Modern Pharmaceutics Fourth Edition, Revised and Expanded edited by
Gilbert S. Banker University of Iowa Iowa City, Iowa
Christopher T. Rhodes University of Rhode Island Kingston, Rhode Island
Marcel Dekker, Inc. TM
Copyright © 2002 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
New York • Basel
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DRUGS AND THE PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES Executive Editor
James Swarbrick PharmaceuTech, Inc. Pinehurst, North Carolina
Advisory Board Larry L. Augsburger University of Maryland Baltimore, Maryland Douwe D. Breimer Gorlaeus Laboratories Leiden, The Netherlands
David E. Nichols Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana Stephen G. Schulman University of Florida Gainesville, Florida
Trevor M. Jones The Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry London, United Kingdom
Jerome P. Skelly Alexandria, Virginia
Hans E. Junginger Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research Leiden, The Netherlands
Felix Theeuwes Alza Corporation Palo Alto, California
Vincent H. L. Lee University of Southern California Los Angeles, California
Geoffrey T. Tucker University of Sheffield Royal Hallamshire Hospital Sheffield, United Kingdom
Peter G. Welling Institut de Recherche Jouveinal Fresnes, France
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Preface
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Contents
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Chapter 1 Drug Products: Their Role in the Treatment of Disease, Their Quality, and Their Status and Future as Drug-Delivery Systems Gilbert S. Banker 7 )/ , )/ , )/
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 & 2 , 72 2 2 , 2 & &2 2 2 8 9 O('($P
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6 , 26 , 26 2 , , ; 6 , 6 1 2 , , 2 & 6 , * 26 , 2 6 4 , 4 2 2 * 26 , 4 6 2 2 , 26 , 2 26 , 2 8(N9
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 2 2 LL >> , , 6 , ,
, & 6 8 !9 6 , 2 , 26 2 2 2 2
2 , , 2 , 2 6 2 (M!( 2 8 , ,
, 9 , 8 ,
9 , , 2 6 , 6 , 2 26 & 2 ?
2 4 , 2 LL , 26 2>> = 4 22
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26 2 2 2 6 ,
4 6 ,
6 4 , 2 , 6 26 , 2, , 2 2 & G 4 1 , 26 , , 2 B 4
, 6 2 , 2<
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9 6 6 2 2 6 2 D 8 9 1 8 2
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, 6
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2 @26 , 2 6
6
26 , , 6 , , * 26 , D 2 6 6 2 2
2 2 6 2
26 , 5 6 2
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, , 2 6 , 26 , :M" 2 , 26 , 6 , ; 2 2 , , 26 , 8 , 2
69 2 , 1 D 26 , 6 , , 3 26 , 5 &2 ,
, , 26 , 2 2 , & 2
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8
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2 6
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, , 2 /6 O"'P 2 , /0;)
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, 2 4 ,
, A0 5
, 2 859 , 1 2 &6
4 , 2
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, 3 6
2 LL* >>
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
8 5 , < ,9 4 2
2 26 LL 2>> ,
2 , 26 &6 O:)P &
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6 , D 9 , , 2 2 , 2 , 2
6 2 5, !! 22 1 3 4 , 6 2 6
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, 2 6 2
2
6 2 2
1 , & 6 2
8, &2 9 6 6 6 , 26 ,
2 2 ,
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2 9 5
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, 2&2 5
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,
2 ; 2 26 5 &2 26 , 6
1 , 2 2
3 3 , , 6 , 8 ' 19 6 ,
D ,
= , 26 2 8 , 9
7 , , 2
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61 9 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, 6 1 2 2 8 , D
9
2
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22
,
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6
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 6 3 2 2 6 0 2 2 6 , , 2 , , 2 2 , , D
2 2 6 6 2 2 #
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 2 2
2 , 26 , 6 , + 2 2
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3
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8 , D 9 6 1 , 2
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9
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= , 26 ,
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2
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6
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7 D & , 2 2 , * 6 2 2 , ,
D 2 6 . 2 6 ,
*
2 2 , (M" , 1 6 2 2
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, 8
,9 !! 8
,9
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9 8/
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* 'N
D
, , 6 2 , 7 , 2 6 , 2 2 6% , 26 2 1 & 6 6 2
LL7 >> 3 6 2 2
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O!$P , ? 2 , 2 , ? ,6 2
2 ? ,
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D 8/ 2 B !9
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
: 6 2 &66 1 O!!P 2 & , 6 6 2 & 2
6 , , * 6 ,
, , 1 6
26 , , , D ,
, D , 26 D 5 &2 ,, ,&
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9
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, D
, 2 , ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 5 2 ,
,
3 , 2 2 , 26
, D
, &2 D
, 26 , , 6 2 1 2
2 1 6 8 6 9 6 8 9 , 2 2 D & 6 2 & 6 6 2 1 & 6 162 6 2 = 6 , , 26 , 8 , , 9 , 2 1 O!!:P 0 2 2 62
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6 2 , , , 2 4 2
2 6 26
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O!!!P 0 2 1 6 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
D 2 2 2 2
2 & 3 02 , 2 , , 7 2 6 ,
2 3 2 D ,
2 2 , 2
, 6 , , 1 , 7&1 , 6 , 6 ' & 1
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>> , 6 O!"P & 2 2 , &2 D 2
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 0 2
2 6
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2 , 2 289
622
O!!'P =
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, , D 6 * D 4 6 162 2
,
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2 , 2 8 , 6 26 9
,
3
,
+ , D 6 ,
2 , 2 2 . 2 2 7 , 6 &2 2 26 2 D 2
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2 6 ,
6 2 2 3 , 2
26 6 2 2 S 6 , , 6 6 ,
, 2 2 , , '
2 , 2 62 2 1 2 1 F
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
1$) ?
62 2 2 8A.9 2 62 @ , 7 ? 8/ 2 B !::9
F 2 1 6 &6 162 , 2 6 , , 2 , 26 , 2&2 , 2
O!:P 062
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2 2 ? 2
&2 2 2
2 2 , 2 . , 2
6
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 2
2 =
2 D
2 , 2 2 6 , , 2
2 , 2 6 ,
2 , , 2 2
*
26 6 , 6 2 , 2 , 2 * 6 2 2 2 , 2 2
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4 *6 2
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& 8 R! 6 A 0 9 6 22 6 8 4 9
22 , 5 2 2 6 LL >>
6 3 8 6 6 2 6
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
LL >>9 0 &2 , , ? , , , , 2
6 2 86 29 , 2 0 H > 2 6 2
-,
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, 2
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
O!)!P 2 , 2 2 6 , 2 2 6 D %
6 , 2 26 3 7
, ,
6 , 6 2 2 6 2
&2
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8 D 6 1 , 2 9
,
26 2 7 6 6 ,
,
D * 2
26 D S 6 = , 2 2
2 2 2 0 2 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 , 2 26 2 S 6 6 , 2 6 , 2 2 21 6 , , 2 ; 6 6 6 , 2
, , 6 , 2 , ,6 , 2 2
, , 6
2 2
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? 5 &2 ,
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9 26 2 6 4 ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
! H G 3 +@ /
* / H / +@ H , , 5=+ / 2
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H E - 2 @ - 6 F 0 2 H/ B , 6
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6 - 2 6 2
2 H . ))#!$:(M!$)) !$"( ! H5 + 6 2 6 72 H . .2 -6 (#)$(M(' !$:( !: + H5 - 2 6 2
# .2 , A 6 - !$( !) F. H 4 H . B; E 6 / + ,6 " @ .#
F , !$'$ : !( B + H + @& 2 , 2 H . .2 -6 !#)!M) !$: !" F0 0 , 2 H - 2 @& !"#':M$ !$($ ! @ = , H 2
- 6 2 6 - B6 0 / !#:M( !$"$
!' @ = , H 2
- 6 2 6 - B6 0 / !#M! !$"$ !$ H 2
@ = , , , 6 2 , 2 2 - B6 0 / !#:M:!" !$"$ . F 5 F2 /= 2 6 -5 5 6 @& 2
2 2 6
2 6 , 6
2 , , B :#:M( !$$ ! 2 E 6 0 , H - 2 !#)M( !$': 02
2 S 6 H 2 #!"M!$ !$!' : H 5 , 6
, H 2 !#!"")M!""( !$:: ) H D 6 , 2 2 H - 2 @& "$#!M:: !$) ( + H 02 2 6 6 . 0 , + 062 C / '#:M:$$ !$) " - 0 // / . +, , ,# + 6 H - 2 @& !!$#:"!M:"$ !$( F0 0 - 0 // / . +, , 2 2 H - 2 @& !#('M(:$ !$( ' . +, F 0 H // / , 2 2 2 H - 2 @& !#()M()( !$( $ F0 0 H // / . +, , 2 2 H - 2 @& !:#'!M' !$(' : . +, H // / F0 0 ; 2 2 , H - 2 @& !(#(M' !$($ :! H 5 / F= @ 0, HG 0 6 , , 4 6 , H - 2 0 ('#!!$"M! !$"$ : FQ / / 2
, , # @H , , G ) # 2 - !$: "M' :: 0 B,, 2 -6 , - 2 /2 # =2 I = !$": !'!M!'( :) *F 56
0E 6 H B 2 2
2 # H - 2 0 ":#)$M (! !$) :( 6 , H . - 2 #":)M":' !$'
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
:"
:
:'
:$ )
)!
) ):
))
)( )"
)
)'
)$
( (!
F + 0 6 * = F *3 = H 6 B @2
B
0 3 1 2 6 D 6 6 6 8 6 ,69
H - 2 0 '# ""M":: !$$' F0 0 HH H 3 6 ,
6 2 2 !$#M' !$"! 5 @ +* B
2 , 2 2 / 2 - 2 !!#:!M:" !$" * F 6 =H H 5 3 , D 2 H - 2 0 ((#'(M'$ !$"" 6 2 2 2 @ H - 2 !$#!)M!) !$ * * *. .1 / 3 , 2 2 H 2 "#((M(' !$: = - HF F )#)":M)"( !$: + = - 6
6 2 2 - > .
