Morphology

Morphology

Martos Alfitri PBI V D

MORPHOLOGY

MARTOS ALFITRI PBI V D 10714000764

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Morphology

Martos Alfitri PBI V D Morphology

Morphology is the study of the construction of words words out of morphemes

Morpheme

The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. (lexical and grammatical meaning) A morpheme must have a meaning, and it i s the smallest unit of meaning (the smallest sound-meaning union which cannot be further analyzed into smaller units). The word lady can be divided into two syllables (la.dy), but it consists of just one morpheme, because a syllable has nothing to do with meaning. The word un forgettable can be divided three morphemes (dis+agree+able). The word books contains only one syllable, but it consists of two morphemes (book+s) (Notice: the morpheme – s has a grammatical meaning [Plural])

The internal structure of words Words can have an internal structure, i.e. they are decomposable into smaller meaningful (lexical or grammatical) parts. These smallest meaningful units we call morphemes.

read+er

re+read

en+able

dark+en

Mary+’s

print+ed

c a t+ s

go+es

Classification of Morphemes 1. Accor Accordin ding g to their their pos positi ition on in the the word: word:

read

re+read

read+ing

rereading

root

prefix + root

root + suffix

prefix + root + suffix

2

Morphology


2. Types ypes of affi affixe xes: s: •

Derivational

Derivational affixes (create new meaning) make new words by adding concrete meanings to old words:

-er, -ess -hood, -ive, -ness, re-, un- etc Examples of Derivational Affixes Affixes

Pre Prefix

Gramm rammat atic ica al ca categor egory y of of Grammatical category of base

inunundisdisre exen-

Adj Adj V V Adj V N N

Sufffix Su

output

Adj Adj V V Adj V N V

inaccurate unkind untie dis-like dishonest rewrite ex-wife encourage

Gra Gr amma mmatica ical categ tegory ory of Grammatical category of base

-hood -ship -f y -ic -less -ful - al -e r

N N N N N N V V

:

V - Adj:

print

V-V

:

(to) print

child-hood leader-ship beauti-fy poet-ic power-less care-ful refus-al read-er

printer printable

print

re-print

N-V

:

flea

de-flea

N – Ad

:

milk

milky

N-N

:

mother

Example

output

N N V Adj Adj Adj N N

V-N

Example

motherhood

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Morphology


Adj - N

:

happy

happiness

Adj - V

:

thick

thicken

Adj - Adj

:

happy

unhappy

Derivation typically adds a new lexical meaning component:

(7) (7)

prin printa tab ble: le: ‘su ‘such ch that that can can be be pri print nted ed’’

motherhood: ‘property of being a mother’ thicken: ‘become or cause to become thicker’

Derivation is recursive (feeds into itself):

(8)

in-de-cipher-abil-ity

Inflection (inflectional morphology) Creates word forms of a lexeme

(9)

CAT: cat (Singu (Singular) lar) cats (Plural) (Plural)

(10)

a.

SING: sing

Base form

sing singss

3sg 3sg Pre Prese sent nt Tense ense

singingPresent Participle

b.

sang

Past Tense

sung sung

Past Past Partici Participle ple (Perfec (Perfect/Pa t/Passi ssive ve Particip Participle) le)

WALK: walk

Base form

walk walkss 3sg 3sg Pres Presen entt Ten Tense se walking

Present Participle

walkedPast Tense walkedPast Participle (Perfect/Passive Participle)

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Morphology

(12)


a.

COLD: cold

Positive

cold colder er Comp Compar arati ative ve coldest coldest Superlative Superlative

b.

GOOD: good

Positive

bet bette terr Comp Compar arat ativ ivee best

Superlative

Morphological operations Morphological operation =def ‘concrete change made to a word form in order to signal a derivational or inflectional process’

Other operations in English: Vowel change: man ~ men sing ~ sang ~ sung

Sometimes this accompanies affixations: break ~ broke ~ broken (= broke + en) write ( ~ wrote) ~ written

Consonant change: house [haus] ~ (to) house [houz] knife [naif] ~ knives [naivz]

Stress shift: (a) (a) có cóntrast ast ~ (to) co contrást

N ~V

(Languages with tones may use tone alternations to realize grammatical processes)

Conversion: word of one class treated as belonging to a different class without any overt morphological operation: N

V: paper ~ to paper (the wall) skin ~ to skin a rabbit

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Morphology


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head ~ to head hea d a department, an inquiry, inquiry, a phrase police ~ to police a town, a regulation V

N:walk ~ go for a walk fall ~ take a fall sleep ~ get a good night’s sleep

Also phrasal verbs: take off ~ a smooth take off put down ~ a cruel put down run through ~ a quick run through (one’s lecture) A

N:the good, the bad and the ugly

N

A:orange (balloon), primrose (wallpaper)

A

V wet (the paper), paper), dry (the dishes) dishes)

Types Types of inflectional infle ctional processes All English prefixes and most suffixes are derivational.

•

Inflectional

Affix Affixes es can can be divi divide ded d into into infl inflect ectio iona nall morp morphe heme mess and and deri deriva vatio tiona nall morphemes. This reflects two major morphological (word building) processes:

Inflectional Morphemes 

Inflectional morphemes do not change grammatical category of the base to which

they are attached. They do not change the meaning of the base. They only carry relevant relevant grammatical grammatical information, information, e.g. plural. plural. Thus, Thus,

book

and

books

are both nouns

referring to the same kind of entity.



