On Lutes, Tablature and Other Things

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Over Luit, Tablatuur & Toondichters (althans deze uit de Barok die voor dit Instrument Componeerden)

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Lute

(Arab. ‘ ūd ; Fr. luth; Ger. Laute; It. lauto, leuto, liuto; Sp. laúd ). ). A plucked chordophone, made of wood, of Middle Eastern origin ( see ‘Ud ‘Ud)) which flourished throughout Europe from medieval times to the 18th century. Broader, generic uses of the term are discussed in §1. KLAUS WACHSMANN (1), JAMES W. McKINNON, ROBERT ANDERSON (2), IAN HARWOOD, DIANA POULTON/DAVID VAN EDWARDS (3–4), LYNDA SAYCE (5), DIANA POULTON/TIM CRAWFORD (6–8) 1. Te generic term.

In the Hornbostel-Sachs classification system (Sachs and Hornbostel, A1914) the term ‘lute’ covers those ‘composite chordophones’ – string instruments in which a string bearer and a resonator are ‘organically united’ and cannot be separated without destroying the instrument – in which the plane of the string runs parallel with the soundtable ( figs.1 figs.1 and 2). Tis definition excludes harps and zithers but includes pluriarcs (or bow lutes) ( see Gabon Gabon,, fig.2), lyres of various sorts and ‘handle lutes’ proper. Te following excerpt from Hornbostel and Sachs (from the GSJ translation, with minor alterations) shows the classification of handle lutes (for their complete classification of lute types see Chordophone Chordophone): ): 321.3 Handle lutes: the string bearer is a plain handle; subsidiary necks, as e.g. in the Indian prasārinī v īnā are disregarded, as are also lutes with strings distributed over several necks, like the harpo-lyre, and those like the lyre-guitars, in which the yoke is merely ornamental 321.31 Spike lutes: the handle passes diametrically through the resonator 321.311 Spike bowl lutes: the resonator consists of a natural or carved-out bowl – found in Persia [now Iran], India, Indonesia Spike box box lutes or spike spike guitars: the resonator is built up from wood – found in Egypt (rab āb) 321.312 Spike

321.313 Spike tube lutes: the handle passes diametrically through the walls of a tube – found in China, Indochina [now Vietnam] lutes: the handle is attached to or carved from the resonator, like a neck 321.32 Necked lutes bowl lutes (mandolin, theorbo, balalaika) 321.321 Necked bowl box lutes or necked necked guitars: (violin, viol, guitar) NB a lute whose body is built up in the 321.322 Necked box shape of a bowl is classified as a bowl lute

321.33 Tanged lutes: the handle ends within the body resonator Common usage also excludes bowed instruments (such as the violin). However, the HornbostelSachs classification provides suffixes for use with any division of the class of chordophones to indicate the method of sounding; thus, for example, a violin if played with a bow is classified as a





















family (played with a bow) from the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. If the neck clearly passes through the resonator, as it does in the first four examples, the label ‘spiked lute’ applies. But in six cases the handle is ‘attached’, and in this sense the instruments are ‘necked lutes’. However, the examples show that there are several transitional forms to which neither label applies well; hence a third category has been added to the Hornbostel-Sachs classification above, under the code 321.33, for instruments in which, as Hornbostel himself described it, ‘the handle ends within the body’. Sachs ascribed the earliest types to a period from the 4th to the 2nd millennium bce, basing his conclusion on cultural geography. Seen in the perspective of human development, lutes are in any event a comparatively late invention. Because the use of a bow to play string instruments is even more recent – the earliest documentation dates from around the end of the 1st millennium ce – the discussion of ancient lutes in §2 deals exclusively with plucked instruments. 2. Ancient lutes.

Two types of ancient lute are clearly distinguishable: the earlier long-necked lute and the shortnecked lute. Tere is a wide range of di ff erence erence within each type, but the most common features of the long-necked lute are an unfretted, rod-like neck and a small oval or almond-shaped body, which before the advent of wood construction was fashioned from a gourd or tortoise shell. In many early examples where the table is of hide, the neck or spike is attached to it by piercing it a number of times in the manner of stitching. Te strings, usually two, are attached at the lower end of the spike in varying ways and are bound at the top by ligatures from which hang decorative tassels. Pegs were not used until comparatively late in the instrument's history.

Te long-necked lute is now thought (by (b y Turnbull Turnbull and Picken, for example) to have originated among the West Semites of Syria. Turnbull (A1972) has argued convincingly for its earliest appearance being that on two cylinder seals (fig.4 ( fig.4a ) of the Akkadian period (c2370–2110 bce); on one the lute is in the hands of a crouching male who plays while a birdman is brought before a seated god. In contrast to the draped female harpists, the lutenists of early Mesopotamia are men, sometimes shown naked or with animals. None of these instruments has survived, but the lute's popularity is attested by many objects of the Babylonian period. Te Louvre possesses a Babylonia Babylonian n boundary stone, found at Susa, which shows bearded men with bows on their backs playing the lute in the company of such animals as the lion, panther, antelope, horse, sheep, ox, and an ostrich. In the the early 2nd millennium bce the lute is also attested for the Hittite Old Kingdom: a sherd from Alishar Höyük Höyük has preserved the end of a neck with two strings hanging from it. Te lute first appeared in Egypt as a result of Hyksos influence, which opened the country to Western Asiatic ideas. In the New Kingdom (1550–1070 bce) the long-necked lute was o fen represented in banquet scenes, played either by men or women. Te two main types of instrument, with round (usually a tortoise shell) or oval soundbox, appear in a scene now at the British Museum showing details of the frets and soundholes as well as the plectrum. Te earliest Egyptian evidence of the lute to survive is a soundbox now in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, and there is a well-preserved well-pre served instrument from the Teban tomb of the singer Harmose in the Cairo Museum (Dynasty 18, 1550–1320). Te lute had a function in ritual processions such as those depicted in the Luxor temple at the festival of Opet, when a number of players performed together. It appeared more ofen, though, in the chamber groups that featured at court functions and o fficial





















Greco-Roman lutes ( see Pandoura Pandoura), ), which are depicted in a number of Hellenistic sculptures and on late Roman sarcophagi, are comparatively rare. Tey appear to have at least three strings, plucked with the fingers, and a thick unfretted neck. ( Te evidence indicating this last feature, however, may be influenced by the sculpture medium.) One depiction, a terracotta in the Louvre (see fig.4c), shows the body tapering to form the neck in the manner of the short-necked lute. Te surviving representations from Byzantium, most notably a 5th-century mosaic from the former imperial palace of Istanbul and a 6th-century mosaic from a church near Shahhat, Libya, show lutes of the pandoura type.

Te short-necked lute, which is characterized by a wooden body tapering o ff to to form the neck and fingerboard, probably also originated in Asia. Tere are only rare representations of it until the first centuries bce. A number of statuettes and reliefs (see Geiringer, A1927–8, pls.1–3) are preserved from the Gandhara culture of the time, named from an area in north-west India under the influence of Greek civilization; these show short-necked lutes with a pear-shaped body, a frontal string-holder, lateral pegs and four or five strings plucked with a plectrum. Te Sassanid lute or barbat , as shown on a 6th-century silver cup from Kalar Dasht, was of this type. Apparently these instruments are related to those lutes that spread eastwards to China and Japan, as well as to the Arabian ‘ ūd , the immediate ancestor of the European classical lute. 3. Structure of the Western lute.

Te structure of the Western lute evolved gradually away from its ancestor the Arabian ‘ ūd , though some features have remained su fficiently consistent to constitute defining characteristics. Chief among these are: a vaulted back, pear-shaped in outline and more or less semicircular in crosssection, made up of a number of separate ribs; a neck and fingerboard tied with gut frets; a flat soundboard or belly in which is carved an ornate soundhole or ‘rose’; a bridge, to which the strings are attached, glued near the lower end of the soundboard; a pegbox, usually at nearly a right angle to the neck, with tuning-pegs inserted laterally; and strings of gut, usually arranged in paired courses. Te ribs, of which the body is constructed, are thin (typically about 1·5 mm) strips of wood, bent over a mould and glued together edge to edge to form a symmetrical shell. Although the overall sizes of lutes vary considerably, there is much less variation in the thicknesses of their constituent parts, and even very large lutes have ribs of less than 2 mm. Te glue joints between the ribs are reinforced inside with narrow strips of paper or parchment. Many surviving lutes also have five or six strips of, usually, parchment glued round inside the bowl across the line of the ribs. Te number of ribs varies according to date and style from only seven to up to 65, but it is always an odd number because lute backs are built outwards from a single central rib. Many kinds of wood, even sometimes ivory, have been used for the back. Maple and yew were the favoured local woods but exotic woods from South America and East Asia, such as rosewood, kingwood and ebony, were used as they became available in the 16th century. Te extent of their use by 1566 is revealed in the inventory of Raimund Fugger (see Smith, B1980). At the lower end, where these ribs taper together, they are reinforced internally with a strip of so fwood bent to fit, and externally with a capping strip, usually of the same material as the ribs. At the other end the ribs are glued to a block, ofen of sofwood, to which the neck is attached. In most pictures of medieval lutes up to about 1500, as in the early ‘ ūd , the ribs are shown as flowing in a smooth curve into the line of the neck and in these cases the end of the neck itself, suitably rebated, may have formed the block to





















the later two-part construction the joint is a simple glued butt joint, secured with one or more nails driven through the block into the end-grain of the neck. Tis simple joint proved adequate during the remainder of the lute's history. Most surviving lutes from the early 16th century have been re-necked in later styles but iconographical sources reveal that early necks appear most o fen to have been made of a single piece of hardwood such as sycamore or maple to match the body. In later and surviving lutes a fer about 1580, the neck is most o fen veneered in a decorative hardwood, o fen ebony, sometimes striped or inlaid with ivory, on a core of sycamore or other common hardwood. At first, throughout the medieval period and into the Renaissance, necks were semicircular or deeper in cross-section. As the number of courses increased through the 16th and 17th centuries, the necks became correspondingly wider, necessitating a change of le f-hand position to enable stretches across to the bass strings. Tis meant that a thinner neck was more comfortable. Baron (C1727) commented that Johann Christian Hoff mann mann (1683–1750) made the necks of his lutes to fit the hand of their owner, unlike his father Martin Hoff mann mann (1653–1719), who made his necks too thick. Separate fingerboards are ofen not very apparent in pictures of medieval lutes, leading to the supposition that they were either made of boxwood or simply constituted the flat top surface of the neck. Sometimes when there is a marked change of colour between the ‘fingerboard’ and the soundboard, the join occurs so far down the soundboard as to be beyond any possible neck block; a separate fingerboard is therefore structurally impossible. Instead, the change of colour must result from a protective coat of something like varnish. Surviving lutes from the 1580s onwards almost universally have separate ebony fingerboards set flush with the soundboard and, a fer about 1600, usually with separate ‘points’ decorating the joint between the fingerboard and soundboard (fig.5 fig.5). ). Te lutes of Tielke in the 18th century o fen had multiple ‘points’ ‘points’ (see G. G . Hellwig, B1980). Medieval and Renaissance lute fingerboards were usually flat, even the wide chitarrone and theorbo fingerboards, but from about 1700 makers started to give a curve to their fingerboards, helping the lie lie of the frets and making fingering easier. easier. At the back of the top end of the neck a rebate is cut out to form a housing for the pegbox. Tis same design of joint, with or without a reinforcing nail into the end-grain of the neck, was used throughout the history of the lute, as was the basic form of the pegbox: a straight-sided box, closed at the back, open at the front and tapering slightly in both width and depth. However, a fer about 1595 various branches of the lute family also developed di ff erent erent and characteristic pegbox forms in order to accommodate the longer bass strings needed to extend the range of the lute downwards. Slender tapering hardwood tuning-pegs were inserted from the sides. Medieval pegs appear ofen to have been made of boxwood, but later, in the 17th and 18th centuries, fruitwood such as plum seems to have been a preferred material, though these were o fen stained black.

