Module 2 Leading Small Teams

ASIAN ACADEMY OF BUSINESS AND COMPUTERS COMPTENCY-BASED LEARNING MODULE ON ENG 111. ENGLISH COMMUNICATION SKILLS 1

MODULE 2

LEADING SMALL TEAMS

By:

RIZZA R. RENOMERON National Assessor for VG NC III CA-VGD0313140909003

SHERYL R. MORALES National Assessor for BKP NC III CA-BKP0313140911226

MODULE 2

LEADING SMALL TEAMS

• • • •

Information Sheet 1 COMMUNICATION PROCESS Information Sheet 2 TEAM STRUCTURE Information Sheet 3 TEAM ROLES Information Sheet 4 GROUP PLANNING & DECISION MAKING

ASIAN ACADEMY OF BUSINESS AND COMPUTERS

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MODULE TITLE

LEADING SMALLL TEAMS

DESCRIPTION:

Language is the most commonly used medium of self-expresssion in all spheres of human life - personal, social and professional. This module covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes required to lead in the dissemination and discussion of ideas, information and issues in the workplace

COURSE OBJECTIVE:

Students completing this module will be able to: Communicate informaiton about workplace processes; Identify team structure and team roles; and Participate in group planning and decision making.

CONTENTS:

Information Sheet 1 – Communication Process * Effective communication * Communication process and key elements * Barriers in communication Self-Check 1 Information Sheet 1.1 – Types of Communication * One-Way communication * Two-Way communication * Transaction * Forms of Oral communication Self-Check 1.1 Information Sheet 2 – Team Structures * Team * Stages of Team Development Self-Check 2 Information Sheet 3 – Team Roles * Team Mision and Vision * Team Operating Process * Team Task Roles * Team Building Self-Check 3 Information Sheet 4 – Group Planning and Decision Making * Group Planning Process * Planning for Decision Making * Decision Levels * Some Techniques for Decision Making Self-Check 4


Module 2. Lead small teams

MODULE 2 LEAD SMALL TEAMS

LEARNING GUIDE Learning Steps

1. Read Information Sheet 1 on Communication process 2. Answer Self-Check

Resources

Information Sheet 1 Self-Check 1

3. Read Information Sheet 2 on Team Structures

Information Sheet 2

4. Answer Self-Check

Self-Check 2

5. Read Information Sheet 3 on Team Roles

Information Sheet 3


Self-Check 3

7. Read Information Sheet 4 Group Planning and Decision-making

Information Sheet 4


Self-Check 4


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INFORMATION SHEET 1 COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication is defined as a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. Use of these processes is developmental and transfers to all areas of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur. Communication maybe verbal or non-verbal, depending on the medium used. Verbal communication uses either the written or spoken language. Non-verbal communication makes use of non-linguistic symbols such as sign language, facial expressions, and body language.

Effective Communication A good working definition for effective communication is to share meaning and understanding between the person sending the message and the person receiving the message. The key element is “understanding.” So in order to be an effective communicator, we must first and foremost be understood in our various communications.


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COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND KEY ELEMENTS The communication process is a simple model that demonstrates all the factors that can affect communication. Communication is effective if the message that is received is the same one that is sent.

A. Sender – The communicator or sender is the person who is sending the message. There are two factors that will determine how effective the communicator will be. The first factor is the communicator’s attitude. It must be positive. The second factor is the communicator’s selection of meaningful symbols, or selecting the right symbols depending on your audience and the right environment.

B. Message – A communication in writing, in speech, or by signals C. Receiver – The receiver is simply the person receiving the message, making sense of it, or understanding and translating it into meaning. Now think about this for a moment: the receiver is also a communicator. How can that be? (When receiver responds, he is then the communicator.) Communication is only successful when the reaction of the receiver is that which the communicator intended. Effective communication takes place with shared meaning and understanding.


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D. Channel – It is a medium through which a message is transmitted to its intended audience, such as print media or broadcast (electronic) media. If the wrong channel is used for the content and intent of the message they might get lost. For example, when a supervisor asks one of his employees to come and see him in his office, the message might not be perceived the same if ommunicated in person or through a note left on the employee’s desk. E. Feedback – Feedback can be a verbal or nonverbal reaction or response. It can be external feedback (something we see) or internal feedback (something we can’t see), like self-examination. It’s the feedback that allows the communicator to adjust his message and be more effective. Without feedback, there would be no way of knowing if meaning had been shared or if understanding had taken place. Discuss that communication is a two-way process. The information goes out to a person on the other end. There is a sender and a receiver. Simply put, effective communication is getting your message across to the receiver. It is the sender’s responsibility to make sure that the receiver gets the message and that the message received is the one sent. Communicating is not an isolated series of one skill, it involves several skills. For example, speaking involves not only getting your message across but also being able to listen and understand what others are saying (active listening) and observing the verbal and nonverbal clues in order to monitor the effectiveness of your message. BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION Have you ever been talking to someone and they misunderstand what you were saying? Why do you think that happens. At any point in the communication process a barrier can occur. Barriers keep us from understanding other’s ideas and thoughts. Barriers can appear at any point of the communication loop. There are two types of barriers—internal and external.


