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COACH

VOLUME 2

ISSUE 4

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The NSCA Coach publishes Coach publishes basic educational information for Associate and Professional Members of the NSCA specifically focusing on novice strength and conditioning coaches. As a quarterly publication, this journal’s mission is to publish peer-reviewed articles that provide basic, practical information that is researchresearch-based based and applicable to a wide variety of athlete and training needs.

COACH ISSUE 4 VOLUME 2

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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HOW LOW CAN YOU GO—CONSIDERATIONS FOR F OR LOW-CARBOHYDRATE LOW-CARBOHYDRATE DIETS DI ETS

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REPEATED SPRINT CAPABILITY IN SOCCER PLAYERS

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TECHNOLOGY AND THE STRENGTH COACH—A DISCUSSION OF PRACTICALITY, AFFORDABILITY, AND EFFICACY

DEBRA WEIN, MS, RDN, LDN, NSCA-CPT,*D, AND ESTHER BUSTAMANTE, RD, NSCA-CPT

GARY STEBBING, PGDIP, CSCS

DAN GIULIANI, MS, CSCS

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STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING FOR TABLE TENNIS ATHLETES

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EARLY SPORT SPECIALIZATION VERSUS DIVERSIFICATION IN YOUTH ATHLETES

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HOW CONDITIONING TRAINING AFFECTS GAME DAY PERFORMANCE

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REFRAMING INFLAMMATION IN THE TENDON REPAIR PROCESS

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START EARLY—THE KEY TO PREPARING ATHLETES FOR THE RIGORS OF HIGH SCHOOL STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING

DANNY LUM, CSCS

THOMAS CARUSO, CSCS, RSCC

CHRIS MCQUILKIN, MS, CSCS

GABRIELLE SMITH, MA, AND BRIAN GEARITY, PHD, CSCS

RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW


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HOW LOW CAN YOU GO—CONSIDERATIONS FOR LO LOW-CARBOHYDRATE W-CARBOHYDRATE DIETS DEBRA WEIN, MS, RDN, LDN, NSCA-CPT,*D, AND ESTHER BUSTAMANTE, RD, NSCA-CPT

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raditional diets tend to have carbohydrates comprise the majority of the kilocalories of overall overall intake. This is due to the fact that glucose has long been known to be the body’s preferential source of energy, especially in brain function and during high-intensity exercise (2,4,7). However, recent research has developed new ways of approaching macronutrient ratios that challenge this conventional way of thinking. This article aims to take a look at what is usually recommended recommended for athletes, as well as different lower carbohydrate variations. This way strength and conditioning coaches and athletes can better determine which approach is best for them to reach their specific goals. Furthermore, Furthermore, working directly with a Registered Dietitian may be the best way to approach any dietary plans.

MACRO GUIDELINES FOR GENERAL POPULATION/HEALTH The health and wellness of the general population can be achieved by following the dietary guidelines set forth by the U nited States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Institute of Medicine. The goal of these guidelines is to promote overall health and stave off chronic diseases (i.e., diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular cardiovascular disease, etc.). These guidelines recommend recommend that at least half of the carbohydrates consumed should be from complex, whole grains (12). They also advise a diet laden with fruits and vegetables. The protein sources should be lean and fat sources should be unsaturated fats predominately. The guidelines indicate that these macronutrients macronutrients should be consumed in the ratio of 45 – 65% carbohydrates, 10 – 35% protein, and 20 – 35% fat (12).

GUIDELINES FOR ATHLETES Because athletes are not the general population, different recommendations have been made for them. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and the International Society of Sports Nutrition have recommended carbohydrate intake at 5 – 10 g/kg of bodyweight for athletes in general, protein intake of 1.2 – 1.4 g/kg of bodyweight for endurance athletes, and 1.2 – 1.7 g/kg of bodyweight for strength athletes (8,11). However, athletes involved in high-intensity training can consume protein amounts up to 2.0 g/kg of bodyweight (8). Fat intake is consistent with USDA recommendations at 20 – 35% of total kcals (8,11). Due to the potential risk of an unbalanced diet resulting in nutrient deficiency, general health concerns, and performance issues, high fat diets are not generally recommended recommended for athletes (11). These recommendations recommendations may need to be adjusted based on individual goals, bodyweight, total kcals needed, and training volume and intensity.

PROS 1. Appropriate and easily adaptable for everyone from physically physically active general populations to elite athletes. 2. Balanced ratios, similar to USDA guidelines, promote healthy athletes with no risk of nutrient deficiencies.

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3. Higher carbohydrate recommendations ensure sufficient energy to power through training and games/races and for re covery. covery. 4. Moderate Moderate protein and fat for building and maintaining muscle mass and energy stores.

CONS 1. Macronutrient Macronutrient ratios may be inappropriate for weight or body composition changes for athletes in weight-dependent sports.

LOW CARB The Paleo Diet™ is notorious for cutting out grains, dairy, and legumes while emphasizing animal-based protein. This is just one of many low-carb diet options but it will be used as an example for the purposes of this article. This low-carbohydrate diet involves slightly higher protein and fat than is generally recommended recommended for athletes with ratios of about 23% carbohydrates, 38% protein, and 39% fat (5). The “Paleo for Athletes” version of the diet provides exceptions, such as higher carbohydrate intake of up to 40% and an emphasis on timing of carbohydrate carbohydrate intake for training, competition, and recovery (5). The diet touts improved physical performance and body composition with increased energy levels. Although no research had been conducted specifically on athletes, there have been positive changes for subjects who are afflicted with metabolic syndrome (3).

PROS 1. Cuts out processed foods, refined refined sugars, and grains; it also encourages encourages fruits and vegetables. 2. Recognizes carbohydrates as a source of energy during training and events.

CONS 1. Cuts out entire food groups, grains, and dairy. dairy. Without supplementation, diet can be low in fiber and calcium—which are needed for muscle and nerve contraction as well as bone health. 2. Encourages animal protein, which can be high in saturated fat and may lead to elevated cholesterol levels. 3. It can be expensive to maintain because it consists of grassfed meats, fish or seafood, organic coconut oil, and grass-fed butter. 4. Currently, there is not much research available on athletes using the diet.

VERY LOW CARB Ketogenic diets restrict carbohydrates anywhere from less than 30 g to 130 g per day, or less than 10% total kcals. These diets include moderate amounts of protein with the remainder of total kcals in fat to place the body in a state of ketosis—high levels levels of ketone bodies in the blood from increased fat oxidation (1). The premise of the ketogenic diet is to train the body to tap into stored fat and run on ketones instead of glucose for any activity,


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from daily living to intense endurance exercise. There is a finite amount of glucose stored in the body as glycogen, glycogen, and when it eventually runs out, the athlete will “hit a wall” in terms of energy. There is much more potential energy from stored fat than stored glycogen that can be used when the triglycerides are oxidized to form ketone bodies. Researchers have noted improvements in bodyweight, body composition, energy, and endurance after adaptation to running while using ketones; however, if intensity of training were to increase, the ketone bodies may not be able to properly fuel the activity (9,14).

PROS 1. Effective in weight loss for overweight overweight or obese populations and improvement of metabolic syndrome symptoms. 2. Improvement in body composition and weight can positively impact athletic performance (10). 3. Can be beneficial in endurance athletes and those performing at submaximal levels; however, no evidence for intermittent sport athletes or high-intensity exercise. 4. Adaptation Adaptation can take as little as two weeks (13).

CONS 1. Adaptation can take take as long as a few months (13). 2. During adaptation, performance may suffer (9). 3. Not practical for high-intensity high-intensity sports or exercise; those bouts require glycogen (9,14). 4. The body synthesizes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from glycogen at a faster rate than from ketone bodies. 5. High-fat diets can impair cardiac and cognitive function (6). 6. Unfavorable Unfavorable lipid levels and diseases associated with them can be a concern.

CONCLUSION All of these diets have positives positives and negatives associated with them. Because each individual is unique in their needs and metabolism, eating plans should be adjusted to fit their specific needs. Important items to consider are the athletes’ goals, training volume, and intensity. The best macronutrient distribution ratios are the ones that can be sustained without hindering performance.

REFERENCES 1. Accurso, A, Bernstein, RK, Dahlqvist, Dahlqvi st, A, Draznin, B, Feinman, RD, Fine, EJ, et al. Dietary carbohydrate restriction in type 2 diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome: Time for a critical appraisal. Nutrition and Metabolism 5: Metabolism 5: 9, 2008.

type diet on characteristics of the metabolic syndrome: A randomized controlled pilot-study. Lipids in Health and Disease; Disease ; 13: 160, 2014. 4. Burke, LM, Hawley, Hawley, JA, Wong, SHS, and Jeukendrup, AE. Carbohydrates for training and competition. Journal competition. Journal of Sports Sciences 29(suppl Sciences 29(suppl 1): 17-27, 2011. 5. Cordain, L, and Friel, J. The Paleo Diet for Athletes: The Ancient Nutritional Form ula for Peak Athletic Perform ance . New York, NY: Rodale; 2012. 6. Holloway, CJ, Cochlin, LE, Emmanuel, Y, Y, Murray, A, Codreanu, I, Edwards, LM, et al. A high-fat diet impairs cardiac high-energy phosphate metabolism and cognitive function in healthy human subjects. American subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 93(4): 748-755, 2011. 7. Kenney, WL, Wilmore, J, and Costill, D. D. Physiology of Sport and Exercise. Exercise. (6th ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 51-71, 2015. 8. Kreider, RB, Wilborn, CD, Taylor, L, Campbell , C, Almada, AL, Collins, R, et al. ISSN exercise and sport nutrition review: Research and recommendations. recommendations. Journal Journal of the Intern ational Society of Sports Nutrition 7:7, Nutrition 7:7, 2010. 9. Maughan, RJ, and Shirreffs, SM. Nutrition for sports performance: Issues and opportunities. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 71(1): 71(1): 112-119, 2012. 10. Rhyu, H, and Cho, SU. The effect of weight loss by by ketogenic diet on the body composition, performance-related performance-related physical fitness factors and cytokines of Taekwondo athletes. Journal athletes. Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation 10(5): Rehabilitation 10(5): 2014. 11. Rodriguez, NR, DiMarco, NM, and Langley, S. Position of the American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and athletic performance. Journal of the Amer ican Dietetic Assoc iation iatio n 109(3): 509-527, 2009. 12. United States States Department of Agriculture Agriculture and United States Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans (7th Americans (7th ed.) Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 2010. 13. Volek, JS, and Phinney, SD. The Art and Science of Low Carbohydrate Performance. Performance. Miami, FL: Beyond Obesity, LLC; 2012. 14. Zajac, A, Poprzecki, S, Maszczyk, Maszczyk, A, Czuba, Czuba, M, Michalczyk, Michalczyk, M, and Zydek, G. The effects of a ketogenic diet on exercise metabolism and physical performance in off-road cyclists. Nutrients 6(7): Nutrients 6(7): 2493-2508, 2014.