Te soundboard is a flat straight-grained straight-grained sofwood plate, nowadays mostly thought of as Picea abies or Picea excelsa (though historically the types of wood used may have included species of Pinus and Abies) into which is carved an ornamental rose soundhole, whose pattern o fen shows decidedly Arabic influence (see Wells, D1981). However, it is noticeable that iconography does not support a continuous tradition of rose design from the Arabic ‘ūd ; most medieval pictures of lutes feature gothic designs, and the frequency of Arabic patterns in the later surviving lutes may reflect rather the contemporary interest in such designs by artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Dürer. Te soundboard is ofen made from the two halves joined along the centre line, but on larger instru-





















1590s usually had no edging to the soundboard. A fer that, ofen an ebony or hardwood strip was rebated into half the depth of the soundboard edge as a protective measure. Later still, when the fashion for re-using old soundboards was in sway (see Lowe, B1976), a ‘lace’ of parchment or cloth with silver threads was ofen used to wrap the edge, possibly to cover pre-existing wear. Bridge designs went through a slow evolution, particularly in the shape of the decorative ‘ears’ which terminate both ends, but were consistently made of a light hardwood such as pear, plum or walnut, sometimes stained black, and were glued directly to the surface of the soundboard. Teir cross-sectional design was very cleverly arranged arranged to minimize stress at the junction with the thin and flexible soundboard. Holes drilled through the bridge took the strings, which were tied so that they were supported by a loop of the same string rather than by a saddle as in the modern guitar. Tis has a marked eff ect ect on the tone of the instrument, and contributes to the sweetness of the lute's sound.

Te tension of the strings, because they are pulling directly on the soundboard, tends to cause it to distort. Tis is resisted by a number of transverse bars of the same wood as the soundboard, glued on edge across its underside. Tese bars, besides supporting the soundboard, have an important eff ect ect on the sound quality. By dividing the soundboard into a number of sections, each with a relatively high resonant frequency, they cause it to reinforce the upper harmonics produced by a string rather than its fundamental tone. Tis is matched by the strings themselves, which are quite thin compared with those of a modern guitar; a thin string tuned to a certain note produces more high harmonics than a thicker string tuned to the same note. Tus the whole acoustical system of the lute is designed to give a characteristically clear, almost nasal, sound ( see also Acoustics, §II, 8). 8 ). 4. History.

Te European lute derives both in name and form from the Arab instrument known as the ‘Ūd, which means literally ‘the wood’ (either because it had a soundboard of wood as distinct from a parchment skin stretched over the body, or because the body itself was built up from wooden strips rather than made from a hollow gourd). Te Arab ‘ūd was was introduced into Europe into Europe by the Moors during their conquest and occupation of Spain (711–1492). Pictorial evid ence shows Moorish ‘ūd players, players, and 9th- and 10th-century accounts tell of visits of famous players such as Ziry āb to the court of the Andalusian emir ‘Abd al-Rahm ān II (822–52). Te ‘ūd was was not confined to Muslims, however, as is shown by illustrations to the Cantigas de Santa María of Alfonso el Sabio (1221–84) which include players in distinctive Christian costume (fig.6). However, from pictorial and written evidence it is clear that by 1350 what we must now call lutes, since there is no longer any connection with Arab musicians, had spread very widely throughout Europe, even though trading and cultural links with Moorish Spain were not well developed. We need to look elsewhere for a route that would lead to the eventual domination of European lute making by numerous German families who came originally from around the Lech valley region and Bavaria. Bletschacher (B1978) has argued that this was due largely to the royal visits of Friedrich II with his magnificent Moorish Sicilian retinue to the towns in this valley between 1218 and 1237. Te valley was a main north–south trading route across the Alps, with the necessary raw materials growing there in abundance, so it would have been a natural focus for any such development to occur, even more so following the Venetians' capture of Constantinople in 1204 which so greatly increased their trading activities with the Near East. Te ‘ūd is is still in use although it no longer has frets. Over the centuries it has undergone structural changes analogous to those of the lute, and thus di ff ers ers from























pairs, and that at first there were only four such ‘courses’ (fig.7). From the start, lutes were made in widely diff erent erent sizes, and therefore of di ff erent erent pitches. Both pictorial and written evidence point to the use of diff erent erent sized lutes for treble and ground duet performance (see Polk, F1992). During the 15th century a fi fh course was added. Masaccio depicted two five-course lutes in his altarpiece, Virgin and Child (1426; (1426; now in the National Gallery, London). Later, in his De inventione et usu musicae (c1481–3), Tinctoris mentioned a sixth course and there are even tablatures from this period calling for a seven-course lute, though no contemporaneous pictures show one.

Te earliest extant account of structural details for the European lute is in a manuscript of about 1440 written by Henri Arnaut de Zwolle (see Harwood, D1960). Arnaut described both the lute itself and the mould on which it was built, combining the two in the same diagram (fig.8). His design was unmeasured but instead was worked out in terms of geometrical proportion, including the positions of bridge, soundhole and three transverse bars. Almost 200 years later, Mersenne (1636) described the design and construction construction of a lute by remarkably similar methods. By By this time the number of soundboard bars had doubled, but the placing of three of them, as well as that of the soundhole and bridge, corresponds with that given by Arnaut. Tere can be no doubt that there was a well-establish well-established ed tradition of instrument design by geometrical methods, going back to the ‘ūd at at least as far as the 9th and 10th centuries (see Bouterse, D1979). It is perhaps significant that a portrait (1562) of the lute maker Gaspar Tie ff enbrucker enbrucker surrounded by his lutes and other instruments shows him holding a pair of dividers. However, when Arnaut's design is compared to lutes shown in most paintings of the period, it is in fact rather di ff erent, erent, being oddly rounded at the top of the body. Te very long neck he specifies is almost never shown. Tis suggests that, as an enquiring scholar, he may have been given the general principles of design by the lute maker(s) he consulted, but not the exact relationships which determine the precise shape and which may have been regarded as a craf secret. Medieval lutes usually had two circular roses, one large and more or less halfway between the bridge and the neck, as specified by Arnaut, the other much smaller and higher up the body close to the fingerboard. Te large rose was occasionally of the ornate ‘sunken’ variety, o fen with designs similar to some gothic cathedral windows. Tis may have been intentional, for Arnaut calls the rose in his drawing ‘Fenestrum’. Around 1480 there was even a brief fashion for the upper rose to be in the form of a lancet window, and interestingly just such a rose has survived in the clavicytherium now in the RCM, London, which has been dated to about 1480 (see E. Wells: ‘ Te London Clavicytherium’, EMc, vi, 1978, pp.568–71).

Te ‘ūd was, was, and still is, played with a plectrum, and at first the same method was used for the lute (see figs.4 and 5). With this technique it was probably mainly a melodic instrument, playing a single line of music, albeit highly ornate, with perhaps strummed chords at important points. Howe-





















time of special systems of notation known as tablature, into which much of this repertory was transcribed (intabulated). (intabulated). Tere were three main kinds of tablature for the lute, developed in Germany, France and Italy respectively. A fourth early system, ‘Intavolatura ‘Intavolatura alla al la Napolitana’, was also used from time to time. Of the four main types the French may have been the earliest. Te German one was probably written during the lifetime of Conrad Paumann ( c1410–1473), the supposed inventor of the system. Although Tinctoris had mentioned a six-course lute, these first tablatures, and indeed the very names by which the strings of the instrument were known, suggest five courses as still the most usual number at this time. By about 1500 a sixth course was commonly in use, which extended the range of the open strings by another 4th to two octaves. Tis may have been enabled by improvements in string making. Gut was used for all the strings and it was usual on the two or three lowest courses to set one of the pair with a thin string tuned an octave higher, to lend some brilliance to the tone of its thick neighbour. By 1500 1500 the first first written records confirm the existence of several lute-making families in and around Füssen in the Lech valley. Most of the famous names of 16th- and 17th-century lute lute making seem to have originated from around this small area of southern Germany. By 1562 the Füssen makers were sufficiently well established to form a guild with elaborate regulations which have survived (see Bletschacher, B1978, and Layer, B1978). A careful reading of these regulations reveals how much they were predicated on the idea of export. Tey also show an organized tendency to keep the trade within individual families, which resulted in much intermarriage. Tis was a powerful force for continuity which clearly lasted for centuries. However, the number of masters who could set up a workshop in the town was limited to 20, so there was a built-in pressure to emigrate. It was also precisely this area which was devastated first by the Peasants' Revolt of 1525, the war against the Schmalkaldic League (1546–55), and finally by the Tirty Years Years War War which whi ch killed ki lled more than half the population of central Europe. It is hardly surprising that lute makers, who already had international connections, moved away from the area in such numbers. Many settled in northern Italy, no doubt attracted by the country's wealth and fashion but also perhaps by the access to exotic woods imported via Venice. Te tradition of intermarriage meant that they remained together in colonies and did not become much integrated into Italian society. Luca Maler (see Maler Maler)) was active in Bologna from about 1503; by 1530 he was a property owner of considerable substance and had built up an almost industrial scale workshop employing mostly German crafsmen (see Pasqual and Ragazzi, B1998). Te inventory compiled at his death in 1552 lists about 1100 finished lutes and more than 1300 soundboards ready for use; his firm continued trading until 1613. Among several other lute makers in Bologna were marx Unverdorben (briefly) Unverdorben (briefly) and hans Frei. Frei. Te main characteristic of their lutes is a long narrow body of nine or 11 broad ribs





















and Luca Maler's brother, Sigismond, dominated lute making in the city (see To ff olo, olo, B1987). Te name Tieff enbrucker enbrucker was taken from their original village of Tieff enbruck, enbruck, but their instruments are usually signed Die ff opruchar opruchar and regional spellings abound with variants such as Dui ff oprugoprugcar and even Dubrocard. Another branch of the Tie ff enbrucker enbrucker family settled in Padua, including ‘Wendelio ‘W endelio Venere’ Venere’, who has recently been b een discovered d iscovered to be Wendelin Tie ff enbrucker, enbrucker, probably the son of Leonardo L eonardo Tieff enbrucker enbrucker the elder. michael Hartung also Hartung also worked in Padua and may have been taught by Wendelin, although Baron (C1727) stated that he was apprenticed to Leonardo the younger. Te typical body shape of these Venetian and Paduan Pad uan lutes was lutes was less elongated less elongated than than that of Maler's and Frei's instruments, and the shoulders were more curved (fig.10 a, c–f ). ). Te first examples had 11 or 13 ribs, but later the number was increased, a feature associated with, but not exclusive to, the use of yew, which has a brown heartwood and a narrow white sapwood. For purposes of decoration, each rib was cut half light, half dark, which restricted the available width and required a large number of ribs, sometimes totalling 51 and even more. Te yew wood was supplied from the old heartland of lute making in south Germany, and cutting the ribs for Venetian makers became a valuable source of winter employment there (see Layer, B1978).

