Night Deities

NIGHT DEITIES

Contents 1 Ch Chth thon onic ic

1

1.1 Chthonic Chthonic and Olym Olympia piann   . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Cult type vers versus us fu functi nction on . . . . . . 1.1.2 Ambi Ambiguit guities ies in assi assignme gnment nt . . . . . 1.2 Ref Reference erencess in psyc psychology hology and anthropology   . 1.3 Ref Reference erencess in structural geology . . . . . . . 1.44 Se 1. Seee al also so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Ref Refere erence ncess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Ext Exter ernal nal lin links ks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2 Lis Listt of nig night ht dei deitie tiess

2.1 Ar 2.1 Arab abia iann . . 2.22 Az 2. Azte tecc . . . 2.3 Can Canaan aanite ite . 2.44 Eg 2. Egyp ypti tian an   . . 2.55 Et 2. Etru rusc scan an   . . 2.66 Gr 2. Gree eekk . . . 2.77 Hi 2. Hind nduu . . . 2.8 Li Lithu thuani anian an   . 2.99 Mā 2. Māor orii . . . 2.10 Norse . . . 2.11 Roman . . . 2.12 Slavic . . . 2.13 See also . .

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3 Ne Neph phth thys ys

3.1 3.22 3. 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2

Etymolog Etymo logyy   . . . . . . . . . . . . Func Fu ncti tion on   . . . . . . . . . . . . . Symbol Sym bolis ism m. . . . . . . . . . . . Nephthy Nep hthyss and Set . . . . . . . . The savi saving ng sis sister ter of Osir Osiris is   . . . . New Kingd Kingdom om cult cultss of of Nephth Nephthys ys Chieff godd Chie goddess ess of Nome VII   . . .

3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5

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5 5 6 6 6 7 8

Contents 1 Ch Chth thon onic ic

1

1.1 Chthonic Chthonic and Olym Olympia piann   . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Cult type vers versus us fu functi nction on . . . . . . 1.1.2 Ambi Ambiguit guities ies in assi assignme gnment nt . . . . . 1.2 Ref Reference erencess in psyc psychology hology and anthropology   . 1.3 Ref Reference erencess in structural geology . . . . . . . 1.44 Se 1. Seee al also so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Ref Refere erence ncess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Ext Exter ernal nal lin links ks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2 Lis Listt of nig night ht dei deitie tiess

2.1 Ar 2.1 Arab abia iann . . 2.22 Az 2. Azte tecc . . . 2.3 Can Canaan aanite ite . 2.44 Eg 2. Egyp ypti tian an   . . 2.55 Et 2. Etru rusc scan an   . . 2.66 Gr 2. Gree eekk . . . 2.77 Hi 2. Hind nduu . . . 2.8 Li Lithu thuani anian an   . 2.99 Mā 2. Māor orii . . . 2.10 Norse . . . 2.11 Roman . . . 2.12 Slavic . . . 2.13 See also . .

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3 Ne Neph phth thys ys

3.1 3.22 3. 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2

Etymolog Etymo logyy   . . . . . . . . . . . . Func Fu ncti tion on   . . . . . . . . . . . . . Symbol Sym bolis ism m. . . . . . . . . . . . Nephthy Nep hthyss and Set . . . . . . . . The savi saving ng sis sister ter of Osir Osiris is   . . . . New Kingd Kingdom om cult cultss of of Nephth Nephthys ys Chieff godd Chie goddess ess of Nome VII   . . .

3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5

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5 5 6 6 6 7 8

ii

 

CONTENTS 

3.8 Ref Refere erence ncess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 As Aste teri riaa

4.1 Dau Daughte ghterr of Coeu Coeuss . . . 4.22 Am 4. Amaz azon on   . . . . . . . . 4.33 He 4. Heliliad ad   . . . . . . . . . 4.44 Da 4. Dana naid id   . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Alk Alkyo yoni nide dess . . . . . . 4.6 Cons Consort ort of Phoc Phocus us   . . . 4.7 Cons Consort ort of Bell Bellerop erophon hon 4.8 Dau Daughte ghterr of Coro Coronus nus . 4.9 Dau Daughte ghterr of Te Teucer ucer . . 4.10 Atheni Athenian an maiden . . . . 4.11 In Gluck opera . . . . 4.12 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . 4.13 External links . . . . .

8 10

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5 Er Ereebu buss

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 11 12

5.1 Refere Reference ncess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 5.2 Ext Exter ernal nal lin links ks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 6 Ar Artu tum me

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6.1 Artume in popu popular lar cul culture ture   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 6.2 Ref Refere erence ncess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 7 He Heca cate te

7.1 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nam Represe Repr esentati ntations ons . . . . . . . . . . Mytho Myt holog logyy   . . . . . . . . . . . . . Otherr name Othe namess and epi epithet thetss . . . . . 7.4.1 Godd Goddess ess of the cros crossro sroads ads 7.55 An 7. Anim imal alss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.66 Pl 7. Plan ants ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.77 Pl 7. Plac aces es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 Fe Festi stival valss   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.1 7.8 .1 The Dei Deipn pnon on . . . . . . . 7.9 Mode Modern rn exp expres ressio sions ns   . . . . . . . . 7.10 Survival in in pre-modern pre-modern folklore folklore   . . 7.11 Cross-cultural parallels . . . . . . 7.12 Nature of her cult . . . . . . . . . 7.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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14 14 15 18 18 18 19 20 20 20 21 21 21 22 22 22 26

iii

CONTENTS 

7.15.1 Primary sources  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 7.15.2 Secondary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 7.16 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 8 Artemis

28

8.1 Etymology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Artemis in mythology   . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.2 Childhood  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.3 Intimacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.4 Actaeon   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.5 Adonis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.6 Orion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.7 The Aloadae . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.8 Callisto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.9 Iphigenia and the Taurian Artemis . . 8.2.10 Niobe   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.11 Chione . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.12 Atalanta, Oeneus and the Meleagrids   . 8.2.13 Aura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.14 Polyphonte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.15 Trojan War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Worship of Artemis   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.1 Epithets   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.2 Festivals  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.3 Modern   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Artemis in art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.1 Attributes   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Artemis as the Lady of Ephesus   . . . . . . . . 8.6 Artemis in astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.8 References and sources . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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9 Selene

9.1 Names   . . . . . . . 9.2 Origin . . . . . . . 9.3 Lovers and offspring 9.3.1 Endymion  . 9.3.2 Others  . . . 9.4 The moon chariot . 9.5 Depictions  . . . . .

28 29 29 29 30 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 32 32 32 32 32 33 33 34 34 34 35 36 36 36 37 38 39

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39 39 39 39 40 40 41

iv

 

9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

Cult . . . . . Notes . . . . References  . . External links

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10 Nyx

42 42 44 46 47

10.1 Mythology and literature 10.1.1 Hesiod . . . . . . 10.1.2 Homer . . . . . . 10.1.3 Others . . . . . 10.2 Nyx in society   . . . . . . 10.2.1 Cults . . . . . . 10.2.2 Astronomy . . . 10.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 External links . . . . . .

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11 Philotes (mythology)

47 47 47 48 48 48 48 48 49 50

11.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 12 Achlys

12.1 Hesiod’s Account 12.2 Nonnus’ Account 12.3 See also . . . . . 12.4 References  . . . . 12.5 Sources . . . . . 12.6 External links . .

51

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13 Hypnos

53

13.1 Dwelling place  . . . . . . . . 13.2 Family   . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Hypnos in the Iliad . . . . . 13.4 Hypnos in art . . . . . . . . 13.5 Words derived from Hypnos . 13.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7 References  . . . . . . . . . . 13.8 External links . . . . . . . .

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14 Diana (mythology)

14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5

Etymology  . . . . . . Mythology  . . . . . . Physical description   . Worship   . . . . . . . Sanctuaries . . . . .

51 51 51 51 51 52

53 53 53 54 54 54 54 55 56

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56 56 57 57 59

v

CONTENTS 

14.6 Legacy  . . . . . . . 14.6.1 In religion  . 14.6.2 In language 14.6.3 In the arts   . 14.6.4 Other . . . 14.7 See also . . . . . . 14.8 References  . . . . . 14.9 Bibliography  . . . . 14.10External links . . .

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15 Summanus

59 59 59 60 62 62 62 64 64 65

15.1 Summanus and Mount Summano   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 15.2 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 16 Trivia (mythology)

67

16.1 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 17 Luna (goddess)

17.1 Cult and temples . . . . 17.2 Juno as moon goddess   . 17.3 Chariot of the moon   . . 17.4 See also . . . . . . . . 17.5 References  . . . . . . . 17.6 External links . . . . .

68

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18 Leto

18.1 Etymology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2 Birth of Artemis and Apollo . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3 Witnesses at the birth of Apollo  . . . . . . . . . . 18.4 Chthonic assailants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.5 The Lycian Letoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.6 Leto in Crete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.7 Leto of the golden spindle  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.8 The Lycian peasants   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.9 Niobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.10Genealogy of the Olympians in Greek mythology  . 18.11Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Shalim

68 68 69 69 69 70 71

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71 71 72 72 72 72 72 73 73 73 73 74 75

19.1 Ugaritic inscriptions   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 19.2 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 19.3 Bibliography  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

vi

 

CONTENTS 

19.4 Other uses   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 19.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 20 Al-Qaum

77

20.1 In Popular Culture  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 20.2 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 21 Lords of the Night

78

21.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 22 Itzpapalotl

22.1 Iconography   . . 22.2 Ritual . . . . . 22.3 Mythology . . 22.4 Popular culture 22.5 See also . . . . 22.6 Notes . . . . . 22.7 References  . . . 22.8 External links .

80

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23 Metztli

23.1 Otomi mythology 23.2 Mexican traces . 23.3 Legend . . . . . 23.4 See also . . . . . 23.5 References . . .

82

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24 Tezcatlipoca

24.1 Representations of Tezcatlipoca   . 24.2 Temples to Tezcatlipoca  . . . . . 24.3 Priests of Tezcatlipoca . . . . . . 24.4 Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl  . . 24.5 Aztec religion . . . . . . . . . . 24.6 Mythical stories . . . . . . . . . 24.7 Aztec Reverence . . . . . . . . . 24.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.10References   . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.11External links . . . . . . . . . . 25 Yohaulticetl

80 80 80 81 81 81 81 81

82 82 82 82 82 83

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83 84 84 84 84 85 85 86 86 86 86 87

25.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 26 Black Sun (mythology)

88

vii

CONTENTS 

26.1 Other views 26.2 See also . . 26.3 Notes . . . 26.4 References  .

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27 Five Suns

88 88 89 89 90

27.1 Legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.2 Variations and alternative myths 27.3 Brief summation . . . . . . . . . 27.4 In popular culture . . . . . . . . 27.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.6 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . .

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28 Tzitzimitl

90 91 92 92 92 92 92 93

28.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 28.2 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 29 Apep

29.1 Development . . 29.2 Battles with Ra 29.3 Worship   . . . . 29.4 See also . . . . 29.5 Notes . . . . . 29.6 External links .

95

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30 Kuk (mythology)

95 95 96 96 96 97 98

30.1 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 31 Ratri

99

31.1 Fiction   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 31.2 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 32 Chandra

32.1 In astrology . . . . . . . . . . 32.1.1 Dark spot on the moon 32.2 Other aspects . . . . . . . . . 32.3 In popular culture . . . . . . . 32.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.5 References  . . . . . . . . . . . 32.6 External links . . . . . . . . . 33 Rahu

100

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100 101 101 102 103 103 103 104

33.1 Mythology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

viii

 

33.1.1 Hinduism . 33.1.2 Buddhism  . 33.2 Astrology . . . . . 33.2.1   Rahu dan . 33.3 Worship   . . . . . . 33.4 Rahu Mantra . . . . 33.5 See also . . . . . . 33.6 Notes . . . . . . . 33.7 External links . . .

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34 Varuna

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35 List of Lithuanian mythological figures

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36.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 36.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 37 Nótt

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Chapter 1

Chthonic This article is about the Greek deities. For the band, see Chthonic (band). For Cthulhu mythos creatures, see Chthonian (Cthulhu mythos). For other uses, see Chthon (disambiguation).

with identical rites, and yet occasionally was classified as an “Olympian” in late poetry and myth. The absorption of some earlier cults into the newer pantheon versus those that resisted being absorbed is suggested as providing the later myths.

Chthonic (UK   /ˈkθɒnɪk/, US   /ˈθɒnɪk/   from   Greek χθόνιος khthonios [kʰtʰónios], “in, under, or beneath the earth”, from χθών khthōn “earth”)[1] literallymeans “subterranean”. The translation of meaning discusses  deities or spirits of the underworld, especially in Greek religion. The Greek word  khthon  is one of several for “earth"; it typically refers to the interior of the soil, rather than the living surface of the land (as Gaia or Ge does), or the land as territory (as  khora (χώρα) does). It evokes, simultaneously, abundance and the grave.

1.1.2 Ambiguities in assignment

The categories Olympian and chthonic  were not, however, completely separate. Some Olympian deities, such as Hermes and Zeus, also received chthonic sacrifices and tithes in certain locations. The deified heroes Heracles and Asclepius might be worshipped as gods or chthonic heroes, depending on the site and the time of origin of the myth. Moreover, a few deities aren't easily classifiable under 1.1 Chthonic and Olympian these terms.   Hecate, for instance, was typically offered puppies at  crossroads—a practice neither typical of an While terms such as “Earth deity” or  Earth mother have Olympian sacrifice nor of a chthonic sacrifice to Persesweeping implications in English, the words  khthonie and phone or the heroes. Because of her underworld roles, khthonios  had a more precise and technical meaning in Hecate is generally classed as chthonic. Greek, referring primarily to the manner of offering sacrifices to the deity in question. Some chthonic cults practised ritual sacrifice, which of- 1.2 References in psychology and ten happened at night time. When the sacrifice was a livanthropology ing creature, the animal was placed in a  bothros (βόθρος, “pit”) or   megaron (μέγαρον, “sunken chamber”). In some Greek chthonic cults, the animal was sacrificed on In analytical psychology, the term chthonic was often a raised  bomos (βωμός, "altar"). Offerings usually were used to describe the spirit of nature within; the unconburned whole or buried rather than being cooked and scious earthly impulses of the Self, that is one’s material depths, however not necessarily with negative connotashared among the worshippers. [2] tions, see also anima and animus or shadow. As well, the chthonic hasconnotations with regard to gen1.1.1 Cult type versus function der, in cultural anthropology; del Valle’s  Gendered Anthropology  describes there being “male and female deities The myths associating the underworld chthonic deities at every level... men associated with the above, the sky, and fertility was not exclusive. Myths about the later and women associated with the below, with the earth, waOlympian deities also described an association with the ter of the underground, and the chthonic deities.” [3] This fertility and the prosperity of Earth. Thus Demeter and was by no means universal; in Ancient Egypt the main Persephone both watched over aspects of the fertility of deity of the earth was the male god Geb, his female conland, yet Demeter had a typically Olympian cult while sort was Nut, otherwise known as the sky. Greek mytholPersephone had a chthonic one. ogy likewise has female deities associated with the sky, Also, Demeter was worshipped alongside Persephone such as Dike, goddess of justice who sits on the right side 1

2

CHAPTER 1. CHTHONIC 

of Zeus as his advisor, and Eos, goddess of dawn—and Hades as god of the underworld.

1.3 References in structural geology The term  Allochthon in  structural geology  is used to describe a large block of rock which has been moved from its original site of formation, usually by  low angle thrust faulting. From the Greek “allo” meaning other and “chthon” designating the process of the land mass being moved under the earth and connecting two horizontally stacked décollements and thus “under the earth”.

1.4 See also •

 Chthonic law

•

 Earth mother

•

  Geomancy

•

 Life-death-rebirth deities

•

 Sky father

1.5 References [1]   Chthonios, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–  English Lexicon, at Perseus. [2] “The sacrifice for gods of the dead and for heroes was called  enagisma, in contradistinction to thysia, which was the portion especially of the celestial deities. It was offered on altars of a peculiar shape: they were lower than the ordinary altar  bomos, and their name was  ischara, 'hearth'. Through them the blood of the victims, and also libations, were to flow into the sacrificial trench. Therefore they were funnel-shaped and open at the bottom. For this kind of sacrifice did not lead up to a joyous feast in which the gods and men took part. The victim was held over the trench with its head down, not, as for the celestial gods, with its neck bent back and the head uplifted; and it was burned entirely.” (Source The Heroes of the Greeks , C. Kerenyi pub. Thames & Hudson 1978). The 'gods of the dead' are, of course,  Chthonic  deities. [3] Teresa del Valle,   Gendered Anthropology , Routledge, 1993, ISBN 0-415-06127-X, p. 108.

1.6 External links •

 The dictionary definition of chthonic at Wiktionary

Chapter 2

List of night deities •

•

•

 Metztli, god or goddess of the moon, night and farmers   Tezcatlipoca, god of the night sky, the night winds, hurricanes, the north, the earth, obsidian, enmity, discord, rulership, divination, temptation, jaguars, sorcery, beauty, war and strife   Yohaulticetl, lunar goddess known as the “Lady of the Night”

2.3   Canaanite •

 Shalim, god of dusk

2.4   Egyptian •

•

The Norse night goddess Nótt  riding her horse, in a 19th-century  painting by Peter Nicolai Arbo

•

A night deity isagodorgoddessin mythology associated with night, the night sky, or darkness. They commonly feature in polytheistic religions. The following is a list of night deities in various mythologies.

•

•

  Nephthys, goddess of night as well as death and birth

  Artume, (also called Aritimi, Artames, or Artumes), Etruscan goddess of night

2.6   Greek

 Al-Qaum, Nabatean god of war and the night, and guardian of caravans

•

2.2   Aztec •

Kuk, personification of the primordial darkness

2.5   Etruscan

2.1   Arabian •

 Apep, the serpent god, deification of evil and darkness

•

 Lords of the Night, a group of nine gods, each of whom ruled over a particular night

•

 Itzpapalotl - fearsome skeletal goddess of the stars

•

3

 Asteria, goddess of nocturnal oracles and falling stars   Erebus, primordial god of darkness and consort of Nyx  Hecate, goddess of magic, witchcraft, the night, moon, ghosts and necromancy Nyx, primordial goddess of night

4

CHAPTER 2. LIST OF NIGHT DEITIES  •

•

•

 Achlys, primordial goddess of eternal night, misery and sorrow  Artemis, goddess of the moon, hunting,and young women. associated with the night.   Selene, goddess of the moon.

2.7   Hindu •

  Ratri, goddess of night

•

 Chandra, god of the moon

•

 Rahu, a celestial deity of darkness and eclipse

•

  Varuna (Hindu mythology)

2.8   Lithuanian •

  Breksta, goddess of twilight and dreams, who protects people from sunset to sunrise

2.9   Māori •

 Hine-nui-te-pō, goddess of night and death and the ruler of the underworld in Māori mythology

2.10   Norse •

  Nótt, female personification of night

2.11   Roman •

•

•

•

•

•

•

Nox, primordial goddess of night; equivalent to the Greek goddess Nyx  Summanus, god of nocturnal thunder  Diana, goddess of the moon, hunting, and the wild, equivalent to Artemis.  Somnus, god of dreams, equivalent to Hypnus.   Trivia, goddess of sorcery, ghosts, tombs, death, and torches, equivalent to Hecate.   Luna, goddess of the moon, equivalent to Selene.  Latona, an equivalent to the goddesses  Leto and Asteria.

2.12   Slavic •

 Zorya, two guardian goddesses, representing the morning and evening stars.

2.13 See also •

  Chthonic (underworld) deities

Chapter 3

Nephthys For Nephthys Boat Club, see   Oxford University ated as Nebet-het, and Nebt-het, from  Egyptian hieroLightweight Rowing Club. glyphs).The origin of the goddess Nephthys is unclear but the literal translation of her name is usually given as Nephthys   /ˈnɛpθɨs/[1] (Greek: Νέφθυς) or  Nebthet “Lady of the House,” which has caused some to mistak/ˈnɛbˌθɛt/ (Arabic: Nyftys) is a member of enly identify her with the notion of a “housewife,” or as the Great Ennead of Heliopolis in Egyptian mythology, a the primary lady who ruled a domestic household. This daughter of Nut and Geb. Nephthys was typically paired is a pervasive error repeated in many commentaries conwith her sister Isis in funerary rites[2] because of their role cerning this deity. Her name means quite specifically, as protectors of the mummy and the god  Osiris and as the “Lady of the [Temple] Enclosure” which associates her with the role of priestess. sister-wife of Set. This title, which may be more of an epithet describing her function than a given name, probably indicates the association of Nephthys with one particular temple or some 3.1 Etymology specific aspect of the Egyptian temple ritual. Along with her sister Isis, Nephthys represented the temple  pylon or trapezoidal tower gateway entrance to the temple which also displayed the flagstaff. This entrance way symbolised the horizon or akhet.

3.2 Function At the time of the Fifth Dynasty Pyramid Texts, Nephthys appears as a goddess of the Heliopolitan  Ennead. She is the sister of Isis and companion of the war-like deity, Set. As sister of Isis and especially Osiris, Nephthys is a protective goddess who symbolizes the death experience, just as Isis represented the (re-)birth experience. Nephthys was known in some ancient Egyptian  temple theologies and cosmologies as the “Useful Goddess” or the “Excellent Goddess”. [3] These late Ancient Egyptian temple texts describe a goddess who represented divine assistance and protective guardianship. Nephthys is regarded as the mother of the funerary-deity Anubis (Inpu) in some myths. [4][5] Alternatively Anubis appears as the son of Bastet[6] or Isis.[7] As the primary “nursing mother” of the incarnate Pharaonic-god, Horus, Nephthys also was considered to be the nurse of the reigning Pharaoh himself.[8] Though other goddesses could assume this role, Nephthys was most usually portrayed in this function. In contrast NephNephthys - Musée du Louvre , Paris, France thys is sometimes featured as a rather ferocious and danNephthys is the Greek form of an epithet (transliter- gerous divinity, capable of incinerating the enemies of 5

6 the Pharaoh with her fiery breath. [9] New Kingdom Ramesside Pharaohs, in particular, were enamored of  Mother Nephthys,  as is attested in various stelae and a wealth of inscriptions at Karnak and Luxor, where Nephthys was a member of that great city’s Ennead and her altars were present in the massive complex. [10]

CHAPTER 3. NEPHTHYS 

ation with the kite or the Egyptian hawk (and its piercing, mournful cries) evidently reminded the ancients of the lamentations usually offered for the dead by wailing women. In this capacity, it is easy to see how Nephthys could be associated with death and putrefaction in the Pyramid Texts. She was, almost without fail, depicted as crowned by the hieroglyphics signifying her name, which were a combination of signs for the sacred temple enclosure (hwt ), along with the sign for  neb, or mistress (Lady), on top of the enclosure sign. [13] Nephthys was clearly viewed as a morbid-but-crucial force of heavenly transition, i.e., the Pharaoh becomes strong for hisjourney to theafterlife through theintervention of Isis and Nephthys. The same divine power could be applied later to all of the dead, who were advised to consider Nephthys a necessary companion. According to the Pyramid Texts, Nephthys, along with Isis, was a force before whom demons trembled in fear, and whose magical spells were necessary for navigating the various levels of Duat, as the region of the afterlife was termed. It should here be noted that Nephthys was not necessarily viewed as the polar opposite of Isis, but rather as a different reflection of the same reality: eternal life in transition. Thus, Nephthys was also seen in the Pyramid Texts as a supportive cosmic force occupying the night-bark on the journey of Ra, the majestic sun god, particularly when he entered Duat at the transitional time of dusk, or twilight. Isis was Ra’s companion at the coming of dawn.

3.4 Nephthys and Set Though it commonly has been assumed that Nephthys was married to Set and they have a son   Anubis, reTriad of Isis, Nephthys, and Harpocrates. Early Greco-Roman. cent Egyptological research has called this into question. Walters Museum Levai notes that while Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride  mentions the deity’s marriage, there is very little specifically Nephthys was typically paired with her sister  Isis in fu- linking Nephthys and Set in the original early Egyptian nerary rites[2] because of their role as protectors of the sources. She argues that the later evidence suggests that: mummy and the god Osiris and as the sister-wife of Seth. Less well understood than her sister Isis, Nephthys was no while Nephthys’s marriage to Set was a part  less important in Egyptian Religion as confirmed by the of Egyptian mythology, it was not a part of the work of E. Hornung, [11] along with the work of several myth of the murder and resurrection of Osiris. noted scholars. She was not paired with Set the villain, but with “Ascend and descend; descend with Nephthys, sink into Set’s other aspect, the benevolent figure who was darkness with the Night-bark. Ascend and descend; asthe killer of  Apophis. This was the aspect of Set  cend with Isis, rise with the Day-bark.”  worshiped in the western oases during the Roman period, where he is depicted with Nephthys Pyramid Text Utterance 222 line 210. [12] as co-ruler.[14]

3.3 Symbolism

3.5 The saving sister of Osiris

In the funerary role, Nephthys often was depicted as a kite, or as a woman with falcon wings, usually out- Nephthys plays an important role in the Osirian mythstretched as a symbol of protection. Nephthys’s associ- cycle.

3.6. NEW KINGDOM CULTS OF NEPHTHYS 

7

at the holy city of Abydos. No cult is attested for her there, though she certainly figured as a goddess of great importance in the annual rites conducted, wherein two chosen females or priestesses played the roles of Isis and Nephthys and performed the elaborate 'Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys’. There, at Abydos, Nephthys joined Isis as a mourner in the shrine known as the Osireion. [16] These "Festival Songs of Isis and Nephthys" were ritual elements of many such Osirian rites in major ancient Egyptian cult-centers. As a mortuary goddess (along with Isis, Neith, and Serqet), Nephthys was one of the protectresses of the Canopic jars of the Hapi. Hapi, one of the Sons of Horus, guarded the embalmed lungs. Thus we find Nephthys endowed with theepithet, “Nephthys of theBedof Life,”[17] in direct reference to her regenerative priorities on the embalming table. In the city of Memphis, Nephthys was duly honored with the title “Queen of the Embalmer’s Shop,” and there associated with the  jackal-headed god Anubis as patron.[18] Nephthys was also considered a festive deity whose rites Nephthys - Greco-Roman era painted image on a linen and tem- could mandate the liberal consumption of beer. In vari pera shroud - c. 300-200 B.C. -  Metropolitan Museum of Art ous reliefsat Edfu, Dendera, andBehbeit, Nephthys is depicted receiving lavish beer-offerings from the Pharaoh, which she would “return”, using her power as a beergoddess “that [the pharaoh] may have joy with no hangover.” Elsewhere at Edfu, for example, Nephthys is a goddess who gives the Pharaoh power to see “that which is hidden by moonlight.” This fits well with more general textual themes that consider Nephthys to be a goddess whose unique domain was darkness, or the perilous edges of the desert. Nephthys could also appear as one of the goddesses who assists at childbirth. One ancient Egyptian myth preserved in the Papyrus Westcar recounts the story of Isis, Nephthys, Meskhenet, and Heqet as traveling dancers in disguise, assisting the wife of a priest of Amun-Re as she prepares to bring forth sons who are destined for fame and fortune. Nephthys’s healing skills and status as direct counterpart of Isis, steeped, as her sister in “words of power,” are evidenced by the abundance of  faience amulets carved in her likeness, and by her presence in a variety of magical papyri that sought to summon her famously altruistic [19] Isis - Greco-Roman era painted image on a linen and tempera qualities to the aid of mortals. shroud - c. 300-200 B.C. -  Metropolitan Museum of Art

It is Nephthys who assists Isis in gathering and mourning the dismembered portions of the body of Osiris, after his murder by the envious Set. Nephthys also serves as the nursemaid and watchful guardian of the infant Horus. The Pyramid Texts refer to Isis as the “birth-mother” and to Nephthys as the “nursing-mother” of Horus. Nephthys was attested as one of the four “Great Chiefs” ruling in the Osirian cult-center of Busiris, in the Delta [15] and she appears to have occupied an honorary position

3.6 New Kingdom cults of Nephthys The  Ramesside Pharaohs were particularly devoted to Set’s prerogatives and, in the   19th Dynasty, a temple of Nephthys called the “House of Nephthys of Ramesses-Meriamun” was built or refurbished in the town of Sepermeru, midway between Oxyrhynchos and

8 Herakleopolis, on the outskirts of the Fayyum and quite near to the modern site of Deshasheh. Here, as  Papyrus Wilbour notes in its wealth of taxation records and land assessments, the temple of Nephthys was a specific foundation by Ramesses II, located in close proximity to (or within) the precinct of the enclosure of Set. To be certain, the House of Nephthys was one of fifty individual, land-owning temples delineated for this portion of the Middle Egyptian district in  Papyrus Wilbour. The fields and other holdings belonging to Nephthys’s temple were under the authority of two Nephthys-prophets (named Penpmer and Merybarse) and one (mentioned) wa'ab priest of the goddess. While certainly affiliated with the “House of Set,” the Nephthys temple at Sepermeru and its apportioned lands (several acres) clearly were under administration distinct from the Set institution. [20] The Nephthys temple was a unique establishment in its own right, an independent entity. According to Papyrus Wilbour, [21] another “House of Nephthys of Ramesses-Meriamun” seems to have existed to the north, in the town of Su, closer to the Fayyum region. Another temple of Nephthys seems to have existed in the town of Punodjem. The  Papyrus Bologna records a complaint lodged by a prophet of the temple of Set in that town regarding undue taxation in his regard. After making an introductory appeal to “Re-Horakhte, Set, and Nephthys” for the ultimate resolution of this issue by the royal Vizier, the prophet (named Pra'emhab) laments his workload. He notes his obvious administration of the “House of Set” and adds: “I am also responsible for the ship, and I am responsible likewise for the House of Nephthys, along with a heap of other temples.” [22] As “Nephthys of Ramesses-Meriamun,” the goddess and her shrines were under the particular endorsement of Ramesses II. The foundations of the Set and Nephthys temples at Sepermeru finally were discovered and identified in the 1980s, and the Nephthys temple was a selfsustaining temple complex within the Set enclosure. [23] There can be little doubt that a cult of Nephthys existed in the temple and great town of Herakleopolis, north of Sepermeru. A near life-sized statue of Nephthys (currently housed in the  Louvre) boasts a curiously altered inscription. The basalt image originally was stationed at Medinet-Habu, as part of the cultic celebration of the Pharaonic “Sed-Festival,” but was transferred at some point to Herakleopolis and the temple of Herishef. The cult-image’s inscription originally pertained to “Nephthys, Foremost of the Sed [Festival] in the Booth of Annals” (at Medinet-Habu), but was re-inscribed or re-dedicated to “Nephthys, Foremost of the [Booths of] Herakleopolis.” A “prophet of Nephthys” is indeed attested for the town of Herakleopolis in the  30th Dynasty.[24]

CHAPTER 3. NEPHTHYS 

3.7 Chief goddess of Nome VII Nephthys was considered the unique protectress of the Sacred Phoenix, or the  Bennu   Bird. This role may have stemmed from an early association in her native Heliopolis, which was renowned for its “House of the Bennu” temple. In this role, Nephthys was given the name“Nephthys-Kheresket,” and a wealth of temple texts from Edfu, Dendera, Philae, Kom Ombo, El Qa'la, Esna, and others corroborate the late identification of Nephthys as the supreme goddess of Upper Egyptian Nome VII, where another shrine existed in honor of the  Bennu. Nephthys also was the goddess of the “Mansion of the Sistrum" in Hwt-Sekhem (Gr. Diospolis Parva), the chief city of Nome VII. There, Nephthys was the primary protectress of the resident Osirian relic, of the Bennu Bird, and of the local Horus/Osiris manifestation, the god Neferhotep.[25] Nephthys was most widely and usually worshipped in ancient Egypt as part of a consortium of temple deities. Therefore, it should not surprise us that her cult images could likely be found as part of the divine entourage in temples at Kharga, Kellis, Deir el-Hagar, Koptos, Dendera, Philae, Sebennytos, Busiris, Shenhur, El Qa'la, Letopolis, Heliopolis, Abydos, Thebes, Dakleh Oasis, and indeed throughout Egypt. [26] In most cases, Nephthys found her typical place as part of a triad alongside Osiris and Isis, or Isis and Horus, or Isis and Min, or as part of a quartet of deities. It is perhaps in this way that Nephthys best fulfilled her role as an important national deity whose ideal function was to provide powerful assistance to her associates in a great variety of temple cults— a truly “Useful” and “Excellent” goddess, as her primary epithets reflect.

3.8 References [1] Or /ˈnɛfθɨs/. [2] Abeer El-Shahawy  books.google.co.uk  The funerary art  of Ancient Egypt: a bridge to the realm of the hereafter  (106 pages) American University in Cairo Press, 2005 ISBN 977-17-2353-7 [Retrieved 2011-12-12] [3] P. Wilson, 'A Ptolemaic Lexikon: A Lexicographical Study of the Texts in the Temple of Edfu', OLA 78, 1997 [4] G. A. Wainwright, Seshat and the Pharaoh, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 26, (Feb., 1941), pp. 30-40 [5] Virginia Schomp,   The Ancient Egyptians, Marshall Cavendish, 2007, p. 27 [6] A. K. Eyma, A Delta-man in Yebu, Universal-Publishers, 2003; Page 219 in the article On a Topos in Egyptian Medical History by Hedvig Györy [7] Donald B. Redford, The Literary Motif of the Exposed Child (cf. Ex. ii 1-10), Numen, Vol. 14, Fasc. 3. (Nov.

3.8. REFERENCES  1967), pp. 209-228. The discussion of Isis as the mother of Anubis appears on pages 222 and 223 [8] K.A. Kitchen, Ramesside Inscriptions, 1993, Blackwell [9] Sauneron, Elephantine, Beitrage Bf. 6, 46 n.d.; Traunecker, Karnak VII, 184 n. 2; Cauville, 'Essai,' 152 n.7 [10] B. Porter/R. Moss, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings. II. Theban Temples. Oxford Second Edition [11] Versuch über Nephthys, in: A. B. Lloyd [Hrsg.], Studies in Pharaonic Religion and Society in Honour of J. G. Griffiths, London 1992, 186-188 [12]  Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts , R.O. Faullkner, Oxford University Press 1969. [13] James P. Allen, Peter Der Manuelian,'ThePyramidTexts’ SBL, 2005 [14] Levai, Jessica. “Nephthys and Seth: Anatomy of a Mythical Marriage”, Paper presented at The 58th Annual Meeting of the American Research Center in Egypt, Wyndham Toledo Hotel, Toledo, Ohio, Apr 20, 2007.http: //www.allacademic.com/meta/p176897_index.html [15] The Book of the Dead, Theban Recension [16] Byron Esely Shafer, Dieter Arnold, Temples in Ancient Egypt, p. 112, 2005 [17] Tomb of Tuthmosis III, Dynasty XVIII [18] J. Berlandini, p. 41-62, Varia Memphitica, VI - La stèle de Parâherounemyef, BIFAO 82 [19] A. Gutbub, J. Bergman, Nephthys découverte dans un papyrus magique in Mélanges, Publications de la recherche, université de Montpellier, Montpellier, FRANCE, 1984 [20] 'Land Tenure in the Ramesside Period' by S. Katary, 1989 [21] Section 1. 28 [22] Papyrus Bologna 1094, 5, 8-7, 1 [23] 'Les Deesses de l'Egypte Pharaonique', R. LaChaud, 1992, Durocher-Champollion [24] Forgeau, 'Pretres Isiaques,' BIFAO 84, 155-157 [25] Sauneron, Beitrage Bf. 6, 46; C. Traunecker, Le temple d'El-Qal'a. Relevés des scènes et des textes. I' Sanctuaire central. Sanctuaire nord. Salle des offrandes 1 à 112 [26] BIFAO website

9

Chapter 4

Asteria For the band, see Asteria (band). For the medieval music 4.2 Amazon ensemble, see Asteria Medievale. For the type of gemstone, see Star stone. Asteria was the ninth Amazon killed by Heracles when In   Greek mythology,   Asteria (/əˈstɪəriə/;   Ancient he came for Hippolyte's girdle.[5]

4.3 Heliad Asteria or Astris was a daughter of Helios and Clymene or Ceto, one of the Heliades. She married the river god Hydaspes (the modern Jhelum River) andbecame mother of Deriades, king in India.

4.4 Danaid Asteria was one of the  Danaids, daughters of  Danaus Asteria and Phoebe on the Pergamon Altar . who, with one exception, murdered their husbands on their wedding nights. She was, briefly, the bride of [6] Greek: Ἀστερία, “of the   stars, starry one”) was a Chaetus. name attributed to the following eleven individuals: the daughter of Coeus, an Amazon woman, Heliad, Danaid, Alkyonides, the Consort of Phocus, the consort of 4.5 Alkyonides Bellerophon, the daughter of Coronus, the daughter of Teucer, an Athenian maiden, and a character in the opera Asteria was one of the Alkyonides. Along with her sis“Telemaco”. Each of these is detailed below. ters, she flung herself into the sea and was transformed into a kingfisher.[7]

4.1 Daughter of Coeus Asteria was the daughter of the Titans Coeus and Phoebe and sister of Leto.[1] According to Hesiod, by Perses she had a daughter Hecate.[2] The Titan goddess of nocturnal oracles and falling stars, Asteria flung herself into the Aegean Sea in the form of a quail in order to escape the advances of Zeus, and became the “quail island” of Ortygia.[3] This then became identified with the island of  Delos, which was the only piece on earth to give refuge to the fugitive Leto when, pregnant with Zeus’s children, she was pursued by vengeful Hera.[4]

4.6 Consort of Phocus Asteria[8] or Asterodia[9] was the mother of Crisus and Panopeus by Phocus.

4.7 Consort of Bellerophon Asteria, daughter of Hydeus, was the mother of Hydissos by Bellerophon. Her son is known for having founded a city in Caria which was named after him. [10]

10

4.13. EXTERNAL LINKS 

4.8 Daughter of Coronus Asteria, daughter of Coronus, and Apollo were possible parents of the seer Idmon.[11]

4.9 Daughter of Teucer The daughter of Teucer and Eune of Cyprus also bore the name Asteria.[12]

4.10 Athenian maiden Asteria was one of the would-be  sacrificial victims of Minotaur, portrayed in a vase painting. [13]

4.11 In Gluck opera Christoph Willibald Gluck gave the name Asteria to one of the characters in his 1765 opera "Telemaco", though the name did not appear in Homer's Odyssey on which the opera was based.

4.12 References [1] Hesiod, Theogony, 404ff. [2]   Theogony 409–11. [3]  John Tzetzes. [4]  Theoi Project - Titanis Asteria [5]  Diodorus Siculus,  Library of History , 4. 16.3 (on-line text) [6]   Bibliotheca 2. 1. 5 [7]   Suda s. v.  Alkyonides [8]  Tzetzes on Lycophron, 53 [9]  Tzetzes on Lycophron, 939 [10]  Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v.  Hydissos [11]   Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 1. 139, citing Pherecydes of Leros [12]  Tzetzes on Lycophron, 450 [13]   Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum   4. 8185 (painting on François Vase)

4.13 External links •

 Theoi Project: Asteria

11

Chapter 5

Erebus For other uses, see Erebus (disambiguation).

[3] Elizabeth, Alice (1896).  The Sources of Spenser’s Classical Mythology. New York: Silver, Burdett and Company. pp. 52, 55.

In   Greek mythology,   Erebus   /ˈɛrəbəs/, also   Erebos (Greek: Ἔρεβος, “deep darkness, shadow”), [1] was of- [4] Morford, Mark P. O. (1999).  Classical Mythology: Sixth Edition. New York: Oxford University Press US. pp. ten conceived as a primordial deity, representing the per36, 84, 253, 263, 271.   ISBN 0-19-514338-8., ISBN sonification of darkness; for instance, Hesiod’s Theogony 9780195143386 identifies him as one of the first five beings in existence, [2] born of Chaos. Erebus features little in Greek mytho- [5] Peck, Harry Thurston (1897). Harper’s Dictionary of  logical tradition and literature, but is said to have fathered Classical Literature and Antiquities, Volume 1 . New York: several other deities with Nyx; depending on the source Harper. p. 620. of the mythology, this union includes  Aether, Hemera, the Hesperides, Hypnos,the Moirai, Geras, Styx, Charon, [6] Rengel, Marian (2009).  Greek and Roman Mythology A to Z . Infobase Publishing. p. 51. ISBN 1-60413-412-7., and Thanatos. ISBN 9781604134124 In Greek literature the name Erebus is also used of a region of the Greek underworld where the dead pass imme- [7] Turner, Patricia (2001). Dictionary of Ancient Deities. Oxford University Press. p. 170. ISBN 0-19-514504-6., diately after dying, and is sometimes used interchangeISBN 9780195145045 ably with Tartarus.[3][4][5][6][7] The perceived meaning of   Erebus   is “darkness"; the [8] Harper, Douglas. “Online Etymology Dictionary: Erebus”. Retrieved 1 July 2011. first recorded instance of it was “place of darkness between earth and Hades”.   Semitic forms such as He- [9]  R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek , Brill, brew (ˤerev) 'sunset, evening' are sometimes cited 2009, p. 451. as a source. [3] However, an Indo-European origin for the name Ἔρεβος itself is possible from PIE  *h1 regʷ-es/os- [10] Evelyn-White (1914) , “darkness” [8][9] “darkness” (cf.   Sanskrit  rájas, Gothic [11] Atsma, Aaron. “Hyginus, Fabulae 1–49”. Theoi E-Texts riqis, Old Norse røkkr ).[1] Library. Retrieved 1 July 2011. According to the Greek oral poet  Hesiod's   Theogony, Erebus is the offspring of  Chaos, and brother to  Nyx: Sources “From Chaos came forth Erebus and black Night; but of Night were born Aether and Day, whom she con Evelyn-White, Hugh G. (1914). “Theogony”. The ceived and bore from union in love with Erebus.” Hesiod, Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Theogony (120–125)[10] Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White.  Perseus Digital Library Project   (Cambridge: Harvard University The Roman writer Hyginus, in his  Fabulae, described [11] Press). Erebus as the father of Geras, the god of old age. •

•

5.1 References Notes

Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873).  “E'rebos”

5.2 External links

[1]  Ἔρεβος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–  English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. [2] Hesiod, Theogony 116–124.

12

•

 The Theoi Project, “Erebos”

Chapter 6

Artume Artume (also called  Aritimi ,  Artames, or  Artumes) was an Etruscan goddess who was the goddess of night, of the moon (like another goddess, Losna), death, nature, woods and fertility. She was associated with the Greek goddess Artemis in later history.[1] Aritimi was also considered the founder of the Etruscan town Aritie, which is today the Italian town Arezzo.

6.1 Artume in popular culture Artume appeared as a recurring character in   Marvel Comics.[2]

6.2 References [1] Thomson de Grummond, Nancy (2006).  Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend . University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. pp. 12, 51, 99–103, 130–32, 141, 149, 158. ISBN 978-1-93170786-2. Referred to as “Artumes”. [2] Van Lente, Fred; Pak, Greg; et al. (December 31, 2008). “Incredible Hercules #124”. Marvel Universe. Retrieved 26 April 2010.

13

Chapter 7

Hecate For other uses, see Hecate (disambiguation). Hecate or   Hekate (/ˈhɛkətiː, ˈhɛkɪt/;   Greek   Ἑκάτη, Hekátē ) is a goddess in Greek  religion and  mythology, most often shown holding two torches or a key [1] and in later periods depicted in triple form. She was variously associated with crossroads, entrance-ways, dogs, light, the moon, magic, witchcraft, knowledgeof herbsandpoisonous plants, ghosts, necromancy, and sorcery. [2][3] In the post-Christian writings of the Chaldean Oracles (2nd3rd century CE) she was regarded with (some) rulership over earth, sea and sky, as well as a more universal role as Saviour (Soteira), Mother of Angels and the Cosmic World Soul.[4][5] She was one of the main deities worshiped in Athenian households as a protective goddess and one who bestowed prosperity and daily blessings on the family.[6]

monpractice in English to pronounce her name in two syllables, even when spelled with final  e, well into the 19th century. The spelling Hecat  is due to Arthur Golding's 1567 translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses,[13] andthis spelling without the final E later appears in plays of the  ElizabethanJacobean  period.[14] Noah Webster   in 1866 particularly credits the influence of  Shakespeare for the thenpredominant disyllabic pronunciation of the name. [15]

7.2 Representations

Hecate may have originated among the   Carians of Anatolia, where variants of her name are found as names given to children. William Berg observes, “Since children are not called after spooks, it is safe to assume that Carian theophoric names involving  hekat- refer to a major deity free from the dark and unsavoury ties to the underworld and to witchcraft associated with the Hecate of classical Athens.”[7] She also closely parallels the Roman goddess Trivia, with whom she was identified in Rome.

7.1 Name The etymology of the name  Hecate  (Ἑκάτη,  Hekátē ) is not known . Suggested derivations include: •

•

 From the Greek word for 'will'. [8]   From   Ἑκατός Hekatos, an obscure epithet of Apollo.[9] This has been translated as “she that operates from afar”, “she that removes or drives off”, [10] “the far reaching one” or “the far-darter”. [11]

Statuette of Triple-bodied Hekate. Pen, ink and light brown and 

 the name of the Egyptian goddess of childbirth,  grey wash. Heqet, has been compared. [12] The earliest Greek depictions of Hecate are single faced, In Early Modern English, the name was also pronounced not three-formed. Farnell states: “The evidence of the disyllabic and sometimes spelled Hecat . It remainedcom- monuments as to the character and significance of Hecate •

14

15

7.3. MYTHOLOGY 

is almost as full as that of the literature. But it is only in the later period that they come to express her manifold and mystic nature.” [16] The earliest known monument is a small terracotta found in Athens, with a dedication to Hecate, in writing of the style of the 6th century. The goddess is seated on a throne with a chaplet bound round her head; she is altogether without attributes and character, and the main historical value of this work, which is evidently of quite a general type and gets a special reference and name merely from the inscription, is that it proves the single shape to be her earlier form, and her recognition at  Athens to be earlier than the Persian invasion. [16]

Triple Hecate and the   Charites , Attic, 3rd century BCE  (Glyptothek  , Munich)

The 2nd-century travel writer   Pausanias   stated that Hecate was first depicted in triplicate by the sculptor Alkamenes in the Greek Classical period of the late 5th century BCE  [3] which was placed before the temple of the Wingless Nike in Athens. Greek anthropomorphic conventions of art resisted representing her with three faces: a votive sculpture from Attica of the 3rd century BCE (illustration, left ), shows three single images against a column; round the column of Hecate dance the

Charites. Some classical portrayals show her as a triplicate goddess holding a torch, a key, serpents, daggers and numerous other items. [17] Depictions of both a single form Hekate and triple formed, as well as occasional four headed descriptions continued throughout her history. In Egyptian-inspired Greek esoteric writings connected with Hermes Trismegistus, and in magical papyri of Late Antiquity  she is described as having three heads: one dog, one serpent, and one horse. In other representations her animal heads include those of a cow and a boar. [18] Hecate’s triplicity is elsewhere expressed in a more Hellenic fashion in the vast frieze of the great  Pergamon Altar, now in Berlin, wherein she is shown with three bodies, taking part in the battle with the Titans. In the  Argolid, near the shrine of the Dioscuri, Pausanias saw the temple of Hecate opposite the sanctuary of  Eileithyia; He reportedtheimagetobetheworkof Scopas, stating further, “This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hecate, were made respectively by Polycleitus and his brother Naucydes, son of Mothon.” ( Description of  Greece 2.22.7) A 4th-century BCE marble relief from Crannon in Thessaly was dedicated by a race-horse owner. [19] It shows Hecate, with a hound beside her, placing a wreath on the head of a mare. She is commonly attended by a dog or dogs, and the most common form of offering was to leave meat at a crossroads. Images of her attended by a dog [20] are also found at times when she is shown as in her role as mother goddess with child, and when she is depicted alongside the god Hermes and the goddess Kybele in reliefs.[21] In the Argonautica, a 3rd-century BCE Alexandrian epic based on early material,[22] Jason placates Hecate in a ritual prescribed by Medea, her priestess: bathed at midnight in a stream of flowing water, and dressed in dark robes, Jason is to dig a round pit and over it cut the throat of a ewe, sacrificing it and then burning it whole on a pyre next to the pit as a holocaust. He is told to sweeten the offering with a libation of honey, then to retreat from the site without looking back, even if he hears the sound of footsteps or barking dogs.[23] All these elements betoken the rites owed to a chthonic deity.

7.3 Mythology Hecate has been characterized as a pre-Olympian chthonic goddess. She appears in the  Homeric Hymn to Demeter and in Hesiod's Theogony, where she is promoted strongly as a great goddess. The place of origin of her following is uncertain, but it is thought that she had popular followings in Thrace.[24] Her most important sanctuary was Lagina, a theocratic city-state in which the goddess was served by eunuchs.[24] Lagina, where the famous temple of Hecate drew great festal assemblies every year, lay close to the originally  Macedonian colony

16

CHAPTER 7. HECATE 

of Stratonikeia, where she was the city’s patroness. [25] In According to Hesiod, she held sway over many things: Thrace she played a role similar to that of lesser-Hermes, namely a governess of liminal regions (particularly gates) and the wilderness. Whom she will she greatly aids and advances: she sits by worshipful kings in judgement, and in the assembly whom she will is distinguished among the people. And when men arm themselves for the battle that destroys men, then the goddess is at hand to give victory and grant glory readily to whom she will. Good is she also when men contend at the games, for there too the goddess is with them and profits them: and he who by might and strength gets the victory wins the rich prize easily with joy, and brings glory to his parents. And she is good to stand by horsemen, whom she will: and to those whose business is in the grey discomfortable sea, and who pray to Hecate and the loudcrashing Earth-Shaker, easily the glorious goddess gives great catch, and easily she takes it away as soon as seen, if so she will. She is good in the byre with Hermes to increase the stock. The droves of kine and wide herds of goats and flocks of fleecy sheep, if she will, she increases from a few, or makes many to be less. So, then, albeit her mother’s only child, she is honored amongst all the deathless gods. And the son of Cronos made her a nurse of the young who after that day saw with their eyes the light of all-seeing Dawn. So from the beginning she is a nurse of the young, and these Hecate, Greek   goddess of the crossroads; drawing by  Stéphane are her honours.[26] Mallarmé  in Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée in Paris, 1880

Hesiod emphasizes that Hecate was an only child, the The first literature mentioning Hecate is the  Theogony by daughter of Perses and Asteria, a star-goddess who was the sister of Leto (the mother of Artemis and Apollo). Hesiod: Grandmother of the three cousins was Phoebe the ancient Titaness who personified the moon. Hecate whom Zeus the son of Cronos honored Hesiod’s inclusion and praise of Hecate in the  Theogony above all. He gave her splendid gifts, to have a has been troublesome for scholars, in that he seems to share of the earth and the unfruitful sea. She hold her in high regard, while the testimony of other writreceived honor also in starry heaven, and is ers, and surviving evidence, suggests that this may have honoredexceedingly by the deathless gods. For been exceptional. One theory is that Hesiod's original vilto this day, whenever any one of men on earth lage had a substantial Hecate following and that his incluoffers rich sacrifices and prays for favor acsion of her in the  Theogony  was a way of adding to her cording to custom, he calls upon Hecate. Great prestige by spreading word of her among his readers. [27] honor comes full easily to him whose prayers Another theory is that Hekate was mainly a household the goddess receives favorably, and shebestows god and humble household worship could have been wealth upon him; for the power surely is with more pervasive and yet not mentioned as much as temple her. For as many as were born of Earth and worship. [28] In Athens Hecate, along with Zeus, Hermes, Ocean amongst all these she has her due porHestia, and Apollo, were very important in daily life as tion. The son of Cronos did her no wrong nor they were the main gods of the household. [29] However, took anything away of all that was her portion it is clear that the special position given to Hecate by Zeus among the former Titan gods: but she holds, as is upheld throughout her history by depictions found on the division was at the first from the beginning, coins depicting Hecate on the hand of Zeus  [30] as highprivilege both in earth, and in heaven, and in lighted in more recent research presented by d'Este and sea.[26] Rankine.[31]

7.3. MYTHOLOGY 

Hecate possibly originated among the   Carians of Anatolia,[24] the region where most theophoric names invoking Hecate, such as  Hecataeus or Hecatomnus, the father of Mausolus, are attested, [32] and where Hecate remained a Great Goddess  into historical times, at her unrivalled [33] cult site in Lagina. While many researchers favor the idea that she has Anatolian origins, it has been argued that “Hecate must have been a Greek goddess.” [34] The monuments to Hecate in Phrygia and Caria are numerous but of late date. [35]

Hecate by Richard Cosway

If Hecate’s cult spread from Anatolia into Greece, it is possible it presented a conflict, as her role was already filled by other more prominent deities in the Greek pantheon, above all by Artemis and Selene. This line of reasoning lies behind the widely accepted hypothesis that she was a foreign deity who was incorporated into the Greek pantheon. Other than in the Theogony, the Greek sources do not offer a consistent story of her parentage, or of her relations in the Greek pantheon: sometimes Hecate is related as a Titaness, and a mighty helper and protector of humans. Her continued presence was explained by asserting that, because she was the only Titan who aided Zeus in the battle of gods and Titans, she was not banished into the underworld realms after their defeat by the Olympians. Onesurviving group of stories suggestshow Hecatemight have come to be incorporated into the Greek pantheon without affecting the privileged position of Artemis. [27] Here, Hecate is a mortal priestess often associated with Iphigeneia. She scorns and insults Artemis, who in retribution eventually brings about the mortal’s suicide. There was an area sacred to Hecate in the precincts of

17 the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, where the priests, megabyzi , officiated.[36] Hecate also came to be associated with ghosts, infernal spirits, the dead and sorcery. Shrines to Hecate were placed at doorways to both homes and cities with the belief that it wouldprotect from restless dead and other spirits. Likewise, shrines to Hecate at three way crossroads were created where food offerings were left at the new moon to protect those who did so from spirits and other evils.[37] One interesting passage exists suggesting that the word “jinx” might have originated in a cult object associated with Hecate. “The Byzantine polymath  Michael Psellus [...] speaks of a bullroarer, consisting of a golden sphere, decorated throughout with symbols and whirled on an oxhide thong. He adds that such an instrument is called a  iunx   (hence “jinx”), but as for the significance says only that it is ineffable and that the ritual is sacred to Hecate.”[38] Hecate is the primary feminine figure in the Chaldean Oracles  (2nd-3rd century CE), [39] where she is associated in fragment 194 with a  strophalos  (usually translated as a spinning top, or wheel, used in magic) “Labour thou around the Strophalos of Hecate.”[40] This appears to refer to a variant of the device mentioned by Psellus. [41] Variations in interpretations of Hecate’s role or roles can be traced in 5th-century Athens. In two fragments of Aeschylus she appears as a great goddess. In  Sophocles and  Euripides  she is characterized as the mistress of witchcraft and the Keres. In the  Homeric Hymn to   Demeter, Hecate is called the “tender-hearted”, a   euphemism   perhaps intended to emphasize her concern with the disappearance of Persephone, when she assisted  Demeter with her search for Persephone following her abduction by Hades, suggesting that Demeter should speak to the god of the sun, Helios. Subsequently she became Persephone’s companion on her yearly journey to andfrom therealms of Hades. Because of this association, Hecate was one of the chief goddesses of the Eleusinian Mysteries, alongside Demeter and Persephone. [1] The modern understanding of Hecate has been strongly influenced by syncretic Hellenistic interpretations. Many of the attributes she was assigned in this period appear to have an older basis. For example, in the magical papyri of Ptolemaic Egypt, she is called the 'she-dog' or 'bitch', and her presence is signified by the barking of dogs. In late imagery she also has two ghostly dogs as servants by her side. However, her association with dogs predates the conquests of Alexander the Great and the emergence of the Hellenistic world. When Philip II laid siege to Byzantium she had already been associated with dogs for sometime; the light in the sky and the barking of dogs that warned the citizens of a night time attack, saving the city, were attributed to Hecate Lampadephoros  (the tale is preserved in the Suda). In gratitude the Byzantines erected

18

CHAPTER 7. HECATE 

a statue in her honor.[42] As a virgin goddess, she remained unmarried and had no regular consort, though some traditions named her as the mother of Scylla.[43]

•

 Soteira (savior)[51]

•

 Trimorphe  (three-formed)[48]

•

 Triodia/Trioditis  (who frequents crossroads) [48]

•

  Trivia (Roman form)

7.4.1 Goddess of the crossroads Cult images and altars of Hecate in her triplicate or trimorphic form were placed at three-way   crossroads (though they also appeared before private homes and in front of city gates). [9] In this form she came to be known as the goddess  Trivia “the three ways” in Roman mythology. In what appears to be a 7th-century indication of the survival of cult practices of this general sort, Saint Eligius, in his  Sermo  warns the sick among his recently converted flock in Flanders against putting “devilish charms at springs or trees or crossroads”, [52] and, according to Saint Ouen would urge them “No Christian should make or render any devotion to the deities of the trivium, where three roads meet...”. [53]

7.5 Animals

Triple Hecate

Although associated with other moon goddesses such as Selene, she ruled over three kingdoms; the earth, the sea, and the sky. She had the power to create or hold back storms, which influenced her patronage of shepherds and sailors.[44]

7.4 Other names and epithets turns away/protects) [45]

•

  Apotropaia (that

•

 Chthonia (of the earth/underworld)[46]

•

  Enodia (on the way) [47]

•

 Klêidouchos  (holding the keys) [48]

•

  Kourotrophos  (nurse of children)[48]

•

 Melinoe[49]

•

  Phosphoros (bringing or giving light)[48]

•

  Propolos (who serves/attends)[48]

•

  Propulaia/Propylaia  (before the gate) [50]