2. Berg, JM, Tymoczko, JL, and Stryer, L. Each organ has a unique metabolic profile. In: Biochemistry . (5th ed.) New York: WH Freeman; 2002. 3.

Boers, I. et al. Fav Favourable ourable effects of consuming consuming a PalaeolithicPalaeolithic-


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HOW LOW CAN YOU GO—CONSIDERATIONS FOR LO LOW-CARBOHYDRATE W-CARBOHYDRATE DIETS

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Debra Wein is a nationally recognized expert on health and wellness. She has nearly 20 years of experience working in the health and wellness industry and has designed award-winning programs for both individua ls and corporations a cross the country. She is President and founder of Wellness Workdays, (www.wellnessworkda (www .wellnessworkdays.com) ys.com) a leading lea ding provider of worksite wellness programs. Wein is also the Program Director of the Wellness Workdays Dietetic Internship, the only worksite wellnessfocused internship for dietetics students interested in becoming Registered Dietitians that is approved by the Accreditation Council for Education in Nutrition and Dietetics (ACEND).

Esther Bustamante is a Registered Dietitian (RD) and National Strength and Conditioning Association-Certified Personal Trainer® (NSCA-CPT®). She has nearly seven years of experience in the health and wellness field with a background in fitness and sports medicine. She completed her dietetic internship with a focus on worksite wellness through Wellness Workdays.

TABLE 1. CARBOHYDRATE, PROTEIN, AND FA FAT T RATIOS

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DIET/ FUELING PLAN

CARBOHYDRATES

PROTEIN

FAT

United States Department of Agriculture (12)

46 – 65% of total kcals

10 – 35% of total kcal s


Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (11)

6 – 10 g/kg bodyweight

1.2 – 1.7 g/kg bodyweight


International International Society of Sports Nutrition (8)

5 – 10 g/kg bodyweight

1.4 – 2.0 g/kg bodyweight

~30% of total kcals

Paleo Diet (5)

23% of total kcals; athletes can increase up to 40%

38% of total kcals

39% of total kcal s

Ketogenic Diet (1)

< 30 g/day or < 10% of total kcals

Moderate

High


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REPEATED SPRINT CAPABILITY IN SOCCER PLAYERS GARY STEBBING, PGDIP, CSCS

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occer requires a blend of extraordinarily diverse athletic capabilities ranging from aerobic endurance to explosive power and repeated sprint ability. These athletic abilities must be combined with technical proficiency, tactical awareness, psychological robustness, and fatigue resistance in order to attain high levels of success. Adequate and appropriate development of these abilities are challenging alone, but also may require a strength and conditioning coach capable of addressing these facets within specific periods of the competitive cycle (16). This article will examine the physical demands of soccer players and discuss why repeated sprint ability (RSA) is considered highly important in the performance of these athletes.

PHYSIOLOGICAL DEMANDS OF SOCCER Quantifying key performance variables is comparatively straightforward straightforward in sports such as track and field or cycling. However, in soccer a complex array of performance elements interact on individual and team levels (8). Soccer demands have been assessed by monitoring player work rates and physiological responses. The resultant statistical data is consistently consistently used to guide training prescription; however, the potential variability that exists in data collection should warn practitioners about the reliability of single observations and the small sample sizes that are commonly found (8). Evidence indicates overall intensity across a 90-min match for elite-level soccer players is close to lactate threshold or around 80 – 90% maximum heart rate with total distances covered in

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the 10,000 – 11,000 m range (about 10,900 – 12,000 yards) (11). In addition, VO2max testing indicates that most players measure in the 55 – 65 ml/kg/min range (11). Although analysis of elitelevel soccer players has measured a range of important factors in soccer performance, the overall impact of specific highintensity movements, particularly the constant deceleration and acceleration, acceleration, requires a better understanding understanding still (18). Even though metabolic analysis suggests a high reliance on aerobic metabolism, critical game moments are often characterized characterized by explosive explosive activities, including sprinting, acceleration, deceleration, change of direction, turning, and jumping (12). In addition, speed and power are critical performance factors. Although high-intensity efforts represent only around 10% of the distance covered, these efforts are often key in the decisive moments (10). As a result, intermittent intermittent highintensity endurance and, in particular, RSA are considered of high importance in competitive soccer (5).

DEVELOPING REPEATED SPRINT CAPABILITY Repeated sprint exercise exercise (RSE) is characterized by short, maximalintensity efforts interspersed with periods of incomplete recovery, and has been described as sprints of 10 s or less with recovery recovery bouts of 60 s or less (1). Decreases in running speed over repeated efforts are normally used to assess repeated sprint performance performance of this kind. Effective performance of repeated sprints requires an individual to quickly generate explosive power and then to sustain this over several efforts (1). Repeated power output of the lower


NSCA COACH 2.4 limbs is also associated with sprint performance in soccer (15). Most protocols currently used to train RSA use predetermined sprint durations, repetitions, and recovery periods, which are not sensitive to the individual or position of the player (15). Furthermore, many of these RSA protocols lack support in the research literature (2). Alternative Alternative approaches using sprint training with complete recovery between efforts may also develop RSA. In consideration of the change of direction demands of soccer, developing combined sprint and agility training may also prove effective (3). Resistance training has demonstrated effectiveness in improving single sprint performance and early evidence suggests training with a high metabolic training rather than maximal strength training may also positively affect RSA (2). High-velocity (i.e., explosive) strength training is commonly used to improve the neuromuscular qualities associated with athletic performance, and both explosive exercise and RSE training can enhance RSA (3,4). Production of power and explosive ability is dependent on a variety of structural, neural, and coordinative factors. Consequently, Consequently, training using the application of ballistic resistance training, plyometrics, plyometrics, and weightlifting should all be considered in overall programing (20). Additionally, improved aerobic endurance and greater VO2max may also improve RSA (7,14). This may be related to its influence on recovery between efforts in combination with enhanced lipid utilization, which can delay the onset of fatigue (7,9). Therefore, the benefits of training to improve aerobic endurance should not be overlooked. Based on the practice methods of elite sprint coaches, an interest in submaximal sprint efforts has been explored as a possible option for improving RSA. Initial findings using 90% of maximum intensity still support the need for maximal efforts to improve RSA; however, this approach warrants further exploration (9). Small-sided games (i.e., competitive, focused races/contests that replicate the demands of the sport, but are scaled down for training purposes) may be effective in developing developing some aspects of soccer conditioning, and it may be interesting to explore how this setting can be manipulated to include a specific RSA component. In collision sports such as rugby league, repeated repeated sprint and effort ability have been identified as two distinct qualities; this may also be true to soccer, even though it may be to a lesser degree because of the lower instances of collisions (13). Repeated sprint efforts may involve jumps, changes of direction, collisions, coming up from the ground to sprint, and sprinting to tackle and then sprinting again. Implementing specifically designed RSE drills that integrate these factors may prove beneficial for soccer players.

PRACTICAL PROGRAM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Approaches Approaches to conditioning training for soccer can be broadly categorized as follows: • General training is is characterized by work of varying types and intensities without a ball.

• Specific t raining withou t a ball reflects reflects specific characteristics of the game such as work-to-rest interval patterns but does not include a ball. • Specific t raining with a ball reflects reflects the demands of the game and includes a ball in all sessions. • Combination training includes includes elements of specific work with and without the ball, combining both aspects of specific training. Repeated sprint work with turns and small-sided games are common approaches currently used to address aerobic and anaerobic performance as well as recovery ability (6). Though small-sided games can be manipulated and organized to provide an excellent conditioning environment, the need for specific interventions interventions to target key abilities is still highly important in developing the soccer player (18). There is a need for conditioning coaches to develop modified drills involving game-like simulations specific to each player that target the relevant physical abilities needed. These drills will involve involve combinations of speed work, ball work, technical demands, and varying intensities and recovery recovery bouts in line with the positional demands and development objectives of each player (17). Match-based work-to-rest ratios, which are influenced by level of competition and playing position, should also be considered (20). It is important to develop a long-term approach for soccer RSA that is managed within the overall player development program and considers the competitive schedule of the team and individual (2). Across most levels of the game, the training year can be divided into off-season, pre-season, and in-season periods, with the competitive period between between 9 and 11 months in duration. This is dependent on the level of the player and the overall success of the team, which may extend the season via cup competitions or playoff scenarios. A periodized plan that includes each approach individually across training blocks or multiple approaches in single blocks are two potentially viable options for strength and conditioning coaches. RSA appears difficult to develop when applied concurrently concurrently in-season on top of the other training modes required of a soccer player.

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDA RECOMMENDATIONS TIONS In an analysis of soccer performance, performance, it can be very difficult to differentiate the various physical factors due to significant crossover crossover and inter-reactions inter-reactions between abilities. Combined with the unpredictability of the game, its competitive schedule, and the prevalence of injury, strength and conditioning for soccer creates unique program design challenges for coaches. Current understanding of the various interactions between metabolic, neural, and mechanical factors involved in RSA makes specific training guidelines elusive. However, general recommendations recommendations include:


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REPEATED SPRINT CAPABILITY IN SOCCER PLAYERS

• Training to improve maximal sprint speed (i.e., specific sprint drills or resistance training approaches). approaches). • Inclusion of high-intensity high-intensity interval interval running sessions with shorter recovery periods. • Inclusion of traditional traditional RSA training with repeated repeated maximal sprint efforts and limited recovery. • Training for high-velocity (i.e., explosiveness) where appropriate; ballistic resistance work, plyometrics, and weightlifting drills could also be implemented. • Using small-sided games of varying configurations configurations (e.g., (e.g., 1 versus 1 and 2 versus 2). • Ensuring that aerobic aerobic conditioning is well well trained. It is important to remember that in game situations, RSE are often combined with an array of technical and decision-making skills. In addition, the impact of fatigue on tackling, jumping, ball contact, dribbling, and ball striking need to be understood better (18). Backward and lateral movements, often omitted from training programs, are important in defensive situations and should be prioritized for relevant players (19). Use of small-sided games in differing sized areas with varying participants (i.e., 1v1, 2v2, 3v3, up to 5v5) provides an opportunity to target a conditioning conditioning adaptation while providing providing some degree of sport specificity. Guidelines for appropriate volume and duration of both RSA and small-sided games sessions need to be carefully planned and managed.