Te use of geometrical methods of lute design has already been mention mentioned, ed, and it has been found by several writers that the shape of these instruments can be readily reproduced by such means (see Edwards, D1973; D. Abbott and E. Segerman: ‘ Te Geometric Description and Analysis of Instrument Shapes’, FoMRHI Quarterly , no.2, 1976, p.7; Söhne, D1980; Samson, D1981; and Coates, D1985). Tis may account for the similarity in basic form between instruments of diff erent erent sizes and by diff erent erent makers. By comparison with the modern guitar, these early lutes, whether of the Bolognese or Paduan type, are distinguished by the lightness of their construction. Te egg-like shape of the lute body is inherently strong and does not need to be built of very thick materials. Although the total tension of up to 24 gut strings (for later lutes) can be as much as 70–80 kg, the well-barred thin soundboard withstands this pull remarkably well. Tough in the 17th century, as Constantijn Huygens's correspondence makes clear, it was routine to re-bar old lutes as part of their renovation, this may have had more to do with alterations in barring layout than structural weaknesses. Te instruction to tune the top string as high as it will stand without breaking is given in many early lute tutors (though not by Dowland or Mace). If the highest string is lowered for safety's sake much beneath its breaking point, the basses will be either too thick and stiff or, or, if thinner, too slack to produce an acceptable sound. Wire-wound bass strings which could ease this dilemma by increasing the weight without increasing the sti ff ness ness are not known to have been available until after 1650, and were apparently not much used therea fer either. Terefore, as the breaking pitch of a string depends on its length but not on its thickness, the working level of a given instrument is fixed within quite narrow limits.





















number of specifically English pictures of small-bodied long-neck long-necked ed lutes, may indicate a particular English variant (see Forrester, B1994). It should be noted that although all sorts of sizes were available at most times, the general trend from 1600 to 1750 was towards larger instruments for common use. Tus, for example, we might expect Dowland's songs to be accompanied on a lute of about 58 cm string length tuned to a nominal g ' or a', whereas most French Baroque music of the mid-17th century calls for an 11-course lute of about 67 cm with a top string at a nominal f ',', while the lutes used in Germany in the 18th century were mostly 13-course instruments of about 70–73 cm, also with a nominal top string of f '.'. Some of this may represent a drop in the pitch standard, but we must also assume that string makers had managed to improve their products to increase the total range available, since these size changes represent considerable changes in the instruments' requirements. Apart from the development of overwound strings, this increase in range could only have been achieved by increasing the tensile strength of the trebles, by making the thick basses more elastic and flexible or by increasing the density of bass strings, perhaps by the addition of metallic compounds (see Peru ff o, o, D1991). Tere is currently much interest in trying to reproduce these conjectured developments. It is noticeable from written accounts that the cost of strings was remarkably high compared to that of the lutes themselves, leading to the thought that there was more to their manufacture than is now apparent. Although seven-course lutes appear as early as the late 15th century, and Bakfark's apprentice, Hans Timme, wanted to buy an Italian seven-course lute as early as 1556 (see Gombosi, F1935), it was only in the 1580s that they became at all common with the seventh course pitched at either a tone or a 4th below the sixth (see §5 below). Improved strings are conjectured to have popularized this greater range, perhaps providing a better tone and enabling John Dowland, in his contribution to his son Robert's Varietie of Lute Lessons (1610), to recommend a unison sixth course: Secondly, set on your Bases, in that place which you call the sixt string, or γ ut, these Bases must be both of one bignes, yet it hath beene a generall custome (although not so much used any where as here in England) to set a small and a great string together, but amongst learned Musitians that custome is lef, as irregular to the rules of Musicke.

Te same book, reflecting the growing tendency to increase the number of bass strings, included English and continental music for lutes with six, seven, eight and nine courses. Tis only occasionally extended the range to low C ; mostly the extra strings were used to eliminate awkward fingerings resulting from having to stop the seventh course. Tese ‘diapasons’ were usually strung with octaves. Already by the early 1600s the ten-course lute had made its appearance, shown in contemporary illustrations as constructed like its predecessors, with the strings running over a single





















Initially this may have been done to improve the tone of the low basses, but unless stronger treble strings became available at the same time, the pitch level of these longer lutes must have been lower than the older eight-fret instruments. Interestingly, one such lengthened neck survived until quite recently, but when it was ‘restored’ this important source of evidence for the practice was removed. Sometimes extra wooden frets were glued on to the soundboard, an invention which Dowland attributed to the English player Mathias Mason. It is interesting that Dowland should thus report the prevailing fashion in lutes as coming from France, for by his death in 1626 France was the dominant culture musically and was the centre for developments in diff erent erent tunings, starting some time around 1620, which led to the 11-course lute. Lowe (B1986) has suggested that the 11th course may at first have been only an octave string. Te later surviving 11-course lutes mostly appear to be conversions of ten-course instruments, all done in the same way, by making the second course single and adding a treble rider for the top string or ‘chanterelle’ on the top of the normal pegbox treble side. Tis eff ectively ectively gave two extra pegs which were used for the new bass course, but, because the neck was now too narrow, these strings were taken over an extended nut which projected beyond the fingerboard and were fastened to the pegs on the outside of the pegbox. Te famous portrait of Charles Mouton (fig.12) clearly shows that this was obviously not regarded as a stopgap measure. Tis final extra course on the same string-length has o fen been attributed to the invention of wire-wound or overspun strings, first advertised in England by Playford in 1664. However there is distressingly little hard evidence that these were in fact much used and they are not mentioned by either Mace or the Burwell tutor even though both wrote about the choice of strings. As Lowe (B1976) has shown, during the 17th century the French were already buying and converting early 16th-century Bologna lutes, seemingly because of a new aesthetic which valued the antique. Tere are so few surviving lutes with any claim to have been made in France that it is not possible to be sure what their makers were producing by way of new lutes at a time when lute playing was so important to French musical life. One must assume that the French cannot all have been playing on antique instruments. Indeed the inventory of the French maker Jean Desmoulins ( d 1648) 1648) points to a vigorous rate of production since it lists 249 lutes in various stages of construction as well as 14 theorbos both large and small (see Lay, F1996). Only one lute by this maker has survived (Cité de la Musique, Marseilles). Makers working in Italy, where the old tuning held sway, had already addressed the problem of extending the bass range in the 1590s by the expedient of having longer and therefore naturally deeper-sounding strings carried on a separate pegbox. Te theorbo, the orbo, chitarrone, liuto attiorbato and archlute archlu te all had extended straight-sided pegboxes pegboxes carved from a solid piece of wood set into the neck housing at a very shallow angle and carrying at their ends a separate small pegbox for these extended bass strings. Te form of all these instruments is very similar, di ff ering ering mainly in the























Spencer, B1976, and Samson, B1977) but was not used much by the French who remained largely loyal to their single-headed lutes. As the author of the Burwell Lute Tutor ( c1670) wrote: ‘All All England hath accepted that Augmentation and ff raunce raunce att first but soone a fer that alteration hath beene condemned by all the french Masters who are returned to theire old fashion keeping onely the small Eleaventh’. He, or she, objected to the length of the longer bass strings and felt that they rang on too much, thereby causing discords in moving bass lines. It was, however, widely used in England and the Netherlands until at least the end of the 17th century. Te apparent thinking behind this form was a desire to avoid the sudden leaps in tone quality between the treble and bass strings which characterize the theorbo and archlute forms. An important tutor for this type of lute Musick's's Monument Monument (1676), was Tomas Mace's Musick (1676), in which it was classed as a French lute; Talbot (c1695), however, called it the ‘English two headed hea ded lute lute’’. For Talbot the ‘French lute’ had 11 courses, with all the strings on a single head. Tere has been some discussion as to the size of these instruments (see Segerman, D1998). Talbot measured the string length of a 12-course instrument of this type as 59·7 cm; iconographical sources show all sizes. To date, six examples of this type have been found with fingered string lengths of between 50 and 75 cm.

Tis same principle of stepped nuts for bass strings of gradually increasing length lay behind a specifically English form of the theorbo, which is also described in Mace and was measured by Talbot (see Sayce, B1995; Van Edwards, B1995). Unusually for a theorbo this had double-strung courses in the bass which still further smoothed the transition across the range. None of these have survived. Te French too seem to have developed their own version of the theorbo principle in the 17th century with a shorter extension than the Italian theorbo and possibly with single stringing (see Teorbo eorbo). ). In Italy in the 17th century the drive towards extending the bass range of the lute was accommodated somewhat more consistently by incorporating the theorbo design into smaller lutes for solo use. Tus the liuto attiorbato came to be used in addition to normal lutes and theorbos, and later archlutes, for accompanying singers and continuo work. Matteo Sellas was part of another large German family of instrument instrument makers still based in Italy, and produced very elaborate lutes and





















Hellwig, B1980) and Tomas Edlinger of Augsburg and his son Tomas, who moved to Prague and set up his workshop there. All these makers were violin makers as well, reflecting the growing importance of this instrument at a time when the lute was becoming less in demand.

Tese makers were also responsible for the other version of the 13-course lute with extended bass strings, the German Baroque lute (see Spencer, B1976). Tis had an ornate ornately ly curved double pegbox carved out of a single piece of wood, usually ebonized sycamore. Tis type did not usually have a treble rider, but did occasionally feature a small separate slot carved in the treble side of the main pegbox to take the top string. Typically this kind of lute had eight courses on the fingerboard and five octaved courses going to the upper pegbox, these five being normally between 25 and 30 cm longer than the fingered strings. Tis design appears to be a modification of the pre-exist pre-existing ing Angélique form. Angélique form. Some apparently early 13-course lutes, such as the 1680 Tielke instrument, dating from long before the earliest surviving 13-course music ( c1719), seem see m to be b e converted converte d ‘angéliques’ ‘angéliques’. Others, such as the Fux conversion in 1696 of a Tie ff enbrucker enbrucker instrument and the 13-course lute of Martin Hoff mann mann dating from the 1690s, raise more awkward questions of dating. An even more elaborate triple pegbox form of this type was also developed and a few examples have survived, notably by Johannes Jauck, a lute and violin maker working in Graz, and Martin Bruner (1724– 1801) in Olomouc. Tese seem to have been functionally the same as the double pegbox form, and they may have represented a further attempt to obtain a smoother transition from the treble to bass courses. Internally, the barring structure behind the bridge was altered by these makers. Beginning with an increase in the number of small treble-side fan bars, the characteristic characteristic J-bar on the bass side of the Renaissance soundboard soundboard was finally removed and various kinds of fan-barring were introduced right across this area of the soundboard. Tese seem to have had the e ff ect ect of increasing the bass response. Te main transverse bars were also made slightly smaller and more even in height, maybe with the same intention. Te body outline of these lutes is remarkably similar to that of the early 16th-century lutes of Frei and Maler and this resemblance may well have been deliberate, for the old instruments continued to be highly prized. It was about this time (1727) that the first sys-





















Troughout the lute's history the gut strings have been matched by movable gut frets tied around the neck. Te placing of these frets has always been a problem to both theoreticians and players, and many attempts have been made to find a system that will give the nearest approach to true intonation for as wide a range of intervals and in as many positions as possible. A number of writers, including Gerle (C1532), Bermudo (C1555), the anonymous author of Discours non plus mélancholique (1557), Vincenzo Galilei ( Fronimo, 1568) and John Dowland, put forward various systems, many of which were based on Pythagorean intervals. Late 16th-century theorists in Italy, as well as 17th-century writers such as Praetorius and Mersenne, habitually assumed that the intonation of the lute (and other fretted instruments) represented equal temperament, whereas, in contrast, keyboard instruments were tuned to some form of mean-tone temperament ( see Temperaments Temperaments). ). 5. Tunings.