The Triple Hecate , 1795 William Blake

Dogs were closely associated with Hecate in the Classical world. “In art and in literature Hecate is constantly represented as dog-shaped or as accompanied by a dog. Her approach was heralded by the howling of a dog. The dog was Hecate’s regular sacrificial animal, and was often eaten in solemn sacrament.”[54] The sacrifice of dogs to Hecate is attested for Thrace, Samothrace, Colophon, and Athens.[9] It has been claimed that her association with dogs is “suggestive of her connection with birth, for the dog was sacred to Eileithyia, Genetyllis, and other birth goddesses. Although in later times Hecate’s dog came to be thought of as a manifestation of restless souls or demons who

19

7.6. PLANTS 

A goddess, probably Hekate or else Artemis, is depicted with a bow, dog and twin torches.

accompanied her, its docile appearance and its accompaniment of a Hecate who looks completely friendly in many pieces of ancient art suggests that its original signification was positive and thus likelier to have arisen from the dog’s connection with birth than the dog’s underworld associations.”[55] The association with dogs, particularly female dogs, could be explained by a metamorphosis myth. The friendly looking female dog accompanying Hecate was originally the Trojan Queen Hekabe, who leapt into the sea after the fall of Troy and was transformed by Hecate into her familiar. [56] Another metamorphosis myth explains why the polecat is also associated with Hecate. From Antoninus Liberalis: “At Thebes Proitos had a daughter Galinthias. This maiden was playmate and companion of Alkmene, daughter of Elektryon. As the birth throes for Herakles were pressing on Alkmene, the Moirai (Fates) and Eileithyia (Birth-Goddess), as a favour to Hera, kept Alkmene in continuous birth pangs. They remained seated, each keeping their arms crossed. Galinthias, fearing that the pains of her labour would drive Alkmene mad, ran to the Moirai and Eleithyia and announced that by desire of Zeus a boy had been born to Alkmene and that their prerogatives had been abolished. At all this, consternation of course overcame the Moirai and they immediately let go their arms. Alkmene’s pangs ceased at once and Herakles was born. The Moirai were aggrieved at this and took away the womanly parts of Galinthias since, being but a mortal, she had deceived the gods. They turned her into a deceitful weasel (or polecat), making her live in crannies and gave her a grotesque way of mating. She is mounted through the ears and gives birth by bringing forth her young through the throat. Hekate felt sorry for this transformation of her appearance and appointed her a sacred servant of herself.” [57]

Aelian told a different story of a woman transformed into a polecat: ""I have heard that the polecat was once a human being. It has also reached my hearing that Gale was her name then; that she was a dealer in spells and a sorceress (Pharmakis); that she was extremely incontinent, and that she was afflicted with abnormal sexual desires. Nor has it escaped my notice that the anger of the goddess Hekate transformed it into this evil creature. May the goddess be gracious to me : fables and their telling I leave to others.” [58] Athenaeus (writing in the 1st or 2nd century BCE, and drawing on the etymological speculation of Apollodorus of Athens) notes that the red mullet is sacred to Hecate, “on account of the resemblance of their names; for that the goddess is  trimorphos, of a triple form”. The Greek word for mullet was  trigle  and later  trigla. He goes on to quote a fragment of verse “O mistress Hecate, Trioditis / With three forms and three faces / Propitiated with mullets”.[59] In relation to Greek concepts of pollution, Parker observes, “The fish that was most commonly banned was the red mullet ( trigle), which fits neatly into the pattern. It 'delighted in polluted things,' and 'would eat the corpse of a fish or a man'. Blood-coloured itself, it was sacredto the blood-eating goddess Hecate. It seems a symbolic summation of all the negative characteristics of the creatures of the deep.” [60] At Athens, it is said there stood a statue of Hecate  Triglathena, to whom the red mullet was offered in sacrifice. [61] After mentioning that this fish was sacred to Hecate, Alan Davidson writes, “Cicero, Horace, Juvenal, Martial, Pliny, Seneca and Suetonius have left abundant and interesting testimony to the red mullet fever which began to affect wealthy Romans during the last years of the Republic and really gripped them in the early Empire. The main symptoms were a preoccupation with size, the consequent rise to absurd heights of the prices of large specimens, a habit of keeping red mullet in captivity, and the enjoyment of the highly specialized aesthetic experience induced by watching the color of the dying fish change.”  [62] The frog, significantly a creature that can cross between two elements, also has become sacred to Hecate in modern Pagan literature.[63] In her three-headed representations, discussed above, Hecate often has one or more animal heads, including cow, dog, boar, serpent and horse. [64]

7.6 Plants Hecate was closely associated with plant lore and the concoction of medicines and  poisons. In particular she was thought to give instruction in these closely related arts. Apollonius of Rhodes, in the  Argonautica mentions that Medea was taught by Hecate, “I have mentioned to you before a certain young girl whom Hecate, daughter of Perses, has taught to work in drugs.” [65]

20

CHAPTER 7. HECATE 

The goddess is described as wearing oak in fragments of Sophocles’ lost play  The Root Diggers  (or  The Root  Cutters), and an ancient commentary on Apollonius of Rhodes’ Argonautica (3.1214) describes her as having a head surrounded by serpents, twining through branches of oak.[66] The yew in particular was sacred to Hecate. “Greeks held the yew to be sacred to Hecate... Her attendants draped wreathes of yew around the necks of black bulls which they slaughtered in her honor and yew boughs were burned on funeral pyres. The yew was associated with the alphabet and the scientific name for yew today,   taxus, was probably derived from the Greek word for yew,  toxos, which is hauntingly similar to  toxon, their word for bow and  toxicon, their word for poison. It is presumed that the latter were named after the tree because of its superiority for both bows and poison.”[67] Hecate was said to favor offerings of  garlic, which was closely associated with her cult. [68] She is also sometimes associated with cypress, a tree symbolic of death and the underworld, and hence sacred to a number of chthonic deities.[69] A number of other plants (often poisonous, medicinal and/or psychoactive) are associated with Hecate. [70] These include   aconite   (also called   hecateis),[71] belladonna,   dittany, and   mandrake. It has been suggested that the use of dogs for digging up mandrake is further corroboration of the association of this plant with Hecate; indeed, since at least as early as the 1st century CE, there are a number of attestations to the apparently widespread practice of using dogs to dig up plants associated with magic. [72]

7.7 Places Hecate was associated with borders, city walls, doorways, crossroads and, by extension, with realms outside or beyond the world of the living. She appears to have been particularly associated with being 'between' and hence is frequently characterized as a " liminal" goddess. “Hecate mediated between regimes —   Olympian and Titan —, but also between mortal and divine spheres.” [73] This liminal role is reflected in a number of her cult titles:   Apotropaia  (that turns away/protects);  Enodia  (on the way);   Propulaia /Propylaia   (before the gate);   Triodia/Trioditis  (who frequents   crossroads);  Klêidouchos (holding the keys), etc. As a goddess expected to avert harmful or destructive spirits from the house or city over

which she stood guard and to protect the individual as she or he passed through dangerous liminal places, Hecate would naturally become known as a goddess who could also  refuse  to avert the demons, or even drive them on against unfortunate individuals.[74] It was probably her role as guardian of entrances that led to Hecate’s identification by the mid fifth century with Enodia, a Thessalian goddess. Enodia’s very name (“In-the-Road”) suggests that she watched over entrances, for it expresses both the possibility that she stood on the main road into a city, keeping an eye on all who entered, and in the road in front of private houses, protecting their inhabitants.[75] This function would appear to have some relationship with the iconographic association of Hecate with keys, and might also relate to her appearance with two torches, which when positioned on either side of a gate or door illuminated the immediate area and allowed visitors to be identified. “In Byzantium small temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate’s importance to Byzantium was above all as a deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions.” [76] This suggests that Hecate’s close association with dogs derived in part from the use of watchdogs, who, particularly at night, raised an alarm when intruders approached. Watchdogs were used extensively by Greeks and Romans. [77] Like Hecate, "[t]he dog is a creature of the threshold, the guardian of doors and portals, and so it is appropriately associated with the frontier between life and death, and with demons and ghosts which move across the frontier. The yawning gates of Hades were guarded by the monstrous watchdog Cerberus, whose function was to prevent theliving from enteringtheunderworld, andthe dead from leaving it.”[78]

7.8 Festivals Hecate was worshipped by both the Greeks and the Romans who had their own festivals dedicated to her.

7.8.1 The Deipnon The Athenian Greeks honored Hekate during the Deipnon. In Greek, deipnon means the evening meal, usually the largest meal of the day. Hekate’s Deipnon is, at its most basic, a meal served to Hekate and the restless dead once a lunar month on the night when there is no visible moon, usually noted on modern calendars as the

7.10. SURVIVAL IN PRE-MODERN FOLKLORE 

new moon.[79] The Deipnon is always followed the next day by the Noumenia,[80] when the first sliver of moon is visible, and then the Agathos Diamon the day after that. The main purpose of the Deipnon was to honor Hekate and to placate the souls in her wake who “longed for vengeance.” [81] A secondary purpose was to purify the household and to atone for bad deeds a household member may have committed that offended Hekate, causing her to withhold her favor from them. The Deipnon consists of three main parts: 1) the meal that was set out at a crossroads, usually in a shrine outside the entryway to the home  [82] 2) an expiation sacrifice, [83] and 3) purification of the household. [84]

21

7.10 Survival in pre-modern folklore

Strmiska notes that Hecate, conflated with the figure of Diana, appears in late antiquity and in the early medieval period as part of an “emerging legend complex” associated with gatherings of women, the moon, and witchcraft that eventually became established “in the area of Northern Italy, southern Germany, and the western Balkans.”[93] This theory of the Roman origins of many European folk traditions related to Diana or Hecate was explicitly advanced at least as early as 1807 [94] and is reflected in numerous etymological claims by lexicographers from the 17th to the 19th century, deriving “hag” and/or “hex” from Hecate by way of  haegtesse  (AngloSaxon) and   hagazussa   (Old High German).[95] Such derivations are today proposed only by a minority [96] since being refuted by Grimm, who was skeptical of theoriesproposing non-Germanic origins for German folklore traditions.[97] Modern   etymology   reconstructs Proto-Germanic 7.9 Modern expressions *hagatusjon-  from  haegtesse  and  hagazussa;[98] the first element is probably cognate with  hedge, which derives from PIE *kagh- “hedge, enclosure”,[99] and the second Hecate is now firmly established as a figure in perhaps from *dhewes- “fly about, be smoke, vanish.” [98] Neopaganism,[85] which draws heavily on folkloric traditions [86] associating Hecate with 'The Wild Hunt',[87] witches, hedges and 'hedge-riding', [88] and other themes 7.11 Cross-cultural parallels that parallel, but are not explicitly attested in, Classical sources. The figure of Hecate can often be associated with the figShe is worshiped by people who have reconstructed and ure of Isis in Egyptian myth. Lucius Apuleius (c. 123 — revived the indigenous polytheist religion of Greece, c. 170 CE) in his work  The Golden Ass associates Hecate Hellenismos, such as groups like Hellenion and YSEE.[89] with Isis: Hecate is mentioned in Act 2, Scene 1 by the character Macbeth, known as the 'Dagger' soliloquy, in William 'I am she that is the natural mother of all Shakespeare's play of the same name: “Witchcraft celthings, mistress and governess of all the eleebrates pale Hecate’s offerings...”. [90] ments, the initial progeny of worlds, chief of powers divine, Queen of heaven, the princiHecate is also one of the “patron” goddesses of many pal of the Gods celestial, the light of the godWiccans, who in some traditions identify her with the desses: at my will the planets of the air, the Triple Goddess’ aspect of the "Crone". In other circles wholesome winds of the Seas, and the silences Wiccan witches associate her with the “Maiden”, or the of hell be disposed; my name, my divinity is “Mother” aspects as well, for Hecate has three faces, or adored throughout all the world in divers man phases. Her role as a tripartite goddess, which many ners, in variable customs and in many names, modern-day Wiccans associate with the concept of “the [...] Some call me Juno, others Bellona of the Maiden, the Mother and the Crone”, [91] was made popuBattles, and still others Hecate. Principally the lar in modern times by writers such as Robert Graves in Ethiopians which dwell in the Orient, and the The White Goddess, and many others, such as the 20th Egyptians which are excellent in all kind of ancentury occultist and author, Aleister Crowley. Historicient doctrine, and by their proper ceremonies cal depictions and descriptions show her facing in three accustomed to worship me, do call me Queen different directions, a clear and precise reference to the Isis.[...]'[100] tripartite nature of this ancient Goddess; the later Greek Magical Papyri sometimes refer to her as also having the heads of animals, and this can be seen as a reference to In the syncretism during Late Antiquity of Hellenistic her aspect of Motherhood; in this portrayal she is known and late Babylonian ("Chaldean") elements, Hecate was as “Mistress of Animals”. Modern Hellenic polytheists identified with Ereshkigal, the underworld counterpart of honor Hecate during the Deipnon.[92] Inanna in the Babylonian cosmography. In the Michigan

22

CHAPTER 7. HECATE 

mentioned, were offered to Hecate at crossroads, which were sacred to the goddess. [104]

7.12 Nature of her cult Regarding the nature of her cult, it has been remarked, “she is more at home on the fringes than in the center of Greek polytheism. Intrinsically ambivalent and polymorphous, she straddles conventional boundaries and eludes definition.” [9]

7.13 See also •

Asura (Buddhism)

•

 Janus

•

  Amphisbaena

•

 Lampade

7.14 Notes

Isis and her various other names and symbols from  The Golden Ass.

magical papyrus (inv. 7), dated to the late 3rd or early 4th century CE,  Hecate Ereschigal  is invoked against fear of punishment in the afterlife. [101] Before she became associated with Greek mythology, she had many similarities with Artemis (wilderness, and watching over wedding ceremonies) [102] Dogs were sacred to Hecate and associated with roads, domestic spaces, purification, and spirits of the dead. They played a similar symbolic role in ancient China, where dogs were conceived as representative of the household sphere, and as protective spirits appropriate when transcending geographic and spatial boundaries. Dogs were also sacrificed to the road. As Roel Sterckx observes, “The use of dog sacrifices at the gates and doors of the living and the dead as well as its use in travel sacrifices suggest that dogs were perceived as daemonic animals operating in the liminal or transitory realm between the domestic and the unknown, danger-stricken outside world”.[103] This can be compared to Pausanias’ report that in the Ionaian city of Colophon in Asia Minor a sacrifice of a black female puppy was made to Hecate as “the wayside goddess”, and Plutarch’s observation that in Boeotia dogs were killed in purificatory rites. Dogs, with puppies often

[1] The Running Maiden from Eleusis and the Early Classical Image of Hekate by Charles M. Edwards in the American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 90, No. 3 (Jul., 1986), pp. 307-318 [2] “HECATE : Greek goddess of witchcraft, ghosts & magic ; mythology ; pictures : HEKATE”. Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-09-24. [3] d'Este, Sorita & Rankine, David, Hekate Liminal Rites, Avalonia, 2009. [4] “Bryn Mawr Classical Review 02.06.11”. Bmcr.brynmawr.edu. Retrieved 2012-09-24. [5] Sarah Iles Johnston, Hekate Soteira, Scholars Press, 1990. [6] Encyclopedia Britannica, Hecate, http://www.britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/259138/Hecate [7] Berg 1974, p. 129. [8] Atleastinthecaseof Hesiod's use, see Clay, JennyStrauss (2003).   Hesiod’s Cosmos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 135.  ISBN 0-521-82392-7. Clay lists a number of researchers who have advanced some variant of the association between Hecate’s name and will (e.g. Walcot (1958), Neitzel (1975), Derossi (1975)). The researcher is led to identify “the name and function of Hecate as the one 'by whose will' prayers are accomplished and fulfilled.” This interpretation also appears in Liddell-Scott,  A Greek English Lexicon , in the entry for Hecate, which is glossed as “lit. 'she who works her will'" [9] Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (1996). The Oxford Classical Dictionary  (Third ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 671. ISBN 0-19-866172-X.

7.14. NOTES 

23

[10] Anthon, Charles (1869).  A Classical Dictionary . Harper [26] Hesiod,   Theogony, (English Translation by Hugh G. & Brothers. p. 579. Evelyn-White) [11] Wheelwright, P. E. (1975). Metaphor and Reality. [27] Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991).   Restless Dead: Encounters Bloomington. p. 144. ISBN 0-253-20122-5. Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece . ISBN 0-520-21707-1 [12] McKechnie, Paul; Guillaume, Philippe (2008). Ptolemy II  Philadelphus and His World . Leiden: Brill. p. 133. ISBN [28] Household and Family Religion in Antiquity by John 978-90-04-17089-6. Bodel and Saul M. Olyan, page 221, published by John Wiley & Sons, 2009 [13]  Golding, Arthur  (1567).   Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Book  Seven. [29] Encyclopedia Britannica, Hecate,   http://www. britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/259138/Hecate [14]  Marlowe, Christopher (first published 1604; performed also Hellenic Household Worship by Christos earlier).  Doctor Faustus , Act III, Scene 2, line 21: “Pluto’s Pandion Panopoulos, edited and translated by blue fire and Hecat’s tree”. Lesley Madytinou & Rathamanthys Madytinos Shakespeare, William (c. 1594-96). A Midsummer  http://www.labrys.gr/index.php?l=householdworship#1 Night’s Dream, Act V, Scene 1, line 384: “By the triple Hecat’s team”. [30]   “Baktria, Kings, Agathokles, ancient coins index with Shakespeare, William (c. 1603-07).   Macbeth, Act III, thumbnails”. WildWinds.com. Retrieved 2012-09-24. Scene 5, line 1: “Why, how now, Hecat!" Jonson, Ben (c. 1637, printed 1641).  The Sad Shepherd , [31] d'Este & Rankine, Hekate Liminal Rites, Avalonia, 2009 Act II, Scene 3, line 668: “our dame Hecat”. [32] Theodor Kraus,  Hekate: Studien zu Wesen u. Bilde der  [15] Webster, Noah (1866).  A Dictionary of the English LanGöttin in Kleinasien u. Griechenland   (Heidelberg) 1960.  guage  (10th ed.). Rules for pronouncing the vowels of Greek and Latin proper names”, p.9: "Hecate..., pro- [33] Berg 1974, p. 128: Berg comments on Hecate’s endorsement of Roman hegemony in her representation on the nounced in three syllables when in Latin, and in the same pediment at Lagina solemnising a pact between a warrior number in the Greek word  Ἑκάτη, in English is univer(Rome) and an amazon (Asia) sally contracted into two, by sinking the final  e . Shakespeare seems to have begun, as he has now confirmed, this pronunciation, by so adapting the word in Macbeth.... [34] Berg 1974, p. 134. Berg’s argument for a Greek origin rests on three main points: 1. Almost all archaeological And the play-going world, who form no small portion of and literary evidence for her cult comes from the Greek what is called the better sort of people, have followed the mainland, and especially from Attica—all of which dates actors in this world, and the rest of the world have folearlier than the 2nd century BCE. 2. In Asia Minor only lowed them. one monument can be associated with Hecate prior to the Cf. Brewer’s Dictionary of Phrase and Fable  (1894): 2nd century BCE. 3. The supposed connection between "Hec'ate (3 syl. in Greek, 2 in Eng.)" Hecate and attested “Carian theophoric names” is not convincing, and instead suggests an aspect of the process of [16] Lewis Richard Farnell, (1896). “Hecate in Art”, The Cults her Hellenization. He concludes, “Arguments for Hecate’s of the Greek States.  Oxford University Press, Oxford. “Anatolian” origin are not in accord with evidence.” [17] Hekate Her Sacred Fires, ed. Sorita d'Este, Avalonia, [35] Kraus 1960, p. 52; list pp.166ff. 2010 [18] Yves Bonnefoy, Wendy Doniger, Roman and European [36] Strabo, Geography, 14.1.23 Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 195. [37] “CULT OF HEKATE : Ancient Greek religion”. [19] This statue is in the British Museum, inventory number Theoi.com. Retrieved 2012-09-24. 816. [38] Mark Edwards,  Neoplatonic saints: the Lives of Plotinus [20] and Proclus by their Students , Liverpool University Press, 2000, p. 100. [21]   “Images”. Eidola.eu. 2010-02-28. Retrieved 2012-0924. [39] The Chaldean Oracles  is a collection of literature that date from somewhere between the 2nd century and the late 3rd [22] “The legend of the Argonauts is among the earliest known century, the recording of which is traditionally attributed to the Greeks,” observes Peter Green, The Argonautika , to Julian the Chaldaean or his son, Julian the Theurgist. 2007, Introduction, p. 21. The material seems to have provided background and explanation related to the meaning of these pronounce[23] Apollonios Rhodios (tr. Peter Green),  The Argonautika , ments, and appear to have been related to the practice of University of California Press, 2007, p140 theurgy, pagan magic that later became closely associated with Neoplatonism, seeHornblower, Simon; Spawforth, [24] Walter Burkert, (1987) Greek Religion: Archaic and ClasAntony, eds. (1996).   The Oxford Classical Dictionary sical , p. 171. Oxford, Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-15624-0. (Third ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 316. [25] Strabo, Geography 14.2.25; Kraus 1960. ISBN 0-19-866172-X.

24

CHAPTER 7. HECATE 

[40] English translation used here from: William Wynn [47] Sarah Iles Johnston,  Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece , University of Wescott (tr.), The Chaldean Oracles of Zoroaster , 1895. California Press, 1999, pp. 208-209. [41] “A top of Hekate is a golden sphere enclosinga lapis lazuli in its middle that is twisted through a cow-hide leather [48] Liddell-Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon . thong and having engraved letters all over it. [Diviners] spin this sphere and make invocations. Such things they [49] Ivana Petrovic,  Von den Toren des Hades zu den Hallen des Olymp   (Brill, 2007), p. 94; W. Schmid and O. call charms, whether it is the matter of a spherical obStählin,  Geschichte der griechischen Literatur  (C.H. Beck, ject, or a triangular one, or some other shape. While spin1924, 1981), vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 982; W.H. Roscher, ningthem, theycallout unintelligible or beast-like sounds, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen laughing andflailingat the air. [Hekate]teaches the taketes Mythologie (Leipzig: Teubner, 1890–94), vol. 2, pt. 2, to operate, that is the movement of the top, as if it had an p. 16. ineffable power. It is called the top of Hekate because it is dedicated to her. In her right hand she held the source of [50] Sarah Iles Johnston,  Restless Dead: Encounters Between the virtues. But it is all nonsense.” As quoted in Frank R. the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece , University of Trombley, Hellenic Religion and Christianization, C. 370California Press, 1999, p. 207. 529, Brill, 1993, p. 319. [51] Sarah Iles Johnston, Hekate Soteira , Scholars Press, 1990. [42] “In 340 B.C., however, the Byzantines, with the aid of the Athenians, withstood a siege successfully, an occur- [52] Amanda Porterfield, Healing in the history of Christianity, rence the more remarkable as they were attacked by the Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 72. greatest general of the age, Philip of Macedon. In the course of this beleaguerment, it is related, on a certain [53]  Saint Ouen, Vita Eligii  book II.16. wet and moonless night the enemy attempted a surprise, but were foiled by reason of a bright light which, appear- [54] Alberta Mildred Franklin, The Lupercalia, Columbia University, 1921, p67 ing suddenly in the heavens, startled all the dogs in the town and thus roused the garrison to a sense of their danger. To commemorate this timely phenomenon, which [55] Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead , University of California Press, 1999, pp. 211-212. was attributed to Hecate, they erected a public statue to that goddess [...]" William Gordon Holmes,  The Age of  [56] The poem Alexandra by Lycophron 1174 ff, translation Justinian and Theodora, 2003, pp. 5-6; “If any goddess by Mair. Lycophron of Chalcis was a Greek poet in the had a connection with the walls in Constantinople, it was 3rd century BCE The poemcan be read here: http://www. Hecate. Hecate had a cult in Byzantium from the time of theoi.com/Text/LycophronAlexandra.html its founding. Like Byzas in one legend, she had her origins in Thrace. Since Hecate was the guardian of “limi- [57] Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses 29, translation by nal places”, in Byzantium small temples in her honor were Francis Celoria, Psychology Press, 1992 placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate’s importance to Byzantium was above all as deity of protection. When [58] On the Characteristics of Animals by Aelian, translated by Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according Alwyn Faber Scholfield, Harvard University Press, 1958 to he legend she alerted the townspeople with her everpresent torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served [59] Charles Duke Yonge, tr.), The Learned Banqueters , H.G. Bohn, 1854. as her constant companions. Her mythic qualities thenceforth forever entered the fabric of Byzantine history. A statue known as the 'Lampadephoros’ was erected on the [60] Robert Parker,   Miasma: Pollution and Purification in Early Greek Religion , Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. hill above the Bosphorous to commemorate Hecate’s de362-363. fensive aid.” Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress , Routledge, 1994, pp. 126-127; this story apparently survived in the works Hesychius of Miletus, who in all probability lived in [61] William Martin Leake, The Topography of Athens , London, 1841, p. 492. the time of Justinian. His works survive only in fragments preserved in Photius and the Suda, a Byzantine lexicon of [62] Alan Davidson, Mediterranean Seafood , Ten Speed Press, the 10th century CE. The tale is also related by Stephanus 2002, p. 92. of Byzantium and Eustathius. [63] Varner, Gary R. (2007). Creatures in the Mist: Little Peo[43] Joseph Eddy Fontenrose, Python: A Study of Delphic Myth  ple, Wild Men and Spirit Beings Around the World: A Study and Its Origins , Biblo & Tannen Publishers, 1974, p. 96. in Comparative Mythology, p. 135. New York: Algora Publishing. ISBN 0-87586-546-1. [44]  “Hecate, Greek Goddess of the Crossroads”.   Goddess Gift: Meet the Goddesses Here . Retrieved 18 April 2011. [64] Yves Bonnefoy, Wendy Doniger,  Roman and European Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 195; [45] Alberta Mildred Franklin, The Lupercalia, Columbia Uni“Hecate” article, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1823. versity, 1921, p. 68. [65] R. L. Hunter, The Argonautica of Apollonius , Cambridge [46] Jon D. Mikalson, Athenian Popular Religion , UNC Press, University Press, 2005, p. 142, citing Apollonius of 1987, p. 76. Rhodes.

7.14. NOTES 

25

[66] Daniel Ogden, Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek  [83] Hekate’s Suppers, by K. F. Smith. Chapter in the book and Roman Worlds, Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. The Goddess Hekate: Studiesin Ancient Pagan andChris82-83. tian Philosophy edited by Stephen Ronan. Pages 57 to 64 [67] Matthew Suffness (Ed.), Taxol: Science and Applications , [84] Roscher, 1889; Heckenbach, 2781; Rohde, ii. 79, n. 1. CRC Press, 1995, p. 28. also Ammonius (p. 79, Valckenaer) [68] Frederick J. Simoons,  Plants of Life, Plants of Death , [85] For Hecate as a protector deity of a contemporary (midUniversity of Wisconsin Press, 1998, p. 143; Fragkiska nineties) neopagan coven see: Sabina Magliocco,  WitchMegaloudi,  Plants and Diet in Greece From Neolithic to ing Culture: Folklore and Neopaganism in America , UniClassic Periods, Archaeopress, 2006, p. 71. versity of Pennsylvania Press, 2004, p79 [69] Freize, Henry; Dennison, Walter (1902). Virgil’s Aeneid . [86] “Neo-paganism/witchcraft is a spiritual orientation and a New York: American Book Company. pp. N111. variety of ritual practices using reconstructed mythologi[70] “Hecate had a “botanical garden” on the island of Colchis cal structures and pre-Christian rites primarily from anwhere the following alkaloid plants were kept: Akoniton cient European and Mediterranean sources. […] most (Aconitum napellus), Diktamnon (Dictamnus albus),Mansee in goddess worship a rediscovery of folk practices dragores (Mandragora officinarum), Mekon ( Papaver  that persisted in rural Europe throughout the Christian somniferum), Melaina ( Claviceps pupurea), Thryon (Atera and up to recent times.” Timothy Miller (Ed.),  Amerropa belladona), and Cochicum [...]" Margaret F. Roberts, ica’s Alternative Religions , State University of New York Michael Wink,   Alkaloids: Biochemistry, Ecology, and  Press, 1995, p339; “Neopaganism sees itself as a revival Medicinal Applications , Springer, 1998, p. 16. of ancient pre-Christian religion: the old nature religions of Greece and Rome, of the wandering Teutonic tribes [71] Robert Graves,  The Greek Myths , Penguin Books, 1977, and of others as well.” Gaustad, Noll (Eds.),A Documenp. 154. tary History of Religion In America Since 1877 , Eerdmans, 2003, p603; “A second theme in the Neo-Pagan combi[72] Frederick J. Simoons, Plants of Life, Plants of Death, Unination is the pre-Christian European folk religion or Paversity of Wisconsin Press, 1998, pp. 121-124. ganism.” James R. Lewis,  Magical Religion and Modern [73] Bonnie MacLachlan, Judith Fletcher, Virginity Revisited:  Witchcraft , State University of New York Press, 1996, Configurations of The Unpossessed Body , University of p303 Toronto Press, 2007, p. 14. [87] For a summary of the wild hunt as a neopagan 'tradition' [74] Sarah Iles Johnston,  Restless Dead: Encounters Between see the entry in James R. Lewis,  Witchcraft Today: An the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece , University of Encyclopedia of Wiccan and Neopagan Traditions , 1999, California Press, 1999, p. 209. pp 303-304; For a 'moon magick' reference to Hecate as “Lady of the Wild Hunt and witchcraft” see: D. J. Con[75] Sarah Iles Johnston,  Restless Dead: Encounters Between way, Moon Magick: Myth & Magic, Crafts & Recipes, Ritthe Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece , University of uals & Spells, Llewellyn, 1995, p157 California Press, 1999, p. 208. [76] Vasiliki Limberis,   Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary [88] For an extensive discussion of the symbolism of the hedge And The Creation of Christian Constantinople , Routledge, and hedge-riding as it relates to contemporary witchcraft 1994, pp. 126-127. see: Eric De Vries,  Hedge-Rider: Witches and the Underworld , Pendraig Publishing, 2008, pp 10-23 (De Vries [77] Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (1996). also mentions Hecate in this liminal context); and for the The Oxford Classical Dictionary  (Third ed.). New York: relation between hedges, hedge-riding and witches in GerOxford University Press. p. 490. ISBN 0-19-866172-X. man folklore see: C. R. Bilardi,  The Red Church or The Art of Pennsylvania German Braucherei , Pendraig Pub[78] Richard Cavendish, The Powers of Evil in Western Relilishing, 2009, pp 127-129; As a general indicator of the  gion, Magic and Folk Belief , Routledge, 1975, p. 62. currency of the association of hedge and witch see titles [79] [5] The play Plutus by Aristophanes (388BCE), line 594 such as: Silver Ravenwolf,  Hedge Witch: Spells, Crafts & any translation will do or Benjamin Bickley Rogers is fine Rituals for NaturalMagick , Llewellyn, 2008 and RaeBeth, Hedge Witch: Guide To Solitary Witchcraft , Hale, 1992 [80] Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 65, No.2, 1972 pages 291-297 [89] Hellenion is a 501c3 religious organization based in the USA dedicated to reviving the religions indigenous to [81] These are the biaiothanatoi, aoroi and ataphoi (cf. RoGreece.   http://hellenion.org/ The Supreme Council of hde, i. 264 f., and notes, 275-277, ii. 362, and note, Ethnikoi Hellenes is an umbrella group based in Greece 411-413, 424-425), whose enthumion, the quasi-technical that is a legally recognized Non Profit Organization (NPO) word designating their longing for vengeance, was much and was “founded in June of 1997 aiming to the morale dreaded. See Heckenbach, p. 2776 and references. and physical protection and restoration of the Polytheis[82] Antiphanes, in Athenaeus, 313 B (2. 39 K), and 358 F; tic, Ethnic Hellenic religion, tradition and way of life in Melanthius, in Athenaeus, 325 B. Plato, Com. (i. 647. the “modern” Greek Society from which is oppressed due 19 K), Apollodorus, Melanthius, Hegesander, Chariclides to its institutional intolerance and theocracy”. (iii. 394 K), Antiphanes, in Athenaeus, 358 F; Aristophanes, Plutus, 596. [90]  http://nfs.sparknotes.com/macbeth/page_50.html

26 [91] E.g. Wilshire, Donna (1994). Virgin mother crone: myths and mysteries of the triple goddess . Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions International. p. 213. ISBN 0-89281-494-2. [92] https://sites.google.com/site/hellenionstemenos/Home/ festivals/hekatesdeipnon [93] Michael Strmiska, Modern paganism in world cultures , ABC-CLIO, 2005, p. 68. [94] Francis Douce, Illustrations of Shakspeare, and of Ancient Manners, 1807, p. 235-243. [95]   John Minsheu and   William Somner   (17th century), Edward Lye  of Oxford (1694-1767),   Johann Georg Wachter,   Glossarium Germanicum   (1737),   Walter Whiter, Etymologicon Universale (1822) [96] e.g. Gerald Milnes,  Signs, Cures, & Witchery, Univ. of Tennessee Press, 2007, p. 116; Samuel X. Radbill, “The Role of Animals in Infant Feeding”, in  American Folk  Medicine: A Symposium  Ed. Wayland D. Hand. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. [97] “Many have been caught by the obvious resemblance of the Gr.  Hecate, but the letters agree to closely, contrary to the laws of change, and the Mid. Ages would surely have had an unaspirated Ecate handed down to them; no Ecate or Hecate appears in the M. Lat. or Romance writings in the sense of witch, and how should the word have spread through all German lands?" Jacob Grimm,  Teutonic Mythology, 1835, (English translation 1900)

CHAPTER 7. HECATE 

7.15 References 7.15.1 Primary sources •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

[99] Mallory, J.P, Adams, D.Q.   The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World . Oxford University Press, 2006. p. 223 •

[100]   Apuleius, The Golden Ass  11.47. •

•

[102] Heidel, William Arthur (1929).  The Day of Yahweh: A Study of Sacred Days and Ritual Forms in the Ancient Near  East , p. 514. American Historical Association. •

[103] Roel Sterckx,  The Animal and The Daemon In Early China, State University of New York Press, 2002, pp 232-233. Sterckx explicitly recognizes the similarities between these ancient Chinese views of dogs and those current in Greek and Roman antiquity, and goes on to note “Dog sacrifice was also a common practice among the Greeks where the dog figured prominently as a guardian of the underworld.” (Footnote 113, p318) [104] Frederick J. Simoons,  Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present , University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, pp 233-234

  Pausanias, Description of Greece  Ovid, Metamorphoses,VI140,VII74,94,174,177, 194, 241, XIV 44, 405.  Strabo, Geography

7.15.2 Secondary sources

[98]  Etymology Online, entry 'hag', accessed 8/23/09

[101]  Hans Dieter Betz, “Fragments from a Catabasis Ritual in a Greek Magical Papyrus”, History of Religions 19,4 (May 1980):287-295). The goddess appears as Hecate Ereschi gal  only in the heading: in the spell itself only  Erschigal  is called upon with protective magical words and gestures.

  Hesiod,  Theogony, Works and Days. An English translation is available online

•

 Berg, William, “Hecate: Greek or “Anatolian"?", Numen 21.2 (August 1974:128-40)  Burkert, Walter, 1985. Greek Religion (Cambridge: Harvard University Press) Published in the UK as Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical , 1987. (Oxford: Blackwell) ISBN 0-631-15624-0.   Lewis RichardFarnell, (1896). “Hecate in Art”, The Cults of the Greek States.  Oxford University Press, Oxford.  Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1990). Hekate Soteira: A Study of Hekate’s Role in the Chaldean Oracles and  Related Literature .   Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991). Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient  Greece. ISBN 0-520-21707-1  Mallarmé, Stéphane, (1880).   Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée.  Kerenyi, Karl.  The Gods of the Greeks. 1951.   Rabinovich, Yakov.   The Rotting Goddess. 1990. A work which views Hekate from the perspective of Mircea Eliade's archetypes and substantiates its claims through cross-cultural comparisons. The work has been sharply criticized by Classics scholars, some dismissing Rabinowitz as a neo-pagan .  Ruickbie, Leo. Witchcraft Out of the Shadows: A Complete History. Robert Hale, 2004.  Von Rudloff, Robert.  Hekate in Early Greek Reli gion. Horned Owl Publishing (July 1999)

7.16 External links •

•

 Myths of the Greek Goddess Hecate Encyclopædia Britannica 1911: “Hecate”

7.16. EXTERNAL LINKS  •

•

•

•

•

•

 The Rotting Goddess  by Yakov Rabinovich, complete book included in the anthology “Junkyard of the Classics” published under the pseudonym Ellipsis Marx.

 Theoi Project, Hecate Classical literary sources and art  Hekate in Greek esotericism: Ptolemaic and Gnostic transformations of Hecate  The Covenant of Hekate  Cast of the Crannon statue, at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.  The Hekate/Iphigenia Myth

27

Chapter 8

Artemis For other uses, see Artemis (disambiguation). Artemis /ˈɑrtɨmɨs/ was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities. Her  Roman equivalent is Diana.[1] Some scholars [2] believe that the name, and indeed the goddess herself, was originally pre-Greek. [3] Homer refers to her as  Artemis Agrotera, Potnia Theron: “Artemis of the wildland, Mistress of Animals”. [4] The Arcadians believed she was the daughter of  Demeter.[5]

In the classical period of   Greek mythology, Artemis (Ancient Greek: Ἄρτεμις,   pronounced   [ár.te.mis] in Classical Attic) was often described as the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and the twin sister of Apollo. She was the Hellenic goddess of the  hunt, wild animals, wilderness, childbirth, virginity and protector of young girls, bringing and relieving disease in women; she often was depicted as a huntress carrying a bow and arrows. [6] The deer and the cypress were sacred to her. In later Hellenistic times, she even assumed the ancient role of  Eileithyia in aiding childbirth.

8.1 Etymology

Didrachm from Ephesus , Ionia , representing the goddess Artemis

The name Artemis (noun, feminine) is of unknown or uncertain origin and etymology [7][8] although various ones have been proposed. [9][10] For example according to Jablonski,[10] the name is also Phrygian and could be “compared with the royal appellation Artemas of Xenophon. According to Charles Anthon the primitive root of the name is probably of Per-

Silver tetradrachm of the  Indo-Greek  king Artemidoros (whose name means “gift of Artemis”), c. 85 BCE, featuring Artemis with a drawn bow and a quiver on her back on the reverse of the coin

sian origin from *arta, *art , *arte, all meaning “great, excellent, holy,” thus Artemis “becomes identical with the great mother of Nature, even as she was worshipped at Ephesus”. [10] Anton Goebel “suggests the root στρατ or ῥατ, “to shake,” and makes Artemis mean the thrower of the dart or the shooter”. [9] Babiniotis while accepting that the etymology is unknown, states that the name is already attested in Mycenean Greek  and is possibly of pre-Hellenic origin.[8] The name could also be possibly related to  Greek  árktos "bear" (from PIE *h₂ŕ ̥tḱos), supported by the bear cult that the goddess had in  Attica (Brauronia) and the Neolithic remains at the  Arkoudiotissa Cave, as well as the story about  Callisto, which was originally about Artemis (Arcadian  epithet  kallisto);[11] this cult was a survival of very old totemic and shamanistic rituals and formed part of a larger bear cult found further afield in other Indo-European cultures (e.g., Gaulish Artio). It is believed that a precursor of Artemis was worshiped in Minoan Crete as the goddess of mountains and hunting, Britomartis. While connection with Anatolian names has been suggested, [12][13] the earliest attested forms of the name Artemis are the Mycenaean Greek , a-te-mito  /Artemitos/ and ,  a-ti-mi-te  /Artimitei/, written in Linear B at Pylos.[14] R.S.P.Beekes suggested that the e/i  interchange points to a Pre-Greek origin.[15] Artemis was venerated in Lydia as Artimus.[16] Ancient Greek writers, by way of  folk etymology, and some modern scholars, have linked Artemis (Doric  Artamis) to ἄρταμος,  artamos, i.e. “butcher”[17][18] or,

28

29

8.2. ARTEMIS IN MYTHOLOGY 

like   Plato  did in   Cratylus, to ἀρτεμής,   artemḗs, i.e. “safe”, “unharmed”, “uninjured”, “pure”, “the stainless maiden”. [9][10][19]

8.2 Artemis in mythology Leto bore Apollon and Artemis, delighting in arrows, Both of lovely shape like none of the heavenly gods, As she joined in love to the   Aegis-bearing ruler. —Hesiod, Theogony, lines 918–920 (written in the 7th century BCE)

8.2.1 Birth

Apollo (left) and Artemis .   Brygos  (potter, signed),   Briseis Painter  , Tondo of an Attic red-figure cup, ca. 470 BC,  Louvre.

Artemis at the islands known today as the Paximadia. A scholium of Servius on Aeneid  iii. 72 accounts for the island’s archaic name Ortygia [21] by asserting that Zeus transformed Leto into a  quail (ortux ) in order to prevent Hera from finding out his infidelity, and Kenneth McLeish suggested further that in quail form Leto would have given birth with as few birth-pains as a mother quail suffers when it lays an egg. [22] The myths also differ as to whether Artemis was born first, or Apollo. Most stories depict Artemis as born first, becoming her mother’s mid-wife upon the birth of her brother Apollo.

8.2.2 Childhood

Artemis  (on the left, with a deer) and  Apollo (on the right, holding a lyre) from Myrina , dating to approximately 25 BC 

Various conflicting accounts are given in Classical Greek mythology of the birth of Artemis and her twin brother, Apollo. All accounts agree, however, that she was the daughter of Zeus and Leto and that she was the twin sister of Apollo. An account by Callimachus has it that Hera forbade Leto to give birth on either terra firma (the mainland) or on an island. Hera was angry with Zeus, her husband, because he had impregnated Leto. But the island of  Delos (or Ortygia in the Homeric Hymn to Artemis) disobeyed Hera, and Leto gave birth there. [20] In ancient Cretan history Leto was worshippedat Phaistos and in Cretan mythology Leto gave birth to Apollo and

The childhood of Artemis is not fully related in any surviving myth. The Iliad   reduced the figure of the dread goddess to that of a girl, who, having been thrashed by Hera, climbs weeping into the lap of Zeus. [23] A poem of Callimachus to the goddess “who amuses herself on mountains with archery” imagines some charming vignettes: according to Callimachus, at three years old, Artemis, while sitting on the knee of her father, Zeus, asked him to grant her six wishes: to remain always a virgin; to have many names to set her apart from her brother Apollo; to be the  Phaesporia or Light Bringer; to have a bow and arrow and a knee-length tunic so that she could hunt; to have sixty “daughters of Okeanos", all nine years of age, to be her choir; andfor twenty Amnisides Nymphs as handmaidens to watch her dogs and bow while she rested. She wished for no city dedicated to her, but to rule the mountains, and for the ability to help women in the pains of childbirth.[24] Artemis believed that she had been chosen by  the Fates

30

CHAPTER 8. ARTEMIS 

tries to rape Artemis’ attendant Arethusa. Artemis pities Arethusa and saves her by transforming Arethusa into a spring in Artemis’ temple, Artemis Alphaea in Letrini, where the goddess and her attendant drink. Bouphagos, the son of the Titan Iapetos, sees Artemis and thinks about raping her. Reading his sinful thoughts, Artemis strikes him at Mount Pholoe. Sipriotes is a boy, who, either because he accidentally sees Artemis bathing or because he attempts to rape her, is turned into a girl by the goddess.

8.2.4 Actaeon

Roman marble Bust of Artemis after  Kephisodotos (Musei Capitolini ), Rome.

to be a midwife, particularly since she had assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin brother, Apollo. [25] All of her companions remained virgins, and Artemis closely guarded her own chastity. Her symbols included the golden bow and arrow, the hunting dog, the stag, and the moon. Callimachus tells[26] how Artemis spent her girlhood seeking out the things that she would need to be a huntress, how she obtained her bow and arrows from the isleof Lipara, where Hephaestus andthe Cyclops worked. Okeanus’ daughters were filled with fear, but the young Artemis bravely approached and asked for bow and arrows. Callimachus then tells howArtemis visited Pan,the god of theforest, who gave her seven bitches andsix dogs. Shethen capturedsix golden-horned deer to pull her chariot. Artemis practiced with her bow first by shooting at trees and then at wild beasts.[26]

Multiple versions of the Actaeon myth survive, though many are fragmentary. The details vary but at the core they involve a great hunter, Actaeon who Artemis turns into a stag for a transgression and who is then killed by hunting dogs. Usually thedogs arehisown, who no longer recognize their master. Sometimes they are Artemis’ hounds. According to the standard modern text on the work, Lamar Ronald Lacey’s TheMyth of Aktaion: Literaryand  Iconographic Studies , the most likely original version of the myth is that Actaeon was the hunting companion of the goddess who, seeing her naked in her sacred spring, attempts to force himself on her. For this hubris he is turned into a stag and devoured by his own hounds. However, in some surviving versions Actaeon is a stranger who happens upon her. Different tellings also diverge in the hunter’s transgression, which is sometimes merely seeing the virgin goddess naked, sometimes boasting he is a better hunter than she, or even merely being a rival of  Zeus for the affections of Semele.

8.2.5 Adonis

In some versions of the story of  Adonis, who was a late addition to Greek mythology during the Hellenistic period, Artemis sent a wild boar to kill Adonis as punishment for his hubristic boast that he was a better hunter than she. In other versions, Artemis killed Adonis for revenge. In later myths, Adonis had been related as a favorite 8.2.3 Intimacy of Aphrodite, and Aphrodite was responsible for the death of Hippolytus, who had been a favorite of Artemis. As a virgin, Artemis had interested many gods and men, Therefore, Artemis killed Adonis to avenge Hippolytus’s but only her hunting companion, Orion, won her heart. death. Orion was accidentally killed either by Artemis or by In yet another version, Adonis was not killed by Artemis, Gaia. but by Ares, as punishment for being with Aphrodite. Alpheus, a river god, was in love with Artemis, but he realizes that he can do nothing to win her heart. So he decides to capture her. Artemis, who is with her com- 8.2.6 Orion panions at Letrenoi, goes to Alpheus, but, suspicious of his motives, she covers her face with mud so that the river Orion was Artemis’ hunting companion. In some vergod does not recognize her. In another story, Alphaeus sions, he is killed by Artemis, while in others he is killed

31

8.2. ARTEMIS ARTEMIS IN IN MYTHOLOGY  MYTHOLOGY 

 by Titian.. Diana and Callisto by Titian

8.2.8 8.2.8 Calli Callist stoo

by Giuseppe Mazzuoli  , 1709 -  Hermitage The Death of Adonis , by Giuseppe Museum.

Callisto was was the daug daughte hterr of Lyca Lycaon, on, King King of Arcadi Arcadiaa and also was one of Artemis’s hunting attendants. attendants. As a companion of Artemis, she took a vow of chastity. chastity. Zeus appeared to her disguised as Artemis, or in some stories Apollo, gained her confidence, then took advantage of her (or raped her, according to Ovid to  Ovid). ). As a result of this encounter she conceived a son, Arcas. Enraged, Hera or Artemis (some accounts say both) changed her into a bear. Arcas almost killed the bear, but Zeus stopped him just in time. Out of pity, Zeus placed Callisto the bear into the heavens, heavens, thus the origin of Callisto the Bear as a constellation. constellation. Some stories say that he placed both Arcas and Callisto into the heavens heavens as bears, forming the Ursa the Ursa Minor and Minor and Ursa  Ursa Major constellations. Major constellations.

by a scorpion a scorpion sent  sent by Gaia by Gaia.. In some versions, Orion tries [27] to seduce Opis, one of Artemis’ followers, and she kills him. him. In a versio versionn by Aratus by  Aratus,,[28] Orion takes hold of Artemis’ robe and she kills him in self-defense in  self-defense.. In yet another version, version, Apollo sends the scorpion. scorpion. Accordi cording ng to Hyginus to Hyginus[29] Artemis Artemis once once loved loved Orion Orion (in spite spite of the late source, this version appears to be a rare remnant of her as the pre-Olympian goddess, goddess, who took consorts, as Eos as Eos did),  did), but was tricked into killing him by her brother Apollo, who was “protective” of his sister’s maid- 8.2.9 Iphigenia Iphigenia and the Taurian Taurian Artemis enhood. Artemis punished Agamemnon punished  Agamemnon after  after he killed a sacred stag in a sacred a  sacred grove and grove  and boasted that he was a better hunter than the goddess. When the Greek fleet was preparing at Aulis at Aulis to  to depart for Troy for  Troy to  to begin the Trojan the  Trojan War,, Artemis becalmed the winds. The seer  Calchas War  Calchas ad ad8.2.7 8.2.7 Th Thee Aloada Aloadaee vised Agamemnon that the only way to appease Artemis was to sacrifice his daughter  Iphigenia  Iphigenia.. Artemis Artemis then then snatched snatch ed Iphigenia from fro m the altar and substituted substi tuted a deer. These twin sons of  Iphidemia  Iphidemia and  and  Poseidon  Poseidon,, Otos and Ephialtes, grew enormously enormously at a young age. They were were Various myths have been told around what happened afaggressive, great hunters, and could not be killed unless ter Artemis took her. Either she was brought to Tauros they killed each each other. The growth of the Aloadae the  Aloadae never  never and led the priests there, or became Artemis’ immortal stopp stopped, ed, and they they boaste boastedd that that as soon soon as they they could could reac reachh companion. [30] heaven, they would kidnap Artemis and  Hera  Hera and  and take them as wives. The gods were afraid of them, except for 8.2.10 10 Niob Niobee Artemis who captured a fine deer (or in another version 8.2. of the story, she changed herself into a doe) and jumped out between them. The Aloadae threw their spears and A Queen of Thebes Thebes and  and wife wife of Amphion Amphion,, Niobe  Niobe boasted  boasted so mistakenly killed each other. of her superiority to Leto because while she had fourteen

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children (Niobids (Niobids),), seven boys and seven girls, Leto had only one of each. When Artemis and Apollo heard this impie impiety, ty, Apollo Apollo killed killed her her sons sons as they they practi practice cedd athle athletic tics, s, and Artemis shot her daughters, who died instantly without a sound. sound. Apollo Apollo and Artemis Artemis used used poison poisoned ed arrow arrowss to kill them, though according to some versions two of the Niobids Niobids were spared, one boy and one girl. Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, killed himself. A devastated Niobe and her remaining children were turned to stone by Artemis as they wept. The gods themselves entombed them.

8.2.11 8.2.11 Chio Chione ne Chione was a princess of Pokis. She was beloved by two gods, Hermes gods, Hermes and  and Apollo  Apollo,, and boasted that she was prettier than Artemis because she made two gods fall in love with her at once. Artemis was furious and killed Chione with her arrow or struck her dumb by shooting off her tongue. However, some versions of this myth say Apollo and Hermes protected her from Artemis’ wrath.

8.2.12 8.2.12 Atalan talanta ta,, Oe Oene neus us and the the Mele Meleaagrids Artemis Artemis save savedd the infant infant Atalanta from dying dying of expos exposure ure after her father abandoned her. She sent a female bear to suckle suckle the baby, baby, who was then then raised by hunters. hunters. But she later sent a bear to t o hurt Atalanta because people said Atalanta was a better hunter. This is in some stories. Among other adventures, Atalanta participated in the hunt for the Calydonian the  Calydonian Boar, Boar, which Artemis had sent to destroy Calydon destroy  Calydon because  because King Oeneus King  Oeneus had  had forgotten her at the harvest sacrifices. In the hunt, Atalanta drew the first blood, and was awarded the prize of the skin. She hung it in a sacred grove at Tegea at Tegea as  as a dedication to Artemis. Meleager was Meleager  was a hero of Aetolia. King  Oeneus  Oeneus had  had him gathe gatherr heroe heroess fromall rom all over over Greec Greecee to hunt hunt the Calydonian Boar.. Afte Boar Afterr the the deat deathh of  of   Meleager, Meleager, Artemis turned his grieving sisters, the Meleagrids the  Meleagrids into  into guineafowl  guineafowl that  that Artemis loved very much.

8.2. 8.2.13 13 Aura Aura In Nonnus In  Nonnus   Dionysiaca,[31] Aura Aura was  was Greek goddess of breezes and cool air, daughter of Lelantos of  Lelantos and  and Periboia  Periboia.. She was a virgin huntress, just like Artemis and proud of her maidenhood. maidenhood. One day, she claimed claimed that the body of Artemis was too womanly and she doubted her virginity. Artemis Artemis asked asked Nemesis for help help to aveng avengee her her digni dignity ty and causedtherapeofAuraby Dionysus Dionysus.. Aurabecameamad and dangerous killer. When she bore twin sons, she ate one of them while the other one, Iakhos, was saved by

Artemis pouring a libation, c. 460-450 BC.

Artemis. Iakhos later became an attendant of  Demeter and the leader of Eleusinian of  Eleusinian Mysteries. Mysteries .

8.2.14 8.2.14 Po Polyp lyphon honte te Polyphonte was was a young young woman woman who who fled home home pref preferr erring ing the idea idea of a virgin virginal al life life with with Artemis Artemis to the conv conven entio tional nal life of marriage and children favoured by Aphrodite. As a punishment Aphrodite cursed her, causing her to have children children by a bear. The resulting resulting offspring, offspring, Agrius and Oreius, were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of Zeus. Ultimately the whole family were transformed into birds and more specifically ill portents for mankind. [32]

8.2.15 8.2.15 Trojan Trojan War Artemis may have been represented as a supporter of Troy because her brother  Apollo  Apollo was  was the patron god of the city and she herself was widely worshipped in western Anatolia in historical historical times. In the  Iliad [33] she came to blows with Hera, when the divine allies of the Greeks and Trojans Trojans engaged each other in conflict. Hera struck Artemis on the ears with her own quiver, quiver, causing the arrows rows to fall out. As Artemis Artemis fled crying crying to Zeus, Leto

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8.3. WORSHIP WORSHIP OF OF ARTEMIS  ARTEMIS 

gathered up the bow and arrows. Artemis played quite quite a large part in this war. Like her mother and brother, who was widely worshiped worshiped at Troy, Artemis Artemis took the side of the Trojan Trojans. s. At the Greek’s Greek’s journey to Troy, Artemis becalmed the sea and stopped the journey until an oracle came and said they could win the goddess’ heart by sacrificing  Iphigenia  Iphigenia,, Agamemnon  Agamemnon's's daughte daughter. r. Agamemno Agamemnonn once once promised promised the goddess goddess he would sacrifice the dearest thing to him, which was Iphigenia, genia, but broke broke the promise. promise. Other Other sources sources said he boasted about his hunting ability and provoked the goddess’ dess’ anger anger.. Artemi Artemiss save savedd Iphig Iphigeni eniaa becau because se of her her bravbravery. In some versions of the myth, Artemis made Iphigenia her attendant or turned her into Hecate into  Hecate,, goddess of night, witchcraft, and the underworld. Aeneas was helped helped by Artemis, Artemis, Leto, and Apollo. Apollo. Apollo found him wounded by Diomedes and lifted him to heaven. heaven. There, the three of them secretly healed him in a great chamber.

the sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron to serve the Goddess for one year. During this time, the girls were known as arktoi , or little she-bears. A myth explaining this servitude states that a bear had formed the habit of regularly visiting the town of Brauron, and the people there fed it, so that, over time, the bear became tame. A girl teased the bear, and, in some versions of the myth, it killed her, while, in other versions, versions, it clawed out her eyes. eyes. Either way, the girl’s brothers killed the bear, and Artemis was enraged. She demanded that young girls “act the bear” at her sanctuary in atonement for the bear’s death. Virginal Artemis was worshipped as a fertility/childbirth goddess in some places, assimilating  Ilithyia  Ilithyia,, since, according to some myths, she assisted her mother in the delivery of her her twin. During the Classical the Classical period in period  in Athens  Athens,, she was identified with  Hecate  Hecate.. Artemis also assimilated Caryatis ( (Carya Caryatis Carya).).

8.3.1 8.3.1 Epit Epithe hets ts

8.3 Worship orship of Artemis Artemis

 in  Jerash, Jordan , Jordan , built during the Roman Temple of Artemis  in Jerash, reign of  Antoninus  Antoninus Pius. Pius.