REFERENCES 1. Bishop, D, and Giroud, O. Repeated sprint ability. In: Cardinale, M, Newton, R, and Nosaka, K (Eds). Strength and Conditioning – Biological Principles and Practical Applications . Chichester UK: Wiley-Blackwell; 223-241, 2011. 2. Bishop, D, Giraud, O, and Mendez-Villanueva, A. Repeated sprint ability – Par t II: Recommend ations for training. Sp orts Medicine 41(9): Medicine 41(9): 741-756, 2011. 3. Buchheit, M, Bishop, D, Haydar, B, Nakamura, FY, FY, and Ahmaidi , S. Physiological responses to shuttle repeated sprint running. International Journal of Sports Medicine 31(6): 402-409, 2010. 4. Buchheit, M, MendezMendez-Villaneuva, Villaneuva, A, Delhommel, G, Brughelli, Brughelli, M, and Ahmaidi, S. Improving Improving repeated sprint ability in young elite soccer players: Repeated shuttle sprints vs explosive training. The Journal of Strength a nd Conditioning Research 42(10): 2715-2722, 2010. 5. Chaouachi , A, Manzi, V, V, Wong, DP, Chaalal i, A, Laurencelle, L, Chamari, K, and Castagna, C. Intermittent endurance and repeated sprint ability in soccer players. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 24(10): Research 24(10): 2663-2668, 2010.

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6. Dellal, Dellal , A, Chamari, K, Wong, DP, DP, Ahmaidi, S, Keller, Keller, D, and Barros, RML. Comparison of physical and technical performance in European soccer match-play: FA Premier League and La Liga. European Journal of Sport Science 11(1): Science 11(1): 51-59, 2011. 7. Gharbi, Z, Dardouri, W, W, Haj-Sass i, R, Chamari , K, and Souissi , N. Aerobic and Anaerobic determinants of repeated sprint ability in team sport athletes. Biology athletes. Biology of Sport 32(3): 32(3): 207-212, 2015. 8. Gregson, W, W, Drust, B, Atkinson, G, and Salvo, VD. Match to match variability of high speed activities in Premier League Soccer. Soccer. International Journal of Sports Medicine 31(4): 237-242, 2010. 9. Haugen, T, T, Tonnessen, E, Leirstein, S, Hem, E, and Seiler, S. Not quite so fast: Effect of training at 90% sprint speed on maximal and repeated-sprint ability in soccer players. Journal players. Journal of Sport Sciences 32(20): Sciences 32(20): 1979-1986, 2014. 10. Haugen, TA, TA, Tonnessen, Tonnessen, E, and Seiler, S. Anaerobic performance testing of professional soccer players 1995-2010. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 8(2): 148-156, 2013. 11. Hoff, J. Training and testing physical capacitie s for elite soccer players. Journal players. Journal of Sport Sc iences 23(6): iences 23(6): 573-582, 2005. 12. Hoff, J, and Helgerud, J. Endurance and strength training for soccer players – Physiological considerations. considerations. Sports Medicine 34(3): 165-180, 2004. 13. Johnston, RD, and Gabett, T. Repeated sprint and effort ability in rugby league players. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 25(10): Research 25(10): 2789-2795, 2011. 14. Le Rossignol, P, P, Gabbett, TJ, TJ, Comerford, D, and Stanton, WR. Repeated sprint ability and team selection in Australian Football Football League players. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 9(1): Performance 9(1): 161-165, 2014. 15. López-Segovia, López-Segovia, M, Dellal, A, Chamari, K, and González-Badillo, González-Badillo, JJ. Importance of muscle power variables in repeated and single sprint performance in soccer. Journal soccer. Journal of Human Kinet ics 40, ics 40, 201211, 2014. 16. McGawley, K, and Anderson, PI. The order of concurrent training does not affect soccer related performance adaptations. International Journal of Sports Medicine 34(11): 983-990, 2013. 17. Mohr, M, and Marcello Iaia, F. F. Physiological basis of fatigue resistance training in competitive football. Gatorade football. Gatorade Sports Science Exchange 27(126): Exchange 27(126): 1-9, 2014. 18. Osgnach, C, Poser, S, Bernardini, R, and di Prampero. Energy cost and metabolic power in elite soccer: A new match analysis approach. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 42(1): 170178, 2010. 19. Reilly, T. T. An ergonomics model of the soccer training process. Journal of Sport Sc iences 23(6): iences 23(6): 561-572, 2005. 20. Turner, AN, and Stewart, PF. PF. Strength and conditioning for soccer players. Strength and Conditioning Journal 36(4): Journal 36(4): 1-13, 2014.


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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Gary Stebbing studied sport and exercise science as an undergraduate and sport and performance psychology at the postgraduate level (PGDip). He has been certified as a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) through the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) for 13 years. He trains clients for challenging objectives such as ultra-endurance and multi-day events. Since 1995, Stebbing has been a trainer and freelance performance and conditioning coach, including practicing, writing , and lecturing on coa ching psychology, training, and conditioning for sport in the United Kingdom and Australia. Prior to this, he was a professional soccer player, spending 11 years in English leagues and captaining England at the U18 and U19 levels.

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TECHNOLOGY AND THE STRENGTH STREN GTH COACH—A DISCUSSION OF PRACTICALITY PRACTIC ALITY,, AFFORDABILITY, AND EFFICACY DAN GIULIANI, MS, CSCS

THE 21ST-CENTURY WEIGHT ROOM

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n today’s world, technology has made its way into the realm of strength and conditioning. This means that the low-tech tools upon which the industry relies—barbells, dumbbells, and medicine balls—meet high-tech solutions for data measurement, performance analysis, and training prescription. Coaches and athletes have access to thousands of fitness apps, wearable tech devices, and online tools. These new tools have been coined “fitness technology” and they represent the intersection between old and new. For the strength and conditioning coach, this intersection can be a potentially uncomfortable uncomfortable crossroads: either evolve with the changing landscape of technology, or be deemed a dinosaur and disregarded as out of touch with today’s athlete. There are several clear advantages to embracing and using this technology for a strength and conditioning coach. Strength and conditioning conditioning coaches can use technology to further engage athletes in and out of the weight room. On average, people from the Millennial Generation check their phone around 43 times per day—this equates to about once every 20 min during a 16-hour day (1). Strength and conditioning coaches coaches can use the immediacy of information gleaned from new technologies to make decisions about training and recovery. Additionally, technology can extend the reach of a strength and conditioning coach beyond athletes at one specific facility or school, thus enabling expertise and guidance to reach athletes around the world.

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NAVIGATING THE TECH FLOOD: IS MORE REALLY MORE? Most new technologies promise similar advances like more data, more tracking, more analytics, and more insights. They also seem to preserve a strength coach’s most precious resource, which is time. Strength coaches are notorious for working slavishly long hours with modest compensation and having to sacrifice family time, social time, and alone time for the good of their athletes. But, do these new technologies actually save time? Each new app or program demands a time investment to learn its functionalities, implement training schedules, and keep all data inputs up-to-date. Each new device requires time devoted to learning how to calibrate, operate, and maintain it. This presents a catch-22 scenario as it may end up costing more time than it saves. This is not to say that strength and conditioning coaches should eschew all technological advances, but rather, they should be judicious in considering the cost in terms of time.

THE LEBRON JAMES FACTOR AND THE MAJORITY Many professional teams and major Division I programs are tackling this issue of data inundation by hiring a sport scientist, or a team of sport scientists, and borrowing from the highperformance model promoted in Australia and Europe (2). The small percentage of strength and conditioning coaches fortunate enough to operate with abundant budgets are able to invest in the most cutting-edge and expensive technologies. While this may help with training elite teams, some technologies are not practical


NSCA COACH 2.4 for the majority of strength and conditioning coaches that are working with much smaller budgets and fewer resources. Immediate metrics on athlete performance, from heart rate recovery data to measurements tracked with Global Positioning System (GPS), provide a discerning strength and conditioning coach with a wealth of data that can be used to improve their programming. programming. Common measures that can be easily assessed include skin temperature, temperature, the velocity of a barbell during a snatch, and fluctuations in heart rate and response time that can indicate central nervous system fatigue (3). For example, with the right tools, strength and conditioning coaches coaches can analyze discrepancies in a football center’s lateral movements, break down the physiological cost of deceleration for a basketball player, and leverage technology that uses gyroscopes, accelerometers, and magnetometers to better prepare their athletes for competition (4). There is no denying that technology can do a lot for strength and conditioning coaches. However, just because a new, shiny, and expensive technological toy comes out, does not mean it is the right fit for all strength and conditioning coaches. One of the biggest mistakes often seen with strength and conditioning coaches is trying to do what high-profile coaches coaches and teams are doing. For example, just because the Miami Dolphins National Football League (NFL) team is using the latest and greatest technological technological innovations to train and measure their football athletes does not make the same technology applicable, practical, or affordable for high school or college programs. This has been termed the “LeBron James factor” by some sport professionals. professionals. For example, a 15-year-old basketball player cannot be expected to be successful from emulating the same training program that LeBron James uses. For the majority of strength and conditioning coaches who do not have a large budget at their disposal, selecting the right technologies technologies to utilize with their athletes is even more important. They must be able to discern what technology to embrace, what to disregard, and what is worth the financial commitment. When it comes to technology, it is all about the bottom line: how to get the most “bang for your buck.” One way to think of it is that it is like a kid in a candy store with one dollar. The kid must decide what will give them the most enjoyment from the finite amount of money. For today’s strength and conditioning coaches, the premise is the same. They must decide between purchasing one piece of hightech equipment that only a few athletes can utilize at once, or selecting something that is scalable to the whole team.

are offered for consideration when narrowing down the myriad of technology choices:

1. Price When factoring for price, use that same analogy of the kid in the candy store. Ultimately, the limiting factor in choosing what to purchase is the finite monetary resources available. For instance, it is cut-and-dry that the kid is unable to buy a twodollar candy bar with only one dollar. However, for the strength and conditioning coach, budgetary concerns are usually more convoluted—partly because there are more stakeholders in an athletic department. Part of this decision is to decide what to prioritize (e.g., all or many athletes, the best athletes, or the highest profile teams in the department). Between strength and conditioning coaches, athletic directors, sport coaches, athletic trainers, and other personnel with vested interest in the program, there is room for disagreement and debate about how to best use the department’s finite budget. So, although price forms the bottom line of what technology can ultimately be invested in, the decision should not be made in a vacuum. It is recommended that strength and conditioning coaches consult with the key stakeholders to figure out which technologies will give the best return for the investment, given the priorities at hand.