Te earliest tuning instructions for the Western lute date from the late 15th century and are mostly for five-course lute. Te best known is that of Johannes Tinctoris, whose De inventione et usu musicae (c1481–3) gives a tuning of 4ths around a central 3rd. However, as both five- and six-course lutes are mentioned, the position of the ‘central 3rd’ is unfortunately ambiguous. Both the Königstein Liederbuch (c1470–73) and an English manuscript dating from between 1493 and practica, 1509 (GB-Ctc 0.2.13) give intervals of 4–3–4–4 from bass to treble. Ramis de Pareia ( Musica practica Bologna, 1482) stated that the most common tuning was G–c–e–a–d ',', but mentioned another drone tuning with the lowest three strings tuned to A–d –a; the trebles were set in various (unspecified) ways. Antonio de Nebrija (Vocabulario Español-Latino, Salamanca, c1495) apparently gave an unlikely diminished 5th between the two lowest courses, then 3–4–5, but the correct translation of his description is disputed. Te late 15th-century Pesaro manuscript ( I-PESo 1144) includes tablature for a seven-course lute with the tuning 4–4–4–3–4–4, as does a manuscript now in Bologna (I-Bu 596.HH.24, which probably dates from the same period. Te latter gives the tuning E – A–d – g – b–e'–a'. By around 1500 six courses had become standard; the earliest printed sources, including Spinacino





















Surviving 16th-century tablatures for multiple lutes call for a total ‘consort’ of nominal d '', '', a', g ',', e' and d ',', to accommodate all of the variations encountered in the duet and trio repertories, though Praetorius (Syntagma musicum, ii, 1618, 2/1619/ R) mentioned other sizes too. Te intervals between courses remained the same, irrespective of the size of the lute. A few lutenists explored other tu Judentanz tanz requires nings, albeit briefly; these included Hans Neusidler (1544) whose infamous Juden requires a drone tuning; Barberiis (1549) printed pieces using the tunings 4–5–3–4–4, 5–4–2–4–4, and 4–4– Judentanz anz and 3–5–4; 3–5– 4; Wol Wol ff Heckel Heckel (1562) also used a drone tuning for a Judent and other pieces. By the 1580s a seventh course, tuned either a tone or a 4th below the sixth course, was in regular use, and eight-course lutes incorporating both of these options became common in the 1590s. By the early 1600s ten-course lutes were in use, with diatonically tuned basses descending stepwise from the sixth course. Around the same period the octave tuning of at least the fourth and fi fh courses was dropped in favour of unisons, though the octaves were certainly retained on the lowest courses and perhaps on the sixth course too. Otherwise the tuning of the six upper courses remained rema ined essentially unchanged, and became known as vieil ton. Tere was a brief vogue for cordes avallées tunings in France, used by Francisque (1600) and Besard (C1603), which involved lowe ring the fourth, fi fh and sixth courses to give drone-like 4ths and 5ths. Tese tunings were used almost exclusively for rustic dance pieces. In the early years of the 17th century two distinct traditions began to emerge. Te Italians mostly retained the old tuning, adding extra bass courses ( see Archlute Archlute)) though P.P. Melli and Bernardo Gianoncelli experimented with variant tunings of the upper courses. Around 1620 French composers began to experiment with several accords nouveaux , first on ten-course lutes, and later on 11and 12-course instruments. (With these new tunings, the interval between the first and sixth courses was always narrower narrower than the two octaves of vieil ton; they should not be confused with the cordes avallées tunings, where this interval was always wider than two octaves.) Tis experimentation continued until at least the 1670s, and music for over 20 di ff erent erent tunings survives, many of which were given diff erent erent names by diff erent erent scribes or composers (see Schulze-Kurz, E1990). However, only a handful were common and these included what is today considered to be the





















Te first print to use the new tunings was Pierre Ballard’s Tablature de luth de di ff érents autheurs sur ff érents l’accord ordinaire et extraordinaire (Paris, 1623; now lost). Slightly later collections survive, containing fine music by Mesangeau, Chancy, Belleville, Robert Ballard (ii), Pierre Gautier (i) and others, in various accords nouveaux . Te tunings were widely used in England afer the 1630s; publications by Richard Mathew (1652) and Tomas Mace (C1676) use ‘Flat French’ tuning; Mace provided a translation chart to convert tablatures between ‘Flat French’ and ‘D minor’ tunings. By the 1670s the 11-course single-pegbox lute in D minor tuning had emerged as the preferred norm throughout much of Europe, and remained so until the early years of the 18th century, when two further courses were added, extending the lute’s range down to A'. Te last printed sources to make significant use of variant tunings are Esaias Reusner (ii) (1676) and Jakob Kremberg (1689).

6. Technique.

Several writers of instruction books for the lute have remarked that many masters of the art were,























vice also described by Valentin Bakfark and the vihuelist Miguel de Fuenllana); the right hand would then strike through the whole course as usual. It was, however, the German masters who first codified a system of fingering. Judenkünig gave a series of diagrams of lef-hand positions. In the first of these the hand spans the first three frets and the fourth fret on the sixth course; the first finger is marked with the six characters of the first fret in German tablature; the second finger is marked with the next series; the third finger takes the lower three courses on the third fret; and the little finger takes the upper three courses as well as the fourth fret on the sixth course. Each diagram shows the fingers rigidly aligned on the appropriate fret. A small cross placed above a letter indicates that the finger must be held down and the following note played with the next finger, whatever fret it may be on. Judenkünig did not describe the fingering of chords, or cross-fingering where the counterpoint makes it necessary to denewgeordnet künstlich künstlich Lautenbuch Lautenbuch, 1536) indicapart from the prescribed alignment. Neusidler ( Ein newgeordnet ted by means of dots the fingering of a number of simple compositions. In general he followed the rules laid down by Judenkünig, but he also showed how chords constantly demand the use of fingers on frets other than those allotted to them in a strict diagrammatic scheme. In England and France little attention was given to le f-hand technique until the publication of Adrian Le Roy’s tutor Instruction … de luth (?1557, lost, lost , repr. repr. 1567, also lost, los t, Eng. trans., 1568, see §8(v)), which described the barré chord chord as ‘couching’ ‘couching’ the first firs t finger ‘along overthwart the stoppe’ s toppe’.





















upon the bellie of the Lute with your little finger onelie, & that neither to far from the Treble strings,, neither to neere’ strings ne ere’. Mace wrote: ‘Te 2d. thing to be gain’d is, setting down your Little Finger upon the Belly, as aforesaid, close under the Bridge , about the first , 2d, 3d, or 4th. Strings; for thereabout, is its constant station. It steadies the Hand , and gives a Certainty to the Grasp’. From this time onwards, portraits of performing lute players always show the little finger placed either on the soundboard, in front of or behind the bridge, or on the bridge itself (as in fig.11). During the Renaissance, chords were usually played with the thumb on the bass, playing downwards, and the first and second, or the first, second and third fingers, playing upwards. For chords of more than four notes the following procedure was given by Le Roy and Besard: for five-note chords the thumb plays the bass downwards, the third and fourth courses are raked upwards by the first finger, and the first and second courses are played respectively by the third and second fingers; six-note chords are played in a similar way with the thumb playing downwards across both the sixth and fi fh courses. Te upper note of two-part chords was generally taken by the second finger, although Robinson preferred the third. A single dot under a chord of two or three notes generally means that it is played upwards with the usual fingers, but without the thumb. Gerle, however, used a dot under a chord to show that all the notes were to be played upwards with the first finger, while Judenkünig said that in dance music full chords may be stroked or strummed with the thumb throughout. Neusidler also mentio-





















Te thumb, on which I do not approve of a very long nail, must be employed in this manner, that every time you sound a string you must direct it [the thumb] towards the soundboard, so that it is crushed onto the string below, and it must be kept there until it has to be used again. Tis type of stroke was mentioned by other writers and appears to have become standard practice during the Baroque period. In fact, such a technique is almost essential when the thumb has to make rapid jumps among a number of diapasons. If the thumb is held free, there is no point of reference from which each movement can be judged accurately. In the second decade of the 17th century many new technical devices began to appear. Bataille’s Airs de di ff érents autheurs (iv, 1613) used a dot for a quasi-rasgueado device in repeated chords ( ex.1 ex.1)) ff érents that is described by Mersenne and became extremely common, especially in pieces in sarabande rhythm: the dot at the top of the chord stands for an upward stroke with the first finger, while the dot at the bottom stands for a downward stroke with the back of the same finger (ex.1 a). For this device, sometimes called tirer et rabattre , later composers ofen distinguished the second, downward-struck chord by dots next to the notes (ex.1 b).





















the notes played by the thumb except the top one which was played by the first finger; others with the thumb playing the single bass note while the first finger raked the rest of the notes upwards. Unfortunately these detailed notations seem not to have been adopted in other surviving printed and manuscript sources. Nevertheless many of these devices became part of the French Baroque style. In volumes such as Denis Gaultier’s Pièces de luth (1666), Denis and Ennemond Gaultier’s Livre de tablature des pièces de luth (c1672) and Jacques Gallot’s Pièces de luth (1681), markings are given for arpeggiating or ‘breaking’ chords. Some writers described the ‘slipping’ of the first finger across two notes on adjacent strings to realize a short mordent, usually at a cadence; this characteristic device, which was used well into the 18th century, was shown by three di ff erent erent markings (ex.2).

Many of these techniques were carefully described in English lute books such as the Mary Burwell Musick’’s Monument Monument . Te techniques were passed on to Lute Tutor (c1660–72, GB-Lam) and in Mace’s Musick the German school; a similar variety of strokes is described by Baron who also mentioned a chan-





















More precise information was given by Pietro Paolo Borrono in the second printing (Milan, 1548) of the Intavolatura di lauto which gives appoggiaturas with both notes carefully indicated by sign. Only the appoggiatura from above is mentioned in the directions, which also say that it is to be played on the beat. Rudolf Wyssenbach printed a transcription in German tablature (Zürich, 1550) of part of the contents of the Francesco-Borrono book of 1546; half circles are said to indicate mordanten, but no further explanation is given. Te word mordanten appears to have been used in German as a general term for ornaments including the appoggiatura rather than as a specific term for any one instrumentalis deudsch deudsch (1529) and was still type of ornament. It occurs in Martin Agricola’s Musica instrumentalis used by Matthäus Waissel in his Lautenbuch darinn von der Tabulatur und Application der Lauten (1592). Waissel’s remark that the fingers are put ‘a little later on the letters and moved up and down two or three times’ indicates (in agreement with Borrono) that the ornament came on or a fer the beat and not before. No information appears to have survived concerning ornamentation of French lute music before Besard, who made the following remark: You should have some rules for the sweet relishes and shakes if they could be expressed here, as they are on the LUTE: but seeing they cannot by speech or writing be expressed, thou wert best to























nor any indication of where the graces should be placed, but he described three that could be used: the relish (perhaps an appoggiatura from above, or a trill); the fall (an appoggiatura from below); and a fall with a relish (possibly the same as Mersenne's combination of lower appoggiatura and upper trill). Robinson said of the relish:

Te longer the time of a single stroke … the more need it hath of a relish, for a relish will help, both to grace it, and also it helps to continue the sound of the note his full time: but in a quicke time a little touch or jerke will serve, and that only with the most strongest finger. Te variety of graces in use aroun around d 1625 is indicated in Table 2, 2, taken from the Margaret Board Lutebook (GB-Lam, f.32). Generally, however, the lack of standardization in signs and the absence













































No exact line of demarcation can be drawn between Renaissance and Baroque ornamentation. Most graces used in the earlier period continued in favour, but a few more elaborate combinations appeared. From Mersenne’s time onwards, some French manuscripts have a large variety of signs: the comma, ‘’ and ‘’ for martelements , something like an ordinary mordent sign placed under a note, and, to indicate the appoggiatura from below, a bow-like sign placed beneath the tablature letter, ement very like Mace’s sign for a slur. Double shakes or appoggiaturas began to appear. Te étou ff ement Musick’’s Monument Monument , in (Mace’s ‘tut’) is also mentioned in some sources, and the sign ‘’ is used. Mace’s Musick many ways the most thorough study of the French lute, includes (pp.101 ff ) a list of ornaments, which are summarized in Table 4. 4. He also wrote of loud and so f play and the use of the pause (indicated by a small fermata sign) as additional graces to be observed.













