- 2 !#:"'M:( !$! + F
0 4 F E FE -1 3 F 6 , ? ? 2 / H . - 2 :(#:):M ( !$$: H Q22 2 & 2
/ 2 - 2 ):#:M:': !$$ H5 = H+
. . 2&
6 2 H - 2 @& ((#:!M:! !$$ . /
H5 = H+ B 5 . . 7 7&2 6 6 2 # 2 6 2 2 , . 2 :"#)"M)" !$$ /+ 0 B E, -B 2 / 2 2 ,
6 , 6 ,
, 2 - 2 B !#"M'! !$$: * 2 - / 2 6 2 , 2 6 2 ,
B / 2 "#:'(M) !$$: , B ,6 , , #!:M!) HG ;G , H+ / ? 2 , ,6 2 - 2 B :#)$M):( !$$'
( G = H 0 2 Q , FQ / B ,6
6 2 -)(: 2 ,
22 H - 2 0 '#!:M!:: !$$' (: H = F 0 FQ /
6 , 2 2 , , B #$$M!! !$$" () 0 2 H A 6 + 0 H= 02 E5 ? - / =H ? H+ / ? ; , F2 6 &
& 8&9 6 ,6 - 0 A0 $)#:!M:( !$$ (( E = =
* 2
0 * 5 Q B ; / , +E E 2 = 0 ,2
; 6 ,&
6 # 2 ,6 . - 2 "'#"M ! (" H/ 2 *F 2 . B G- 0 , , , # 22 , 2 - 2 B !(#!!M !$$' ( B / H , . = + B , +
2 22
H - 2 0 ":#"):M")( !$) (' * F 6 / 0 .2 , 2 2 66
66 2 H - 2 0 (!#('M" !$" ($ * F 6 H - A
72 2 H - 2 0 (!#$) !$" " .@ / 1 HF F HE * 6 02
2 H + - 2 #(::M(:$ !$ "! B* . +2 2,6 , 3 , H 2 :#($M(:: !$"! " E 2 H / * , @3 1
, 2 . H / 2 -6 )#!))$M!)(! !$" ": H * , 2 . B , . 06 !#!):M!$( !$$: ") + 2 B= .2 6,6
6,6 , 26 , 2 * '"#!($M!"! !$') "( * B .+ G5 . B /0 E * = .5 * , D 2 6 2
/ H . - 2 :)#::M::" !$$ "" + , 26 ,# H -6 !'#!))M!)$ !$"" " H @3 H B 6 H+ 6 6 , 26 , * ,6 ':#!:"M!:! !$'
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
"' B+ /6 * * B
2
2 H - 2 !:!#"M!" !$($ "$ . /, * @ F 0 * 26 ,
66 2 2 , @ H . - 2 #(M"! !$' - = , @3 ,
B !"#:':M)!( !$$" ! 5 . F Q F+ - E 2 , 2
2 D , , 2 . - 2 :"#::M() !$$$ = . 2 .H+ - 0 H/ 2 -6 2
6, 2 2 3 , #
+ H - 2 0 '"#"$M' !$$ : F +
= , * 1 + F G, 5
L 2 ,> 2 6 6 6 &6 . '#('M"( !$'( ) *
, 2
. 0 1 @ 3 : 3 6 6 2 & H . - 2 :(#("(M(! !$$ ( B / H 0 4 G 2 @3
. - 2 !"#":M"' !$) " + B , B / D
6 . - 2 #M: !$" 0 , 6 H/ B 2 # D
F 0 '#((M(!! !$'! ' .= , 6, H 2 !"#!')M!')( !$(' $ H 5 2, 0 ;> 6 @3 , 26 06 ::#")M"( !$ ' 0 ; H H 66 6 2
, 2 0
H * )#"$M: !$"$ '! E E -6 ; H + 02 H H 0 2 2 6
2 2
2 H . - 2 (#$M!) !$! ' B. + , H 22 F5 - -
2 , 26 , / H - 2 )#)!(M)! !$: ': F5 - =0 22 B. + , , # * * 2 02 , /2 # 2 !$ )( ') E0 .
H G ? @3
2 , / H '(#! !$'
'( + + 6 5 H , E 0 + + =2 , ; , & 22 6
/ H '(#!!M!$ !$' '" E0 .
.H. B @3 6 , 2 . - 2 :#M" !$'( ' 00 H* + 6 H= 5 2 , 2 , 2 * #''"M'$ !$'" '' HF @3 ,
,
6 2
& , 2 , 0 :#!()'M!((: !$$ '$ H. - 00 B = , 3 7 , 2 ,
2 H - 2 "#!:M!)! !$$! $ 5 - . , 26 2
, * '#)'"M)$ !$" $! . *6 / +2 -6,6# 2 5
2 - # =/ 0
!$! )' $ @ - 6 B 0 . 2 2 , 6 H ; *6 #$M$! !$ $: 05 - B Q 2 BF . 6 B= / /* =3 027 2 ,2 * ,6 $#)M) !$' $) -H = F / E- 0 .* = B. 0 . . 1 2 , 2 , 2
3
H - 2 '#!(M! !$$ $( 00 B 0 B = , . 3 1 6 ? H . B :#!)M!(" !$$: $" H. - 00 B 0 B = , 3 2 2 , # 2 , 6 - 2 B !#M" !$$: $ .H , B = , - 0 F HH . . 2 + 2 , 0 :'#()M()( !$$: $' B 5
. 7 , 6 , B #!)$M!$$ !$$! $$ E+ G 0 - / H + B 5& F E6 . 2 2 . 0 ':#"M":! !$$ ! 5 =2 *5 = + 1 + + H + 2
F2 FH + D , , 6
- 2 B $#!!$M !!$) !$$ !! EE+ . / B *1 G H =+ / 0 3 , 1 6 - 2 B !!#):M): !$$)
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
! F >,6 5? - - +,
, ; - H. B2 6 4 ! 2 ' ,
2 3 , , 2 @ H . - 2 ))#):M)" !$$: !: -@ = EFB / @E + 6 *@ = + 1 E+
HB - 02 2 3 , 2
, - 2 B !#!:'M!): !$$( !) * / 5 F*H F / 2 B , 2 # 2 . - 2 #'(M:!! !$' !( =
D D F
6 2 ? ? 2 - 2 #!!:M!:' !$: !" =
5 2
, D H / #!M!' !$ ! =
H B 26 D
H - 2 - 2 #")M")! !$ !' =* . 2 F 2
F= H , G D 2 D , , H - 2 0 ")#"")M"! !$( !$ B
0 B , 2 - + 0 03 2 , 2 4 H - 2 0 "!#:$M:'( !$ !! @ E , 2 - 2
# @H -6 . 2 , @2 # - ,2 - !$"' ":M!!: !!! *. ; B 12 B 5 D , ,& # ; 0 0622 , ;# *6
5 , !$: ::"M:) !! F / 1 @3 2 # 6, # FQ / H* * , - 2 / , 2 # B - !$') '$M!: !!: 0H /
2 F = 5 , 6 2 1 6 2 ? . 0 #!::M!)! !$") !!) * F 6 1 - 2 6 2 2 2 H - 2 @& !("#'(M$: !$" !!( E@ - Q Q H H. +* F 3 2 . 2 #"M"'' !$( !!" E@ - Q Q H H. +* F 0 6
!!
!!'
!!$ !
!!
!
!:
!)
!(
!"
!
!'
!$
&6 6 . 2 #"'$M! !$( H 0 = 2 @& 2 6 ,
3 26 0 , *6 ; !!)#$M!) !$" -H + 6 3 6 2 @ H . - 2 #:(M:" !$) H* =, / 2 # H - 2 0 (#:($M:' !$"! - 0 , HE * 6 0 FQ / G / @3 , , @3 6 6 ,6 ) H - 2 0 ((#":M"' !$"" 0 B , 2 =H . H 2 - 2 0 @ )#!:M! !$(' 0 B , 2 =H .
2 H 2 - 2 0 @ )#!M!:: !$(' E E 2 0
& , TTG @3 , 2 . 2 - 2 / !:#$"M$'( !$"( F 0 6 @3 , 7 21 6 ,
H - 2 0 ()#"M"': !$"( H* =, ,
6 2 2 . H - 2 0 !#((M"' !$"" * / 6 H 0 . 1 H; ?
F ::#"'M"$ !$$! 0 + E@ 22 -/ = E0 F FQ / 5 - BB 6 E , * / 6 BH 5 0 = ,
6 2 2 7 & , #!"!M!"" !$$$ * / 6 H; H 0
# , ? , # B+ F 6 E@ 22 =@ , - + @ 2 , # # F =2 I = ""!M"" - 02 B H @ @ 5122 E + E0 F - = B2 E@ 22 H 5 -5 + , -/ = 2 6 . -:) 6 , # 6 . -:)
2 2 6 2 , (#!'M!:: !$$
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
!: *E * / 6 0* . * ? 6 . - 2 "'#'M:) !:! .= 11 B = H B 0 E . , 2 2 2
, + H - 2 / 2 (#:M :$ !$ !: F B .22 . ? H- , F F, HB /
2 2 F 6 2 2 @ H . !#:!:M: !$! !:: F 5 *B
6 B + 1 H 11 0 2 62 # 6
? 3 . - 2 !$#)(!M)(' !$" !:) * F 6 1 - 2 6 2 2 H - 2 !("#'(M$: !$" !:( 0H /
2 F = 5 , 6 2 1 6 2 ? . 0 #!::M!)! !$") !:" 5 11 . - * -11 @ / .0 F +,
2 # , 6
,
7 2 2 @ , H :#$(M$$ !$$ !: +E 0 1 * @, A 02 B = B @ 6 - , += *
H-
= , +2 , 6 , 6# 3 , &
2 * :)#!)::M !): !$$: !:' E 2
7 2 2 . - 2 (#:M:: !$$: !:$ BF 02 , D
2
2 # 0622 2 &6 = , # 2 !$! 'M)) !) / 0 , * EA E B +. 0 -H E 5 , 0 H >
,6 WB!
. -:)( . - 2 "'#($'M ") !)! = B D
6 # -* = , 5F0 0G , - 2 / 4 # !$$! "M!!( !) - E 2 H . H / 0 6 6 6 . - 2 :#)"M) !$' !): +B ; H * +H , 6 / , 26 H - 2 / 2 "#$(M:: !$' !)) * F 6 + * 6 H - BD
6 - (#'$"M$ !$
!)( F5 - * , . 2 ('#$M$!" !$) !)" =H H B . - E 16 H * B 01 ,& 2
& # 3
2 H 2 :#!(()M!((( !$) !) *+ 0 H * /F F6 * , H0 + 21 = 02 B 0 @3 2 6 ,
2 H . - 2 !'#:''M:$" !$' !)' = + 1 = 02 0@ * 7 ,
,& 2 6
2 @ , H '(#(M($ !$! !)$ @ B. - &62 6
!#":M"( !$"' !( H 0 0 + E2 1 E. + 2
&
, . - 2 !:#'$M''" !$ !(! H- E22
+ E / F21 H@ + 2
6 2
6 6 . - 2 $#!"'M!" !$')
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
!( =H H E
* F 6 F 0 0H 3 BD
& - )(#$)(M$)$ !$ !(: 6 0 2 6 # =@ @ HH 0 , =H H - 2 # - , , : G =# !$$ $!M$): !() 6 - 2 6 @ + - ! 8 !!9#!!$M!) !$$) !(( 6 LL&6 >> , 6# 2 H * :#:M:( !$' !(" 0F H 6 E . * , # &6 6 ? . - 2 :'#::!M::( !$'( !( F B BB / HF / F ;>0 H* =, H/ 2 + , 6 2 6 - 2 B !!#!:"M!): !$$)
Chapter 3 Pharmacokinetics David W. A. Bourne 7 - , - , -
) .+0/".0 , 6 6 2 = , 2 6 7 2
2 2
& 8@9 ,
2 6 LL@ >> 2 2 , 6 2 2 6 2, , 2 , 6
2 3 , + 6 6 6 , 2 ,
6 , 2 2 ; 6 7 , 6 6 2
6
6 , 2 2 , 0 6 26 6 2 & 6 2 2 2 7 2, 6 2 , 6 2 26 , 6 2 6 2 6 , 5 6 6 2 2
6 6 2
, 2 , 2 2 6 2 2 6 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, 6 , 2, 2 2 2 6
,
,
6 D
, ,
26
2 ,
6 ? 2 2 , 2 2 2 89 2 2 , 2 2
2 , 6
89 , ,2 , ?