2. Practicality Practicality harkens back to the LeBron James factor. The coolest, most expensive new tech gadget on the market may be absolutely useless to a specific strength and conditioning program. When deciding how to use these resources, it is important to always return to the question of practicality: can it be implemented in the program, in the weight room, and with all or most of the athletes? For some strength and conditioning coaches, a single piece of equipment that can only be used by one athlete at a time will make sense for their programs. For others, technology that can be used simultaneously by many athletes will be a more practical investment. investment. It is paramount to consider all of the factors that the environment presents (e.g., what size is the weight room? Will the technology be used indoors or outdoors? Is the facility secure enough to store expensive expensive tech equipment safely? What are the ages of the athletes? Are they mature enough to care for new technology? Are all the athletes coached at once, or in small groups? Will the athletes buy into new technology?). Answering these questions can give a strength and conditioning coach a good sense of what direction to go with purchasing new technology.

3. Credibility

TECH ETHICS FOR THE STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COA COACH CH Working Working with a fixed budget places a lot of responsibility on a strength and conditioning coach’s shoulders to find tech options that are directly applicable to the preparation and performance of their athletes, practical for day-to-day day-to-day implementation, and within the limitations of their budget. The following three factors

After price and practicality, the most important—and arguably, the most overlooked—factor in the decision to invest in new technology is its credibility. credibility. One way to think of credibility is to look at it as if considering the purchase purchase of a specific book on training methods. One very important concern would be to consider who wrote the book. Also, it is useful to know about the author’s qualifications, background, certifications,


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TECHNOLOGY AND THE STRENGTH COACH—A COACH—A DISCUSSION OF PRACTICALITY, AFFORDABILITY, AND EFFICACY coaching experience, and reputation within the industry. All of these answers would factor into a book purchase decision and the subsequent implementation of its information, and the same should go for investing in new technology. With such an important decision, the strength and conditioning coach should only invest in technologies created by those who understand the industry and are dedicated to its growth.

THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE STRENGTH COACH

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Dan Giuliani is an Adjunct Professor of Sport Performance at the University of Washington and is the co-founder of Volt Athletics. He has coac hed athletes at the high school and college levels since 2006 and is a renowned speaker in the sport performance field. Giuliani ha s a Master’s Master ’s degree in Sport Administration and Leadership from Seattle University and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from Colby College.

When choosing whether to purchase new technological advances, strength and conditioning coaches should be discriminating and discerning in order to maximize the training of their athletes. It is important to not be led astray by the lucrative, shiny, and welladvertised new technologies, and instead rely on good decision making. Three factors that strength and conditioning coaches could consider are price, practicality, and credibility. The job of the strength and conditioning coach has, and always will be, to train athletes in the most effective and ethical way. The strength and conditioning conditioning coach should make informed and deliberate decisions of when new technology will, or will not, aid them in performing to their best abilities.

REFERENCES 1. Maurides, Z. How technology is changing changing the way athletic departments communicate. Pivot . 2015. Retrieved August 18, 2015 from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-technology-changingway-athletic-departme way-athletic-departments-zacharynts-zachary-maurides. maurides. 2. Konrad, A. The Australian tech that’s improving the world’s best athletes. Forbes Tech. Tech. 2013. Retrieved September 12, 2015 from http://www http://www.forbes.com/sites/alexkonrad/2013/05/08/aussie.forbes.com/sites/alexkonrad/2013/05/08/aussietech-catapult-gps/. 3. Poliqui n Group. Monitoring central nervous system recovery. 2012. Poliquin Group. Group . Retrieved September 12, 2015 from http:// www.poliquingroup.com/ArticlesMultimedia/Articles/Article/825/ Monitoring_Central_Nervous_System_Recovery.aspx. 4. Steinbach, P. Tracking technology revolutionizes athlete training. Athletic training. Athletic Business . 2013. Retrieved August 18, 2015 from http://www.athleticbusiness.com/equipment/tracking-technologyrevolutionizes-athlete-training.html.

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NSCA COACH 2.4


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STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING FOR TABLE TENNIS ATHLETES DANNY LUM, CSCS

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able tennis, or ping pong, is a fast-paced racket sport that requires an athlete to perform intermittent high-intensity movements throughout a game. To win each set, the athlete is required to score 11 points, and each game is won when the athlete successfully successfully wins three out of five sets. The sport has been played in the Summer Olympic Games since 1988. Published works on table tennis have mainly touched on the biomechanics and physiology of the sport, yet little i s known about strength and conditioning conditioning for this sport. The aim of this article is to provide a brief overview of the physical demands of the sport, and to provide recommendations on specific strength and conditioning exercises exercises based on the biomechanical and physiological demands of the forehand loop technique utilized in table tennis.

PHYSICAL DEMANDS In a sample of regional and national-level table tennis athletes, researchers reported that the average total play time per table tennis game is 970 s (16.2 min), with an average real playing time of 244.7 s (4.1 min), and an average rally duration of 3.4 s (10). During this playing time, the athlete will perform a number of rapid movements and changes of directions in order to return the ball to the opponent. It was also reported that athletes could perform about 35 shots per min (10). With the ball traveling traveling at such high speed, successful table tennis athletes are required to possess high levels of anaerobic power and agility in order to move rapidly and successfully successfully return a shot multiple times. Among all the attacking techniques in table tennis, one of the most prevalent attacking techniques is the forehand loop because

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it is generally considered the most effective. When performing this technique, technique, the table tennis athlete typically pushes off the ground in the forward or lateral direction with the lower limb on the same side as the hand holding the paddle or racket. Subsequently, the athlete will simultaneously rotate the trunk, horizontally flex and internally rotate the shoulder joint, and flex the elbow to swing the paddle towards the approaching ball. It is important for offensive athletes to be able to generate high paddle velocity when performing the forehand loop technique as it will lead to a higher ball speed and spin (5). Electromyography data have shown that the major contributors to paddle speed during ball impact include speed of trunk rotation, shoulder flexion, and shoulder internal rotation (3). Another study reported that the elbow and wrist joints al so contrib ute signif icantly to the energy transfer fro m the shoulder to the paddle (4). The summation of forces produced by the activated muscles allows the table tennis athlete to produce high ball speed; therefore, it is important for table tennis athletes to strengthen these areas. Contribution to the ball speed during the forehand loop technique is not limited to the upper body. The initial force development during a forehand loop technique is produced by the lower body and then transferred through the body to the paddle, or bat (9,11). Studies have shown that a high amount of ground reaction force is produced produced when athletes hit the ball (9,11). This supports the need for table tennis athletes to possess high levels of muscular power in the lower body. Furthermore, the constant need to accelerate, decelerate, and reaccelerate multiple times throughout the game requires table tennis athletes to develop multiple strength components components for the lower body (8).


NSCA COACH 2.4 TRAINING PROGRAM Table tennis is a fast-paced sport that requires speed and agility. Therefore, when prescribing a strength and conditioning program for table tennis athletes, strength and conditioning coaches should focus on improving the ability of the nervous system to activate the stretch shortening cycle of the muscles, rather than inducing muscle hypertrophy which might slow down the athlete or not induce high-velocity adaptations. Therefore, it is recommended that strength and conditioning coaches avoid having these athletes train until momentary muscular failure, as such training methods are more likely to induce muscle hypertrophy (6,7). Power is the product of force and velocity. Thus, to increase muscular power, it is advisable to improve both the force and velocity components. components. It has been shown that training with loads greater than 80% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) is effective in improving muscular force development, and low-load explosive exercises are effective in improving the velocity component (1). Furthermore, the magnitude of improvement in maximal power may be influenced by the movements associated with the selected exercises (2). Therefore, strength and conditioning exercises should mirror the movements that are specific to the sport to help improve the coordination of the involved muscles and joints while training for maximal power. Strength and conditioning coaches are encouraged to take these factors into consideration when planning training program for their athletes. Table 1 shows a sample strength and conditioning program for table tennis athletes. The program is comprised of exercises that train the muscles of the upper and lower body, trunk, and shoulders, which all contribute to table tennis performance. These exercises also aim to improve multiple strength components and change of direction ability.

INJURY PREVENTION Trunk rotations and shoulder movements are executed numerous times during skills training sessions and competitions. High repetitive repetitive movement about the joints might increase the risk of overuse injuries. Therefore, it is recommended that strength and conditioning coaches include exercises for injury prevention. Table 2 provides a list of exercises that may aid in preventing shoulder and lower back injuries.

CONCLUSION Table tennis is a fast-paced sport that requires athletes to possess the agility to change direction rapidly and multiple times. It also requires athletes to possess the ability to produce high ball speed by transferring energy from the lower body, trunk, and upper body to the paddle. This proposed training program may aid in improving a table tennis athlete’s performance while reducing the risk of injury.

REFERENCES 1. American College of Sports Medicine. Progression Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise 41(3): Exercise 41(3): 687-708, 2009.

2. Cormie, P, P, McGuigan, MR, and Newton, RU. Developing maximal neuromuscular power part 2 – Training considerations for improving maximal power production. Sports Medicine 41(2): Medicine 41(2): 125-146, 2011. 3. Iino, Y, Y, and Kojima, Kojima, T. T. Kinemati cs of table tennis topspin forehands: Effects of performance level and ball spin. Journal spin. Journal of Sports Sciences 27(12): 1311-1321, 2009. 4. Iino, Y, Y, and Kojima, T. Kinetics of the upper limb during table tennis topspin forehands in advanced and intermediate players. Sports Biomechanics 10(4): Biomechanics 10(4): 361-377, 2011. 5. Neal, RJ. RJ. The The mechanics mechanics of the the forehand forehand loop and smash shots in table tennis. The Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 23(1): 23(1): 3-11, 1991. 6. Ogborn, D, and Schoenfeld, Schoenfeld, B. The The role role of fiber types types in muscle hypertrophy: Implications for loading strategies. Strength and Conditioning Journal 36(2): 36(2): 20-25, 2014. 7. Schoenfeld, B. The use of special ized training techniques to maximize muscle hypertrophy. Strength and Conditioning Journal 33(4): 60-65, 2011. 8. Spiteri, T, T, Nimphius , S, Hart, NH, Specos, C, Sheppard, JM, and Newton, RU. Contribution of strength characteristics to change of direction and agility performance in female basketball athletes. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28(9): 24152423, 2014. 9. Xiao, DD, Su, P, P, and Tang, JJ. The study of the GRF in table tennis forehand loop technology. Journal technology. Journal of Tianjin Universit y of Sport 1: 1: 57-59, 2008. 10. Zagatto, AM, Morel, EA, and Gobatto, CA. Physiologic al responses and characteristics of table tennis matches determined in official tournaments. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 24(4): Research 24(4): 942-949, 2010. 11. Zhang, XD, Zhu, ZQ, ZQ, Li, WZ, Xiao, DD, and Zhang, YQ. GRF of table tennis players when using forehand attack and loop drive technique. International Journal of Table Tennis Science 8: 15-19, 2013.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Danny Lum is a strength and conditioning coach at the Singapore Sports Institute. He graduated from the University of Western Australia with a Ba chelor of Science degree deg ree in Exercise and Healt h with honors, and is completing his Master’s degree in Sports Science at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. He is also certified as a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) through the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA). His c urrent position involves planning and implementing training programs for Singapore’s national athletes competing in table tennis, swimming, judo, and softball, as well as conducting research relating to strength and conditioning. Prior to this position, Lum was a strength and conditioning officer for the Singapore Armed Forces, planning physical training program for national service men.