Main article: Brauronia article:  Brauronia

Color Color recons reconstru tructio ctionn of a first first centur centuryy AD statue statue of Artemi Artemiss found  in Pompeii  in  Pompeii . Reconstructe Reconstructedd using analysis analysis of trace trace pigments. pigments. It  Artemis, the goddess of forests and hills, was worshipped was an imitation of Greek statues of the sixth century BC. Part   Gods in Color . throughout ancien throughout  ancientt Gree Greece ce..[34] Her best known known cults  cults were  were of  Gods

on the island of  Delos   (her (her birthplac birthplace), e), in Attica Attica at Brauron and Brauron  and Mounikhia (near  Piraeus  Piraeus), ), and in Sparta in  Sparta.. She was often depicted in paintings and statues in a forest setting, carrying a bow and arrows, and accompanied by a deer. The ancient Spartans used to sacrifice to her as one of their their patron patron goddesse goddessess before before starting starting a new new mili military tary campaign.. paign Athenian Atheni an fe festivals stivals   in hono honorr of Arte Artemi miss incl includ uded ed Elaphebolia,,   Mounikhia, Elaphebolia Mounikhia, Kharis Kharister teria ia,, and   Brauronia. Brauronia. The festival of Artemis of  Artemis Orthia was Orthia was observed in Sparta in  Sparta.. Pre-pubescent and adolescent Athenian girls were sent to

As  Aeginaea, she was worshiped in  Sparta  Sparta;; the name means either huntress of   chamois, chamois, or the wielder of [35][36] the javelin javelin (αἰγαν (αἰγανέα). έα). She was worshipped at Naupactus  as  Aetole; in her temple in that town there was a statue of white marble representing her throwing a javelin.[37] This “Aetolian Artemis” would not have been introduced at Naupactus, anciently a place of  Ozolian Locris,, until it was awarded to the Aetolians Locris the  Aetolians by  by Philip  Philip II of Macedon. Macedon. Strabo records another precinct of “Aetolian Artemos” at the head of the Adriatic the  Adriatic..[38] As Agoraea As Agoraea she was the protector of the  agora  agora.. As   Agrotera, she was especially associated as the pa-

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tron goddess of hunters. In Athens Artemis was often associated with the local Aeginian goddess,  Aphaea. As  Potnia Theron, she was the patron of wild animals; Homer used this title. As   Kourotrophos, she was the nurse of youths. As  Locheia, she was the goddess of childbirth and midwives. She was sometimes known as  Cynthia, from her birthplace on Mount Cynthus on Delos, or Amarynthia from a festival in her honor originally held at Amarynthus in Euboea. She was sometimes identified by the name  Phoebe, the feminine form of her brother Apollo’s solar epithet Phoebus. In Sparta the Artemis  Lygodesma was worshipped. This epithet means “willow-bound” from the Gr.  lygos (λυγός, willow) and desmos (δεσμός, bond). The willow tree appears in several ancient Greek myths and rituals. [39] Alphaea,  Alpheaea, or  Alpheiusa  (Gr.  Ἀλφαῖα, Ἀλφεαία, or Ἀλφειοῦσα) was an epithet that Artemis derived from the river god Alpheius, who was said to have been in love with her. [40] It was under this name that she was worshiped at Letrini in Elis,[41][42] and in Ortygia.[43] Artemis Alphaea was associated with the wearing of masks, largely because of the legend that while fleeing the advances of Alpheius, she and her  nymphs escaped him by covering their faces. [44]

the goddess saved his life when he went on hunting and swept by the wave and held a festival for her. [46] •

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8.3.2 Festivals

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 At the16 of Metageitnio (second month on Athenian calendar), people sacrifice to Artemis and Hecate at deme of Erchia. [47]   Kharisteria Festival on 6 of Boidromion (third month) to celebrate thevictory of Marathon andalso known as the Athenian “Thanksgiving”. [48]  Day six of Elaphobolia (ninth month) festival of Artemis the Deer Huntress where she was offered cakes shaped like stags, made from dough, honey and sesame-seeds. [49]  Day 6 of 16 of Mounikhion (tenth month) a celebration of her as the goddess of nature and animal. A goat was being sacrificed to her. [50]  Day 6 of Thargelion (eleventh month) the 'birthday' of the goddess, while the seventh was Apollo’s. [51] A festival for Artemis Diktynna (of the net) in Hypsous.  Laphria, a festival for Artemisin Patrai. The procession started by setting the logs of wood around the altar, each of them sixteen cubits long. On the altar, within the circle, is placed the driest of their wood. Just before the time of the festival, they construct a smooth ascent to the altar, piling earth upon the altar steps. The festival begins with a most splendid procession in honor of Artemis, and the maiden officiating as priestess rides last in the procession upon a chariot yoked to four deer, Artemis’ traditional mode of transportation (see below). It is, however, not until the next day that the sacrifice is offered.  In Orchomenus, a sanctuary was built for Artemis Hymnia where her festival was celebrated every year.

Sanctuary of Artemis at   Brauron.

Artemis was born at the sixth day, the reason why it was sacred for her. •

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8.3.3 Modern

8.4 Artemis in art

 Festival of Artemis in Brauron, where girls, aged between five and ten, dressed in saffron robes and The oldest representations of Artemis in Greek Archaic played the bear to appease the goddess after she sent art portray her as  Potnia Theron (“Queen of the Beasts”): a winged goddess holding a stag and leopard in her hands, the plague when her bear was killed. or sometimes a leopard and a lion. This winged Artemis  Festival of Amarysia is a celebration to worship lingered in ex-votos as Artemis Orthia, with a sanctuary Artemis Amarysia in Attica. In 2007, a team of close by Sparta. Swiss and Greek archaeologists found the ruin of Artemis Amarysia Temple, at Euboea, Greece. [45] In Greek classical art she is usually portrayed as a maiden huntress, young, tall and slim, clothed in a girl’s short  Festival of Artemis Saronia, a festival to celebrate skirt,[52] with hunting boots, a quiver, a bow [53] and arArtemis in Trozeinos, a town in  Argolis. A king rows. Often, she is shown in the shooting pose, and is named Saron built a sanctuary for the goddess after accompanied by a hunting dog or stag. When portrayed

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8.4. ARTEMIS IN ART 

The site of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.

Artemis’ chariot was made of gold and was pulled by four golden horned deer (Elaphoi Khrysokeroi). The bridles of her chariot were also made of gold. [55] •

Spears, nets, and lyre

Although quite seldom, Artemis is sometimes portrayed with a hunting spear. Her cult in Aetolia, the Artemis Aetolian, showed her with a hunting spear. The description about Artemis’ spear can be found in Ovid’s Metaconnected as a moon goddess, Artemis wore a long robe and some- morphosis, while Artemis with a fishing spear [56] times a veil covered her head. Her darker side is revealed with her cult as a patron goddess of fishing. in some vase paintings, where she is shown as the death- As a goddess of maiden dances and songs, Artemis is ofbringing goddess whose arrows fell young maidens and ten portrayed with a lyre. [57] women, such as the daughters of  Niobe. Artemis was sometimes represented in Classical art with Fauna the crown of the crescent moon, such as also found on Luna and others.   Deer On June 7, 2007, a Roman era bronze sculpture of Artemis and the Stag was sold at Sotheby’s auction house Deer were the only animals held sacred to Artemis herin New York state by the Albright-Knox Art Gallery for self. On seeing a deer larger than a bull with horns $25.5 million. shining, she fell in love with these creatures and held them sacred. Deer were also the first animals she captured. She caught five golden horned deer called  Elaphoi 8.4.1 Attributes Khrysokeroi  and harnessed them to her chariot. [55] The thirdlabourofHeracles , commanded by Eurystheus, con Bow and arrow sisted in catching the  Cerynitian Hind   alive. Heracles begged Artemis for forgiveness and promised to return According to the  Homeric Hymn  to Artemis, she had it alive. Artemis forgave him but targeted Eurystheus for golden bow and arrows, as her epithet was  Khryseher wrath.[58] lakatos, “of the Golden Shaft”, and  Iokheira (Showered by Arrows). The arrows of Artemis could also bring sud Hunting dog den death and disease to girls and women. Artemis got her bow and arrow for the first time from The Kyklopes, as the one she asked from her father. The bow of Artemis Artemisgot her hunting dogs from Pan intheforestofAralso became the witness of Callisto’s oath of her virgin- cadia. Pan gave Artemis two black-and-white dogs, three ity. In later cult, the bow became the symbol of waxing reddish ones, and one spotted one - these dogs were able moon.[54] to hunt even lions. Pan also gave Artemis seven bitches of the finest Arcadian race. However, Artemis only ever brought seven dogs hunting with her at any one time. [59]  Chariots Fourth century Praxitelean bronze head of a goddess wearing a lunate crown, found at Issa (Vis , Croatia).

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CHAPTER 8. ARTEMIS    Bear

The sacrifice of a bear for Artemis started with the Brauron cult. Every year a girl between five and ten years of age was sent to Artemis’ temple at Brauron. The Byzantine writer Suidos relayed the legend in Arktos e Brauroniois. A bear was tamed by Artemis and introduced to the people of Athens. They touched it and played with it until one day a group of girls poked the bear until it attacked them. A brother of one of the girls killed the bear, so Artemis sent a plague in revenge. The Athenians consulted an oracle to understand how to end the plague. The oracle suggested that, in payment for the bear’s blood, no Athenian virgin should be allowed to marry until she had served Artemis in her temple ('played the bear for the goddess’).[60] •

  Boar

The boar is one of the favorite animals of the hunters, and also hard to tame. In honor of Artemis’ skill, they sacrificed it to her. Oineus and Adonis were both killed by Artemis’ boar. [61] •

 Guinea fowl

TheArtemis ofEphesus, 1stcentury AD (Ephesus Archaeological  Museum)

Artemis felt pity for the Meleagrids as they mourned for their lost brother, Meleagor, so she transformed them into tear-shaped amber beads that had adorned the ancient wooden  xoanon.[66] In Acts of the Apostles, Ephesian Guinea Fowl to be her favorite animals. metalsmiths who felt threatened by Saint Paul’s preaching of Christianity, jealously rioted in her defense, shout Buzzard hawk ing “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians! ”[67] Of the 121 columns of her temple, only one composite, made up of Hawks were the favored birds of many of the gods, fragments, still stands as a marker of the temple’s locaArtemis included. tion. The rest were used for making churches, roads, and forts. Flora •

Palm and Cypress were issued to be her birthplace. Other plants sacred to Artemis are Amaranth and Asphodel.[62]

8.6 Artemis in astronomy

A minor planet, 105 Artemis; a lunar crater; the Artemis the Artemis Corona have all been named for 8.5 Artemis as the Lady of Ephesus Chasma and her. Artemis is the acronym for “Architectures de bolometres Main article: Temple of Artemis pour des Telescopes a grand champ de vue dans le doAt Ephesus in Ionia, Turkey, her temple became one of maine sub-Millimetrique au Sol”, a large bolometer camthe Seven Wonders of the World. It was probably the best era in the submillimeter range that was installed in 2010 known center of her worship except for Delos. There the at the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX), located Lady whom the Ionians associated with Artemis through in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile. [68] interpretatio graeca  was worshiped primarily as a mother goddess, akin to the Phrygian goddess Cybele, in an ancient sanctuary where her cult image depicted the “Lady of Ephesus” adorned with multiple rounded breast-like 8.7 See also protuberances on her chest. They have been variously interpreted as multiple accessory breasts, as eggs, grapes,  Artemisia acorns, [63] or even bull testes. [64][65] Excavation at the site of the  Artemision  in 1987-88 identified a multitude of Diana (mythology) •

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8.8. REFERENCES AND SOURCES  •

 Janus

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 Artemas

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  Bendis

8.8 References and sources References

[16] Indogermanica et Caucasica: Festschrift fur Karl Horst  Schmidt zum 65. Geburtstag (Studies in Indo-European language and culture), W. de Gruyter, 1994,   Etyma Graeca, pp. 213–214, on Google books; Houwink ten Cate, The Luwian Population Groups of Lycia and Cilicia Aspera during the Hellenistic Period  (Leiden) 1961:166, noted in this context by Brown 2004:252. [17]  ἄρταμος. Liddell, Henry George;   Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon  at the Perseus Project.

[18]  Ἄρτεμις. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–  English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. [1] Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia , The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215. [19]  ἀρτεμής. Liddell, Henry George;   Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon  at the Perseus Project. [2] David Sacks; Oswyn Murray (1 January 2009). Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World . Infobase Publishing. pp. 56–.  ISBN 978-1-4381-1020-2. Retrieved [20] Hammond.  Oxford Classical Dictionary.  597-598. 15 March 2015. [21] Or as a separate island birthplace of Artemis— “Rejoice, blessed Leto, for you bare glorious children, the lord [3] Rose, H. J.  A Handbook of Greek Mythology , Dutton Apollon and Artemis who delights in arrows; her in Orty1959, p. 112; Guthrie, W. C. K.  The Greeks and Their  gia, and him in rocky Delos,” says the Homeric Hymn; Gods, Beacon 1955, p. 99. the etymology  Ortygia, “Isle of Quail”, is not supported by modern scholars. [4] Homer, Iliad xxi 470 f. [22] Kenneth McLeish,  Children of the Gods  pp 33f; Leto’s birth-pangs, however, are graphically depicted by ancient [6] “Her proper sphere is the earth, and specifically the unsources. cultivated parts, forests and hills, where wild beasts are plentiful” Hammond and Scullard (editors),  The Oxford  [23]   Iliad  xxi.505-13; Classical Dictionary. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970) [24]  Hymn Around Artemis’ Childhood 126. [5]  “Artemis”. Retrieved 2012-04-26.

[7]  “Artemis”. Online Etymology Dictionary.

[25]  On-line English translation.

[8]   Babiniotis, Georgios (2005). "Άρτεμις".   Λεξικό [26] Callimachus, Hymn III to Artemis 46 της Νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Athens: Κέντρο [27] “Another name for Artemis herself”,  Karl Kerenyi obΛεξικολογίας. p. 286. serves, The Gods of the Greeks  (1951:204). [9]  Lang, Andrew (1887).  Myth, Ritual, and Religion . Lon[28] Aratus, 638 don: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 209–210. [10]  Anthon, Charles (1855).  “Artemis”.   A Classical dictio- [29] Hyginus, Poeticon astronomicon, ii.34, quoting the Greek nary. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 210. poet Istrus. [11] Michaël Ripinsky-Naxon,   The Nature of Shamanism:  [30] Aaron J. Atsma. “FAVOUR OF ARTEMIS : Greek Substance and Function of a Religious Metaphor   (Albany, mythology”. Theoi.com. Retrieved 2011-01-28. NY: State University of New York Press, 1993), 32. [31] Aura does not appear elsewhere in surviving literature and [12] Campanile, Ann. Scuola Pisa  28 :305; Restelli, Aevum 37 appears to have been offered no cult. :307, 312. [32]  Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses, 21 [13] Edwin L. Brown, “In Search of Anatolian Apollo”, Charis:  Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr , Hesperia Supple- [33] Homer, Iliad  21.470 ff). ments  33  (2004:243-257) p. 251: Artemis, as Apollo’s [34] “. . . a goddess universally worshiped in historical inseparable twin, is discussed pp. 251ff. Greece, but in all likelihood pre-Hellenic.” Hammond, [14] John Chadwick and Lydia Baumbach, “The Mycenaean Oxford Classical Dictionary , 126. Greek Vocabulary”  Glotta, 41.3./4. (1963:157-271) p. 176f, s.v.   Ἂρτεμις, a-te-mi-to-  (genitive); C. Souvinous, [35]   Pausanias, iii. 14. § 2. “A-TE-MI-TO and A-TI-MI-TE”,  Kadmos  9  1970:42-47;  T. Christidis, “Further remarks on A-TE-MI-TO and A-TI- [36] Schmitz, Leonhard (1867).   “Aeginaea”. In Smith, William.  Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and  MI-TE”,  Kadmos  11  :125-28;  Palaeolexicon , Word study Mythology 1. Boston. p. 26. tool of ancient languages;  [15] , Etymological Dictionary of Greek , Brill, 2009, p. 142.

[37]   Pausanias, x. 38. § 6.

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CHAPTER 8. ARTEMIS 

[38] “Among the Heneti certain honours have been decreed to [59]   “Pack”. Diomedes; and, indeed, a white horse is still sacrificed to him, and two precincts are still to be seen — one of them [60]  “Cult”. sacred to the Argive Hera and the other to the Aetolian [61]   “Animals”. Artemis. (Strabo, v.1.9 on-line text). [62]  “Plants”. [39]  Bremmer Jan N. (2008) Greek Religion and Culture, the Bible and the Ancient Near East , Brill, Netherlands, p. [63] “Ancient Art and Artemis: Toward Explaining the Poly187. mastic Nature of the Figurine” by Andrew E. Hill  Journal  of the Ancient Near Eastern Society 21  1992. [40]   Schmitz, Leonhard(1867). “Alphaea”. In WilliamSmith. Dictionary ofGreek and Roman Biography and Mythology [64]   “Diana of Ephesus: Keeping Abreast with Iconogra1. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 133. phy” (see footnote 1), Alberti’s Window, blog by Monica Bowen, February 5th, 2011 [41]   Pausanias, Description of Greece  vi. 22. § 5 [65]  “In Search of Dianaof Ephesus”, New York Times, August [42]   Strabo, Geographica viii. p. 343 21, 1994. [43]   Scholiast on Pindar's Pythian Odes  ii. 12, Nemean Odes  i. [66]  “Potnia Aswia: Anatolian Contributions to Greek Reli3 gion” by Sarah P. Morris [44] Dickins, G.; Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Stud- [67]   Acts 19:28. ies (1929). “Terracotta Masks”. The Sanctuary of  Artemis Orthia: Supplementary Papers. London, England: [68]  “APEX - Artemis”. Apex-telescope.org. 2010-01-11. Macmillan Publishers. p. 172. Retrieved 2009-03-19. Retrieved 2013-03-25. [45] mharrsch (2007-11-04). “Passionate about History: Search continues for temple of Artemis Amarysia”. Pas- Sources sionateabouthistory.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2011-0128.  Walter Burkert, 1985.  Greek Religion (Cambridge: •

[46]   “SARON, Greek Mythology Index”. Mythindex.com. Retrieved 2011-01-28. [47] “Ancient Athenian Festival Calendar”. Winterscapes.com. 2007-07-24. Retrieved 2011-01-28. [48] “Ancient Athenian Festival Calendar”. Winterscapes.com. 2007-07-24. Retrieved 2011-01-28.

Harvard University Press) •

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[49] “Ancient Athenian Festival Calendar”. Winterscapes.com. 2007-07-24. Retrieved 2011-01-28. [50] “Ancient Athenian Festival Calendar”. Winterscapes.com. 2007-07-24. Retrieved 2011-01-28. [51] “Ancient Athenian Festival Calendar”. Winterscapes.com. 2007-07-24. Retrieved 2011-01-28.

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[54]   “Bow”. [55]  “Chariot”. [56]  “Spears”. [57]  “Dance”. [58]   “Kerynitian”.

 Karl Kerenyi, 1951.  The Gods of the Greeks   Seppo Telenius   (2005) 2006.   Athena-Artemis (Helsinki: Kirja kerrallaan)

8.9 External links

[52] Homer portrayed Artemis as girlish in the Iliad . [53] Greek poets could not decide whether her bow was silver or gold: “Over the shadowy hills and windy peaks she draws her golden bow.” (Homeric Hymn to Artemis), and it is a golden bow as well in Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.693, where her nymph’s is of horn. “And how often goddess, didstthou make trial of thysilver bow?", asksCallimachus for whom it is a Cydonian bow that the Cyclopes make for her (Callimachus, Hymn 3 to Artemis).

 Robert Graves (1955) 1960. The Greek Myths (Penguin)

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 Theoi Project, Artemis, information on Artemis from original Greek and Roman sources, images from classical art.   A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890) (eds. G. E. Marindin, William Smith, LLD, William Wayte) Fischer-Hansen T., Poulsen B. (eds.)  From Artemis to Diana: the goddess of man and beast . Collegium Hyperboreum and Museum Tusculanum Press, Copenhagen, 2009 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database: ca 1,150 images of Artemis

Chapter 9

Selene This article is about the Greek goddess. For other uses, see Selene (disambiguation).

The Homeric Hymn to Helios follows this tradition: “Hyperion wedded glorious Euryphaëssa, his own sister, who bare him lovely children, rosy-armed Eos and rich-tressed Selene and tireless Helios.” [9] Here  Euryphaëssa  (“wideshining”) is probably an epithet of Theia. [10] Other accounts make Selene the daughter of the Titan Pallas[11] or of Helios.[12]

In Greek mythology,   Selene (/sɨˈliːni/; Greek Σελήνη [selɛ  ̌ːnɛː] 'moon';) is the goddess of the moon. She is the daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia, and sister of the sun-god Helios, and Eos, goddess of the dawn. She drives her moon chariot across the heavens. Several lovers are attributed to her in various myths, including Zeus, Pan, and the mortal Endymion. In classical times, 9.3 Lovers and offspring Selene was often identified with  Artemis, much as her brother, Helios, was identified with  Apollo.[1] Both Selene and Artemis were also associated with  Hecate, and 9.3.1 Endymion all three were regarded as lunar goddesses, although only for her affair with the beautiSelene was regarded as the personification of the moon Selene is best known[13] ful mortal Endymion. The late 7th-century – early itself. Her Roman equivalent is Luna.[2] 6th-century BC poet Sappho apparently mentioned Selene and Endymion. [14] However, the first direct account comes from the third-century BC  Argonautica  of 9.1 Names Apollonius of Rhodes, which tells of Selene’s “mad passion” and her visiting the “fair Endymion” in a cave on The etymology of  Selene is uncertain, but if the name is Mount Latmus:[15] of Greek origin, it is likely connected to the word  selas (σέλας), meaning “light”.[3] “And the Titanian goddess, the moon, rising from a far land, beheld her [Medea] as she fled Just as Helios, from his identification with Apollo, is distraught, and fiercely exulted over her, and called Phoebus (“bright”), Selene, from her identification thus spake to her own heart: 'Not I alone then with Artemis, is also commonly referred to by the epi[4] stray to the Latmian cave, nor do I alone burn thet  Phoebe  (feminine form). The original Phoebe of with love for fair Endymion; oft times with Greek mythology is Selene’s aunt, the Titaness mother of thoughts of love have I been driven away by thy Leto and Asteria, and grandmother of Apollo, Artemis, crafty spells, in order that in the darkness of and Hecate. Also from Artemis, Selene was sometimes [5] night thou mightest work thy sorcery at ease, called “Cynthia”. even the deeds dear to thee. And now thou Selene was also called  Mene.[6] The word  men (feminine thyself too hast part in a like mad passion; and mene), meant the moon, and the lunar month. It was also some god of affliction has given thee Jason to the name of the Phrygian moon-god Men.[7] be thy grievous woe. Well, go on, and steel thy heart, wise though thou be, to take up thy burden of pain, fraught with many sighs.' "

9.2 Origin

The usual account of Selene’s origin is given by Hesiod. In the Theogony, the sun-god Hyperion espoused his sister Theia, who gave birth to “great Helios and clear Selene and Eos who shines upon all that are on earth and upon the deathless Gods who live in the wide heaven.” [8]

Quintus Smyrnaeus'  The Fall of Troy  tells that, while Endymion slept in his cave beside his cattle, “Selene watched him from on high, and slid from heaven to earth; for passionate love drew down the immortal stainless Queen of Night.”[16] The eternally sleeping Endymion was proverbial,[17] but exactly how this eternal sleep came 39

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9.3.2 Others According to the  Homeric Hymn to Selene , the goddess bore Zeus a daughter, Pandia (“all-brightness”),[24] “exceeding lovely amongst the deathless gods”. [25] Alcman makes Ersa (“dew”), the daughter of Selene and Zeus. [26] Selene and Zeus were also supposed by some to be the parents of Nemea, the eponymous  nymph of Nemea, where Heracles slew the Nemean Lion, and where the Nemean Games were held. [27] Some accounts also make Selene and Zeus the parents of  Dionysus, but this may be the result of confusing  Semele, the usual mother of Dionysus, with Selene because of the similarity of their names. [28] Whereas for Hesiod, the   Nemean Lion   was born to Echidna and raised by Hera,[29] other accounts have Selene involved in some way in its birth or rearing.  Aelian, On Animals 12.7, states: “They say that the Lion of Nemea fell from the moon”, and quotes  Epimenides as saying: “For I am sprung from fair-tressed Selene the Moon, who in a fearful shudder shook off the savage lion in Nemea, and brought him forth at the bidding of Queen Hera.”[30] Quintus Smyrnaeus makes Helios and Selene (the Sun and Moon) the parents of the  Horae, goddesses of the seasons. [31] Smyrnaeus describes them as the four handmaidens of Hera, but in most accounts their number is three, and their parents are Zeus and  Themis. According to   Virgil, Selene also had a tryst with the great god Pan, who seduced her with a “snowy bribe of wool”.[32] Scholia on Virgil add that the god wrapped himself in a sheepskin. [33] Endymion and Selene , by  Sebastiano Ricci  (1713),  Chiswick  Selene was also said to be the mother of the legendary House , England  Greek poet Musaeus.[34]

about and what role, if any, Selene may have had in it is unclear. According to the  Catalogue of Women, Endymion was the son of Aethlius (a son of Zeus), and Zeus granted him the right to choose when he would die.[18] A scholiast on Apollonius says that, according to  Epimenides, Endymion, having fallen in love with Hera, asked Zeus to grant him eternal sleep. [19] However, Apollodorus says that because of Endymion’s “surpassing beauty, the Moon fell in love with him, and Zeus allowed him to choose what he would, and he chose to sleep for ever, remaining deathless and ageless”.[20] Cicero seems to make Selene responsible for Endymion’s sleep, so that “she might kiss him while sleeping”. [21] From Pausanias we hear that Selene was supposed to have had by Endymion fifty daughters, who possibly represented the fifty lunar months of the Olympiad.[22] Nonnus has Selene and Endymion as the parents of the beautiful Narcissus, but in other accounts, including  Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Narcissus was the son of Cephissus and Liriope.[23]

9.4 The moon chariot

Detail of a sarcophagus depicting Endymion and Selene, shown with her characteristic attributes of lunate crown and billowing veil (velificatio) [35]

Like her brother Helios, theSun god, who drives his char-

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9.6. CULT 

iot across the sky each day, Selene is also said to drive across the heavens. [36] The  Hymn to Selene, provides a description: The air, unlit before, glows with the light of her golden crown, and her rays beam clear, whensoever bright Selene having bathed her lovely body in the waters of Ocean, and donned her far-gleaming raiment, and yoked her strong-necked, shining team, drives on her long-maned horses at full speed, at eventime in the mid-month: then her great orbit is full and then her beams shine brightest as she increases. So she is a sure token and a sign to mortal men.[37] The earliest known depiction of Selene driving a chariot is inside an early 5th century BC red-figure cup attributed to the Brygos Painter, showing Selene plunging her chariot, drawn by two winged horses, into the sea. [38] Though the moon chariot is often described as being silver, [39] for Pindar it was golden.[40] And while the sun chariot has four horses, Selene’s usually has two, [41] described as “snow-white” by Ovid,[42] or was drawn by oxen or bulls.[43] Statue of Luna

9.5 Depictions Surviving descriptions of Selene’s physical appearance and character, apart from those which would apply to the moon itself, are scant. Three early sources mention Selene’s hair. Both the  Hymn to Helios  and the  Hymn to Selene  use the word εὐπλόκαμος, variously translated as “rich”, “bright”, or “beautiful haired”, and Epimenides uses the epithet “lovely-haired”.[44] The Hymn to Selene describes the goddess as very beautiful, with long wings and a golden diadem, calling her “white-armed” and “benevolent”.[45] Aeschylus calls Selene “the eye of night”.[46] The  Orphic Hymns  give Selene horns and a torch, describing her as “all-seeing”, “all-wise”, a lover of horses and of vigilance, and a “foe of strife” who “giv’st to Nature’s works their destin'd end”. [47] In antiquity, artistic representations of Selene included sculptural reliefs, vase paintings, coins, and gems. [48] In red-figure pottery before the early 5th century BC, she is depicted only as a bust, or in profile against a lunar disk.[49] In later art, like other celestial divinities, such as Helios, Eos, and Nyx (“night”), Selene rides across the heavens. She is usually portrayed either driving a chariot, or riding sidesaddle on horseback (or sometimes on an ox or bull, mule, or ram). [50] Paired with her brother Helios, Selene adorned the east pediment of the Parthenon, where the two framed a scene depicting the birth of  Athena, with Helios driving his chariot rising from the ocean on the left, and Selene and her chariot descending into the sea on the right. [51] From

Pausanias, we learn that Selene and Helios also framed the birth of Aphrodite on the base of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia.[52] There are indications of a similar framing by Selene and Helios of the birth of  Pandora on the base ofthe AthenaParthenos.[53] Selene also appears on horseback as part of the Gigantomachy frieze of the Pergamon Altar.[54] Selene is commonly depicted with a crescent moon, often accompanied by stars; sometimes, instead of a crescent, a lunar disc is used. [55] Often a crescent moon rests on her brow, or thecusps of a crescentmoon protrude, horn-like, from her head, or from behind her head or shoulders. [56] Selene’s head is sometimes surrounded by a  nimbus, and from the Hellenistic period onwards, she is sometimes pictured with a torch. [57] In later second and third century AD Roman funerary art, the love of Selene for Endymion and his eternal sleep was a popular subject for artists. [58] As frequently depicted on Roman sarcophagi, Selene, holding a billowing veil forming a crescent over her head, descends from her chariot to join her lover, who slumbers at her feet. [59] In post-Renaissance art, Selene is generally depicted as a beautiful woman with a pale face and long, lustrous black hair, driving a silver chariot pulled either by a  yoke of oxen or a pair of horses.

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CHAPTER 9. SELENE  [7] Kerenyi, pp. 196–197; Hammond, “SELENE” pp. 970– 971. [8]   Hesiod,   Theogony  371 ff.. See also Apollodorus 1.2.2, Hyginus, Fabulae Preface. [9]  Hymn to Helios (31) 4–7. [10] Morford, p. 61; West 2003, note 61 p. 215. [11]  Hymn to Hermes (4), 99–100. [12]   Euripides,   The Phoenician Women   175 ff.;   Nonnus, Dionysiaca 44.191.

Selene from an altar piece

9.6 Cult Moon figures are found on Cretan rings and gems (perhaps indicating a Minoan moon cult), but apart from the role played by the moon itself in magic, folklore, and poetry, and despite the later worship of the Phrygian moongod Men, there was relatively little worship of Selene. [60] An oracular sanctuary existed near Thalamai in  Laconia; described by Pausanias, it contained statues of Pasiphaë and Helios. Here Pasiphaë  is used as an epithet of Selene, instead of referring to the daughter of Helios and wife of Minos.[61] Pausanias also described seeing two stone images in the market-place of Elis, one of the sun and the other of the moon, from the heads of which projected the rays of the sun and the horns of the crescent moon. [62] Originally Pandia may have been an epithet of Selene, [63] but by at least the time of the late  Homeric Hymn, Pandia had become a daughter of Zeus and Selene. Pandia (or Pandia Selene) may have personified the full moon, [64] and an Athenian festival, called the Pandia, usually considered to be a festival for  Zeus,[65] was perhaps celebrated on the full-moon and may have been associated with Selene.[66]

[13]   Catullus,  Carmina  66.5; Hyginus,  Fabulae  271; Strabo, 14.1.8;   Propertius,  Elegies  2.15;   Ovid,   Heroides  15.89 ff., 18.59 ff.; Seneca,  Phaedra  309 ff., 422 ff., 786 ff.; Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 8.28 ff.; Lucian  Aphrodite and Selene; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 2.325 ff., 4.195 ff., 4.213 ff., 5.516 ff., 7.237 ff., 13.553 ff., 41.379 ff., 42.266 ff., 48.582 ff., 48.667 ff.. [14] This is according to a scholiast on Apollonius of Rhodes 4.57, see Campbell, p. 197; Weigal, p. 281 [15]  Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 4.54 ff.. [16]  Quintus Smyrnaeus, 10.125 ff. pp. 428–429. [17] Frazer’s note to Apollodorus, 1.7.5; Plato,  Phaedo, 72c; Aristotle,  Nicomachean Ethics  10.8.7;  Theocritus, 3.50; Cicero, Tusculan Disputations 1.38.92, p.50. [18]  Catalogue of Women, fragment 10, lines 58–62, Most, p. 57. [19] Gantz, p. 35. The same scholiast gives another story involving Endymion’s love for Hera, this time attributed to the Great Ehoiai , saying that “Endymion was carried up by Zeus to heaven, but that he was seized by desire for Hera and was deceived by the phantom of a cloud, and that because of this desire he was thrown out and went down to Hades”, see Most, fragment 198, p. 275. [20]   Apollodorus, 1.7.5.

[21]   Cicero,   Tusculan Disputations  1.38.92, p.50. See also Ovid,   Amores,   1.13: “See how the moon does her Endymion keep / In night conceal'd, and drown'd in dewy sleep.” Gantz, p. 34, discussing Selene’s role, says that “no source claims that the sleep was her idea, and likely 9.7 Notes enough (given its role in some quarters as a punishment, and his love for Hera), she was not always a part of the [1] Hard, p. 46; Hammond, “SELENE”, pp. 970–971; Morstory.” ford, pp. 64, 219–220; Smith, “Selene”. [22] Pausanias, 5.1.4; Mayerson p. 167; Davidson, pp. 204– [2] Smith, “Selene”; Kerenyi, pp. 196–197; Hammond, “SE205; Seyffert,  “Endymion” p. 213; Cashford, p. 137. LENE” pp. 970–971; Hard,  p. 46; Morford, pp. 64, There are other accounts of fifty daughters in Greek 219–221. mythology, the Nereids were fifty sea nymphs born to Nereus and   Doris (Hesiod,   Theogony   240–264), and [3] Kerenyi, pp. 196–197. Thespius had fifty daughters, each of whom bore a son to Heracles (Apollodorus, 2.4.10, 2.7.8). [4] Morford, p. 64; Smith, “Selene” [23]   Nonnus,   Dionysiaca  48.581 ff.;   Ovid,   Metamorphoses [5] Pannen, p. 96. For example see Ovid, Heroides 15.89 ff.. 3.342. [6] Smith, “Selene”.

[24] Fairbanks, p. 162.

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9.7. NOTES  [25]   Hymn to Selene (32) 15–16; Allen, [15] "ΠανδείηΝ", says that Pandia was “elsewhere unknown as a daughter of Selene”, but see Hyginus, Fabulae Preface, Philodemus, De  pietate P.Herc. 243 Fragment 6 (Obbink, p. 353). West 2003, p. 19 describes Pandia as an “obscure figure [who] featured in an Attic genealogy: she was the wife of Antiochos, the eponymous hero of the Antiochid  phylē .” Cook p. 732 says that it seems probable that, instead of being her daughter, “Pandia was originally an epithet of Selene”. Either Selene or her daughter may have been connected to the Athenian festival Pandia.

[41] Kerenyi, p. 196; Morford, p. 63. For an example of Selene driving the less usual four horses see Morford, p. 353. [42] Ovid, Fasti  4.373–374. [43] Hammond, “SELENE”, pp. 970–971; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 7.244, 11.185 ff., 1.214 ff., 2.405 ff.. For an image of Selene driving cattle, see LIMC  Selene, Luna 61. [44] Evelyn-White,  Hymn to Helios  (31) 6,  Hymn to Selene , (32) 18; Rudin, pp. 94–95; Morford, p. 64; Aelian,  On Animals, 12.7.

[26] Alcman, fragments 48, 49 (Edmonds, pp. 84–85); Cook p. 732. Hard, p. 46: “this is really no more than an al- [45] “Winged": Hymn to Selene, (32) 1   (a winged Selene seems to be unique to this  Hymn, see Allen, [1] legorical fancy referring to the heavy dew-fall associated "τανυσίπτερον"); “White-armed":  Hymn to Selene , (32) with clear moonlit nights”. 17; “Benevolent": Allen, [18] "Πρόφρον". [27] Cook, p. 456; Smith, “Selene”; Graves, 123 c., Vol. 2, pp. 104–105; Pausanias, 2.15.3 has Asopus as the father [46]   Aeschylus, Seven against Thebes  390. of Nemea. [47]  Orphic Hymns 8. [28] Cook, p. 457 note. 5. Cook p. 733, calls the confusion [48] For an example of Selene depicted on a coin see British “frequent”. Museum, R.7248; for an example of a gem see the British Museum 1923,0401.199. [29]   Hesiod, Theogony 327 [49] Cohen, p. 157. [30] Cook, pp. 456–457; Burkert 1972, p. 346 n. 48; Gantz, p. 25; West 1983, pp. 47–48; Hard, p. 256. Compare [50] Savignoni, p. 271; Walters, p. 79; Hard, p. 46; Murray with Pseudo-Plutarch,  On Rivers  18.4 (PDF), which has (1892) p. 272, (1903) p. 47; Hammond, “SELENE”, pp. the Nemean Lion created from a chest filled with foam, 970–971, Pausanias, 5.11.8; Hansen, p. 221. see also Anaxagoras, fragment A77 (Scholium on Apollonius of Rhodes 1.498) pp. 111–112; Hyginus, Fabulae [51] Neils, pp. 236–237; Palagia, p. 22. This is the usualinterpretation, but some have suggested that instead of Selene, 30; Seneca, Hercules Furens  83 ff. the goddess on the right could be Nyx or Eos, e.g. see Robertson, Martin 1981, p. 96. The same pair also ap[31] Hammond, “SELENE”, pp. 970–971; Quintus Smyrpear on the North Metopes of the Parthenon, with Selene naeus, 10.336 ff. pp. 442–443. this time entering the sea on horseback, see Hurwit, p. [32] Virgil, Georgics 3.3.391–93, 170. [33] Gantz, p. 36; Kerenyi, p. 175, 196; Grimal, “Selene”, p. [52] Robertson, Martin 1981, p. 96, Pausanias, 5.11.8. 415. [53] Morris, p. 87. For another example of the framing of a scene, in this case the Judgement of Paris, see Robertson, [34]  Plato, Republic  2.364e; Obbink, p. 353; Burkert 1972, p. Martin 1992, p. 255. 346 n. 48. [35] Stefania Sorrenti, “Les représentations figurées de Jupiter [54] Thomas, p.17; Mitchell, p. 92. Dolichénien à Rome,” in   La terra sigillata tardo-italica [55] Savignoni,  pp. 270–271; Cohen,  pp. 178–179;   LIMC  decorata del Museo nazionale romano , «L'Erma» di Selene, Luna 35; Zschietzschmann, p. 23. Bretschneider, 1999), p. 370. [56] British Museum 1923,0401.199; LIMC  Selene, Luna 21; [36]   Pindar,   Olympian   3.19–20;   Euripides,   The Suppliant  LIMC   Selene, Luna 4; LIMC  Mithras 113;  LIMC   Selene, Women, 990–991;   Theocritus, Idyll  2.163 ff.;   Ovid, Luna 15;   LIMC  Selene, Luna 34;   LIMC  Selene, Luna Fasti   4.373–374, 3.109–110,  Metamorphoses  2. 208 ff; 2;  LIMC  Selene, Luna 7;  LIMC  Selene, Luna 9;  LIMC  Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 5.408 ff.; Statius, Thebaid  Selene, Luna 10; LIMC  Selene, Luna 19. For the close as1. 336 ff. sociation between the crescent moon and horns see Cashford. [37]  Hymn to Selene (32) 5–14. [57] Parisinou, p. 34. [38] Cohen, pp.   156–157, 177–179. For Selene driving another pair of winged horses see Zschietzschmann, p. XII, [58] Sorabella, p. 70; Morford, p. 65. p. 23. [59] Examples, among many others, include sarcophagi in the Capitoline Museum in Rome (c. 135 AD ), two in the [39] Grimal, “Selene” p. 415; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 44.191. Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (c. 160 AD [40]   Pindar, Olympian 3.19–20. For the use of “golden” in refandc. 220AD),andonein PalazzoDoria Pamphilj Rome erence to the moon, see: Allen, [6] "χρυσέου". (c. 310 AD), for images see Sorabella, figs. 1-7, 12.

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[60] Hammond, “SELENE” pp. 970–971; Burkert 1991, p. 176 [61]   Plutarch, Agis 9; Pausanias, 3.26.1.

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[62] Pausanias, 6.24.6. [63] Willetts, p. 178; Cook, p. 732; Roscher, p. 100; Scholiast on Demosthenes, 21.39a. [64] Cox, p. 138; Casford p. 174.

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[65] Parker 2005, p. 447. [66] Robertson, Noel 1996, p. 75 note 109; Willets, pp. 178– 179; Cook, 732; Harpers, “Selene”; Smith, “Pandia”; Lexica Segueriana  s.v. Πάνδια (Bekker, p. 292); Photius, Lexicon s.v. Πάνδια.

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  Aelian,  Aelian: On the Characteristics of Animals, Volume III, Books 12-17 ; Translation by A. F. Scholfield; Loeb Classical Library (January 1, 1959) ISBN 978-0674994942.   Allen, Thomas W., E. E. Sikes.   The Homeric  Hymns, edited, with preface, apparatus criticus, notes, and appendices. London. Macmillan. 1904.  Anaxagoras,   Anaxagoras of Clazomenae: Fragments and Testimonia : a Text and Translation with Notes and Essays, ed. Patricia Curd, University of Toronto Press, 2007. ISBN 9780802093257.  Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an En glish Translation by Sir James GeorgeFrazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica; with an English translation by R. C. Seaton. William Heinemann, 1912.

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 Aristotle,  Aristotle in 23 Volumes, Vol. 19, translated by H. Rackham . Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1934.   Bekker, Immanuel, Anecdota Graeca: Lexica Segueriana, Apud G.C. Nauckium, 1814.  Burkert, Walter (1972). Lore and Science in Ancient  Pythagoreanism. Harvard University Press.   ISBN 978-0674539181.

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 Burkert, Walter  (1991).   Greek Religion. WileyBlackwell. ISBN 978-0631156246.   Campbell, D.A. (1982),   Greek Greek Lyric Poetry: Volume I. Sappho and Alcaeus, Loeb Classical Library, no. 142, Cambridge, MA,  ISBN 9780674991576.

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 Cashford, Jules,  The Moon: Myth and Image, Basic Books, 2003. ISBN 9781568582658.  Catullus.  The Carmina of Gaius Valerius Catullus . Leonard C. Smithers. London. Smithers. 1894.   Cicero, Cicero’s Tusculan Disputations , translated by C. D. Yonge; Harpers & Brothers, publishers, 1888.  Cohen, Beth, “Outline as a Special Technique in Black- and Red-figure Vase-painting”, in  The Colors of Clay: Special Techniques in Athenian Vases , Getty Publications, 2006, ISBN 9780892369423. Cook, Arthur Bernard, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, Volume I: Zeus God of the Bright Sky , Cambridge University Press 1914. Online version at openlibrary.org  Corelis, Jon,   Roman Erotic Elegy: Selections from Tibullus, Propertius, Ovid, and Sulpicia, translated, with an Introduction , Notes, and Glossary, Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik, Universität Salzburg, 1995. ISBN 3705204246.  Cox, George W.  The Mythology of the Aryan Nations Part Two , Kessinger Publishing, 2004.  ISBN 9780766189409.   Davidson, James, “Time and Greek Religion”, in   A Companion to Greek Religion, edited by Daniel Ogden, John Wiley & Sons, 2010,  ISBN 9781444334173.  Edmonds, John Maxwell,  Lyra Graeca, W. Heinemann, 1922.   Euripides,  The Complete Greek Drama', edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. in two volumes. 2.   The Phoenissae, translated by E. P. Coleridge. New York. Random House. 1938. Evelyn-White, Hugh,   The Homeric Hymns and  Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.   Fairbanks, Arthur,  The Mythology of Greece and  Rome. D. Appleton–Century Company, New York, 1907.  Gantz, Timothy,  Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources , Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-80185360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3  (Vol. 2). Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996,   ISBN 9780631201021.

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9.8. REFERENCES  •

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Hammond, N.G.L. and Howard Hayes Scullard (editors), The Oxford Classical Dictionary , second edition, Oxford University Press, 1992.  ISBN 0-19869117-3.  Hansen, William F.,  Handbook of classical mythology, ABC-CLIO, 2004. ISBN 9781576072264.  Hard, Robin,  The Routledge Handbook of Greek  Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose’s “Handbook of  Greek Mythology” , Psychology Press, 2004,  ISBN 9780415186360.   Hesiod,   Theogony, in   The Homeric Hymns and  Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White , Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.  Hurwit, Jeffery M.,  “The” Athenian Acropolis: History, Mythology, and Archaeology from the Neolithic  Era to the Present , CUP Archive, 1999.   ISBN 9780521417860.

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  Hyginus, Gaius Julius,   The Myths of Hyginus. Edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960.  Pannen, Imke,  When the Bad Bleeds: Mantic Elements in English Renaissance Revenge Tragedy Volume 3 of Representations & Reflections; V&R uni press GmbH, 2010. ISBN 9783899716405   Kerenyi, Karl  (1951). The Gods of the Greeks. Thames & Hudson.   Lucian,  The Works of Lucian of Samosata . Translated by Fowler, H W and F G. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 1905.

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 Mayerson, Philip,  Classical Mythology in Literature, Art, and Music , Focus publishing, R. Pullins Company, 2001. ISBN 9781585100361. Mitchell, Lucy M., “Sculptures of the Great Pergamon Altar” in The Century Magazine, 1883.

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 Morris, Ian,  Classical Greece: Ancient Histories and  Modern Archaeologies, Cambridge University Press, 1994. ISBN 9780521456784. Morford, Mark P. O., Robert J. Lenardon, Classical  Mythology, Eighth Edition, Oxford UniversityPress, 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-530805-1.  Most, G.W. (2007),  Hesiod: The Shield, Catalogue, Other Fragments, Loeb Classical Library, no. 503, Cambridge, MA, ISBN 978-0-674-99623-6

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  Murray, Alexander Stuart,   Handbook of Greek  Archæology , John Murray, 1892.   Murray, Alexander Stuart,   The Sculptures of the Parthenon, John Murray, 1903.

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  Neils,   The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present , Cambridge University Press, 2005.   ISBN 9780521820936.  Nonnus,  Dionysiaca; translated by Rouse, W H D. Loeb Classical Library Volumes 344, 354, 356. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1940.   Obbink, Dirk, “56. Orphism, Cosmogony, and Gealogy (Mus. fr. 14)" in  Tracing Orpheus: Studies of Orphic Fragments , edited by Miguel Herrero de Jáuregui, Walter de Gruyter, 2011.   ISBN 9783110260533.  Ovid, Amores in Ovid’s Art of Love (in three Books), the Remedy of Love, the Art of Beauty, the Court of  Love, the History of Love, and Amours. Anne Mahoney. edited for Perseus. New York. Calvin Blanchard. 1855.  Ovid,   Fasti , translated by Frazer, James George. Loeb Classical Library Volume. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1931.  Ovid,  Heroides, in The Epistles of Ovid , London. J. Nunn, Great-Queen-Street; R. Priestly, 143, HighHolborn; R. Lea, Greek-Street, Soho; and J. Rodwell, New-Bond-Street. 1813.  Ovid,   Metamorphoses, Brookes More. Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922.

Boston.

  Palagia, Olga,   The Pediments of the Parthenon , BRILL, 1998. ISBN 9789004111981.  Pannen, Imke,  When the Bad Bleeds: Mantic Elements in English Renaissance Revenge Tragedy Volume 3 of Representations & Reflections; V&R uni press GmbH, 2010. ISBN 9783899716405   Parisinou, Eva, “Brightness personified: light and devine image in ancient Greece” in  Personification In The Greek World: From Antiquity To Byzantium, editors Emma Stafford, Judith Herrin, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005. ISBN 9780754650317.  Parker, Robert,   Polytheism and Society at Athens , Oxford University Press, 2005.   ISBN 978-0-19927483-3.   Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and  H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.   Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.  Pindar, Odes, Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990.  Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.

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CHAPTER 9. SELENE 

  Plato,  Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vol. 1 translated  by Harold North Fowler ; Introduction by W.R.M. Lamb. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1966

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 Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy , translated by Arthur Sanders Way, W. Heinemann, 1913  Strabo,  Geography, Editors, H.C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M.A., London. George Bell & Sons. 1903. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library  Robertson, Martin (1981),   A Shorter History of  Greek Art , Cambridge University Press.   ISBN 9780521280846. Robertson, Martin (1992), The Art of Vase-Painting in Classical Athens, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521338813. Robertson, Noel (1996), “Athena’s Shrines and Festivals” in   Worshipping Athena: Panathenaia and  Parthenon, The University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299151140.  Roscher, Wilhelm Heinrich,  Über Selene und Verwandtes, B. G. Teubner, Leizig 1890.  Rudin, Sarah,  Homeric Hymns, translated by Sarah Rudin, Hackett Publishing Company (September 30, 2005) ISBN 978-0872207257.  Savignoni L. 1899. “On Representations of Helios and of Selene.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies  19: pp. 265–272  Seyffert, Oskar,  A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, Mythology, Religion, Literature and Art, from the German of Dr. Oskar Seyffert , S. Sonnenschein, 1901.   Seneca,  Tragedies, translated by Miller, Frank Justus. Loeb Classical Library Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1917. Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873).   Sorabella, Jean, “A Roman Sarcophagus and Its Patron.”   Metropolitan Museum Journal , Vol. 36 (2001). PDF  Statius,  Thebaid . Translated by Mozley, J H. Loeb Classical Library Volumes . Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928.  Taylor, Thomas,  The Hymns of Orpheus, Philosophical Research Society; Limited edition (June 1987). ISBN 978-0893144159.

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 Theocritus, The Greek Bucolic Poets . Translated by Edmonds, J M. Loeb Classical Library Volume 28. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. 1912.  Thomas, Edmund. “From the panteon of the gods to the Pantheon of Rome” in  Pantheons: Transformations of a Monumental Idea, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004. ISBN 9780754608080.  Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica. Translated by Mozley, J H. Loeb Classical Library Volume 286. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928.   Virgil, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics Of Vergil . J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900 Walters, Henry Beauchamp, Samuel Birch,  History of Ancient Pottery: Greek, Etruscan, and Roman, Volume 2, John Murray, 1905.  Weigal, Arthur,   Sappho of Lesbos: Her Life and  Times, Taylor & Francis, 1932.  West, Martin L. (1983), The Orphic Poems , Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0198148542  West, Martin L. (2003),  Homeric Hymns, Homeric  Apocrypha, Lives of Homer , Loeb Classical Library, no. 496, Cambridge, MA, ISBN 978-0-674-996069  Willetts, R. F.,  Cretan Cults and Festivals , Greenwood Press, 1980. ISBN 9780313220500.  Zschietzschmann, W,  Hellas and Rome: The Classical World in Pictures , Kessinger Publishing, 2006. ISBN 9781428655447.

9.9 External links •

  Theoi.com: Selene Passages from Greek and Roman texts, in translation

Chapter 10

Nyx For the water spirit Nix , see Neck (water spirit). For other uses, see NYX (disambiguation). Nyx  (/nɪks/;[1] Greek: Νύξ, “Night”)[2] – Roman (in Latin): Nox – is the Greek goddess (or personification) of the night. A shadowy figure, Nyx stood at or near the beginning of creation, and was the mother of other personified deities such as Hypnos (Sleep) and Thanatos (Death). Her appearances are sparse in surviving mythology, but reveal her as a figure of such exceptional power and beauty, that she is feared by  Zeus himself. She is found in the shadows of the world and only ever seen in glimpses.

10.1 Mythology and literature 10.1.1 Hesiod In Hesiod's   Theogony, Nyx is born of  Chaos.[3] With Erebus (Darkness), Nyx gives birth to  Aether (Brightness) and Hemera (Day).[4] Later, on her own, Nyx gives birth to Moros (Doom, Destiny), Ker (Fate, Destruction, Death), Thanatos (Death), Hypnos (Sleep), the Oneiroi (Dreams), Momus (Blame), Oizys (Woe, Pain, Distress), the Hesperides (Evening, Sunset), the Moirai (Fates), the Keres, Nemesis (Indignation, Retribution), Apate (Deceit), Philotes (Friendship, Love), Geras (Old Age), and Eris (Strife).[5] In his description of  Tartarus, Hesiod locates there the home of Nyx, [6] and the homes of her children Hypnos and Thanatos.[7] Hesiod says further that Hemera (Day), who is Nyx’s daughter, left Tartarus just as Nyx entered it; continuing cyclicly, when Hemera returned, Nyx left. [8] This mirrors the portrayal of Ratri (night) in the Rigveda, where she works in close cooperation but also tension with her sister Ushas (dawn).

Roman-era bronze statuette of Nyx   velificans  or  Selene (Getty Villa)

ding of Hera, allowing her to cause Heracles (who was returning by sea from Laomedon's Troy) great misfortune. Zeus was furious and would have smitten Hypnos into the sea if he had not fled to Nyx, his mother, in fear. Homer goes on to say that Zeus, fearing to anger Nyx, held his 10.1.2 Homer fury at bay and in this way Hypnos escaped the wrath of At Iliad  14.249–61, Hypnos, the minor deity of sleep, re- Zeus by appealing to his powerful mother. He disturbed minds Hera of an old favor after she asks him to put Zeus Zeus only a few times after that always fearing Zeus and to sleep. He had once before put Zeus to sleep at the bid- running back to his mother, Nyx, who would have con47

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CHAPTER 10. NYX 

fronted Zeus with a maternal fury.

10.1.3 Others Nyx took on an even more important role in several fragmentary poems attributed to  Orpheus. In them, Nyx, rather than Chaos, is the first principle fromwhich all creation emerges. Nyx occupies a cave or  adyton, in which she gives oracles. Cronus – who is chained within, asleep and drunk on honey – dreams and prophesies. Outside the cave, Adrasteia clashes cymbals and beats upon her tympanon, moving theentireuniversein an ecstaticdance to the rhythm of Nyx’s chanting.  Phanes – the strange, monstrous,   hermaphrodite  Orphic demiurge – was the child or father of Nyx. Nyx is also the first principle in the opening chorus of Aristophanes' The Birds, which may be Orphic in inspiration. Here she is also themother of Eros. The theme of Nyx’s cave or mansion, beyond the ocean (as in Hesiod) or somewhere at the edge of the  cosmos (as in later Orphism) may be echoed in the philosophical poem of Parmenides. The classical scholar Walter Burkert has speculated that the house of the goddess to which the philosopher is transported is the palace of Nyx; this hypothesis, however, must remain tentative. For other mythical aspects connected with Nyx, see  Chaos (cosmogony) and   Cosmogony and  cosmology.

10.2 Nyx in society

10.2.1 Cults In Greece, Nyx was only rarely the focus of cults. According to Pausanias, she had an oracle on the acropolis at Megara.[9] More often, Nyx lurked in the background of other cults. Thus there was a statue called “Nyx” in the  Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.[10] The Spartans had a cult of Sleep and Death, conceived of as twins.[11] Cult titles composed of compounds of nyx- are attested for severaldeities, most notably Dionysus Nyktelios “nocturnal”[12] and Aphrodite Philopannyx  “who loves the whole night”. [13]

10.2.2 Astronomy In 1997, the International Astronomical Union approved the name Nyx for a mons (mountain/peak) feature on the planet Venus. Nyx Mons is located at latitude 30° North and longitude 48.5° East on the Venusian surface. Its diameter is 875 km. On June 21, 2006, the International Astronomical Union renamed one of   Pluto's recently discovered moons (S/2005 P 2) to Nix, in honor of Nyx. The name was spelled with an “i” instead of a “y”, to avoid conflict with the asteroid 3908 Nyx.

10.3 Notes [1]  Oxford dictionary [2] νύξ.   Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert;  A Greek–  English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. [3]   Hesiod, Theogony 123. [4] Hesiod, Theogony 124–125; Gantz, p. 4. [5] Hesiod, Theogony 212–225; Gantz, pp. 4–5. [6] Hesiod, Theogony 744–745. [7] Hesiod, Theogony 758–759. [8] Hesiod, Theogony 746–750. [9] Pausanias 1.40.1). [10]   Pausanias, 10.38.6, trans. Jones and Ormerod, 1918, from perseus.org. [11] Pausanias 3.18.1. [12] Pausanias 1.40.6) [13]  Orphic Hymn 55.

Nyx, as represented in the 10th-century Paris Psalter  at the side of the Prophet  Isaiah

References •

  Aristophanes, The Birds

10.4. EXTERNAL LINKS  •

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  Gantz,  Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and  Artistic Sources , Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes:   ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996,   ISBN 978-0-63120102-1. “Nyx” p. 314   Hesiod,   Theogony, in   The Homeric Hymns and  Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White , Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.

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 Otto Kern ed., Orphicorum Fragmenta.

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  Pausanias, Descriptions of Greece.

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  Simmons, Olympos.

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Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). “Nyx”

10.4 External links Media related to Nyx at Wikimedia Commons •

 “Nyx” from Theoi.com

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Chapter 11

Philotes (mythology) Philotes (Greek: Φιλότης) is a minor Greek goddess. She was a daughter of Nyx. She is the goddess of affection and friendship.

11.1 External links •

 http://www.theoi.com/Daimon/Philotes.html

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Chapter 12

Achlys For the plant genus named  Achlys, see Achlys (plant).

to everyplace, saw from on high theeverchanging shape of Lyaios [Dionysos], and knew all. Then she was angry with the guardians of Bromios. She procured from Thessalian Akhlys (Achlys, Death-Mist) treacherous flowersof thefield, andshed a sleepof enchantment over their heads; she distilled poisoned drugs over their hair, she smeared a subtle magical ointment over their faces ,and changed their earlier human shape. Then they took the form of a creature with long ears, and a horse’s tail sticking out straight from the loins and flogging the flanks of itsshaggy-crested owner; fromthe temples cow’s horns sprouted out, their eyes widened under the horned forehead, the hair ran across their heads in tuft, long white teeth grew out of their jaws, a strange kind of mane grew of itself, covering their necks with rough hair, and ran down from the loins to feet underneath.

In Greek mythology,  Achlys  (Greek language: Ἀχλύς “mist”) was, according to some ancient cosmogonies, the eternal Night (perhaps the Mist of Death, which fell before the eyes preceding death), and the first created being which existed even before Chaos. According to   Hesiod, she was the   personification of misery and sadness, and as such she was represented on the shield of  Heracles: pale, emaciated, and weeping, with chattering teeth, swollen knees, long nails on her fingers, bloody cheeks, and her shoulders thickly covered with dust.[1] If she was a daughter of Nyx (Night) then she may have been numbered amongst the Keres.[2]

12.1 Hesiod’s Account Hesiod, Shield of Heracles 264 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic 8th or 7th century BC): And beside them [the Keres (Deaths) and the Moirai (Fates) on the battlefield] was standing Akhlys (Achlys), dismal and dejected, green and pale, dirty-dry, fallen in on herself with hunger, knee-swollen, and the nails were grown long on her hands, and from her nostrils the drip kept running, and off her cheeks the blood dribbled to the ground, and she stood there, grinning forever, and the dust that had gathered and lay in heaps on her shoulders was muddy with tears.

12.2 Nonnus’ Account

12.3 See also •

 List of Greek mythological figures

12.4 References [1]  Scut. Here.  264, etc. [2] Schmitz, Leonhard (1867), “Achlys”, in Smith, William, Dictionary ofGreek and Roman Biography and Mythology 1, Boston, MA, p. 12

12.5 Sources

Nonnus, Dionysiaca 14. 143 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic 5th century AD):

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[Hera spies the nurses of the infant god Dionysos:] Hera, who turns her all-seeing eye 51

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "article name needed ".  Dictionary of Greek and  Roman Biography and Mythology .