In Denis Gaultier’s Pièces de luth (1666) less elaboration is found. Te two ornaments given are indicated by the comma and the slur and are equivalent to Mace’s back-fall and fore-fall. In Livre de tablature des pièces de luth by Denis and Ennemond Gaultier (c1672) the explanation of the comma shows that the number of falls should be increased according to the length of the note. According to Mary Burwell’s teacher, however, however, Denis Gaultier ‘would have no shake at all’. Undoubtedly per personal taste played a part in ornamentation as in all other aspects of performance. Tree ornament signs are listed by Gallot: tremblement , or trill, indicated by a small comma a fer the tablature letter; martelement , or mordent, indicated by ‘’; choutte , or tombé , an appoggiatura from below, indicated by an inverted inver ted ‘’ before the letter. l etter. Te rhythmical breaking of chords, a universal feature of the French lute style (see §8(iii) below, esp. ex.3 ex.3), ), was explicitly indicated by oblique lines between chord members. Te existence of another explicit notation, a vertical line connecting non-adjacent tabla-

























mes, especially at a cadence, this sign extends backwards towards the previous note, even across a barline, looking somewhat like a legato slur (ex.5 ( ex.5). ). Te mordent is marked by a single cross and

















































Extant 15th-century records mention sums of money paid to lute players in service at the French court. In 1491 for example, Antoine Her, a lute player of the chamber royal, received a monthly

























also a few duets. Tere are 25 pieces called ‘recercare’ but most of the pieces are intabulations of Flemish chansons (from the 1490s) originally for voices. Te Intabulatura de lauto, libro tertio (1508),

























From 1536 onwards, publishers, clearly exploiting a growing level of demand from dilettante players, frequently issued lute music in books devoted to more than one composer’s music. Five dis-































































































































































































































































































































































































































































Visée’s two published guitar books contain a total of 12 suites as well as several miscellaneous pieces. Te longer suites generally begin with the usual allemande, courante, sarabande and gigue and end with lighter pieces such as the gavotte, minuet and bourrée. In the shorter suites there is no consistent order of movements. Te Suite no.6 in C minor includes a beautiful tombeau dedicated to Corbetta. Visée’s guitar compositions are intended for a five-course instrument tuned a/a–d/d'–g/ g–b/b–e' . Exploiting the instrument’s resources to the fullest extent, they constitute along with the later works of Corbetta the apex of the French Baroque guitar literature. Visée’s works for Baroque lute and theorbo comprise the same types of dance pieces as are found in his guitar music and often duplicate the guitar works, although it is di fficult to determine for which instrument the original versions were written. Te fact that a substantial number number of theorbo works survives in manuscript sources shows the regard in which Visée was held. Tough they lack character pieces and Italian influence, they reveal him as a fitting partner for his colleagues Marin Marais and François Couperin. Tese pieces also include various various tombeaux as as well as arrangements of pieces by Lully, Marais, Forqueray and François Couperin. BIBLIOGRAPHY

BenoitMC La BordeE C. Liddell: Te Guitar, Teorbo and Lute Works of Robert de Visée: a Study in his Process of Arranging (diss., Schola Cantorum Basiliensis, 1976) A. Dunn: Style and Development in the Teorbo Works of Robert Visée: an Introductory Study (diss., U. of California, San Diego, 1989) Study and Tematic Catalogue of Robert de Visée’s Teorbo Works (diss., U. of B.L. Prud’homme: A Source Study Colorado, 1992) A. Miteran: ‘Manuscrit inédit de Robert Rob ert de Visée’, Guitare, lv (1995), 32–4

Gallot. French family of lutenists. Tey were active in the 17th century. Jacques and Pierre, who were also composers, were considered by their contemporaries to be among the most accomplished players of their time. time. (1) Alexandre Alexandre Gallot

(b 1625–30; d 1684). 1684). Lutenist and composer. He was known as ‘vieux Gallot d'Angers’ and he was maître de luth in that town about 1663. Four pieces are attributed to him in René Milleran's manuscript lutebook ( F-Pn Rés.823) which was compiled in about 1690. 2) Jacques Gallot

(d Paris, Paris, c1690). Lutenist and composer, brother of (1) Alexandre Gallot. He was known as ‘vieux erens modes Gallot de Paris’. He was a pupil of Ennemond Gaultier. His Pièces de luth composées sur di ff erens (Paris, n.d.) includes a brief method for the lute. Te inclusion of minuets and the arrangement of pieces by keys and forms anticipate the later suite. In addition to this collection most of the pieces in an untitled lute manuscript ( D-LEm II614) are signed sig ned ‘vieux Gallot’ G allot’ Tese two sources comprise





















tombeaux – – among them those in memory of Turenne, Condé and Madame – inspired by members of the court. Visée in turn composed a tombeau in memory of Gallot.

3) Pierre Gallot

(b c1660; d Paris, Paris, afer 1716). Lutenist and composer, son of (1) Alexandre Gallot. He was known as ‘Gallot le jeune’ and is reputed to have been a remarkable performer. He also taught the lute and guitar to wealthy foreigners. Te incomplete tablature of ‘Gallot à Paris’ ( CZ-Pu KK83) contains one lute piece by him, and others appear in manuscripts (at F-Pn, B, PL-Lw, US-NY and and A-GÖ). His Tombeau de la Princesse de Monaco is in a manuscript in Vienna ( A-W A-Wnn 17706). (4) Henry François de Gallot, Sieur de Franlieu

(d a afer 1684). Guitarist and lutenist. His relationship to the other Gallots is uncertain. He was known as ‘Gallot d'Irlande’. In Nantes between 1664 and 1684 he compiled a manuscript ( GB-Ob erends autheurs , containing music M.Sch.C94) entitled Pièces de guittarre de di ff ff erends musi c by ‘Gallot le vieux’ v ieux’, ‘Gallot d’Angleterre’ (possibly his son, who may have served Charles II), ‘Gallot le jeune’ and ‘Gallot le cadet’, as well as Francisque, Dufaut, Corbetta and other composers. An Antoine Gallot ( d Vilnius, 1647), also a lutenist and composer, is not thought to be related to the other members of the Gallot family. He was employed at the Polish court, where he served King W ładisław IV, and a vocal canon by hiim servives in Marco Scacchi’s Cribrum musicum (Venice, 1643). BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. de La Laurencie: Les luthistes (Paris, 1928) A. Tessier Tessier:: ‘Quelques ‘Quelques sources de d e l’école l’école française f rançaise de luth du XVIIe siècle’ s iècle’, IMSCR I: Liège 1930, 217– 24 XVIIee M. Rollin: ‘Le “tombeau” chez les luthistes Denis Gautier, Jacques Gallot, Charles Charl es Mouton’ Mouton’, XVII siècle, nos.21–2 (1954), 463–79 M. Rollin: ‘La suite pour luth dans l'oeuvre l 'oeuvre de Charles Char les Mouton’ Mouton’, ReM , no.226 (1955), 76–88 H. Radke: ‘Bemerkungen zur Lautenisten-Familie Gallot’, Mf , xiii (1960), 51–5 D. Gill: ‘Te de Gallot Guitar Books’ B ooks’, EMc, vi (1978), 79–87 R.T. Pinnell: ‘Te Teorboed Guitar: its Repertoire in the Guitar Books of Granata and Gallot’, EMc, vii (1979), 323–9 C. Massip: ‘Recherches biographiques’, Preface to Oeuvres de Gallot (Paris, (Paris, 1987), xv–xxiii M. Rollin: ‘La musique pour le luth des Gallot’, Preface to Oeuvres de Gallot (Paris, (Paris, 1987), xxix–xliii

Mouton, Charles (b Paris 1617; d before before 1699). French lutenist and composer. His mother’s family included musicians, one of whom had a career at court. By the mid-1640s Mouton was being lionized by Parisian literary society, to which he may have been introduced by the Gaultiers. Around 1664 he was still in Paris, teaching a number of well-placed pupils. In 1673 he directed the lutes and theorbos in an entertainment at the court of Savoy in Turin. From at least 1680 he was back in Paris, where





















Mouton represents, with Jacques Gallot, the final flowering of the French lute school. His first Avertissement vertissement on book contains contains an important A on the performan p erformance ce of his pieces. BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Rollin: ‘La suite pour p our luth dans l’l’oeuvre oeuvre de Charles Mouton Mouton’’, ReM , no.226 (1955), 76–88 érents modes (Geneva, 1978), vii–xii [in Fr. F. Lesure: Introduction to C. Mouton: Pièces de luth sur di ff ff érents and Eng.] K. Sparr: ‘French Lutenists Lutenis ts and an d French Lute-Music in Sweden’, Le Luth et sa musique II , ed. J.-M. Vaccaro (Paris, 1984), 59–67 C. Goldberg: Stilisierung als kunstvermittelnder Prozess: die französischen Tombeau-Stücke im 17. Jahrhundert (Laaber, (Laaber, 1987) P. Vendrix: ‘Le tombeau en musique en France à l’époque baroque’, RMFC , xxv (1987), 105–38 F.-P. Goy and C. Meyer: Sources manuscrites en tablature (Baden-Baden, 1991–)

Falckenhagen [Falkenhagen], Adam (b Grossdalzig, nr Leipzig, 26 April 1697; d Bayreuth, Bayreuth, 6 Oct 1754). German lutenist. He was the son of Johann Christian Falckenhagen, a schoolmaster. When he was ten he went to live for eight years with his uncle Johann Gottlob Erlmann, a pastor in Knauthain near Leipzig. Tere he underwent training ‘in literis et musicis’, particularly the harpsichord and, later, the lute. He then perfected his lute playing with Johann Jacob Graf in Merseburg, where in 1715 he is mentioned as a footman and musician in the service of the young Count Carl Heinrich von Dieskau. In the winter term of 1719 he entered Leipzig University; a year later he went to Weissenfels, where he remained for seven years as a lute teacher. From about 1724 he was also employed as a chamber musician and lutenist at the court of Duke Christian, where his presence is documented for 1726, together with that of his wife, the singer Johanna Aemilia. During this time he undertook various tours and en joyed several months months’’ instruction from from the famous famous lutenist lutenist Silvius Leopold Leopold Weiss Weiss in Dresden. Afer two years in Jena, he was in the service of Duke Ernst August of Saxony-Weimar from May 1729 to 15 August 1732. By 1734 he was employed at the Bayreuth court. In 1736 Margrave Friedrich appointed him ‘Virtuosissimo on the Lute and Chamber Musician Second to the Kapellmeister Johann Pfeiff er’. er’. About 1746 he referred to himself as ‘Cammer-Secretarius Registrator’ of Brandenburg-Culmbach. Falckenhagen was one of the last important lute composers. Although some of his works are rooted in the Baroque tradition like those of his teacher, Weiss, they show a progressive tendency towards the galant style. style. His keyboard-influenced lute writing is freely contrapuntal and usually limited to two voices. His output ranges from modest pieces suitable for amateurs to others (e.g. the Sonata op.1 no.5 and the concertos) of much greater di fficulty, exploiting virtuoso techniques. His Preludio nel quale sono contenuti tutti i tuoni musicali , lasting over 20 minutes in performance, contains labelled sections in the 24 major and minor keys. Tere may be a more direct connection with J.S. Bach in the strong possibility that the tablature version of the G minor Suite bwv995 ( D-LEm III.II.3) was arranged by Falckenhagen himself (see Schulze, 1983). Te ornament signs and other technical signs are the same as those used exclusively by Falckenhagen in his printed works and found in a manuscript table of signs associated ass ociated with his Bayreuth period ( D-Ngm M274).





