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Examples of internal barriers are: • Fatigue • poor listening skills • attitude toward the sender or the information • lack of interest in the message • fear • mistrust • past experiences • negative attitude • problems at home • lack of common experiences • emotions. Examples of external barriers include: • noise • distractions • e-mail not working • bad phone connections • time of day • sender used too many technical words for the audience • environment. Barriers keep the message from getting through. When communicating, watch out for barriers. Monitor the actions of the receiver. Watch her body language; check to make sure the message the receiver received is the one sent—ask questions and listen.


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SELF-CHECK 1

A. Directions: The illustration below represents the process of communication. Each part is labeled with letters A-H. Following the illustration are seven statements that give a communication situation. Choose the part from the illustrated precess that best represents the underlined words in the situation given. Note: Be sure that your choice matches the underlined portion of the statement rather than the statement as a whole.

_____ 1. The State of the Union Address by the president is being broadcast on public television. _____ 2. Paul cannot quite hear Jana’s speech because there is a fire truck wailing outside the window. _____ 3. Christy is giving a speech on air pollution. _____ 4. Frank listens intently and seems to understand Sam’s speech about the Civil War. _____ 5. Pam nods her head in agreement as she listens to Jenny speak. _____ 6. Juan tells Bob about the football game he watched on TV last night. _____ 7. Joe uses the telephone to order the pasta pot after watching an infomercial on TV _____ 8. Mary’s cell phone drops the signal when she is talking to her friend.


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B. Multiple Choice _____ 1. The receiver’s response to a message is what part of the communication process? A. Channel B. Feedback C. Noise _____ 2. What is something that interferes with a message and is usually temporary? A. Intensity B. Noise C. Channel _____ 3. This keeps the message from getting through. One example is noise. A. Barrier

B. Message C. Channel

_____ 4. A barrier can be external or internal in nature. True or False A. True

B. False

_____ 5. It’s the feedback that allows the communicator to adjust his message and be more effective. A. True


B. False

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INFORMATION SHEET 1.1 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Types of Communication

A. Self-Action or One-Way Communication It is focused on getting the message to the receiver. Self-action treats communication as a manipulation of others. It is very message centered. There is no way to know if the meaning is shared between the sender and the receiver. B. Interaction or Two-Way Communication. This approach recognizes the role of the receiver as a communicator through feedback. It is message centered and is a very simplistic view of the communication process. Feedback allows senders to see if their message got across. C. Transaction This approach focuses on meaning and sharing by accounting for all other factors in the communication process. It is concerned with the barriers that might affect the communication. Transaction is best described as effective communication. This is when the communication process is applied and carried out completely. The sender gives a message that is passed on to the receiver. In return, the receiver can give clear feedback that allows the sender to know whether or not the message was perceived as intended. If the message wasn’t received as intended, then the sender will continue the communication process again in order to ensure effective communication.

Now that you know all three types of communication, we can reflect and evaluate our own communication approaches in different roles and situations. Knowing the three approaches to communication will help us to be aware of our types, when they occur, and how to improve our communication and create clear transactions.


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FORMS OF ORAL COMMUNICATION a. Dyadic Communication Dyadic or two-person communication is the basic form of oral communication. I t involves the sharing of ideas or information between two persons who alternate as speaker and listener. Examples of this form are “chitchat” between two friends, and an interview between a job applicant and a personal officer. b. Small-Group Communication Small-group communication is a collaborative and systematic sharing of ideas and information among three to eight persons in order to reach a consensus or a common solution to a problem, or to obtain facts. Examples of this form are committee or board meeting, panel discussion, and symposium. c. Large-Group Communication This consists of a speaker who addresses a considerably large audience. It requires thorough preparation on the part of the speaker. d. Mass Communication This form of communication may be done through either printed or oral medium. If it is oral, it utilizes the airwaves. Through the electronic media such as radio and television, the message reaches a very large audience (nationwide or worldwide) instantaneously and simultaneously.


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SELF-CHECK 1.1

A. Multiple Choice. _____ 1. Two friends passing notes during class would be an example of what kind of communication? A. Large Group communication B. Small Group Communication C. Dyadic Communication _____ 2. What would the Top 9 at 9 countdown on KGNC radio station be an example of? A. Large Group communication B. Small Group Communication C. Mass Communication _____ 3. A candidate making a campaign speech before a large audience in the community center would be an example of what kind of communication? A. Large Group communication B. Small Group Communication C. Mass Communication _____ 4. Small group communication involves three to eight people that share a common goal. A. True B. False _____ 5. It is focused on getting the message to the receiver. Self-action treats communication as a manipulation of others. There is no way to know if the meaning is shared between the sender and the receiver. A. Self-Action or One-Way Communication B. Interaction or Two-Way Communication. C. Transaction