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Forehand Loop Technique (Figure 1) The athlete flexes the right knee to prepare to perform the technique. The athlete begins by extending the right knee and rotating the trunk. The athlete continues rotating the trunk then begins horizontally flexing and internally rotating the shoulder and flexing the elbow. The athlete finishes the movement with pronation of the forearm.

Explosive Forward Lunge (Figure 3) The athlete begins the exercise in a parallel stance position with the feet shoulder-width apart and the hands holding a weight plate on the right side of the body. The athlete lunges forward explosively explosively with the left leg while swinging the weight plate diagonally upwards and to the left side of the body. The athlete then returns to the starting position as fast as possible upon landing. Repeat the movement on the opposite side. Inexperienced athletes should begin this exercise with no added resistance to help avoid potential injury.

FIGURE 1. FOREHAND LOOP TECHNIQUE FIGURE 3. EXPLOSIVE E XPLOSIVE FORWARD LUNGE Four-Direction Hop (Figure 2) The athlete begins the exercise by standing on one leg. The athlete hops forward and then immediately back to the starting position. Repeat the action for the other three directions (i.e., right, backward, backward, and left). Completing hops in all four directions and returning to the starting position is considered one repetition.

Skater Hop (Figure 4) The athlete begins the exercise by standing on one leg with the hands holding a weight plate positioned on the same side of the supporting leg. The athlete hops laterally and simultaneously swings the weight plate to the side of the landing leg. Repeat the action as fast as possible while alternating sides. Inexperienced athletes should begin this exercise with no added resistance to help avoid potential injury.

FIGURE 2. FOUR-DIRECTION HOP FIGURE 4. SKATER HOP

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NSCA COACH 2.4

Single-Arm Medicine Ball Throw (Figure 5) The athlete begins the exercise with the left foot forward holding a small medicine ball with the right hand. The athlete throws the ball by rotating the hips and swinging the hand as fast as possible while pronating the forearm. The athlete releases the ball at the end of the movement to complete one repetition.

Towel Towel Grip Inverted Row (Figure 7) The athlete begins by holding onto the towels positioned shoulder-width shoulder-width apart that are wrapped around the barbell from underneath. The athlete keeps keeps the heels on the ground and maintains a neutral spine throughout the movement. The athlete then pulls the body up towards the barbell before returning to the starting position to complete one repetition.

FIGURE 5. SINGLE-ARM MEDICINE BALL THROW Single-Arm Chest Press (Figure 6) The athlete begins by standing in an athletic position with feet wider than shoulder-width apart and uses one hand to hold the end of a barbell that is anchored to the ground. The athlete pushes the barbell forward and upward as fast as possible, then returns to the starting position to complete one repetition. Repeat the movement with the opposite arm.

FIGURE 7. TOWEL GRIP INVERTED ROW

FIGURE 6. SINGLE-ARM CHEST PRESS


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TABLE 1. EXAMPLE STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM FOR ADVANCED TABLE TENNIS ATHLETES EXERCISE

SETS X REPETITIONS

LOAD

REST PERIOD

Four-direction hop

3 x 5/side

Bodyweight

1 – 2 mi n

Explosive forwa rd l unge

3 x 5/side

10 – 20 lb

2 – 3 mi n

Skater hop

3 x 5/side

10 – 20 lb

2 – 3 mi n

Single-arm medicine ball throw

3 x 5/side

4 – 6 lb

2 – 3 mi n

Sumo s quat

3x5

80% of 1RM

2 – 3 mi n

D e a dl i f t

3x5

80% of 1RM

2 – 3 mi n

Single-arm chest press

3x5

80% of 1RM

2 – 3 mi n

Towel grip inverted row

3x8

Bodyweight

1 mi n

Reverse woodchop

3 x 10/side

Self-regulated

1 mi n

TABLE 2. INJURY PREVENTION EXERCISES EXERCISE

SETS X REPETITIONS

LOAD

Prone plank

2 x 30 – 60 s

Bodyweight

S i d e p l a nk

2 x 30 – 60 s

Bodyweight

Bird dog

2 x 10/side

Bodyweight

Eccentric shoulder external rotation (5 s)

2 x 5/side

Self-regulated

Scapul ar push-up

2 x 10

Bodyweight

Wall angel

2 x 10

N/A

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NSCA COACH 2.4

Y O U R D E D I C A T I O N T O G E T T I N G T H E M R E A D Y . O U R S C I E N C E . T H E I R S U C C E S S . Backed by the Gatorade Sports Science Institute, Gatorade ® Recover Protein Shake is specifically formulated to help rebuild and replenish your athlete’s muscles with postgame nutrition. Made with 20g of protein and 45g of carbs, every sip promotes muscle recovery and helps replenish energy to keep them coming back strong. NSCA COACH 2.4 | NSCA.COM

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. c n I , C V S 5 1 0 2 © . c n I , C V S f o s k r a m e d a r t d e r e t s i g e r e r a R E V O C E R E D A R O T A G d n a n g i s e D G , e d a r o t a G

EARLY SPORT SPECIALIZATION VERSUS DIVERSIFICATION IN YOUTH ATHLETES THOMAS CARUSO, CSCS, RSCC

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ver the last thirty years, the landscape of adolescent athletics has changed drastically. Adolescents who participate in sports activities may find them enjoyable while reaping the many potential benefits they can offer. offer. Sport activities promote self-esteem, leadership, and relationships amongst fellow teammates (4). However, the level of competitiveness competitiveness in youth sports is on the rise causing more competitive competitive events at younger ages, specific training, and sport specification (4). Seasons are longer and parents are encouraged encouraged to sign their children up for organized club sports that practice and compete year-round. year-round. In the United States youth participating in sports has increased from approximately approximately 18 million in 1987 to 60 million in 2008 (5). Although more children are playing sports, it appears the multisport athlete is becoming a thing of the past (7). This raises the question: is early sport specialization or sport diversification the best way to develop youth athletes? Early sport specialization can be defined as “intense year-round year-round training in a specific sport with the exclusion of other sports at a young age” (5). On the other hand, sports diversification is the “participation in a variety of sports and activities through which an athlete develops develops multilateral physical, s ocial, and psychological psychological skills” (10). As the money in college and professional sports has increased, the desire to train children to become star athletes has increased as well. The purpose of this article is to discuss the different opinions regarding the validity of early sport specialization as opposed to diversification, specifically the effect these two methods have on injuries, motor development, skill acquisition, and social and psychological aspects.

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EARLY EARL Y SPORT SPECIALIZATION This article will focus on the following five parameters to consider with early sport specialization: early start age in one sport, early involvement involvement in one sport while not participating in many sports, early involvement in focused practice, high-intensity training, and early involvement in competitive sport. Arguments for early specialization have been made regarding expertise in skill development. development. There is a theory that states the earlier an individual starts with purposeful practice of a skill, the earlier one becomes an expert at the skill. This seems to relate closely to the “10-year rule,” which is a general criteria for teaching chess that proposes that 10 years is a sufficient period of time to amass the level of knowledge to be considered an expert (3). This rule has been extrapolated and observed in several activities beyond chess, including sports (3). Utilizing this theory, it can be concluded that in order for athletes to be the best at a particular skill or sport, they need to start early with skill development and practice very specific activities to improve their strengths and reduce their weaknesses. Sports that require an efficient, repetitive repetitive motion, like golf, tennis, or swimming, appear to have the greatest likelihood of employing deliberate practice for expertise development. However, many people throughout numerous sports have drawn upon (i.e., marketed) the theory of deliberate practice as a way to improve athletic expertise.


NSCA COACH 2.4 CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCERNS FOR SPECIALIZATION In an effort to make sure a child is ready for structured practice, certain developmental components should be considered, such as sport-related fundamental motor skill development, development, sportspecific knowledge, motivation, and socialization. Fundamental motor skill development should be trained to achieve success in the sport setting, including skills such as running, jumping, kicking, and throwing. If a child has an immature level of fundamental skill development, they may attempt to play organized sport but the experience may not be as positive as if they were developmentally ready to learn the sport-specific skills. Having adequate levels of physical maturation, or developmental age, will help the children to learn the sport-specific skills that require strength strength and speed.

MOTIVATION AND INTEREST MOTIVATION Knowledge that an individual possesses about a specific sport can increase their ability to learn the sport-related skills required to play the sport as well. The more they know about a sport, the more they will remember important points necessary for the performance of motor skills potentially. The processing skills necessary for learning, which are present in adults, are often lacking or deficient in children under the age of five. Kolstoe once said, “Nobody can’t teach nobody nothing,” nothing,” (1). This illustrates an important point regarding instruction: if there is no motivation to learn, then learning is not likely to take place. Sometimes the best indicator of a child’s readiness to learn and participate in a sport comes from them expressing interest in it (1). A child with friends and family who help identify them as athletic will provide provide that child with a greater chance of identifying themselves themselves as athletic. Prior knowledge of these categories of sport readiness would be helpful in placing the child in the proper organized sport setting. This will provide a better chance of the child having a positive experience (1). GROWTH AND INJURY RISK One key factor that separates young athletes from mature athletes is the fact that children are still growing. Constant changes in bodyweight, bodyweight, height, and muscle mass provide additional stress to joints an d connective ti ssue. In young athletes, growth cartil age is present at the growth plate as well as the musculotendinous insertion. Growth cartilage is vulnerable to the stress of repeated microtraumas. For example, injuries common in youth baseball players are “Little League elbow” and “Little League shoulder.” These are both overuse injuries to the epiphyseal growth cartilage. Because the musculotendinous unit may develop faster than the bone to which it is attached, this area can be more susceptible to Osgood-Schlatter disease and Sever’s disease (7). Many professionals agree that the benefits of sports participation outweigh the risks, but not all. With this in mind, youth are encouraged to play sports at an early age even though there is an associated risk of injury. It is important to understand the factors that can predispose young athletes to overuse injuries. Table 1 shows the predisposing factors for overuse injuries.