2 6 3 &6 2 6 ? ,
2 2
2 2 6 , 2, 2 2
2 6 7 ; 2 6 , 2, 2 2
2 2 2 2 4 2 , 2 26 6 7
2 26 4
6 2 6 4 2 , 2
#2 , 2
B 2 & 2 2 & 2 2 O!M(P
#2 ,
) -+"-4 01 1+.0++ :." *) F "&& 2 10 -& 2 2
; 2 22
6 7
2 6 2
&2 6 6 8 2 2 2 9 6 2
6 2 , 26 2 26 #
6
26 # B 6 6+ @
"
K 7 + 4 8 7 K
6 & # K O;+ P9 5 6 2 @ 7 < 6 2 6 , & , 5 &2 2 , 2 6 26 # 2 3 3 2 @ 162 % , 6 7 7 6 2 2 % 7 6 7
4 5 6 4 +% 5 6
,% 1 & ,
6
!
6 , & , 6 2 , 7 26 2
27 2 , 7
B 6
6
) G! + 9
B 6 6
6 7 . 2 6 ,
2 6
2 , 2 5 &2 6 6 3
6 & # @ ;+
:
6 6 26 & # B 6 6 @ ;+
)
B 6 6 @ ;+
(
6
/ 3 6 2 O;+ P , + 6 6
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6
6 6 2
6 2 ,
2
6 2 , 6
2 , 2
5, ! 6 2 6 2, & , 2
/ 5, ! 2 6 , ,
&
2 7 2 /6 , 3 & 6 2 7 26 2 , 89 7 26 2 2 8 9 ,
7
@4 8!9 1 2
,
!!
@4 8!!9 , & 7
, 4
, 2 2 4 , #
1$) ? - 2 , 2 7 8 , 69
B
'
, , , 2 , @4 8'9 3 & 7 6 2 , 2 6
, 6 + S 2 6
2 2 2 6 , , &
,
5, , 8 9
8 9 0 22 6 2 % 2 , 2 7 7
, 5, 26 , , 4 #
!
!
!
+ 6 + ! 3 8( .9 !
: 2,2F 2,2F .
") $ + 9 '$ @4 8'9 ,
, # Z Z
$
!
, 2 8 9
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
1$) - 8. 2 ,9 2 7
7 6 6 6 + ! 8( .9 : ! !$$ "$: ! )" ! )" ! 2 2 2 8
6 ! ! 2 ! ! 9 , 4 6 , , @4 8!!9 #
!:
@4 8!:9 , 2 6 6 5 &2 4 2 2 8 9 + 5 6 6 6 8 )" ! 9 : 2,2F !( 2,2FY
: )" !(
)" "$: )"
!! !( 2,2F ( 2,2FY
!( )" (
, )"
!! 2 4
, , &2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
.! ? .2 , + F 2 ! : ) ( "
2 , 8N9
LL.2 >> 8N9
! ( ( !( "( :!: !(" '
( ( '( $:( $"' $')) $$
7 7 , % 2 7 6 2
6 5 2 7 26 2 2 $(N 2 2 ! 7 2 2 , 2 6 26 2 7 8 $N 2 9 2 2 &2 6 ? 2 S 2 , 2 LL>> 2 7 6 2 0
2 6 26
#
=
! ! "$: !
"$:
!
!
"$:
!) !(
) 9! 2 "!&! @4 8!:9 8!)9
8!(9 6 2 , 7
6 2 , &2 #
< *
2 2 + , ( 2F ! 6 = 6Y "$: "$: "$ 6 !
! ! 6
( 2F "$ 6 ! 6 )':
( )': )': !" :' 2F
= *
2 4 7 + !
6 + , 6 $N 6Y
"$: :: 6 ! ! 6
!N :: $N
: 6
,
Y
!( 2,( 2F : 6 ! 2,( 2F
) 6 !
!
"$: $) 6 ) 6 !
5 6 2 , 2 2 # 89 7 2
,
89 2
2 6 , 2 6 : , 6 6 2 2 26 6 2 & 2 2 , 2 , 2
6
2, 2 ,
, 6 7 2 , @4 8!)9 + 6 + $( 3 8( .9 6 2 2, 2 , 5, : . 7 6 6 6 + $( 8( .9 /6 7 , , 8LL 7>> 9 ,
5, : 8 6 6 , , , 9
& ,
.! 2 89
6 *
7 2 + 6 !( 2,( 2F ! 2 , 6
! 2,( 2F =
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
) " ' ! ! !"
6 @6 . 82,2F9 0 !': !( !! $ (' :: " !' ) ! :! " !
&
2 , , 2 5 &2 2 , &2
2 6 2 , 5, : 8 . 9 2 6 2 , 6 8 9 3 , 2 &2 , @4 8!9 2 6 7 2 ,
, 2
@4 8!9
1$) @ 0 2, 2 2 6 6 6 8 ;
6 9
:!: 2,2F 2 4 !( 2,2F
6 ) , 6
"$: "$: '$ !
! )
2 6 2 , @4 8!9 5, : !
! 2 LL 7>> :!: 2,2F ! 2,2F
!$$ #
) 1+.0++ -*+%*"0:." +/5 4%*.0 10440 5 +*- .+*60/ 3".0 2 6 , 2
2 6 2 6 7 , 2 6 8G9 ? 2& , 6 D 2 2 6 2 2 , 6 26 2 2 2 , 6
2 2 2 5, ! 2, 2
!
! :!: ! '$ ! !$$
0 2, 2 , 6 2 2 6 , 2 , 2 &
& 8 5, :9 ; , 2 , 2 6 2 5 &2 , !': 2,2F 2, 4 , , 2 !':
, . 6 , & 2 6 6 , , 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
1$) 0 2, 2 2 2 , 2 6 ?
2 2 ,
2 2 6 2 , 2 6 2& 6 D 6 2 6 2, 2 2 5, ) 7, 2 & 2 , 2 @4 8!)9
8!(9 0 , 2 2 2 7 2 6 6 6 2 , 4 O@4 8!!9
8!:9P
2 , 2 + ( 2, 6 2 6 G ? 2 8 9 ( ,2F ) 2 !'$ ,2F = , 8 ! 9 6
Y ( )
!'$ ' "$$ ! ) "$:
! $$! "$$ !
, 2 # 89 , 2 6 7
89 , 6 LL 2 >> 2 6 , , 6 2 2 6 , 2, 2 2 , , 6 , G ? 2 2 2 2 2 , 2 , 6 6 6 6
2 2 2 26 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 6 2 2 6 2 2
2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, 6 2 2 3
26 , # G2
2
6 3 2 2 82 2 2 2 9
6 3
!"
+ . 3 &2 % 3
( 2, ( ,2F
3 ! F # 0 ! ,2F ! 2,F ,
2, 2 6 2 2 , 2 2 , 3 2 , 6 6
6 6, 2
2 , , 6 5 &2 ! F 2 , , &2 2 , 2 2 8 : F9 2 8 " F9
8 ,9 2 % , & D 2 8!$ F9
6 8) F9 2 , 2 / 3
6 2 6 & D 2 6
2 &2 +,6 , 6 2 & 2 6
2 = 2 6 4 6
& 6 2 6 6 2 2 6 2 2 4 2 3 2 6 2 ,
, 2 8 9 2 , 6 5 , 2 2 , 6 , , 3
6) -*+%*"0:." **4A 01 /+ *.* ; 6 2 6 , 2 26 , ,
2 1 6 , 2 2 26
0 2 !
& ?
2 2 , , 87 9 2 2 2, 2 , 2 , 6 8 9 2 5, ( 2 ,
, 6 8 7 9 4 8 9
6 2 2 ,
6 8 9 , 87 9 4
8 9 4 ,
1$) D - 2 2 , 7 8 9
2 , 6 8 9 2 , 0 2 !
7 7 7 , , Z Z 7 7 7
7 / 7 7 2 7 7 7 7 7
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
1$) 0 2, 2 2 , 2 , & 8B@9 7 7 2
Table 3 Drug Excreted into the Urine Versus Time Time Amount Cumulative amount D1 U DU (mg) interval (h) excreted (mg) excreted, DUa (mg) 0.0–0.5 0.5–1.0 1.0–1.5 1.5–2.0 2.0–2.5 2.5–3.0 3.0–6.0 6.0–12.0 a
37.5 18.5 10.0 5.2 1.8 1.3 1.0 0.0
37.5 56.0 66.0 71.2 73.0 74.3 75.3 75.3
37.8 19.3 9.3 4.1 2.3 1.0 0.0 0.0
D1 U ¼ 75:3 mg. 1 0 lnðD1 U DU Þ þ lnðDU DU Þ ¼ kel t
of elimination, and it can be directly related to the physiological function of these organs. For example, the renal clearance rate (RCR) of a drug can be calculated using the following equation: RCR ¼
ð18Þ Example. In the example plotted in Fig. 6, the amount of drug excreted over the 0- to 0.5-hour interval was 37.5 mg. If the plasma concentration at 0.25 hour (the middle of the interval) was 10 mg=mL, what was the renal clearance rate? From Eq. (18), 37:5 mg=0:5 h 10 m g=mL ¼ 7:5 L=h ¼ 125 mL=min
RCR ¼
Since D0U ¼ 0 (there is no drug in urine when t ¼ 0), 1 lnðD1 U DU Þ ln DU ¼ kel t 1 lnðD1 U DU Þ ¼ kel t þ ln DU
amount excreted in urine per unit time plasma concentration
ð17Þ
Equation (17) is in the form of the equation for a straight line ( y ¼ mx þ b), where t is one variable (x), kel is determined from the slope (m), ln D1 U is the constant (b), and ln (D1 U DU ) the other variable (y). Thus a plot of ln (D1 U DU ) versus time is a straight line with a slope providing a value of kel and an in1 tercept of ln D1 U . Since DU is the total amount excreted and DU is the amount excreted up to time t, D1 U DU is the amount remaining to be excreted (ARE). A typical ARE plot is shown in Fig. 6. Example. The plot in Fig. 6 was constructed using the data shown in Table 3. Note that the concentration of the drug in each urine specimen is not the information analyzed. The total amount excreted over each time interval and throughout the entire study must be determined. As a result, the experimental details of a urinary excretion study must be very carefully chosen, and strict adherence to the protocol is required. Loss of a single urine specimen, or even an unknown part of a urine specimen, makes construction of an ARE plot impossible.