NDB (K. Dorfmüller) WaltherML H.-J. Schulze: ‘Wer intavolierte Johann Sebastian Bachs Lauten-kompositionen?’, Mf , xix (1966), 36–48 H. Küff ner: ner: ‘Eine Augsburger Sammelhandschrif als Quelle zur Geschichte der Bayreuther Hof Archiv iv für Geschichte Geschichte von Oberfranken, xlix (Bayreuth, 1969), 103–96 musik’, Arch J. Doming: ‘Der Lautenist Adam Falckenhagen’, Laute und Guitarre , v (1983), 322–8 H.-J.Schulze: ‘“Monsieur Schouster” – ein vergessener Zeitgenosse Johann Sebastian Bachs’, Bachiana et alia musicologica: Festschri f Alfred Dürr , ed. W. Rehm (Kassel, 1983), 243–50 f Alfred

Kapsperger, Giovanni Girolamo [Giovanni Geronimo]; Kapsberger, Johann Hieronymus; [‘Il Tedesco della tiorba’] (b ?Venice, c1580; d Rome, Rome, Jan 1651). Italian composer, lutenist, theorbist and guitarist of German descent. (He seems to have used the spelling ‘Kapsperger ‘ Kapsperger’’ rather than the ‘Kapsberger’ favoured by German scholars.) His father, Colonel Guglielmo Kapsperger Kapsperger,, was a noble military official with the Imperial House of Austria and may have settled in Venice. Kapsperger Kapsperger was was in Rome soon a fer 1605, where through his reputation as a virtuoso and his status as a nobile alemano he moved in the circles of powerful families such as the Bentivoglio and the Barberini. Other supporters in Rome included the Orders of S Stefano and S Giovanni Giovanni and and the academies of the Umoristi and the Imperfetti whose members arranged for the publica publication tion of his works; the academies Kapsperger Kapsperger or organized in his house were described as among the ‘wonders of Rome’. Around 1609 he married the Cantata, Neapolitan Gerolima di Rossi, by whom he had at least three children. In 1612 his Maggio Cantata dedicated to the Grand duchess Maria Maddalena, was performed in Florence at the Palazzo Pitti. Apotheosis osis, on Jesuit themes, was performed at the Collegio Romano on the canonizaIn 1622 his Apothe tions of the first two Jesuit saints, Ignatius Loyola and Francis Xavier; the most elaborate musical production in Rome before the Barberini operas, it marked the period of Kapsperger Kapsperger's 's deepening relationship with the papal circle. In 1624 his settings of verses by the newly-elected Pope Urban VIII Barberini were published as Poematia et carmina, which G.B. Doni forwarded enthusiastically to Mersenne. In the same year Kapsperger Kapsperger entered entered the service of Urban's nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, where for 30 years he worked alongside Frescobaldi, Luigi Rossi, Domenico Mazzocchi, Stefano Landi and Doni, and collaborated with the poets Ottavio Tronsarelli, Giovanni Ciampoli and Giulio Rospigliosi (the future Pope Clement IX). His son Filippo Bonifacio also joined Francesco's Francesco's household. household. Doni wrote wrote that Kapsperger Kapsperger's 's music was ofen sung ‘in the chamber of His Holiness’ and in 1626 and 1627 his masses were performed in the Cappella Sistina at Urban's request. Later, Doni denounced Kapsperger Kapsperger for for attempting to replace Palestrina's music with his own at the Sistine Chapel, an allegation uncritically accepted by Hawkins and Ambros (and eff ectively ectively contaminating Kapsperger Kapsperger's 's later reputation); Baini, however, remained sceptical of Doni's story and no such incident is documented, although other contemporary accounts describe him as an extraordinary talent but opportunistic, unco-operative and vainglorious. Kapsperger continued contin ued as a salaried member of Francesco Francesco's 's household until the death of Urban in 1644 and the dissolution of Francesco's establishment in 1646. Curiously, only two of his works were printed afer 1633, when Allacci published an inventory of Kapsperger Kapsperger's 's music that included the titles of





















Kapsperger was a prolific, highly original and o fen extraordinary composer and was seminal in Kapsperger was the development of the theorbo as a solo instrument. Te theorbo collection collectionss contain virtuoso toccatas, variations and and dances (some for a 19-course instrument) that combine arpeggiated sections, unusual unusual rhythmic groupings, broken-style figuration and slurred passages within an ornamented and highly syncopated context that has many parallels with the keyboard works of Frescobaldi. Te 1640 book also contains an important preface regarding performance. Te 1611 lute book includes eight toccatas – described by Gilbert as ‘possibly ‘possibly the finest set of its kind in the Italian repertoire’ – that employ more fluid textures proceeding almost spontaneously from suspended harmonies over long pedals to recitative-style passages, motivic sequences, short ricercare sections and dramatic bursts of scales. Among his other instrumental works are one of the few collections of instrumental ensemble dances of this period (1615) and the more canzona-like Sinfonie a quattro of the same year, which feature solo-tutti contrasts, echo e ff ects ects and multiple continuo parts. In his vocal music, Kapsperger Kapsperger explored explored the limits of both Baroque opulence and Counter-Refor Mottetti etti passeggiati and Arie passeggiate contain monodies (1612) and duets mation austerity. Te Mott (1623) with extensive (and sometimes exaggerated) written-out ornamentation. Te larger Petrarch and Guarini settings stand out among the 1612 Arie (which are actually solo madrigals); the Mottetti etti suff er 1623 collection is less ornate, but more satisfying musically. Te Mott er from lengthy and predictable florid passages but reflect aspects of current Roman taste and were influential in Ger Musicalischer lischer Seelen-Lust Seelen-Lust many. Te Tomaskirche Kantor Tobias Michael acknowledged in his Musica (1637) that ‘the art of Herr Kapsberger is very attractive to me, and I have followed him as much as I was able’. Te madrigals of 1609 rely mainly on homorhythmic textures and reveal Kapsperger's ger 's awareness of current literary trends through his setting of Marino. But Kapsperger Kapsperger's 's most engaging and popular secular works (as testified by concordant versions) are found among his seven books of villanellas, vil lanellas, which which use simple poetry, set mostly syllabically in contr contrasting asting sections of duple and triple metre, o fen with attractive dance rhythms. In the finely crafed Poematia et carmina (1624), Kapsperger Kapsperger's 's intense setting of Urban VIII's poetry was lauded by Doni for its absence of aff ectations ectations and its ‘pure and simple’ melody. melody. Similarly, the Apotheosis osis (1622) sets a monological Latin text to a remarkably restrained declamalavishly staged Apothe tory style, occasionally relieved by triple-time choruses. Tis stylistic template is maintained in the Urbanae, Christmas cantata I pastori di Bettelemme and the Litaniae Deiparae Virginis. Te three Missae Urbanae dedicated to Urban VIII, and the Cantiones sacrae (1628) feature homorhythmic textures as well, and in the case of the masses polychoral technique. Similar to the 1612 passeggiate collections but Modulatus tus sacri didisplaying greater sensitivity to textual-musical relationships are the motets of Modula minutis (1630) which employ lavish embellishment and challenging rhythmic figures (e.g. ‘Beata v ittoria del principe Vladislao in Valacchia Valacchia Dei genitrix’). Kapsperger Kapsperger's 's stage works, which include La vittoria Apotheosis osis. (1625), an opera about the Polish-Turkish war of 1621, are all lost, apart from the Apothe In a time of intense musical polemics, Kapsperger Kapsperger was was praised by moderns and conservatives, from the art collector Vincenzo Giustiniani and the world-traveller Pietro della Valle, to the neoclassic theorist G.B. Doni and the Jesuit polymath Athanasius Kircher, who annointed him as the successor to Monteverdi. Te collective applause off ered ered from individuals of such diverse backgrounds testifies to the wide stylistic breadth and uncommon invention of a composer whose works are representative of early 17th-century Roman music.























GroveO (V. Coelho) urbanae, sive sive De viris illustribus (Rome, 1633), 159–60 L. Allacci: Apes urbanae, G.B. Doni: De praestantia musicae veteris libri tres (Florence, 1647/ R), 4, 32 storico-critiche della vita e delle opere opere di Giovanni Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina Palestrina (Rome, 1828/ G. Baini: Memorie storico-critiche R), 353–9 P. Kast: Kast: ‘Biographische Notizen über Johann Hieronymus Kapsberger aus den Vorreden zu seinen Werken’, Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken , xl (1960), 200–11 200– 11 P. Kast: ‘Biographische Notizen Notiz en zu z u römischen römis chen Musikern Musike rn des d es 17. Jahrhunderts’, AnMc, no.1 (1963), 38–69, esp.47–8 P. Kast: ‘Tracce monteverdiane e influssi romani nella musica sacra del Kapsberger’, RIM , ii (1967), 287–93 O. Wessely essely:: ‘Der Indice der Firma F irma Franzini in Rom: Versuch Versuch einer Rekonstruktion’, Beiträge zur Musikdokumentation: Franz Grasberger zum 60. Geburtstag , ed. G. Brosche (Tutzing, 1975), 439–92 J. Forbes: Te Non-Liturgical Vocal Music of Johannes Hieronymous Kapsberger (diss., (diss., U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1977) V. Coelho: ‘Frescobaldi and the Lute and Chitarrone Toccatas of “Il Tedesco della tiorba’”, Frescobaldi Studies: Madison, WI, 1983, 137–56 V. Coelho: ‘G.G. Kapsberger in Rome, 1604–1645: New Biographical Data’, JLSA, xvi (1983), 103– 133 V. Coelho: “Giovanni Girolamo Kapsberger ‘della tiorba’ e l'influenza liutistica sulle Toccate di Frescobaldi”, Girolamo Frescobaldi: Ferrara 1983, 341–57 O.C. Henriksen: ‘Libro Primo di Sinfonie … del Signor Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger: the Music and Application Possibilities of Lute Family Instruments (thesis, Schola Cantorum Basiliensis, Basle, 1985) A. and Z. Szweykowski: Szwe ykowski: ‘Un'opera ignota di G.G. G .G. Kapsperger in onore del Principe P rincipe Vladislao Vladisl ao Waza’ Waza’, Studi in onore di Giuseppe Vecchi , ed. I. Cavallini (Modena, 1989), 221–32 Spectacle in Baroque Baroque Rome: Barberini Barberini Patronage Patronage under Urban Urban VIII (New F. Hammond: Hammon d: Music and Spectacle (New Haven, 1994) Apotheosis eosis sive Consecratio Consecratio E. Sala and F. Marincola: ‘La musica nei drammi Geuisitici: il caso dell' Apoth Sanctorum Ignatii et Francisci Xaverii (1622)’, I Gesuiti e i primordi del teatro barocco in Europa , ed. M. Chiabò and an d F. Doglio (Viterbo, 1995), 389–440 Apotheosis osis … of Francis Xavier (1622) and the Conquering of India’, Te V. Coelho: Co elho: ‘Kapsberger's ‘Kapsberger' s Apothe Work of Opera: Genre, Nationhood, and Sexual Di ff erence erence , ed. R. Dellamora and D. Fischlin (New York, 1997), 27–47





















misconduct of his eldest son Vincenzo ( b 1608), a talented lutenist. Of his eight children, Alberto Cesare (b 1617) and Cosimo ( b 1621) also followed their father’s example. Galilei’s music, sought afer even before his departure for Poland, was first published publishe d in the anthoanthologies of Fuhrmann, Mertel, Besard and Mylius; its circulation seems to have been limited to Southern German countries. Almost all his compositions appear in his first and only book for tencourse lute, engraved in French tablature. Galliards, correntes and voltas, generally provided with varied repeats, are grouped by modes into 10 ‘suites’ each preceded by a toccata; two passamezzos with saltarellos complete the collection. Galilei’s works, in which tradition is wedded to modernity (especially of dissonance treatment), express their author’s elegance of invention, cosmopolitanism of style and eminently poetic nature. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Münchener Geschichte Geschichte, iii (1889), 553–4 K. Trautmann: ‘Die Familie Galilei in München’, Jb für Münchener A. Favaro, ed.: Le opere di Galileo Galilei (Florence, 1929–39), x–xix A. Einstein: ‘Vincenzo Galilei Gali lei and the Instructive Instr uctive Duo D uo’’, ML, xviii (1937), 360–68 D.A. Smith: Introduction to facs. of M. Galilei: Il primo libro d’intavolatura di liuto (Munich, 1981) C. Chauvel: Introduction to facs. of M. Galilei: Il primo libro d’intavolatura di liuto (Geneva, 1988) [incl. list of sources]