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CHAPTER 12. ACHLYS 

12.6 External links •

 Theoi Project - Akhlys

Chapter 13

Hypnos “Somnus” redirects here. For the thoroughbred race- Phantasos appeared in the dreams of kings. The Oneiroi horse, see Somnus (horse). lived in a cave at the shores of the Ocean in the West. The For other uses, see Hypnos (disambiguation). cave had two gates with which to send peopledreams; one made from ivory and the other from buckhorn. However, dreams, In Greek mythology, Hypnos (/ˈhɪpnɒs/; Greek: Ὕπνος, before they could do their work and send out the [4] “sleep”) [1] was the personification of sleep; the Roman first Hypnos had to put the recipient to sleep. equivalent was known as Somnus. [2]

13.3 Hypnos in the Iliad 13.1 Dwelling place According to Greek mythology Hypnos lived in a cave, whose mansion does not see the rising, nor the setting sun, nor does it see the “lightsome noon.” At the entrance were a number of poppies and other hypnotic plants. His dwellinghadnodoororgatesothathemightnotbeawakened bythecreaking of hinges. The river Lethe,intheunderworld, flowed through his cave. [3] This river is known as the river of forgetfulness.

13.2 Family Hypnos lived next to his twin brother,   Thanatos (Θάνατος, “death personified”) in the underworld. The underworld is translated into English as   Hell   in the Septuagint Bible. Hypnos’ mother was  Nyx  (Νύξ, “Night”), the deity of Night, and his father was Erebus, the deity of Darkness. Nyx was a dreadful and powerful goddess, and even  Zeus feared entering her realm. His wife, Pasithea, was one of the youngest of the Graces and was promised to him by Hera, who is the goddess of marriage and birth. Pasithea is the deity of hallucination or relaxation. Hypnos’ three sons were known as the  Oneiroi, which is Greek for “dreams.” Morpheus is the Winged God of Dreams and can take human form in dreams.  Phobetor is the personification of nightmares and created frightening dreams, he could take the shape of any animal including bears and tigers.   Phantasos was known for creating fake dreams full of illusions. Morpheus, Phobetor, and

Hypnos used his powers to trick Zeus. Hypnos was able to trick him and help the Danaans win the Trojan war. During the war, Hera loathed her brother and husband, Zeus, so she devised a plot to trick him. She decided that in order to trick him she needed to make him so enamoured with her that he would fall for the trick. So she went and washed herself with ambrosia and anointed herself with oil, made especially for her to make herself impossible to resist for Zeus. She wove flowers through her hair, put on three brilliant pendants for earrings, and donned a wondrous robe. She then called for Aphrodite, the goddess of love, and asked her for a charm that would ensure that her trick would not fail. In order to procure the charm, however, she lied to Aphrodite because they sided on opposites sides of the war. She told Aphrodite that she wanted the charm to help her parents stop fighting. Aphrodite willingly agreed. Hera was almost ready to trick Zeus, but she needed the help of Hypnos, who had tricked Zeus once before. Hera called on Hypnos and asked him to help her by putting Zeus to sleep. Hypnos was reluctant because the last time he had put the god to sleep, he was furious when he awoke. It was Hera who had asked him to trick Zeus the first time as well. She was furious that Hercules, Zeus’ son, sacked the city of the Trojans. So she had Hypnos put Zeus to sleep, and set blasts of angry winds upon the sea while Heracles was still sailing home. When Zeus awoke he was furious and went on a rampage looking for Hypnos. Hypnos managed to avoid Zeus by hiding with his mother, Nyx. This made Hypnos reluctant to accept Hera’s proposal and help her trick Zeus again. Hera first offered him a beautiful golden seat that can never fall apart and a footstool to go with it. He refused this first offer, remembering the last time he tricked Zeus. Hera

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54 finally got him to agree by promising that he would be married to Pasithea, one of the youngest Graces, whom he had always wanted to marry. Hypnos made her swear by the river Styx and call on gods of the underworld to be witnesses so that he would be ensured that he would marry Pasithea. Now, with Hypnos’ help, Hera went to see Zeus on Gargarus, the topmost peak of  Mount Ida. Zeus was extremely taken by her and suspected nothing as Hypnos was shrouded in a thick mist and hidden upon a pine tree that was close to where Hera and Zeus were talking. Zeus asked Hera what she was doing there and why she had come there from Olympus and she told him the same lie she told her daughter Aphrodite. She told him that she wanted to go help her parents stop quarreling and she stopped there to consult him because she didn't want to go without his knowledge and have him be angry with her when he found out. Zeus said that she could go any time, and that she should postpone her visit and stay there with him so they could enjoy each other’s company. He told her that he was never in love with anyone as much as he loved her at that moment. He took her in his embrace and Hypnos went to work putting him to sleep, with Hera in his arms. While this went on, Hypnos traveled to the ships of the Achaeans to tell  Poseidon, God of the Sea, that he could now help the Danaans and give them a victory while Zeus was sleeping. This is where Hypnos leaves the story, leaving Poseidon eager to help the Dananns. Thanks to Hypnos helping to trick Zeus, the war changed its course to Hera’s favor, and Zeus never found out that Hypnos had tricked him one more time. [5]

13.4 Hypnos in art

CHAPTER 13. HYPNOS 

sleeps. [7] One of the most famous works of art featuring Hypnos is a bronze head of Hypnos himself, now kept in the British Museum in London. This bronze head has wings sprouting from his temples and the hair is elaborately arranged, some tying in knots and some hanging freely from his head. [8]

13.5 Words derived from Hypnos The English word "hypnosis" is derived from his name, referring to the fact that when hypnotized, a person is put into a sleep-like state (hypnos “sleep” + -osis “condition”).[9] Additionally, the English word "insomnia" comes from the name of his Latin counterpart, Somnus. (in- “not” + somnus “sleep”),[10] as well as a few less-common words such as “somnolent”, meaning sleepy or tending to cause sleep.[11]

13.6 See also •

 Aergia, a goddess of sloth and attendant of Hypnos

•

 Hesiod’s Theogony

•

  Morpheus, god of dreams

13.7 References [1]   ὕπνος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert;  A Greek–  English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. [2] James H. Mantinband. Concise Dictionary of Greek Literature. New York: Philosophical Library, 1962. [3] Richard S. Caldwell. Hesiod’s Theogony. Cambridge, MA: Focus Information Group, 1987. [4] Ovid. “Book the Eleventh.” Trans. John Dryden. Metemorphoses. Trans. Sir Samuel Garth. Cambridge, 1717. [5] Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. Ed. Bernard Knox. New York: Viking, 1990. [6]  British Museum Highlights [7] “Ancient Greek Art: Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus.” Ancient Greek Art: Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2013.

Bronze Head of Hypnos  in the British Museum, from  Civitella d'Arna near  Perugia in Italy, 1st-2nd Century AD. [6]

[8] “Bronze Head of Hypnos.” British Museum −. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2013. [9]  “Hypnosis | Define Hypnosis at Dictionary.com”. Dictio-

Hypnos appears in numerous works of art, most of which nary.reference.com. Retrieved 2014-01-27. are vases. An example of one vase that Hypnos is featured on is called “Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus,” [10]  “Insomnia | Define Insomnia at Dictionary.com”. Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2014-01-27. which is part of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston’s collection. In this vase, Hypnos is shown as a winged god [11]  “Somnolent | Define Somnolent at Dictionary.com”. Dicdripping Lethean water upon the head of Ariadne as she tionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2014-01-27.

13.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 

13.8 External links •

•

 Hypnos at theoi.com  3D model of  Bronze head of Hypnos via laser scan of a cast of British Museum’s bronze.

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Chapter 14

Diana (mythology) deities:   Egeria the water nymph, her servant and assistant midwife; and Virbius, the woodland god.

14.1 Etymology Diana (pronounced with long 'ī' and 'ā') is an adjectival form developed from an ancient *divios , corresponding to later 'divus’, 'dius’, as in Dius Fidius, Dea Dia and in the neuter form  dium  meaning the sky. [2] It is rooted in Indoeuropean *d(e)y(e)w, meaning bright sky or daylight, from which also derived the name of  Vedic god Dyaus and the Latin deus, (god),  dies, (day, daylight), and " diurnal”, (daytime). On the Tablets of Pylos a theonym διϝια ( diwia) is supposed as referring to a deity precursor of Artemis. Modern scholars mostly accept the identification. [3] The ancient Latin writers  Varro and Cicero considered the etymology of Dīāna as allied to that of  dies and connected to the shine of the Moon.

The  Diana of Versailles , a 2nd-century Roman version in the Greek tradition of iconography

In Roman mythology, Diana (lt. “heavenly” or “divine”) was the goddess of the  hunt, the moon and  childbirth, being associated with wild animals and woodland, and having the power to talk to and control animals. She was equated with the Greek goddess Artemis,[1] though she had an independent origin in Italy. Diana was worshipped in ancient Roman religion and is revered in Roman Neopaganism and Stregheria.  Dianic Wicca, a largely feminist form of the practice, is named for her. Diana was known to be the virgin goddess of childbirth and women. She was one of the three maiden goddesses, Diana, Minerva and Vesta, who swore never to marry. Oak groves were especially sacred to her. According to mythology (in common with the Greek religion and their deity Artemis), Diana was born with her twin brother Apollo on the island of  Delos, daughter of Jupiter and Latona. Diana made up a triad with two other Roman

14.2 Mythology The persona of Diana is complex and contains a number of archaic features. According to Georges Dumézil[4] it falls into a particular subset of celestial gods, referred to in histories of religion as  frame gods. Such gods, while keeping the original features of celestial divinities, i.e. transcendent heavenly power and abstention from direct rule in worldly matters, did not share the fate of other celestial gods in Indoeuropean religions—that of becoming dei otiosi  or gods without practical purpose, [5] since they did retain a particular sort of influence over the world and mankind. The celestial character of Diana is reflected in her connection with light, inaccessibility, virginity, and her preference for dwelling on high mountains and in sacred woods. Diana therefore reflects the heavenly world ( diuum means sky or open air) in its sovereignty, supremacy, impassibility, and indifference towards such secular matters as the fates of mortals and states. At the same time, however, she is seen as active in ensuring the succession 56

57

14.4. WORSHIP 

of kings and in the preservation of humankind through the protection of childbirth. These functions are apparent in the traditional institutions and cults related to the goddess. 1. The institution of the rex Nemorensis, Diana’s  sacerdos  (priest) in the Arician wood, who held the position until someone else challenged and killed him in a duel, after breaking a branch from a certain tree of the wood. This ever open succession reveals the character and mission of the goddess as a guarantor of kingly status through successive generations. [6] Her function as bestower of authority to rule is also attested in the story related by Livy in which a Sabine man who sacrifices a  heifer to Diana wins for hiscountry theseat of theRoman empire.[7] 2. Diana was also worshipped by women who wanted to be pregnant or who, once pregnant, prayed for an easy delivery. This form of worship is attested in archeological finds of votive statuettes in her sanctuary in the nemus Aricinum as well as in ancient sources, e.g. Ovid. [6] According to Dumezil the forerunner of all  frame gods is an Indian epic hero who was the image ( avatar) of the Vedic god Dyaus. Having renounced the world, in his roles of father and king, he attained the status of an immortal being while retaining the duty of ensuring that his dynasty is preserved and that there is always a new king for each generation. The Scandinavian god Heimdallr performs an analogous function: he is born first and will die last. He too gives origin to kingship and the first king, bestowing on him regal prerogatives. Diana, although a female deity, has exactly the same functions, preserving mankind through childbirth and royal succession. F. H. Pairault in her essay on Diana qualifies Dumézil’s theory as " impossible to verify". Dumezil’s interpretation appears deliberately to ignore that of James G. Frazer, who links Diana with the male god Janus as a divine couple. This looks odd as Dumézil’s definition of the concept of  frame god   would fit well the figure of Janus. [8] Frazer identifies the two with the supreme heavenly couple Jupiter-Juno and additionally ties in these figures to the overarching Indoeuropean religious complex. This regality is also linked to the cult of trees, particularly oaks. In this interpretative schema, the institution of the Rex Nemorensis and related ritual should be seen as related to the theme of the dying god and the kings of May.[9]

Gallo-Roman bronze statuette of Diana (latter 1st century)

and carrying a quiver on her shoulder, accompanied by a deer or hunting dogs. [10] Like Venus, she was portrayed as beautiful and youthful. The crescent moon, sometimes worn as a diadem, is a major attribute of the goddess.

14.4 Worship

Diana was initially just the hunting goddess, associated with wild animals and woodlands. She also later became a moon goddess, supplanting Titan goddess Luna. She also became the goddess of childbirth and ruled over the countryside. Catullus wrote a poem to Diana in which she has more than one alias: Latonia, Lucina, Iuno, Trivia, Luna.[11] In Rome the cult of Diana should have been almost as old as the city itself as Varro mentions her in the list of deities to whom king Titus Tatius vowed a shrine. It is noteworthy that the list includes Luna and Diana Lucina as separate entities. Another testimony to the high antiquity of her cult is to be found in the  lex regia of king Tullus Hostilius that condemns those guilty of incest to the sacratio to the goddess. 14.3 Physical description Diana was worshipped at a festival on August 13,[12] when King Servius Tullius, himself born a slave, dedicated As a goddess of hunting, Diana often wears a short tunic her temple on the Aventine Hill in the mid-6th century and hunting boots. She is often portrayed holding a bow, BC. Being placed on the Aventine, and thus outside the

58  pomerium, meant that Diana’s cult essentially remained a  foreign one, like that of Bacchus; she was never officially transferred  to Rome as Juno was after the sack of  Veii. It seems that her cult originated in Aricia,[13] where her priest, the Rex Nemorensis remained. There the simple open-air fane was held in common by the Latin tribes, [14] which Rome aspired to weld into a league and direct. Diana of the wood was soon thoroughly Hellenized, [15] “a process which culminated with the appearance of Diana beside Apollo in thefirst lectisternium at Rome”.[16] Diana was regarded with great reverence and was a patroness of lower-class citizens, called plebeians, and  slaves; slaves could receive asylum in her temples. This fact is of difficult interpretation.   Georg Wissowa   proposed the explanation that it might be because the first slaves of the Romans must have been Latins of the neighbouring tribes.[17] However in Ephesus too there was the same custom of the asylum (ασυλιον). According to Françoise Hélène Pairault’s study, [18] historical and archaeological evidence point to the fact that both Diana of the Aventine and Diana Nemorensis were theproduct of thedirect or indirect influence of thecult of Artemis spread by the Phoceans among the Greek towns of Campania Cuma and Capua, which in turn passed it over to the Etruscans and the Latins by the 6th and 5th centuries BC. The origin of the ritual of the rex Nemorensis should have to be traced to the legend of  Orestes and Iphigenia more than that of Hippolitos. The formation of the Latin League led by Laevius (or Baebius) Egerius [19] happened under the influence of an alliance with the tyrant of Cuma Aristodemos[20] and is probably connected to the political events at end of the 6th century narrated by Livy and Dionysius, such as the siege of  Aricia by Porsenna's son Arruns. It is remarkable that the composition of this league does not reflect that of the Latin people who took part in the Latiar or Feriae Latinae given by Pliny and it has not as its leader the  rex Nemorensis  but a  dictator  Latinus.[21] It should thence be considered a political formation and not a traditional society founded on links of blood. It looks as if the confrontation happened between two groups of Etruscans who fought for supremacy, those from Tarquinia, Vulci and Caere (allied with the Greeks of Capua) and those of  Clusium. This is reflected in the legend of the coming of Orestes to Nemi and of the inhumation of his bones in the Roman Forum near the temple of Saturn.[22] The cult introduced by Orestes at Nemi is apparently that of the  Artemis Tauropolos. The literary amplification [23] reveals a confused religious background: different Artemis were conflated under the epithet.[24] As far as Nemi’s Diana is concerned there are two different versions, by Strabo[25] and Servius Honoratus. Strabo’s version looks to be the most authoritative as he had access to first hand primary sources on the sanctuaries of Artemis, i.e. the priest of Artemis Artemidoros of Ephesus. The meaning of  Tauropolos denotes an Asi-

CHAPTER 14. DIANA (MYTHOLOGY)

atic goddess with lunar attributes, lady of the herds. [26] The only possible  interpretatio graeca  of high antiquity concerning  Diana Nemorensis  could have been the one based upon this ancient aspect of deity of light, master of wildlife.   Tauropolos  is an ancient epithet attached to Hecate, Artemis and even Athena.[27] According to the legend Orestes founded Nemi together with Iphigenia. [28] At Cuma the Sybil is the priestess of both  Phoibos and Trivia.[29] Hesiod[30] and Stesichorus[31] tell the story according to which after her death Iphigenia was divinised under the name of Hecate, fact which would support the assumption that Artemis Tauropolos had a real ancient alliance with the heroine, who was her priestess in  Taurid and her human paragon. This religious complex is in turn supported by the triple statue of Artemis-Hecate. A coin minted by P. Accoleius Lariscolus in 43 BC has been acknowledged as representing the archaic statue of Diana Nemorensis. [32] It represents Artemis with the bow at one extremity, Luna-Selene with flowers at the other and a central deity not immediately identifiable, all united by a horizontal bar. The iconographical analysis allows the dating of this image to the 6th century at which time there are Etruscan models. Two heads found in the sanctuary [33] and the Roman theatre at Nemi, [34] which have a hollow on their back, lend support to this interpretation of an archaic Diana Trivia, in whom three different elements are associated. The presence of a Hellenised Diana at Nemi should be related to the presence of the cult in Campania, as Diana  Tifatina was appelled  Trivia in an imperial age inscription which mentions a  flamen Virbialis  dedicated by  eques  C. Octavius Verus. [35] Cuma too had a cult of a chthonic Hecate and certainly had strict contacts with Latium.[36] The theological complex present in Diana looks very elaborated and certainly Hellenic, while an analogous Latin concept of Diana Trivia seems uncertain, as Latin sources reflect a Hellenised character of the goddess. [37] Though some Roman patrons ordered marble replicas of the specifically Anatolian “Diana” of Ephesus, where the Temple of Artemis stood, Diana was usually depicted for educated Romans in her Greek guise. If she is accompanied by a deer, as in the  Diana of Versailles  (illustration, above right ) this is because Diana was the patroness of hunting. The deer may also offer a covert reference to the myth of Acteon (or Actaeon), who saw her bathing naked. Diana transformed Acteon into a stag and set his own hunting dogs to kill him. Worship of Diana is mentioned in the  Bible. In Acts of the Apostles, Ephesian metal smiths who felt threatened by Saint Paul’s preaching of Christianity, jealously rioted in her defense, shouting “ Great is Diana of the Ephesians!” (Acts 19:28, New English Bible). After the city secretary (γραμματεύς) quieted thecrowd, he said, “ Men of Ephesus, what person is there who does not know that  the city of the Ephesians is the keeper (guardian) of the temple of the great Diana and of her image that fell from

59

14.6. LEGACY  heaven ? " (Acts 19:36)

14.5 Sanctuaries See also: Diana Nemorensis Diana was an ancient goddess common to all Latin tribes. Therefore many sanctuaries were dedicated to her in the lands inhabited by Latins. The first one is supposed to havebeennear AlbaLonga before the townwasdestroyed by the Romans. The Arician wood sanctuary near the lake of Nemi was Latin confederal as testified by the dedicatory epigraph quoted by Cato. [38] She had a shrine in Rome on the Aventine hill, according to tradition dedicated by king Servius Tullius. Its location is remarkable as the Aventine is situated outside the pomerium, i.e. original territory of the city, in order to comply with the tradition that Diana was a goddess common to all Latins and not exclusively of the Romans. Other sanctuaries we know about are listed below: •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Diana   (1892 - 93),   Augustus Saint-Gaudens. Metropolitan Museum of Art  , New York City.

Bronze,

  Colle di Corne near   Tusculum.[39] where she is referred to with the archaic Latin name of deva Cornisca  and where existed a  collegium of Wicca worshippers. [40] Today there is a branch of Wicca named for her, which At Évora, Portugal.[41] is characterized by an exclusive focus on the feminine aspect of the Divine. [47] Diana’s name is also used as the Mount Algidus, also near Tusculum.[42] third divine name in a Wiccan energy chant- “Isis Astarte Diana Hecate Demeter Kali Inanna”. [48] At Lavinium.[43] At Tibur (Tivoli), where she is referred to as  Diana Opifera Nemorensis .[44] Stregheria A sacred wood mentioned by Livy [45] ad compitum In Italy the old religion of Stregheria embraced the godAnagninum (near Anagni). dess Diana as Queen of the Witches; witches being the wise women healers of the time. Diana was said to have  On Mount Tifata, near Capua in Campania.[46] created the world of her own being having in herself the seeds of all creation yet to come. It was said that out of In Ephesus, where she was worshipped as Diana of herself she divided the darkness and the light, keeping for Ephesus and the temple Artemision used to be one herself the darkness of creation and creating her brother of world’s seven wonders. Apollo, the light. Diana was believed to have loved and ruled with her brother Apollo, the god of the Sun. [49]

14.6 Legacy 14.6.1 In religion

14.6.2 In language

Both the   Romanian   words for "fairy"   Zânǎ[50] and Diana’s cult has been related in  Early Modern Europe Sânzianǎ, the Leonese and Portuguese word for “water to the cult of Nicevenn (a.k.a. Dame Habond, Perchta, nymph” xana, and the Spanish word for “shooting target” Herodiana, etc.). She was related to myths of a female and "morning call" (diana) seem to come from the name Wild Hunt. of Diana.

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CHAPTER 14. DIANA (MYTHOLOGY)

14.6.3 In the arts

•

•

•

•

Diana Reposing by Paul-Jacques-Aimé Baudry. The nude goddess, identified by the crescent moon in her hair and the bow and  quiver  at her side, reclines on a blue drapery. •

 In the sonnet “To Science” by  Edgar Allan Poe, science is said to have “dragged Diana from her car”. Diana Soren, the main character in Carlos Fuentes' novel  Diana o la cazadora soltera  ( Diana, or The Lone Huntress), is described as having the same personality as the goddess.   In “Castaway” by  Augusta Webster, women who claim they are virtuous despite never having been tempted are referred to as “Dianas.” (Line 128) In Jonathan Swift’s poem: “The Progress of Beauty”, as goddess of the moon, Diana is used in comparison to the 17th/early 18th century everyday woman Swift satirically writes about. Starts: 'When first Diana leaves her bed...'  In Geoffrey of Monmouth’s  Historia Regum Britanniae (“History of the Kings of Britain”), Diana leads the Trojan Brutus to Britain, where he and his people settle.

In Shakespeare •

•

•

A chariot clock  depicting the goddess. France, c. 1796.

Since the Renaissance the myth of Diana has often been represented in the visual and dramatic arts, including the opera L'arbore di Diana. In the 16th century, Diana’s image figured prominently at the châteaus of  Fontainebleau, Chenonceau, & a t Anet, in deference to Diane de Poitiers, mistress of Henri of France. At Versailles she was incorporated into the Olympian iconography with which Louis XIV, the Apollo-like “Sun King” liked to surround himself. Diana is also a character in the 1876  Léo Delibes ballet Sylvia. The plot deals with Sylvia, one of Diana’s nymphs and sworn to chastity, and Diana’s assault on Sylvia’s affections for the shepherd Amyntas. In literature •

•

In "The Knight’s Tale" in Geoffrey Chaucer's  The Canterbury Tales, Emily prays to Diana to be spared from marriage to either Palamon or Arcite. In “Ode” by John Keats, he writes 'Browsed by none but Dian’s fawns’ (line 12)

•

•

•

•

In Shakespeare’s  Pericles, Prince of Tyre  Diana appears to Pericles in a vision, telling him to go to her temple and tell his story to her followers. Diana is referenced in AsYouLikeIt to describe how Rosalind feels about marriage.  Diana is referred to in  Twelfth Night  when Orsino compares Viola (in the guise of Cesario) to Diana. “Diana’s lip is not more smooth and rubious” Speaking of his wife, Desdemona, Othello the Moor says, “Her name that was as fresh as Diana’s visage, is now begrim'd and black as my own face.”  There is a reference to Diana in  Much Ado About  Nothing where Hero is said to seem like 'Dian in her orb', in terms of her chastity. In  Henry IV, Part 1, Falstaff styles himself and his highway-robbing friends as “Diana’s foresters, gentlemen of the shade, minions of the moon” who are governed by their “noble and chase mistress the moon under whose countenance [they] steal”. In All’s Well That Ends Well  Diana appears as a figure in the play and Helena makes multiple allusions to her, such as, “Now, Dian, from thy altar do I fly...” and "...wish chastely and love dearly, that your Dian/was both herself and love...” The Steward also says, "...; Dian no queen of virgins,/ that would suffer her poor knight surprised, without/ rescue in the first assault or ransom afterward.” It can be assumed that 'Dian' is simply a shortening of 'Diana' since later in the play when Parolles’ letter to Diana is read aloud it reads 'Dian'. [51]

61

14.6. LEGACY  •

•

•

 The goddess is also referenced indirectly in  A Midsummer Night’s Dream. The character Hippolyta states “And then the moon, like to a silver bow new bent in Heaven”. She refers to Diana, goddess of the moon, who is often depicted with a silver hunting bow. In the same play the character Hermia is told by the Duke Theseus that she must either wed the character Demetrius “Or on Diana’s alter to protest for aye austerity and single life”. He refers to her becoming a nun, with the goddesse Diana having connotations of chastity. In The Merchant of Venice  Portia states “I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will”. (I.ii) In  Romeo and Juliet , Romeo describes Rosaline, saying that “She hath Dian’s wit”.

In painting and sculpture

Diana has been one of the most popular themes in art. Painters like Titian, Peter Paul Rubens,  François Boucher, Nicholas Poussin made use of her myth as a major theme. Most depictions of Diana in art featured the stories of Diana and Actaeon, or Callisto,or depicted her resting after hunting. Some famous work of arts with a Diana theme are : •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

 Diana and Actaeon, Diana and Callisto, and Death of Actaeon by Titian.  Diana and Callisto,  Diana Resting After Bath, and Diana Getting Out of Bath by François Boucher. Diana Bathing With Her Nymphs by Rembrandt.  Diana and Endymion  by Poussin.  Diana and Callisto, Diana and Her Nymph Departing From Hunt , Diana and Her Nymphs Surprised By A Faun by Rubens.  Diana and Endymion by Johann Michael Rottmayr.

The famous fountain at Palace of Caserta, Italy, created by Paolo Persico, Brunelli, Pietro Solari, depicting Diana being surprised by Acteon.  A sculpture by Christophe-Gabriel Allegrain can be seen at the Musée du Louvre.  “Diana of the Tower”   a copper statue by Augustus Saint-Gaudens was created as the weather vane for the second Madison Square Garden in 1893. It now is on display at the Philadelphia Museum of Art

A   sculpture   by French sculptor François-Léon Sicard in the   Archibald Fountain, Sydney NSW Australia In Parma at the convent of San Paolo, Antonio Allegri da Correggio painted the chamber of the Abbess Giovanna Piacenza’s apartment. He was commissioned in 1519 to paint the ceiling and mantel of the fireplace. On the mantel he painted an image of Diana riding in a chariot possibly pulled by a stag.

In beaux arts

Diana as the Huntress, by Giampietrino.

Beaux Arts architecture and garden design (late 19th and early 20th centuries) used classic references in a modernized form. Two of the most popular of the period were of Pomona (goddess of orchards) as a metaphor for Agriculture, and Diana, representing Commerce, which is a perpetual hunt for advantage and profits.

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CHAPTER 14. DIANA (MYTHOLOGY) •

•

•

Pomona (left, symbolizing agriculture), and Diana (symbolizing commerce) as building decoration. •

In film •

•

•

In Jean Cocteau's 1946 film  La Belle et la Bête it is Diana’s power which has transformed and imprisoned the beast.  Diana/Artemis appears at the end of the 'Pastoral Symphony' segment of  Fantasia.  In his 1968 film  La Mariée était en noir   François Truffaut plays on this mythological symbol. Julie Kohler, played by Jeanne Moreau, poses as Diana/Artemis for the artist Fergus. This choice seems fitting for Julie, a character beset by revenge, of which Fergus becomes the fourth victim. She poses with a bow and arrow, while wearing white.

•

 Diana is a character in  Hippolytus and Aricia, an opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau.

14.6.4 Other •

•

•

•

•

 In the funeral oration of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997, her brother drew an analogy between the ancient goddess of hunting and his sister - “the most hunted person of the modern age”. William Moulton Marston used the Diana myth as a basis for Wonder Woman. For the album art of progressive metal band Protest the Hero's second studio album  Fortress, Diana is depicted protected by rams and other animals. The theme of Diana is carried throughout the album. DIANA Mayer & Grammelspacher GmbH & Co.KG, an airgun company, is named after Diana, the goddess of hunting. [52]

She also is one of the main gods in the popular video game Ryse, who help Marius Titus, the main character, fulfill his duty to Rome.  The character of Diana is the principal character in the children’s novel  The Moon Stallion  by Brian Hayles (1978) and the BBC Television series of the same name Diana is played by the actress Sarah Sutton. In the manga and anime series Sailor Moon, Diana is the feline companion to Chibiusa, Usagi’s daughter. Diana is the daughter of Artemis and Luna. All of these characters are advisers to rulers of the kingdom of the moon and therefore have moonassociated names.

14.7 See also •

 Artemis

•

 Diana Nemorensis

•

 Dianic Wicca

•

 Janus

•

In opera

The character of Diana from the video game  League of Legends is largely based on the goddess.

•

Domus de Janas   Pachamama

14.8 References [1] Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia , The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215. [2] G.Dumézil  La religion Romaine archaique  Paris, 1974, part 3, chap. 1. [3] H. F. Pairault below cites three. Contrary G. Rousseau. [4] G. Dumezil  La religion Romaine archaique  Paris 1974, part 3, chap.1. [5] Mircea Eliade Traite' d'histoire des religions  Paris, 1954. [6] Ovid Fasti  III, 262-271. [7]  Titus Livius Ab Urbe Condita  1:31-1:60. [8] J. Frazer  The golden bough  1922, chaps. 1, 12, 16. [9] J.G. Frazer  Dying gods , 1912; Geza Roheim  Animism, magic and the divine king  Routledge, London, 1972, part 3, (in particular chapter “The king of May”).

The Royal Netherlands Air Force 323rd Squadron [10]  “Artemis”. Retrieved 2012-11-11. is named Diana and uses a depiction of Diana with her bow in its badge. [53] [11]  “Latin Oration”.  scribd.com.

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14.8. REFERENCES 

[12] The date coincides with the founding dates celebrated at [31]   Orestia cited by Philodemos Περι εύσεβείας 24 Gomperz Aricium. Arthur E. Gordon, “On the Origin of Diana”, II 52: fragment 38 B; Pausanias I 43, 1; II 22, 7. Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philologi[32] A. Alföldi"Diana Nemorensis” in American journal ofArcal Association 63 (1932, pp. 177-192) p 178. chaeology 64 1960 p. 137-144. [13] Her cult at Aricia was first attested in Latin literature by Cato the Elder, in a surviving quote by the late grammar- [33] Excavation of 1791 by cardinal Despuig not mentioned ian Priscian. Supposed Greek origins for the Aricia cult in the report: cf. P. Riis who cites E. Lucidi Memorie storiche dell'antichissimo municipio ora terra dell'Ariccia are strictly a literary  topos. (Gordon 1932:178 note, and e delle sue colonie Genzano e Nemi  Rome 1796 p. 97 ff. p. 181). finds at Valle Giardino . [14]  commune Latinorum Dianae templum  in  Varro,  Lingua Latina  V.43; the cult there was of  antiqua religione  in [34] NSA 1931 p. 259-261 platesVI a-b. Pliny’s Natural History, xliv. 91, 242 and Ovid’s Fasti III [35] CIL X 3795. 327-331. [15] The  Potnia Theron  aspect of Hellenic Artemis is repre- [36] Dionysius Hal. VII 6, 4: the people of Aricia help Aristsented in Capua and Signia, Greek cities of Magna Graedemos in bringing home the Etruscan booty. cia, in the 5th century BC. [37] Servius Ad Aeneidem IV 511; Ennius apud Varro  De Lin[16] Gordon 1932:179.  gua Latina VII 16; Catullus 34, 15. [17] asquotedbyDumézil La religion romaine archaique Paris, [38] Cato Origins fr. 62: “Lucum Dianum In nemore Aricino 1974,part 3, chap. 1. Egerius Baebius (some scholars prefer to read Laevius) Tusculanus dedicavit dictator Latinus. Hi populi commu[18] “Diana Nemorensis, déesse latine, déesse hellénisée” in niter: Tusculanus, Aricinus, Laurens, Coranus, Tiburtis, Mélanges d' archéologie et d'histoire  81 1969 p. 425-471. Pometius, Ardeatis, Rutulus.” [19] The historicity of this character is questioned by Dumézil [39] Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia XVI, 242. as the name Egerius looks suspect to him. [20] Livy II 14, 5-9; Dionysius Halicarnasseus V 36, 1-4.

[40] CIL, 975; CIL XIV,2633.

[21] Pliny Naturalis Historia  III 5 68-70.

[41] Hifler, Joyce. “The Goddess Diana. " Witches Of The Craft. (accessed November 27, 2012).

[22] Servius  ad Aeneidem  II 116; VI 136; Hyginus  Fabulae 261. [42] Horace, Carmina I 21, 5-6; Carmen Saeculare . [23] Ovid   Metamorphoses   XIV 331-2   Scythicae regnum [43] CIL XIV,2112. nemorale Dianae; Lucanus Pharsalia III 86 “qua sublime nemus Scythicae quaregna Dianae”. Silius Italicus Punica [44] CIL, 3537. IV 367; VIII 362; Valerius Flaccus Argonauticae II 305. [45]   Livy Ab Urbe Condita  XXVII 4. [24] Jean Bayet “Les origines de l'Arcadisme romain” p.135; M. P. Nilson   Griechische Religionsgeschichte   Munich [46] Roy Merle Peterson  The cults of Campania  Rome, Pa1955 p. 485 ff. pers and Monographs of the American Academy in Rome, 1919, pp. 322-328. [25] Strabo V 249: αφιδρύματα της ταυροπόλου. [26] Suidas s.v. :η Άρτεμις εν Ταύροις της Σκυθίας [47] Falcon River (2004) The Dianic Wiccan Tradition . From The Witches Voice. Retrieved 2007-05-23. τιμωμένη; η απόμέρους, των ποιμνίων επστάσις. η ότι η αυτη τη σελήνη εστι καί εποχειται ταύροις. Darehnberg -Saglio-Pottier Dictionnaire des antiquités  s.v. Diana [48]  “TRADITIONAL WICCA - CLASS 8”.   Blue Moon Wicca. Retrieved 17 July 2014. fig.. 2357. [27] Hesichius s.v. Tauropolai; Scholiasta ad Aristophanem [49] Charles G. Leland, Aradia: The Gospel of Witches , Theophania Publishing, US, 2010 Lysistrata 447; Suidas above; Photius  Lexicon s.v. Tuaropolos; N. Yalouris  Athena als Herrin der Pferde  in Museum Helveticum  7 1950 p. 99; E. Abel Orphica, Hymni  I [50]   Zânǎ in DEX '98 and NODEX in Hecaten 7.  Hymni magici  V in Selenen  4. [51] Cross, Wilbur L. (1993). The Yale Shakespeare: the com plete works . United States of America: Barnes & Noble. [28] Servius ad Aeneidem VI 136. pp. 365–399. ISBN 1-56619-104-1. [29]   Aeneis VI 35; F. H. Pairault p. 448 citing Jean Bayet Orig[52] “DIANA Mayer & Grammelspacher GmbH & Co.KG ines de l' Hercule romain  p. 280 n. 4. THE DIANA TRADEMARK.” COMPANY | THE DI[30] Hesiod   Catalogueedited by Augusto Traversa, Naples ANA TRADEMARK. (accessed November 27, 2012). 1951 p. 76 text 82; R. Merkelbach, M. L. West Fragmenta Hesiodea Oxonii  1967, fragment 23. [53]  “F-16 Units - RNLAF 323rd squadron”.  f-16.net .

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CHAPTER 14. DIANA (MYTHOLOGY)

14.9 Bibliography •

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A. Alföldi “Diana Nemorensis” in American Journal  of Archaeology  64 1960 p. 137-144.  A. Alföldi  Early Rome and the Latins  Ann Arbor 1964 p. 47-100. E. Paribeni “A note on Diana Nemorensis” in American Journal of Archeology  65 1961 p. 55. P. J. Riis “The Cult Image of Diana Nemorensis” in Acta Archaeologica  Kopenhagen  37 1966 p. 69 ff. J. Heurgon in Magna Graecia 1969 Jan. Feb. 1969 p. 12 ff.; March Apr. p. 1ff.  J.G. Frazer  Balder the Beautiful  II London 1913 p. 95 ff.; 302 ff.  L. Morpurgo “Nemus Aricinum” in  MonAntLincei  13 1903 c. 300 ff. A. Merlin “L'Aventin dansl'antiquité" Paris BÉFAR 97 1906.  G. Wissowa  Religion und Kultus der Römer  Munich 1912 p. 198 ff.   F. Altheim   Griechischen Götter im alten Rom Giessen 1930 p. 93-172.  A.E. Gordon “On the Origin of Diana” in  Transactions of the AMerican Philological Association  63 1932 p. 177ff.   A.E. Gordon   Local Cults in Aricia  University of California Publications in Classical Archaeology 2 1934 p. 1ff.  J. Heurgon “Recherhes sur... Capoue préromaine” in BÉFAR 154 Paris 1942 p. 307 ff.  J. Gagé “Apollon Romain” in BÉFAR 182  Paris 1955.  J. Bayet  Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine Paris 1957 p. 20 ff., 39ff.  K. Latte Römische Religionsgeschichte Munich 1960 p. 169-173.   R. Schilling “Une victime des vicissitudes politiques, la Diane latine” in  Hommages á Jean Bayet, Collection Latomus  45 Bruxelles 1960 p. 650 ff.  A. Momigliano “Sul dies natalis del santuario federale di Diana sull' Aventino” in  RAL  17  1962 p. 387 ff.  G. Dumézil  La religion romaine archaïque  Paris 1966 p. 398 ff.

14.10 External links •

 Landscape with Diana and Callisto  painting

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 Diana and her Nymphs  painting

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 The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database: ca 1150 images of Diana

Chapter 15

Summanus This article is about the Roman deity. For Brian Lum- Georges Dumézil [15] has argued that Summanus would ley’s fictional god, see Brian Lumley deities#Summanus. represent the uncanny, violent and awe-inspiring element of the gods of the  first function, connected to In ancient Roman religion, Summanus (Latin:   Summā-  heavenly sovereignty. The double aspect of heavenly sovereign power would be reflected in the dichotomy nus ) was the god of nocturnal thunder, as counterposed to Jupiter, the god of diurnal (daylight) thunder. [1] His Varuna-Mitra in Vedic religion and in Rome in the dichotomy Summanus-Dius Fidius. The first gods of these precise nature was unclear even to  Ovid.[2] pairs would incarnate the violent, nocturnal, mysterious The temple of Summanus was dedicated during the aspect of sovereignty while the second ones would reflect Pyrrhic War c. 278 BCE on June 20. [3][4] It stood at its reassuring, daylight and legalistic aspect. the west of the Circus Maximus, perhaps on the slope [16] of the Aventine. It seems the temple had been dedi- According to Martianus Capella, Summanus is ancated because the statue of the god which stood on the other name for Pluto as the “highest”  (summus)  of the roof of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus had been struck Manes. This identification is taken up by later writers realm / Severby a lightningbolt.[5] Every June 20, the day before the such as Camões (“If in Summanus’ gloomy  [17] and Milton, in summer solstice, round cakes called  summanalia, made est punishment you now endure …") a simile to describe Satan visiting Rome: “Just so Sumof flour, milk and honey and shaped as wheels, [6] were whirlwind of blue flame, offered to him as a token of propitiation: the wheel might manus, wrapped in a smoking [18] be a solar symbol. Summanus also received a sacrifice of falls upon people and cities”. two black oxen or wethers. Dark  victims were typically offered to chthonic deities.[7] Saint Augustine records that in earlier times Summanus 15.1 Summanus and Mount Sumhadbeen more exalted than Jupiter, butwith theconstrucmano tion of a temple that was more magnificent than that of Summanus, Jupiter became more honored. [8] Traditionally Mount Summano (elevation 1291 m.), loCicero recounts that theclaystatueof thegodwhich stood cated in the Alps near Vicenza (Veneto, Italy) is considon the roof of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus ered a site of the cult of god Pluto, Iupiter Summanus and was struck by a lightningbolt: its head was nowhere to be the Manes . seen. The haruspices announced that it had been hurled into the Tiber River, where indeed it was found on the The area was one of the last strongholds of ancient religion in Italy as is shown by the fact that Vicenza had no very spot indicated by them. [9] bishop until 590 CE. The temple of Summanus itself was struck by lightning Archeological excavations have found a sanctuary area in 197 BCE. [10] that dates back to the first Iron Age (9th century BCE) Pliny thought that he was of  Etruscan origin, and one and was continuously active til late antiquity (at least the of the nine gods of thunder.[11] Varro, however, lists 4th century CE). The local flora is very peculiar due to Summanus among gods he considers of Sabine origin, to the custom of ancient time pilgrims of bringing flowers whom king Titus Tatius dedicated altars  (arae) in conse- from their own native lands afar. quence of a votum.[12] Paulus Diaconus considers him a The mountain top is frequently hit by lightningbolts. The god of lightning.[13] mountain has a deep grotto (named Bocca Lorenza) in The name Summanus is thought to be from  Summus Ma- which accordingto a local legend a young shepherdessgot nium “the greatest of the Manes",[14] or sub-, “under” + lost and disappeared. The story looks to be an adaptation manus, “hand”. of the myth of Pluto and Proserpina.[19] The content of this section is adapted from the entry Monte 65

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CHAPTER 15. SUMMANUS 

Summano of WP Italian.

[17]  Os Lusíadas, IV, 33, translated as The Lusiad  by Thomas Moore Musgrave (1826).

15.2 Notes and references

[18] In the Latin poem “In Quintum Novembris” (lines 23– 24):  Talibus infestat populos Summanus et urbes / cinctus caeruleae fumanti turbine flammae.

[1] Paulus Festi epitome p.188 L 2nd.

[19] Lucio Puttin   Monte Summano: storia, arte e tradizioni  Schio, 1977. [2] “The temple is said to have been dedicated to Summanus, whoever he may be” (quisquis is est, Summano templa  feruntur ): Ovid,  Fasti   6, 731. Translation by James G. Frazer, Loeb Classical Library. Pliny mentions the temple at Natural History 29.57 (= 29.14). [3] Ovid  fasti   VI 729-731; Fasti Esquil., Venus., Amit.: ad XII Kal. Iul.; CIL I 2nd p. 211, 221,243, 320 [4] Pliny Nat. Hist.  XXIX 14; Livy Periochae XIV. For dedication year, see Orlin, Eric M., “Foreign Cults in Republican Rome: Rethinking the Pomerial Rule”,  Memoirs of  the American Academy in Rome , Vol. 47 (2002), p. 5. [5] S. Ball Platner, T. Ashby  A Topographical Dictionary of  Ancient Rome  Baltimore 1928 p. 408, citing Cicero de Div.  I 10; Livy Periochae  XIV; Iordanes I 2, 14-15; 98100 [6] Festus p.557 L [7] John Scheid, “Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors”, in  A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 264; Raffaele Pettazzoni, “The Wheel in the Ritual Symbolism of Some Indo-European Peoples,” in Essays on the History of Religions  (Brill, 1967), p. 107. [8] Augustine, City of God  IV 23 [9] Cicero De Divinatione  I 10 [10] Livy AUC  XXXII 29, 1 [11]  Natural History  2.53 (alternative numbering 52 or 138): “The Tuscan books inform us, that there are nine Gods who discharge thunder-storms, that there are eleven different kinds of them, and that three of them are darted out by Jupiter. Of these the Romans retained only two, ascribing the diurnal kind to Jupiter, and the nocturnal to Summanus; this latter kind being more rare, in consequence of the heavens being colder” (Tuscorum litterae novem deos emittere fulmina existimant, eaque esse undecim generum;  Iovem enim trina iaculari. Romani duo tantum ex iis servavere, diurna attribuentes Iovi, nocturna Summano, rariora sane eadem de causa frigidioris caeli) . English translation by John Bostock, via Perseus Digital Library. [12] Varro Lingua Latina  V 74. [13] Entry on Dium above. [14]   Summanus. [15]  Myth et epopée  vol. III part 2 chapt. 3; Mitra-Varuna:  essai sur deux representations indoeuropeennes de la souverainetè  Paris 1948 2nd; La religion romaine archaïque Paris 1974; It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 184 [16]  Martianus Capella, De nuptiis  2.164.

Chapter 16

Trivia (mythology) Trivia in   Roman mythology   was the goddess who “haunted crossroads, graveyards, and was the goddess of sorcery and witchcraft, she wandered about at night and was seen only by the barking of dogs who told of her approach.”[1] She was the equivalent of the Greek  goddess Hecate, the goddess of  witchcraft, the three-way crossroads and the harvest moon. [2] She was an underworld Titan-goddess who assisted  Jove in the Titanomachy and was therefore able to keep her powers. She was a friend of Ceres and helped her to find her daughter Proserpina. As a part of her role as an underworld goddess, she was known as the Queen of Ghosts. Although she helped Ceres to find her daughter, she was also known to steal young maidens to assist her in her powers. These women later became  nymphs.

Her association for Romans of the first century BCE with Artemis was so thorough that  Lucretius[3] identifies the altar of the goddess at the sacrifice of Iphianassa (Iphigeneia) in Aulis as  Triviai virginis aram .

16.1 References [1] Zimmerman, J E. (1964). “Trivia”.  Dictionary of Classical Mythology. New York: Harper & Row. p. 278. [2] Kravitz, David (1975). “TRIVIA”.  Who’s Who in Greek  and Roman Mythology. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, Inc. p. 231. ISBN 0-517-52746-4. [3] Lucretius, De rerum natura , i. 84,

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Chapter 17

Luna (goddess) 17.1 Cult and temples

Ox-drawn  biga  of Luna on the Parabiago plate ( ca.   2nd–5th centuries AD)

In ancient Roman religion and myth,  Luna  is the divine embodiment of the Moon (Latin  luna; cf. English “lunar”). She is often presented as the female complement of the Sun (Sol )  conceived of as a god. Luna is also sometimes represented as an aspect of the Roman triple goddess (diva triformis), along with Proserpina and Hecate.  Luna is not always a distinct goddess, but sometimes rather an epithet that specializes a goddess, since both Diana and Juno are identified as moon goddesses. [1] In Roman art, Luna’s attributes are the crescent moon and the two-yoke chariot (biga). In the  Carmen Saeculare, performed in 17 BC,  Horace invokes her as the “two-horned queen of the stars”  (siderum regina bicornis), bidding her to listen to the girls singing as  Apollo listens to the boys. [2] Varro categorized Luna and Sol among the visible gods, as distinguished from invisible gods such as  Neptune, and deified mortals such as  Hercules.[3] She was one of the deities Macrobius proposed as the secret  tutelary of Rome.[4] In Imperial cult, Sol and Luna can represent the extent of Roman rule over the world, with the aim of guaranteeing peace.[5] Luna’s Greek counterpart was Selene. In Roman art and literature, myths of Selene are adapted under the name of Luna. The myth of Endymion, for instance, was a popular subject for Roman wall painting. [6]

Varro lists Luna among twelve deities who are vital to agriculture,[7] as does Vergil in a different list of twelve, in which he refers to Luna and Sol as  clarissima mundi  lumina, the world’s clearest sources of light. [8] Varro also lists Luna among twenty principal gods of Rome  (di selecti ).[9] In this list, Luna is distinguished from both Diana and Juno, who also appear on it. The Romans dated the cultivation of Luna as a goddess at Rome to the semi-legendary  days of the kings.  Titus Tatius was supposed to have imported the cult of Luna to Rome from the Sabines,[10] but Servius Tullius was credited with the creation of her temple on the  Aventine Hill, just below a temple of Diana. [11] The anniversary of the temple founding  (dies natalis)  was celebrated annually on March 31. [12] It first appears in Roman literature in the story of how in 182 BC a windstorm of exceptional power blew off its doors, which crashed into the Temple of Ceres below it on the slope. [13] In 84 BC, it was struck by lightning, the same day the  popularist leader Cinna was murdered by his troops. [14] The Aventine temple may have been destroyed by the  Great Fire of Rome during the reign of Nero.[15] As Noctiluna (“Night-Shiner”) Luna had a temple on the Palatine Hill, which Varro described as shining or glowing by night. Nothing else is known about the temple, and it is unclear what Varro meant. [16]

17.2 Juno as moon goddess The Kalends of every month, when according to the lunar calendar the new moon occurred, was sacred to Juno, as all Ides were to Jupiter.[17] On the Nones, she was honored as Juno Covella, Juno of the crescent moon.[18] Both Juno and Diana were invoked as  childbirth goddesses with the epithet  Lucina.[19]

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17.4. SEE ALSO 

17.3 Chariot of the moon

heaven, earth, and underworld. [24]

17.4 See also •

 List of Roman deities

17.5 References [1] C.M.C. Green,  Roman Religion and the Cult of Diana at  Aricia (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 73. [2]   Horace, Carmen Saeculare , lines 33–36.

In this relief depicting a Mithraic tauroctony, Luna drives a  biga  drawn by oxen (right), while the Sun drives a horse-drawn quadriga (left)

[3] Varro, frg. 23 (Cardauns) =   Tertullian,   Ad nationes 2.2.14–2-; Attilio Mastrocinque, “Creating One’s Own Religion: Intellectual Choices,” in  A Companion to Roman Religion, p. 383. [4]  Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans , p. 133. [5] William Van Andringa, “Religion and the Integration of Cities in the Empire in the Second Century AD: The Creation of a CommonReligious Language,” in A Companion to Roman Religion  (Blackwell, 2007), p. 94. [6] Annemarie Kaufmann-Heinimann, “Religion in the House,” in A Companion to Roman Religion,  p. 188. [7]  Varro, De re rustica  1.1.4–6. [8] Vergil, Georgics 1.5–25.

Luna (top right corner) paired with the Sun (top left) in another depiction of the tauroctony Luna is often depicted driving a two-yoke chariot  (biga), drawn by horses or oxen. In Roman art, the charioteer Luna is regularly paired with the Sun driving a four-horse chariot  (quadriga). Isidore of Seville explains that the   quadriga  represents the sun’s course through the four seasons, while the  biga represents the moon, “because it travels on a twin course with the sun, or because it is visible both by day and by night—for they yoke together one black horse and one white.”[20] Luna in her biga was an element of Mithraic iconography, usually in the context of the tauroctony. In the mithraeum of S. Maria Capua Vetere, a wall painting that uniquely focuses on Luna alone shows one of the horses of the team as light in color, with the other a dark brown.[21] A biga of oxen was also driven by Hecate, the chthonic aspect of the triple goddess in complement with the “horned” or crescent-crowned  Diana and Luna.[22] The three-form Hecate ( trimorphos) was identified by Servius with Luna, Diana, and Proserpina.[23] According to the Archaic Greek poet Hesiod, Hecate originally had power over the heavens, land, and sea, not as in the later tradition

[9] Varro, as preserved by Augustine of Hippo,  De Civitate Dei  7.2. [10] Varro,  De lingua latina  5.74; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2.50.3. [11]   Orosius 5.12.3–10; De Vir. Ill.  65; Lawrence Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome  (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p. 238. [12]   Ovid, Fasti  3.883–84; Richardson, A New Topographical  Dictionary, p. 238. [13]   Livy 40.2.2; Richardson,   A New Topographical Dictionary, p. 238. [14]   Appian, Bellum Civile  1.78. [15]   Tacitus, Annales  15.41; Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary, p. 238. [16] Varro,  De lingua latina  5.68; Richardson,  A New Topo graphical Dictionary, p. 238. [17] Green, Roman Religion and the Cult of Diana,  p. 73. [18] Varro, De lingua latina  6.27. [19] Green, Roman Religion and the Cult of Diana,  p. 73. [20] Isidore,  Etymologies  18.26, as translated by Stephen A. Barney et al., The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 368 online.

70 [21] M.J. Vermaseren, Mithraica I: The Mithraeum at S. Maria Capua Vetere  (Brill, 1971), pp–15. 14; Plato, Phaedrus 246. [22]   Prudentius,  Contra Symmachum  733 (Migne); Friedrich Solmsen, “The Powers of Darkness in Prudentius’  Contra Symmachum: A Study of His Poetic Imagination,”  Vigiliae Christianae  19.4 (1965), p. 248. [23]   Servius, note to Aeneid  6.118. [24]   Hesiod, Theogony 413f.

17.6 External links Media related to Luna (mythology) at Wikimedia Commons

CHAPTER 17. LUNA (GODDESS)

Chapter 18

Leto For other uses, see  Leto (disambiguation) and Latona though Herbert Jennings Rose considers his name andna(disambiguation). ture uncertain,[13] he is in one Roman source given the name  Polus,[14] which may relate him to the sphere of In Greek mythology, Leto (/ˈliːtoʊ/; Greek: Λητώ Lētṓ ; heaven from pole to pole. The name of Leto’s mother, Λατώ,  Lātṓ  in  Dorian Greek, etymology and meaning “Phoebe” (Φοίβη — literally “pure, bright”), is identidisputed) is a daughter of the  Titans Coeus and Phoebe cal to the epithet of her son Apollo, Φοῖβος Ἀπόλλων, and the sister of Asteria.[1] The island of Kos is claimed throughout Homer. as her birthplace.[2] In the Olympian scheme, Zeus is the father of her twins, [3] Apollo and Artemis, the Letoides, which Leto conceived after her hidden beauty acciden- 18.1 Etymology tally caught the eyes of Zeus. Classical Greek myths record little about Leto other than her pregnancy and her Several explanations have been put forward to explain the search for a place where she could give birth to Apollo origin of thegoddess andthe meaning of her name. Older and Artemis, since Hera in her jealousy had caused all sources speculated that the name is related to the Greek lands to shun her. Finally, she finds an island that isn't at- λήθη lḗthē  (oblivion) and λωτός lotus (the fruit that brings tached to theocean floor so it isn't considered land andshe oblivion to those who eat it). It would thus mean “the can give birth.[4] This is her one active mythic role: once hidden one”. [15] Apollo and Artemis are grown, Leto withdraws, to remainadim[5] and benevolent matronly figure upon Olym- In 20th-century sources  Leto is traditionally derived from pus, her part already played. In Roman mythology, Leto’s Lycian  lada, “wife”, as her earliest cult was centered in equivalent is  Latona, a Latinization of her name, influ- Lycia. Lycian  lada may also be the origin of the Greek name Λήδα  Leda. Other scholars (Paul Kretschmer, enced by Etruscan Letun.[6] Erich Bethe, Pierre Chantraine and R. S. P. Beekes) have In Crete,atthecityof Dreros, Spyridon Marinatos uncov- suggested a Pre-Greek origin.[16] ered an eighth-century post-Minoan hearth house temple in which there were found three unique figures of Apollo, Artemis and Leto made of brass sheeting hammered over a shaped core ( sphyrelata ).[7] Walter Burkert notes[8] that 18.2 Birth of Artemis and Apollo in Phaistos she appears in connection with an initiation When Hera, the most conservative of goddesses — for cult. she had the most to lose in changes to the order of naLeto was identified from the fourth century onwards with ture —[17] discovered that Leto was pregnant and that the principal local mother goddess of Anatolian Lycia, as Zeus was the father, she realized that the offspring would the region became Hellenized. [9] In Greek inscriptions, cement the new order. She was powerless to stop the the Letoides are referred to as the “national gods” of the flow of events. “Latona for her intrigue with Zeus was country.[10] Her sanctuary, the Letoon near Xanthos pre- hunted by Hera over the whole earth, till she came to Dedated Hellenic influence in the region, however, [11] and los and brought forth first Artemis, by the help of whose united the Lycian confederacy of city-states. The Hel- midwifery she afterwards gave birth to Apollo.” [18] Hera lenes of Kos also claimed Leto as their own. Another banned Leto from giving birth on “terra firma”, the mainsanctuary, more recently identified, was at  Oenoanda in land, any island at sea, or any place under the sun. [19] the north of Lycia. [12] There was, of course, a further Antoninus Liberalis is not alone in hinting that Leto came Letoon at Delos. down from the land of the Hyperboreans in the guise of a Leto’s primal nature may be deduced from the natures she-wolf, or that she sought out the “wolf-country” of Lyof her father and mother, who may have been  Titans of cia, formerly called Tremilis, which she renamed to honthe sun and moon. Her Titan father is called “Coeus,” and our wolves that had befriended her [20] for her denning. Another late source, Aelian, also links Leto with wolves 71

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and Hyperboreans: Wolves are not easily delivered of their young, only after twelve days andtwelve nights, for the people of Delos maintain that this was the length of time that it took Leto to travel from the Hyperboreoi to Delos.” [21] Most accounts agree that she found the barren floating island of Delos, still bearing its archaic name of Asterios, which was neither mainland nor a real island, and gave birth there, promising the island wealth from the worshippers who would flock to the obscure birthplace of the splendid god who was to come. The island was surrounded by swans. As a gesture of gratitude, Delos was secured with four pillars and later became sacred to Apollo. It is remarkablethat Leto brought forth Artemis, theelder twin, without travail, as Callimachus wrote,[22] as if she were merely revealing another manifestation of herself. By contrast, Leto labored for nine nights and nine days for Apollo, according to the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo, in the presence of all the first among the deathless goddesses as witnesses:   Dione, Rhea, Ichnaea, Themis and the “loud-moaning” sea-goddess  Amphitrite. Only Hera kept apart, perhaps to kidnap  Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. Instead Artemis, having been born first, assisted with the birth of Apollo. Another version, in the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo and in an Orphic hymn, states that Artemis was born before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia, and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth there to Apollo.