The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in normal males is estimated to be 125 mL=min, and the results of the example calculation suggest that the drug is cleared by GFR. If the RCR had been less than 125 mL=min, tubular reabsorption of the drug would have been suspected. If it had been greater than 125 mL=min, tubular secretion would have been involved in the drug elimination. Drugs can be cleared from the body by metabolism as well as renal excretion, and when this occurs it is not possible to measure directly the amount cleared by metabolism. However, the total clearance rate (TCR), or total body clearance, of the drug can be calculated from its pharmacokinetic parameters using the following equation: TCR ¼ kel Vd
ð19Þ
Example. The biological half-life of procaine in a patient was 35 minutes, and its volume of distribution was estimated to be 58 L. Calculate the TCR of procaine. kel ¼
0:693 ¼ 0:0198 min 1 35 min
TCR ¼ kel Vd
V. CLEARANCE RATE AS AN EXPRESSION OF DRUG-ELIMINATION RATE A clearance rate is defined as the volume of blood or plasma completely cleared of drug per unit time. It is a useful way to describe drug elimination because it is related to blood or plasma perfusion of various organs
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
¼ 0:0198 min 1 58 L ¼ 1:15 L=min When a drug is eliminated by both metabolism and urinary excretion, it is possible to calculate the metabolic clearance rate (MCR) by the difference between TCR and RCR:
.B .B B.B
B.B 2 2
2 , @4 8!'9
.B 2 2 2 2 , @4 8!$9 6 B.B 6 26 , .B 6 & , # B.B .B
!
2 , , , 2 1 .B # .B ! .B
+ 0 1 2 , !"
2
F 0&6 , , . .B B.B
.B 1
"$: ):: ! !"
.B 3 ):: ! F '"" F !)) 2F2
B.B .B " !)) 2F2
'") 2F2
.B ! .B ! " !)) 2F2
(" 2F2
21 2 6 , , , , 2 1 26 , 2 2 , @4 8!9
89 /6 2 , , 2 2 1 , 6 6 2 ,
&
6 & , ,
2 2 7 &
2 2
2 , , 6 LL >> , & , 6 2 6 , 2 2 80 2 9 2 , 2 6 2 6
3 2 #
:
2 8 9 2 6 & 8 9
2 2 8 9#
)
5 , 2 1
& , 2, 2 2 2 A 4 2
4 4
& 5 2 0 2 3 4 , , 2 6 26 #
, , 4
O @4 8!9P#
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Table 4 Time interval (h)
Drug Recovered in Urine Cumulative Amount excreted amount excreted D1 unchanged U DU unchanged, DUa (mg) (mg) (mg)
0.0–0.5 0.5–1.0 1.0–1.5 1.5–2.0 2.0–3.0 3.0–6.0 6.0–12.0 12.0–24.0 a
75 55 40 30 40 40 10 0
75 130 170 200 240 280 290 290
215 160 120 90 50 10 0 0
D1 U ¼ 290 mg.
D1 ke U ¼ 0 DB kel 290 mg ke ¼ 500 mg 0:578 h 1 ke ¼ 0:335 h 1 From Eq. (24), kel ¼ ke þ km km ¼ 0:578 0:335 ¼ 0:243 h 1 It is important to reemphasize the following assumptions inherent in this type of calculation: 1.
It must be assumed that urine collections were accurately timed and that complete urine specimens were obtained at each collection time. It is also assumed that the assay procedure is accurate and reproducible. 2. It is assumed that all processes of elimination obey first-order kinetics. 3. It is assumed that any drug not appearing unchanged in urine has been metabolized. Furthermore, if the drug is not administered by IV injection, it must also be assumed that the dose is completely absorbed. (The IV route was chosen for the preceding example specifically to avoid the need to introduce this assumption.)
person was 1.2 hours. If the same drug were administered to a person with no kidney function but with a normal liver, it would be impossible for this individual to excrete unchanged drug. They would, however, be able to metabolize the drug at the same rate as a normal individual. The net result would be that the overall kel would be reduced to the value of km , and the biological half-life would increase to 0:693 0:693 ¼ ¼ 2:85 h km 0:243 h 1 Thus, the biological half-life of a drug can increase dramatically when the organs of elimination are diseased or nonfunctional; it may increase to varying degrees if these organs are partially impaired. At the present time no simple relationship exists between clinical measurements of liver function and the value of km . Fortunately, kidney function can be measured quantitatively using standard clinical tests, and it is directly related to ke for a number of drugs. Great success has been achieved in using kidney clearance measurements to predict the biological half-lives of a number of drugs. This is best illustrated with a drug that is eliminated exclusively by urinary excretion. Example. Kanamycin is a member of the aminoglycoside class of antibiotics, all of which are eliminated exclusively by glomerular filtration. Creatinine is a natural body substance that is cleared almost exclusively by glomerular filtration, and creatinine clearance rate is frequently used as a diagnostic tool to determine glomerular filtration rate. The relationship
A. Significance of ke and km in Patients with Kidney or Liver Disease In the foregoing example, the drug was administered to a healthy subject who had normal kidney and liver function. The estimated biological half-life in this
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Fig. 8 Plot of kanamycin clearance rate versus creatinine clearance rate.
26
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Chapter 4 Factors Influencing Drug Absorption and Drug Availability Betty-ann Hoener and Leslie Z. Benet 7 , * ,
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 2 2 6
2 , 6 , 162 ; 2 6 6 ,
6 , 6 , , 6 2 2 2 O!)P A LL 2>> 2
,
162 6 6 6 &
2 & 2
+
2 .8;9 , 6 6 2 , , , 8
6 E , )(9 2 6 6 6 2 85
? B !(9 6
, 86 69
2 2 , 6 2 2 2
162 6 2 4 6 6 6
, 6 2 6 6 6 2 0 2 3
5 &2 6 ! 2 2 2 6 &2 6 " 2 2 6 , O!"P 0 6 6 , 2 6 0 , 26 & 8
9
6
,
, 3 6 3 6 2
2 3
6 + O!P
& 6 +22 O!'P 2 6 , 6 2 6 6 3 26 6 , , , & , 8 , + ;+ .;;+ .;; 9 , ,, , 2 O!$P 5 &2 6 6
, 6 6 !" 2 ,
& 2 61 , 6 6 &6 1 , 2 , 6 6 OP 0 , &2 6 ( 2 , 2 2 +
: 2 6 6 1 &6 2 O!P
- ;& 2 6 ,
2 2 , 2 &
6 2 , 2 &6,
2
22 6 & ;&6,
2 &
2 2 2 ; 2 2 2 2 ,
, &6,
4 OP 0 6 & , 6 , , 6 2 , &6, A6 )N &6, 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
B 2 ,
8 , , 9 2 2 , &
& O:P 2 2 & 6 2 & , 2 6 , ,
2 6 & 61 6
O:P ; & 6 2 2 2 6 & 61 ,
& 2
O)P 2 . & 6 !( O(P +6 & 6 6 ,6 6 2 & 0& O"P - & 6
, 1 6 4 2 , OP
6 6 ,6 : O'$P /6 6 &6 1 2 , 68 6 ,69
6 '
6
2
4 6 2 &6, ,
&2 26 2 6
2 & 68 6 ,69 O:P 2 &
2 6
, 6 6&6 6 2 O:!P - & 6 , & 2 1 O:P ;& 2
6&6 6 2 , 2 6 ,6 26 & 1 2 6 =
6 6 ,6
&2
D2 1 , , 2 6 6 D2 1 O::P & 2 6 &6, 6
&6 8;+9 6 , & 8+;9 ! & 8; 9
, &6, 8 ;9 6 , 6 1 , 6
2 61 &6, 2
& O:)P 2 , ? & & 6 6 2 ?, % ,
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2 , 2 , 26
, , 2 ,6 2 , 2 6 2 6 ,6 S , 2 0 2 , 2 6 , , , , . 4 6 2
2 6
6 , 6 2 6 ,
, , , ' 2
, 2 ,
, 2&2 ,
) 2 , ,
2 , 5 6 2 2 4 6 2 , 6 , ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 &2 6
, 2 4 0 2 5 8.9(; +; 2 6 2 , 2 6 2 , 6 % &
2 2 , 6 ) O:(P -6 &
, 6 4 6 6 , & 1 2
0& 6 / 6 & 2 , 2 ,
2 2 6 , 2
6 -
22 O:"P% &2 2
16 : , : 1 -
6 & O:P -&6 6 , 2 , , 4 6 2 6
, &6
6 2 2 , , & &6, -& , 2 12 2
O:'P , 6
,
, 2 !$$ O:$P 0 4 6 ? 6
6 A0 5
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859
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2 .+ ,
A 0 - 2 ,
? 6
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, ,
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6 2 2 2 , 6 6 2
, , , 6 6
, 6 6
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, 6 , 0 6 2
26 3 2 6 O)):P 6 , 61 26 6 3 , 2
2 21 2,6 , 2 , 7 6
3 2 2
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3 , 2, O))P 21 , ,2
6 2 2 2 2 1 6 6
, , , 5 &2 21 O)(P
1 6 1
21
, , 6 6 , 21 61 6
6 & LL
>> 21
6 ,
,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
0! 6 6 6 &6 , 2 2 . 7, 6 809 2 2 4 2 O)"P = 7, 6 6
21 2 1 2
2 2, , 7 ;
2 6 2 2 , 7
26 , O)P
) . 2 2 , 2 2 , 2 ,
2 ? 4 6 &2 , , 26 2 ,6 26
, 26 6 G 2& 2 2 &
6 6 O)'P , 26
, , 2 2
6 , , 26 , " / 2 8.9 , , 26 8*09 .*0 '#! , 26
) 2
, 2 6
,
7 .26 , , 2 & 2 0 ?