Piccinini, Alessandro (b Bologna, 30 Dec 1566; d probably probably at Bologna, c1638). Italian lutenist, composer and writer on music. His father, Leonardo Maria Piccinini, his brothers Girolamo and Filippo (see below) and his son Leonardo Maria were all lutenists too. Duke Guglielmo Gonzaga summoned him to his court at Mantua in 1582, but, because of commitments that his Father had entered into, he went instead with his family to the Este court at Ferrara, where he and his brothers remained until the death of Duke Alfonso II on 27 October 1597. He then entered the service of Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini, papal legate at Bologna and Ferrara, who died in 1621. He was a member of the Accademia dei Filomusi, Bologna. Tree autograph letters from him survive (in I-MOs), one of 31 January 1595 to the Duke of Ferrara and two, of 2 June 1622 and 1 January 1623, to the Duke of Modena. Piccinini published two volumes, Intavolatura di liuto, et di chitarrone, libro primo, nel quale si contengano dell’uno, & dell’altro stromento arie, baletti, correnti, gagliarde, canzoni, & ricercate musicali, & altre à dui, e trè liuti concertati insieme; et una inscrittione d’avertimenti, che insegna la maniera, & il modo di ben sonare con





















ting ideas: in imitative writing the theme must be played louder so that it stands out; a technique of playing forte and piano (‘ondeggiato’) should be adopted in pieces rich in dissonances, which should be highlighted (as, according to him, they were at Naples); embellishments should be le f to the taste of the player, but the cadential gruppo should always be pronounced, its notes being given equal value, and it should be completed as quickly as possible. Piccinini was a talented composer. His toccatas, which are very varied in f orm orm and style, are specially are specially rewarding. Te dances have attractive melodies and varied, piquant rhythms; r hythms; some of them them are arranged in suites. Piccinini wrote the music (apparently lost) to La selva sin amore (libretto by Lope de Vega Carpio), the first opera performed om Spain. Afer working with him at the Ferrara court, Piccinini’s brothers both went abroad: Girolamo ( b Bologna; d Flanders, Flanders, 1615) entered the service of Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio and accompanied him when he was appointed papal nuncio in Flanders, and Filippo ( b Bologna; d Bologna, Bologna, 1648) worked at the Spanish court until about 1645, when he returned to Bologna; a two-part madrigal by Filippo survives (RISM 1610 17). See also Archlute Archlute;; Chitarrone Chitarrone;; Lute, §§5, §§5, 6

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (O. Mischia Mischiati, ti, L.F. L.F. Tagliarini) Tagliarini) Fratta (Bologna, 1626), 107f A. Banchieri: Discorso di Camillo Scaliggeri della Fratta V. Giustiniani: Discorso sopra la musica de’ suoi tempi (MS, 1628, I-La); pr. in A. Solerti: Le origini del melodramma (Turin, 1903/R), 111, 124; Eng. trans., MSD, ix (1962), (1962) , 63–80 A. Masini: Bologna perlustrata (Bologna, 1650/ R), 687 P. Canal: Della musica in Mantova (Venice, 1881/ R), 37, 71 Nomocheliurgogra liurgografía fía antica e moderna (Modena, 1884/ R), 174, 272 L.F. Vald aldrig righi: hi: Nomoche L. Frati: ‘Liutisti e liutai a Bologna’, Bologn a’, RMI , xxvi (1919), 94–111 G. Kinsky: Kinsky : ‘Alessandro Alessand ro Piccinini Pi ccinini und sein Arciliuto’, AcM , x (1938), 103–18 F. Vatielli: ‘L’ultimo liutista’, RMI , xlii (1938), 469–91 N. Fortune: ‘Giustiniani ‘Giustinian i on Instruments’, GSJ , v (1952), 48 L. de Grandis: Grandis: ‘Fa ‘Famiglie di musicisti musicisti del del ’ ’500. 500. I Piccinini: vita col Liuto’, NRMI , xvi (1982), 226–32 Musique ue O. Cristoforetti: ‘Les Piccinini et l'évolution organologique du luth à la fin du XVIe siècle’, Musiq Ancienne, no.19 (1985), 4–20





















an unidentified French lutenist. He returned to Breslau in 1654 and in the following year became lutenist to Georg III, Duke of Silesia, an appointment he retained until 1672. He then moved to Leipzig, where he taught the lute for a year at the university. From 5 February 1674 until his death he was a chamber musician at the court of the Elector Friedrich Wilhelm of Brandenburg in Bertestudinis is and Neue Lauten-früchte Lauten-früchte, are important lin. His two collections of suites for the lute, Delitiae testudin as showing the first application of French lute style by a German composer and also as early documents in the development of the instrumental suite. Tey contain a total of 28 suites, varying in number of movements from four to nine. Each suite is unified by a major or minor tonality. Tey all include the basic structure of later dance suites, allemande–courante–sarabande–gigue. Most of the longer suites begin with another dance, such as a paduana or ballo, or the characteristically French improvisatory prelude, and many conclude with a dance other than the gigue. Reusner’s influence was widely felt in Germany in the 17th century, and the style of his music established a precedent evident in the works of subsequent lutenists such as Silvius Weiss. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lauten-Suitee (diss., Freie U. of Berlin, 1926) G. Sparmann: Esaias Reusner und die Lauten-Suit Sämtliche Suiten Suiten für die Laute, i: Suite 1 bis 5 aus den ‘Neuen ‘Neuen LautenF. Blume: Introduction to E. Reusner: Sämtliche früchten (1676)’ , ed. W. Gerwig (Wolfenbüttel and Berlin, 1928) K. Koletschka: ‘Esaias Reussner der Jüngerer und seine Bedeutung für die deutsche Lautenmusik des XVII. Jahrhunderts’, SMw, xv (1928), 3–45 K. Koletschka: ‘Esaias Reussner Vater und Sohn und ihre Choralbearbeitungen für die Laute: eine Adolph Koczirz , ed. R. Haar and J. Zuth (Vienna, 1930), 14–17 Parallele’, Festschri f f Adolph

Le Sage de Richée, Philipp Franz fl cc1695). German lutenist and composer of French birth. In early sources he is stated to have ( fl been a pupil of Charles Mouton. In 1695 he seems to have been in the service of Baron von Neidhardt in Breslau. He was an aristocrat and must have travelled in a number of countries, gaining a broad knowledge of the lute repertory in Bohemia, Austria and France. One publication of his has survived, Cabinet der Lauten, in welchem zu finden 12 neue Partien, aus unterschiedenen Tonen und neuesten Manier so aniezo aniezo gebräuchli gebräuchlich ch’ ’ (n.p., (n.p., n.d.; it must have appeared in Breslau and the copy formerly in Riemann’s possession bore the date 1695). It contains 98 pieces engraved in French lute tablature and arranged in 12 suites. Te preface mentions Dufaut, Mouton, Losy and Gaultier (though which one is unspecified). Te following types of piece occur: praeludium, allemande, courante, sarabande, gigue, gavotte, minuet, bourrée, chaconne, passacaglia, ouverture and rondeau (with echo). One piece is attributed to ‘Graf Logi’ [Losy]; presumably Le Sage de Richée composed all





















Losy, Jan Antonín, Count of Losinthal [Logi, Loschi, Losymthal] (b Štekeň Castle, near Strakonice, c1650; d Prague, Prague, 9 Aug – 2 Sept 1721). Bohemian lutenist and composer. He was born into a wealthy family of Swiss origin; his father had settled in Prague in the 1620s and was raised to the Bohemian nobility for his bravery during the defence of the city against the Swedes in 1648. Losy studied at Prague University from 1661, taking the doctorate in philosophy in 1668. A fer this he probably undertook the customary European tour; he is known to have visited Italy, and he probably went to France and the Low Countries as well. He had a great enthusiasm for French music, especially that of Lully, and also for the music of Fux. He played the lute and violin in concerts at his palace in Prague. At the height of his fame (1696–7) he travelled in the German lands and engaged in a friendly musical competition competition in Leipzig with Pantaleo Pantaleon n Hebenstreit and the Tomaskantor Johann Kuhnau, who subsequently dedicated to Losy his Frische Clavier Frücht Früchtee (1696). Losy's son Adam Philipp (1705–81), who lived in Vienna and became music director to the imperial court, was a competent double bass player in aristocratic orchestras. Losy was the best-known and most respected lutenist in late 17th-century Prague, but his reputation extended far outside his own land. He was praised by Ernst Gottlieb Baron ( Historisch-theoretische und practische Untersuchung des Instruments der Lauten , 1727) and one of his courantes was printed in Le Sage de Richée's Cabinet der Lauten (1695). Silvius Leopold Weiss wrote a highly expressive tombeau in his honour honour.. Te real measure of his popularity is seen in the number and wide distribution of manuscripts containing his compositions, which also exist in arrangements for mandore, angélique and keyboard. Several manuscripts of compositions by him for guitar are probably also arrangements. Losy adopted the traditional French style and genres, but he somewhat moderated the characteristic brisé texture texture of Parisian lute music in favour of more distinct melody and bass lines, probably influenced by contemporary Austrian composers. Vogl identified 100 or so individual pieces, to which about 50 more may be added (see Crawford), although attributions are rarely entirely reliable. A few pieces are grouped into suites or partitas, but Losy's intentions in this regard remain unclear. About 60 pieces survive only in guitar tablature, most of which may be arrangements of lute originals. BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Koczirz: ‘Österreichische Lautenmusik zwischen 1650 und 1720’, SMw, v (1918), 74–85, 88–93 J. Pohanka: ‘ Loutnová tabulatura z rajhradského klá štera’ [Lute tabulatures from the Rajhrad monastery], Časopis Moravského Musea , xl (1955), 193–203 E. Vogl: ‘Zur Biographie Losys’, Mf , xiv (1961), 189–192 E. Vogl: Vogl: ‘Johann Anton Losy Losy:: Lutenist of Prague’, JLSA, xiii (1980), 58–86 E. Vogl: ‘ Te Lute Music of Johann Anton Losy’ JLSA, xiv (1981), 5–58























music, praised by Baron, reveals the aesthetic approach of the Germanic school initiated by Esaias Reusner (ii). BIBLIOGRAPHY

E.G. Baron: Historisch-theoretisch und practische Untersuchung des Instruments der Lauten (Nuremberg, 1727/ R), 73 R.G. Kiesewetter: ‘Die Tabulaturen der älteren Practiker seit der Einführung des Figural- und Mensuralgesanges und des Contrapunctes, aus des Gesichtspuncte der Kungstgesichte betrachtet’, AMZ , xxxiii (1831), suppl.8 Lute Tablatur Tablature: e: Jacob Jacob Bittner ‘Pieces de Lut’, Lut’, 1682 (diss., U. of Illinois, 1965) W.J. Rave: A Baroque Lute

Dufaut [Du Faut, Du Fault, Dufau], François (b Bourges, before 1604; d ?London, ?London, before 1672). French lutenist and composer. According to Titon du Tillet he was a pupil of the Gaultiers. He was one of the most renowned lutenists of the 17th century. René Milleran (in his collection of lute music, c1690, F-Pn Rés.823) mentioned him as one of the finest players of his day, ranking him with the Gaultiers, Gallots and Mouton. Nor was this opinion confined to France, for in Germany both Baron and Le Sage de Richée (in his Cabinet der Lauten, 1695) referred to him as a model, while in England Mary Burwell's teacher praised his ‘very grave and learned’ playing. Tese tributes are confirmed by the large number of his compositions in over 90 lute manuscripts in France, England and the German lands. Born into a well-to-do middle-class family in Bourges, he was established in Paris by 1629, when he was described as bourgeois de Paris at his marriage to Marie Mongin, witnessed by his friend the distinguished lute maker Edmond Hotman. Although he apparently never held a court appointment, his outstanding ability was recognized in 1631 by the inclusion of 13 of his pieces in the Tablature de Luth de di ff erens autheurs (published in Paris by the royal music printer Pierre Ballard) be ff erens





