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INFORMATION SHEET 2 TEAM STRUCTURES

Team comprises a group of people or animals linked in a common purpose. Teams are especially appropriate for conducting tasks that are high in complexity and have many interdependent subtasks. A group in itself does not necessarily constitute a team. Teams normally have members with complementary skills and generate synergy through a coordinated effort which allows each member to maximize his or her strengths and minimize his or her weaknesses. Today we find all kinds of teams in society, and they generally fall into one of two primary groups: permanent teams and temporary teams. Here are some of the common types: 1. Task Force - a temporary team assembled to investigate a specific issue or problem. 2. Problem Solving Team - a temporary team assembled to solve a specific problem. They are typically of 5 to 12 people from the same field/ department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency and the work environment.

3. Product Design Team - a temporary team assembled to design a new product or service.


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4. Committee - a temporary or permanent group of people assembled to act upon some matter. 5. Work Group - a permanent group of workers who receive direction from a designated leader. 6. Work Team (also called Self-Directed Work Team or Self-Managed Work Team) - an ongoing group of workers who share a common mission who collectively manage their own affairs within predetermined boundaries. 7. Quality Circle (today also under various other names) - a group of workers from the same functional area who meet regularly to uncover and solve workrelated problems and seek work improvement opportunities. The name of the group or team type is less important than the purpose for which it exists. These names simply give us a common language to help us define team types. 8. Virtual Teams As the way we work changes radically, the evolution of teams is also undertaking a radical leap. The virtual team is the current reality in the emergence of new team structures. Such teams are formed where people are no longer co-located, or necessarily operating in the same time or in a shared process (i.e. telework, collaborative teams, virtual teams, etc). With the event of the World Wide Web and emergence more recently of interactive satellite networks, the virtual team has taken on many shapes. Like conventional teams, this form of team exists to serve a real purpose.


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The reason for their existence can abound. Some of the core reasons for virtual teams include:

• • • •

•

•

Global operations make it impossible for team members to meet in a physical sense; Teams involve members from multiple organizations as organizations increasingly work outside their own operational boundaries; Virtual can be quicker; Virtual meetings have evolved with the technology and now some advanced technology and applications operates better in a cyber environment than a meeting room; The virtual network is harnessing emerging technology (wireless applications, high speed two-way satellite connection) to form new ways to organise work and people; The right people can be sourced when they are available, wherever they are available.

Stages of Team Development Understanding these stages is a good point to begin our journey in understanding team problems. 1. Orientation (Forming) - This is simply the bringing together of a group of individuals. At this stage, members are: • • • •

moderately eager have generally positive expectations have some anxiety about why they are there and what it all means have some anxiety about other members such as who they are and what they are like


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During orientation, the work output is generally low as members are focused on defining the goals and task, how to approach it, and what skills are needed. The length of this stage will depend on how clearly the task is defined. Groups with simple tasks will move through orientation quickly, but groups with complex goals and tasks may spend much longer in this stage. This is an important stage because it serves to clarify the team's mission and bond team members. Teams that pay attention to building the relationships as well as focusing on the task tend to do better than those that skip over relationship building. Teams, after all, are made up of people who must work cooperatively for a successful outcome. 2. Dissatisfaction (Storming) This stage is characterized by: • argument • conflict • a dip in morale It results from differences between initial expectations and the reality of the situation as perceived by the members. Members may have varying opinions of what the group was to do and how to accomplish it. Members are also beginning to confront the differences in their personalities and values, a condition that is present anytime strangers meet. Members may feel anger or frustration with the task or with other members or may even resent the presence of formal leadership. Generally, the dissatisfaction stage is relatively short. Some groups, however, may become stuck in this stage and continue to be both demoralized and relatively unproductive. In the worst cases, some groups never emerge from this stage and, if possible, disband in frustration.


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3. Resolution (Norming) - This stage in the group's development involves the: • • • •

resolving of issues setting up group processes setting of group policies, procedures, and values increasing production

Members are now resolving differences and clarifying the mission and roles. Members are less dissatisfied as in the previous stage because they are now learning more about each other and how they will work together. They are making progress toward their goals. They are developing tools to help them work better together such as a problem solving process, a code of conduct, a set of team values, and measurement indicators. Member attitudes are characterized by decreasing animosities toward other members; feelings of cohesion, mutual respect, harmony, and trust; and a feeling of pleasure in accomplishing tasks. The work is characterized by slowly increasing production as skills develop. The group is developing into a team.

4. Production (Performing) - The team is accomplishing work effectively. Production is high and the climate is positive. Member attitudes are characterized by positive feelings and eagerness to be part of the team. Members are confident about the outcome, enjoy open communication, exhibit high energy, and disagreement is welcome and handled without emotional conflict. Although work is being accomplished through all the stages, this stage reflects the work being accomplished most effectively.