, & 26 , 2 , & O)$P 6 2 2 , 2 , 22 6 , , : 2 2 2
6 2
LL,6 >> 6 &6 , , , 6
2 , 03> ; 2 1 6 2
2 6
6 2 2 , 2 , % 2 ? 2 6 O((!P
.! @ 02 - , 2
6
, 7 2 6
2 5 &2 2 6
, ,6 , , 4
2
2
2 6
. O(P & 4 2
O(:P
- . ; 2 6 &6 6 6 , , 5 &2 6 2
26 !N &
2 6 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
& 2 2
? 2 ) . 2 6 6 2 2 , & , 2 6 , O()P
) -#&! $, + -62 3 6 2 2 2
O((P 6 6 6 6 1 , 2 3
+ & ,
2 2 6
22
6 , , 2 ,
2 26 62 2
0 2
6 2 62 O("P ,
* 6 O(P 2 4 6 62 2 2 2 6
2 & 6 2 2 2 , 2 ,
62 62 2 2 , 6 ,
2 6 2 6 , 2 , 6
,
6 2 6 0 62 3 2 6 , 2 , 2 8
, 9 6 2 = 62
8 2 6 9
6 26 2 4 2 & D O('P -62 26 & , 7 3
2 6 2 2 6
2 , O($P 2 62 2 , 2 26 , 6 , &2 2 2 6 2 8 2 9 2 8 2 G9
, 2 4 O"P , , 2 62 2 2
61 2 2 6 . 2 6 6
, 5 &2 2 2 2 21 6
, 3 6 -6&2 !') 2 O"!P 6 6 3 6
2 6 2 , 6 6 2 2
2 6, 6 6
2 2 , 6 O"P &2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 62 O":P 2 2 2 2 - &6 H -
B B, 6 2 2 2 2 O")P
3 2 02 ,
2 ? S 6 , 2 2 1 2?
, 5 2 6 6
8 2 , 9 26 2 2 2
2 4 6 &2 2 LL , >> 6 ,6 " 22 .
:! 22 $: . O"(P 0,
7 , 2 , ,
!$ 5 , , , 6 26 , , ,6 O""P B
6 , ,6 ,
, 2 2 6 2
2 2 6 6 ,6 6 66
2 6 LL1 >> ,6 , O""'P 6 & ,6 6 , 2 H 2 ,6 6
6 5 O"'P = 8 1 9 ,6 ,
, , 6
, , ,6 2 , ,6
, 2, 2
26 ,
AA!..44 2 ,
, , 6 6 2 , 2 , 6 2 LL, ,>> , ,
,
, 2 6
2 2 & 6 2
, ,
, 2 O"$P 0 ,
26 2 ,
, , LL, >> , 2 26
, , 6
, &2 2 6
/ 6
B E ,2 OP 2 , 2 2 6 2 2 2 ) , . F 2 , 2 2 , 2
& , 2 , 2 6 6 2 2 , 6 2 2 6
6 6 ,6 2 , 2 ) . !( 2 LL, ,>> , 2 O!P
,
2 26 5 &2 . 2 OP 2 4 'N 2 6 M' 2
2 6
3 M , , 2 8 D9 6 2 2 ,
, 2 2 ,
! , ,6 , , 1 2? 2 , 2 2 2 6 6 8-G.9 5 &2 (N ,
,6 -G. , 6 2 2 O:P 2 , , 2
6 , 82 9 02 6 2 )N 4 , , 2 -G. 2 ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 , ,
, O)P 6 , ,
1 2 O(P O"P OP
O'P -G. 6 , 7 S ,
S 6 , 6 -G. 8 :9
6 4
2 2
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2 , , 6 6 H . O'!P / 6 O'P 6 2 , 2 6 , , O':P
) C/*..*.0 01 +*. 01 5+**.0 /
, 2 2 2
6 2 4 6 , 4
2 , 6 1 ,
6 6
2
6 4 6 6 02 6 , 2 6 O')P 6 - = O'(P
6 , 6 5 !$' O'"P
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, , 6 &
6 3 /
, 6 , ,
, 2 8 9 3 2 ,
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/ 2, 5 26
26 6
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6 22 6 7 2 & , 6 2 6
6 6 6 7 @&
, 2 2 & 2 & ! ?
7
7 / 2 ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
0
6
, 2 , 5 &2
86 69 2 6 4 2 & 2 +
#
+ +
(
( 2 6 6 ,
, ( 0 !!' (( 4 , , 7 6 2
,
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6 7
1 % 7
7 6 2 6 & 6 2 6 , 6
& , 6 2 2 , , 6 , 3
02 6 , 2 6 , , , & 4 2 ,
4 6 & 2, 2 - , 2
2 2 2 2 2 , 2 4
, , 22 6 1 7
22 1 ) O
Table 4 Rate Expressions for Zero-, First-, and Second-Order Reactions Second-order
Differential rate expression Integrated rate expression t1=2
Zero-order
First-order
a ¼ b ¼ c0
dc ¼k dt c0 c k¼ t c0 2k
dc ¼ kc dt 1 c0 k ¼ ln t c 0:693 k
dc ¼ kc2 dt 1 1 ¼ kt c c0 1 c0 k
a 6¼ b dc ¼ kca cb dt 1 bða xÞ ln k¼ tða bÞ aðb xÞ
(i) When x ¼ 0:5a 1 0:5ab ln kða bÞ aðb 0:5aÞ (ii) When x ¼ 0:5b 1 bða 0:5bÞ ln kða bÞ 0:5ab
t90%
c0 10k
0:105 k
0:11 c0 k
(i) When x ¼ 0:1a 1 0:9ab ln kða bÞ aðb 0:1aÞ (ii) When x ¼ 0:1b 1 bða 0:1bÞ ln kða bÞ 0:9ab
theory is also extensively exploited in pharmacokinetics; for further information on this subject, see Chapter 3.] The concentration symbols in Table 4 are defined as follows: c is the concentration of the drug at any time t and c0 is the initial concentration. In the last column describing a second-order reaction in which the reactants A and B do not have the same initial concentrations, these are designated as a and b, respectively; x is the concentration reacted at time t.
In a reaction of either zero-order or second-order, the time to reach a certain fraction of the initial concentration, for example, t1=2 or t90% [the time required for the drug concentration to decrease to 90% of its original value (i.e., 10% degradation)] is dependent on c0 . This is illustrated in Fig. 1, in which a zero-order reaction (Fig. 1a) and a second-order reaction (Fig. 1b) are plotted with two initial concentrations. It is readily seen that for a zero-order reaction, the t1=2 increases
Fig. 1 Effect of initial concentration on the half-life of (a) a zero-order and (b) a second-order reaction. In (a), k ¼ 2 mg=yearmL; curve A, initial concentration c0 ¼ 10 mg=mL, t1=2 ¼ 2:5 years; curve B, c0 ¼ 5 mg=mL, t1=2 ¼ 1:25 years. In (b), k ¼ 0:5 mL=mg-year; curve C, c0 ¼ 1 mg=mL, t1=2 ¼ 2 years; curve D, c0 ¼ 0:5 mg=mL, t1=2 ¼ 4 years.
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, . 6
! , 5 6 , 7 ! $N
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/ !
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,6 6 2 2 6 " 2 6 4 6 8 2 , 4 ,6 6 9 2
4 2
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6 6 ( 6 D , 2 221
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1
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
1$) @3 2 2 2 3 2
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
26 2 ? + = , 2 + 7 22 + 6 6 + 7 2
6 6 2? 6 + 7 1 ,
2
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
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1$) , + 7 2 @4 8:'9# ! ! : ) ! ( " !% ( ! " @ 2 &
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
1$) D 89 + , 6 6 7 & " . 8 9
2 89 + , 6 6 7 66 8 9
2 2 B !(
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8 5, (9 6 6 , 2 ! + + ) + ( " ;+ 02 2
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, 7 6 + O!$P
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O!!P
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6 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
1 , , 6 2 , 6 ,6
,6 62 6 6 ,6 0 3 4 2
S
, 6 S 2
, 6 2 26 , 2 , 6 2 2 (
6
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
89
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Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
( . , @4 8)!9 6 &2 6 4 2 2/ 6 6 , 2
2/ ,
2
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, 2 & 2 < , 2 6 2 2 ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
) 4$ # 2 2 , 6
, , 2
, +
2 3 - , 3 6
6 6 , 2 3 2 ,
6 2
& 2 & , 2 & : 6
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7 , 26 , O!'P +2 6 2? 2 , 6 , 2 @ 2 6 6 6 6 , ,6 6 6 O!$P
2 6 LL, ,>> O)$!P +2 6 6 3 , 6 6 .62
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2
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:!)'! O!:)M!)P
5 , 2 , 6 6 , O'"P 6 5 ,
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, - >> O'P ,
, 6 , = . 5 B , 6 6 , 6 , 5
@& = , * . + 2 1 8.+9
B 4 2 B , - 2 +2 A ,
, O'"' !)!!)P , 7 6
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2
6 ,
,
, . , 2 2
2 6 , , 2
.
B O'!P
*) +& 2
6
6 1 , 2 , 2
, 2 02 2
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6 , 2 6 , 2
2 6 2 6 ,
,
2 , 2 5 , 26 2 2 , 2 6 , ( . "NB+ ( .)NB+ 0 , ) .(NB+ ) .!(NB+ " 2 LL, 7 , >>
2
: .(NB+ : .)NB+ LL0, 7 , >> 7 , 0 , 2 6 2
4 6
2 2 2
2 2 6 4 ,
2 6 F, 2
4 , 2 6 , 0
,6M 22 4 6
7 6 2
2 , , 2
, 6
+: . 4 2 6 3 2 6
, 2 6 2 6 , 2 4 2, 6 ; 6 , 2, 6 2 6 D 2 6
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 O!):M!)"P
6
, , , 2 , 6 2 2 6 ,
4 , , !N , . . 6 26 , ,
6 2 6> 2 ,6 6 6 2 6 6 , FF ,
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2 6 2 . @42
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. ,
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2 ,2
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Chapter 7 Preformulation Jens T. Carstensen 7
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2 6 9 &
2 2 . 22 & 6 ! 2 4
.! ? . , .2 06 2 =
!M 2 ! 6 ( . (( . ( . (( .
, 6 !( (N +; $ , 2 6 !" !( (N +; .2 6 !: (N +; ! 0 6 !( (N +; 6 !) (N +; ! 6 ! (N +; ! F 6 ! $ (N +; .+-;) 6 6 ! $ (N +; . 6 ! (N +; !
6 ! (N +; ' 6 !) !! (N +; 0, )& 6 ! $ (N +;
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2 , 6 4 6 5 2 O!P ; 2 , 2 , 6 2
26 7 2
22
82 9 F. 2, 2 2
6 6 6 + , & , 2 2 2 6 8 & , & 2&9
6 ,
2
8 (( .9 2 & 6 , 2 6 2 6 2 , 8 2 7
, 2 26 , 2 9 4 2 2 8 , 3 2 9
26 6 2 ;
8 , 2
, 9 6 5 6 , 2 8 6 2 2 9 6
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, 2 7
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2 2 2
, 89 3 3 6 89 3 3 89 3 + , 8 9 3 2
8 9 3 2 6 , S 2 2 2 , 6 2 2 O('P 3 2 26 2 6 2 2 6 & 5 4 6 6 2 2 2 2 % 4 6 LL 2 >> O($P
, & LL , >> LL
, >> LL4 , >> LL ,
, >>
LL, , >> 7 6 5 6 2
2 6 2 2 , 2 3 6 & + 7 6 2 2 ,
, + 2 , 2 6 2 , 2
2 6 6 &2 + 7 O"P 6
2 , 2 ?