Despite the overall health benefit of sports participation, any sport activity invites a chance of sustaining an injury. The potential for injury increases as the intensity level and training volume increases. This supports the need for adequate recovery for youth sport athletes (9). Recovery for a youth athlete does not mean taking a child out of all activity. Adequate recovery could include remaining physically active during a break from that particular sport—known as active recovery. It is important to provide rest from the repetitive motions that continually place stress on their body. Strength and conditioning can be an option when an athlete is considering a rest from their specific sport. This can provide an opportunity for injury rehabilitation, injury prevention, and enhancing long-term health. With proper supervision and a well-designed program, program, a youth resistance resistance training program can improve body composition, increase bone health, and decrease injury (4). If an athlete experiences unexpected long-term decreases in performance without evidence of injury, this can be termed staleness and may be a result of overtraining. overtraining. It is important for parents and strength and conditioning coaches to understand and be able to identify symptoms of overtraining. This may help to reduce the long-term effects of overtraining on a young athlete’s body and mind. Table 2 shows example of common symptoms found during overtraining, including physical and nonphysical symptoms (8).

BURNOUT Early specialization has shown to be not only physically difficult but also mentally difficult. Athletic burnout can be an unfortunate unfortunate effect of early specialization in one sport. It can be defined as “physical and emotional exhaustion from the psychological and physiological physiological demands of the athlete’s sport,” (8). Burnout can become so severe that it can cause withdrawal or dropout from the activities that were previously enjoyable to the athlete. From personal experience, experience, swimmers and divers who had success from specializing at an early age had a greater propensity propensity for their bodies to break down, causing a decrease in performance at a high level. Additionally, with the decrease in performance and the increase in injury, there was depression resulting in withdrawal from the sport and team activities.

SPORT DIVERSIFICATION Sport diversification can be thought of as playing as many sports as often as possible. This method exposes children to a multitude of sports with a focus on playing instead of practicing. This method provides an environment that may nurture a genuine love for a sport so that productive, structured practice may follow. The belief behind sport diversification is that physical and cognitive cognitive abilities may develop quicker via playing multiple sports instead of just one because of a potential crossover effect from playing multiple sports. For example, instead of only developing handeye coordination as it pertains to hitting and throwing in baseball, a child playing baseball and soccer can also develop foot-eye coordination, footwork, and running mechanics.


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EARLY SPORT SPECIALIZATION VERSUS DIVERSIFICATION IN YOUTH ATHLETES

A transfer in fundamental cognitive skills can occur, but it is likely dependent on the degree of perceptual and information processing processing similarity between sports. The ability of a player to “read the game” or understand player movement and pattern configurations configurations with proper visual cues will l ikely have a higher rate of crossover crossover if the athlete is participating in sports with similar pattern configurations. For example, running and biking have a higher rate of cardiovascular transfer than between swimming and running. However, researchers examining early sport specialization participation trends in elite athletes have found that early specialization is not an essential component of elite athletic development (6).

4. Difior i, JP, JP, Benjamin, H, Brenner, J, Gregory, A, Jayanthi, Jayanthi, N, Landry, GL, and Luke, A. Overuse injuries and burnout in youth sports: A position statement from the American Medical Society for Sports Medicine. Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine 24(1): 3-20, 2014. 5. Ferguson, B, and Stern, PJ. PJ. A case of early sports specialization in an adolescent athlete. Journal athlete. Journal of the Cana dian Chiropractic Association 58(4): Association 58(4): 337-383, 2014. 6. Hensch, LP. Speciali zation or diversifi cation in youth sport? Strategies: A Strategies: A Journal for Physical and S port Educators 19(5): 21-27, 2006. 7. Johnson, J. J. Overuse injuries in young athletes: Cause and prevention. Strength and Conditioning Journal 30(2): Journal 30(2): 27-31, 2008.

CONCLUSION Early involvement in sports provides opportunities to develop gross motor skills that include, but are not limited to, hand-eye coordination, jumping, throwing, hopping, balancing, and running. Adolescent bodies are not prepared to be treated like an adult’s body. body. Diversification in sports at an early age has the potential to provide stimuli so that a child’s body can adapt and develop multiple motor skills that may crossover between sports. However, only once the mental, physical, and social aspects of a child are fully developed can specialization can be considered. considered. Parents and coaches have to keep this in mind when choosing the level of competition that is appropriate for the athlete. If the level of competition is not appropriate for one or all of these aspects, the child may have a negative experience. experience. Perhaps the most beneficial method is to allow the children to choose the sports they are passionate about, this way they are less likely to experience burnout or overuse injuries while setting themselves up for a better chance of becoming a well-rounded elite athlete.

REFERENCES 1. Aicinena, S. Youth sport readiness: A predictive model for success. Physical Educator 49(2): 58-66, 1992. 2. Baker, J. Early specializati on in youth sport: a requirement for adult expertise? High Ability Studies 14(1): Studies 14(1): 85-94, 2003.

8. Kutz, M, and Secrest, M. Contributi ng factors to overtraining in the adolescent multi-season/sport athlete. Strength and Conditioning Journal 31(3): 31(3): 37-42, 2009. 9. Oliver, JL, Lloyd, RS, and Meyers, RW. RW. Training Training elite child athletes: Promoting welfare and well-being. Strength and Conditioning Journal 33(4): 33(4): 73-79, 2011. 10. Wiersma, LD. Risks and benefits benefits of youth youth sport specialization: Perspectives and recommendations. Pediatric Exercise Science 12(1): 13-22, 2000.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Thomas Caruso holds a Bachelor of Science and Education degree, with a concentration in Athletic Training, from the University of Arkansas. Caruso Car uso has been the Wellness D irector/Strength Coach for the Providence Day School since 2009. In addition to teaching ninth grade health courses, his responsibilities comprise planning and implementing strength, conditioning, and agility programs for all the men’s and women’s sports teams, including golf, football, soccer, basketball, lacrosse, ba seball, volleyball, wrestling, softball, swimming, field hockey, and track and field.

3. Baker, J, and Cobley, Cobley, S. What do we we know about early sport specialization? Not Much! High Ability Study 20(1): 20(1): 77-89, 2009.

TABLE 1. PREDISPOSING FACTORS AND OVERUSE INJURIES (7)

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INTRINSIC FACTORS

EXTRINSIC FACTORS

Anatomic malalignment

Improper training methods

Prior injury

Poor technique

Poor conditioning

Improper surface for practice and competition

Growth

Excessive pressure from peers, coaches, and parents

Menstrual dysfunction

Inappropriate equipment


NSCA COACH 2.4

TABLE 2. SYMPTOMS OF OVERTRAINING SYMPTOMS DURING TRAINING

PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS

NONPHYSICAL SYMPTOMS

Normal workouts feel more difficult

Persistent fatigue

Difficulty sleeping

Early fatigue during workouts

Ongoing muscle soreness

Feelings of irritation or anger

Faster heart rate with less effort

Loss of appetite

Feelings of depression

Decreased strength

Increased aches and pains

Lack of motivation

Decreased coordination

Increase in overuse injuries

Fear of competition

Physical challenge s seem too hard

Frequent colds or infections

Difficul ty concentrating

Decreased performance on strength, speed, or endurance testing

Lower resistance to common illnesses

Increased sensitivity to emotional stress

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HOW CONDITIONING TRAINING AFFECTS GAME DAY PERFORMANCE CHRIS MCQUILKIN, MS, CSCS

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strength and conditioning coach should be able to help an athlete’s performance beyond what he or she could do alone. However, many coaches in the current sport culture limit themselves to training for isolated tests that have stood the proverbial test of time, like the 40-yard dash and maximum repetition bench press using 225 lb. While these tests are meant to show progression or evidence of improvement through that individual’s strength and conditioning program, oddly, what can be neglected through this testing protocol is the athlete’s on-field performance on game day.

Sports present physical tasks to which the non-athletic body is unaccustomed (3). Set plays rehearsed with perfected action are foundational components for almost every sport, but things rarely go as planned and an athlete must be able to work outside the confines of those rehearsed actions. An athlete must quickly react using the central nervous, neuromuscular, and muscular systems to solve and react to these unpracticed problems. A determining factor of performance success is how quickly and efficiently an athlete is able to call upon these abilities to accomplish the unplanned action. This article will describe how conditioning conditioning affects game day performance, performance, identify crucial components of field and court sport training, lay the groundwork for replicating training abilities that translate to the field, and reinforce the responsibility of the strength and conditioning professional.

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TRAINING AND PREPARATION—TRAIN PREPARATION—TRAIN TO TRAIN Work capacity has been referenced as the duration for which power can be maintained (1). However, many strength and sport coaches see work capacity as a level of conditioning. For beginner athletes or athletes returning from an injury, increased work capacity can hasten the kinesiological pattern development. Training work capacity consists primarily of perfecting parts of the body’s involuntary functions (3). Experienced athletes that are returning from time off may see benefits from training work capacity. capacity. Primarily programmed in the first month of off-season training, the exercises exercises used to train work capacity should elevate necessary traits required within the sport to create, or reestablish, a base level of fitness that allows them to train for competition (3). While aerobic fitness can be an important component to competition in field and court sports, testing only conditioning levels levels may not be the best course of action for strength and conditioning professionals. professionals. It is important for strength and conditioning coaches to evaluate the physiological needs of the athlete based on the demands of the sports in order to develop develop optimal training programs for performance. For example, when the Canadians first lost their stranglehold on international hockey hockey to the Russians, it appeared that the Russian team was better conditioned and faster when it counted. The Canadian coaches thought the Russians had better aerobic fitness. Naturally, during the next off-season training the Canadian


NSCA COACH 2.4 players rode stationary bikes until they were blue in the face and skated hard following each practice. Despite the additional work, the Russians still outperformed them on the ice. Eventually, free flow of information recommenced between Eastern Europe and North America and amazingly, Russian VO2max scores were nearly ten points lower than those of the Canadians. The Russians were beating the Canadians by skating faster. Instead of training aerobic fitness, the Russians had been training speed and power rather than aerobic fitness (2). This example demonstrates the importance of matching training and testing to the demands of the sport. It will not matter how well athletes fare on their conditioning tests if they are consistently overpowered, sped past, or are behind by a step when the game is on the line.