18.4 Chthonic assailants Leto was threatened and assailed in her wanderings by chthonic monsters of the ancient earth and old ways, and these became the enemies of Apollo and Artemis. One was the giant Tityos, a phallic being who grew so vast that he split his mother’s womb and had to be carried to term by Gaia herself. He attempted to rape Leto near Delphi under the orders of Hera, but was laid low by the arrows of Apollo and/or Artemis, as Pindar recalled in a Pythian ode. Another ancient earth creature that had to be overcome was the dragon Pytho, or Python, which lived in a cleft of the mother-rock beneath Delphi and beside the  Castalian Spring. Apollo slew it but had to do penance and be cleansed afterwards, since though Python was a child of Gaia, it was necessary that the ancient  Delphic Oracle passed to the protection of the new god.

18.5 The Lycian Letoon Leto was intensely worshipped in Lycia,  Asia Minor.[24] In Delos and Athens she was worshipped primarily as an adjunct to her children.  Herodotus reported[25] a temple toherin Egypt supposedly attached to a floating island[26] called "Khemmis" in Buto, which also included a temple to an Egyptian god Greeks identified by  interpretatio  graeca as Apollo. There, Herodotus was given to understand, the goddess whom Greeks recognised as Leto was worshipped in the form of Wadjet, the cobra-headed goddess of Lower Egypt.

18.6 Leto in Crete

Leto was also worshipped in Crete, whether one of “certain Cretan goddesses, or Greek goddesses in their Cretan form, influenced by the Minoan goddess”. [27] Veneration of a local Leto is attested at  Phaistos[28] (where it is purported that she gave birth to Apollo and Artemis According to the Homeric hymn, the goddesses who as- at the islands known today as the Paximadia (also known sembled to be witnesses at the birth of Apollo were re- as Letoai in ancient Crete) and at Lato, which bore her sponding to a public occasion in the rites of a dynasty, name.[29] As Leto Phytia she was a mother-deity. where the authenticity of the child must be established beyond doubt from the first moment. The dynastic rite of the witnessed birth must have been familiar to the hymn’s hearers. [23] The dynasty that is so concerned about be- 18.7 Leto of the golden spindle ing authenticated in this myth is the new dynasty of  Zeus and the Olympian Pantheon, and the goddesses at De- Pindar calls the goddess Leto Chryselakatos,[30] an epithet los who bear witness to the rightness of the birth are the that was attached to her daughter Artemis as early as great goddesses of the old order. Demeter is not present; Homer.[31] “The conception of a goddess enthroned like her mother Rhea attends. Aphrodite is not present either. a queen and equipped with a spindle seems to have origiThegoddess Dione (in her name simply the “Goddess”) is nated in Asiatic worship of the Great Mother", O. Brensometimes taken by later mythographers as a mere fem- del notes, but a lucky survival of an inscribed inventory inine form of Zeus (see entry  Dodona): if this were so, of her temple on Delos, where she was the central figures she would not have assembled here. of the Delian trinity, records her cult image as sitting on

18.3 Witnesses at the birth of Apollo

18.10. GENEALOGY OF THE OLYMPIANS IN GREEK MYTHOLOGY 

73

a wooden throne, clothed in a linen  chiton  and a linen The Niobe narrative appears in Ovid’s  Metamorphoses (Book VI), where Latona (Leto) has demanded the himation.[32] women of Thebes to go to her temple and burn incense. Niobe, queen of Thebes, enters in the midst of the worship and insults the goddess, claiming that having beauty, 18.8 The Lycian peasants better parentage and more children than Latona, she is more fit to be worshipped than the goddess. To punish this insolence, Latona begs Apollo and Artemis to avenge her against Niobe and to uphold her honor. Obedient to their mother, the twins slay Niobe’s seven sons and seven daughters, leaving her childless, and her husband Amphion kills himself. Niobe is unable to move from grief and seemingly turns to marble, though she continues to weep, and her body is transported to a high mountain peak in her native land.

18.10 Genealogy of the Olympians in Greek mythology Latona and the Lycian Peasants , ca. 1605, by Jan Brueghel the Elder .

Leto’s introduction into Lycia was met with resistance; there, according to Ovid's Metamorphoses,[33] when Leto was wandering the earth after giving birth to Apollo and Artemis, she attempted to drink water from a pond in Lycia.[34] The peasants there refused to allow her to do so bystirring the mud at the bottom of the pond. Leto turned them into frogs for their inhospitality, forever doomed to swim in the murky waters of ponds and rivers. This scene, usually called  Latona and the Lycian Peasants or  Latona and the Frogs, was popular in Northern Mannerist art,[35] allowing a combination of mythology with landscape painting and peasant scenes, thus combining history painting and genre painting. It is represented in thecentral fountain, the Bassin de Latone,inthegarden terrace of Versailles.

18.9 Niobe Niobe, a queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven sons and seven daughters, while Leto had only two. For her hubris, Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions a number of the Niobids were spared (Chloris, usually). Amphion, at thesight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Zeus after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylus in Asia Minor and either turned to stone as she wept or killed herself. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when thegods themselves entombedthem.

18.11 Notes [1] Hesiod, Theogony 403. [2]   Herodotus 2.98; Diodorus Siculus 2.47.2. [3] Pindar consistently refers to Apollo and Artemis as twins; other sources instead give separate birthplaces for the siblings. [4]  Karl Kerenyi notes,  The Gods of the Greeks  1951:130, “His twin sister is usually already on the scene.” [5] Hesiod, Theogony 406; “dark-veiled Leto” (Orphic Hymn 35, To Leto [6] Letun noted is passing in Larissa Bonfante and Judith Swaddling,  Etruscan Myths  (series: The Legendary Past) (British Museum/University of Texas Press) 2006, p. 72. [7] Marinatos’ publications on Dreros are listed by Burkert 1985, sect. I.4 note 16 (p.365); John Boardman,  Annual  of the British School at Athens  62 (1967) p. 61; Theodora Hadzisteliou Price, “Double and Multiple Representations in Greek Art and Religious Thought”  The Journal of Hellenic Studies  91 (1971:pp. 48–69), plate III.5a-b. [8] Burkert, Greek Religion  1985. [9] The process is discussed by T. R. Bryce, “The Arrival of the Goddess Leto in Lycia”,  Historia: Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte, 321 (1983:1–13). [10] Bryce 1983:1 and note 2. [11] Bryce 1983, summarizing the archaeology of the Letoon. [12] Alan Hall, “A Sanctuary of Leto at Oenoanda” Anatolian Studies 27 (1977) pp 193–197. [13] Herbert Jennings Rose, A Handbook of Greek Mythology (1991:21).

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[14] In the surviving summary of the preface to Gaius Julius [32] O. Brendel, noting Pierre Roussel, Délos, colonie athénienne  (Paris: Boccard) 1916, p 221, in “The Corbridge Hyginus, Koios is translated literally, as  Polus: “From Polus and Phoebe: Latone, Asterie.” Lanx” The Journal of Roman Studies  31 (1941), pp. 100– 127) p 113ff; the article is a discussion of the seated fe[15] W. Smith, ed. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography male figure he identifies as Leto on the Roman silver tray and Mythology 1873, at Theoi.com (lanx ) at Alnwick Castle. [16]  R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek , Brill, [33] Ovid,   Metamorphoses, vi.317-81;   Antoninus Liberalis also relates a version of this myth. 2009, pp. 855 and 858–9. [17] See Hera.

[34] The spring Melite, according to Kerenyi 1951:131.

[18] Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke 1.4.1; Antoninus Liber- [35] Bull, Malcolm, The Mirror of the Gods, How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods, pp. 266-268, Oxford alis, Metamorphoses, 35, giving as his sources Menecrates UP, 2005, ISBN 100195219236 of Xanthos (4th century BCE) and Nicander of Colophon; Ovid, Metamorphoses vi.317-81 provides another late literary source. [19]   Hyginus, Fabulae 140). [20] Antoninus Liberalis’ etiological myth reflects Greek misunderstanding of a Greek origin for the place-name  Lycia; modern scholars now suggest a source in the "Lukka lands" of Hittite inscriptions (Bryce 1983:5). [21] Aelian,  On the Nature of Animals  4. 4 (A.F. Scholfield, tr.). [22] Artemis speaks: “my mother suffered no pain either when she gave me birth or when she carried me in her womb, but without travail put me from her body.” (Callimachus, Hymn 3, to Artemis ). [23] Greek women, at least among Athenians, gave birth in the midst of a crowd of the women of the household. [24]   Appian tells of Mithridates’ intention to cut down the sacred grove at the Letoon to serve in his siege of Patara on the Lycian coast; a nightmare warned him to desist. (Appian,  Mithridates , 27). [25] Herodotus, Histories, 2.155-56 [26] “The claim that it floated is rightly dismissed by Herodotus — it probably reflects nothing more thancontamination by Greek traditions on the floating island of Ortygia/Delos associated with Leto,” remarks Alan B. Lloyd, “The temple of Leto (Wadjet) at Buto”, in Anton Powell, ed. The Greek World  (Routledge) 1995:190. [27] D.H.F. Gray, reviewing L.R. Palmer,  Mycenaeans and  Minoans: Aegean Prehistory in the Light of the Linear B Tablets in The Classical Review , 13, 1963:87–91. [28] “the citizens of Phaistos on Crete performed sacrifices to Leto the Grafter because she had grafted male organs onto a maiden (Antoninus Liberalis 17)" notes William F. Hansen,  Handbook of Classical Mythology , 2004: “Sexchangers”, 285. [29] Noted by R.F. Willetts, “Cretan Eileithyia', The Classical  Quarterly , 1958.. [30]   Pindar, Sixth Nemean Ode , 36 [31] O. Brendel, Römische Mitt.  51  (1936), p 60ff.

18.12 External links •

•

 Theoi.com, Leto Pictures of the sanctuary for Leto at Letoum

Chapter 19

Shalim Shalim  (derived from the triconsonantal Semitic root SL-M, and also romanized as Shalem, Salem, and Salim) wasthenameofagodintheCanaanite religion pantheon, mentioned in inscriptions found in  Ugarit (Ras Shamra) in Syria.[1][2] William F. Albright identified Shalim as the god of dusk, and Shahar as god of the dawn.[3] In the Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible , Shalim is also identified as the deity representing  Venus or the “Evening Star,” and Shahar, the “Morning Star”. [1]

[3] Albright, 1990,p. 187; cf. the Akkadian word for sunset, šalām šamši . [4] van der Toorn et al., 1999, p. 222. [5] N. Na'aman, Canaanite Jerusalem and its central hill country neighbours in the second millennium B.C.E., Ugarit-Forschungen  Vol. 24 (1992), pp275-291. [6] L. Grabbe, Ethnic groups in Jerusalem, in Jerusalem in Ancient History and Tradition (Clark International, 2003) pp145-163.

19.1 Ugaritic inscriptions

[7] John Day, Yahweh and the gods and goddesses of Canaan , Sheffield Academic Press 2002, p180

A Ugaritic myth known as The Gracious and Most Beauti ful Gods, describes Shalim and his brother Shahar as offspring of El through two women he meets at the seashore. They are both nursed by “The Lady”, likely  Anat (Athirat or Asherah), and have appetites as large as "(one) lip to the earth and (one) lip to the heaven.” In other Ugaritic texts, the two are associated with the sun goddess. [1] Another inscription is a sentence repeated three times in a para-mythological text, “Let me invokethe gracious gods, the voracious gods of  ym.” Ym in most Semitic languages means “day,” and Shalim and Shahar, twin deities of the dusk and dawn, were conceived of as its beginning and end.[4] Shalim is also mentioned separately in the Ugaritic god lists andforms of his name also appear in personal names, perhaps as a divine name or epithet.[1] Many scholars believe that the name of Shalim is preserved in the name of the city  Jerusalem.[1][5][6][7] The god Shalim may have been associated with dusk and the evening star in the etymological senses of a 'completion' of the day, 'sunset' and 'peace'. [8]

[8] http://books.google.com/books?id=63BP9RPm26sC& pg=PA24&lpg=PA24&dq=god+of+peace+ugaritic+ shalim&source=bl&ots=kFmXA0htEw&sig= ovNpxhbuiBv1k4jiuSR34176GZI&hl=en&sa= X&ei=GM08UZ-hM42Q7Aa0rIC4Aw&ved= 0CE0Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=god%20of% 20peace%20ugaritic%20shalim&f=false

19.3 Bibliography •

•

•

19.2 References [1] van der Toorn et al., 1999, pp. 755-6

 Albright, William Foxwell (1968 / 1990).   Yahweh and the gods of Canaan: a historical analysis of two contrasting faiths (Reprint ed.). Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-0-931464-01-0. Check date values in: |date= (help)  Golan, Ariel (2003).   Prehistoric religion: mythology, symbolism. Ariel Golan (Original from theUniversity of Virginia. ISBN 978-965-90555-0-0.  van der Toorn, K.; Becking, Bob; van der Horst, Pieter Willem (1999). Dictionary of deities and  demons in the Bible DDD   (2nd, revised ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 9780802824912.

19.4 Other uses

[2] Golan, 2003, p. 82. “The name of the Canaanite deity of the setting sun Salim, or Salem, [...] The names [of Sahar and Salim] are rendered in modern scholarly texts Shalem isalsothenameofthe 4-D cinematic presentation at the Jerusalem Time Elevator in Jerusalem, Israel. as Shakhar and Shalim [...]"

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CHAPTER 19. SHALIM 

19.5 See also •

 Almaqah

•

  Wadd

•

 Shahar

Chapter 20

Al-Qaum ) was the  Nabataean god of war Al-Qaum (Arabic: and the night, and guardian of  caravans.[1] Large numbers of inscriptions bearing his name have been found, and archaeologists believe that he was a major god of the Nabataean pantheon.,[1] Al-Qaum however also literally translates to 'the people' in formal Arabic, it might just be referring to a group of people at the time as an entity.

20.1 In Popular Culture A black metal band in Saudi Arabia, Al-Namrood, uses this pantheon as inspiration for its music. [2]

20.2 References [1]  “NABATAEAN PANTHEON”. Retrieved 31 January 2013. [2] Phillips, Alex (October 11, 2012).   “AL-NAMROOD Heavy Metal Underground”. Retrieved 31 January 2013.

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Chapter 21

Lords of the Night Further information: List of Aztec deities names are glossed in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis and See also: Lords of the Day Codex Tudela. Seler argued that the 9 lords each correIn Mesoamerican mythology  the  Lords of the Night sponded to one of the nine levels of the under world and ruled the corresponding hour of the night time, this argument has not generally been accepted, since the evidence suggests that thelord of a given night ruled over that entire night.[5] Zelia Nuttall argued that the Nine Lords of the Night represented the nine moons of the  Lunar year.[6] The cycle of the Nine Lords of the Night held special relation to the Mesoamerican ritual calendar  of 260-days and nights or -night which includes exactly 29 groups of 9 nights each, and also, approximately, 9 vague lunations of 29 days each. The Nine Lords of the Night in Aztec mythology are: [5] Xiuhtecuhtli (“Turqoise/Year/Fire Lord”) Itztli/Tecpatl (“Obsidian"/"Flint”) Piltzintecuhtli (“Prince Lord”) Centeotl (“Maize God”) Mictlantecuhtli (“Underworld Lord”) Chalchiuhtlicue (“Jade Is Her Skirt”) Tlazolteotl (“Filth God[dess]") Tepeyollotl (“Mountain Heart”) Tlaloc (Rain God)

Lords of the Night in Codex Borgia (1a) Tlaloc, (1b) Tepeyollotl, (1c) Tlazolteotl, (2a)Centeotl, (2b) Mictlantecuhtli, (2c) Chalchiuhtlicue, (3a) Piltzintecuhtli, (3b) Itztli, (3c) Xiuhtecuhtli. The actual reading order of the panels is  boustrophedon and begins in the bottom right: 3c, 3b, 3a, 2a, 2b, 2c, 1c, 1b, 1a.

are a set of nine  gods who each ruled over every ninth night forming a calendrical cycle. Each lord was associated with a particular fortune, bad or good, that was an omen for the night that they ruled over. [1] The lords of the night are known in both the  Aztec and Maya calendar, although the specific names of the Maya Night Lords are unknown. [2] The glyphs corresponding to the night gods are known and mayanists identify them with labels G1 to G9, the G series. Generally, these glyphs are frequently used with a fixed glyph coined F. The only Mayan light lord that has been identified is the God G9,Pauahtun the Aged Quadripartite God.[3][4] The existence of a 9 nights cycle in Mesoamerican calendrics was first discovered in 1904 by  Eduard Seler. The Aztec names of the Deities are known because their

21.1 Sources [1] Anthony F. Aveni. 2001. Skywatchers: A Revised and Updated Version of Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico. University of Texas Press. pp. 156-57 [2] Gabrielle Vail, Christine L. Hernández. 2010. Astronomers, Scribes, and Priests: Intellectual Interchange Between the Northern Maya Lowlands and Highland Mexico in the Late Postclassic Period. Harvard University Press p. 291 [3] Lynn V. Foster. 2005. Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World. Oxford University Press. p. 259 [4] http://www.pauahtun.org/Calendar/gglyph.html   Night Gods discussion in Pauahtun

78

21.1. SOURCES  [5] Elizabeth HillBoone. 2007. Cycles of Time and Meaning in the Mexican Books of Fate. University of Texas Press pp. 44-45 [6] Zelia Nuttall. 1904. The Periodical Adjustments of the Ancient Mexican Calendar. American Anthropologist , New Series, Vol. 6, No. 4 pp. 486-500

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Chapter 22

Itzpapalotl For the Aztec ruler, see Acamapichtli. dle.”) She could appear in the form of a beautiful, seduc        In Aztec mythology,  Ītzpāpālōtl /iːt͡spaːˈpaːlot͡ɬ/ (“Ob- tive woman or terrible goddess with a skeletal head and butterfly wings supplied with stone blades. Although the identity remains inconclusive, the Zapotec deity named Goddess 2J by Alfonso Caso and Ignacio Bernal may be a Classic Zapotec form of Itzpapalotl. In many instances Goddess 2J, whose image is found on ceramic urns, is identified with bats. “In folklore, bats are sometimes called “black butterflies"". [4]

22.2 Ritual

Depiction of Itzpapalotl from the Codex Borgia.

sidian Butterfly”) was a fearsome skeletal warrior goddess who ruled over the paradise world of  Tamoanchan, the paradise of victims of infant mortality and the place identified as where humans were created. [1] She is the mother of Mixcoatl and is particularly associated with the  moth Rothschildia orizaba  from the family Saturniidae. Some of her associations include birds and fire. [2] Her nagual was a deer.

22.1 Iconography Itzpapalotl’s name can either mean “obsidian butterfly” or “clawed butterfly”, the latter meaning seems most likely. It’s quite possible that clawed butterfly refers to the bat and in some instances Itzpapalotl is depicted with bat wings. However, she can also appear with clear butterfly or eagle attributes. Her wings are obsidian or  tecpatl (flint) knife tipped. [3] (In the  Manuscript of 1558 , Itzpapalotl is described as having “blossomed into the white flint, and they took the white and wrapped it in a bun-

Itzpapalotl is the patron of the day and associated with the stars Cozcuauhtli and Trecena 1 House in the Aztec calendar. The Trecena 1 House is one of the five western trecena dates dedicated to the cihuateteo, or women who had died in childbirth. Not only was Itzpapalotl considered one of the cihuateteo herself, but she was also one of the tzitzimime, star demons that threatened to devour people during solar eclipses.[3] As the legend goes, Itzpapalotl fell from heaven along with   Tzitzimime   and several other shapes such as scorpions and toads. Itzpapalotl wore an invisible cloak so that no one could see her. At some times, she was said to have dressed up like a lady of the Mexican Court, caking her face with white powder and lining her cheeks with strips of rubber. Her fingers tapered into the claws of a jaguar, and her toes into eagle’s claws.

22.3 Mythology According to the  Manuscript of 1558 , section VII, Itzpapalotl was one of two divine 2-headed doe-deers (the other one being  Chimalman) who temporarily transformed themselves into women in order to seduce men. Itzpapalotl approached the two “cloud serpents named Xiuhnel   /ˈʃiwnel/   and Mimich  /ˈmimit  ͡ʃ/", who transformed themselves into men (so as to disguise themselves when all the others of the Centzonmimixcoa had been slain in the ambush?). To Xiuhnel, Itzpapalotl said ""Drink, Xiuhnel.” Xiuhnel drank the blood and then im80

81

22.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 

mediately lay down with her. Suddenly she ... devoured him, tore open his breast. ... Then Mimich ... ran and ... descended into a thorny barrel cactus, fell into it, and the woman fell down after him.” [5]

& Hudson.  ISBN 0-500-05068-6. OCLC 27667317. Invalid |namelist-format=scap (help) Read, Kay Almere; Jason J González (2002). Handbook of  Mesoamerican Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and  Beliefs of Mexico and Central  America. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.   ISBN 0-19-514909-2. OCLC 77857686. Invalid |name-list-format=scap (help) Sahagún, Bernardino de   (1997) [ca.1558–61].   Primeros Memoriales. Civilization of the American Indians series vol. 200, part 2. Thelma D. Sullivan (English trans. and paleography of Nahuatl text), with H.B. Nicholson, Arthur J.O. Anderson, Charles E. Dibble, Eloise Quiñones Keber, and Wayne Ruwet (completion, revisions, and ed.). Norman:  University of Oklahoma Press.   ISBN 978-0-80612909-9. OCLC 35848992. Invalid |name-list-format=scap (help)

22.4 Popular culture In Laurel K. Hamilton’s Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter  series, the ninth book is named  Obsidian Butterfly  and involves a vampire named Itzpapalotl, who was once an Aztec priestess andbelieves herself actuallyto be thegoddess of that name. She also runs a nightclub named Obsidian Butterfly.

22.5 See also •

Aztec mythology in popular culture

•

Black Sun (mythology)

•

 Cihuateteo

•

  Cihuacoatl

•

 Tzitzimime

•

  Mixcoatl

•

  Tamoanchan

•

 Woman warrior

•

 List of women warriors in folklore

22.6 Notes [1]  Itzpapalotl, the Obsidian or Clawed Butterfly [2]  Itzpapalotl: Itzpapalotl, Goddess of Fire and Birds in Aztec Religion, Mythology [3] Miller & Taube, p. 100 [4] Elizabeth Benson : “The Maya and the Bat”, p. 113. In :LATIN AMERICAN INDIAN LITERATURES JOURNAL , vol 4 (1988). Citing :- Elsie Clews Parsons :  Mitla. U of Chicago Pr, 1936. p. 318 [5] Miguel León-Portilla & Earl Shorris :  In the Language of  Kings. Norton & Co., NY, 2001. p. 61

22.7 References Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London:   Thames

22.8 External links •

An image of Rothschildia orizaba

Chapter 23

Metztli In Aztec mythology,  Metztli  (also  Meztli,  Metzi) was a god or goddess of the  moon, the night, and farmers. He/she was probably the same deity as  Yohaulticetl and Coyolxauhqui and the male moon god Tecciztecatl; like the latter, he/she feared the sun because he/she feared its fire. Also referred to as thelowly godof wormswho failed to sacrifice himself to become the sun, and became the moon instead, his face darkened by a rabbit.

•

23.5 References •

23.1 Otomi mythology

•

For the Otomi people, Zäna was the Moon, the Queen of the Night, probably the main deity. They called her the Old Mother, who represented both Moon and Earth simultaneously. Her spouse, the Old Father, was the god of fire. The Otomi counted lunar months as a period from new moon to new moon. They were giving every month 30 days.

23.2 Mexican traces The origin of the name of the   Mexica   probably derived from Metztli. For more detailed explanation see Toponymy of Mexico.

23.3 Legend The Moon and Sun were at one time equally bright. It not being appropriate for gods to be equals, one of them threw a rabbit in the face of the other, and the one struck darkened to become today’s moon. Henceforth it’s possible to distinguish a figure of a rabbit on the moon’s surface. During a full moon, the “Rabbit in the Moon” becomes readily visible.

23.4 See also •

•

  Tecciztecatl

Black Sun (mythology)  Mextli 82

  Galindo Trejo, Jesús (1994).   Arqueoastronomía en la américa antigua . México: Equipo Sirius, S.A.   ISBN 84-86639-66-2. Invalid |name-listformat=scap (help)  Esperanza Carrasco Licea & Alberto Carramiñana Alonso, “Metztli, La Luna”, Diario Síntesis, 28 de Mayo de 1996

Chapter 24

Tezcatlipoca For other uses, see Tezcatlipoca (disambiguation). bone—an allusion to the creation myth in which he loses Tezcatlipoca (/ˌtɛzˌkætliˈpoʊkə/;   Classical Nahuatl: his foot battling with the Earth Monster. Sometimes the mirror was shown on his chest, and sometimes smoke would emanate from the mirror. Tezcatlipoca’s nagual, his animal counterpart, was the  jaguar and his jaguar aspect was the deity  Tepeyollotl (“Mountainheart”). In the Aztec ritual calendar the Tonalpohualli Tezcatlipoca ruled the trecena 1 Ocelotl  (“1 Jaguar”)—he was also patron of the days with the name  Acatl  (“reed”).[8] The Tezcatlipoca figure goes back to earlier Mesoamerican deities worshipped by the Olmec and Maya. Similarities exist with the patron deity of the K'iche' Maya as described in the Popol Vuh. A central figure of the Popol Vuh was the god Tohil whose name means “obsidian” and who was associated with sacrifice. Also the Classic Maya god of rulership and thunder known to modern Mayanists Tezcatlipoca as depicted in the Codex Borgia. as "God K", or the “Manikin Scepter” and to the classic Maya as  K'awil  was depicted with a smoking obsidian [1] Tezcatlipōca  pronounced /teskatɬiˈpoːka/ ) was a central knife in his forehead and one leg replaced with a snake. [9] deity in Aztec religion, and his main festival was the Toxcatl ceremony celebrated in the month of May. One of the four sons of  Ometeotl, he is associated with a of Tezwide range of concepts, including the night sky, the night 24.1 Representations winds, hurricanes, the north, the earth, obsidian, enmity, catlipoca discord, rulership, divination, temptation,  jaguars, sorcery, beauty, war and strife. His name in the Nahuatl language is often translated as “Smoking Mirror” [2] and There are few surviving representations of Tezcatlipoca alludes to his connection to obsidian, the material from into the present day. Due to the lack of surviving images, which mirrors were made in  Mesoamerica which were some have chosen to describe Tezcatlipoca as the 'invisiused for shamanic rituals and prophecy. [3] Another talis- ble god'.[10] However, the fact that many images are difman related to Tezcatlipoca was a disc worn as a chest ficult to identify as one god or another does not mean that pectoral. This talisman was carved out of abalone shell no generalizations can be made about Tezcatlipoca’s apanddepicted on thechest of both Huitzilopochtli andTez- pearance. The color black is stronglyassociated withTezcatlipoca and he is often portrayed as having horizontal catlipoca in codex illustrations.[4][5] bands across his face especially in black and yellow, but He had many epithets which alluded to different aspects the many different codices vary on which two colors from of his deity:   Titlacauan  (“We are his Slaves”),  Ipal- site to site.[11] There are also portrayals of his body also nemoani (“He by whom we live”), Necoc Yaotl (“Enemy being black in certain places. Depending on the site half of Both Sides”),  Tloque Nahuaque (“Lord of the Near of his leg, the full length of his arms, the majority of his and the Nigh”) and  Yohualli Èhecatl  (“Night, Wind”), legs, or any combination there of can be depicted. Most Ome Acatl[6] (“Two Reed”),   Ilhuicahua Tlalticpaque commonly he is shown with horizontal face bands, wear(“Possessor of the Sky and Earth”). [7] ing a heron feather headdress, a loincloth, and knotted When depicted he was usually drawn with a black and a sandals with an armband, and tinker bells either around yellow stripe painted across his face. He is often shown his neck or ankles. [12] Tezcatlipoca is often shown carwith his right foot replaced with an obsidian mirror or a rying a shield with balls of either feathers or cotton and 83

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CHAPTER 24. TEZCATLIPOCA

holding arrows or a spear in his right hand with a fan of feathers surrounding a mirror. [13]

24.2 Temples to Tezcatlipoca Many of the temples now associated with Tezcatlipoca are built facing East-West, as Olivier quotes Felipe Solis: “the sacred building of the war god [Tezcatlipoca] was in direct relation with the movement of the sun, in the same manner of the Great Temple was, their façades being towards the West”. [14] There are also several reference to momoztli. Although the exact definition of the momoztli is unknown, with definitions varying from “mound”, “stone seat” and “temple”, there is an overall consensus that it is a general holy place to worship the gods, specifically mentioned as “his [Tezcatlipoca’s] viewing place”.[15]

Tezcatlipoca depicted in the codex Rios in the aspect of a Jaguar —in this form he was called  Tepeyollotl .

24.3 Priests of Tezcatlipoca The priests of Tezcatlipoca often wore the ornaments of the god and wore specific garments for different rituals. Common ornaments were white turkey feather headdresses, a paper loincloth, and a tzanatl stick with similar feathers and paper decorations.[16] Another common practice was to cover themselves in black soot or ground charcoal while they were involved in priestly activities at the temple or during rituals.[17] They would also cover the sick and newly appointed king in a similar manner with a black ointment to encourage an association with the god.[18] When the ritual called for it, priests would also dress up as Tezcatlipoca himself and accompany other similarly outfitted gods or goddesses. [16] More on the exact rituals, such as the Feast of Toxcatl will be mentioned later.

24.4 Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl Tezcatlipoca was often described as a rival of another important god of the Aztecs, the culture hero, Quetzalcoatl. In one version of the Aztec creation account [19] the myth ofthe Five Suns, the first creation, “The Sun of the Earth” was ruled by Tezcatlipoca but destroyed by Quetzalcoatl when he struck down Tezcatlipoca who then transformed into a jaguar. Quetzalcoatl became the ruler of the subsequent creation “Sun of Water”, and Tezcatlipoca destroyed the third creation “The Sun of Wind” by striking down Quetzalcoatl. In later myths, the four gods who created the world, Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl, Huitzilopochtli and Xipe Totec were referred to respectively as the Black, the White, the Blue and the Red Tezcatlipoca. The four Tezcatlipocas were the sons of Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl, lady and

lord of the duality, and were the creators of all the other gods, as well as the world and all humanity. The rivalry between Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca is also recounted in thelegends of Tollan where Tezcatlipoca deceives Quetzalcoatl who was the ruler of the legendary city and forces him into exile. But it is interesting to note that Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca both collaborated in the creation of the different creations and that both of them were seen as instrumental in the creation of life. Karl Taube and Mary Miller, specialists in Mesoamerican Studies, write that, “More than anything Tezcatlipoca appears to be the embodiment of change through conflict.”[8] Tezcatlipoca appears on thefirst page of the Codex Borgia  carrying the 20 day signs of the calendar; in the Codex Cospi he is shown as a spirit of darkness, as well as in the  Codex Laud and the Dresden Codex. His cult was associated with royalty, and was the subject of the most lengthy and reverent prayers in the rites of kingship, as well as being mentioned frequently in coronation speeches. The temple of Tezcatlipoca was in the Great Precinct of Tenochtitlan.

24.5 Aztec religion The Main temple of Tezcatlipoca in   Tenochtitlan was located south of the Great Temple. According to Fray Diego Durán it was “lofty and magnificently built. Eighty steps led to a landing twelve or fourteen feet wide. Beyond it stood a wide, long chamber the size of a great hall...”.[20] There were several smaller temples dedicated to Tezcatlipoca in the city, among them the ones called “Tlacochcalco” and “Huitznahuatl”. Tezcatlipoca was also worshipped in many other Nahua cities such as Texcoco, Tlaxcala and Chalco. Each temple had a statue

24.7. AZTEC REVERENCE 

of the god for which copal incense was burned four times a day. There were several priests dedicated to the service of Tezcatlipoca, one of them was probably the one Sahagún calls "huitznahuac teohua omacatl ", others were the  calmeca teteuctin  who were allowed to eat the ritual food offered to Tezcatlipoca, others accompanied the Ixiptlatli impersonator of Tezcatlipoca in the year prior to his execution. Honoring Tezcatlipoca was fundamental to both the priesthood and the nobility. “On his installation,” the new king fasted and meditated, “which included prayers in honor of Tezcatlipoca, the patron deity of the royal house”. [21] Tezcatlipocas priests were offered into his service by their parents as children, often because they were sick. These children would then have their skin painted black and be adorned with quail feathers in the image of the god. [22] Tezcatlipoca’s main feast was during  Toxcatl, the fifth monthofthe Azteccalendar.[23] The preparations began a year earlier, when a young man was chosen by the priests, to be the likeness of Tezcatlipoca. For the next year he lived like a god, wearing expensive jewellery and having eight attendants. [24] “For one year he lived a life of honor,” the hansome young man “worshipped literally as the embodiment of the deity”  [24] He would marry four young women, and spent his last week singing, feasting and dancing. During the feast where he was worshipped as the deity he personified he climbed the stairs to the top of the temple on his own where the priests seized him, a time in which he proceeded to symbolically crush “one by one the clay flutes on which he had played in his brief moment of glory,” and then was sacrificed, his body being eaten later. [24] Immediately after he died a new victim for the next year’s ceremony was chosen. Tezcatlipoca was also honoured during the ceremony of the 9th month, when the  Miccailhuitontli  “Little Feast of the Dead” was celebrated to honour the dead, as well as during the Panquetzaliztli  “Raising of Banners” ceremony in the 15th month.

85

Turquoise mask representing the god Tezcatlipoca, from the British Museum.

a jaguar and destroyed the world. Quetzalcoatl replaced him and started the second age of the world and it became populated again. [25] Tezcatlipoca overthrew Quetzalcoatl making him send a great wind that devastated the world, and the people who survived were turned into monkeys.   Tlaloc, the god of rain, became the sun. But hadhiswife taken away byTezcatlipoca. He did not make it rain for several years until, in a fit of rage, made it rain fire with what people survived turning into birds. [25] Chalchihuitlicue the Water Goddess became the sun. But was crushed with Tezcatlipoca’s words saying that she is 24.6 Mythical stories just pretending to be kind. She cried for many years and In one of theAztec accounts of creation, Quetzalcoatl and world was destroyed by[25]floods, with what people survived Tezcatlipoca joined forces to create the world. Before being turned into fish. their act there was only the sea and the crocodilian earthmonster called Cipactli.[25] To attract her, Tezcatlipoca used his foot as bait, and Cipactli ate it. [25] The two gods 24.7 Aztec Reverence then capturedher, anddistorted her to make theland from her body. After that, they created the people, and peo- As discussed above, Aztec folklore is rife with parple had to offer sacrifices to comfort Cipactli for her suf- allels, much of the time depicted in deities such as ferings. Because of this, Tezcatlipoca is depicted with a Tezcatlipoca. [25] For Aztec nobility, this “patron deity” missing foot.[25] is fundamental in the social and natural phenomena jusAnother story of creation goes that Tezcatlipoca turned tified by religion during this time. [21] Extreme reverence himself into the sun, but Quetzalcoatl was furious possi- and respect, characterized by ceremonial proceedings in bly because they are enemies, he is a night god or of his which priests were “to pay homage” to Tezcatlipoca, or missing foot, so he knocked Tezcatlipoca out of the sky where “citizens waited expectantly” for ceremonial prowith a stone club. [25] Angered, Tezcatlipoca turned into ceedings to start under the low hum of “shell trumpets,”

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CHAPTER 24. TEZCATLIPOCA

were commonplace, especially for this deity. [21] Utter respect from the highest position of Aztec nobility, the king, shown through the figurative and literal nakedness of his presence in front of Texcatlipoca. [21] The king would stand “naked, emphasizing his utter unworthiness,” speaking as nothing but a vessel for the god’s will. [21] The new king would claim his spiritual nakedness symbolically through words and physical vulnerability, praising Tezcatlipoca with lines such as: “O master, O our lord, O lord of the near, of the nigh, O night, O wind...Poor am I. In what manner shall I act for thy city? In what manner shall I act for the governed, for the vassals (macehualtin)? For I am blind, I am deaf, I am an imbecile, and in excrement, in filth hath my lifetime been... Perhaps thou mistaketh me for another; perhaps thou seekest another in my stead”. [21] For kings, lords, priests, and citizens alike, the cyclical nature they observed every day and every year was portrayed not through science or philosophical debate, but utter reverence and respect for the spiritual beings they believed were the cause of these events. It was gods like Tezcatlipoca that solidified this notion, representing both the silent wind, and thunderous war. [25]

24.8 See also

[9]  Jun Raqan “the one-legged” was an epithet of this Classic Maya Deity of rulership and thunder which eventually led to the English word “Hurricane”. [10] Olivier 2003 p. 48 [11] Olivier 2003 p. 52 [12] Olivier 2003 pp. 54-55 [13] Olivier 2003 p. 51 [14] Olivier 2003 p. 167 [15] Olivier 2003 p. 174 [16] Olivier 2003 p. 183 [17] Olivier 2003 p. 185 [18] Olivier 2003 p. 183, 186 [19] The Version as it is recounted in the Codex Ramirez— also called “Historia de Los mexicanos por sus Pinturas”. Full text of this Codex in English translation can be found at FAMSI [20] Durán quoted from Olivier (2003) p. 166 [21] Coe and Koontz, p.201 [22] http://www.trinity.edu/org/tricksters/trixway/current/ Vol%201/Vol%201_1/Tstocker.html

•

 Quetzalcoatl

[23] For an in depth description and interpretation of the Toxcatl festival see Olivier (2003) Chapter 6.

•

 List of night deities

[24] Coe and Koontz, p. 212 [25] Olivier 2003, Tezcatlipoca stories

24.9 Notes [1] The vowel transliterated here as [i] may in fact have been long or followed by a glottal stop which is sometimes written as an ⟨h⟩ [2] For a discussion of the many interpretations of the meaning of the name Tezcatlipoca see Olivier (2003) pp. 1415.

24.10 References •

•

[3]   http://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/artefacts/  smoking-mirrors'' . Missing or empty |title= (help);  •

[4]   http://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/artefacts/   personified-knives'' . Missing or empty |title= (help); 

 Coe, Michael D.; Koontz, Rex (2008).   Mexico:  From the Olmecs to the Aztecs  (Sixth ed.). Thames & Hudson Ltd, London. ISBN 978-0-500-28755-2.   Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993).   The Gods and  Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya . London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05068-6.  Olivier, Guilhem (2003).  Mockeries and Metamor phoses of an Aztec God: Tezcatlipoca, “Lord of the Smoking Mirror” . translated by Michel Besson. University Press of Colorado. ISBN 0-87081-745-0.

[5]   http://5oymexico.org/  arqueologos-del-inah-descubren-vasija-en-forma-de-tlaloc-y-cuchillos-en-ofrenda-del-templo-mayor/  ?lang=en'' . Missing or empty |title= (help);  [6] This name which is derivedfrom hisbirthdate in the Aztec “2 Reed” which is the first date in the Aztec year is sometimes also spelled Omecatl [7] For a summary of Tezcatlipocas epithets and their siginificance see Olivier (2003) Chapter 1. [8] Taube & Miller 1993 p. 164

24.11 External links •

 Mexicolore - Tezcatlipoca Symposium

Chapter 25

Yohaulticetl In   Aztec mythology,   Yohualticetl, the “Lady of the Night”, was a moon goddess and guardian of infants. She may have been the same as Metztli and Coyolxauhqui and the male moon god Tecciztecatl.

25.1 See also •

•

Black Sun (mythology)  Five Suns (mythology)

87

Chapter 26

Black Sun (mythology) The  Black Sun  in Mesoamerican mythology has many mystical meanings, among them it is connected to the god Quetzalcoatl and his penetration in the Underworld through the west door after his diurnal passage on the sky. For the Mexicas there were two suns, the young Day Sun and the ancient Dark Sun. Some scholars regard the mythological Black Sun as the ancient female origin of all, it is both tomb and womb. This way, it is the oneness that uniformly integrates unawareness, death, and yet an expectation of fecundity.[1]

26.1 Other views The Aztecs associated the passage of the Black Sun, on its nightly journey through the underworld with the image of a butterfly.[2][3] The butterfly, in turn, is an archetypical symbol of the transcendent soul, transformation and mystical rebirth,[3][4] whereasalsoseeninthefigureofthe frightening earth goddess Itzpapalotl, the “Obsidian Butterfly,” that devoured people during the solar eclipses, [5] whiletheAztecunderworldwas theeternal dwelling place of the souls. According to the Codex Ríos, the underworld was made of nine layers. The first level was the Earth’s surface, which also had the entrance, or the face of a gigantic toad that devoured the dead and gave access to theother eight lower levels. Thesouls of thedead occupied the ninth level known as "Mictlan Opochcalocan.” [6] The connection with nocturnal elements is also ascribed to the god   Tezcatlipoca, son of the primordial god Ometeotl who was a god of dualities such as light and darkness. Black Tezcatlipoca, as he was known, was one ofthe Five Suns of the creation myth of some Nahua peoples; he ruled over thenorth, theEarth, night, sorcery, and judgment.[7] Another interpretation  [8] holds that the sun god Huitzilopochtli crossed the underworld during the night bestowing light to the forgotten souls, however, he demanded human blood as payment to his tasks. Before his nightly effort, Huitzilopochtli was accompanied from zenith to setting by the Ciuapipiltrins, the souls of women who had died in childbirth, which then reappeared as crepuscular moths on Earth. [8] At archaeological scenes, the  Plumed Serpent  shows a

Sculpture of a Teotihuacan feathered serpent  , a forerunner of  Quetzallcoatl, at  Museo Nacional de Antropologia in Mexico City

man with a black sun within a yellow sun. In this manner the spinning of the sun and black sun shows a wheel crossing with an obfuscatory motion where four black rays move out of four yellow rays. [1] According to some authors, these sets of four rays relate to the four cardinal points and the four quarters, they represent the governance held by the gods over the human race since its infancy, as well as the annual rotation of the heavens, and the universal rulership portrayed in the great dance called “Mitotiliztli,” which reproduces the appearance of a wheel.[1]

26.2 See also

88

•

•

•

 Black Sun (alchemy) Black Sun (occult symbol)  Five Suns (mythology)

•

Lords of the Night (mythology)

•

Tzitzimitl (mythology)

26.4. REFERENCES 

26.3 Notes [1] Dick, Susan; K.D.; M.D.; (1989) pp 165-166. [2] Longo, Teresa (2002), pp 187-188. [3] O'Connell, Mark; R.A., (2005) pp 185. [4] H. Resh, Vincent; R.T.C., (2009) pp 239-240. [5] Aguilar-Moreno, (2007) pp 149. [6] Aguilar-Moreno, (2007) pp 139. [7] Olivier, Guilhem, (2003). [8] Joyce, Thomas Athol, (1920) pp 52, 102, 106.

26.4 References •

•

•

•

•

•

•

Aguilar-Moreno, Manuel (2007).  Handbook to Life in the Aztec World . Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-533083-8. Invalid |name-list-format=scap (help)   Dick, Susan; Declan, Kiberd; Dougald, McMillan (1989).  Essays for Richard Ellmann: Omnium Gatherum. Mcgill Queens University Press.   ISBN 0-7735-0707-8. Invalid |name-list-format=scap (help) Joyce, Thomas Athol (1920). Mexican archaeology: an introduction to the archaeology of the Mexican and Mayan civilizations of preSpanish America. University of Michigan Library. ASIN B004183HZC. Invalid |name-listformat=scap (help)   Longo, Teresa (2002). Pablo Neruda and the U.S. Culture Industry (Hispanic Issues). Routledge.   ISBN 0-8153-3386-2. Invalid |name-listformat=scap (help)  H. Resh, Vincent; T. Cardé, Ring (2009).   Encyclopedia of insects . Academic Press.   ISBN 0-12374144-0. Invalid |name-list-format=scap (help) O'Connell, Mark; Airey, Raje (2005). The illustrated encyclopedia of signs & symbols . Lorenz.  ISBN 0-7548-1548-X. Invalid |name-listformat=scap (help)  Olivier, Guilhem (2003).  Mockeries and Metamor phoses of an Aztec God . University Press of Colorado.   ISBN 0-87081-745-0. Invalid |name-listformat=scap (help)

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Chapter 27

Five Suns For the Guapo album, see Five Suns (album). The term Five Suns in the context of creation myths, describes thedoctrine of the Aztec andother Nahua peoples in which the present world was preceded by four other cycles of creation and destruction. It is primarily derived from the mythological, cosmological and eschatological beliefs and traditions of earlier cultures from central Mexico and the  Mesoamerican region in general. The Late Postclassic Aztec society inherited many traditions concerning Mesoamerican creation accounts, while however modifying some aspects and supplying novel interpretations of their own. [1] In the creation myths which were preserved by the Aztec and other Nahua peoples, the central tenet was that there had been four worlds, or “Suns”, before the present universe. These earlier worlds and their inhabitants had been created, then destroyed by the catastrophic action of leading deity figures. The present world is the fifth sun, and the Aztec saw themselves as “the People of the Sun,” whose divine duty was to wage cosmic war in order to provide the sun with his  tlaxcaltiliztli  (“nourishment”). Without it, the sun would disappear from the heavens. Thus the welfare and the very survival of the universe depended upon the offerings of  blood and hearts to the sun.[1]

27.1 Legend From the void that was the rest of the universe, the first god, Ometeotl, created itself. Ometeotl was both male andfemale, good andevil, light and darkness, fire and water, judgment and forgiveness, the god of duality. Ometeotl gave birth to four children, the four Tezcatlipocas, who each preside over one of the four cardinal directions. Over the West presides the White Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl, the god of light, mercy and wind. Over the South presides the Blue Tezcatlipoca, Huitzilopochtli,the god of war. Over the East presides the Red Tezcatlipoca, Xipe Totec, the god of gold, farming and Spring time. And over the North presides the Black Tezcatlipoca, also called simply Tezcatlipoca, the god of judgment, night, deceit, sorcery and the Earth. [2]

It was these four gods who eventually created all the other gods and the world we know today, but before they could create they had to destroy, for every time they attempted to create something, it would fall into the water beneath them and be eaten by Cipactli, the giant earth crocodile, who swam through the water with mouths at every one of her joints. The four Tezcatlipocas descended the first people who were giants. They created the other gods, the most important of whom were the water gods: Tlaloc, the god of rain and fertility and Chalchiuhtlicue, the goddess of lakes, rivers and oceans, also the goddess of beauty. To give light, they needed a god to become the sun and the Black Tezcatlipoca was chosen, but either because he had lost a leg or because he was god of the night, he only managed to becomehalf a sun. The worldcontinued on in this way for some time, but a sibling rivalry grew between Quetzalcoatl and his brother the mighty sun, who Quetzalcoatl knocked from the sky with a stone club. With no sun, the world was totally black and in his anger, Tezcatlipoca commanded his jaguars to eat all the people.[3] The gods created a new group of people to inhabit the Earth, this time they were of normal size. Quetzalcoatl became the new sun and as the years passed, the people of the Earth grew less and less civilized and stopped showing proper honor to the gods. As a result, Tezcatlipoca demonstrated his power and authority as god of sorcery and judgment by turning the animalistic people into monkeys. Quetzalcoatl, who had loved the flawed people as they were, became upset and blew all of the monkeys from the face of the Earth with a mighty hurricane. He then stepped down as the sun to create a new people. Tlaloc became the next sun, but Tezcatlipoca seduced and stole his wife Xochiquetzal, the goddess of sex, flowers and corn. Tlaloc then refused to do anything other than wallow in his own grief, so a great drought swept the world. The people’s prayers for rain annoyed the grieving sun and he refused to allow it to rain, but the people continued to beg him. Then, in a fit of rage he answered their prayers with a great downpour of fire. It continued to rain fire until the entire Earth had burned away. The gods then had to construct a whole new Earth from the ashes. The next sun and also Tlaloc’s new wife, was Chalchiuhtlicue. She was very loving towards the people, but

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27.2. VARIATIONS AND ALTERNATIVE MYTHS 

Tezcatlipoca was not. Both the people and Chalchiuhtlicue felt his judgment when he told the water goddess that she was not truly loving and only faked kindness out of selfishness to gain the people’s praise. Chalchiuhtlicue was so crushed by these words that she cried blood for the next fifty-two years, causing a horrific flood that drowned everyone on Earth. Quetzalcoatl would not accept the destruction of his people and went to the underworld where he stole their bones from the god Mictlantecuhtli. He dipped these bones in his own blood to resurrect his people, who reopened their eyes to a sky illuminated by the current sun, Huitzilopochtli.[2] Some of Ometeotl’slater children, the Tzitzimitl, or stars, became jealous of their brighter, more important brother Huitzilopochtli. Their leader, Coyolxauhqui, goddess of the moon, lead them in an assault on the sun and every night they come close to victory when they shine throughout the sky, but are beaten back by the mighty Huitzilopochtli who rules the daytime sky. To aid this all-important god in his continuing war, the  Aztecs offer him the nourishment of human sacrifices. They also offer human sacrifices to Tezcatlipoca in fear of his judgment, offer their own blood to Quetzalcoatl, who opposes fatal sacrifices, in thanks of his blood sacrifice for them and give offerings to many other gods for many purposes. Should these sacrifices cease, or should mankind fail to please the gods for any other reason, this fifth sun will go black, the world will be shattered by a catastrophic earthquake, and the Tzitzimitl will slay Huitzilopochtli and all of humanity.

27.2 Variations and alternative myths Most of what is known about the ancient Aztecs comes from the few codices to survive the Spanish conquest. Their myths can be confusing not only because of the lack of documentation, but also because there are many popular myths that seem to contradict one another due the fact that they were originally passed down by word of mouth and because the Aztecs adopted many of their gods from other tribes, both assigning their own new aspects to these gods and endowing them with aspects of similar gods from various other cultures. Older myths can be very similar to newer myths while contradicting one another by claiming that a different god performed the same action, probably because myths changed in correlation to the popularity of each of the gods at a given time. Other variations on this myth state that  Coatlicue, the earth goddess, was the mother of the four Tezcatlipocas and the Tzitzimitl. Some versions say that Quetzalcoatl was born to her first, while she was still a virgin, often mentioning his twin brother Xolotl, the guide of the dead

91 and god of fire. Tezcatlipoca was then born to her by an obsidian knife, followed by the Tzitzimitl and then Huitzilopochtli. The most popular variation including Coatlicue depicts her giving birth first to the Tzitzimitl. Much later she gave birth to Huitzilopochtli when a mysterious ball of feathers appeared to her. The Tzitzimitl then decapitated the pregnant Coatlicue, believing it to be insulting that she had given birth to another child. Huitzilopochtli thensprang forth from herwomb wielding a serpent of fire and began his epic war with the Tzitzimitl, who were also referred to as the Centzon Huitznahuas. Sometimes he is said to have decapitated Coyolxauhqui and either used her head to make the moon or thrown it into a canyon. Further variations depict the ball of feathers as being the father of Huitzilopochtli or the father of Quetzalcoatl and sometimes Xolotl. Other variations of this myth claim that only Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca were born to Ometeotl, who was replaced by Coatlicue in this myth probably because it had absolutely no worshipers or temples by the time the Spanish arrived. It is sometimes said that the male characteristic of Ometeotl is named Ometecutli and that the female characteristic is named Omecihualt. Further variations on this myth state that it was only Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca who pulled apart Cipactli, also known as Tlaltecuhtli, and that Xipe Totec and Huitzilopochtli then constructed the world from her body. Some versions claim that Tezcatlipoca actually used his leg as bait for Cipactli, before dismembering her. The order of the first four suns varies as well, though the above version is the most common. Each world’s end correlates consistently to the god that was the sun at the time throughout all variations of the myth, though the loss of Xochiquetzal is not always identified as Tlaloc’s reason for the rain of fire, which is not otherwise given and it is sometimes said that Chalchiuhtlicue flooded the world on purpose, without the involvement of Tezcatlipoca. It is also said that Tezcatlipoca created half a sun, which his jaguars then ate before eating the giants. The fifth sun however is sometimes said to be a god named Nanauatzin. In this version of the myth, the gods convened in darkness to choose a new sun, who was to sacrifice himself by jumping into a gigantic bonfire. The two volunteers were the young son of Tlaloc and Chalchiuhtlicue,  Tecuciztecatl, and the old Nanauatzin. It was believed that Nanauatzin was too old to make a good sun, but both were given the opportunity to jump into the bonfire. Tecuciztecatl tried first but was not brave enough to walk through the heat near the flames and turned around. Nanauatzin then walked slowly towards and then into the flames and was consumed. Tecuciztecatl then followed. The braver Nanauatzin became what is now the sun and Tecuciztecatl became the much less spectacular moon. A god that bridges the gap between Nanauatzin and Huitzilopochtli is Tonatiuh, who was sick, but rejuvenated himself by burning himself alive and then became the warrior sun and wandered through the heavens with

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the souls of those who died in battle, refusing to move if not offered enough sacrifices.

27.3 Brief summation •

•

•

•

•

 Nahui-Ocelotl  (Jaguar Sun) - Inhabitants were giants who were devoured by jaguars. The world was destroyed.  Nahui-Ehécatl  (Wind Sun) - Inhabitants were transformed into monkeys. This world was destroyed by hurricanes.  Nahui-Quiahuitl   (Rain Sun) - Inhabitants were destroyed by rain of fire. Only birds survived (or inhabitants survived by becoming birds).   Nahui-Atl  (Water Sun) - This world was flooded turning the inhabitants into fish. A couple escaped but were transformed into dogs.  Nahui-Ollin  (Earthquake Sun) - We are the inhabitants of this world. This world will be destroyed by earthquakes (or one large earthquake).

27.4 In popular culture •

•

•

•

 The version of the myth with Nanahuatzin serves as a  framing device for the 1991 Mexican film,  In Necuepaliztli in Aztlan (Retorno a Aztlán) , by Juan Mora Catlett. The version of the myth with Nanahuatzin is in the 1996 film,  The Five Suns: A Sacred History of Mexico, by Patricia Amlin.  Rage Against the Machine refers to intercultural violence as “the fifth sunset” in their song  People of the Sun, on the album Evil Empire.  Thomas Harlan's science fiction series “In the Time of the Sixth Sun” uses this myth as a central plot point, where an ancient star-faring civilization (“people of the First Sun”) had disappeared and left the galaxy with many dangerous artifacts.

27.5 See also •

Aztec mythology

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 Aztec religion

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 Aztec philosophy

•

•

Black Sun (mythology)  Mesoamerican creation accounts

27.6 References [1] Iroku, Osita; A Day in the Life of God; Chapter Seven; 2001; published by the Enlil Institute [2] Smith,Michael E. The Aztecs 2nd Ed. Blackwell Publishing, 2005 [3] Aguilar-Moreno, Manuel. The Aztec World.  California State University, Los Angeles, 2006

27.7 Further reading •

•

Aguilar- Moreno, Manuel (2006).  Handbook to life in the Aztec World . Los Angeles: California State University. Invalid |name-list-format=scap (help)  Smith, Michael E. (2003). The Aztecs 2nd Ed . UK: Blackwell Publishing. Invalid |name-listformat=scap (help)

Chapter 28

Tzitzimitl

Depiction of   Itzpapalotl  , Queen of the Tzitzimimeh, from the Codex Borgia.

Depiction of a Tzitzimitl from the Codex Magliabechiano.

In Aztec mythology, a Tzitzimitl /t  ͡siˈt  ͡simit  ͡ɬ/ (plural Tzitzimimeh /t  ͡sit  ͡siˈmimeʔ/) is a deity associated with stars. They were depicted as skeletal female figures wearing skirts often with skull and crossbone designs. In Postconquest descriptions they are often described as " demons" or “devils” - but this does not necessarily reflect their function in the prehispanic belief system of the Aztecs. [1] The Tzitzimimeh were female deities, and as such related to fertility, they were associated with the Cihuateteo and other female deities such as  Tlaltecuhtli, Coatlicue, Citlalicue and Cihuacoatl and they were worshipped by midwives and parturient women. The leader of the tzitzimimeh was the Goddess  Itzpapalotl who was the ruler of Tamoanchan - the paradise where the Tzitzimimeh resided. The Tzitzimimeh were also associated with the stars and especially the stars that can be seen around the Sun dur-

ing a solar eclipse. This was interpreted as the Tzitzimimeh attacking the Sun, this caused the belief that during a solar eclipse, the tzitzimime would descend to the earth and devour human beings. [2] The Tzitzimimeh were also feared during other ominous periods of the Aztec world, such as during the five unlucky days called Nemontemi which marked an unstable period of the  year count, and during the New Fire ceremony marking the beginning of a new calendar round - both were periods associated with the fear of change. TheTzitzimimeh hada double role in Aztec religion: they were protectresses of the feminine and progenitresses of mankind. They were also powerful and dangerous, especially in periods of cosmic instability. [3]

28.1 Notes

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[1] See Klein 2000 for an analysis of the nature of the Tzitzimimeh in relation to the Aztec belief system. [2] Sahagún 1997, p. 153: cenca nemauhtiloya mitoaya intla quitlamiz in quiqua tonatiuh quilmach çentlaiovaz valte-

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CHAPTER 28. TZITZIMITL mozque in ţiţimime techquazque  There was great fear. It was said that if [the moon] finished eating the sun, so it was said, all would be in darkness; the  Tzitzimimeh would descend here; they would devour us.

[3] This is the conclusion reached by Cecelia Klein (2000) based on an investigation of the iconographical depictions of Tzitzimimeh by the Aztecs

28.2 References •

•

  Sahagún, Bernardino de; Sullivan, Thelma D.; Nicholson, H. B. (1997).   Primeros Memoriales . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 153.  Klein, Cecelia F (2000). “The Devil and the Skirt: an iconographic inquiry into the prehispanic nature of the Tzitzimime”.   Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl  (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mèxico) 31: 17–62.