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5. Termination - In the case of temporary teams such as task forces, design teams, and problem solving teams, a fifth stage reflects the ending of the process. Depending on the team's success in accomplishing its task and how strongly the members have bonded, this stage may reflect either a sense of loss or relief. When a team ends, time should be spent addressing how it should be done to properly recognize the team's accomplishments.


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SELF-CHECK 2

1. This team is temporary assembled for a specific issue or problem A. Task force B. Problem-solving team C. Product design team 2. This team is also called Work Team where an on-going group of workers who share a common mission who collectively manage their own affairs within predetermined boundaries A. Self-Directed work team B. Problem-solving team C. Virtual Team 3. Arrange the following stages of team development by putting numbers 1 to 5 in the space provided. __________Production (Performing) __________Orientation (Forming) __________ Termination __________ Dissatisfaction (Storming) __________ Resolution (Norming) 4. Understanding stages of team development is a good point to begin our journey in understanding team problems. True or False a. true b. False 5. A ________normally have members with complementary skills and generate synergy through a coordinated effort which allows each member to maximize his or her strengths and minimize his or her weaknesses. a. group b. team c. organization


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INFORMATION SHEET 3 TEAM ROLES

Almost all team activity falls under two main topics: task accomplishment and team building. Task accomplishment is any activity that accomplishes work and moves the team toward its mission. Team building is any activity that builds and strengthens the team as a team. The experts agree that teams that focus on both sets of activities tend to be stronger and more successful over time.

Team Mission and Vision The driving force behind every team is a clear mission and vision. A mission is the task at hand…what the team does…its purpose for existing. A vision is a mental image of a possible and desirable future state for the team that is better than what now exists. The best teams have members who share a common understanding of the mission and vision, and have great clarity of how their mission and vision support those of the larger organization. Teams that perform poorly are frequently found to lack this common understanding. Team Operating Processes To accomplish tasks effectively and efficiently, good teams develop operating processes. These are agreed-upon ways, such as sequential steps, to perform work, communicate, meet, arrive at decisions, problem-solve, resolve differences, apportion work, schedule activities, and more. For clarity, and to aid understanding, a team operating process is usually written or displayed. One example of a team operating process might be a step-by-step method for solving problems as shown below: Define Collect Analyze Develop Trial Full » » » » » Problem Data Problem Solutions Implementation Implementation


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14 Team Task Roles Team task roles are those roles that members assume, either consciously or unconsciously, that move the team forward in accomplishing its tasks and mission. These roles are of vital importance in good team functioning.

1.

Initiator - suggests new ideas to the group

2.

formation Seeker - seeks clarification of issues in terms of their factual adequacy

3.

Opinion Seeker - seeks clarification of the values pertinent to the issue, rather than facts

4.

Information Giver - offers facts or other "authoritative" information

5.

Opinion Giver - offers beliefs or other value-based ideas

6.

Elaborator - spells out suggestions in terms of examples or developed meanings

7.

Summarizer - pulls together ideas, concepts, and group decisions to help the group identify where it is in its thinking

8.

Coordinator-Integrator - clarifies and integrates relationships between various ideas, suggestions, and people

9.

Orienter - defines the position of the group with respect to its goals

10. Disagreer - takes a different point of view, argues against, and implies error in fact or reasoning


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11. Evaluator-Critic - subjects the accomplishment of the group to some set of standards. Questions the "practicality," the "logic," the "facts," or the "procedure" 12. Energizer - prods the group to action 13. Procedural Technician - performs routine tasks related to group functioning 14. Recorder - keeps a written record of the groups work

TEAM BUILDING Team building is any activity that builds and strengthens the team as a team. For teams to function optimally over the long term, building team spirit, enthusiasm, cohesiveness, and camaraderie are vitally important. Unfortunately, these activities have been deemed less significant to their sister activities of task accomplishment, so little emphasis has been placed on team building.

Team Values Our values are those beliefs that we possess that help us to make decisions such as right from wrong, good from bad, or normal from not normal. These values come into play each time we interact with others, and are the source of rich discussions or significant conflict. Our values reflect our teachings from our family, friends, schools, mentors, and media. When we form teams, we must understand that each team member brings a unique value system to the table. These learned insights on life add important information to team discussions, but their differences are frequently the source of conflict. So understanding how values affect team member relationships is a critical piece of the team building puzzle.


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Team Operating Principles As opposed to operating processes that deal with task accomplishment, team operating principles are standards of behavior that build and strengthen the team. Team members discuss how they will behave with each other, then formalize their results in a set of standards or a Code of Conduct. For example, one team's Code of Conduct included the following: •

Respect the opinions of others

•

Allow equal participation in discussions

•

Take responsibility for what is going on in the team, and take action when needed

Teams will inevitably experience difficulties and conflict, but having a basis for dealing with the interpersonal issues will help to protect the team and allow it to grow.