WORK EFFICIENCY Increasing work capacity and improving maximum strength, power, and speed are some important focal points for strength and conditioning coaches. The connection between these components components and directing the purpose of training to skill transfer can be the difference between good training programs and great ones. One way this can be accomplished is in the form of work efficiency. Work efficiency can be thought of as the interaction among the various responses of the athlete’s systems (central nervous, neuromuscular, and muscular systems) to quickly display force specific to a sporting action, and then replicate these play after play. play. Another definition of work efficiency is the proportion of the additional energy expenditure during steady state work which is expended on physical work (4). As stated earlier, sport is a series of complex problems that the athlete experiences and must solve quickly with movement. While in competition, the athlete must use instincts to determine how much force to apply to the complex tasks presented in their arena with accuracy and finesse. Work efficiency can help the athlete react to these problems optimally. Integrating work efficiency training into a program can be implemented in two different ways:

SPORTS PRACTICE This is already in place for most athletes, and there is no better way for them to coordinate the strength, power, and speed they have developed in the weight room. During sports practice, they can practice their instincts instincts and use of abilities as close to game speed as one can get, and then replicate the coordination specific to each demand. ATHLETIC CREATIVITY BUILT INTO TRAINING With only so much time to train athletes, the process of increasing work efficiency needs to be accelerated if it is to be integrated into training as well as s ports practice. Speed and agility work alone in training is limited to only one or two stimuli like a whistle to start and a point to change direction. Applying unscripted unscripted agility work and tasks following weight training or speed work is a method to include this into training. Examples include:

• Partner tag which forces forces athletic creativity and and competition. • Pursuit drills that allow the calculation calculation of an opponent’s opponent’s speed and angle. • Chaos training which puts puts the athlete in a fatigued state, state, as they have to perform reactive tasks. After all, in basketball for example, a person who “owns the boards” is not the player with moderate strength who can jump reasonably high a thousand times in rapid succession, or a player who can’t control the volume of their large vertical jump. Rather, the strongest player, who would “own the boards” is the one who jumps the highest wh en it is required (2). Work capacity training is a valuable tool when preparing for the strength, power, and speed training that will benefit an athlete most in competition. However, during this preparation phase, a coach must also remember each individual displays a different rate, degree, and efficiency of response to the same training, so it is not optimal to hold a whole team to a single standard conditioning test. Following this pre-competition training phase, test work capacity, but avoid simply labeling athletes as in-shape or not. Instead, use this as a measurement of an athlete’s ability to recover between bouts of maximal velocity, maintain technique under fatigue, and challenge their ability to replicate their abilities in a chaotic environment. Just like the finesse of a jump shot, this will not be measureable by anything but a trained coach’s eye.

TRAIN FAST, BE FAST Athletes never rise to the occasion; they always fall to the level of their training. Training cyclic movements at sub-maximal levels will not expand an athlete’s top end abilities or train their efficiency in calling upon the range of task specific abilities in sports that require strength, power, and speed at irregular intervals. Conversely, only relying on maximal efforts in single lifts or sprints as a test of game day preparation is a fallacy. fallacy. Sport can be thought of as a problem-solving activity where movements produce the solutions (3). Single maximal effort lifts or sprints mean little if an athlete is only good for one attempt per game or does not have the neuromuscular control to complete the task in their arena. In conclusion, coaches should avoid an “over application” of conditioning training that can negatively affect the top end abilities of athletes and their ability to replicate them in competition of field and court sports. When training field or court sport athletes, it is the strength and conditioning coach’s coach’s responsibility to look to the sporting arena for the demands of the sport and determine where improvements can be made through training. Focusing on improving an athlete’s ability to not only use their full motor potential specific to the task to achieve success, and more importantly, importantly, replicate in competition, is the mark of a great strength program. Strength and conditioning coaches should focus on what the athletes are training for, and develop their programs accordingly for optimal performance on game day.


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HOW CONDITIONING TRAINING AFFECTS GAME DAY PERFORMANCE

REFERENCES 1. Bosch, F, and Klomp, R. Running: Biomechanics and Exercise Physiology Applied in Practice. Practice . Philadelphia: Elsevier; 102, 2005. 2. Francis, C. Key Concepts: Elite Edition . www.CharlieFrancis. com; 13, 2008. 3. Siff, M, and Verkhoshansky, Y. Supertraining. Supertraining . (6th ed.) Denver, CO: Supertraining International; 32, 96, and 105-107, 2009. 4. Sloan, AW, AW, Koeslag, JH, and Bredell, GAG. Body compositio n, work capacity, and work efficiency of active and inactive young men. European Journal of Applied Physiology 32(1): Physiology 32(1): 17-24, 1973.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Chris McQuilkin is a member of Power Athlete, LLC, and has traveled teaching coaches how to teach proper movement and how to identify performance limitations. He has coached strength and conditioning at the college level with Georgetown University, including working with the football, men’s and women’s lacrosse, and women’s crew teams. McQuilkin has interned with University of Texas at Austin in the football program. While there, he apprenticed under Raphael Ruiz of AXIS training systems and studied proper implementation of science-based, performance-driven training systems. He received a B achelor’s degree de gree in Health Science s in 2008, and a Ma ster’s degree in i n Health Promotion from Ma rymount University in 2010.


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REFRAMING INFLAMMATION IN THE TENDON REPAIR PROCESS GABRIELLE SMITH, MA, AND BRIAN GEARITY, PHD, CSCS

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thletes, coaches, and strength and conditioning professionals often view inflammation as if it is an opponent or obstacle to overcome. A widespread idea is that athletes should “fight” against inflammation in order to get rid of it. However, contrary to popular belief, inflammation is the first stage in tissue repair, and it should be viewed and treated as such. This article will explain the physiological process of tendon tissue repair and compare the effects of various responses to tendonitis.

THE TENDON TISSUE REPAIR PROCESS The tissue repair process varies according to the type of body tissue affected. The majority of research on tendon repair has explored the healing process of tendon rupture as opposed to tendonitis (1). However, it can be assumed that the repair process for both tendon ruptures and tendinitis are similar (1). The tendon repair process occurs in three stages: the inflammatory, proliferative, and remodeling stages. Because this article primarily focuses on the inflammatory stage, the other stages will not be elaborated on as much in this article.

THE INFLAMMATORY STAGE Michael Gross defines inflammation as when the “body tissues are injured by physical trauma, intense heat, irritating chemicals, or infection by viruses, fungi, or bacteria,” (2). Inflammation of a tendon, commonly referred to as tendonitis, is caused by the physical trauma that results from overuse. It is estimated that

30

about 30% of running injuries and about 40% of elbow injuries in tennis players can be attributed to overuse of certain tendons (3). Tendonitis is common in strength and conditioning settings because repetitive physical actions may to lead to overuse. In the inflammatory stage of tendon tissue repair, a hematoma, or blood clot, forms at the affected site (4). The hematoma activates the release of vasodilator chemicals, which cause the tissue’s blood vessels to dilate, or widen. This allows for more blood flow to the affected area, causing the redness and warmth often seen and felt with tendonitis. Vasodilator chemicals also make the tissue’s capillaries significantly more permeable, which allows important fluids to flood the area, causing the swelling seen with inflammation. This swelling then presses on the nearby nerve endings, which results in pain (2). These fluids that flood the area contain erythrocytes (oxygen-delivering red blood cells), neutrophils neutrophils (protective white blood cells of the immune system), and monocytes (protective single-nucleus white blood cells) (2). Next, protective macrophage cells initiate the phagocytosis process, which rids the area of damaged a nd dead tissue cells. Lastly, new blood vessels are formed through angiogenesis and new tendon cells (tenocytes) move towards the area of the affected site (3). Inflammation sets the stage for the remainder of the tissue healing process, which includes the proliferative and remodeling stages (2).


NSCA COACH 2.4 THE PROLIFERATIVE P ROLIFERATIVE STAGE In the proliferative stage, fibroblast fibroblast cells, which form the fibers of connective tissue, initiate the synthesis of collagen (4). Type III collagen, which is the main structural protein in tendons, bones, cartilage, and other connective tissues, is most abundant in this stage. Additionally, high amounts of water are present at the site during the proliferative stage (3). THE REMODELING ST STAGE AGE In the final stage of tendon tissue repair, type I collagen fibers, which are present in scar tissue, are organized along the tendon axis. These type I fibers are primarily responsible for generating mechanical strength in the tissue (4). The repaired tissue becomes stiffer and stronger throughout this stage.

COMMON RESPONSES TO INFLAMMATION There are several ways that individuals respond to inflammation. The three most common responses to inflammation include: neglect, icing the injured area, and using nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAID). When choosing the response, it is important to take into consideration both the costs and benefits.

NEGLECT Neglecting inflammation might seem necessary if a coach or an upcoming competition leads to an athlete feeling pressured to play through an injury. However, in many cases it may be better for the athlete to allow their body to rest and complete the innate repair response. Neglecting acute inflammation could contribute to the onset of chronic inflammation or more serious injuries (5). ICE Icing, or cryotherapy, has long been accepted as a beneficial response to inflammation. Researchers have concluded that cryotherapy is an effective way to relieve short-term pain (6). A systematic review of the effects of cryotherapy showed that applying ice through a wet towel for periods of 10 min is the most effective method (7). NSAID NSAIDs, such as aspirin or ibuprofen (e.g., Motrin®, Advil®, etc.), are effective at reducing the pain caused by inflammation (9). However, NSAIDs should be used judiciously because they reduce pain by inhibiting the body’s innate inflammatory and repair responses (2). In addition, excessive use of NSAIDs can cause a number of negative side effects such as nausea, vomiting, heartburn, bleeding, and diarrhea (6,7,10).

and conditioning coaches, in consultation with the sports medicine team, should address and monitor inflammation to alleviate symptoms and return athletes to participation.