The number of inflectional affixes is small and fixed. NO new ones have been added

since 1500.

Suffix

Stem

Function

Example

-s

N

Plural

book-s

-s

V

3rd singular

sleep-s

V

present tense past tense

walk-ed

-ed

Morphology


-ing

V

Progressive

walk-ing

-e r

Adj

Comparative

tall-er

-est

Adj

Superlative

tall-est

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Inflectional affixes make different grammatical grammatical forms of the same word. word. English has only 8 productive inflections:

3 for verbs: -ed, -s, -ing

work+ed, work+s, work+ing

3 for nouns: -s, -'s -'s

boys, boy's, boys'

2 for adjectives: -er, -est

smart+er, smart+est

There are several unproductive inflections too, like the plural - en in oxen, and the participial -en in given . stem + ending (inflectional suffix) again’’ reprints ‘ Present Tense RE[PRINT]] = ‘print again’’

prefix root

re

print

suffix

s

3. Classification according to whether morpheme = word

FREE most roots in English but: adept, inept (BOUND ROOT)

BOUND most prefixes and suffixes (Derivational and inflectional) ism (free suffix) ex, pro, con (free prefixes)

4. Classifying words according to morpheme structure structure

•

Simple words is a single morpheme: house, I, the, off, salamander

Morphology


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Complex words words is root + at least 1 affix: worker, reread, retelling

•

anti + dis + establish +ment + ari + an +ism Compound words can be distinguished into three forms; they are solid, hyphenated and open No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

SOLID Motorway Handbook Hardware Timewarm Outside Feedback brainwork

HYPENATED Double-decker Box-office Hard-cover Snow-white In-law Check-in Frog-eating-bird

OPEN Deep freeze Bank account Credit card etc.

Word-formation processes

MAJOR

•

Affixation: process of forming words by b y adding affxes to morphemes.

{ V + -able ! A: predict+ -able { V + -er ! N: sing+er { un + A ! A: un-productive { A + en ! V: deep+ -en, thick+ -en

•

Compounding: word formation process by which new words are formed by

combining two or more independent words. { A + A ! A: bittersweet { N + N ! N: rainbow { V + V ! V: sleepwalk { P + P ! P: without { V + N ! N: pickpocket { N + V ! V: spoonfeed { P + V ! V: overdo

Morphology

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Reduplication: process of forming new words either by doubling an entire

word (total reduplictation) or part of a word (partial reduplication). { English: humpty-dumpty, higgledy-piggeldy

(partial reduplication) { Creole: blak \black", blakblak \very black" (total

reduplication)

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Morpheme-internal Morpheme-internal Changes: a type of word formation process wherein a

word changes internally to indicate grammatical information. { ablaut: sing, sang, sung; swim, swam, swum { other changes: man, men; mouse, mice, goose,

Geese

•

Suppletion: a relationship between forms of a word wherein on form cannot

be phonologically or morphologically or morphologically derived from the other, this process is rare. { am - was; go -went { good - better; bad - worse

MINOR

•

ACRONYMS:

extreme form of reduction; -are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words 2 kind of them: “alphabetisisms”->CD, DNA-pronunciation consist of the set of letters; -second are pronounced as a single word-> NATO, NATO, NASA, UNESCO, PIN some acronyms lose their capitals to become everyday terms -> laser

•

BACKFORMATION:

a word of one type(usu a noun) is reduced to form another word of a different type(usu type(usu a verb); -worker->work, -worker->work, donation->d donation->donate… onate…hypo hypocorism corisms-a s-a longer longer word is

Morphology

Martos Alfitri 10 PBI V D

reduc reduced ed to a sing single le sylla syllabl ble, e, then then –y or –ie –ie is adde added d to the the end: end: movi movie, e, telly telly->television Synchronic perspective on language-together; at the same point of time Diachronic perspective on language-not together; in different points of time; showing changes, how the language evolve in time.

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BLENDING:

taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word; clipped clipped and then then compou compounde nded d word word eg. smog smog (smoke (smoke +fog), +fog), motel, motel, bit, bit, brunch brunch,, telecast, Chunnel.

•

BORROWING:

very common word –formation process; it’s social phenomenon means, the taking over of words from other languages; -it takes place when a speaker of one culture come come to cont contac actt with with anot another her one; one; -the -the borro borrowi wing ng will will be taken taken from from the the most most influential culture Loan-words – words adapted from other languages Loan-translation (calque) – it’s a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language. There’s always change in phonological structure.

•

CLIPPING:

clip=to cut; -making words shorter, reducing them; a word of more then one syllable is reduced to a shorter form; -esp in casual speech; -gas, bus, piano, bra

•

COINAGE:

The invention of totally new terms Proper names or trade names for one company’s product become general terms for any version of that product.(eg. kleenex, Guy Fox->guy(any human being); -meaning of the words is broaden and broaden.

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CONVERSION:

Morphology

Martos Alfitri 11 PBI V D

a change in the function of a word(eg. when the noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction)other names are: “category change” I “functional shift”; very productive in English, do not exist in Polish eg. cut,paper, butter, bottle, vecation, spy. spy. some converted forms shift in meaning when they change the category. category.

•

PSEUDO ACRONYM

Reduce sentence into some letters e.g. I C Q : I Seek You, You, C U : See you, SQR : secure, etc.

•

ONOMOTOPEOIA

Words created from sound e.g. Meauw > Cat, etc.

Morphology

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