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"9
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)
& 6 & 2 + 7 85,!(9 2 6 O"!":P
1$) ?D E + 7 8 9
, 84 9 + '( . 8* 2 B "!
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1 61 @4 8):9 + 7 &2 & +
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2 8 , ( ( ( .9>>
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6 9 6 2 8 , , 9 & 8 &6,
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1$) ? , + ) 8* 2 B "!
"9
, 2 9 A6 D
2
2 6
4 6 & , &
6 2 2 4 ? 2 @& , 4 6 6 ? 2 5 , , 2 2 26 ,6 6
3 6 6 6 , ,6 + 2 85, !"9 2
6 4 , 6 2 6 , 6
6 %# % & +
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0 : $: = 2 , 2 , , 2 2 LL 2 >> &
62 8 , 6 6 62 9 2 , 2 6 4
8 , 9 , ? = > O!$P , 4
6 6 2
, 6 2 ,
& , D & 8 !9 4 86 ! +.!9 6 A
O""P 829 6 @4 8'9
K 8 !(N 9 2 !3 1$) ? 0 2 D& 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 8 , 9 2 , 2 2 O"(P D& '
!' !' 2 !'2 2
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(!
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(
'2 2 3 , 6 6 6 ,
, 2 6 4 7 0 2 6 3 , 6 6
, 2
6) 04/.0 01 +/5 /.*" * 0*5 10+% 2 , 2 8 9 2 6 2
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(:
,, O"P
+ , !M' : . A0- 6 6 @4 8(:9 ( 2
8G9 , ! 2, 2 ! 2 , , M2 2 ;
! 2 7
6
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7
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2 2 ? 6 6
2 LL >> 2 26 2 6
6 2 , 3 2 6 ,
4 2
6 0 O"$P
K0 6 ,
2 2 6 & 2 = !
!(N = , 8 , , 9 2 26 2
*) &&! *& ; 2 , , 2 2 , 2 2 2 6
2 6 , 2 2 6 , ,
, 26 , 2
2 F( 6
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2 , 2 2
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4
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, 2 6 , , 7 7 ,2 8 , , , 2 9
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, 85, !'9 2
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1$) ? / , 6 89
6 89
89
7 !N O:P
, 6 26 2 7 2 2 6 & 8 6 2 9 2 , , 3 8
5, !'9 5 6 , 2 6 8 , 9 , , 5, !'
6 !
8 4 9 !! 6 !! S 6 , 2 , 2 , 2 , , 2
2 2 6 2 2
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6 , 6 , 2 ? 2 2
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2 2 2
+1+" ! B . 01 06 , 5 2 5
6 , = , . ; !$':% 06 * . , B 6 !$') B , 1+ - A 6 = !$') : = H = A
,
+ F , 2 H - 2 0 ((: 8!$':9 ) -
= . 2 ( ") 8!$()9 ( * * /
. / H - 2 !$ )! 8!$$$9 " 0 E /
0 1 H - 2 0 !) 8!$':9 0 + 6
0 . G H - 2 0 $! 8!$':9 ' = @
H + B6 , H - 2 0 $: 8!$':9
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$ H . E 0 0 -
+ 2 / - , ( !$: 8!$!9 ! -
0 H - 2 0 () !::) 8!$")9 !! * . 5 - &
H . H - 2 0 "' )) 8!$$9 ! 0 6 B /
H = H - 2 0 ( !!)$ 8!$":9 !: 0 , B 5 ,
B - - 2 ) (! 8!$$$9 !) 0 + 6 * F 56
* F 2 H - 2 0 "! $': 8!$9 !( * F 2 0 + 6
0 F , H - 2 0 ": !'(' 8!$)9 !" 0 + 6 * F 2 * Q, 7
* F 56
H - 2 0 ") )' 8!$(9 ! / Q * 6 . E = , H 2 . 2 0 !!! :': 8!$'$9 !' 6
= = 6 H 2 . 2 0 : "'$ 8!'$9 !$ H + = * .
0 F 2 H - 2 0 ( $" 8!$":9 + ,2 ,
01 . 2 - 2 / !) :$ 8!$""9 ! 0 + E E 2 E
H - 2 0 !):" 8!$':9 H . ! ! !! !!' : H . ! ! ) - H .&
H F = H - 2 !$) !) 89 ( * 0 H - 2 0 '$ $(' 89 " 0 + 6 0 . G
H B 2 H - 2 0 '"" 8!$':9 -
F F H - 2 0 "( !"$ 8!$"9 ' H .
B E H - 2 0 !$( 8!$'!9 $ -
0 0 -
H . H - 2 0 '( :'! 8!$$(9 : ; 1 ;,
E 22 ,
- 2 " "): 89 :! H . . * = 6 !$ " )! : H
-2
- , . !$)' !) :: H .
H - 2 0 "! : 8!$9 :) H . ! ! $M' :( G
H . - 2 B !: !(( 8!$$"9 :" . @ 2
E F H - 2 - 2 ! !$: 8!$)(9
: H .
- H - 2 0 ") ! 8!$(9 :' . /
F 5 ! ) = 6
0 !$"! :$ +&
H .
@ , . 2 : $: 8!$:!9 ) H .
5 ,
- 2 !' '( 8!$$9 )! / E6 * ! # . 8@ 9 H = 6
0 . !$'$ " ) H . . * H = 6 !$ (" " ' ): H .
T - + H - 2 0 ) )"" 8!$'(9 )) @ + = -6 B ! : 8!$!9 )( H . . * = 6 !$ !!M!( )" F G .2 * Q, 7
H . H - 2 ( ! 8!$'9 ) F G .2 * F 2
* Q, 7 H - 2 0 !:'! 8!$':9 )' F G .2 * F 2
* Q, 7 H - 2 0 !:'' 8!$':9 )$ F G .2 * F 2
* Q, 7 H - 2 0 !:$) 8!$':9 ( H .
5 A H - 2 0 ) !$: 8!$')9 (! - H H H B 2 0 = / * * . 2 . H E 2 0 B
E H - 2 0 '$ ''( 89 ( F F? ,, G
+ + H - 2 ! 89 (: + F H @ -
G / 0
H - 2 ) 89 () H . H / H = G
H G H - 2 0 (: !( 8!$")9 (( E H + * 0 = / B H = F * - @ . B . , - E 0 ,
B @ = - 2 ( :: 89 (" - B -
A = E , H - 2 0 ! 8!$':9
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
( 5 6 , 2 6
). 8H . / H + H @2 B 62
5 2 @ 9 =
. @& @ ,
:'$M(): (' Q Q
0 H - 2 !'! 89 ($ H @ / H B . = + H @ -
@ . 0 H - 2 0 (:( 8!$':9 " H . 5
E @ H - 2 0 '! :: 8!$$9 "! H . . !$$! " " F H B @ 0 B -
@ * 2 H - 2 0 " !(' 8!$'9 ": . = @ G F =
B @ E H - 2 !$ ! 8!$$$9 ") / Q . 6 . H 0
. . ,
0 * 6 H - 2 $ 89 "( = . - B E 6 . + ,
- - 0 ,
- 2 $"' 8!$':9 "" H . . 8F F
H . 9 26 - 2 0 2 - 2 = , . !$) ( " 0 B , 2 , , 2
C6 . 26 - 2 0 5 .22 2
- 2 !$$ :! "' E @
H . ,
- 2 ! 8!$$!9 "$ . H 0 0 0 0 B 0 0 0 H 0 E
- / 0 H - 2 !$ !$ 8!$$$9 + =
* = 2 H -6 !: !!" 8!$()9 ! B E .
+ = H -6 ! !)( 8!$('9 H 5 / F = @ H 0,
H G 0 6 H - 2 0 (' !!$" 8!$"$9 : H . . * = 6 !$ $$ !! ) H . H F = , E = /
H 0 H - 2 0 " )' 8!$'9 ( H . H F = , E = /
H 0 H - 2 0 " $' 8!$'9
Chapter 8 Cutaneous and Transdermal DeliveryÐProcesses and Systems of Delivery Gordon L. Flynn 7 . , ! !, .
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6 6 6
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2, ? 6 ,
26 , 0
2
, & 6 2, 2 ,
> 2 & 2
2 2
2 6
6 2 , 2 , 2 2
6 ,
2 2 D &
D & 6 2
6
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2 ,
2 2 & 6 2 2 2 O!P 6 2
6 2 2 2 2 6 ,2
2
2,6 2
6 , 0
. 6 2 6 6 & 6 6 , 8 ,
, 2 7 , 9 6 6 , , 6 , 86 , 4 9 LL>> 4 6 & 6 8
? 2 2 9 & 2 , 2 8 29 2 , , 2 LL 2,>>
6 LL & 6>> ,
& 2 2 2 6 6 6 , 2
,
& 6 ,
6 26 & . 4 6 2 6 , & 2 6 2 2
A 6 , & 6 , 2
, 2 6 2, ,
, 6 2 6 2 2 , , 2
6 6 , 2 6 , , 7 & 6 - 2 , &,
7 2 2 6
, 6 6 2
/ 6 2 2 6
3 5> 6 6 2 , ? 5 6 , 6 , 6 2 > . 4 6 , 2> ,
, 6 6 2 2 , 6 , 6 2 2 ,
22 6 6 6 6 2
2 6 , , 4 , 2 Y ,
, 2 Y 2 2 Y 2 6 , Y 6 6 , 2 6
2 6 LL >> 6 7 4 2 2
@ , 2 2 7 6 , , 2,
, 2 ,
,
) . .+/"./+ * 1/".0 01 : 4 , ,
2 26 2, 2 2 , 2
6,
2 2
6 2 02
, 3 6
2, 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, > 6,6
6 , 2
B 6 , ,
*) ' 1& * ! 2
, 2 2 ,
6 2 , 02
& 6 5 2
2 & , 2 6 D
, 2
2 3
1 F
2 2 . 5, ! 6 , 6 2 # ! 2 6 3
1 2 6 2 2% ! 2 2%
! 2 8! 22 9 2 7 6 2 2 6
.! ? 5 0
. 2 6
- 2 2 & 2 8 9 . 2 B 2 @ B & 2 8 9 -
2 B , 6 2 06
2 2 2 8 , 9
8 9 / ,
8 B
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1
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, 89
,
8 ,
9 89 ,
89 ,
8 9
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6
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2 2
&
6 2 2 , 6 2
/ D ,
2 2 62 , 2 2 6 2 62 6 2 2 2
) " 2 6 , & 2 5, !89 2 2 8 6 6 9 2 6 2 6 2 6 D &, M , 2 2 , ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 !(M( 2 6 OP 2 2 6 , 2
2 2 2 & , 3 ,
2 2 6 82
9 + 2 6 2 6 ! 2 2 6 7
6 O)P !) ,2: 6 2 22 2 2 6
2 D 842 9 , 2 ,
2 2 6 6 , ,6 6 2
O(P 2 , 2 2 , & 6 6 8 2 , 2 6 9 2 . 6 , & 6
, 7 2 6
6 ,
6 6 ,, 5, ! , , 2 2 D 6
2 6 1 6 3 6 6 6 1
6 7 , 2
6 , & 2, 2 2 &
2
, 6 2 , , 6 5, 8> 2 ,. , , 9 6 6 , , , 6 2 ,
B 2 , 2 2
2 7,
, 2
,6 7 7
6
, 6 2 6 3 6 6
2 6 2 6 2& 2 2 , 6 3 6 6 2 3 , 2 2 2 , 2 26 2 2 2 , 2
6 26 2 , 2 F 6 1 , 6 > 2 2 2 , 6 , 2 2 , , ,
,
, 2 LL , , >> , 2 2 2
&66 LL2 >> 2 6 G 6 2 2 2
.!