Chapter 29

Apep This article is about an Ancient Egyptian deity. For the Apep by this translation of his name. Apophis was a large Cypriot football team, see APEP F.C.. For other uses, golden snake known to be miles long. He was so large that see Apep (disambiguation). he attempted to swallow the sun every day. Set eventually became thought of as the god of evil, and Apep (/ˈæˌpɛp/ or   /ˈɑːˌpɛp/) or   Apophis (/ˈæpəfɨs/; gradually took on all the characteristics of Apep. ConseAncient Greek: Ἄποφις; also spelled Apepi or Aapep) quently, Apep’s identity was eventually entirely subsumed was the ancient Egyptian deity who embodied chaos (ı ͗zft  by that of Set.[4] in Egyptian) and was thus the opponent of light and Ma'at (order/truth). He appears in art as a giant serpent. His name is reconstructed by Egyptologists as *ʻAʼpāpī, as it 29.2 Battles with Ra waswritten pp(y) andsurvivedin later Coptic asⲀⲫⲱⲫ Aphōph.[1] Apep was first mentioned in the  Eighth Dynasty, and he was honored in the names of the  Fourteenth Dynasty king 'Apepi and of the  Greater Hyksos  king Apophis.

29.1 Development Ra was the solar deity, bringer of light, and thus the upholder of Ma'at. Apep was viewed as the greatest enemy of Ra, and thus was given the title  Enemy of Ra, and also “the Lord of Chaos”. As the personification of all that was evil, Apep was seen as a giant snake or serpent leading to such titles as  Ser pent from the Nile  and  Evil   Lizard . Some elaborations even said that he stretched 16  yards in length and had a head made of flint. Already on a Naqada I (ca. 4000 BC) C-warebowl (nowin Cairo) a snake was painted on the inside rim combined with other desert and aquatic animals as a possible enemy of a deity, possibly a solar deity, who is invisibly hunting in a big rowing vessel. [3] Also, comparable hostile snakes as enemies of the sun god existed under other names (in the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts) already before the name Apep occurred. The etymology of his name (ꜥꜣpp) is perhaps to be sought in some west-semitic language where a word root ꜣpp meaning 'to slither' existed. A verb root ꜥꜣpp does at any rate not exist elsewhere in Ancient Egyptian. (It is not to be confused with the verb ꜥpı͗/ꜥpp: 'to fly across the sky, to travel') Apep’s name much later came to be falsely connected etymologically in Egyptian with a different root meaning (he who was) spat out ; the Romans referred to

Set speared Apep

Tales of Apep’s battles against Ra were elaborated during the New Kingdom.[6] Since everyone can see that the sun is not attacked by a giant snake during the day, every day, storytellers said that Apep must liejust below thehorizon. This appropriately made him a part of the  underworld. In some stories Apep waited for Ra in a western mountain called Bakhu, where the sun set, and in others Apep lurked just before dawn, in the  Tenth region of the Night . The wide range of Apep’s possible location gained him the title World Encircler . It was thought that his terrifying roar would cause the underworld to rumble. Myths sometimes say that Apep was trapped there, because he had been the previous chief god overthrown by Ra, or because he was evil and had been imprisoned.

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In addition to stories about Ra’s winnings, this guide had instructions for making wax models, or small drawings, of the serpent, which would be spat on, mutilated and burnt, whilst reciting spells that would kill Apep. Fearing that even the image of Apep could give power to the demon any rendering would always include another deity to subdue the monster. As Apep was thought to live in the underworld, he was sometimes thought of as an  Eater of  Souls. Thus the dead also needed protection, so they were sometimes buried with spells that could destroy Apep. The  Book of the Dead does not frequently describe occasions when Ra defeated the chaos snake explicitly called Apep. Only BD Spells 7 and 39 can be explained as such. [11]

29.4 See also The sun god Ra, in the form of Great Cat, slays the snake Apep [5]

The Coffin Texts imply that Apep used a magical gaze to overwhelm Ra and his entourage. [7] Ra was assisted by a number of defenders who travelled with him, including Set[4] and possibly the Eye of Ra.[8] Apep’s movements were thought to cause earthquakes, and his battles with Set may have been meant to explain the origin of thunderstorms. In some accounts, Ra himself defeats Apep in the form of a cat.[9]

29.3 Worship Ra was   worshipped, and Apep worshipped against. Ra’s victory each night was thought to be ensured by the prayers of the  Egyptian priests   and worshipers at temples. The Egyptians practiced a number of rituals and superstitions that were thought to ward off Apep, and aid Ra to continue his journey across the sky. In an annual rite, called the  Banishing of Chaos, priests would build an effigy of Apep that was thought to contain all of the evil and darkness in Egypt, and burn it to protect everyone from Apep’s evil for another year, in a similar manner to modern rituals such as Zozobra. The Egyptian priests even had a detailed  guide  to fighting Apep, referred to as  The Books of Overthrowing Apep (or the  Book of Apophis, in Greek). [10] The chapters described a gradual process of dismemberment and disposal, and include: Spitting Upon Apep Defiling Apep with the Left Foot Taking a Lance to Smite Apep Fettering Apep Taking a Knife to Smite Apep Putting Fire Upon Apep

•

•

 99942 Apophis Egyptian influence in popular culture

•

 Ethnoherpetology

•

 Jörmungandr

•

 Mehen

•

  Unut

•

  Wadjet

29.5 Notes [1]   Erman, Adolf, and   Hermann Grapow, eds. 1926– 1953. Wörterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache im Auftrage der deutschen Akademien . 6 vols. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs’schen Buchhandlungen. (Reprinted Berlin: Akademie-Verlag GmbH, 1971). [2] Hieroglyph as per Budge  Gods of the Ancient Egyptians (1969), Vol. I, 180. [3] C.Wolterman, in Jaarbericht van Ex Oriente Lux , Leiden Nr.37 (2002). [4] H. Te Velde, Seth, God of Confusion (Leiden, 1977), 1057. [5] tomb of Inherkha, Deir el-Medina [6] J. Assmann, Egyptian Solar Religion in the New Kingdom, transl. by A. Alcock (London, 1995), 49-57. [7] Borghouts, J. F. (1973). “The Evil Eye of Apopis”. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology  59. 114–115. [8] Borghouts, J. F. (1973). “The Evil Eye of Apopis”. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology  59. 116. [9] G. Pinch, Egyptian Mythology, (2004), pp. 107–108

29.6. EXTERNAL LINKS  [10] P.Kousoulis, Magic and Religion as Performative Theological Unity: the Apotropaic Ritual of Overthrowing Apophis , Ph.D. dissertation, University of Liverpool (Liverpool, 1999), chapters 3-5. [11] J.F.Borghouts,   Book of the Dead [39]: From Shouting to Structure (Studien zum Altaegyptischen Totenbuch 10, Wiesbaden, 2007).

29.6 External links •

•

 Apep, Water Snake-Demon of Chaos, Enemy of Ra... ancient Egypt: The Mythology - Apep

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Chapter 30

Kuk (mythology) This article is about a concept in ancient Egyptian mythology. For the abbreviation describing the  AustroHungarian Empire, see k.u.k.. For other uses, see Kuk. Kuk (also spelled as  Kek  and  Keku) is the deification of the primordial concept of darkness in  ancient Egyptian religion. In the Ogdoad cosmogony, his name meant darkness. As a concept, Kuk was viewed as androgynous, his female form being known as  Kauket  (also spelled as Keket), which is simply the female form of the word Kuk .[1]

Like all fourdualisticconcepts in the Ogdoad, Kuk’s male form was depicted as a frog, or as a frog-headed man, and the female form as a  snake, or a snake-headed woman. As a symbol of darkness, Kuk also represented obscurity and the unknown, and thus chaos. Also, Kuk was seen as that which occurred before light, thus was known as the bringer-in of light . The other members of the Ogdoad are Nu and Naunet, Amun and Amaunet, Huh and Hauhet.

30.1 References [1] Seawright, Caroline. “Kek and Kauket, Deities of Darkness, Obscurity and Night”. Retrieved 2008-08-22. He was the god of the darkness of chaos

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Chapter 31

Ratri Ratri, often also called  Ratridevi , is the goddess of night in the Vedas and the mythology of India and Hinduism. She is sister to Ushas, the Vedic goddess of Dawn. Her name is the common/ordinary word for nighttime in Indian languages like Kannada, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam.

31.1 Fiction Thegoddess Ratri is a minor character in Roger Zelazny's science fiction novel  Lord of Light , who encounters and aids the protagonist in his battle against the other gods.

31.2 Further reading •

 Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions  (ISBN 81-208-03795) by David Kinsley

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Chapter 32

Chandra This article article is about the Hindu Hindu moon deity. deity. For other other uses, see Chandra see  Chandra (disambi (disambiguation) guation).. In  In   Hinduism, Hinduism,   Chandra   (Sanskrit चन् द् र lit, Kannada தரன். “shining”)[1]  , Telugu    , Tamil சந்தரன் is a  lunar god and god  and a Graha a  Graha.. Chandra Chandra is also identi identified fied [2] with the Vedic the  Vedic lunar  lunar deity  Soma (lit. “juice”) “juice”).. The Soma name refers particularly to the juice of sap in the plants and thus makes the Moon the lord of plants and vegetation. [1] Chandra Chandra is described described as young, young, beautif beautiful, ul, fair; fair; two-armed two-armed [3] and having in his hands a club and a lotus. He rides his chariot across chariot  across the sky every night, pulled by ten white horses or an antelope. He is connected with dew with  dew,, and as such, is one of the gods of fertility. He is also called  Rajanipati  (lord of the night) [1] and Kshupakara (one who illuminates the night), [4] and Indu (lit. the bright drop). drop).[1] As Soma, he presides over  Somvar  or  or Monday. Chandra is the father of  Budha  Budha,, (planet Mercury (planet  Mercury)) the mother being Tara being  Tara.. He is married married to 27 Nakshatras 27 Nakshatras (con (constellations), who are known to be daughters of  Daksha  Daksha..

32.1 32.1 In as astr trol olog ogyy Chandra with Rohini 

In Vedic In  Vedic astrology Chandra astrology  Chandra represents brain and mind, emotions, sensitivity, softness, imagination, queen and mother. Chandra rules over over the sign Karkaataka Karkaataka (Cancer), while he is exalted in Vrishabha (Taurus) and in his fall fall in Vrishchika Vrishchika (Scorpio). The waxing moon is considered to be benefic, and the waning moon is considered to be malefic. The bright moon is considered considered a benefic benefic of the highest order, while the dark moon is considered a malefic. malefic. Chandra Chandra is lord of three nakshatras three  nakshatras or  or lunar mansions: Rohini mansions:  Rohini,, Hasta  Hasta and  and Shravana  Shravana.. Chandra has the following associations: the color white, the metal silver and the gemstones pearl and moonstone. His element is water, direction is north-west and season is winter. The food grain associated with him (one of Nava Dhanyas) is rice. Chandra Chandra (pronoun (pronounced ced “CHUHN-drah “CHUHN-drah”) ”) is a Sanskrit Sanskrit

name meaning “illustrious”. In Hindu mythology, Chandra is the god of the moon. In Hindu astrology, the moon is considered a planet, and it is considered to be one of the the best best plan planet etss to be born born unde underr as it prom promis ises es weal wealth th and and happiness. It is also referred as Shashi ( Kannada Kannada::  ) or Tingala (Kannada (Kannada:: ). According to Hindu mythology Chandra has not been very fortunate fortunate in life. Chandra was born in the Ocean of Milk (the gods were churning it for millennia in order to crea create te immort immortal al life), life), and nearl nearlyy blind blinded ed the gods gods with with his bright, glowing body (hence the name that means “illustrious”). The gods unanimously decided decided to give Chandra the status of a planet and sent him into the cosmos. Chandra is known for having a series of disastrous love affairs. affairs. His first lover, Tara, was the wife of Brihaspati, the planet Jupiter. From their union, Tara became preg-

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32.2. OTHER OTHER ASPECTS 

nant gives birth to Budha (a.k.a. the planet Mercury, not to be confused with the other Buddha). Because of how he was conceived, Budha hated his father and as Chandra also knew that Budha is his illegitimate son, he began to hate his son, and their rivalry continues to this day. For the sin of abducting another god’s consort, Brahma banished Chandra Chandra to the outer atmosphere. atmosphere. This story illustrates allegorically the prohibition of intoxicants for Brahmins.[5] After that, Chandra, set out to marry the twenty-seven twenty-seven daughters of Daksha. Daksha allowed allowed this on the condition that the moon not favor any daughter over the others. others. Chandra failed failed to do this, and Daksha placed a curse on him that took away his luster, which accounts for the moon’s waxing and waning.

32.1.1 32.1.1 Dark Dark spot spot on the moon moon One popular story to account for the dark spot on the moon is that Ganesha that  Ganesha,, once filled with food, fell from his mouse and broke his stomach. Chandra laughed at this, at which Ganesha injured him by breaking off and throwing one of his tusks; and cursed him so that it would be forbidden to behold Chandra on Ganesh on  Ganesh Chaturthi. Chaturthi .

32.2 32.2 Othe Otherr as aspec pects ts Chandra is also the word in  Sanskrit  Sanskrit,,  Hindi  Hindi and  and other Indian languages Indian  languages for moon for  moon.. It is also a common common Indian Indian name name,, both both male male and and femal emalee and and exis exists ts as a name name in many many South East Asian languages that originate from Sanskrit. The god, the drink and the plant probably referred to the same entity, or at least the differentiation was ambiguous. In this aspect, aspect, Soma is similar similar to the Greek Greek ambrosia (cognate to amrita); it is what the gods drink, and what made them deities. Soma is still coined as name for an entheogenic an entheogenic brew  brew (avestic: Haoma) still in ceremonial use. Indu, one of the other names for Chandra, is also the name of the first  chakra  (group) of  Melakarta  ragas  ragas in  in Carnatic music. music. The names of  chakras are based on the numbers associated associated with each name. In this case, there is one moon and hence the first  chakra is Indu.[6][7] In India Chandra is a common surname for example 'Anurag Chandra ' and ' Tanuja Chandra' . But in America the name has been been used as a girl’s name. It appeared on the popularity charts in the 1950s, peaking in the 1970s, before disappearing in the 1990s. The name has several variations including Chandrah, Chaundra, etc. There There is anothe anotherr story story about about moon moon (Chand (Chandra) ra),, when when Indra Indra was was trying trying to rape rape Ahily Ahilya, a, wif wife of rishi rishi Gauta Gautama, ma, Chandr Chandraa was in the form of a peacock to alert Indra on Gautama’s arrival . Gautama eventually eventually beheld beheld the act and cursed Indra with impotency and hit Chandra (in the form of peacock) peacock) with with his wet cloth (Dhoti). Those marks marks are

101 shown as dark spot on moon as a result of the curse of rishi Gautama. His Egyptian counterpart is  Khonsu  Khonsu.. Chandra the moon is actually a satellite of the planet Earth. But in Indian Indian astrology astrology the moon moon and the Sun are counted among the nine planets. Chandra is called ‘ ChandA ChandA’’ or ‘ChAnd ‘ChAnd’’ in Hindi Hindi and Urdu Urdu languag languages. es. Chan Chan-dra is the most beloved God of the humans, at least in the tropics. Children all over India and even even elders call him affectionatel affectionatelyy as ‘Chanda- mama’. Mama means the maternal uncle in both North Indian and South Indian languages. There is a very popular popular children’s children’s magazine called ‘Chanda mama’ which is published from from Chennai in more more than than twel twelve ve India Indiann langua languages ges,, There There are hundre hundreds ds of nursery songs in all l anguages of India sung by all the mothers addressing their handsome brother Chand, while feeding feeding their children, requesting him to bring milk, butter and curds for for his sister’s sister’s child. child. Similarl Similarlyy Chandra or Chanda is the most favourite topic of songs sung by lovers. They express express their happiness while making love and request Chanda mama to shine brightly and not to pass on so quickly. so that the wonderful night may continue forever. forever. Dozens of folk songs, film songs and even titles of films are named after the Chandra or Chand. There There is an inter interes estin tingg episo episode de regar regardin dingg the lunar lunar eclip eclipse se in the Hindu Hindu mytho mytholog logy. y. Lunar Lunar eclip eclipse se is called called Chand ChandraragrahaN (swallowing (swallowing of Chandra). Even today people believe that two great serpents named Rahu and Ketu which are counted as two other planets ( Uranus and Neptune) nurtureagrudgeagainsttheplanetsmoonandtheSunand both these serpents occasionally come and swallow the moon and the Sun gradually. When moon is swallowed partially or completely it is called Chandra GrahaN. People wait patiently for the total release of the moon and take holy bath after the end of the eclipse. Moon is the symbol of beauty in Indian literature. The beautiful beautiful face of a woman is compared to the moon by almost all Indian poets. The moon and the lotus flower are the most popular similes used while describing the face of a beautiful woman who is often called as’ Chandramukhi’- the moonfaced beauty.. Name of Chandra is attached to various Gods. For example the full full name of Lord Sri Ram is Ramachandra. Similarly the full name of another Avatar Avatar Lord Krishna is Krishna Chandra. Some scholars opine that both these avatars were so called because they were perhaps born on a full moon day, a day which is sacred for Jains also Lord Shiva is called Chandrasekhar also, because he wears a crescent crescent moon on his forehead. forehead. The crescent moon with a star is a sacred symbol of Islam also. There are also many ancient explanations and stories connected with the spots on the face of the moon. Some people say that a rabbit stays always on the face of the moon. That is why the moon is also called Shashank ( one who has a mark of a rabbit on his lap ). Some people think that a cat is sitting on the face of the moon. In Telugu Telugu language the moon is also called Jabilli. Under the sub-title ‘other aspects’ it is stated that Chandra is the middle name of the Hindu God RamaChan-

102 drasekhara, which which is erroneous. There seems to be a mix up between the names of two different Gods Sri Ram and Lord Shiva. Full name of Lord Sri Ram is Rama Chandra and not Rama Chandra Sekhara. Rama was named as Rama Chandra for reasons that are not revealed to the public. Some Scholars opine that Sri Ram was born on a full moon day and that is why he was called Rama Chandra. There was a great discussion among scholars as to why Sri Rama the illustrious son of the solar dynasty was named as Rama Chandra, Chandra, Chandra Chandra being the progenitor of the lunar dynasty. Similarly the name Chandra Sekhara is given to Lord Shiva only, because he wears a crescent moon on his forehead. Name of Lord Sri Rama is definitely definitely not Rama Chandra Sekhara, nor Chandra is His middle name God Chandra is addressed by various names depending on his attrib attribute utes. s. He is called called Vidhu, Vidhu, Indu, Indu, Himansu, Subhranshu Subhranshu (whose rays are cool and clean), Rajaneesh janeesh,Rak ,Rakesh esh ( Lord of the night night ), Rajani Rajanikar, kar, Nishak Nishakar ar ( maker of the night), Shashi, Shashank ( one who bears a rabbit on his body),Sudha-nidhi, Sudhamaya Sudhamaya (one who is full of nectar), Kumudesh ( lover of the esculent water lily- Nymphaea esculent or the red lotus-Nymphaea rubric), Kunda Pushpojjwala( as bright as the jasmine flower-jasmine multiflora). In the ‘Purusha Sukta’ of the Rigveda it is mentioned that Chandra was born from the mind of the virat Purusha(God symbolized as the entire universe) – ‘Chandrama manasojaatah’. There is an episode explaining the waxing and waning of the moon during a month. It was reported reported that God Chandr Chandraa was was payin payingg more more atten attentio tionn to oneof his27 wive wives. s. The The othe otherr 26 wive wivess who who are are also also the the daug daught hter erss of the the grea greatt Praja Prajapat patii Daksh Dakshaa broug brought ht this this fact act to the atten attentio tionn of their their father. father. Daksha became very angry and cursed Chandra, his son in law’ to suffer from from consumption. As a result the size of Chandra began to decrease gradually. gradually. Alarmed at this the daughters requested their father father to take back his curse. But since a curse which is delivered once, cannot be taken back, Daksha modified his curse to the effect that the size of Chandra will decrease from ffull ull moon to to new moon for a fortnight and then his size will gradually grow until the full Moon day, during the next fortnight. Worship Worship of the moon God in ancient ancient Arabia: the Arabians who suffer from the excessive heat of the Sun preferred to worship the Moon God, who gives them cool breeze and dew drops, thereby helping them in farming and development of green grass for their goats and camels. camels. That is why perhaps perhaps they were called called Asuras as opposed to the Indo-Aryans who called themselves Suraas or Devas. The Suraas worshipped the Sun God. The Indian mythology is full of wars between the Suras and the Asuras. 'Sin' the moon God of ancient Arabia occupied the chief place in the astral triad. It’s other two members ‘Shamus’ the Sun god and ‘Ishtar’ the planet Venus were his chil-

CHAPTER 32. CHANDRA

dren. His wife was ‘Ningal’(the great lady). ‘Nusku’ the God of Fire was his son. Even today the crescent moon and the planet Venus in the middle, is the Universal symbol of Islam. It is reported in the Wikipedia that the crescent cent moon moon has has been been used used by the the Arab Arab reli religi gion onss as far back back as the time of Abraham. God Chandra and the tides: The Hindu mythology offers an explanation for the high and low tides that occur in the seas and oceans.The details areas follows.God Chandra and Goddess Lakshmi are born from the ocean during the churning of the milky ocean.( that part of the ocean where the waters and waves are sparkling white and look like like milk). milk). Being Being the father ather of Chandr Chandraa the God of Ocean Ocean is overjoyed to see his son rising from the eastern horizon and rushes rushes to greet him. Similarly Similarly the Sea God rushes rushes towards the West when the moon God is going to set. Chandrama in Mantrapushpam: Mantrapushpam: Mantrapushpam is a sacred document available in the Taittareeya Aranyakam in which the great Rishis have conceived the connection between the human mind/ consciousness consciousness and various elements of nature like flower, water, moon, air, thunder etc. Giving great importance to the Moon God it informs informs in the first sloka itself that – Moon is the flower of Waters. He who knows this becomes endowed endowed with flower, progeny and animals. “ Chandrama Chandramaaa va apaam pushpam pushpam pushpav pushpavaan, aan, prajaavaan, pasumaan bhavati “ Late Laterr the the mant mantra ra saysthatsaysthat- Moon Moon is the the supp suppor ortt of wate waters rs.. He becomes endowed with support who understands that Moon is the support of water, and similarly water is the supp suppor ortt of Moon Moon.. Thus Thus Moon Moon is the the supp suppor ortt of Water ater and and Water is the support of Moon. “Yah Chandramasa Chandramasa aayatanam veda. veda. aayatanavan aayatanavan bhavati. Aapo vai chandramasa chandramasa aayatanam aayatanam , aayatanavaan aayatanavaan bhavati, Ya evam veda” The mantra says that the moon and water support each other and there is a similarity between the waxing and waning of the moon and vacillation vacillation of mind between experience s of grief and happiness. Beyond this we cannot explain the meaning of this mantra because it is a Veda Mantra based purely on sound rather than meaning.

32.3 In popula popularr cultur culturee Chandra (and the gem supposedly on the forehead of a statue of his at  Somanath  Somanath)) plays an important role in one of the first novel-length mystery stories in English,  The Moonstone. The Sanskrit word for moon-craft moon-craft Chandrayaan  is used to refer to India’s lunar orbiters (Chandrayan-1  and Chandrayaan-2).

32.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 

32.4 See also •

  Navagraha

•

 Soma

32.5 References [1] Graha Sutras By Ernst Wilhelm , Published by Kala Occult Publishers ISBN 0-9709636-4-5 p.51 [2]  Graha Sutras  by Ernst Wilhelm, published by Kala Occult Publishers. ISBN 0-9709636-4-5. p. 5.0 [3] Mythology of the Hindus By Charles Coleman p.131 [4] Mythology of the Hindus By Charles Coleman p.132 [5]   http://2-0-1-2.livejournal.com/211027.html [6]  South Indian Music  Book III, by Prof. P Sambamoorthy, Published 1973, The Indian Music Publishing House [7]  Ragas in Carnatic music  by Dr. S. Bhagyalekshmy, Pub. 1990, CBH Publications

32.6 External links •

 Media related to Chandra at Wikimedia Commons

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Chapter 33

Rahu For the ascending lunar node Rahu, see  Lunar node. For other uses, see Rahu (disambiguation). In  Hindu  tradition,   Rahu   ( ) is a severed head of an asura, that swallows the sun causing  eclipses. He is depicted in art as a serpent with no body riding a chariot drawn by eight black horses. Rahu is one of the navagrahas (nine planets) in Vedic astrology and is paired with Ketu. The time of day considered to be under the influence of Rahu is called  Rahu kala and is considered inauspicious. In Vedic astronomy, Rahu is considered to be a rogue planet. The other name of Rahu is Bhayanka. [1] Astronomically, Rahu and Ketu denote the points of intersection of the paths of the Sun and the  Moon as they move on the celestial sphere. Therefore, Rahu and Ketu are respectively called the north and the south  lunar nodes. The fact that eclipses occur when the Sun and the Moon are at one of these points gives rise to the myth of the swallowing of the Sun and the Moon by the demon snake.

33.1 Mythology Vishnu beheading Rahu with his Sudarshana chakra.

33.1.1 Hinduism According to legend, during the  Samudra manthan, the asura Rahu drank some of the amrita (divine nectar). The sun and moon realized it and alerted Mohini (the female avatar of Vishnu). Mohini cut off the asura’s head before the nectar could pass his throat. The head, however, remained immortal due to the effect of amrita and became Rahu. It is believed that this immortal head from time to time swallows the sun, causing eclipses. Then, the sun passes through the opening at the neck, ending the eclipse. The body also turned into  Ketu  due to a boon, and it in turn swallows the moon on timely basis to cause a  lunar eclipse. Variousnames are assignedto Rahu in Vedic texts including: the chief, the advisor of the demons, the minister of the demons, ever-angry, the tormentor, bitter enemy of the luminaries, lord of illusions, one who frightens the

Sun, the one who makes the Moon lustreless, the peacemaker, the immortal (having drunk thedivine nectar), bestower of prosperity and wealth and ultimate knowledge. In ancient Tamil astrological scripts, Rahu was considered as incarnation of Shakti in beastly form. Hanuman and Rahu

Hanuman, in his childhood, flew towards the sun, as it appeared to be a big fruit. The day was solar eclipse day, when Rahu was to swallow up the sun. Rahu arrived and saw Hanuman also approaching and thought that Hanuman is trying to swallow the sun; Hanuman, seeing Rahu, was attracted by curiosity to the disembodied head, and caught Rahu. On another occasion, during the  Ramayana war, Ravana

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33.2. ASTROLOGY 

105

imprisoned the Navagrahas. Hanuman arrived and released them. They were grateful to Hanuman, saying “people devoted to you are blessed by us too.” All the grahas thanked Hanuman individually for releasing them. Thus, it is believed that Rahu’s negative influence will be subdued when one worships Hanuman. Worship of Lord Rama appeases Lord Hanuman the most.

33.1.2 Buddhism Rahu is mentioned explicitly in a pair of scriptures from the Samyutta Nikaya  of the Pali Canon. In the Candima Sutta and the Suriya Sutta, Rahu attacks  Chandra the moon deity and  Surya   the sun deity before being compelled to release them by their recitation of a brief stanza conveying their reverence for the Buddha.[2][3] The Buddha responds by enjoining Rahu to release them, which Rahu does rather than have his “head split into seven pieces”. [3] The verses recited by the two celestial deities and the Buddha have since been incorporated into Buddhist liturgy as protective verses ( paritta) recited by monks as prayers of protection. [4] In the   Tibetan Buddhist   tradition, Rahu (or Rahula; Tib. gza) is considered to have been subjugated by Padmasambhava, becoming one of the principle protectorsofthe Dzogchen teachings, particularlythe Longchen Nyingthik. He is usually depicted with nine heads and a Rahu with consort Karali  thousand eyes all over his dark-colored body. In his four arms he holds a bow and arrow, and often a lasso and victory banner. He is wrathful in appearance, ablaze with fire, and his lower body has the form of a snake. Rahula is a sa, a class of deities associated with the heavenly bodies. Rahu is one of the krodhadevatas  (lit: Anger divinities. i.e., a divinity having the attributes of anger and the like). cere and immoral acts. It is the symbol of an irreligious person, an outcast, harsh speech, falsehoods, uncleanliness, abdominal ulcers, bones, and  transmigration. Sud33.2 Astrology den changes in luck and fame are also linked to Rahu. Rahu is considered instrumental in strengthening one’s In Vedic astrology Rahu dasha can either be the best time power and converting even an enemy into a friend. It reof any person’s life or plunge him into deep trouble de- lates to the Seventh Ray energy of esoteric astrology, as pending on which planet is controlling him and which it represents a force displaying all the possibilities within bhava or pattern of life like longevity, pleasures etc. he is the realm of existence. aspecting or controlling. Rahu dasa gives immense scope for obtaining spectacular results from worship or dhyana. The astrological text  Lal Kitab  notes that if Saturn and Worship of Goddess Durga pleases Rahu the most and he Mars are conjunct, they can be together considered as confers immense benefits to the worshipper. Rahu is seen Rahu, while if Jupiter and Venus are conjunct, they can asan asura or demon who does his best to plunge any area together be treated as Ketu. of life he controls into chaos, mystery, and cruelty. He is In Vedic astrology, different systems assign Rahu differassociated with the world of material manifestation and ent signs regarding rulership, exaltation, and debilitation. worldly desire, as well as random, uncontrolled growth Rahu is lord of three   nakshatras   or lunar mansions: without wisdom or understanding. Ardra, Svati and Shatabhisha.   Shatabhisha is his most Rahu is supposed to be a mighty and naughty child of powerful nakshatra, it’s said that Rahu is at his apex of Maya, and thus is associated with dualities resulting from power when operating through this nakshatra. Rahu is its mayavi   (illusory) nature. It is a legendary master of associated with the following: its color is smoky, metal deception who signifies cheaters, pleasure seekers, oper- is lead, and its gemstone is honey-colored hessonite. Its ators in foreign lands, drug dealers, poison dealers, insin- element is air and its direction is southwest.

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33.2.1 Rahu dan Ants are considered of the favoured species of Rahu. In some parts of India feeding ants is considered one of the ways of propitiating Rahu. In Thailand, people offer a plate of black offering—black coffee, black Coke, black beans, black biscuits amongst other items to propitiate Phra Rahu, whom they hold in very high regard. There is a shrine for Phra Rahu in Wat Traimet near Chinatown in Bangkok. The other Phra Rahu statue is in the Wat Yannawa, near the Saphan Taksin sky train station. A glass fish-bowl filled with white sugar balls on which ants are fed continuously is also kept in Thai businesses. Articles that are donated in order to mitigate negative effects of Rahu include mustard, radishes, blankets, sesame, lead, saffron,  satnaja (a mixture of seven grains), and coal.[5]

33.3 Worship

CHAPTER 33. RAHU 

followed for over 1,500 years. Rahu is also worshipped along with the other 9 planets in all Hindu temples in Burma. The navagraha deities, featuring nine planets, exist in the Ganesh Temple in Mandalay, Myanmar, and also in the courtyard of the South Indian temple in Silom, Thailand. One complex of this nature, featuring statues of all nine planets, also exists in the Bhairav Mahadev Sthan in Gyaneswor, Kathmandu, Nepal. Phra Rahu, as he is called in Thailand, is worshipped in Wat Traimit in Bangkok’s Chinatown  and also in Wat Yannawa, amongst other wats. The most famous temple for Phra Rahu worshipping in Thailand is in Nakhon Pathom Province, a temple called Wat Srisathhong. Rahu is also worshipped by the  Dusadh (Paswan) caste found in Bihar. A prayer in the form of a three-day fast is offered by devotees. The bhagat (priest) assists the devotee in prayer by standing on a ladder made of swords and by fire-offering at which the bhagat walks through the fire. The ritual is a device to secure abundance of sunlight and prosperity by the community.

33.4 Rahu Mantra Mantras linked with Rahu include “Om Bhram Bhreem Bhroum Sah Rahave Namah” and “Om Rang Rahuve Namah Om”. “Om Dhoom Raam Rahave Namaha”

33.5 See also •

  Ketu

•

 Kirtimukha

•

  Svarbhanu

33.6 Notes [1] Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam, ed.  India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 77. [2]  Candima Sutta [3]  Suriya Sutta [4]  Access to Insight; see the summary in the  Devaputtasamyutta section Phra Rahu in Thailand.

There is a dedicated temple to Rahu - Naganatha Temple at Thirunageswaram, Tamil Nadu, India. There is a milk abhishekam everyday during Rahu Kaalam to appease Rahu. The milk turns light blue when it flows down after touching the statue of Rahu. This practice has been

[5]  Daan in Vedic Astrology

33.7 External links •

 Things ruled by Rahu in Vedic Astrology

33.7. EXTERNAL LINKS  •

How Does rahu Operate in its Dasha

•

Hessonite the Jyotish Gemstone of Rahu

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Chapter 34

Varuna For other uses, see Varuna (disambiguation). In Vedic religion, Varuna (/ˈvɜrʊnə, ˈvɑːrə-/;[1] Sanskrit: Varuṇa  वण , Malay:  Baruna), is a god of the water and of the celestial ocean, as well as a god of law of the underwater world. A Makara is his mount. In Hindu mythology, Varuna continued to be considered the  god of all forms of the water element, particularly the oceans.

34.1 In the Vedas As chief of the Adityas, Varuna has aspects of a  solar deity though, when opposed to Mitra, he is rather associated with the night, and Mitra with the daylight. As the most prominent Deva, however, he is mostly concerned with moral and societal affairs than being a deification of nature. Together with Mitra–originally 'agreement' (between tribes) personified—being master of  ṛtá, he is the supreme keeper of order and god of the  law. Varuna and Mitra are the gods of the societal affairs including the oath, and are often twinned Mitra-Varuna (a dvandva compound). Varuna is also twinned with  Indra in the Rigveda, as  Indra-Varuna (when both cooperate at New Year in re-establishing order  [2] ). The Rigveda and Atharvaveda[3] portrays Varuna as omniscient, catching liars in his snares. The stars are his thousand-eyed spies, watching every movement of men. In the Rigveda, Indra, chief of the Devas, is about six times more prominent than Varuna, who is mentioned 341 times. This may misrepresent the actual importance of Varuna in early Vedic society due to the focus of the Rigveda on fire and Soma ritual, Soma being closely associated with Indra; Varuna with his omniscience and omnipotence in the affairs of men has many aspects of a supreme deity. The daily Sandhyavandanam ritual of a dvija addresses Varuna in this aspect in its evening routine, asking him to forgive all sins, while Indra receives no mention. Both Mitra and Varuna are classified as  Asuras in the Rigveda (e.g. RV 5.63.3), although they are also addressed as Devas as well (e.g. RV 7.60.12). Varuna, being the king of the Asuras, was adopted or made the

change to a Deva after the structuring of the primordial cosmos, imposed by Indra after he defeats Vrtra. [4] Vedic Varuna is sometimes thought to be a reflex of the same Proto-Indo-European theonym as Greek  Ouranos, based on similarities between both names and the respective gods’ attributes, but no successful derivation has yet been produced that is consistent with known laws of sound change. [5] In post-Vedic texts Varuna became the god of  oceans and rivers and keeper of the souls of the drowned. As such, Varuna is also a god of the dead, and can grant immortality. He is attended by the nagas. He is also one of the Guardians of the directions, representing the west. Later art depicts Varuna as a lunar deity, as a yellow man wearing golden armor and holding a noose or lasso made from a snake. He rides the sea creature Makara.

34.2 In the Ramayana Faced with the dilemma of how to cross the ocean to Lanka, where his abducted wife  Sita is held captive by the demonking Ravana, Rama (an Avatar of Vishnu)performs a penance (tapasya) to Varuna, the Lord of Oceans, fasting and meditating in perfect dhyana for three days and three nights. Varuna does not respond, and Rama arises on the fourth morning, enraged by the God’s arrogance. With his bow and arrow, he angrily begins attacking the oceans with celestial weapons—burning up the waters and killing its life and creatures. The Vanaras (Monkeys) are dazzled and fearful at witnessing the enraged Rama demolish the oceans, and his brother, Lakshmana, prays to calm Rama’s mind. Just as Rama invokes the brahmastra, considered the most powerful weapon capable of destroying all creation, Varuna arises out of the oceans. He bows to Rama, explaining that he himself was at a loss to answer Rama’s question. Begging him not to destroy the oceans with the missile, he suggests that Rama re-direct the weapon at a demonic race that lives in the heart of the ocean. Rama’s arrows destroys the demons, and establishes a purer, liberated environment there. Varuna promises that he would keep the oceans still for all of Rama’s army to pass, and Nala con-

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34.4. IN ZOROASTRIANISM 

Raja Ravi Varma Painting - 'Rama Conquers Varuna' 

structs a bridge (Rama’s Bridge) across to Lanka. Rama justifies his angry assault on the oceans as he followed the correct process of petitioning and worshipping Varuna, but obtaining the result by force for the greater good. [6]

34.3 In contemporary Hinduism Worship of Varuna is an integral part of the evening ritual of the Sandhyavandanam, of a  dvija Hindu. However, popular worship is primarily limited to Hindus of Sindhi origin. (See Jhulelal)

34.4 In Zoroastrianism Varuna is not attested in the texts of the  Avesta. Too late to be of relevance to a reconstruction of what might have happened to Indo-Iranian *vouruna (if at all such a predecessor figure existed) in Iran are the appearance of two names  like 'Varuna' in the medieval texts of Zoroastrian tradition. One of these instances is as Middle Persian  varun, a dim-witted, easily tricked demon of “backwards"-ness, which is the literal Middle Persian meaning of his name. The other instance appears in a reading of a medieval Zoroastrian reaction to Islam’s 99 names of Allah. In that list, a term in the ambiguous Pahlavi script was mis-transcribed into Pazand and Gujarati script as 'vāruná', which then -- together with a loss of  halant   by typesetting -- in the 19th century esoteri-

109 cally interpreted as “deliverer from evil.” Neither of these terms have any connection to Vedic Varuna. Also unrelated to Vedic Varuna are Avestan  Vourukasha and Varena. The former is the Avesta’s mythological sea that covers theearth, while Varena is a mythological fourcornered fourteenth region of the world. Assuming that Vedic Varuna is not a purely Indian development (i.e. assuming that he derives from an IndoIranian *vouruna), there are several different theories on what might have happened to Indo-Iranian  *vouruna  in Iran: Nyberg (Die Religionen des alten Iran , 1938:282ff) sees Varuna represented as the Amesha Spenta  Asha Vahishta “Best Righteousness”, an opinion—with extensions—that Dumezil (Tarpeia 1947:33-113) and Widengren ( Die Religionen Irans, 1965:12-13) also follow. This theory is based on Vedic Varuna’s role as the principal protector of rta, which in Iran is represented by  asha [vahishta]. Kuiper (IIJ   I, 1957) proposes that none less than Ahura Mazda is a development from an earlier dvandva *vouruna-mitra. The basis of Kuiper’s proposal is that the equivalent of Avestan  mazda “wisdom” is Vedic  medhira, described in Rigveda 8.6.10 as the "(revealed) insight into the cosmic order” that Varuna grants his devotees. In Kuiper’s view, Ahura Mazda is then a compound divinity in which the propitious characteristics of  *mitra negate the unfavorable qualities of  *vouruna. Zimmer (Münchner Studien 1984:187-215) observed that Varuna has the byname (cult epithet)  bhaga, an adjective that also appears in the Avesta (as  baga). It may then be that the Avestan adjective is likewise a cult epithet, the proper name having been forgotten—a not uncommon occurrence. This may be seen to be reflected in Artaxerxes III’s invocation of  ahuramazda ura mithra baga “Ahura Mazda, Mithra, and the Baga” (Boyce,  Acta Iranica 21, 1981:59-73). Another epithet of Vedic Varuna is  asura, and there may be a remnant of Varuna in those Gathic passages (generally presumed to have been composed by Zoroaster himself) refers to the   ahuras  (plural) without (aside from Ahura Mazda) explicitly naming them. While Ahura Mazda is uniformly “the mightiest Ahura” (e.g.   Yasna 33.11), in the only two occurrences of the term where the word does not refer to Ahura Mazda, the poet uses the expression  mazdasca ahurano  ( Yasna 30.9, 31.4). This phrase, generally understood to mean “the Wise [Mazda] One and the (other) Ahuras”, is in “common opinion” (so Boyce 1984:159) recognized as being archaic and in which the other Ahuras are  *mitra and *varouna. Boyce (Mithra the King and Varuna the Master , 2001) sees this supported by the younger Avestan  dvandvah expression mithra ahura berezanta  “Mithra and the High Lord”, the latter being unambiguously Ahura Berezainti, “High Lord” Apam Napat, the third member of the Ahuric triad (Gray,   Foundations, 1929:15), and with whose Indian equivalent (also Apam Napat) Vedic Varuna is closely as-

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sociated.

34.5 In modern age

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  Paravar

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 Shukra (guru of asuras, demons)

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 Asura

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 Ahura Mazda

34.7 Notes [1]   “Varuna”.  Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary. [2] F. B. J. Kuiper, Ancient Idian Cosmopony, Beombay 1983 [3] Shaunakiya Atharvaveda 4.16, corresponding to Paippalada 5.32. Varuna, the Indian Neptune, USS Varuna (1861) & USS Varuna (1943)

Two ships in the  United States Navy have been named USS   Varuna  for Varuna, the Vedic god of oceans and rivers and keeper of the souls of the drowned.

[4]  http://www.jstor.org/stable/1061926?origin= JSTOR-pdf [5] Anthony, David W. (2010).  The Horse, the Wheel, and  Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World . Princeton University Press. pp. 30–31. [6] Ramesh Menon (2004), The Ramayana, pp. 376–81

•

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 The first  Varuna was a screw  gunboat launched in 1861 and sunk by enemy action in April 1862.  The second  Varuna (AGP-5) was a motorboat tender, commissioned in 1943 and decommissioned in 1946.

INS Varuna   is a sail training vessel of the Indian Navy. Varuna was completed in April 1981 by AlcockAshdown in Bhavnagar. It can carry 26 cadets. The Varuna class of ship of Indian Navy are sail training vessels. They consist of the following three ships. •

 INS Varuna

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 INS Tarangini

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 INS Sudarshini

The dwarf planet candidate 20000 Varuna is named after Varuna.

34.6 See also •

 Rigvedic deities

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 Mitra (Vedic)

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  Adityas

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 Guardians of the directions

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 The king and the god 

Chapter 35

List of Lithuanian mythological figures “Indraja” redirects here. For Indian actress in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam films, see  Indraja (actress). The   list of Lithuanian gods  is reconstructed based on scarce written sources and late  folklore.   Lithuania converted to Christianity  in 1387, but elements of the Lithuanian mythology  survived into the 19th century. Earliest written sources, authored by foreigners and Christians, only briefly mention the Lithuanian gods. Beginning in the 16th century, the pagan religion received more attention from authors, but often their accounts were confused, contradictory, and heavily influenced by various religious agendas. Collection and recording of folklore began in the19th century. By that time the pagan mythology became fragmented and mixed with Christian traditions. The cults of old deities transformed into folklore (individual tales, myths, songs, etc.) without associated rituals. Because of such difficulties obtaining data, there is no accepted list of Lithuanian gods. Different authors present wildly contradictory reconstructions of Lithuanian pantheon.

35.1 Names from folklore myths and legends This section includes the names of gods, divine or demonic beings, and other personages from Lithuanian myths, legends, folklore, and fairy-tales.

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35.1.1 Gods •

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 Dievas, one main chief god (whose name was cognate with the Vedic  Dyaus, Germanic Tiwaz and Greek Zeus).  Dievas Senelis  (“Good Old Man”) he is a teacher of people and judge of their morality. He looks like an old traveling beggar. Dievas Senelis is proficient at magic and medicine. Epithet of Dievas.  Praamžius, Pramšans, Pramžimas, Praamžimas, an epithet of Dievas (the chief god); probably of later literary origin.[1]

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  Aušrinė, the Morning Star, a goddess, a daughter of the Dievas (“dievaitė"). She was the goddess of the morning. Aušrinė has many similarities with Vedic Ushas, the Greek goddess Eos, and the Roman goddess Aurora. Alternatively her name is given as Aušra (“dawn”).  Dalia, goddess of fate and weaving.   Gabija, the foster of the Holy Fire, a goddess, a daughter of Dievas (“dievaitė").   Laima, goddess of Fate and Luck (Laxmi in Hinduism).   Mėnuo, the Moon, a son of Dievas (“dievaitis”).   Perkūnas, the Thunder, a son of Dievas (“dievaitis”) (Parjanya in Vedic religion).   Saulė, the Sun Goddess (Surya in Vedic religion).  Ašvieniai, the divine twins who pulled the chariot of the Sun (the Vedic Ashwins or the Greek Dioskouri).   Vakarinė, goddess of the Evening Star.   Žemyna, goddess, the deified soil (Zamin in Persian and Hindi for “land”).   Deivės Valdytojos  (Lithuanian:   Governing Goddesses), were the goddesses who made  garments from human’s lives. They were seven sisters: Verpiančioji (who spun the threads of life), Metančioji (who threw rims of life), Audėja (the weaver), Gadintoja (who broke the thread), Sergėtoja (who scolded Gadintoja, and instigated war between people), Nukirpėja (who cut the cloth of life), and Išskalbėja (the laundress). They have similarities with the Greek Fates and the Norse Norns. Deivės Valdytojos were associated with Dalia and Laima.   Žvaigždės  (žvaigždė, in singular), stars, having the Sun as their mother and, sometimes, the  Moon as their father. One of the most important stars is Aušrinė. Other stars, Aušrinė's sisters, are less important, but they, like  Vakarinė or  Vakarė  (the evening Venus, who makes the bed for  Saulė, the

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sun), Indraja (Jupiter; Indra in Vedic religion), Sėlija (Saturn),   Žiezdrė  (Mars) and   Vaivora   (Mercury), sometimes appear in mythic stories too.

35.1.2 Heroes and heroines

Smauglys (boa), Ruginis (spirit of rye), Papiokė, Pypalas, Žebris, Arklys (horse), Vilkas (wolf).

35.1.4 Various lower beings •

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  Pajauta, the legendary princess of Kernavė Jūratė and Kastytis are heroes of a Lithuanian legend, which subsequently became popular, mostly because of its modern poetic interpretation by Maironis. The queen of the amber palace  Jūratė may be considered a manifestation of the goddess of Sea in this legend.

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  Kaukas, spirits similar to leprechauns.   Laumė, a fairy-like female creature (pixies). Described as white and blue as the sky itself. Good spirit, very friendly with the Earth and Nature gods. However, if anyone tried to use them, the punishment was grave.

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  Nykštukas, gnomes.

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  Vėlės, spirits of dead human beings.

35.1.3 Local and nature spirits •

  Ežerinis, a spirit of lakes

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  Upinis, a spirit of rivers

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  Auštaras  (Auštra), the god of the northeast wind, who stands at the gates of  paradise and lights the way for those going to paradise. His function of shining this beacon makes him similar to  Aušrinė; some consider him to be her cousin.

35.1.5 Demonic beings •

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 Bangpūtys, the god of the seas and storms ––he is two-faced like the Roman god Janus.   Javinė, a household god who protects grain in barns.   Jievaras, a household spirit who protects grain. Sacrifices to Jievaras are made after the  rye harvest. While cutting grain, women would leave a few grain tufts uncut, which would later be braided into plaits. They would also leave some bread and salt under the plait, andwouldsay: Davei manei, Žemele, duodame ir tau ([You] gave for us, Mother Earth, we are giving for you too), a request for the land to continue to be fruitful.   Kupolė, the spirit of springtime vegetation and flowers. The Festival of Kupolė (Kupolinės) was associated with Feast of St. John the Baptist (Joninės). In this festival, women picked sacral herbs, danced and sang songs. Kupolinės is also known as  Rasos. Compare this with Ziedu māte in Latvian mythology, Kupala in Polish mythology and Ivan Kupala in Russian mythology  Laukų dvasios  (spirits of fields), spirits, who were running through the fields. When crops in the fields waved in the wind, people saw them as being the actions of spirits. Laukų dvasios include Nuogalis, Kiškis (hare), Meška (bear), Lapė (fox), Katinas (tomcat), Bubis, Bubas, Bubė,   Baubas, Babaužis, Bobas, Maumas (bugaboo), Raudongalvis (red-headed), Raudongerklis (red-throated), Žaliaakis (green-eyed), Paplėštakis, Guda, Dizikas,

•

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  Aitvaras, a household spirit bringing both good and bad luck   Baubas, an evil spirit with long lean arms, wrinkly fingers and red eyes. He harasses people and tears their hair or stifles them. To children, he is the equivalent of the   boogeyman  of the Englishspeaking countries. A misbehaving child could be told by the parents: “Behave, or  baubas will come and get you”. Also it could be described as a black and dark creature living under the carpet or in some dark spot of the house.   Giltinė – goddess of death, also The Reaper. Other names include Kaulinyčia, Maras (black death orthe Plague), Maro mergos, Kolera, Pavietrė, Kapinių žmogus.[2] Her sacral bird is the owl. Sometimes she was considered to be a sister of  Laima (luck).   Ragana is an old-looking female or witch. Mostly has dark intentions and powers to control forces of nature. They probably were old ladies living by the forest, having a good knowledge of plants and their use for medical and other purposes.  Slogutis meanspain, miseryor nightmare. Also can mean fear or bad feelings.   Pinčiukas, devil, not the pure evil being of Christianity, but a trickster. Earlier - dweller or even god of bogs and marshes.   Žiburinis, a scary forest spirit that appears as a phosphorescent skeleton.

35.1.6 Holy places and things •

 Dausos or  Dangus, the home of good souls. Dausos is on a high mountain (Latvian Debeskalns, or Norse Valhalla), between two rivers. There are

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35.2. NAMES BY WRITTEN SOURCES 

golden apple-trees in the Dausos garden. Day in the   Perkūnas was the god of thunder, one of the most garden is perpetual but outside its confines is perpowerful deities. Perkūnas survived in people faith petual night. Master of Dausos is Vėjopatis (Lord and folk tales till the 20th century. of the wind) or Vėjas (Wind) who is also one of   Diviriks   is thought to be one of Perkūnas euthe oldest gods in Lithuanian mythology. Vėjas phemisms, meaning leader of gods. is identical to  Vayu of Hinduism. Auštaras and Vėjopatis are keepers of Dausos’s gates (Dausų Vartai). While Auštaras shows the way for good souls, 35.2.2 Martynas Mažvydas Vėjas (Vėjopatis) blows bad souls into oblivion. •

•

35.2 Names by written sources 35.2.1 Earliest Russian chronicles Some names from Lithuanian mythology are also found in Russian chronicles of the 13th century. These deities were supposedly worshiped by  King of Lithuania Mindaugas secretly after baptizing. Russian chronicles are considered the best source of information about ancient Lithuanian pantheon worshiped by feodals and military. •

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  Sovijus  in 13th-century Russian chronicles was a person who introduced the pagan custom of burning bodies after death, according to studies by  Gintaras Beresnevičius. The mediaeval chronicles tells that this custom is very old and was called Sovica. Sovica was practicated not only by Lithuanians but also by other pagan tribes (Livonians, Estonians and others).   Žvoruna(Zvoruna) was a euphemism of the hunting and forest goddess like Roman Diana. Her name is connected with wild animals. There was mentioned in chronicle that she is a bitch, it means that her zoomorphic shape is female dog.   Medeina  (Medeinė) is another euphemism of the hunting and forest goddess. Medeina also was mentioned in the 16th century by J. Lasicki. She was worshiped by King Mindaugas and represented military interest of warriors.   Teliavelis  (Televelis) was a powerful smith who made the sun and threw it to the sky. This myth survived in folk tales in the beginning of the 20th century. Some scholars, like K. Būga tried to prove that Televelis is incorrectly written Kalvelis (smith diminutive in Lithuanian). Teliavelis has connections with Finnish Ilmarinen.   Andajus  (Andajas, Andojas, etc.) was mentioned in medieval chronicles as supreme deity. It may be euphemism of Dievas. There was mentioned in chronicle that warriors invoke Andajus in battle.   Nonadievis  (Nunadievis, by some scholars etimologized as Numadievis) is incorrectly written name of supreme god or just another euphemism.

Martynas Mažvydas in his Latin introduction to  Catechismusa Prasty Szadei  (1547) urged the people to abandon their pagan ways and mentioned the following gods: [3][4] •

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•

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  Perkūnas (Percuno) – god of thunder   Laukosargas  (Laucosargus) – god of grains and other agricultural plants   Žemėpatis  (Semepates) – god of cattle and other farm animals   Aitvaras and kaukas (Eithuaros and Caucos) – evil spirits

35.2.3 Maciej Stryjkowski Maciej Stryjkowski   (1547–1593) was a   Polish– Lithuanian historian and author of  Chronicle of Poland, Lithuania, Samogitia and all Russia. In this work, Stryjkowski provided two lists of gods, one Old Prussian and another Lithuanian. He listed 16 Lithuanian gods:[5] 1.   Prakorimas   (Prokorimos) – the supreme deity. Stryjkowski elaborated that people used to sacrifice white cocks to Prakorimas. The flesh would be dividing into three pieces: one for peasants, another for pagan priests (Lithuanian:  žynys), and third for burning. Stryjkowski pointed out that Prakorimas was similar to Prussian supreme god Okopirmas. 2.   Rūgutis (Ruguczis) – god of fermentation and fermented foods 3.   Žemininkas (Ziemennik) – god of land andagriculture. The cult of žaltys (grass snake) is associated with the cult of Žemininkas. 4.  Krūminė  (Kruminie Pradziu Warpu) – deity of ears, provider of crops 5.   Lietuvonis (Lituwanis) – god of rain 6.  Kauriraris  (Chaurirari) – deity of war and warhorses. The name etymology is unclear.   Vladimir Toporov suggested that it is derived from Lithuanian word  kaurai  (fur), while Wilhelm Mannhardt argued it stems from  karas (war).[6] 7.  Sutvaras (Sotwaros) – god of all cattle

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8.  Šeimos dievas  (Seimi Dewos) – god of family

7.   Bežlėja (Bezlea)

9.  Upinis dievas (Upinis Dewos) – god of rivers

8.   Brėkšta  (Breksta) – goddess of twilight. Also it could be a euphemism of  Vakarė.

10.   Bubilas – god of honey and bees 11.  Didis Lado (Dzidzis Lado) – the great god. Festivities, songs, and dances in his honor lasted from May 25 to June 25. There are doubts whether it was an actual god.[7] 12.   Gulbis  (Gulbi Dzievos) – the good spirit of every human, guardian angel

9.   Ligyčius (Ligiczus) 10. Datanus 11.   Kirnis (Kirnus) – local god of cherries 12. Kremata – god of hogs [9] 13.   Pyzius (Pizio) – god of spouses

13.  Ganiklis  (Goniglis Dziewos) – god of herds and shepherds

14.   Medeina (Modeina et Ragaina) – goddess of forest and hunting

14.   Šventpaukštinis (Swieczpunscynis) – god of all domesticated and wild birds. People did not offer sacrifices to him as he was a free spirit.

15.  Kerpyčius and Šilinytis (Kierpiczus and Siliniczus) – gods of forest, mosses and lichens

15.  Kelių dievas  (Kielu Dziewos) – god of roads, trade and travel 16.   Pušaitis  or  Puškaitis  (Puszajtis) – deity of land, living in bushes of   sambucus   and commanding chthonic dwarfs barstukas

35.2.4 Jan Łasicki Jan Łasicki (Lasicius) was a Polish Protestant activist. He wrote a treatise on  idolatry  About gods of Samogitians, other Sarmatians, and false Christians (De diis Samagitarum caeterorumque Sarmatarum et falsorum Christianorum, written ca. 1582 and published in 1615). This 18-page treatise contained a lists of 76 Lithuanian gods with brief description of their functions. Łasicki obtained most of his information from Łaszkowski, a Polish lesser noble who worked as a royal land surveyor. The list contained very minor deities, representing everyday household items. Łasicki was also not intimately familiar with Lithuanian culture or language. Therefore, the academic opinion on the list ranges from a valuable resource to a practical joke designed to poke fun of  Christian saints through an inverted mirror. Deities mentioned by Jan Łasicki were: [8] 1.   Aukštėjas (Auxtheias Vissagistis) – an euphemism of the supreme god. Derived from Lithuanian word aukštas (high).