The Six Team Building Roles Team building roles are those carried out by members, either consciously or unconsciously, that tend to build the team's interpersonal relationships, cohesiveness, and spirit. They are vitally needed roles that play a large part in maintaining team performance over the long term. These roles include: 1. Encourager - praises other members' contributions to the team 2. Harmonizer - mediates differences between other members


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3. Compromiser - offers a compromise during disagreement or conflict by yielding position or admitting error 4. Gatekeeper -regulates the flow of communication, particularly in meetings, by encouraging the participation of those less inclined to participate and quieting those who are overly talkative 5. Standard Setter - expresses standards for the team regarding its operation 6. Group Observer - observes and reports back to the team on its group dynamics


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SELF-CHECK 3

A. MATCHING TYPE. Team roles

______1. His role is to suggests new ideas to the group ______2. He seeks clarification of the values pertinent to the issue, rather than facts. ______3. He keeps a written record of the groups work ______4. he takes a different point of view, argues against, and implies error in fact or reasoning ______5. His role is to clarifies and integrates

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

Initiator Information Seeker Opinion Seeker Information Giver Opinion Giver Elaborator Summarizer Coordinator-Integrator Disagreer i. Recorder

relationships between various ideas, suggestions, and people


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B. TRUE OR FALSE. Write true if the statement is correct and false if the statement is not correct. _______1. Team building roles are those carried out by members, either consciously or unconsciously, that tend to build the team's interpersonal relationships, cohesiveness, and spirit. _______2. Teams will not experience difficulties and conflict, but having a basis for dealing with the interpersonal issues will help to protect the team and allow it to grow. _______3. Team accomplishment is any activity that builds and strengthens the team as a team. _______4. The driving force behind every team is a clear mission and vision _______5. To accomplish tasks effectively and efficiently, good teams need not to develop operating processes.


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INFORMATION SHEET 4 GROUP PLANNING AND DECISION MAKING

GROUP PLANNING Process - Details 1. PREPARATION a. Select the planning team which typically consists of the leader, direct reports and a number of other key employees. b. Determine data requirements and analyze information. c. Determine the leader's expectations for the meeting and process. 2. INTERVIEWS a. Strategic planning facilitator conducts one-on-one interviews with the Team Planning participants in order to understand the culture, organization, issues and opportunities. b. B. Hold interviews 2-4 weeks prior to the planning meeting by telephone or on-site. 3. QUESTIONNAIRE a. Prepare a questionnaire covering a variety of subjects appropriate to strategic planning for the organization. Questions could revolve around: growth opportunities, growth impediments, markets, product roadmaps, culture, core competencies, time-to-market, strategic weaknesses and issues, financial forecasts, etc. b. Each participant to complete the questionnaire with personal responses. This homework assignment will require 1-2 hours and will prepare each person to participate from the first moment of the planning meeting.


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c. Receive questionnaires about one week prior to the planning meeting. Summarize the key points for use and discussion during the session. 4. OFF-SITE PLANNING MEETING a. Facilitate a detailed, open and candid discussion of the present situation of the organization. This will bring all participants to the same level of understanding of the business situation from which a plan for the future can be developed. The discussions will be wide ranging, covering the questionnaire materials and additional subjects. b. Develop conclusions and assumptions about the future environment your organization will face. The discussions will cover anticipated directions for your industry, competition, buyers, suppliers, new entrants, technologies, etc. c. With an understanding of the present situation and where your environment is headed; determine where you are going and want to go as an organization by engaging in Strategic Thinking and the creation of a vision, grand strategy statement, key success factors and 2-4 major strategic objectives. d. Establish how you will achieve your desired objectives through the development of business area and cross-functional strategies and action plans. e. Assign action parties, action dates and accountabilities to provide the steps for subsequent implementation and follow-up.


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5. FOLLOW-UP a. Facilitate follow-up meetings at the client's option. b. Determine progress on objectives, strategies and commitments. c. Make adjustments to plans if dictated by changes in the environment and continue the Strategic Thinking. d. Change planning from a one-time event to a continuing process.

Planning for Decision Making While decision making without planning is fairly common, it is often not pretty. The terms used to describe it--crisis management, putting out fires, seat-of-thepants governing--all reveal the inelegance and awkwardness of this way of life. Planning allows decisions to be made in a much more comfortable and intelligent way. Planning even makes decisions easier by providing guidelines and goals for the decision. We might even say that planning is a type of decision simplification technique (see the discussion of these techniques below). Decision makers will find four major benefits to planning: 1. Planning allows the establishment of independent goals. The vision which will shape the decisions is set apart from surrounding events. Decisions are not made only as reactions to external stimuli. "Management by firefighting" is replaced by a conscious and directed series of choices. Managers now steer the organization, individuals now steer their lives, rather than being steered by external forces. Sometimes the difference between planning and not planning is described as "proactive" (taking control of the situation) versus "reactive" (responding to stimuli).