, 4 6 6 2 , O"P 6 2 2 2
6 2 & 8 9 2 2
, 6 22
7
2 6 6 N 2 2> 6 ,
,6 (N , 8 9 O(P 2 6 2 6 2 2 2 & !(MN 6 , OP 6 4 0 2 ,, 6 , 8 9 2 > 6 , 6 2
2 3
2 2 2 2 2 , , 2 6 6 2 6 2 6 2 , 2 > 6 , , 6 2 2 . 4 6 2 3 , , 6 6 2 26 & , 6 6 6 2
, 2 . 6 2 2 2
A 6 6
7 , , 22
2 2 6 2 , 2 2 6
.2 0 2 . 2
2 . 2 2 ;
; = 8 2 6 9 = 86 6 9
* 2
- , 6 ,
F
6 2
6 5 8"(MN9 8 9 8(M!N9 = 8!N9 8"(N9 8(N9
( ( M' !M A ! !(M A :
8 2 B
)
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 72 2 , 6
22 7 8 9
2 ! 2 7 2 , 2
,6 O'P 2 2 , 2 2
& 2 . 2 2 2
, 2 6 2 6 6 , 2
6
6 2 3 , 8 2 6 , 9
2 ( 2F 6 4 2 6 8 ( 2,29 O$P 2 6 6 ( 2
,6 ( 2 . 4 6 ( 2F 8' 19 6 6 2
2 0 2 , 2 2 ! 2F2 , 6 2, @ & 6 6 S 6
, 6 6
6 2 6 2
") 6! 2 2 2 2 2 6 2 2 85, !9 = 6 26 2 , 2 , ,6 2 . 4 6 2 , , 3 7 8 9 2 ,
2 6 26 7 2 # 89 6 8 , 2 29 , 6 2 2 89 2 6 8 29 &
89 , 6 8 , 29 6 6 2 2 , 6
6
, 8 29 6 D , 3
2 LL >> 6
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6
2 6 4 ,6 . 8$N .9
6
6 2 2 6 ,
2 2 2 2 D + 2 82
9 6 6 ,
2 7 & , 6 2
, , , 6 8 , 7 , 9 2 6
,
2 , , , 2 6 &
, 2 6 6 6 ,
85, !9 = 76 ? , ,
, , , 2
!M( 2 O!P E 6 2 2 ; 7
F , , 6 , , 8-.9 > 22 , , 2 6 ,6
2 ? 2 2 ?
8 :9 ,
D 2 6 2 , 2 80+9 6 1
,2 , , 2 4 6 6 2 , , 2 ,
626
.! @ . 0
. 6 . 2 E 6 F , 6 , 626 . 2 5 / @
, 8 2 B
!!
-
5 2 1 ,
-,2 6 , 22 5 6 ,
2 5 2 0
6
0 2 21
) 2 5, !
,
6 , 2
, 6 2 & , 6 2 7 , 2
7 7 26 , ,
OP &2
) 2 , 2 ! 22 8! 29 ( 22
O!!P 7 , 6 6 6 2 7 6
6 &
2 6 2 2 , 7 2 & 2 6 2 2 ; 2 2 6 2 2 6 6
, 8 2
9
& 62 5 6 1 7
OP
7
2 8 :9 , 6 1 ,
6 2 2 2 ,6
) '= "&!# # , 2 2
3 2 & ? 2 O!!P / 2 6 6 ,
,
/ 2 & ,
.!
.2 2
.2 .,
@
B
*
8 2 B
!!
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
&2 N 2
( ) )
2 2 , 6 , 2 & ( 2 2 6 & 2
6
, 2 2 6 & 6 , 6 2 2 2 , 1 , 2 6
2 & O!!P 2 22
6 . , 6 2
2
= 6, 6 6 , 6 6 2 5 6 2 2 , 6 2
& ,
2 2 2, !M 2 4 2 2 2 ( 2F D , 2 , 2 6 2 O)!P 0S
!( 2 > S 6 2 6 6 , OP / 3 6 8 , , 9
6 8 , 9 6 8 ,9 2 5 2 , O!:!)P 6 D
6 , , D
62 6 2 &
6 6 2 D 2 62
O!!P F62
6 2 0 2 2 ,
626 6 , , > 62
1) ' *$ +
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8 ,
9 ,
,
7 ,
, +
6
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8 2 9
& , 2 2 2 + 3 2 6 2
2 6 2 6
%
6
% 2
6
& 6 8
29 OP 8 9 2 , 2 5, ! @ , , @ 6
2
, , @
,
6
2 2 2 . 2
, 2 6 , , 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 , 7, D, 2 6 6 3
2 8 9 2 + 2
2 2 1 . 6 6
> O!!(P 2 7 6 @ 2 D ,
85, !9
, ? > ,
6 , 22
3
/ 6
, 6 2 ,
2& 7 2 6 2 0 2
2 & 2 , , 2 2 8 229
, 6 O!!P *
, ,
, 2 2 6
= !
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 ,6
@ ,
86 ,
9
6 & ,
6 &
, 2 6 , 2 + ,6 ! 2 2 85, !9 O!!P /6 2 !(
" ,
2 6
, 6 O!"P 6 6 2
,
& ) ,
2 + 2 6 ,
2 2 2 2 6 , @ ,
&2 6 2 2 7 2 ,
, &2 6
> O!P @ 86 9 ,6 8+( 9 4 2 6 2 , 2 2 & @ 6>
6 0 ,
6
2 6 2 , 2 2 6 8 226
9 ,
6 & 8 29 , ,
,
6 & ,
6 = 6
2 6
, 2 2 6 & 6 2 6 2 6 F ,
6 ,6 ! 2 , 6 &
6 O!!P @ ,
% / 2 2
2 2 , > & 2 2 2 ,2 = 26 6
2 2 6
) : 1/".0 > 2 6,
! ; 2 ,
, , 4 , 2, 3 , 2 , 2 @ 7
2 6 > 6 2
6 2
*) " 2 76 6 7
6 ,
2 2 , 2 2 2 , 7 2 OP ; 6
, 6 6
6 6 2 46 , 2 , & 6
, 2 , 7
,
,
@ 7
,
&
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, @ 6 2 6
6 6
F 6 , &
& 8AG9 8 ,9
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2
2 ;6 6
2 2 6> 7 , 2 2>
, , OP -
6 , 2
S 6 ? , 6
7
& 6 6 2
8
9 ,
& 4 , 2 2 2
2 2 6
2 2
7 , , 2 6 2 2 , 6 6
6,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
?
= 1 , ,
,6 !(N 2 2 4 6 6 2 2
, 6 6 & ,
2 , 7
, 6 2 2
2
& , 7 2 2 6 &6
, 2 6 > 2 ,
2 2> 2 2
, 2 6 1 2 72 2 & 3 2 6 ,
62
) %&! 2 2 2 6
2 2 6 6 2 3 6 2 , 2 2 ,
2 , 2 2 2 6 , 2 2 8 42 9
2 6 6 2 , 2 ,
2 2
0 , 7 , S 2 2
, ,
, 2 , 2 ,
,
2
2 2, . 4 6
6 26 1
/ 6
6
2 , /
, +
2 6 2 , 2 8+(9 O!"P 2 6 0 2 2 ,
6 , &
O!P > 6 3 2 ,
2 >
, 2 7 , 6 2 , *
7 6 2 ,
6
, 6 @&
6 6 , 1 6 3 , 6 - ,
2 2 6
*
7 2 2
6 2
6
4 8 2 2
9 0 ,
6 1 + ,
6 6
, 6 , 3
8 2 , 69
6 ,
2 , 6 2 , , 2
, , 2 6 7 26 6 2 ,, ,
") "&! 2 2 2 , 3 2, ,
2 2 6 @& 6 2 6 2 2 6 3 , ,
, 6 2
3
6 2
>
,2 / , 3 2 , & > 2 ,
) + A , $M:! 2 2 AG/
2, , 6 6 2 6 7 > & 22
2, , 6
6 2 2 2 2 21
2 2 A
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 6 6 6 , ,6 6 : 2 2 6 2 2 ? ,2 2
> 6 , 2 6 2 , ,2 , 2, , ? 2
66 , ? , 2
3 2 AG 6 2 , 2
6 , ,6 1
, 2 6
, 7 & 2, , & 2
2
, 2 8 9 0 , 6 = 3
6 , - 2
2 !(M 2 2 6 8!# 2 :# 29 7 & , 5 O!'P 2 &
, @& 2 6 6 !( 2
6 )(2 , 6 4 ?
6 6 ,2
, ;
>
2 6 ,
,
) !&&! 6 3 , 2 D
O:P 0 , 6 6 2 , 6 2 2 & 6 6 > 2 , 2 2 2 2 6
, 2
, 2 . 4 6 , , 2 >
> 62 * 2
, , , 6
4 2 2 2
1) .! # . +$! 6 6 2 6 2 7 : . 8$'" 59 2? 6
2 2 = 6 & , 2 2
6> 2 , . 6 6 2 6, 2 6 , > 2 2 6 2 & 6 6 2 O:P 6 2 > 6 6 6 2 & 2 3 6
, ,
F
6 2 5 6 22 2 6 2 2 6 @ 6 2
,
, , 6 , = 6 2 ,6 6
, , > 6 2&21 ,
, , 2 6 , & @& , 2 S
2 = 6
, 8 1 9 , > 5 , D
6 , F 2 6
2 2
, > 2 - 2 , 2 . , 6 2 2 , 6
, , 2 26 6 2 6 & & 2 6 2
6) +*.0*4 10+ .0-"*4 ; > , , 2
, 6 , 1 , , 5 2 6 & ,2 8 (9 0
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
.! D / ,2 6 - - 6 0 @2 - 6
/ 3 @ ,2 2 1 2 2
2 , , ,2 2 / 2
2
, 6 2
6 2 - 2 2 6 ,
2 4 , 2 @
,
, 2
2 2 6 -
, 6 2 2
,> 6 2
2,6 4
6 2 2
,6 , 7 ,> 6 2 3 3 2 2 , ,
, 6 6 2 3 2 6 2 6 2 2 6 , ,6
2 26 2
2 = 2
,
2 2 6 3 & 2 , , 2 6 4 6 6 2 7 2
, 8*9 2 6 6 2 ,6 2
, 6 3 3 2 6 2 622 1
*) .& F& 2 ' + , 1 , 3 Y ; 6 , , D22 Y @ 2 , 2Y - 2 Y 0 ,
Y - &
2 Y B , , 2 4
2 2 , 2 3 , , ; , 6 . 6 ,
4 6 , 7 1 0
6 , , & # 8!9 8 & , 9 89 2 2 8:9 6 2 8)9
2 8(9 6 ,
2 8"9 26
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2 ? , , 2 2 2
, F , 6 6 6 2 6 7 > , 6 2
7 2 8
29 2 ?2 2 , 6 7 , @ , 4 4 ?2 , 6 2
) 5! % 2 - 2 .&! # , 2 2
2
6 , 2 02 2 , 2 6
, 4
2 2 ,
, , 6 2 6 ,
? 2 2 , 2 , 2& 6 2 2 2 2 5 6
, 6 7
.!