16.  Tavalas   (Tavvals) – deity of physical strength. Gintaras Beresnevičius noted that this deity could be the same medieval  Teliavelis. 17. Orthus 18.   Ežerinis  (Ezernim) – spirit or deity of lakes. Derived from ežeras (lake). 19.   Sidžius,   Simonaitis and   Ventis Rekičionis  (Simonaitem, Sidzium, Ventis Rekicziouum) – spirits worshiped by individual noble families 20. Karvaitis Ėraitinis (Kurvvaiczin Eraiczin) – deity of calves and lambs [9] 21.   Gardūnytis  (Gardunithis) – protector of newlyborn lambs[10] 22.   Prigirstytis (Prigirstitis) – can hear whispers 23.  Derintojas (Derfintos) 24. Bentis 25. Lavvkpatimo 26.  Priparšis (Priparscis) 27.   Ratainyčia (Ratainicza) – god of horses [6] 28.   Valgina (Walgina) – god of cattle[9] 29.  Krikštas (Kriksthos) – protector of tombstones [9]

2.   Žemėpatis (Zemopacios)

30.  Apydėmė (Apidome) – deity of changed residence. The name is also known from hand-written collection of sermons from 1573. [11]

3.   Perkūnas (Percunos) – god of thunder god

31.   Kriukis (Krukis) – deity of pigs

4.   Audros – god of storm

32.   Lazdona (Lasdona) – goddess of hazelnuts

5. Algis

33.   Bubilas (Babilos) – household god of bees, husband of Austėja

6.   Aušra  (Ausca) – the morning star (Venus). Her other name was Aušrinė.

34.   Žemyna (Zemina) – goddess of land and agriculture

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35.2. NAMES BY WRITTEN SOURCES 

35.   Austėja  (Austheia) – household goddess of bees, often presented as wife of Bubilas

64. Smik smik per velėną  (Smik Smik Perleuenu) – a phrase rather than a being

36. Deuoitis

65.   Ežiagalis (Ezagulis) – god of death

37. Vetustis

66.   Aitvaras (Aitvvaros)

38. Guboi and Tvverticos

67.   Kaukas (Kaukie)

39.  Veliuona (Vielona) – goddess of death

68.   Gyvatė (Giuoitos) – black snake (see also  žaltys)

40. Warpulis

69.   Srutis and   Miechutele   – deities of paint and color[12]

41. Salaus – no function recorded by Łasicki.

42.  Šluotražis   (Szlotrazis) – no function recorded by Łasicki. The name is derived from   šluota 35.2.5 Matthäus Prätorius (broom).[12] Deities mentioned by  Matthäus Prätorius (1635–1704) 43. Tiklis – no function recorded by Łasicki. were:[12] 44.   Beržulis  (Birzulis) – no function recorded by Łasicki. Based on etymology, it could be a god of birches and birch sap. 45.   Šeryčius  (Siriczus) – no function recorded by Łasicki. The name is possibly derived from   šerti  (feed).[12]

•

Žalius (Zallus) – god of disagreement

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Žėlius (Zelus) – god of grass

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46.   Dvargantis (Dvvargonth) – no function recorded by Łasicki. 47. Klamals – no function recorded by Łasicki. 48. Atlaibas (Atlaibos) – no function recorded by Łasicki. 49. Numeias 50.   Ublanyčia (Vblanicza) – patron of beggars [13]

•

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 Šulininis (Szullinnijs) – god of wells Bangpūtys, Vėjopatis, Bičbirbis, Giltinė, Gota, Jaučių Baubis, Karvaitis, Ėraitis, Skalsa, Biržulis / Beržulis, Prigirstytis / Girystis, Ligyčius / Lygėjus, Kelio dievas / Kelukis Drebkulis and Magyla - Prussian Lithuanian  Gabjauja (Gabvartas) [14]

35.2.6 Theodor Narbutt

Polish historian Theodor Narbutt wrote the ten-volume work History of the Lithuanian Nation  (Dzieje starożytne narodu litewskiego) between 1835 and 1841. The first 52. Pesseias volume contained a description of Lithuanian mythology. 53.  Trotytojas kibirkščių (Tratitas Kirbixtu) – deity of However, modern historians have accused Narbutt of falsifying historical facts and reporting speculations. Thus, spark, fire some gods mentioned only by Narbutt and unknown from 54. Alabathis other sources are usually treated as a figure of author’s imagination. 55. Polengabia 51.   Dugnai – spirit of flour

56.   Užpelenė (Aspelenie)

Male deities

57.  Budintojas (Budintaia) 58. Matergabiae 59.   Raugo Žemėpatis   (Rauguzemapati) – deity of sourdough, leaven and fermentation 60. Luibegeldas

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•

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61. Ziemennik 62.   Vaižgantas (Waizganthos) – a god of flax 63.   Gabija (Gabie) – goddess of household fire

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 Praamžius (Pramżimas) – highest god, determines the fate of people, world, and other gods   Ukapirmas   (Okkapirmas) – preceded time, his feast is celebrated on December 25  Viršaitis  (Wirszajtos) – protected household, domestic animals. Narbutt claimed that he was equivalent to Auxtejas Wissagistis mentioned by Łasicki and to Roman Saturn   Perkūnas (Perkunas) – thunder god

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  Kovas (Kawas) – god of war

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 Ragutis – god of beer, vodka, mead

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 Santvaras  or  Sotvaras  (Sotwaros) – god of daylight, poets, doctors   Atrimpas (Atrimpos) – god of sea and water   Gardaitis (Gardeoldiis) – god of wind, storm, protector of ships

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  Poklius (Poklus) – god of death and underworld

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  Kriukis (Krugis) – god of smiths

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  Žiemininkas (Ziemienikas) – god of earth, harvest, and darkness   Patelas  (Patelo) – flying god of air, similar to an angel

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  Šneibratas (Sznejbrato) – god of birds and hunting

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  Kibirai (Kabiry) – a trinity

Female deities •

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  Praurimė (Praurime) – goddess of sacred fire, she was served by vaidilutės   Lada  (Lado) – the great goddess, Rasos festival is dedicated to her

•

  Budtė (Budte) – goddess of wisdom

•

  Laima (Lajma) – goddess of fate

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 Pelenų Gabija (Polengabia) – goddess of fireplaces

•

•

•

•

•

•

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  Moterų Gabija  (Matergabia) – goddess of bread and bakery

Goddess Milda by Kazimierz Alchimowicz (1910), National Museum in Warsaw •

•

  Perkūnaitėlė (Perkunatele) – wife of Perkūnas   Pilvytė  (Pilwite) – goddess of money, riches, and good luck  Lietuva  (Liethua) – goddess of freedom, pleasure, joy

 Kruonis (Kronis) – goddess of time

•

  Užsparinė (Usparinia) – goddess of land borders

•

  Verpėja (Werpeja) – weaver of the thread of life

•

  Gondu – goddess of weddings

•

  Upinė (Upine) – goddess of rivers, springs

•

  Milda – goddess of love, courtship •

•

•

 Krūminė (Krumine) – goddess of grain, agriculture   Nijolė  (Nijola) – mistress of the underworld, wife of Poklius

  Brėkšta   (Brekszta) – goddess of darkness and dreams

•

 Veliuona (Wellona) – goddess of eternity, afterlife   Pergrubė (Pergrubie) – goddess of spring, flowers, gardens

  Bezelea – evening goddess

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  Ratainyčia   (Ratajniczu) – goddess protecting horses   Valginė  (Walgina) – goddess protecting domestic animals  Luobo gelda (Lajbegelda) – goddess of knowledge and rumors

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 Alabatis – goddess of flax

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 Mėšlų boba (Mahslu baba) – goddess of garbage

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  Aušra (Ausssra) – morning goddess

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 Budintoja – spirit that wakes sleeping people

117

35.3. SEE SEE ALSO  •

  Austėja (Austheja) – goddess of bees

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 Ragutiene Pati  (Ragutenapati) – wife of Ragutis

•

The names names,, that that were were more more margin marginal al in Lithua Lithuani nian an mythology or less known from existing sources are put  Žemės Motina  (Zemmes mahti) – goddess of un- here. In fact they denote some spirits or local deities, that derground, responsible for lost items don't play a main role in the mythology of Lithuanians.

•

 Gaila (Gajla) – spirit torturing people and animals

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 Neris – nymph of Neris River

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  Dugnė (Dugna) – nymph of rivers

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  Ragana – goddess of trees

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  Lazdona – goddess of hazelnut

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•

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 Medziojna – goddess of forests   Pajauta  – worshiped woman, daughter of Duke Kernius,, wife of Živinbudas Kernius of Živinbudas

(Biruta) ta) – wors worship hiped ed woman woman,, wife wife of   Birutė   (Biru Kęstutis

35.2.7 35.2.7 Other Other written written sources sources This section contains those names of Lithuanian and Pruss Prussia iann gods gods or other other mythi mythica call being beingss that that areme are menti ntione onedd in old treatises on history or philosophy, sometimes accompanied by brief descriptions, and which are known from a few independent sources or from their counterparts under different names in later collections of myths and tales. •

35.2.8 35.2.8 Othe Otherr na name mess

  Dimstipatis (mentioned by Jokūbas Lavinskis), is a masculine deity (genius ( genius loci). loci). It is a household god, the guardian of houses of  houses and  and caretaker of the hearth. People sacrificed roosters sacrificed  roosters and  and black hens to the deity. The birds birds were were boiled; boiled; later people people would would gather gather around the kettle and eat the birds. The bones were burned. Sometimes Dimstipatis Dimstipatis is reconstructed as a god of housewives, to whom pigs were  sacrificed  sacrificed.. Dimsti Dimstipat patis is was was also also seen seen as a powe powerr prote protect cting ing from [3] fires.

•

  Dirvolika, Nosolus (Jesuit reports from 1605) [15]

•

  Pagirnis (Jesuit reports from 1605) [3]

•

  Baukuris (Kraziu kolegijos)[16]

•   Velinas (mentioned by Konstantinas by  Konstantinas Sirvydas) Sirvydas )[2]

•

by  Jacob Brodowski) Brodowski )[15]   Javinė (Jawinne by Jacob

•

 (Daniel Klein in Klein in 1666)[17]   Laima (Daniel

•

god of snow snow.. His His name name mean meanss “tha “thatt who who   Blizgulis, a god glitters.”

•

 Junda, Goddess of War

•

and  cattle..   Baubis, a household god of meat and cattle

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  Divytis, a god-like hero of fishermen legends. Fishermen at sea sang songs about Divytis.

•

spirit?) of ships and sailors.  Gardaitis, a god (a spirit?)

•

 furnace..   Jagaubis, a household spirit of fire and the  furnace

•

•

  Rasa, Kupolė's and Kaupolis’ daughter. She is the goddess of summer’s greenage and flowers.   Mokas, a stone with an ability to teach people, sometimes they are found in families - with wife Mokienė and children  Mokiukas

35.3 35 .3 See See also also •

Latvian mythology mythology

•

Lithuanian mythology mythology

•

 Slavic mythology

•

 Romuva (temple)

35.4 35.4 Ref Referen erence cess [1] “Praamžius”.  Mitologijos enciklopedija, enciklopedija, vol. 2. Vilnius. Vaga. 1999. 291 p. [2] Balsys, Balsys, Rimanta Rimantass (2005). (2005). “Pr “Prūsų ūsų ir lietuvių lietuvių mirmirties (požemio (požemio,, miru mirusių siųjų) jų) dievybės: dievybės: nuo Patulo Patulo iki Lietuvininkai ai ir lietuvi lietuviai. ai. Etninė Kaulinyčios”  (PDF). Lietuvinink kultūra (in Lithuanian)  IV: 27–51. [3]   Beresnevičius, Beresnevičius, Gintaras Gintaras (2006-12-16).  (2006-12-16). “Laukpa “Laukpatis tis ir Dimstipatis. Dimstipati s. Lauk Laukoo ir namų dievai”. dievai”.   Šiaurės Atėnai  (in  (in Lithuanian) Lithuanian) (825). ISSN (825). ISSN 1392-7760. 1392-7760. [4] Adalbert Bezzenberger, ed. (1874).  Litauische und Lettische Drucke Drucke des 16. Jah Jahrhunde rhunderts rts . Göttingen Göttingen:: Robert Robert Peppmüler. p. 3. [5]   Beresnevičius, Gintaras (August Gintaras (August 2006). “M. 2006).  “M. Strijkovskio “Kronikos” “Kronik os” lietuvių dievų sąrašas (1)". (1)".   Metai  (in   (in Lithuanian) 8–9 (89). ISSN  (89).  ISSN 0134-3211. 0134-3211. [6] Balsys, Rimantas (2006).  "Žirgų (arklių) dievybės rašytiniuose šaltiniuose”. šaltiniuose”.  Žemaičių žemė  (in Lithuanian) (3): 17–19. ISSN 17–19. ISSN 1392-2610. 1392-2610.

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CHAPTER 35. LIST OF LITHUANIAN LITHUANIAN MYTHOLOGICAL MYTHOLOGICAL FIGURES  FIGURES 

[7] Balsys, Rimantas (2006).  “Lada (Didis Lado) in Baltic and Slavic Written Sources”. Sources”. Acta Baltico-Slavica. Archeologia, ologia, Historia, Historia, Ethnograph Ethnographia, ia, et Linguarum Linguarum Scientia (30): 597–609. ISSN 597–609. ISSN 0065-1044. 0065-1044. [8]  Łasicki, Jan (1868) Jan (1868) [1615].  De diis samagitarum libellus  (in Latin). Riga: J. Bacmeister. pp. 10–16.   OCLC 60605501.. 60605501 [9] Mitchel, B. W. (April 1919).  “The Early Centuries of  7 (14): 421. Kultur”..  The Classical Journal  7 Kultur” [10] Paula Paulausky uskytė, tė, Teresė Teresė (2004-08-2 (2004-08-21). 1). “Ką gar garbin binoo žema žemaiči ičiai ai XVI amžiuje amžiuje  dievus ar demonus?". demonus?".  Šiaurės Atėnai  (in  (in Lithuanian) (713). ISSN (713).  ISSN 1392-7760. 1392-7760. [11] [11] Simas Simas Sužied Sužiedėl ėlis, is, ed. ed. (1970– (1970–197 1978). 8). “Apyd “Apydėm ėmė". ė". Encyclopedia Lituanica  I. Boston, Massachusetts: Massachusetts: Juozas Kapočius. pp. 113–114. LCC 113–114. LCC 74-114275. 74-114275. [12] Balsys, Rimantas (2007). “Kai (2007).  “Kai kurios Motiejaus Pretorijaus hipotezės ir jų interpretacijos XX a. pabaigos – XXI a. pradžios mitologų darbuose” (PDF). darbuose” (PDF). Res Humanitariae (in Lithuanian)  I: 76–94. ISSN 76–94. ISSN 1822-7708. 1822-7708. [13]  Razauskas, Dainius (2009-12-04). Dainius  (2009-12-04).  “Krosnis – aukuras, namų švento šventovė" vė"..   Šiaurės Atėnai  (in Lithuanian) (967). ISSN 1392-7760. 1392-7760. [14] http://www.aidai.us/index.php?option=com_content& http://www.aidai.us/index.php?option=com_content& task=view&id=892&Itemid=127 [15] Ona Verseckienė, ed. (2004). “Namų (2004).  “Namų dievai. Baltiškieji Lietuvių etninė kultūr kultūra. a. Namai Namai etninėje etninėje namų dievai”. dievai”. Lietuvių kultūroje  (in Lithuanian). Lithuanian). Elektroninės Elektroninės leidybos leidybos namai. ISBN 9955-606-04-5. 9955-606-04-5. [16] Zinkus [17] [17] Sima Simass Suži Sužied edėl ėlis is,, ed. ed. (197 (1970– 0–19 1978 78). ). “Lai “Laima ma”. ”. Encyclopedia Encycl opedia Litua Lituanica nica III. Boston Boston,, Massa Massach chuse usetts tts:: Juozas Kapočius. pp. 269–270. LCC 269–270.  LCC 74-114275. 74-114275.

35.5 35.5 Furth Further er read readin ingg •

•

•

•

 Lithuanian Religion and Mythology by   Gintaras Beresnevičius  Jūrate Baranov Baranovaa et al., eds. (2001). (2001).   “Chapter iv: Lithuanian mythology by Gintaras Beresnevičius” . Lithuanian Lithu anian philosoph philosophy: y: per persons sons and ideas Lithuanian philosophical studies, ii . Cultural heritage and contemporary change series IVa, Eastern and Central Europe, volume 17. The Council For Research Research In Values And Philosophy.  ISBN 1-56518-137-9. 1-56518-137-9 . Retrieved Retrieved 2007-09-07.   Gintaras Beresn Beresneviči evičius us on perio periodis disati ation on and Gods Gods in Lithuanian mythology. Algirdas Julien Greimas Greimas,, “Of Gods and Men: Studies in Lithuanian Mythology”, Indiana Univ. Press (November 1992)

Chapter 36

Hine-nui-te-pō (“Great at woman woman of night night")isa ")isa goddess of Hine-nui-te-pō (“Gre night and death and death and  and the ruler of the underworld the  underworld in  in Māori  Māori mythology.. She is a dau mythology daughte ghterr of Tāne of  Tāne.. She fled to the the underworld because she discovered that Tāne, whom she had married, married, was also her father. ather. The red colour colour of sunset comes from her.

36.2 36 .2 See See also also •

 Vagina dentata

•

  Persephone

•

  Incest

•

36.1 6.1 Myths ths

Māui (Māori mythology) mythology)

36.3 36.3 Ref Referen erence cess

All of the children of  Rangi and Papa  Papa   wer weree male. male. It was Tāne who first felt the need for a wife and began to look for a companion. companion. His mother showed showed him how to make a female form from red earth red  earth.. Then Tāne breathed breathed life into Hine-ahuone, the earth-formed-maid, and mated with her. Their Their child was Hine-ata-ui Hine-ata-uira, ra, maid-of-th maid-of-theeflashing-d flashing-dawn awn (a.k.a. (a.k.a. Hine-tītam Hine-tītama), a), and Tāne took her to wife (Biggs 1966:449). One day, while Tāne was away, Hine-ata-uira began to wond wonder er who her fath father er was. was. She was was   disgusted and ashamed when ashamed  when she heard that her husband was also her father, and she ran away. When Tāne came back he was told told that that she she had had run run off to the the spir spirit it-w -wor orld ld,, and and he quic quickl klyy follow ollowed ed after after.. But he was was stoppe stoppedd from enteri entering ng by Hine Hine herself, in her new role as goddess of the underworld. “Go back, Tāne”, she said to him, “and raise our children. Let me remain here here to gather them them in.” So Tāne came back to the upper world, while Hine stayed below, waiting only for Māui for Māui to  to bring death into the world, and begin begin the neve never-e r-endi nding ng proce process ssio ionn of morta mortals ls to her her realm realm (Biggs 1966:449). Māui did the last of his tricks t ricks on her, attempting to make mankind immortal by trying to crawl through her body, entering in her vagina and leaving by her mouth while she slept, to reverse reverse the path of birth. But one of his bird friends, the Pīwakawaka the Pīwakawaka,, laughed at the ridiculousness of the situation, seeing Māui turned into a worm squirming to enter the goddess, goddess, and woke her. her. To punish punish the demi-god, she crushed him with the  obsidian  obsidian teeth  teeth in her vagina; Māui was the first man to die (Alpers 1964:70). Her other husband is her paternal uncle Ruaumoko uncle  Ruaumoko.. 119

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•

  B.G B.G.. Bigg Biggs, s, 'Mao 'Maori ri Myth Mythss and and Trad Tradit itio ions ns’’ in A.H. McLintock (editor),   Encyclopaedia of New Volume mes. s. (Go (Govern vernme ment nt Prin Printe ter: r: Zealand , 3 Volu Wellington), Wellington), 1966, II:447- 454.  Anthony Alpers,  Maori Myths and Tribal Legends . Anckland Anckland : Longman Longman Paul, Paul, 1964.   ISBN 0-58271674-8.. 71674-8

Chapter 37

Nótt 37.1.1 Poetic Edda In stanza 24 of the poem  Vafþrúðnismál , the god Odin (disguised as "Gagnráðr") asks the  jötunn Vafþrúðnir from where the day comes, and the night and its tides. In stanza 25, Vafþrúðnir responds: Delling hight he who the day’s father is, but night was of Nörvi born; the new and waning moons the beneficent powers created, to count the years for men. [2]

Nótt rides her horse in this 19th-century painting by  Peter Nicolai  Arbo.

In Norse mythology, Nótt (Old Norse “night”[1] ) is night personified, grandmother of  Thor. In both the  Poetic  Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the  Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, Nótt is listed as the daughter of a figure by the name of Nörvi (with variant spellings) and is associated with the horse Hrímfaxi, while the Prose Edda features information about Nótt’s ancestry, including her three marriages. Nótt’s third marriage was to the god Dellingr and this resulted in their son  Dagr, the personified day (although some manuscript variations list Jörð as Dellingr’s wife and Dagr’s mother instead). As a proper noun, the word nótt appears throughout Old Norse literature.

In stanza 14 of the  Vafþrúðnismál , Odin states that the horse   Hrímfaxi   “draws every night to the beneficent gods” and that he lets foam from his bit fall every morning, from which dew comes to the valleys. [3] In stanza 30 of the poem  Alvíssmál , the god Thor asks the dwarf Alvíss to tell him what night is called in each of the nine worlds, whom "Nórr" birthed. Alvíss responds that night is referred as “night” by mankind, “darkness” by the gods, “the masker by the mighty Powers”, “unlight” by the jötunn, “joy-of-sleep” by the elves, while dwarves call her “dream-Njörun" (meaning “dream-goddess”).[4] In Sigrdrífumál , after the valkyrie Sigrdrífa is woken from her sleep curse by the hero  Sigurd, Sigurd asks her name, and she gives him a “memory-drink” of a  drinking horn full of mead, and then Sigrdrifa says a heathen  prayer. The first verse of this prayer features a reference to the “sons of Dagr” and the “daughter of Nótt":

37.1 Attestations 120

Hail to the Day! Hail to the sons of Day! To Night and her daughter hail! With placid eyes behold us here, and here sitting give us victory. Hail to the   Æsir! Hail to the Asyniur! Hail to the bounteous earth! Words and wisdom give to us noble twain, and healing hands while we live! [5]

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37.3. REFERENCES 

37.1.2 Prose Edda In the   Prose Edda   book   Gylfaginning, Nótt is again personified. In chapter 10, the enthroned figure of High states that Nótt is the daughter of a jötunn from Jötunheimr by the name of "Norfi or Narfi". Nótt is described as “black and swarthy”, and has had three marriages. Her first marriage was with Naglfari, and the two produced a son by the name of  Auðr. Nótt’s second marriage was to Annar, resulting in their daughter Jörð, the personified earth. Finally, Nótt marries the god Dellingr, and the couple have Dagr, who takes after his “father’s people” in brightness and fairness. Odin took Nótt and her son Dagr, placed them into the sky with a chariot and a horse each, and they ride around the earth every 24 hours. Nótt rides before Dagr, and foam from her horse Hrímfaxi’s bit sprinkles the earth. [6] However, scholar Haukur Thorgeirsson points out that the four manuscripts of  Gylfaginning  vary in their descriptions of the family relations between Nótt, Jörð, Dagr, and Dellingr. In other words, depending on the manuscript, either Jörð or Nátt is the mother of Dagr and partner of Dellingr. Haukur details that “the oldest manuscript, U, offers a version where Jǫrð is the wife of Dellingr and the mother of Dagr while the other manuscripts, R, W and T, cast Nótt in the role of Dellingr’s wife and Dagr’s mother”, and argues that “the version in U came about accidentallywhen thewriter of U or its antecedent shortened a text similar to that in R WT. The results of this accident made their way into the Icelandic poetic tradition”. [7] In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , means of referring to Jörð are provided, including “daughter of Nótt”.[8] Chapter 58 states that “Hrimfaxi or Fiorsvartnir draw the night”,[9] and in chapter 64, “nótt” is stated as one of various words for time and a version of the  Alvíssmál  passage is cited.[10]

37.2 Notes [1] Orchard (1997:120). [2] Thorpe (1907:13). [3] Larrington (1996:42). [4] Translation of all of this section minus “dream-Njörun” from Larrington (1996:113). Larrington glosses draumNjörun (Jónsson(1931:84, Old Norse “dream-Njörun”)as “dream-goddess”. [5] Thorpe (1907:181). [6] Byock (2005:19). [7] Haukur (2008:159—168). [8] Faulkes (1995:90). [9] Faulkes (1995:137). [10] Faulkes (1995:144).

37.3 References •

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•

•

•

•

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  Byock, Jesse (Trans.) (2006).   The Prose Edda . Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044755-5 Faulkes, Anthony (Trans.) (1995).   Edda. Everyman. ISBN 0-460-87616-3  Jónsson, Finnur (1931).   Lexicon poeticum . S. L. Møllers bogtrykkeri.  Haukur Thorgeirsson (2008). “Hinn fagri foldar son” as published in  Gripla XIX , pages 159—168. Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies.   Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999).   The Poetic Edda.  Oxford World’s Classics.  ISBN 0-19283946-2  Orchard, Andy (1997).  Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend .  Cassell. ISBN 0-304-34520-2  Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1907).  The Elder Edda of Saemund Sigfusson. Norrœna Society.

Chapter 38

Zorya This article is about mythology. For other uses, see desses, while describing Myesyats as an unrelated female Zorya. moon goddess. In Slavic mythology, the Zorja (alternately, Zora, Zarja, Zory,   Zore   = “dawn";   Zvezda,   Zwezda,   Danica = “star”) are the two guardian   goddesses, known as the Auroras. They guard and watch over the doomsday hound, Simargl, who is chained to the star  Polaris in the constellation Ursa Minor, the “little bear”. If the chain ever breaks, the hound will devour the constellation and the universe will end. The Zorja represent the Morning Star and the Evening Star. The Zorja serve the sun god Dažbog, who in some myths is described as their father.  Zorja Utrennjaja, the Morning Star, opens the gates to his palace every morning for the sun-chariot’s departure. At dusk,  Zorja Vechernjaja—the Evening Star—closes the palace gates once more after his return. The home of the Zorja was sometimes said to be on Bouyan (or Buyan), an oceanic island paradise where the Sun dwelt along with his attendants, the North, West and East winds.[1]

38.2 Evening Star The Evening Star is  Zorja Vechernjaja  (from Russian vecher , meaning “evening"; also known as  Večernja Zvi jezda,   Večernja Zvezda,   Zvezda Vechernaya,   Zwezda Wieczoniaia ,  Zwezda Wieczernica ,  Zvezda Vechernitsa, Gwiazda Wieczorna, Vechirnia Zoria , Večernjača, Večernica), who closes the palace gates at dusk, after sunset and Dažbog’s return. She was associated with the planet Venus or Mercury. Some myths described both her and her sister Zorya Utrennyaya as the wives of the moon god Myesyats and the mothers of the stars, but other accounts cast both Zorya as virgin goddesses.[2][3]

38.3 In art and literature •

38.1 Morning Star

•

The Morning Star is   Zorja Utrennjaja   (from Russian utro, meaning “morning"; also known as Zvijezda Danica, Zvezda Danica, Zvezda Dennitsa, Zwezda Dnieca, Zvezda Zornitsa,   Gwiazda Poranna,   Rannia Zoria,   Zornica, Zornička), who opens the gates of Dažbog’s palace each morning so that the Sun may begin his journey.[2] She is a patroness of horses, protection, exorcism, and the planet Venus, and Slavs would pray to her each morning as the sun rose.[3] Conflicting accounts exist of her marital situation. In some myths, she is described as the wife of  Perun and would accompany her husband into battle. In this role she was known to protect those warriors she favoured against death by letting down her veil. In other accounts, both she and Zorja Vechernjaja were the wives of the male Myesyats, the moon god, and by him bore all of the stars.[2] However, some have both Zorya as virgin god-

•

  Zorja Vechernyaya  is a sextet for oboe, bassoon and string quartet by Australian composer  Julian Cochran.

  The Zorja appear in thenovel American Gods by English author Neil Gaiman. Here Gaiman includes a third sister, Zorja Polunochnaya, the “Midnight Star”. A third sister is described in some versions of the myth, but Gaiman has stated he invented her for his work.[4][5]  The Zorya appear in Kevin Hearne's series of urban fantasy novels The Iron Druid Chronicles.

38.4 See also

122

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 Hecate

•

 List of night deities

•

•

Zaria (goddess)   Hati and Sköll, two wolves that chase the sun and the moon.

38.5. REFERENCES 

38.5 References [1] Dixon-Kennedy, Mike (1998).  Encyclopedia of Russian and Slavic myth and legend . ABC-CLIO. p. 48.   ISBN 978-1-57607-130-4. [2] Dixon-Kennedy, Mike (1998).  Encyclopedia of Russian and Slavic myth and legend . ABC-CLIO. pp. 321–325. ISBN 978-1-57607-130-4. [3] Deck-Partyka, Alicja (2006).  Poland, a Unique Country & Its People. AuthorHouse. p. 281. ISBN 978-1-42591838-5. [4]  Neil Gaiman and Patton Oswalt at Saban Theater in L.A. 6/28/11 pt2 (YouTube). 4 August 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2011. [5]  Neil Gaiman and Patton Oswalt at Saban Theater in L.A. 6/28/11 pt3 (YouTube). 4 August 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2011.

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38.6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 38.6.1 Text •

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  Chthonic Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chthonic?oldid=653512640 Contributors:  Leandrod, Michael Hardy, 6birc, Angela, Pan-

taloon, Lfh, Selket, SatyrTN, HarryHenryGebel, Wetman, Secretlondon, Korath, Wereon, Mushroom, Cyrius, Gwalla, Bradleyosborn, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Bluejay Young, Edcolins, Bacchiad, Andycjp, Zeimusu, Swervy a, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, Paul August, Furius, Kwamikagami, Foobaz, Polylerus, Pharos, Jumbuck, Drbreznjev, Squideshi, Cassowary, FlaBot, Nihiltres, AJR, Imnotminkus, Soul assassin~enwiki, Satanael, Mercury McKinnon, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Retodon8, Pigman, Gabrielbodard, Deucalionite, Yasth, Attilios, SmackBot, McGeddon, Speight, RlyehRising, Canonblack, MalafayaBot, Hongooi, MaxSem, Vyxx, Kinotgell, Ceoil, Esrever, SilkTork, Blackenedbutterfly, The Man in Question, BOZ, LadyofShalott, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Thijs!bot, Qwyrxian, Dgies, Dawkeye, Tchoutoye, Julia Rossi, Iandron, Deflective, Steveprutz, Rocko1124, T@nn, ***Ria777, Gwern, AliaGemma, B9 hummingbird hovering, R'n'B, XanderW, Sanitycult, Maurice Carbonaro, OttoMäkelä, Phyesalis, 1000Faces, Missjessica254, 83d40m, BrettAllen, 1812ahill, Yiorgos Stamoulis, Macedonian, Jakegothic, A4bot, Qxz, Markisgreen, Tjn3wton, Benchilada, Squalk25, Fabprincess, SieBot, BotMultichill, Mungo Kitsch, Auntof6, Crywalt, J Keck, Valtyr, EastTN, LeDiableBrun, Kampu~enwiki, Addbot, Scotliterary, Tinuviel91, LaaknorBot, Zorrobot, Borg2008, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Huangpo, St.nerol, Erud, Almabot, Omnipaedista, Maria Sieglinda von Nudeldorf, Vorodorer, FrescoBot, AlexanderKaras, D'ohBot, Natbridge, Chawil, Dustynyfeathers, Katachthonios, Akjar13, Spenpiano, Hpart13, ClueBot NG, Stenvenhe, Hazhk, JTdale, BG19bot, Orman.michael, Nculwell, Mar2194, Alicb, Sowlos, Leprof 7272, Proc1or and Anonymous: 138   List of night deities  Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20night%20deities?oldid=646883013 Contributors:   Apotheon, Dbachmann, DreamGuy, Woohookitty, Pigman, Sotakeit, SmackBot, Colonies Chris, Michael Bednarek, LadyofShalott, Betaeleven, MarshBot, Goldenrowley, T@nn, Shoemoney2night, Editor2020, OlEnglish, Armbrust, GoingBatty, Khazar2, Giggette and Anonymous: 16   Nephthys Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nephthys?oldid=656931587 Contributors: Andre Engels, Llywrch, Ahoerstemeier, CatherineMunro, TUF-KAT, TUF-KAT, Glenn, Gingekerr, SatyrTN, Shizhao, Donreed, Yosri, Wikibot, Cronos~enwiki, Suitov, Varlaam, Eequor, Ravenwing, Bookcat, Oneiros, Discospinster, Rama, Bender235, Aranel, El C, Shanes, Bobo192, FoekeNoppert, Giraffedata, NickSchweitzer, Velella, Garzo, LFaraone, Japanese Searobin, Hijiri88, Bobrayner, Sburke, -Ril-, Thebogusman, Tutmosis, DCLXVI, BD2412, Josh Parris, SMC,Kalogeropoulos, YamamotoIchiro, FlaBot, Kerowyn, YurikBot, 999~enwiki, Ugur Basak, Caiyu, Moe Epsilon, Cadillac, Lt-wiki-bot, KGasso, MystiqueRai, That Guy, From That Show!, Snalwibma, Sardanaphalus, KnightRider, SmackBot, Zerida, Ohnoitsjamie, Chris the speller, Trekphiler, Egsan Bacon, Glengordon01, Only, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Qmwne235, IronGargoyle, Kinsfire, The Man in Question, A. Parrot, MTSbot~enwiki, Ecurran, Laurent paris, Iridescent, Jaksmata, Tawkerbot2, CmdrObot, Dgw, WeggeBot, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, A Softer Answer, Dougweller, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Rsocol, Emmelie, Deflective, Hut 8.5, Cynwolfe, Jeff Dahl, T@nn, Simon Peter Hughes, Anaxial, J.delanoy, Belovedfreak, 83d40m, BrettAllen, DorganBot, Squids and Chips, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, Indubitably, TXiKiBoT, AlexTingle, Apepch7, Khabs, Shouriki, Isis4563, AnnekeBart, FinnWiki, Nave.notnilc, SieBot, Excoriator, BotMultichill, Legion fi, Flyer22, Tiptoety, Mimihitam, Nusarikaya, ClueBot, Amovrvs, 3558food, Wprlh, Akli5143546, MaxSem on AWB wheels, LapisLazuli9, Bridgetfox, Addbot, Lordoliver, Some jerk on the Internet, Freakmighty, Bassbonerocks, Debresser, Favonian, , Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Swarm, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, Valentina, gospodarica neba, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Xqbot, TheWeakWilled, RibotBOT, Purplepuppiesrule, StaticVision, I dream of horses, Fat&Happy, MastiBot, Tahir mq, VenomousConcept, Tim1357, Dmthoth, Dinamik-bot, EmausBot, GoingBatty, Billabong2577, Y-barton, ClueBot NG, Haleybaby14, Benzeman, Theopolisme, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ramaksoud2000, Mere2518, Drift chambers, Snow Blizzard, Cottonflop, YFdyh-bot, Giuseppepiogrieco20, JYBot, Aloneinthewild, Aidangriffin, DavidLeighEllis, Mikerose3876385g, Xand2 and Anonymous: 158   Asteria Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteria?oldid=657364251 Contributors:  Bryan Derksen, Tucci528, Tedernst, Ubiquity, Wetman, Ray Radlein, Rholton, Bacchiad, OldakQuill, Squash, Eyrian, Jiy, Discospinster, Dbachmann, Paul August, Brian0918, Kwamikagami, Sietse Snel, Pearle, Jumbuck, Maqs, Dominic, Sburke, SpaceCaptain, Akoch, Ecume, MWAK, FlaBot, YurikBot, Douglasfrankfort~enwiki, Catamorphism, Deucalionite, Asarelah, Wknight94, SmackBot, Gilliam, Mirokado, Writtenright, Nixeagle, SeanAhern, Luís Felipe Braga, Hu12, IvanLanin, JohnCD, Drinibot, Cydebot, Eu.stefan, Chrislk02, Thijs!bot, Zerothis, Philippe, Chubbles, JAnDbot, Deflective, Dybryd, Bibi Saint-Pol, Meredyth, T@nn, Waacstats, Comeuppence, CommonsDelinker, Captain panda, DorganBot, Idiomabot, VolkovBot, ICE77, TXiKiBoT, AgentCDE, Iwfi, PbBot, Maralia, ClueBot, Varlak, Kaliadne, PixelBot, BOTarate, PsychoBassChick, DumZiBoT, Metodicar, Addbot, FiriBot, LuK3, Legobot, Yobot, Anne McDermott, Amit6, Xqbot, LucienBOT, Phlyaristis, Bobrednek, Pinethicket, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot, TuHan-Bot, Thayora, AvicAWB, L Kensington, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Widr, Davidiad, YFdyh-bot, Xx-Alexia-xX, Makecat-bot, Williambellwisdo, Oloya2802, Davidh5103 and Anonymous: 53   Erebus Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erebus?oldid=655869930 Contributors:  Dan~enwiki, Ortolan88, Roadrunner, Tucci528, Infrogmation, Karada, Aarchiba, WhisperToMe, Haukurth, Moros~enwiki,Renato Caniatti~enwiki, UtherSRG, Modeha, DocWatson42, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Bacchiad, Mackeriv, The Singing Badger, Karl-Henner, El-Ahrairah, Robin Hood~enwiki, Quota, Didactohedron, Gerrit, Eyrian, Dbachmann, Paul August, Aranel, FirstPrinciples, Lankiveil, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, FoekeNoppert, Alansohn, Qtgeo, Godheval, Zudduz, Tabletop, Dzordzm, Akoch, Koavf, Erebus555, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Gurch, Str1977, Mordicai, DVdm, 334a, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RobotE, NTBot~enwiki, Hellbus, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Krea, Moritz, Pyrotec, PhilipC, Deucalionite, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Petr.adamek, HeleneSylvie, Opiaterein, Kubra, Allens, GrinBot~enwiki,  robot, Eskimbot, Bblakeney, Rasteraster, MalafayaBot, SchfiftyThree, Frap, Bardsandwarriors, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Esrever, UberCryxic, Michael Bednarek, Noah Salzman, Scyrene, SuedeHead, Ryulong, MTSbot~enwiki, Phatzmb, Courcelles, Zotdragon, Galo1969X, WeggeBot, Jonathan Tweet, Besieged, DrunkenSmurf, Urashimataro, Srajan01, PamD, Thijs!bot, Biruitorul, Qwyrxian, Streifengrasmaus, Deflective, RandyS0725, Rothorpe, Siddharth Mehrotra, Cynwolfe, Militiades, Magioladitis, T@nn, Waacstats, KConWiki, Simon Peter Hughes, DGG, J.delanoy, Nev1, Singaraja, Robertson-Glasgow, NewEnglandYankee, Zerokitsune, Idioma-bot, Redtigerxyz, TreasuryTag, ICE77, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Erik the Red 2, GcSwRhIc, LeaveSleaves, Madhero88, David Marjanović, Temporaluser, Thanatos666, Ceranthor, Shaidar cuebiyar, EmxBot, SieBot, Rob.bastholm, BenoniBot~enwiki, Maelkoch, OKBot, CharlesGillingham, Martarius, ClueBot, LAX, EoGuy, Shoemoney2night, Jan1nad, Arrowintwolakes, Sun Creator, Panellet, Razorflame, Catalographer, NellieBly, Addbot, Oculus42, Ronhjones, Тиверополник, Tide rolls, Gail, Borg2008, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Che!, AnomieBOT, IRP, Mintrick, Citation bot, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Unctions Unit, GrouchoBot, MrMizfit, Omnipaedista, Amaury, Spinach Monster, Gilligan Skipper, LucienBOT, Pinethicket, XRDoDRX, Lotje, TjBot, Bento00, Batang bulbulin, E25691, Salvio giuliano, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, RenamedUser01302013, Waidanian, Googipy, Music Sorter, Petrb, ClueBot NG, The385842, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Strike Eagle, GhostA113, Davidiad, CitationCleanerBot, Fraulein451, The MEGA user, Fycafterpro, Jadephx, Jestmoon, MrScorch6200, Goddessoftheshadowsanddarkness, Kittenykittens, JaconaFrere and Anonymous: 215

38.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES  •

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  Artume  Source:    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artume?oldid=648080062  Contributors:  TUF-KAT, Gtrmp, Eequor, Silence, FlaBot,

GeeJo, Nikkimaria, Fram, SmackBot, Jay1279, Andreas Kaganov, Sanya3, Wahrmund, XLinkBot, Ginosbot, Legobot, LilHelpa, Erik9bot, FinalRapture, Imorthodox23, Helpful Pixie Bot, NodBot, ChrisGualtieri, Stamptrader and Anonymous: 6   Hecate Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecate?oldid=657112223 Contributors:  Kpjas, Derek Ross, Bryan Derksen, Danny, XJaM, Tucci528, Merinda, Patrick, Paul Barlow, Pit~enwiki, Fcp, Tregoweth, TUF-KAT, Evercat, Samw, Charles Matthews, Rbraunwa, Dcoetzee, RickK, Wetman, Robbot, Nurg, Modulatum, Psi36, Ashley Y, Academic Challenger, Flauto Dolce, Geogre, Guy Peters, Xanzzibar, Wayland, Crculver, DocWatson42, MPF, Gtrmp, Jyril, Mintleaf~enwiki, Prosfilaes, Eequor, Bacchiad, Zeimusu, Ex ottoyuhr, The Singing Badger, Rdsmith4, Ellsworth, M.e, Pmanderson, Freakofnurture, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Narsil, Dbachmann, JPX7, Paul August, Bender235, ESkog, Kbh3rd, Furius, CanisRufus, Kwamikagami, Davorg, Sietse Snel, Thu, Longhair, FoekeNoppert, La goutte de pluie, Jumbuck, Gary, Anthony Appleyard, Arthena, MauriceReeves, CJ, DreamGuy, Hattrem, Tony Sidaway, Alai, NantonosAedui, Mindmatrix, Xover, Sburke, Pyrosim, Marudubshinki, Rjwilmsi, Seidenstud, NatusRoma, Tomtheman5, FlaBot, RobyWayne, NotJackhorkheimer, Proserpine, Gwernol, YurikBot, LUckyKLovers24, RobotE, Rtkat3, Jimp, Retodon8, RussBot, Pigman, Yamara, Gaius Cornelius, Dialectric, Veledan, Gabrielbodard, Deucalionite, AdelaMae, CorbieVreccan, Asarelah, Botteville, Open2universe, Lt-wiki-bot, LucaviX, PerlKnitter, BorgQueen, ClaudiaVice, LeonardoRob0t, Nightside eclipse, Moth1701, Singingwolfboy, Kungfuadam, Dorcia, Tadorne, SmackBot, Cubs Fan, Gjs238, Hmains, JP The Wanderer, Durova, Chris the speller, Gonzalo84, Belzub, Cretanforever, Stevage, Colonies Chris, ClaudiaM, Akhilleus, Seleukosa, Vanis314, Rrburke, Artemisboy, BehemothCat, Tinctorius, Fractyl, Fuzzypeg, FlyHigh, Tjchase, SilkTork, A. Parrot, Neddyseagoon, Midnightblueowl, Koweja, Keahapana, UTK007, Geoffg, LadyofShalott, My name is t i double g er, Rychach, Amalas, Mewaqua, Moreschi, Todgar, Cydebot, QuestionMark, The Great Honker, Gogo Dodo, Pascal.Tesson, Q43, DBaba, Daniel Olsen, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Typing monkey, Marek69, Missvain, Dawkeye, AntiVandalBot, Xuchilbara, Larien Earfalas, Wild ste, Earrach, .alyn.post., JAnDbot, Deflective, Sophie means wisdom, J Greb, RebelRobot, Cynwolfe, [email protected], Goddess Gift, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, T@nn, Theranos, Kim Dent-Brown, Careless hx, Nyttend, Twsx, Froid, Adavies42, DAC1956, Wrad, RedMC, DerHexer, Simon Peter Hughes, Cocytus, Oroso, Lady Mondegreen, Psycona, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Tgeairn, R powers, Failinglunch, RedKlonoa, Belovedfreak, 83d40m, Bodrumlife, BrettAllen, Nrm224, Grey Maiden, Thismightbezach, Michaelcshiner, Deor, VolkovBot, Tunnels of Set, Erik the Red 2, Java7837, Andres rojas22, Dudford, IPSOS, Steven J. Anderson, Annajannajones, Scuzz187, Atelaes, Redmind0, Classicsboy, SieBot, Ttony21, AS, Caltas, Smsarmad, Peter cohen, Oda Mari, Carnun, Mankar Camoran, BenoniBot~enwiki, Alatari, Pinkadelica, Lyonluv, Atif.t2, FlamingSilmaril, ClueBot, Plastikspork, EoGuy, Shir-El too, Drmies, Galenthis, Nymf, Research84, IthinkIwannaLeia, Sun Creator, Holothurion, Panellet, SchreiberBike, Audaciter, Catalographer, Thingg, Editor2020, Picatrix, Addbot, Proofreader77, Simonm223, PJonDevelopment, Ronhjones, Leszek Jańczuk, Joechua1996, Chzz, Favonian, Lightbot, Mohsenkazempur, Ettrig, Matt.T, Borg2008, Legobot, Folklore1, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Che!, Yngvadottir, Aitchdawg, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Mythomaniac, AnomieBOT, Electricpeppers, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Lord Raptorius, ArthurBot, Dodo, LilHelpa, Xqbot, TakeAndRake, Omnipaedista, 00 Sorceress 00, PauAmma, Auréola, Mythomanic, Puplov1997, Samwb123, Haploidavey, Gilligan Skipper, JMS Old Al, TruHeir, Kavita9, Detroit.import, B3t, Pinethicket, Meaghan, Kibi78704, Snow leopard grace, Fantasyliterary, CertainMiracle, Lotje, Ollios, Sizzle Flambé, Stegop, Minimac, Airbag190, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot, Alagos, Juanc1317, Bua3 33, Memnon710, Cookiemonster632, Aeonx, Captain Screebo, Bannedman123456789, Ben Ammi, Autoerrant, StephenKingFan100, Glorious Goddess, AgentSniff, Imorthodox23, ClueBot NG, Gilderien, Ninjaguy155, Leafbob1, Snotbot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Balanceasia, Kinaro, Writing fairy70994, AJ295, CaraSchulz, Vagobot, Stevengravel, Davidiad, Winfredtheforth, Trevayne08, CitationCleanerBot, Sophiapedia, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Redstarburst, ObsequiousNewt, American In Brazil, Tentinator, Magickal witch95, DavidLeighEllis, BadKittieKat76, Nera456, WNuman, ShamikaDelicia, Luky360, Monkbot, Rob at Houghton, DaughterofBeauty, Karl’s Wagon, Ryan33397, Polyaretos, Californa and Anonymous: 352   Artemis  Source:   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis?oldid=655745771 Contributors:  MichaelTinkler, Derek Ross, Vicki Rosenzweig, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Jan Hidders, Andre Engels, Flamingantichimp, Danny, Christian List, Matusz, Zoe, Nonenmac, Heron, Tucci528, Olivier, Edward, Michael Hardy, Liftarn, Ixfd64, Delirium, Ahoerstemeier, TUF-KAT, Notheruser, TUF-KAT, Emperor, Mkoval, Dod1, Stephenw32768, The Warlock, EALacey, Bemoeial, Lfh, Zoicon5, Furrykef, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Raul654, Ank329, Wetman, Bcorr, Hajor, Denelson83, Robbot, ChrisO, Fredrik, Jredmond, Flamingantichimp, Sunray, Hadal, Wikibot, Pmcray, Guy Peters, Dina, Gtrmp, Lupin, Ferkelparade, Monedula, Jacob1207, Guanaco, Eequor, Macrakis, Bacchiad, Mackeriv, Zeimusu, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, Vanished user 1234567890, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Xandar, Pmanderson, Karl-Henner, Histrion, Gscshoyru, Chadernook, Neutrality, Adashiel, Grunt, Eisnel, Venu62, DanielCD, Discospinster, Silence, Dave souza, Murtasa, Erolos, Dbachmann, Paul August, Rjo, Phaust, ESkog, FrankCostanza, Violetriga, El C, Pjrich, Joanjoc~enwiki, Kwamikagami, Kross, Shanes, RoyBoy, Markussep, Pablo X, Bobo192, Shenme, Viriditas, Wisdom89, JavOs, A2Kafir, Merope, Danski14, Alansohn, Gary, JYolkowski, Anthony Appleyard, Hu, Yummifruitbat, Bart133, DreamGuy, Mbimmler, Angelic Wraith, ReyBrujo, Yuckfoo, Drat, Ceyockey, Oleg Alexandrov, Zntrip, Marrisman3, Nuno Tavares, Boothy443, Zudduz, OwenX, FeanorStar7, Masterjamie, Sburke, GlaucusAtlanticus, Plumcouch, Benbest, Jeff3000, MONGO, Rex Gentium, BlaiseFEgan, Jon Harald Søby, Gimboid13, Starwed, Dysepsion, Graham87, Ilya, BD2412, Iambic Spectrometer, Enzo Aquarius, Rjwilmsi, Саша Стефановић, NatusRoma, J weiss11, Joshmiao, Josiah Rowe, The wub, Bhadani, Firebug, FlaBot, Ivandenisovitch, Thexmanlight, Musical Linguist, Crazycomputers, Celestianpower, CaptainCanada, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Gurch, Whateley23, Bigdottawa, Str1977, Seinfreak37, Alphachimp, Ih8evilstuff, Chobot, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, I need a name, Brandmeister (old), Sekiyu, Longbow4u, Rowan Moore, Pigman, HVH, Lesfer, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29, Alex Bakharev, Pseudomonas, Bizznot, NawlinWiki, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Douglasfrankfort~enwiki, Aeusoes1, Test-tools~enwiki, UNCCTF, The Thadman, Nick, Chal7ds, Deucalionite, Ormanbotanigi, AdelaMae, Asarelah, Werdna, Zero Gravitas, Igiffin, WAS 4.250, AnnaKucsma, 21655, Closedmouth, LucaviX, Nemu, Cybjorg, Peter, Ybbor, Argos’Dad, Katieh5584, GrinBot~enwiki, Luk, SmackBot, Originalbigj, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Primetime, Kimon, Unyoyega, Bomac, Delldot, Alsandro, SmartGuy Old, Macintosh User, Gilliam, Persian Poet Gal, Lollerskates, Miquonranger03, MalafayaBot, Jvale, Bob the ducq, DHN-bot~enwiki, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Aophite, Skoglund, Cplakidas, CarmenAquarius, Ioscius, Chlewbot, OrphanBot, Lantrix, TheKMan, Rrburke, Cryocide, Krsont, Parent5446, SundarBot, Artemisboy, Stevenmitchell, BehemothCat, Makemi, Valenciano, DMacks, Salamurai, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Ck lostsword, Kukini, Ceoil, CoeurDeLion, SashatoBot, Mukadderat, Celsiana, DavidCooke, Treyt021, Gigamaligabyte, JorisvS, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, Tomboypride, Silverthorn, Neddyseagoon, Midnightblueowl, Ryulong, Dr.K., Citicat, P199, Elb2000, Yoderj, Hu12, Iridescent, TurabianNights, Meka11218, Wwallacee, Ecco1983, Rdicker, Scarlet Lioness, Tawkerbot2, CmdrObot, Dmmdmmd, Strike Chaos, Dgw, Tjoneslo, Liu Bei, Fordmadoxfraud, Jpb1301, Fl, CovenantD, SyntaxError55, Goldfritha, Gogo Dodo, Tbird1965, Llort, Chasingsol, Tawkerbot4, Btharper1221, Kylewriter, Ventifact, Saintrain, Casliber, PKT, Malleus Fatuorum, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Pstanton, Homeridia, GentlemanGhost, Сидик из ПТУ, Arithmia, Marek69, West Brom 4ever, Missvain, Flusher5, CharlotteWebb, Mwhs, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Quintote, Prolog, Doc Tropics, Paste, Flibjib8, Zizikos, Jj137, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, Ccastill, Deflective, Husond, Skomorokh, Instinct, Janejellyroll, DukeDoom, Andonic, Hut 8.5, GurchBot, Smith Jones, TAnthony, PhilKnight, LittleOldMe, Magioladitis, Gekedo, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, T@nn, Theranos, JNW, CattleGirl, BrianGV, Catgut, Solowords, VegKilla, TheCormac, Allstarecho, Hveziris, Phoenixfirework, DerHexer, JaGa, Edward321, Simon Peter Hughes, TheRanger, Patstuart, Hellerick, Nina Smith, Sue Logerwell, Quixoto, MartinBot,

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CHAPTER 38. ZORYA NAHID, Crvst, Rettetast, R'n'B, Smokizzy, Deathfairy, J.delanoy, Kimse, EscapingLife, Bogey97, Mikelj, WarthogDemon, Thaurisil, PC78, SU Linguist, Laputian, Squeezeweasel, Carlo ms06, Katalaveno, Jedi541, Lordkroulee, Advancewars177, Belovedfreak, Velps, NewEnglandYankee, Viceroygunray, 83d40m, Mufka, Mcdoh1902, Smitty, Jhoopie, STBotD, Vanished user 39948282, SuW, Sofiaagnesi, Barak181, Baseball13, Nfrancalangia, TreasuryTag, Wimimei, CWii, Melchizedekjesus, Macedonian, ICE77, Jmrowland, Shinju, Barneca, Ipso2, Irish Pearl, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Jomasecu, Erik the Red 2, Animalexpertkid, Brambleclaw, Rei-bot, Z.E.R.O., Schafesd, Apacheneo, John Carter, Melsaran, Martin451, Tsob, BotKung, Charger21, Dirkbb, Vector Potential, Magiclite, Thanatos666, Pjoef, Woloflover, It DOES, SieBot, Coffee, Graham Beards, Scarian, Gerakibot, Jsc83, Mungo Kitsch, Caltas, Triwbe, Swaq, Keilana, Lexa076, Shmarg, Jojalozzo, Phalanxpursos, Oxymoron83, Tombomp, Alex.muller, Aramgar, Macy, Rosiestep, Spartan198, Cyfal, Nipsonanomhmata, LarrisM, Wahrmund, Angelo De La Paz, Kanonkas, Beemer69, Startswithj, Barkjon, Deavenger, Cutterfly, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Plastikspork, Shoemoney2night, DesertAngel, Meekywiki, Tejoman, MARKELLOS, Auntof6, Abrech, Lartoven, Sun Creator, SoxBot, BOTarate, ZhiRandom, Blow of Light, Jmr804, Rossen4, Oskar71, AgnosticPreachersKid, Spitfire, AnkhAnanku, Scribeofargos, Little Mountain 5, CapnZapp, Colemasters, Jd027, Flame-techie, Picatrix, Addbot, JBsupreme, Lordoliver, DougsTech, Kristinamwood, Tusculum, Ashton1983, MrLinkeonaugh, MrOllie, LaaknorBot, Arrin~enwiki, Ccacsmss, Aka-chan777, Debresser, LinkFA-Bot, Itfc+canes=me, Numbo3-bot, Madtroutdul, Mythics, Erutuon, Tide rolls, Malwinder25, , Quantumobserver, Poshycat, Borg2008, Legobot, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Yobot, RangerPirate, Playclever, GateKeeper, KamikazeBot, AnakngAraw, Opolopolis, Magog the Ogre, Fagerhaug, Strawberryjampot, Somewhere Out There, Bythh, Dramamoose, Kingpin13, Sz-iwbot, TheBoneWoman, TheWingedone, Materialscientist, Citation bot, DirlBot, Dodo, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Renaissancee, Jmundo, J04n, GrouchoBot, ProtectionTaggingBot, Omnipaedista, Hiccup42, Queen Rhana, Bellerophon, Alan.A.Mick, Timms Connor, Gatornuts, BlueJeansNMe, Haploidavey, Zelak396, FrescoBot, Oupyee, Paine Ellsworth, Renea08, Staccatoque, Longfellow14, Lover & Friend, Kylie4real, Jakawakajangler, TonyLoco23, Egmontbot, NotTheLoon, 72ep, Citation bot 1, Xxglennxx, Concernedresident’s butler, RedBot, Maokart444, Helios13, TobeBot, Jan11989, Leondumontfollower, Hyarmendacil, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot, -- -- --, Bua333, ZéroBot, Ida Shaw, Ss charley, Lunagoth, Cymru.lass, 11 Arlington, Euzen, Philafrenzy, ChuispastonBot, EdoBot, Kognos, Imorthodox23, Manytexts, Rani nurmai, Southamerican, Frietjes, , RafikiSykes, Mightymights, Vollwaise, Davidiad, Dayvey, Cygnature, Russianamerican1, Rembrandt.duits, BattyBot, GamingWithStatoke, Haymouse, Raymond1922A, Dexbot, Tri-l, Lequenne Gwendoline, Freebirdthemonk II, Neo Poz, Tueday Dining In Room, DavidLeighEllis, Mmay2, BadKittieKat76, DallTX314, Ares teen of Chaos, Karl’s Wagon, Nyctimene, Postscriptum123 and Anonymous: 740   Selene  Source:   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selene?oldid=655989196 Contributors:   Bryan Derksen, Zoe, Tucci528, Michael Hardy, Glenn, WouterVH, Zoicon5, Wetman, JorgeGG, PuzzletChung, Robbot, ChrisO, Korath, RedWolf, Lowellian, Tanuki Z, Monedula, Wwoods, Eequor, Macrakis, Jackol, Gadfium, Ellsworth, Pmanderson, Mare-Silverus, Eyrian, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Silence, Paul August, JustinWick, Kwamikagami, Cmdrjameson, Artw, Dmanning, Fourthgeek, Hu, Godheval, Knowledge Seeker, Tony Sidaway, Joshbrez, Lee-Anne, Jess Cully, Megan1967, Woohookitty, LOL, Stgimp, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Gurch, Rebochan, Roboto de Ajvol, RobotE, Rtkat3, Stufff, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Wimt, Ravenous, Megapixie, GracieLizzie, RL0919, DeadEyeArrow, Gladstein, Nekura, Luk, Crystallina, SmackBot, FocalPoint, Tom Lougheed, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Oscarthecat, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Kevin Ryde, Mego2005, Rrburke, Intimidator~enwiki, Dreadstar, Hgilbert, Onlim, Sotaru, RandomCritic, 2T, Woodshed, Chovain, Gveret Tered, JForget, CmdrObot, Xanthophiliac, Morganfitzp, Galo1969X, Mewaqua, Basawala, Kytetiger, WeggeBot, RenamedUser2, Porsche997SBS, Odie5533, Daedae, PKT, SummonerMarc, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, JustAGal, Hmrox, Thweeda, JAnDbot, Soronel~enwiki, Omeganian, Mertseger, Cynwolfe, VoABot II, TitanOhmega, T@nn, Mclay1, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Efgn, Simon Peter Hughes, Stephenchou0722, MartinBot, Anaxial, Kaiaterra, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Kimse, PC78, RedFox232, Belovedfreak, SJP, Juliancolton, Boa05zs, Flauros, VolkovBot, ABF, Macedonian, Maryovich, Irish Pearl, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Abyca, Technopat, Una Smith, Sanfranman59, Kilp16, ToePeu.bot, Gerakibot, Radon210, Phalanxpursos, CarbonLifeForm, OKBot, Evilbunnie, ClueBot, Plastikspork, Ceslest, Hafspajen, Cpq29gpl, Niceguyedc, Passargea, Varlak, Estirabot, Marquisjamesphelan, Foogus, Stepheng3, ZhiRandom, Bgsmithy456, Jovianeye, Little Mountain 5, WikHead, PJonDevelopment, NjardarBot, Ccacsmss, Glane23, Isabel100, Favonian, StarryWorld, Xenobot, Legobot, Yobot, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IW.HG, Fagerhaug, AnomieBOT, Mintrick, Piano non troppo, Aster Selene, Sonarklipse, ArthurBot, Selenitti, Xqbot, RibotBOT, KaleidoscopeKraken, Shadowjams, MegSimpson, Ymupam, Thehelpfulbot, FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, Joe cruz5555, The Laxative, TruHeir, AfterFX, Machine Elf 1735, Jzr23, Louperibot, Wotsalthor, Mayormaynot, Jschnur, Lethe dirae, Ameaijou, Fox Wilson, Dinamik-bot, Katerenka, P Aculeius, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Louis van Appeven, Nn302, Tjhiggin, Hula Hup, Xymeki, GoingBatty, RA0808, I thought what I'd do was,, Unreal7, Obotlig, N3philim, ChuispastonBot, Peter Karlsen, 28bot, Imorthodox23, Sonicyouth86, ClueBot NG, Druwhisper, Davidiad, EmadIV, Zeke, the Mad Horrorist, ChrisGualtieri, Selasco, Ajdabomb300, Nicholasemjohnson, 069952497a, Malkbvr, DavidLeighEllis, CensoredScribe, Daylight15, Fafnir1, Vieque, 8888nick8888, Ghast21, Constancia23, Mianne23, H0elix120, Saxophone7, LazerCreeperYT and Anonymous: 272 Nyx  Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyx?oldid=658862787 Contributors:   Andre Engels, Zoe, Tucci528, Eliah, Darkwind, Glenn, The Tom, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Zoicon5, Paul-L~enwiki, Ed g2s, Stormie, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Robbot, UtherSRG, Modeha, Gtrmp, Misterkillboy, Cool Hand Luke, Curps, Eequor, Bacchiad, ChicXulub, Gadfium, Antandrus, Karl-Henner, Robin Hood~enwiki, Didactohedron, Eyrian, KraDakar, Discospinster, JPX7, Paul August, Kross, Art LaPella, FoekeNoppert, Helix84, Chicago god, Alansohn, Fritz Saalfeld, DreamGuy, Godheval, RainbowOfLight, Ghirlandajo, Adrian.benko, Sburke, MONGO, Prashanthns, Paxsimius, Ketiltrout, BlueMoonlet, Mike s, FlaBot, Srleffler, SpectrumDT, Franko2nd, Chobot, Mordicai, Reverendgraham, Hairy Dude, Rtkat3, RussBot, Test-tools~enwiki, Countakeshi, Deucalionite, Asarelah, Blue Danube, Nikkimaria, Kubra, JDspeeder1, Leon2323, Attilios, Yakudza, SmackBot, Gilliam, Tyciol, Colonies Chris, Tamfang, Artemisboy, BehemothCat, LeoNomis, SashatoBot, John, Gobonobo, Shadowlynk, Michael Bednarek, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, RandomCritic, George The Dragon, Tkasmai, LadyofShalott, New User, Nuttyskin, Gveret Tered, Betaeleven, CmdrObot, Nilfanion, ProfessorPaul, Cydebot, Xioyn, PeoniesAbound, Gogo Dodo, Thijs!bot, Pstanton, N5iln, Sobreira, Cryotoguy, JAnDbot, Andrea1952, Something14, Cynwolfe, Magioladitis, Dekimasu, T@nn, Dan Pelleg, DerHexer, Simon Peter Hughes, Grantsky, Unify~enwiki, MartinBot, CommonsDelinker, Wlodzimierz, J.delanoy, Trusilver, JKoulouris, AntiSpamBot, NewEnglandYankee, 83d40m, ICE77, RPlunk2853, TXiKiBoT, Abyca, Erik the Red 2, Rei-bot, Imasleepviking, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, BOTijo, Thanatos666, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, Malcolmxl5, BotMultichill, Gerakibot, Flyer22, BenoniBot~enwiki, Dillard421, Mygerardromance, Denisarona, Jeland, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Plastikspork, Mspraveen, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Urbanchampion, SoxBot III, Bradv, WikiDao,Airplaneman, Thatguyflint, Addbot, Blanche of King’s Lynn, KairosX23, Numbo3bot, Tide rolls, Borg2008, Luckas-bot, Yobot, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IW.HG, Brentie849, Jessi1989, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Mintrick, Piano non troppo, Dodo, Xqbot, Matttoothman, GrouchoBot, MrMizfit, RibotBOT, Gr3yfxx, Haploidavey, Blooiequeie, FrescoBot, Shknbns, D'ohBot, Trewal, DivineAlpha, HRoestBot, Calmer Waters, AmazingMaleeni, RedBot, Bassetts1899, Lotje, Vrenator, Ле Лой, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Racerx11, Bua333, Massieblock4897, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, ZéroBot, Azrael Moros, 28bot, ClueBot NG, Dream of Nyx, Nuandame, Novusuna, JTdale, Flax5, Luke Flory, JohnChrysostom, MusikAnimal, Davidiad, Fylbecatulous, Peanutsfish, Austincrocker, Haymouse, Alexiswerdo478, ChrisGualtieri, SuperbowserX, Lugia2453, Genaverse, Davi-

