thermal Testing . . . . . . . . . . . Part 3. Techniques of Infrared and Thermal Testing . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 7. Radiographic Testing . . . . . . . Part 1. Radiographic Principles . . . . . . Part 2. Radiation Sources . . . . . . . . . . . Part 3. Radiographic Imaging . . . . . . . Part 4. Radiographic Techniques . . . . . Part 5. Computed Tomography . . . . . Part 6. Neutron Radiography . . . . . . . Part 7. Radiographic Applications . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

135 136 145 153 156 158 163

167 170 173

175 176 178 187 198 199 200 203 215 221 227 230 232 241

Chapter 8. Electromagnetic Testing . . . . 243 Part 1. Introduction to Electromagnetic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Part 2. Electromagnetic Techniques Other than Eddy Current Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Part 3. Eddy Current Testing . . . . . . . . 253 Part 4. Applications of Electromagnetic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Chapter 9. Magnetic Particle and Flux Leakage Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 1. Introduction to Magnetic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 2. Magnetic Field Theory . . . . . . Part 3. Magnetic Flux and Flux Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 4. Magnetic Flux Leakage Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 5. Electrically Induced Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 6. Magnetic Particle Test Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 7. Ferromagnetic Material Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 8. Types of Magnetizing Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 9. Media and Processes in Magnetic Particle Testing . . . Part 10. Magnetic Testing Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

273 274 276 279 282 286 288 290 293 296 301 311

Chapter 10. Ultrasonic Testing . . . . . . . . 313 Part 1. Management of Ultrasonic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Part 2. Ultrasonic Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Part 3. Scan Data Presentation . . . . . . 326 Part 4. Pulse Echo Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Part 5. Angle Beam Contact Testing . . 341 Part 6. Coupling Media for Contact Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Part 7. Immersion Coupling . . . . . . . . 349 Part 8. Angle Beam Immersion Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Part 9. Multiple-Transducer Ultrasonic Techniques . . . . . . 363 Part 10. Phased Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Part 11. Lamb Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Part 12. Ultrasonic Guided Waves . . . 376 Part 13. Optical Generation and Detection of Ultrasound . . . . 381 Part 14. Electromagnetic Acoustic Transduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Part 15. Air Coupled Transducers . . . . 400 Part 16. Special Purpose Ultrasonic Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Part 17. Ultrasonic Testing of Adhesive Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . 406 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

Chapter 11. Acoustic Emission Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 1. Introduction to Acoustic Emission Technology . . . . . . . Part 2. Noise in Acoustic Emission Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 3. Acoustic Emission Signal Characterization . . . . . . . . . . Part 4. Monitoring of Leakage from Vessels, Tanks and Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 5. Aerial Personnel Lift Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 6. Acoustic Emission Testing of Spheres and Other Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . Part 7. Other Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 8. Acoustic Emission Testing of Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 12. Vibration Analysis . . . . . . . . Part 1. Introduction to Vibration Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 2. Theory of Vibration Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 3. Implementation of Vibration Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 13. Laser Testing: Shearography and Holography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 1. Principles of Optical Laser Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 2. Test Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 3. Stress Loading Techniques . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

415 416 425 429

432 437

439 447 450 454 457 458 460 464 471 473 474 481 486 490

Chapter 14. Alloy Identification . . . . . . . Part 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 2. Techniques for Alloy Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

491 492

Chapter 15. Strain Measurement . . . . . . Part 1. Resistance Strain Gaging . . . . . Part 2. Optical Measurement of Strain and Deformation . . . . Part 3. Fiber Optic Strain Gages . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

501 502

495 500

507 512 513

Chapter 16. Nondestructive Testing Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Figure Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . 594


ix

OV00

Recommend Documents