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2. Planning provides a standard of measurement. A plan provides something to measure against, so that you can discover whether or not you are achieving or heading toward your goals. As the proverb says, If you don't know where you're going, it doesn't matter which way you go. 3. Planning converts values to action. When you are faced with a decision, you can consult your plan and determine which decision will help advance your plan best. Decisions made under the guidance of planning can work together in a coherent way to advance company or individual goals. Planning is useful in emergency situations, too. When a crisis arises, a little thought about the overall plan will help determine which decision to make that will not only help resolve the crisis but will also help advance the overall plan. Without a plan, crises are dealt with haphazardly and decisions are made which may ultimately be in conflict with each other. 4. Planning allows limited resources to be committed in an orderly way. Budgets, time, effort, manpower--all are limited. Their best use can be made when a plan governs their use.

DECISION LEVELS We all recognize that some decisions are more important than others, whether in their immediate impact or long term significance. As a means of understanding the significance of a decision so that we can know how much time and resources to spend on it, three levels of decision have been identified: 1. Strategic. Strategic decisions are the highest level. Here a decision concerns general direction, long term goals, philosophies and values. These decisions are the least structured and most imaginative; they are the most risky and of the most uncertain outcome, partly because they reach so far into the future and partly because they are of such importance.


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2. Tactical. Tactical decisions support strategic decisions. They tend to be medium range, medium significance, with moderate consequences.

3. Operational. These are every day decisions, used to support tactical decisions. They are often made with little thought and are structured. Their impact is immediate, short term, short range, and usually low cost. The consequences of a bad operational decision will be minimal, although a series of bad or sloppy operational decisions can cause harm. Operational decisions can be preprogrammed, pre-made, or set out clearly in policy manuals. An important comment should be made here. Issues should be examined and decisions should be made at all of these levels. If you discover that nearly all of your thinking and decision making is taking place at the operational level, then you are probably not doing enough strategic thinking and planning. As a result you will lead a reactive life, responding only to the forces around you and never getting control of your life, your direction or your goals.

SOME TECHNIQUES FOR DECISION MAKING This is a list of easy, practical techniques that can be applied to simple or complex decisions. They share the assumption that circumspect analysis is the key to making good decisions. Many decisions are made with too little information and too little thought, in a non-deliberate way. Think about it for a moment: how many people do you know who commonly spend even five minutes structuring and analyzing a decision? Note how these techniques provide a visible, structured, orderly set of factors involved in a decision, so that the decision maker can consider them in a thoughtful and coherent way.


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The first three techniques are especially for whether-type decisions, those involving yes/no, either/or, or two-possibility decisions. 1. T-Chart. A T-Chart is an orderly, graphic representation of alternative features or points involved in a decision. In one form, it can be a list of positive and negative attributes surrounding a particular choice. Drawing up such a chart insures that both the positive and negative aspects of each direction or decision will be taken into account. For example, what are the pros and cons of deciding to buy a sport utility vehicle? PRO

CON

better visibility

higher insurance

safer structure

poorer gas mileage

can take off road

more expensive maintenance

In another form, two possible choices are listed, with the good points or arguments or effects listed for each. Suppose your company is trying to decide whether to create its own advertising or hire an agency. Use Outside Agency

Write Ads In-House

professional work

faster product

expertise of ideas

better knowledge of product

media connections

use same ad in flyers


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To fill out this latter form, more than two choices can be included, and a list of negatives for each choice can be added as well.

2. PMI. Edward de Bono refines the T-Chart idea into a three part structure, which he calls PMI for plus, minus, and interesting. Here you first list all the plus or good points of the idea, then all the minus or bad points, and finally all the interesting points--consequences, areas of curiosity or uncertainty, or attributes that you simply don't care to view as either good or bad at this point (consequences that some people might view as good and others might view as bad, for example). The "interesting" category also allows exploration of the idea or choice outside the context of judgment--you don't have to evaluate the attribute into a positive or negative category. Decision Simplification Techniques This is a list of techniques used to simplify decision making. You will notice that many of them work by reducing the number of alternatives considered. Others work by using premanufactured decisions, and still others use miscellaneous methods. Depending on the nature and importance of a given decision, some techniques will be preferable to others. Some techniques, while popularly used for many decisions, are suboptimal or even harmful in many circumstances. 1. Criteria Filter. Establish a fixed set of criteria which all alternatives must meet. Potential alternatives which fail to meet even a single criterion are excluded from the pool of alternatives. For example, in buying a car, certain criteria might be established before considering any particular vehicle. Only vehicles meeting all those criteria would be considered in the decision process.