BIBLIOGRAPHY

E.G. Baron: Historisch-theoretische und practische Untersuchung des Instruments der Lauten (Nuremberg, 1727/ R; Eng. trans., 1976, as Study of the Lute ) E. Titon du Tillet: Le Parnasse françois (Paris, 1732/R) W.J.A. Jonckbloet and J.P.N. Land, eds.: Correspondance et oeuvres musicales de Constantin Huygens (Leiden, 1882) L. de La Laurencie: Les luthistes (Paris, 1928) T. Dart: ‘Miss Mary Burwell' Burwell'ss Instruction Instr uction Book B ook for the Lute’, GSJ , xi (1958), 3–62 W.J. Rave: Some Manuscripts of French Lute Music 1630–1700 (diss., U. of Illinois, 1972) D. Ledbetter: Harpsichord and Lute Music in Seventeenth-Century France (dis (diss., s., U. of Oxford, O xford, 1985) C. Goldberg: Stilisierung als kunstvermittelnder Prozess: Die französischen Tombeau-Stücke im 17. Jahrhundert (Laaber, (Laaber, 1987) T. Crawford: Review of Oeuvres de Dufaut , EMc, xviii (1989), 263–5 F.P. Goy, C. Meyer and M. Rollin, eds.: Sources manuscrites en tablature (Baden-Baden, 1991–) [catalogue]

Baron, Ernst Gottlieb [Teofil] (b Breslau, 17 Feb 1696; d Berlin, Berlin, 12 April 1760). German lutenist, composer and writer on music. Neither Baron’s life nor his works have as yet been fully explored by scholars. His father Michael was a maker of gold lace and expected his son to follow in his footsteps. Te younger Baron showed an inclination towards music in his youth, however, and later made it his profession. He first studied the lute from about 1710 with a Bohemian named Kohott (not to be confused with the





















Te few accessible examples of Baron’s compositions suggest that he cultivated a characteristic late Baroque idiom in his suites, but moved in the direction of the galant style style in his concertos. Te latter are in fact trio sonatas in texture, cast in the three-movement form of the concerto. WRITINGS

Historisch-theoretische und practische Untersuchung des Instruments der Lauten (Nuremberg, 1727/ R; Eng. trans., 1976, as Study of the Lute ) ‘Herrn Barons Fortsetzung seiner in dem Waltherischen Lexico befindlichen Lebensumstände’, in Historisch-kritische risch-kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der Musik, i (Berlin, 1755/ R), 544–6 F.W. Marpurg: Histo ‘Herrn Ernst Gottlieb Barons Beytrag zur historisch- theoretisch- und practischen Untersuchung der Laute’, ibid., ii (Berlin, 1756/ R), 65–83 ‘Herrn Barons Abhandlung von dem Notensystem der Laute und der Teorbe’, ibid., 119–23 ‘Herrn Barons zufällige Gedanken über verschiedene musikalische Materien’, ibid., 124–44 Abriss einer Abhan Abhandlung dlung von der Melodie: Melodie: eine Materie Materie der Zeit (Berlin, (Berlin, 1756) Versuch über das Schöne (A beau (1741)]; suppl. Des (Altenburg, ltenburg, 1757) [trans. of Y.M. André: Essai sur le beau Herrn Gresset … Rede von dem uralten Adel und Nutzen der Musik im Jahr 1751 gehalten [trans. of Gresset: Discours sur l’harmonie], also pubd separately (Berlin, 1757) BIBLIOGRAPHY

GerberL GerberNL MGG1 (Boetticher) WaltherML neue göttingische, aber viel schlechter, als die alten lacedämonischen urtheilende Ephorus J. Mattheson: Der neue (Hamburg, (Hambu rg, 1727), 109–27





















By 1732 Kropfgans had impressed J.G. Walther with his ability to extemporize, play thoroughbass, transpose and compose for his instrument. Soon a fer 1735 he became, like his father, a pupil of Weiss when he joined the private Kapelle of the Saxon chief minister, Count Heinrich von Brühl. In 1737 he visited Berlin and in summer 1739 joined Weiss and Wilhelm Friedemann Bach to visit J.S. Bach in Leipzig, where, according to the report of a family member, there was ‘extra-special music’ during their four-week stay. Afer Brühl’s death in 1763 Kropfgans moved to Leipzig, where he was active as a freelance musician and member of J.A. Hiller’s Grosses Concert, performing regularly in concerts until 1769. It is said that ‘he displayed on these occasions his fluency in accompanying recitative on the theorbo and with his instrument was much in demand for all operas and oratorios’. Kropfgans’s music for his instrument was extensive, to judge from that listed in various Breitkopf catalogues, but only a tiny proportion has survived. Te extant solo works are mostly minuets or character pieces in a light, galant style, style, possibly intended for amateurs. Te chamber music is notable for the independence of some of the cello parts. Kropfgans seems also to have made something of a speciality of arranging vocal music for the lute; three of the four sets of Hiller operetta arrangements listed in Breitkopf’s catalogues were probably his work. BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ GerberL WaltherML E.G. Baron: Historisch-theoretische und practische Untersuchung des Instruments der Lauten (Nuremberg, 1727/ R; Eng. trans., 1976) J.A. Hiller: Lebensbeschreibung berühmter Musikgelehrten und Tonkünstler neurer Zeit , i (Leipzig, 1784), 70 C.J.A. Hoff man: man: Die Tonkünstler Schlesiens (Breslau, 1830), 269





















music is frequently misattributed in manuscript sources – a measure of its high quality in the estimation of his contemporaries. BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrookB GerberL E.G. Baron: Historisch-theoretische und practische Untersuchung des Instruments der Lauten (Nuremberg, 1727/ R; Eng. trans., 1976) des HistoH. Federhofer: ‘Die Grazer Stadtpfarrmatrikeln als musikgeschichtliche Quelle’, Zeitschri f f des rischen Vereines für Steiermark , xlv (1954), 158–68, esp. 163 R. Flotzinger: ‘Rochus Berhandtzky und Wol ff Jacob Jacob Lauff ensteiner. ensteiner. Zum Leben und Scha ff en en zweier Lautenisten in kurbayerischen Diensten’, SMw, xxvii (1966), 200–40

Mace, Tomas (b ?Cambr ?Cambridge idge or York, York, 1612/13; d ?Cambridge, ?Cambridge, ?1706). English lutenist, singer, composer and writer. He must have been born in either 1612 or 1613 since the title-page of his pamphlet Riddles, Mervels and Rarities, Rarities, or A New Way Way of Health, from an Old Man Man’s Experience (Cambridge, 1698) describes him as ‘being now in the Eighty Six Year of his Age’; branches of the Mace family lived in Cambridge and York. As a boy he was probably a chorister. On 10 August 1635 he was appointed a singing-man in the choir of Trinity College, Cambridge. Royalist sympathies no doubt caused him to leave Cambridge during the Civil War; in 1644 he witnessed the siege of York. But he is known to have given singing lessons in Cambridge in May 1647. He lived through the plague in Cambridge in 1665–6 and a ferwards is known to have lef there Musick’’s Moon only two occasions: for a visit to London in 1676 to arrange for the publication of Musick nument and, and, at the age of 77, presumably in 1690, when he went to London again for four months























Mace’s primary aim in the second and longest section of the book is explained in its title, ‘ Te Lute made Easie’. It is a complete handbook for the instrument, including important information on practical matters such as stringing, fretting and removing the belly, along with a guide for the complete beginner working systematically through the basis of technique. It contains suites in C, F, A minor, D minor, G, E minor and B minor in the French flat tuning, and a supplementary D minor suite in D minor tuning, the so-called New Tuning; because, as Mace said with some sarcasm, ‘I suppose, you may love to be b e in i n Fashion Fashi on’’. Troughout his book Mace was at once both oldfashioned and innovatory. He wrote for a 12-course lute, the instrument made popular by Jacques Gaultier in the 1620s and 30s, and the basic style of his pieces is that of the Caroline period. He aimed to draw together the best of this Anglo-French style and updated it by the addition to the suites of such forms as the old galliard and the new Tattle de Moy of his own invention, thereby putting the instrument on a new footing. His suites are unified sets of pieces with more in common than merely key and tuning. Indeed, Mace may well have been the first person to have written suites for the lute with a prescribed number of movements to be played in a certain order. He stressed that the movements of a suite ‘ought to be something a Kin … or to have some kind of Resemblance in their Conceits, Natures, or Humours’ and should all be in the same key. In a concert there should be a smooth transition between the tonalities of successive items, and to this end he provided modulating interludes for the lute. Mace was one of the few 17th-century musicians who attempted to convey the importance and





















WRITINGS

only those on or containing music Musick’s Monument, Musick’ Monument, or or A Remembrancer Remembrancer of the Best Practical Musick Musick (London, 1676); facs. with commentary and transcr. by J. Jacquot and A. Souris (Paris, 1958/ R) Riddles, Mervels and Rarities, or A New Way of Health, from an Old Man’s Experience (Cambridge, 1698) BIBLIOGRAPHY

BurneyH HawkinsH H. Watson Watson:: ‘ Tomas Mace: the Man, the Book, and the Instruments’ Instr uments’, PMA, xxxv (1908–9), 87–107 Musick’’s Monument Monument ’, GSJ , iii (1950), 9–11 D. Gill: ‘Te Lute and Musick R.M. Tackeray: ‘ Tomas Mace’, MT , xcii (1951), 306–7 J. Jacquot: ‘Musick’s Monument de T. Mace et l’évolution du goût musical en Angleterre’, RdM , xxxi (1952), 21–7 E.D. Mackerness: ‘ Tomas Mace: Additions to a Biography’, MMR, lxxxiii (1953), 43–9 E.D. Mackerness: ‘ Tomas Mace and the Fact of Reasonableness’, , lxxxv (1955), 211–17, 235–





















des nouveaux , which according to the title-pages consist only of works by Denis Gaultier, include pieces attributed elsewhere to Ennemond. Te Livre de tablature, which Denis Gaultier began and which was completed afer his death by his pupil Montarcis, does however contain an almost equal number of pieces clearly attributed either to Denis or to Ennemond. Pièces de luth (c1669) and the Livre de tablature (c1672) both begin with brief instructions on how to play the lute. La rhétorique des dieux ( (c1652), a sumptuous manuscript compiled under the patronage of Anne de Chambré, is divided into 12 parts, each named afer one of the Greek modes, and is illustrated with engravings afer Le Sueur, Abraham Bosse and Robert de Nanteuil. His output (and that of Ennemond too), which was originally entirely for lute, comprises principally dances, some of which are indicated by subtitles selected from mythology. Te two composers developed the tombeau, which in fact they pioneered in lute music. Teir use of tonality is o fen more adventurous than that of their predecessors. Froberger was one of several composers of keyboard music who found inspiration in the style of their music, not least the textures; some compositions by the Gaultiers indeed were transcribed for harpsichord in the 17th century. Perrine also used pieces by them when he experimented about 1680 with the writing of lute music in sta ff notation. notation. BIBLIOGRAPHY

O. Fleischer: Fleischer : ‘Denis Gaultier’ Gaultier’,, VMw, ii (1886), 1–180 E.W. Häfner: Die Lautenstücke des Denis Gaultier (Endingen, (Endingen, 1939)

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