REFERENCES 1. Bleakley, C, McDonough, S, and MacAuley, D. The use of ice in the treatment of acute soft-tissue i njury: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. American trials. American Journa l of Sports Medicine 32(1): 251-261, 2004. 2. Gross, MT. Chronic tendinitis : Pathomechan ics of injury, factors affecting the healing response, and treatment. Journal treatment. Journal of Orthopaedic Sports Physical Therapy 16(6): 16(6): 248-261, 1992. 3. James, R, Kesturu, G, Balian, G, and Chhabra, AB. Tendon: Biology, biomechanics, repair, growth factors, and evolving treatment options. Journal options. Journal of Hand Surger y 33(A): 33(A): 102-112, 2008. 4. Marieb, EN, and Hoehn, K. Human Anatomy and Physiology (10th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.; 2016. 5. Nordqvist, C. What is inflammation? What causes inflammation? 2015. Retrieved March 18, 2015 from http://www. medicalnewstoday.com/articles/248423.php. 6. Ogbru, O. Nonsteroidal Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs). Medicine Net. 2015. Retrieved April 18, 2015 from http://www. medicinenet.com/nonsteroidal_antiinflammatory_drugs/article. htm. 7. Ong, CKS, Lirk, P, P, Tan, CH, and Seymour, Seymour, RA. An evidencebased update on nonsteroidal nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Journal drugs. Journal of Clinical Medicine Research 5(1): Research 5(1): 19-34, 2007. 8. Sharma, P, P, and Maffull i, N. Tendon injury and tendinopathy: Healing and repair. Journal repair. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery American 87(1): 187-202, 2005. 9. Takagi, R, Fujita, N, Arakawa, Arakawa, T, T, Kawada, S, Ishii, N, and Miki, A. Influence of icing on muscle regeneration after crush injury to skeletal muscles in rats. Journal rats. Journal of Applied Physiology 110(2): Physiology 110(2): 382388, 2011. 10. Wilson, JJ, and Best, TM. Common overuse tendon problems: A review and recommendations for treatment. American treatment. American Family Physician 72(5): Physician 72(5): 811-818, 2005.

CONCLUSION Inflammation is the first stage in the tissue repair process and sets the stage for the remainder of the healing process. Instead of viewing it as a foe to be fought and conquered, inflammation should be viewed as a helpful and necessary process to promote healing. There are several common responses to inflammation including neglect, icing, and using NSAIDs. Athletes and strength


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REFRAMING INFLAMMATION IN THE TENDON REPAIR PROCESS

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Gabrielle Smith recently earned a Master of Arts degree in Sport and Performance Psychology from the University of Denver. During her time at the University of Denver, Smith served as an extern in the United States Olympic Committee’s Sport Performance Division. She provided biofeedback and neurofeedback training services to athlete s in the psychophysiology lab at the Olympic Training Center located in Colorado Springs, CO. She also served as a Sport and Performance Psychology Consultant at the Center for Performance Excellence, where she provided services to middle and high school athletes and coaches. She currently serves as Mental Skills Trainer and Club Coach for Colorado Premier Basketball Club. Prior to attending the University of Denver, Smith graduated from Vanderbilt University in Nashville, TN with a Bachelor of Science degree in Cognitive Studies.

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Brian Gearity was recently named the Director of the Master of Arts degree in Sport Spor t Coaching at the Univer sity of Denver. He recently served as Guest Editor for a special issue of the Strength and Conditioning Journal on coach education. He was an Assistant Professor in Sport Coaching Education at the University of Southern Mississippi and a volunteer strength/football coach at Purvis High School. He was the strength and conditioning coach for the Cleveland Indians Major League Baseball (MLB) organization, the University of Tennessee, and John Carroll University. His research interests include coach quality, coach-athlete relationships, and coaches’ use of power-knowledge and its effects on athletes.


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START EARLY—THE KEY TO PREPARING ATHLETES FOR THE RIGORS OF HIGH SCHOOL STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW igh school strength and conditioning coaches can play a pivotal role in increasing levels of fitness and athleticism in children (ages 6 – 11) and adolescents (ages 12 – 18). Evidence shows shows that all fitness attributes are trainable across childhood and adolescence (1,3,7). Aspiring young athletes can start resistance training as young as age eight, which has been shown to enhance athleticism and reduce the risk of injury (3,4). This article suggests how high school strength and conditioning coaches can not only prepare high school athletes for sports and fitness, but also help with the process of improving fitness and athleticism of all youth.

H

ATTENDING OR PARTICIPATING PARTICIPATING IN CLINICS AND CONFERENCES A plethora of professional development opportunities exist for high school strength coaches. Nationally accredited organizations, such as the NSCA, provide clinics at the state and regional level, as well as a High School Coaches track at the NSCA National Conference and an annual Coaches Conference. The High School Coaches Special Interest Group (SIG) conducts conducts meetings and forums to meet the needs of high school strength and conditioning coaches. Getting involved with the Youth SIG and the College Coaches SIG may help to bridge the gap between program design for primary, secondary, and postsecondary students.

HIGH SCHOOL IS TOO LATE

CREATING LTAD PROGRAMS FROM YOUTH THROUGH ADULTHOOD High school strength and conditioning coaches are in unique positions to provide outreach on both ends of the sports and fitness continuum. By providing consultation to youth sports programs, and coaches and students at feeder schools (as long as it is within the guidelines of the appropriate state interscholastic athletic association), high s chool strength and conditioning conditioning coaches can further increase the level of athleticism and help reduce injury rates in youth athletes (1). Likewise, high school strength and conditioning coaches should identify common exercises required of college strength and conditioning programs and include the developmental progressions for these exercises so the athletes will be better prepared when they reach that level. High school strength and conditioning coaches should create a program template based upon expectations for incoming freshmen and work backwards to create goals for each athlete while adhering to youth training guidelines to ensure that all fundamental motor skills and fitness attributes are included (1,2,3,4,5,7,8).

Introducing high school freshmen to strength and conditioning is often a primary responsibility of a high school strength and conditioning coach. The position statement regarding youth resistance training from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) recommends that youth begin a strength and conditioning conditioning program at around the same time they begin playing youth sports (approximately (approximately at eight years old) (1). Students who have not participated in strength and conditioning before high school are at a disadvantage compared compared to those who already have strength and conditioning experience prior to high school. Recent advances in research on long-term athletic development (LTAD) highlight the importance of engaging youth in developmentally developmentally appropriate strength and conditioning activities across the developmental continuum (3,4). Lloyd et al. outlines the Youth Physical Development Model for Females and the Composite Youth Development Model for Males in the Journal the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research (3,4). Additionally, strength and conditioning should include integrative neuromuscular training (INT) to ensure that fundamental movement movement skills, sport-specific movement skills, and muscle strength are developed (5). INT is an approach to strength and conditioning programing designed to maximize general and sport-specific skills through motor skill mastery and muscle strength activities while addressing movement deficiencies to promote successful participation in sports and physical activity across the lifespan, in concert with the principles of physical literacy (8).

WHAT CAN HIGH SCHOOL STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COACHES DO? High school strength and conditioning is an integral component of youth strength and conditioning, and is the link between youth sports and collegiate sports and lifelong fitness. Many high school strength and conditioning coaches are responsible for the middle school program and act as physical educators within the entire school district. The job of a high school strength and conditioning coach can be optimized by attending or participating in strength and conditioning clinics or conferences and creating LTAD programs that span from youth through adulthood (2).

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It is important for high school strength and conditioning coaches to remember that each level of high school strength and conditioning conditioning should be assigned a different training age and not every athlete will be at the same training age. Programs should be personalized for each athlete’s level of skill and motor mastery, rather than generalized for the best athletes or based on more advanced program design. Additionally, not every high school student pursues college, plays college sports, or is mandated to take a wellness course, so high school may be the last opportunity to teach them lifelong health and wellness habits. The program design should also include instruction for all students to be able to participate in strength and conditioning to meet physical literacy-based literacy-based national standards for their essential health and fitness needs (6). This also is in keeping with the tenets of physical literacy to develop all students to their potential given their natural endowment.


NSCA.com

HIGH SCHOOL STRENGTH COACHES HAVE HAVE AN IMPORTANT JOB It is clear that high school strength and conditioning coaches can have a significant impact on students of varying ages and abilities, both on and off the field. Principles of LTAD, including recommendations for strength and conditioning, practice and game ratios, and time off between sport seasons, should help guide high school strength and conditioning coaches as they work with athletes. High school strength and conditioning coaches coaches can influence youth to gain motor skill competence, which may encourage encourage them to participate in high school sports and continue to be physically active into adulthood (7).

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Rick Howard helped start the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) Youth Special Intere st Group (SIG) a nd served this year as Immediate Past Chair. In addition, Howard serves on the NSCA Membership Committee and is the NSCA State/Provincial Program Regional Coordinator for the Mid-Atlantic Region. Howard is involved in many pursuits that advance knowledge, skills, and coaching education to help all children enjoy lifelong physical activity and sports participation.

REFERENCES 1. Faigenbaum, A, Kraemer, W, Blimkie, C, Jeffreys, I, Micheli, L, Nitka, M, et al. Youth resistance training: Updated position statement paper from the National Strength and Conditioning Association. Journal Association. Journal of Strength a nd Conditioning Research 23(Suppl 5): S60-S79, 2009. 2. Howard, R, and Faigenbaum, A. Issues in training youth that impact high school athlete preparation. Strength and Conditioning Journal Journa l 31(3): 55-57, 2009. 3. Lloyd, R, Oliver, J, Faigenbaum, A, Howard, R, De Ste Croix, M, Williams, C, et al. Long-term athletic development development – Part 1: A pathway for all youth. Journal youth. Journal of Strength a nd Conditioning Research 29(5): Research 29(5): 1439-1450, 2015. 4. Lloyd, R, Oliver, J, Faigenbaum, A, Howard, R, De Ste Croix, M, Williams, C, et al. Long-term athletic development development – Part 2: Barriers to success and potential solutions. Journal solutions. Journal of Strength a nd Conditioning Research 29(5): Research 29(5): 1451-1464, 2015. 5. Myer, GD, Faigenbaum, AD, Ford, KR, Best, TM, Bergeron, MF, and Hewitt, TE. When to initiate integrative neuromuscular training to reduce sports-related injuries in youth? Current Sports Medicine Reports 10(3): Reports 10(3): 155-166, 2011. 6. SHAPE America. National standards and grade-lev grade-level el outcomes outcomes for K-12 physical education. Reston, VA: Author, 2013. 7. Stodden, D, Gao, Z, Goodway, J, and Langendor fer, S. Dynamic relationships between motor skill competence and health related fitness in youth. Pediatric Exercise Science 26(3): Science 26(3): 231-241, 2014. 8. Whitehead, M. The concept of physical literacy. European Journal of Physical Education 6(2): 127-138, 2001.


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