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2. Best of 3. A more accurate name for this would be "best of few" because it involves limiting the number of alternatives to three or four or five or six. This is a common technique used when the decision is under time pressure and many of the alternatives are somewhat similar. If, for example, you must buy a new toaster or popcorn popper or stereo this week, you might use the best of 3 technique. Rather than attempt to investigate every possible toaster, popper, or stereo, you choose just three or four and pick from among them. 3. Cursory Exclusion. This alternative-reducing technique is often used in conjunction with other decision-making techniques. Here, a potential alternative is rejected on the basis of a single flaw. Rather than looking at potential alternatives with a mind to choosing them, they are looked at with an eye toward rejecting them. Employment officers (and sometimes popular people hunting for spouses!) often use this technique. When a prospect comes in, the manager asks, "What reason might I find for rejecting this person?" The more who are rejected after a cursory (brief and superficial) examination, the fewer the manager has to think about in his decision making. (Thus the importance of making a good impression at such interviews.) Cursory exclusion can be suboptimal or even harmful in some situations where a really excellent choice is rejected because of some superficial flaw or atypical presentation. 4. Routinization. Many decisions are made along the lines of previous decisions. "When this happens, do that." Standardized policies for handling recurring events or choices help to make life more efficient. Procedure manuals are essentially catalogs of previously solved problems. The manuals tell how to respond when the same or similar problem arises. Thus, they might be called books of programmed decisions. Habitual behaviors might be seen as forms of decision simplification, also. For example, some people have a standard or favorite area to park at the shopping mall or grocery store they visit most frequently. By using such a standard parking spot, a new parking decision need not be made each trip and the mind can run on automatic when the shopper approaches the mall or store. A potential problem with routinization, the "use what worked before" approach, is that new problems tend to be pressed into the mold of problems


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that will fit the standard procedures. Remember, then, that new problems may need new solutions. Routinization might be broken down into rules and guidelines. A rule is a specific requirement that must be followed, while a guideline is a principle of operation. To use examples from the Bible (which has many guidelines and some rules), we could say that a rule might be "Do not steal," while a guideline would be, "Do to others as you would have them do to you." A subcategory here might be rules of thumb. These are guidelines based on past experience or on the experience of others in the field.

Many times such rules do not result in the best decision, because individual cases vary so much. Rules of thumb do have the advantage of leading to a decision in a short time. 5. Satisficing. As we mentioned in the previous chapter, in this technique, the first satisfactory alternative is chosen rather than the best alternative. When you want to write a note, you just grab the first suitable piece of paper rather than looking all over to find the very best one in your room or office. Looking for the very best would be the optimizing strategy, which is decision complicating rather than decision simplifying. Satisficing is preferred for decisions of small significance, when you're in a hurry, or where most of the alternatives are essentially similar. 6. Delegation. Perhaps this technique is only apparently simplifying, since the person given the decision to make may have complexity enough. But for the person doing the delegating, it is a very good simplification technique. Let someone else do the research, consider the alternatives, and make the decision.


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7. Parameter Delegation. One of the most common decision simplification techniques, this method involves delegating to others the research and development of alternatives from which the decision maker will then choose. We use this method in our everyday lives by walking into a store, where the managers have chosen to carry 10 of the scores of washing machine available, by ordering from the mail order catalog listing six of the dozens of word processing programs available and so on. We assume that these people have used some method of useful decision making to select the group of alternatives presented to us. We hope the criteria included quality, performance, value, and so on, rather than profit margin, but we are sometimes deceived. In a company, an executive may delegate to a committee or a subordinate the basic research into a decision and ask to be presented with three or four alternatives from which to choose. Another example of parameter delegation is the reliance on recommendations from others. When we buy something or go see a movie based on a favorable review, we are exercising this method of decision simplification. The newest term for this version of parameter delegation is collaborative filtering.

8. Random Choice. Here, just any alternative is chosen. The choice may be the first alternative available or simply one picked without analysis or ordering. When you need to use a towel, or put clean sheets on the bed, or choose some fruit to eat, you might decide that any will do. "Just grab one" might be another name for this technique. It certainly makes the decision easy and simple. Analysis requires a lot of mental effort, and some people, especially those who spend much of their working lives performing complicated analyses, want to reduce the level of analysis in the rest of their lives. You will sometimes see them walk into a stationery store and rather nonchalantly grab a notebook or pad to use. Random choice can produce a fun adventure in restaurants, too.


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9. Conformity. Follow the crowd; do what others do; go with the flow. In this technique you attach yourself to a preexisting decision stream and accept the decisions that most other people have made. When most other people in your subgroup have put on acid-washed jeans, you do too. We like to think of ourselves as rugged and independent individualists, but in reality we adopt many pre-made decisions through social conformity.

10. Reaction. Rebel; do the opposite of the majority; go against the flow. This technique is used by those who want to appear to be making decisions. It is easy and automatic, just like conformity.

11. Feelings. Follow your heart; go with your emotions; use your intuition; trust that gut feeling. Choices presented by your feelings are ready and apparent. Once again, this is a way of avoiding the hard mental work of analysis. And, of course, there is some evidence that some preferences of the feelings may actually be subconsciously performed analyses. Other preferences of the feelings are simply irrational lusts.

12. Idleness. Do nothing. Let others decide for you, or let circumstances dictate the choice. You must face the consequences of making no decision, however. Someone has said that making no decision is really a decision. If you do not decide whether to vacation in France or England, you will in effect be deciding to stay home.