38.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 

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dLeighEllis, Daylight15, RedePixie1, Unoknows, Whatscrackin555, Loafofbrent, Pollen MM, Séphora Nyht, Ah3kal, Dday01, Grumpyturtle and Anonymous: 285  Philotes (mythology)  Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philotes%20(mythology)?oldid=651895038 Contributors:  The Anome, Robbot, Interiot, FlaBot, YurikBot, Gaius Cornelius, Deucalionite, SmackBot, Ryulong, MTSbot~enwiki, PeoniesAbound, RandyS0725, Leolaursen, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Captain panda, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, Alexbot, PixelBot, Metodicar, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Che!, Almabot, Erik9bot, GregKaye, WikitanvirBot, Freekuh, Davidiad and Anonymous: 11   Achlys  Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achlys?oldid=629738635 Contributors:  MPF, Pmanderson, Lectiodifficilior, Paul August, Sburke, Eubot, Pigman, Deucalionite, Bluezy, Drinibot, Fordmadoxfraud, RandyS0725, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Idioma-bot, TreasuryTag, SchreiberBike, Addbot, Omnipedian, Luckas-bot, GoingBatty, Just granpa, Davidiad, Dainomite, RichardMills65, ForAllIKnow and Anonymous: 6   Hypnos Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnos?oldid=657655497 Contributors:  Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Andre Engels, Youandme, Tucci528, Minesweeper, Andres, Schneelocke, Hashar, Ccady, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Robbot, Geogre, Wereon, Guy Peters, DocWatson42, Gdr, Ellsworth, Haiduc, DanielCD, Luxdormiens, Aranel, Obradovic Goran, Alansohn, Arthena, Ricky81682, KingTT, Admiral Valdemar, Tripps, Saurian, Woohookitty, Bruce1ee, FlaBot, Chobot, DVdm, Aethralis, YurikBot, Rtkat3, Liastnir, Lostangeles, The Chief, Deucalionite, Bota47, Asarelah, Lt-wiki-bot, Closedmouth, Feyandstrange, SmackBot, Hydrogen Iodide, KocjoBot~enwiki, Busterbros, Bluebot, Gladrius, Gabriel leonardo, Petr Kopač, Theotherness, Brian Gunderson, Muadd, George The Dragon, Whyleee, Simply south, WeggeBot, Alton, Cydebot, Danrok, Reywas92, H4x, Thijs!bot, Z10x, Natalie Erin, Seaphoto, Aseneath, JAnDbot, PhilKnight, Xact, Magioladitis, T@nn, JamesBWatson, Mclay1, Soulbot, Bolowno, Simon Peter Hughes, NunoAgostinho, FisherQueen, Kimse, Maurice Carbonaro, Vanished user g454XxNpUVWvxzlr, DorganBot, Deor, VolkovBot, Macedonian, Irish Pearl, Philip Trueman, Abyca, Technopat, Lamro, Thanatos666, SieBot, AS, Gerakibot, Flyer22, Shakko, Android Mouse Bot 3, Fighting Fefnir, Denisarona, Mr. Granger, Soporaeternus, ClueBot, Plastikspork, Arakunem, Tigerboy1966, Boing! said Zebedee, Pat9118, Excirial, Eeekster, .mrt, SchreiberBike, Avoided, Addbot, Knight of Truth, CanadianLinuxUser, Ccacsmss, Omnipedian, Favonian, Tide rolls, 55, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Peter Flass, Modkarma, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Sonarklipse, Frankenpuppy, Xqbot, Drilnoth, Joshua111123, Dragospuri, Omnipaedista, Locobot, Aaron Kauppi, Erik9bot, Fullcrygal, FrescoBot, Recognizance, D'ohBot, Nosaj9806, DrilBot, Pinethicket, God of dreams, Mediatech492, VenomousConcept, XX brothers, Agj, Lotje, Mr Monkey358, Onel5969, Aircorn, CalicoCatLover, J36miles, Acather96, EmCat24, RenamedUser01302013, Tommy2010, Bollyjeff, AvicAWB, Wderiamjh, L Kensington, Donner60, Kriiiiis, Puffin, StephenKingFan100, Gwen-chan, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, MelbourneStar, Stenvenhe, Widr, BG19bot, Frze, Davidiad, MrBill3, Shapesjr, Haymouse, ChrisGualtieri, EuroCarGT, Chustuck, Wieldthespade, Thebomee, GreekMythExpertx, DavidLeighEllis, Ginsuloft, Almondsouffle, Jononmac46, Robyn.downard, CosmoWenman, AssassinCat, Jem supreme and Anonymous: 162  Diana (mythology) Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana%20(mythology)?oldid=657242590 Contributors:  Kpjas, Bryan Derksen, Manning Bartlett, Panairjdde, Tucci528, Infrogmation, Ixfd64, Bcrowell, Sannse, Looxix~enwiki, Kricxjo, TUF-KAT, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Error, Norwikian, MichelSantos, Alex S, RodC, Magnus.de, Slark, Lord Emsworth, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Rschmertz, Denelson83, Astronautics~enwiki, Jfire, Gidonb, HaeB, Xanzzibar, Zigger, Leonard G., Eequor, The Singing Badger, Xandar, Nor'westerner, Pmanderson, Eranb, Gscshoyru, Jkl, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Gadykozma, Silence, Autiger, Dbachmann, Paul August, SamEV, Kbh3rd, Aranel, QuartierLatin1968, Art LaPella, Bobo192, Stesmo, NickSchweitzer, Polylerus, Alansohn, Burn, Snowolf, Velella, Mikeo, Reikku, Benoni, Stemonitis, Alchemistoxford, Shikai shaw, Mandarax, Patrick2480, Benley, MattSutton1, Ketiltrout, Koavf, Dougluce, Daderot, Str1977, Lemmikkipuu, Ryssby, Chobot, YurikBot, RattusMaximus, Brandmeister (old), AeternaReginula, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Longbow4u, Pureeminences, Kurt Leyman, Knyght27, NawlinWiki, Daemon8666, Arichnad, Sitearm, Botteville, Salmanazar, Crisco 1492, FF2010, LeonardoRob0t, Kungfuadam, Luk, Tadorne, Qoqnous, SmackBot, Heptite, Kintetsubuffalo, Flamarande, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Miquonranger03, Rrburke, Blueboar, Huon, Mitrius, BehemothCat, Ericl, Andrew Dalby, Niera, Pliny, Tazmaniacs, Mon Vier, Heran et Sang'gres, The Man in Question, Stwalkerster, Kyoko, Redeagle688, Therealhazel, Midnightblueowl, Jdhomrighausen, Iridescent, Wwallacee, Womaningreen, ONUnicorn, Yopienso, UncleBubba, Porsche997SBS, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Pstanton, Missvain, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Seaphoto, Bigtimepeace, 17Drew, Darklilac, Wahabijaz, Res2216firestar, Bigjimr, JAnDbot, Cynwolfe, .anacondabot, Geniac, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Epriestess, T@nn, Craig Baker, Bluerabbit4210, Michael Goodyear, Snowded, Captin Shmit, Coughinink, Edward321, Simon Peter Hughes, Sue Gardner, B. Wolterding, MartinBot, Ugajin, Colin256, Rettetast, J.delanoy, Nev1, EscapingLife, Uncle Dick, VAcharon, Rochelimit, Gurchzilla, SJP, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, LordCo Centre, Useight, SoCalSuperEagle, Lights, Meiskam, Deor, Midasminus, Melchizedekjesus, Sti571, Bovineboy2008, Qxz, Christosjannes, Sintaku, LeaveSleaves, Tbrittreid, NodnarbLlad, Nazar, Synthebot, Shadowcat2012, Woloflover, DarthBotto, NHRHS2010, Norhelt, SieBot, Caltas, RollanT, Flyer22, Grimey109, DanEdmonds, Jojalozzo, CutOffTies, SyL64, Ptolemy Caesarion, Fratrep, Joshschr, Wahrmund, Bpeps, Angelo De La Paz, Startswithj, Mario Žamić, Ricardo Frantz, ClueBot, Jackollie, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheRasIsBack, Msi800, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, SamuelTheGhost, Jusdafax, Arjayay, SchreiberBike, Aitias, Elkbone, Life of Riley, Oskar71, Auslli, Rror, Ost316, Thadud, Sutherland4l, Addbot, Svetozar.kostic, Reidlophile, NjardarBot, CarsracBot, Debresser, West.andrew.g, Norman21, Tyw7, Tide rolls, Jafd88, WikiDreamer Bot, Leovizza, Legobot, Yobot, Che!, Apollonius 1236, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, Coffeewhite, LonebikeroftheApcocolypse, Victoriaearle, Dailyrole, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Galoubet, JackieBot, Piano non troppo, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, LilHelpa, Xqbot, C+C, GrouchoBot, Mario777Zelda, Mathonius, Amaury, Mattis, Laterensis, Griffinofwales, Dalkeith46, LucienBOT, Ballon845, We are unipire, Cjtsmith, Javert, Pinethicket, PrincessofLlyr, A8UDI, Urg writer, 19cass20, TobeBot, Lotje, GregKaye, Vrenator, Specs112, ThinkEnemies, Aldrasto, RjwilmsiBot, VernoWhitney, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, Pete Hobbs, Denara~enwiki, Stregamama, Gawdismydaddy, Slightsmile, Tanner Swett, Fæ, Lunagoth, Aldrasto11, Aeonx, Alice beaty, M Cheyne, Wayne Slam, OnePt618, Tolly4bolly, Philafrenzy, Manytexts, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, Tylko, Mottenen, O.Koslowski, ᏳᎴᏂ, 1qazxswer, Zujua, Russianamerican1, Rembrandt.duits, Aeden:P, Nabm, Aeneas Middleton, Dexbot, Webclient101, Mogism, Y256, Donaldduck100, Novaya9, Zhangkev, Alexwho314, Ruby Murray, Harlem Baker Hughes, Dianaisme, Lagoset, Dianasbraham76, Waterlily364, Bebenji123197, Lunarblade, Ignoge, SoSivr, Danelle11 and Anonymous: 379   Summanus Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summanus?oldid=651508724 Contributors:  TUF-KAT, GreatWhiteNortherner, Nagelfar, Gtrmp, Mboverload, Bacchiad, Eranb, Pasquale, Aecis, JarlaxleArtemis, Franzeska, GeeJo, SmackBot, RlyehRising, Eskimbot, Hmains, MalafayaBot, The Man in Question, MTSbot~enwiki, CmdrObot, Txomin, Cynwolfe, Oiophron~enwiki, SchreiberBike, Oskar71, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Tassedethe, Loupeter, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Haploidavey, FrescoBot, SuperJew, DixonDBot, Ahivarn, BCtl, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, TuHan-Bot, Aldrasto11, ClueBot NG, Iamthecheese44, BattyBot, Fraulein451, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 14  Trivia (mythology) Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trivia%20(mythology)?oldid=631593202 Contributors:  IZAK, Wetman, Wayland, DocWatson42, Bbhtryoink, Jiy, Clifflandis, Stemonitis, Gimboid13, Bhadani, Asarelah, Kkmurray, SmackBot, Amakuru, Cydebot, The Great Honker, Moonmage, Ow, the pain!, T@nn, KylieTastic, Demosthanes, Redmind0, SieBot, Martarius, StigBot, Nymf, Xme,

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CHAPTER 38. ZORYA NinetyCharacters, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Tony Esopi, Omnipaedista, Erik9bot, ZéroBot, Imorthodox23, ClueBot NG, Michaelmas1957, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, AliceSech, Randykitty, Mackplemons and Anonymous: 18

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 Luna (goddess) Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna%20(goddess)?oldid=651899676 Contributors:   Tucci528, RussBot, Cynwolfe,

Cgingold, Addbot, BlazerKnight, Bob Burkhardt, Omnipaedista, Thehelpfulbot, Viciroth, GregKaye, ClueBot NG, KLBot2, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 5

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  Leto   Source:    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leto?oldid=657031976   Contributors:  Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels, Ben-Zin~enwiki,

Tucci528, Stevertigo, Timwi, WhisperToMe, Peregrine981, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Wetman, Pumpie, Hajor, Carlossuarez46, UtherSRG, Wikibot, Benc, Lzur, Omegium, Robodoc.at, Macrakis, Bacchiad, ChicXulub, Junuxx, The Singing Badger, Kusunose, Pmanderson, Sam Hocevar, El-Ahrairah, Didactohedron, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Paul August, ESkog, Furius, Aranel, El C, AllyUnion, Foobaz, Nicke Lilltroll, Sampo Torgo, Pearle, Alansohn, Keenan Pepper, TLG, Sburke, Cedrus-Libani, Ilya, Dosseman, Ketiltrout, Arabani, Ccson, Tomtheman5, FlaBot, Chobot, YurikBot, Rtkat3, Pigman, Prime Entelechy, Bota47, Lt-wiki-bot, Allens, NeilN, SmackBot, KocjoBot~enwiki, Athinaios, Akhilleus, Glengordon01, Lesnail, Stevenmitchell, Decltype, Fuzzypeg, Sigma 7, Pilotguy, SashatoBot, Damate, 2T, BranStark, Tawkerbot2, JFreeman, Thijs!bot, Marek69, Missvain, John254, Zrampold, WANAX, Fiona CS, RandyS0725, Magioladitis, VoABot II, T@nn, Flaming Mustang, Hveziris, Cocytus, Makalp, MartinBot, Registrant, TheEgyptian, J .delanoy, Johnbod, Comp25, NewEnglandYankee, Carlo V. Sexron, DorganBot, MWurtz, VolkovBot, ICE77, Jeff G., AlnoktaBOT, Kakoui, TXiKiBoT, Z.E.R.O., Wikiisawesome, Falcon8765, EmxBot, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, Gabrieli, KoshVorlon, Evilbunnie, Nipsonanomhmata, Wahrmund, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Kitty9992, Sir Anon, DragonBot, Jusdafax, Panellet, Editorofthewiki, Yoma123, Metodicar, Addbot, Николов, Tide rolls, Killy mcgee, Amirobot, Brougham96, AnomieBOT, XL2D, Eleph23, LilHelpa, Obersachsebot, Khajidha, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Mmmeg, MacKenzie Drake, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Dger, Hirpex, Machine Elf 1735, Tetraedycal, AmphBot, Tjmoel, Bgpaulus, Lotje, Böri, CalicoCatLover, EmausBot, Mychele Trempetich, Josve05a, Thayora, Whoop whoop pull up, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Mottenen, O.Koslowski, Widr, Rudi argento, Davidiad, Melenc, Davidlwinkler, 21Franta65, Lumachoo, 331dot, Lugia2453, Letoan1980, Toantbqn1980, Ekips39, Jakec, DavidLeighEllis, Meatballwriter123, Oleaster and Anonymous: 173

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  Shalim  Source:   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalim?oldid=654118137 Contributors:  Zero0000, Gtrmp, Rich Farmbrough, El C, Ku-

ratowski’s Ghost, MarkGallagher, Jheald, Tydaj, Satanael, Rob117, Amberrock, SmackBot, Castanea dentata, TonkaT, Shirahadasha, ShelfSkewed, Thijs!bot, Nick Number, Tiamut, Goldenrowley, Eliz81, M-le-mot-dit, Hemeier, SieBot, Elie plus, TX55, Addbot, Setsuna999, Twofistedcoffeedrinker, Aviados, Xu Davella, Xqbot, Ellenois, Heunir, D'ohBot, Jonesey95, Barmispain, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Monique123456, ChrisGualtieri, ÄDA - DÄP, Robert Morning Sky and Anonymous: 15

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  Al-Qaum  Source:   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaum?oldid=641110619 Contributors:  Malcolm Farmer, ESkog, Ogress, Alansohn,

Geraldshields11, Briangotts, Rjwilmsi, Kimchi.sg, GeeJo, Badagnani, FF2010, SmackBot, Castanea dentata, Mustaqbal, Barticus88, Goldenrowley, T@nn, , Ian.thomson, Addbot, Luckas-bot, GrouchoBot, Erik9bot, SamplerInfo, Tahir mq, Veron, JeepdaySock, John of Reading, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 6

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 Lords of the Night Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lords%20of%20the%20Night?oldid=653586031 Contributors:   Andycjp, Kle-

men Kocjancic, Rich Farmbrough, CJLL Wright, RussBot, Ptcamn, Maunus, SmackBot, AstroLynx, Xact, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Jhattara, Retal, Jalo, Senor Cuete, Addbot, Japf, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Haploidavey, Erik9bot, NSH002, EmausBot, Goldenbrook, ZéroBot, Widr, BG19bot, MKar, Aztlshamb, Giggette and Anonymous: 8

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  Itzpapalotl Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itzpapalotl?oldid=653827596 Contributors:  Mrwojo, Gtrmp, Eequor, Ushishir, Kwamik-

agami, Susvolans, Ogress, Kamezuki, Rjwilmsi, CJLL Wright, Roboto de Ajvol, GeeJo, GunnarRene, Ptcamn, Maunus, SmackBot, Classicfilms, Reedy, E-Kartoffel, LadyofShalott, Thijs!bot, Xuchilbara, Goldenrowley, Simon Burchell, T@nn, JaGa, Simon Peter Hughes, Diselva, Light Bulb, VolkovBot, Indubitably, 0XQ, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Gongshow, Mintrick, FrescoBot, NSH002, Trappist the monk, ClueBot NG, Firebrand stone, Ephert, Aztlshamb, Monkbot and Anonymous: 17

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  Metztli Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metztli?oldid=644279922 Contributors:  Danny, Someoneelse, Kosebamse,TUF-KAT, TUF-

KAT, Gtrmp, Eequor, Melaen, Sburke, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, CJLL Wright, Roboto de Ajvol, GeeJo, Maunus, Kubra, Ale jrb, Goldenrowley, Simon Burchell, T@nn, Jalo, Publius02, Ygrex, Alexbot, Local hero, Addbot, AnomieBOT, NSH002, DrilBot, Trappist the monk, Helpful Pixie Bot, Aztlshamb and Anonymous: 15

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  Tezcatlipoca Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tezcatlipoca?oldid=651871562 Contributors:  Infrogmation, Menchi, TUF-KAT, TUF-

KAT, Glenn, Netsnipe, RodC, RickK, Hajor, JorgeGG, Jeffq, JackofOz, Danceswithzerglings, Nanahuatzin, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Jorge Stolfi, Alexf, Rwv37, Tkandell, Kwamikagami, Mjk2357, Remuel, Alansohn, DreamGuy, Drbreznjev, NuVanDibe, Bobrayner, Woohookitty, Sburke, Marudubshinki, WBardwin, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Laubrau~enwiki, Introvert, CJLL Wright, WriterHound, Lord Jim, GeeJo, Liastnir, Ptcamn, Rockero, Maunus, UltimatePyro, SmackBot, Frankgeo, RlyehRising, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Zsinj, WSaindon, Ragestorm, Rykan, The Man in Question, Werdan7, LadyofShalott, Wolfdog, CmdrObot, Palendrom, Heltec, Kirkesque, Dyanega, Starsword333, Thijs!bot, Missvain, Nick Number, Mentifisto, Goldenrowley, Alphachimpbot, Deflective, Crazyboy899, Simon Burchell, T@nn, Z-m-k, Infrangible, Keizers, Miskwito, Idioma-bot, Tewok, Tempest67, Cacaoatl, Logan, Da Joe, Beastly endevour, Spondylus.princeps, Cyfal, Martarius, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Alivemajor, DragonBot, Excirial, Holothurion, Better smile, Budelberger, AgnosticPreachersKid, Hombre amigo, Marrovi, Addbot, Tutthoth-Ankhre, Jarble, Yobot, Synchronism, Unara, Toshito, Citation bot, Xqbot, Transity, XZeroBot, FrescoBot, NSH002, Jonesey95, Rahlgd, Tim1357, Trappist the monk, Miracle Pen, Ravenmewtwo, Immunize, GoingBatty, ZéroBot, Brentmichaelcox, MMK GOD, Majestic Pyre, ClueBot NG, Eddietrich, Tyranitar Man, Ruby Murray, Derelik, Terry Stocker, CParis3567, Shelby64, Monkbot, Quetzalcoatl777, The Wryter, The Aeronus and Anonymous: 103

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  Yohaulticetl Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yohaulticetl?oldid=542519736 Contributors:  Gtrmp, Saga City, Sburke, GeeJo, Asare-

lah, Robertsteadman, Goldenrowley, T@nn, Jeepday, Alexbot, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Yobot, GrouchoBot, Erik9bot and Aztlshamb

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 Black Sun (mythology) Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Sun%20(mythology)?oldid=645460926 Contributors:  Ogress, Si-

mon Burchell, Rickard Vogelberg, Addbot, FrescoBot, NSH002, Trappist the monk, BCtl, ZéroBot, Josve05a, Bollyjeff, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Aztlshamb, SatanistSin and Anonymous: 8

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  Five Suns  Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five%20Suns?oldid=656968632 Contributors:   Hyacinth, Robbot, Sam Spade, Nanahu-

atzin, Tecpaocelotl, Duja, Rich Farmbrough, Freestylefrappe, Wtmitchell, Woohookitty, Plushpuffin, George Burgess, FlaBot, CJLL Wright, Koveras, NawlinWiki, Welsh, SmackBot, JFHJr, Gilliam, BillFlis, KJS77, Dougweller, Missvain, PhJ, Simon Burchell, Feeeshboy, Simon Peter Hughes, Morki, Emperor of Europe, STBotD, Mastrchf91, Jalo, Editor2020, Addbot, Brinsord, Diablokrom, Sillyfolkboy, TriniMuñoz, Ptbotgourou, Csigabi, NSH002, Tom.Reding, Trappist the monk, EmausBot, Rmccloskey001, ClueBot NG, Aztlshamb, MadGuy7023, Lugia2453, Giggette, Vividonset2, Amortias and Anonymous: 34

38.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES  •

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129

  Tzitzimitl Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzitzimitl?oldid=644221124 Contributors:  TUF-KAT, Gtrmp, Susvolans, Ogress, Sburke,

CJLL Wright, Mordicai, Gaius Cornelius, GeeJo, Ptcamn, Asarelah, Maunus, LadyofShalott, JForget, Escarbot, Goldenrowley, RebelRobot, Simon Burchell, T@nn, Diselva, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Drmies, Addbot, DOI bot, Ptbotgourou, Citation bot, NSH002, RedBot, BCtl, Любослов Езыкин, ClueBot NG, StarDriver9 and Anonymous: 7   Apep  Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apep?oldid=656689253 Contributors:  Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels, Llywrch, TUF-KAT, Maximus Rex, AnonMoos, Robbot, Jmabel, Wikibot, Mushroom, Xanzzibar, Gtrmp, Anarxia, Coldacid, Demonslave, Roisterer, M.e, Yossarian, Urhixidur, Eisnel, DanielCD, Guanabot, Dbachmann, Bender235, CanisRufus, Kwamikagami, Vicks007, Viriditas, DreamGuy, Trylks, Evil Monkey, Hijiri88, Sburke, -Ril-, Shikai shaw, Jergen, Tutmosis, KHM03, Rjwilmsi, Captmondo, AndyKali, FlaBot, RexNL, Str1977, SpectrumDT, Valentinian, Chobot, Agamemnon2, YurikBot, RussBot, Veledan, Nutiketaiel, Dancing Meerkat, Ke5crz, Jkelly, PotatoSamurai, SFH, Orioane, Lt-wiki-bot, CapitalLetterBeginning, Gebharra, Kubra, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Zerida, Srck, Chris the speller, OrangeDog, Modest Genius, Glengordon01, WinstonSmith, Leoboudv, Dreadstar, LoveMonkey, The PIPE, Andrew Dalby, Polveroj, The Man in Question, Ripe, A. Parrot, Beetstra, UKER, Archiesteel, Lenn0r, Lord Anubis, Michaelbusch, SlayerDave, CRGreathouse, CmdrObot, KyraVixen, Iokseng, Synergy, Dougweller, After Midnight, Thijs!bot, Smile a While, Crystalzilla, JAnDbot, Deflective, MER-C, Sam Medany, Simon Peter Hughes, StephP, Gunkarta, Ian.thomson, Acalamari, LordAnubisBOT, Ignatzmice, Warut, KylieTastic, HyDeckar, VolkovBot, Tunnels of Set, TXiKiBoT, Apepch7, Satseshat, Caran Varr, ^demonBot2, FinnWiki, JesterCountess, Ottarvendel, Thanatos666, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Sidriel.13, SimonTrew, Mighty Nut, Martarius, ClueBot, Starkiller88, Andrew Clucas, Estirabot, Kkikk123, Askahrc, Spitfire, BodhisattvaBot, Subversive.sound, Addbot, Cst17, Favonian, SpBot, HandThatFeeds, Legobot, Yobot, Blair.mcdougall, Jim1138, Mintrick, Onesius, Gospodar svemira, XZeroBot, Mhotep, Pkousoulis, Whynowagain, Trust Is All You Need, Jamesooders, Pinethicket, Skyerise, Pikiwyn, Tahir mq, Dmthoth, Hoodedwarbler12, BCtl, The Oh-So Humble One, Thayora, Music Sorter, IJKL, Vorziblix, CZeska, Donner60, Puffin, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Stenvenhe, Kasirbot, Ymblanter, Amp71, Mark Arsten, FoxCE, AphophisRa, Awesomeness237, Haymouse, Iry-Hor, NoahXQOASB, Battleknighter, Knhlhilee9898, Marco9079, DavidLeighEllis, Silvershadowfire, Editguy111, Alfeugceknidng, Btr101themage, Nathaniel360, Lor, Ninja81512, Picapicacuckoo, Chandra,Eye of Ma'at, Grathmy, Rocky2451, Thomaswaite1, SamStill0717 and Anonymous: 143  Kuk (mythology) Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuk%20(mythology)?oldid=656029445 Contributors:  Derek Ross, Gabbe, TUFKAT, Raven in Orbit, Sanders muc, Qwm~enwiki, Gtrmp, Cronos~enwiki, Kunjan1029, OwenBlacker, ESkog, QuartierLatin1968, Jgremillot, Longhair, AllyUnion, JW1805, Pearle, Chicago god, SnowFire, Hoary, Philthecow, -Ril-, Tutmosis, FlaBot, CJLL Wright, YurikBot, RussBot, Michael Slone, Razer64, Pudist, Fram, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Bomac, Leoboudv, RedHillian, Mkrwii~enwiki, SvartEld, Ifrit, A. Parrot, Snake712, MTSbot~enwiki, Shandris, Carla Pehlke, Dougweller, Ebyabe, PamD, Daniel, Sobreira, Arkracer, Dead-Inside, Escarbot, JAnDbot, T@nn, JNW, Edward321, Simon Peter Hughes, Jonomacdrones, Olabajs, Euku, BRIO1368, Nothingbutmeat, Philip Trueman, Apepch7, FinnWiki, Malcolmxl5, Gabrieli, Gerakibot, Permacultura, Enti342, Ptolemy Caesarion, ClueBot, Dinoceras, PipepBot, Muro Bot, Addbot, Diablokrom, Glane23, Zorrobot, Delta 51, Yobot, Erud, JimVC3, Armbrust, Erik9bot, JMCC1, FrescoBot, Biddeus, Amonet, Dmthoth, GregKaye, EmausBot, Bobby Boulders 5400, ZéroBot, Fæ, Music Sorter, ClueBot NG, Yahaa, Smiisk, Haymouse, Giuseppepiogrieco20, Kukendin, Chicbyaccident, Kunoichi.au and Anonymous: 59   Ratri   Source:    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratri?oldid=571998138  Contributors:  Tedernst, Csernica, Imc, Topbanana, Gadfium, Dangerous-Boy, Bhadani, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, DaGizza, YurikBot, RussBot, SmackBot, Gonzalo84, Tamfang, Andrés D., Q43, Reswobslc, Armkong, Captain panda, Addbot, ClueBot NG, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 13   Chandra  Source:   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra?oldid=658935360 Contributors:  Magnus Manske, TUF-KAT, Rossami, Charles Matthews, Jay, Lumos3, Zandperl, Crculver, DocWatson42, Vishvas vasuki, Eequor, Roisterer, Dbachmann, Aude, Bobo192, Smalljim, Ranveig, Alansohn, Wiki-uk, Dienstag, Plumcouch, ^demon, Dangerous-Boy, Josh Parris, Bhadani, Eubot, Tedder, DaGizza, YurikBot, Avecit, Deeptrivia, SnoopY~enwiki, SpuriousQ, Argo Navis, SmackBot, WildElf, Bluebot, Gypcywoman, Ryan Roos, Via strass, Alamandrax, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, SpyMagician, Adam sk, AbsolutDan, DanielRigal, Cydebot, Ekabhishek, UtDicitur, RebelRobot, Xact, JamesBWatson, Huzzlet the bot, Captain panda, Abecedare, Ian.thomson, Mavitra, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, Indubitably, ^demonBot2, Wassermann~enwiki, BotKung, Dipendra2007, SieBot, Sarangu 001, Al-qamar, VasuVR, Mini-skaters, Astrologist, Martarius, ClueBot, Tripping Nambiar, Rossen4, AaronCarson, Addbot, Legobot, Yobot, Amirobot, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Kingpin13, ArthurBot, Obersachsebot, Mononomic, Pathare Prabhu, S.sukanthan, Omnipaedista, Srpant, FrescoBot, Pdr.vizioli, Vprashanth87, Tbhotch, EmausBot, Mzilikazi1939, Tommy2010, Melakavijay, ZéroBot, Fæ, SundaLives, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, ScottSteiner, MKar, Krishnachandra, Banda.krishna, Green Tree 1000, Mogism, Meenakshi.lall, Lugia2453, Raki sgy, Nkaushik2, Vickyemailbox, Veenapura, Vinayak8 and Anonymous: 97   Rahu Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahu?oldid=658456702 Contributors:  AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen, Arvindn, Paddu, Ronz, Joy, Carlossuarez46, Robbot, Babbage, Tipiac, Andycjp, DragonflySixtyseven, Rosarino, Mahendra, Discospinster, Elipongo, Sundar2000, Tabletop, Dangerous-Boy, SDC, Tokek, Rjwilmsi, Bhadani, Saksham, Spasemunki, Satanael, Avecit, Deeptrivia, Rohitbd, Sylvain1972, Kubra, SmackBot, PeterSymonds, Amatulic, Snowgrouse, Johanna-Hypatia, Zzzzzzzzzzz, MarcAurel, Hu12, IvanLanin, Blademasterx, Cydebot, DBaba, UtDicitur, Dharmadhyaksha, B9 hummingbird hovering, CommonsDelinker, OttoMäkelä, LogicDictates, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, IPSOS, Wassermann~enwiki, BotKung, Bporopat, GoonerDP, SieBot, Lotusocean, Sean.hoyland, Astrologist, Ssriram mt, Tosharad, 0XQ, Ushiwaka, XLinkBot, Ism schism, Addbot, CanadianLinuxUser, MrOllie, LaaknorBot, Verbal, Luckasbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Xufanc, Rockoprem, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, DSisyphBot, FrescoBot, SIMVHA, Machine Elf 1735, Skyerise, Cognitivemind, Vprashanth87, Jethwarp, Tbhotch, Chandanti, EmausBot, John of Reading, AdityaEX, ZéroBot, Shmilyshy, Aviralraw, Juneja.akshay, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, Pankajgupta80, MKar, Ansi.anand, Harshadsamant, ArchyArchy, Jehid2262, SodaAnt, Aztlshamb, Severeevil, Khazar2, Mogism, Triphala108, Hillbillyholiday, Sndeep81, Elmarat, Epicgenius, Tentinator, Ajaii74, แอนเดอรสัน, KGCSMG, Prem786, OSMAX20, Grell the Reaper, Reegu and Anonymous: 102   Varuna Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varuna?oldid=654623807 Contributors:  Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, XJaM, Ellywa, TUF-KAT, TUF-KAT, Wikiborg, Reddi, Taxman, Anupamsr, Joy, Carlossuarez46, Robbot, Goethean, Sam Spade, Filemon, Gtrmp, Wiglaf, Wighson, Eequor, Mckaysalisbury, Bacchiad, Quarl, Sharavanabhava, CALR, Narsil, Dbachmann, Night Gyr, Bobo192, Rramphal, Novicew, Raj2004, Balster neb, Alex '05, Angr, Woohookitty, Briangotts, Dangerous-Boy, Qwertyus, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Brighterorange, Bhadani, FlaBot, Last1in, DaGizza, Satanael, Mercury McKinnon, YurikBot, RussBot, Jtkiefer, Zafiroblue05, Theelf29, Zwobot, Chesnok, Closedmouth, Luk, Tadorne, Tom Lougheed, KocjoBot~enwiki, Wakuran, Madmedea~enwiki, Chlewbot, Fullstop, Ryan Roos, Ckatz, RandomCritic, A. Parrot, Jpatel, Iridescent, Rayfield, Sameboat, Joseph Solis in Australia, Sinaloa, IvanLanin, Zero sharp, Maleabroad, Ziusudra, Tawkerbot2, Grammatical error, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Babub, Quork, Thijs!bot, Joy1963, Nick Number, Ste4k, Leolaursen, Magioladitis, T@nn, Sindhutvavadin, Kheider, Afil, Pratishkhedekar, Eduemoni, Zerokitsune, Kalkrishnan, Morinae, Joshua Issac, Cometstyles, Squids and Chips, Neildro, Redtigerxyz, TXiKiBoT, Sankalpdravid, BotKung, Senero, Freedomji, GoonerDP, SieBot, BotMultichill, Oldag07,

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CHAPTER 38. ZORYA VVVBot, Invisible Noise, Winchelsea, Gerakibot, Sudeshm, TX55, Jacob.jose, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Podzemnik, Alexbot, Kibur, Jotterbot, DumZiBoT, Yashpi, Blacksweater123, Cminard, Voltigeur, Addbot, Bhrgvsridhar, Diablokrom, WikiDreamer Bot, Fryed-peach, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Ikwe, Law, Username of fun, ArthurBot, DirlBot, Shubhamiitr, Xqbot, Capricorn42, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Shadowjams, LucienBOT, Mitravaruna, Craig Pemberton, Dazedbythebell, Double sharp, RaheZartosht, World8115, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Mychele Trempetich, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, Widr, BG19bot, Achowat, Leoesb1032, Brijeshgoa1, Mirtuh, Orthopraxy and Anonymous: 111  List of Lithuanian mythological figures Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Lithuanian%20mythological%20figures? oldid=655824834  Contributors:  Toby Bartels, Altenmann, LinasLit, Icairns, Rich Farmbrough, Art LaPella, Mysdaao, Melaen, Woohookitty, Lokyz, Rjwilmsi, YurikBot, RussBot, Pigman, Grafen, Renata3, Leo Lazauskas, SmackBot, Reedy, Kintetsubuffalo, HeartofaDog, Saint Midge, Colonies Chris, Dr. Dan, Raphael s, Nareek, MTSbot~enwiki, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Epbr123, Hugo.arg, Millifolium, Utkarshsawale,Iulius, Nick Number, ThomasPusch, Darklilac,Evaldas.s~enwiki, Propaniac, T@nn, AtticusX, PPMoneo, Jeepday, Robertgreer, Bofoc Tagar, Jmnil, CanOfWorms, Welnias, Trigaranus, Sorstalan, 48states, Hypatea, Jundashao, 1ForTheMoney, Medeine,Addbot, Luckas-bot, TaBOT-zerem, Kithira, GiW, Cramyourspam, Cosmognot, RjwilmsiBot, Sverigekillen, EmausBot, Ypatingasisburys, John of Reading, BackyYard, ZéroBot, EricWR, Dream of Nyx, Harsimaja, Davidiad, Khazar2, All Worlds, Karthik Selvanayagam, Giggette, ShinyAeon, Vert33, Powermelon, Monkbot, Medeina Kurtinaityte, Ramintis and Anonymous: 29   Hine-nui-te-pō Source:   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hine-nui-te-p%C5%8D?oldid=650701008 Contributors:  Andre Engels, Nate Silva, Ixfd64, TUF-KAT, Raven in Orbit, Robbot, Bhugh, Gachet, Stemonitis, Asarelah, Betacommand, Kahuroa, Aqwis, TXiKiBoT, Wolfgang K, Sanya3, Dstlascaux, Niceguyedc, Kaiwhakahaere, Addbot, Fentener van Vlissingen, Numbo3-bot, Luckas-bot, Sisyph, Materialscientist, SassoBot, Katarinasu, Schwede66, John of Reading, Enfuite, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tomerav, Lugia2453 and Anonymous: 16   Nótt  Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B3tt?oldid=653205476 Contributors:  Bryan Derksen, TUF-KAT, Glenn, Haukurth, Grendelkhan, Ed g2s, Fredrik, Romanm, Sam Spade, Wiglaf, Karl-Henner, Aris Katsaris, Neatnate, TheParanoidOne, Gene Nygaard, Koavf, Salleman, FlaBot, Florian Huber, Helios, Satanael, YurikBot, Bloodofox, Sardanaphalus, Frédérick Lacasse, Chris the speller, Colonies Chris, Tamfang, Shrine of Fire, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, MTSbot~enwiki, WeggeBot, AndrewHowse, Magioladitis, Captain panda, LokiClock, Bayo, SieBot, ClueBot, No such user, Addbot, Holt, Numbo3-bot, Luckas-bot, Yngvadottir, ArthurBot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Brutaldeluxe, Mychele Trempetich, ZéroBot, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, ChrisGualtieri, Eurodyne and Anonymous: 16   Zorya  Source:   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorya?oldid=656186088 Contributors:   JeLuF, Dysprosia, Haukurth, Altenmann, Gtrmp, Emax, Ganymead, Pmanderson, Laurascudder, Shanes, DreamGuy, Rjwilmsi, S251572, Welsh, Sverre, SmackBot, RobotJcb, Chris the speller, MegA, Butko, Novangelis, LadyofShalott, Yadman~enwiki, Cydebot, Mallanox, Thijs!bot, Noneofyourbusiness, Goldenrowley, Mskyrider, JAnDbot, Avatar73, T@nn, Interwal, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Molly-in-md, KylieTastic, TXiKiBoT, Laveol, SieBot, Liana28, Faustulus, Shoemoney2night, Pi zero, Prolemthas, ChrisHodgesUK, Editor2020, BalkanFever, Togamanrules, Addbot, Yobot, Jim1138, Злобин П.С., Conquistador, Matryoshki, Blotowij, Skookin, Veron, Pollinosisss, Sizzle Flambé, RjwilmsiBot, Dƶoxar, A.k.turedi, Mychele Trempetich, Werieth, Puffin, AgentSniff, Helpful Pixie Bot, Cyberbot II, Pace Hale, Curdie’s Song, BahamutFFX, Сяра and Anonymous: 44

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  File:AN00866037_001_l.jpg   Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/AN00866037_001_l.jpg License:   Public domain  Contributors:  the british museum Original artist:   unknown   File:AN00969955_001_l.jpg  Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/AN00969955_001_l.jpg License:   Public domain  Contributors:  http://www.britishmuseum.org Original artist:   Richard Cosway   File:AN01020070_001_l.jpg  Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/AN01020070_001_l.jpg License:   Public domain  Contributors:  http://www.britishmuseum.org Original artist:   Richard Cosway   File:Ac_artemisephesus.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Ac_artemisephesus.jpg License:   CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors:   first upload to en.wikipedia 10:20, 30 March 2004 . . Adam Carr   (415993 bytes) en:Image:Ac.artemisephesus.jpg Original artist:   Adam

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Thebes, tomb of Inher-kha (299). Wall painting. Ramses IV (about 1164-1157) The Ancient Near East in Pictures Relating to the Old Testament, James B. Pritchard, 2nd edition 1969, 218. Transferred from en.wikipedia; Transfer was stated to be made by User:DingirXul. Original artist:   Original uploader was Eisnel at en.wikipedia   File:Apep_hieroglyph_IX24.png  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Apep_hieroglyph_IX24.png License:  Public domain Contributors:  Own work by the original uploader Original artist:  Caran Varr (talk)

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rel='nofollow'> Image  Info about artwork Original artist:  Sandro Botticelli   File:Black_Tezcatlipoca.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Black_Tezcatlipoca.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:  This raster graphics image was created with Adobe Photoshop CS Original artist:   Unknown   File:Brauron-2.jpg  Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Brauron-2.jpg License:   CC BY 2.5  Contributors:  Transferred from en.wikipedia (Original Image) Original artist:   Original uploader was Nefasdicere at en.wikipedia   File:Bronze_satuette_Diana_CdM_Paris.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Bronze_satuette_Diana_ CdM_Paris.jpg License:  CC BY 2.5 Contributors:  Marie-Lan Nguyen (11 April 2008) Original artist:  ?   File:Buddhist_hell.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Buddhist_hell.jpg License:  Public domain  Contributors:   http://www.mekongantiques.com/Pages/19c-Burmese-Hell.htm Original artist:  burmese XIXth artist   File:Bust_of_the_goddess_of_Issa,_Vis_Museum,_Croatia.JPG   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/ Bust_of_the_goddess_of_Issa%2C_Vis_Museum%2C_Croatia.JPG License:  GFDL Contributors:  Own work Original artist:   Minestrone   File:ChandraRohini.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/ChandraRohini.jpg License:  CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:   SurendrapuriNavagraha.jpg Original artist:  SurendrapuriNavagraha.jpg: Arkrishna   File:Chariot_clock_Diana,_c._1796.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Chariot_clock_Diana%2C_c. _1796.jpg License:   Public domain Contributors:  Own archive Original artist:  Unknown   File:Codex_Borgia_page_14.jpg  Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Codex_Borgia_page_14.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:  1898 facsimile edition, online at FAMSI.org Original artist:  Unknown   File:Commons-logo.svg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License:  ?  Contributors:  ?  Original  artist:  ?   File:Ddraig.svg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Draig.svg License:   Public domain Contributors:  Based on Image:Flag of Wales 2.svg Original artist:   Liftarn   File:Detail_of_Sarcophagus_Selene_Endymion_Glyptothek_Munich_328.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/6/6b/Detail_of_Sarcophagus_Selene_Endymion_Glyptothek_Munich_328.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:  ?  Original  artist:  ?   File:DianaAndPomona.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/DianaAndPomona.jpg License:  CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:  Originally uploaded to en:File:DianaAndPomona.jpg Original artist:  Leonard G.

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The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).”   File:Egypt_myth_stub.JPG Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/29/Egypt_myth_stub.JPG License:   Public domain Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:Egyptian_-_Triad_of_Isis,_Nephthys,_and_Harpocrates_-_Walters_481674.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Egyptian_-_Triad_of_Isis%2C_Nephthys%2C_and_Harpocrates_-_Walters_481674.jpg   License:    Public domain   Contributors:  Walters Art Museum:  Home page  Info about artwork Original artist:  Anonymous (Egypt)   File:Eye_of_Horus_bw.svg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Eye_of_Horus_bw.svg License:   GFDL Contributors:  Own work Original artist:  Jeff Dahl   File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License:   Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:Giampietrino_05.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Giampietrino_05.jpg License:   Public domain Contributors:  1. Metropolitan Museum of Art (Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History ) Original artist:   Giampietrino   File:Giuseppe-Mazzuoli-The-Death-of-Adonis-hermitag.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/ Giuseppe-Mazzuoli-The-Death-of-Adonis-hermitag.jpg  License:  CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:God_Vishnu_cut_the_head_of_Rahu_with_disk.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/God_ Vishnu_cut_the_head_of_Rahu_with_disk.jpg License:  Public domain  Contributors:   http://archive.org/details/mahabharata01ramauoft Original artist:  Ramanarayanadatta astri   File:Hekate_Kharites_Glyptothek_Munich_60.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Hekate_Kharites_ Glyptothek_Munich_60.jpg License:   Public domain Contributors:  User:Bibi Saint-Pol, own work, 2007-02-08 Original artist:   Unknown   File:HinduSwastika.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/HinduSwastika.svgLicense:   Public domain Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:Houghton_GC6_K6323_652o_-_Oedipus_aegyptiacus,_Isidis.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 1/1f/Houghton_GC6_K6323_652o_-_Oedipus_aegyptiacus%2C_Isidis.jpg License:    Public domain  Contributors:   GC6 K6323 652o, Houghton Library, Harvard University Original artist:   Athanasius Kircher (author)   File:Hypnos_(BM).jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Hypnos_%28BM%29.jpg License:  CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors:  Own work  Original artist:  Jononmac46   File:Hécate_-_Mallarmé.png Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/H%C3%A9cate_-_Mallarm%C3%A9.png License:   Public domain Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:Héraldique_meuble_Soleil_avec_visage.svg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/H%C3%A9raldique_ meuble_Soleil_avec_visage.svg License:  CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:  face taken from ℍenry Salomé Original artist:  Bruno   File:Isis-FromAPaintedShroud_MetropolitanMuseumOfArt.png   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/ Isis-FromAPaintedShroud_MetropolitanMuseumOfArt.png License:  CC BY-SA 2.5  Contributors:  Own Work (photo)  Original artist: 

Keith Schengili-Roberts   File:Itzpapalotl_1.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Itzpapalotl_1.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:  This raster graphics image was created with Adobe Photoshop CS Original artist:   Unknown   File:Jan_Brueghel_-_Latona_en_de_Lycische_boeren.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Jan_ Brueghel_-_Latona_en_de_Lycische_boeren.jpg License:   Public domain Contributors:  www.rijksmuseum.nl : Home : Info : Pic Original  artist:  Jan Brueghel the Elder   File:Jerash_Temple_of_Artemis.jpg  Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Jerash_Temple_of_Artemis.jpg License:  CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:  Own work  Original artist:  David Bjorgen

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  File:John_Martin_002.jpg  Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/John_Martin_002.jpg License:   Public domain Contributors:   The Yorck Project:  10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.  DVD-ROM, 2002.   ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist:  John Martin   File:Kheper.svg  Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Kheper.svg License:   GFDL  Contributors:   Own work Original artist:  Jeff Dahl   File:Laurel_wreath_fa13.gif  Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Laurel_wreath_fa13.gif License:    Copyrighted free use Contributors:   http://fa13.com Original artist:  Фёдор Таран   File:Luna_statue.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Luna_statue.jpg License:  CC BY 2.0 Contributors:  Flickr Original artist:   antmoose from Rome, Italy   File:Mexico_-_Museo_de_antropologia_-_Tête_de_Quetzalcóatl.JPG Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/ 08/Mexico_-_Museo_de_antropologia_-_T%C3%AAte_de_Quetzalc%C3%B3atl.JPG License:  CC BY 3.0  Contributors:   Own work Original artist:  Éclusette   File:MithrasIMG_5341.JPG  Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/MithrasIMG_5341.JPG License:   GFDL Contributors:  Original artist:  Cristian Chirita   File:Mithras_tauroctony_Louvre_Ma3441.jpg  Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Mithras_tauroctony_ Louvre_Ma3441.jpg License:   Public domain Contributors:  Own work Original artist:  Jastrow   File:Nephthys-FromAPaintedShroud_MetropolitanMuseumOfArt.png  Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 0/07/Nephthys-FromAPaintedShroud_MetropolitanMuseumOfArt.png License:   CCBY-SA2.5 Contributors:   OwnWork (photo) Original  artist:   Keith Schengili-Roberts   File:Nephthys_N4051_mp3h8832.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Nephthys_N4051_mp3h8832. jpg License:  CC BY-SA 2.0 fr Contributors:  Own work Original artist:   Rama   File:Nott_painting.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Nott_painting.jpg License:  Public domain  Contributors:  Original artist:   Peter Nicolai Arbo   File:Om.svg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8e/Om.svg License:  PD  Contributors: 

svg created by Rugby471 from a public domain symbol Original artist:  Rugby471   File:Orange-sun-small.jpg  Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9d/Orange-sun-small.jpg License:  Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:PD-icon.svg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/62/PD-icon.svg License:  PD  Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:Palm_tree_symbol.svg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Palm_tree_symbol.svg License:  Public domain Contributors:  DarkEvil, based on en:Image:Palmsymbol.png.  Original artist:  DarkEvil   File:Paris_psaulter_gr139_fol435v.png Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Paris_psaulter_gr139_fol435v. png License:   Public domain Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:Patera_di_Parabiago_-_MI_-_Museo_archeologico_-_Diana_-_Luna_-_25-7-2003_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall'Orto_-_ 25-7-2003.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Patera_di_Parabiago_-_MI_-_Museo_archeologico_-_ Diana_-_Luna_-_25-7-2003_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_-_25-7-2003.jpg  License:   Attribution  Contributors:  Own work  Original  artist:  Giovanni Dall'Orto   File:Paul-Jacques-Aimé_Baudry_-_Diana_Reposing_-_Walters_3712.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/a/ac/Paul-Jacques-Aim%C3%A9_Baudry_-_Diana_Reposing_-_Walters_3712.jpg   License:  Public domain   Contributors:  Walters Art Museum:
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CHAPTER 38. ZORYA   File:Quetzalcoatl.svg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Quetzalcoatl.svg License:  CC BY 3.0 Contributors:  Own work, évocation du codex Borgia Original artist:  Eddo   File:Rahudeva.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Rahudeva.jpg License:  CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: 

 SurendrapuriNavagraha.jpg Original artist:  SurendrapuriNavagraha.jpg: Arkrishna   File:Rama-Varuna.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Rama-Varuna.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:  [1] Original artist:  Raja Ravi Varma   File:Sebastiano_Ricci_015.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Sebastiano_Ricci_015.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:   The Yorck Project:  10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.  DVD-ROM, 2002.  ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist:   Sebastiano Ricci   File:Set_speared_Apep.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Set_speared_Apep.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:  Egyptian Museum, Cairo Original artist:   An unknown workman   File:She-wolf_suckles_Romulus_and_Remus.jpg  Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/She-wolf_suckles_ Romulus_and_Remus.jpg License:  Public domain  Contributors:  Own book scan from Emmanuel Müller-Baden (dir.),  Bibliothek des allgemeinen und praktischen Wissens, I, Deutsches Verlaghaus Bong & Co, Berlin-Leipzig-Wien-Stuttgart, 1904. Image copied from de:Bild:Kapitolinische-woelfin 1b-640x480.jpg Original artist:  Benutzer:Wolpertinger on WP de   File:Silver_tetradrachm_of_Indo-Greek_king_Artemidoros.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1a/Silver_ tetradrachm_of_Indo-Greek_king_Artemidoros.jpg License:  CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:  Own photograph Previously published:  http://coinindia.com/galleries-artemidoros.html Original artist:  Rani nurmai   File:Statue_of_Artemis_Ephesus.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Statue_of_Artemis_Ephesus.jpg License:  CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg License:  Public domain  Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:T16.5Hekate.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/T16.5Hekate.jpg License:   Public domain Contributors:  http://www.theoi.com/Gallery/T16.5.html Original artist:   unknown   File:Tepeyollotl_1.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Tepeyollotl_1.jpg License:  Public domain  Contributors:  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg  Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_ with_red_question_mark.svg License:  Public domain  Contributors:  Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon  Text-x-generic.svg from the Tango project. Original artist:  Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)   File:The_Wolves_Pursuing_Sol_and_Mani.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/The_Wolves_ Pursuing_Sol_and_Mani.jpg License:  Public domain  Contributors:  Guerber, H. A. (Hélène Adeline) (1909).   Myths of the Norsemen  from the Eddas and Sagas. London : Harrap. This illustration facing page 8. Digitized by the Internet Archive and available from http://www.archive.org/details/mythsofthenorsem00gueruoft Some simple image processing by User:Haukurth  Original artist:   John Charles Dollman   File:Tizian_015.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Tizian_015.jpg License:  Public domain Contributors:  The Yorck Project:  10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist:   Titian   File:TurquoiseAztecMask2.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/90/TurquoiseAztecMask2.jpg License:   CC-BYSA-2.5 Contributors:  The photographed object was exhibited in the British Museum, London [1] Original artist:  Z-m-k   File:Tzitzimitl.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Tzitzimitl.jpg License:  Public domain  Contributors:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tzitzimitl.jpg Original artist:   unknown   File:U+260A.svg  Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/U%2B260A.svg License:    Public domain  Contributors:   Own SVG manual drawing by uploader  Original artist:  Sarang   File:USS-Varuna.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/USS-Varuna.jpg License:  CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:  Own work  Original artist:  Pratishkhedekar   File:Waterhouse-sleep_and_his_half-brother_death-1874.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/ Waterhouse-sleep_and_his_half-brother_death-1874.jpg  License:  Public domain Contributors:  John William Waterhouse, 1874 Original  artist:   John William Waterhouse   File:Wiki_letter_w.svg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg License:  Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors:  ? Original artist:  ?   File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License:  Public domain Contributors:   Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png.  Original artist:   Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk ·  contribs), based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber   File:William_Blake_006.jpg  Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/William_Blake_006.jpg License:   Public domain  Contributors:   The Yorck Project:  10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.  DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist:   William Blake