13. Adoption of a short-range view. Choices are simplified if the consequences are considered only insofar as they involve today. This strategy leads to quick decisions, but it can also be very dangerous.


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SELF-CHECK 4

1. You are planning to buy a house or a car. Rather than having to decide between buying the item right now with all cash or never having it, you can plan to buy it over several years by making payments. Or, you might combine this plan with the plan to buy a smaller house and add rooms later as they could be afforded. By planning you can thus accomplish things that might otherwise look impossible. What does planning gives you in this situation a. it provides a standard of measurement.. b. it allows limited resources to be committed in an orderly way. c. Planning converts values to action 2. An engineer notices a fine white powder covers everything in a room that has a laminating press. She asks the operator how long he has been working in this room. He replies that he has been working there for over ten years. The engineer is concerned that the health of this operator may be at risk from inhaling this powder for so long. What should she do? a. Do nothing. After all, it is not a part of her job description. b. Go to the nearest television station and talk with a reporter about this deplorable situation. c. Check into OSHA regulations concerning this powder. Should the regulations warrant it, notify OSHA of the problem. Then, through appropriate company channels notify the operator and make sure that he receives a thorough medical examination to determine if any harm has occurred. Then check to make sure that appropriate follow-up examinations are carried out. d. Your own solution…


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3. Marta Malasobras has been coming to work late for the several weeks now. She works in a small group and the other members have come to you to complain that her tardiness reduces the effectiveness of the entire group. When you confront her with this problem, she breaks down and cries: she has to drop her son off to school but the school gates do not open soon enough for her to get to work on time. She has been unable to find anyone to take her son to school. What should you do? a. Fire her. Chronic lateness to work is a serious offense and cannot be tolerated in any way. b. Discuss her problem with the rest of her work team. See if any temporary arrangement can be made to give her time to find someone to take her son to school. c. Delegate the problem to the work team. After all, empowering them with decision-making authority also makes them more accountable. It’s their problem, not yours. d. Your solution… 4. Your company has decided to accept your recommendation to purchase a UV curing oven to increase productivity. When the oven has been delivered and readied for use, your supervisor asks you to begin using it even though the appropriate Environmental Quality Board permits have not yet been issued. He argues that such permission is pro forma anyway so why wait and lose valuable production time. What should you do? a. Do what your supervisor asks. The permits should arrive in a couple of weeks and nobody is going to find out that during that time you have been operating the oven without permits. b. Refuse to do it. Nobody has the right to ask you to do something illegal. c. Tell him that he can do so but only on his own authority. Then write a memo to him, his supervisor, and a coworker explaining that you disapprove of this decision. d. First, try to reason with him. Explain that even though you will probably not get caught, the severity of the fine and loss of reputation are not worth the risk. Add that as an engineer, you have a special obligation to safeguard the environment which includes strictly conforming to government environmental regulations. e. Your solution… ASIAN ACADEMY OF BUSINESS AND COMPUTERS

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5. A skilled machine operator under your supervision has recently returned from maternity leave. She works a ten-hour shift two days a week; company policy is that workers are entitled to a ten-minute break every two hours and a half hour for lunch in the middle of the shift. She has asked you for permission to return home every two hours to nurse her baby. Since she lives ten minutes away from work, this would require her to violate company policy. What should you do?

a. Tell her that she can either start bottle-feeding her baby or look for another job. You cannot get involved in the personal affairs of your employees b. Suggest that her husband bring the baby to work. She could then nurse the baby in the company’s medical room during her regular, authorized breaks. c. Honor her request but set a time limit of, say, three weeks. d. Your solution…


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B. Using the T-Chart list the possible PROs and CONs in the situation below

Your company has recently entered into a cooperative venture with a Japanese firm. A team of Japanese engineers has come to your plant to teach your engineers a new manufacturing process. However, the senior member of this team, a Japanese engineer with very traditional cultural views, refuses to work with a female member of your team despite the fact that she is a highly qualified engineer. Your initial decision is to reassign the woman engineer. What do you think will be the possible effects? What will be your final decision?

PRO


CON

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Module 2 - Leading Small Teams Recording Sheet For Oral Questioning / Interview Student name: Module Title/No: Qualification: Oral/interview questions

Satisfactory response Yes

No

1.





2.





3.





4.





5.





The student's underpinning knowledge was: Satisfactory 

Not satisfactory 

Student's Signature:

Date

Trainor's signature:

Date:

Acceptable answers are:



Date:

Rating Sheet Module 2 - Leading Small Teams Performance Feedback

Remarks

S

C

NS

1. Self-Check 1 2. Self-Check 1.1 3. Self-Check 2 4. Self-Check 3 5. Self-Check 4 S - Satisfactory NS – Not Satisfactory C - Completed NYC – Not Yet Completed Module is Completed Remarks:



Not Yet Completed 

Student's Signature

Date


Date:


NYC

Module 2 Leading Small Teams

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