- 6 5 2
; 2 8 2 A0-9 = 2 = & &
2% , 4 2 2 . , , + , , , 8 2 9
6 , , 2 86 2 A0-9 = 2 0 6 = & . 6 &
8 2 9
2
, 4 2 2 . , , = 2 86 2 A0-9 = 2 0 6 - 6 ,6 0 2 6 6
- 6
- 6
2 8 2 9
2 ( . + ( .
2 6 6 ,6 2 6
6
4
, G = 2 86 6 ,6 2 A0- !)9 -6 6 ,6 ) 8. & )9 -6 6 ,6 ) -* )
4 -* ) . , , G . 2 8 2 5 !)9 ; , 0 2 = & 2
4 0 2 0 , 5 - A0 2 B 5 2
& 2
2
, . 2
, = 2 ( . * 6
4 , . )( . ,
2 8 9 0 8 6 2 2 , 2 2 2 2 2
2 6 1 , 2 G . 2 8, 6 9 ; , 0 6 / & 0 2 4 0 N A0-6 '
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
$(N 89 (N
'"N 89 :N 'N :N
(N 89 (N !N !N (N !(N :N
(N (N
!(N !N ((('N (N (N !"(N N
!(N 'N !(N (N :(N
.! 8 9 6
- 6
- 4 +
.
6 4 , 2 2 . (( .
2, 1 . , , G . 2 8 , 29 ; , 0 0 6 . 6 4 *6
6
- 6
-2 6 & - 4 +
"( .
6 4 , 2 2 . ( .
2, 1 . , , 0 8 2 26 , G - 81 & A0-9 Q & 0 .2 = 2 4 2 1 &
26 2 6 , 2 , , , , 2 2
, , , T * 8 , ? 69 $ +. ) . $:) - 6 ,6 6
0 2 6 & 4 - 4 )2 8' M$ .9 . , , . $:) 2 ? +
6
, !N 2 6 & 8 ! 2 4 ! 29
, 2 ) 2 = 2 6 6 ,6 & . $:)
6 ,6 ,
7 2 22 6 2 2 , 6 2 2 6 2 . 2 6 , 2 6 2
, , 7 6 2 2 , 6
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
(N !(N !N
!:N !N !N !N !N (N $N !N
(N (N (N !N
'N )N !"N !!(N + !N
26 2 . 6 6 6 - 8049 2 2 2 2 &
, , 2 , 2
"
' .
, 2
2& 2 2 D 1 . , 3 , 2 & , 2 ,
?
2 2
, , 6 2 , 2 , 8 2 2, 1 2& 9 2 6
2, 1 22 & 2 6 6 2 06 2 6 2 , 6 7 , 2 , 2 2 7 2 , 0 , 2 21 & ,
6 6 , 6 2 B 2 2 6 2 7 , $ 2
2 6 2 2 , 2 2 2 & 4
6 2 "
' . , ( . 2 , , 2 , &6 ,
( . 2 2 7 , 27 = , 4
, 6 2 6 , 6
6 2 2 27
4
2 2 6
6 2
, , 2& 2 7 6
2 5 , 2 , , , , , 2 6 6 2 6 )
( . 2 2
6
, 6
& , 27 + 2 6
2
26 6 2 6 , 2 6 6 6 , 6 2 6 2 2 6 , , 2
2 ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, , 2
2& 2 ,6 4
6 2
2 8, 2 9 , 26 , , 2 6 ,
2 72 2 2
, ,
2& , 7 , , 26 2 , 2 2 0
2 , 2 2
6 26 2 2 2 2
2 1
2 6 , 2& 2 6 2 , G 2 2 6 , , 2 , 2 6 62 ,
2
, 2 6 ! , 46 7 4 2 , ,
2 2 2 & 2 6 ,2 6 ,6 2& ,2
, , ,2 /6 6 . , 6 2 , 6 1 , 2 2 6 1
&6 ,
62 1 6 , 62 ; , , . 62 , 2 1 0 6 , 2 ,
$ , 2 4 2
2 , 2 , 7 6 2 2 2 2
, 2 6 6 , 6 4 2 7
2 6 ,
6) -+10+%*" 01 .0-"*4 .+*-/." A.% , 2 2 2 2
, 2
6 2 ,
6 6 86 6 29 6 2 8 , 9 6 2 2 2
, F 2 2 2 6
6 2 2
*) ,!!# , , 6 , 2
2 + , 2 6 6
4 6 , 2 , 2
2,
2
2 2,
, S , , 6 , 1 . 6 2 2
0
6 S 6 2
26 , ,6 , 6 2 3 , 6 S 6 . 6 2 , 6 , & 6 2 4 6 & &2
, / & 6 6 6 6 4 2 ! 2,
2 4 "
! 2, 6 2 6 2 6 6 26 2 2 6 2 &2 A 2 2 2 2 6 , 2, 2 6 2 ,6 6 7 ,
2 2 6 ,> 6 2 & 2 , , D 6 6 0 2 2 6 7 3 5 &2 2 2 6
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, 6 2
26
4 7 , , 2 2 2 6 2
2 2
2 6 7 = 2 2 6 8 9 , ,> S
,> 3 S
. , 2 6 1 & 3 S + 3 , 2
6 3 6 ,
,
26 2 2
2 ,
, , 6
, 3 2 2 O(P 5 &2 ! 6 2 6 S , !' 2 6 O(:P *
, , & , 6 2
2 2, & > 2 2
2 S 2 2 6 , 6 ! 2 , ! . . 4 6 6 1 4 6 6 6 O()P = S 2 6 S 6 2 2 3 6 6
, 2 O((P + 6! , 2 6 &
8.: .) . . ..9 , , 6 , ,6 6 , . 4 6 2 , 2 6 2 ) . !!! . , O()P 6 "$ . & , 7
& / , 6 6 6
, , 2 6 4 , 2 6 6 , 6 6 2 2 6 2 , 6
1$) D 6 6 D22
3 &
6 2, 2 2 6 6 2 O()((P 2 , &2 2, 27 6 , 6 5, ( 6 6 D22
6 6 2 6
6 , O("P 22
3 6 , & 8 & 9
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 ,
, 2 6 3 &6 2 ,
6 5, " E 1
2 2 ! !!
! S 2
O(P G ,
& > 2 6
6 2 , &2
1$) G 2 26
7
! , / 2& 2 S !
! O(:P ,6
6 , 7 6 22
S 6 3 ,
, 6 4 6 & D 3 2 6 2&2 ,
2 ,6 22 6 6 6 , , 85, "9 & # , , 2 2 7 4 2, & 6 6
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, &
O('($P = 2 , , 6 2
6 6 6 2 2 6 ,
, O($P , S 3 6 6 6 & 6 3 & 6 , 6 2 2
2 6 2 2 6 22 6 2 O!:"P ; ,
2 2 2 2 2, 2 2
4
, 86 69 2 & 6 D& 2, 46 2 O"P 3 2, 2 6 2
6 26 2 , , 2 2 8 9 , 2 & 2
2 6 2 . 6 6 2 , 6 = 2 21
2 B 6 , 6 2 2 6
, 6 2 6 6
2 6 @& ,, 2 ! 2 2 6 26 , 2 , 6> 2 2 6 6 ,
3 ! 6 6 2&2 D& 2 2 2 , , 6 > , 2 ,
; 3
, ,
26 2 6 2 , , , 6 , ,> 6 ?
2
,
,>
& 2 6
,
3 , 2 6 , O"!"P
,> 2, 6
, , 2 , 2 2 2
, 2 ,6
7 ,
& ,
2&2 6 2 , 2&2 6 , 22 & 2 6 ? , 6 2 , 2 2 3 ,
2
6 2 6 ,6
2 06 , 6 ,6 2 2 , 2
, 6 4 6 7
6 ,6 8(M!(N9 2
2 6
6
,> 6 = 2 6 , 6
2 2 2 2 , 6
2 @& 2 2& , 22 &2 ,
, 2 2 2 ,
, 6 6 3 6 6 , 6 2 O":")P 6 D 6 , 6 2 2 2 2 2 7 2 6 , 3 , 6 6 6 26 6 , 2 2 2 26 2 6 , 2 2
, , 8
,9 , 6 2 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
,
, 3 26 2 , , 2 2 6 1 , 72 2 , 6 , 2 6 2 ( ! , 2 6 ,
7 O"(P 4 6 2 , , 2 , , =
,
= , 2 + 2 6 6 ,
2 2 26 6 , O""P ,, 2 2 2 2 2 2 6
2 26 6 2 1 , 2 2 2 , 6 2 > ? ,
2 2 , ,
> . 2 2 6 6 2 2 O"P 2 , 6 2 2 2 4 6 2 O"P 6 2 6 6 8
6
9
O"'"$P A
2 6 7
, 2 2 2 6& 80;9 2 6 2 89
62 8@@9 6 & 2 0; , @& 2
6 ,
2 & , 2 O"'"$P 0; & 2 6 @ ,6 0; 2
, 6 2 2 , 6
OP
, 6 , 2
, , 3
, & , D 0; 8 9
8 9 0; 2 2 2 6 ,
6 ; 0; 2 2 2 &
4 2 0;
6 8M: 29 & 2 3 6 26 2 2 2 , O::P 6 2 2 6 2 2 2 2 6 6 6
,
4 , 8 , 2 6 9
6 6 2 2 2 , . , + 2 8 , 2 6 ,6 6 2 6 ,6 2 9 2 , , 2 6 2 , 6 1 ; 2 829 3 2 2 6
72 2 2
2 2> 2 2 2 6
, 6 & 2 2> , 3
, & ,
,
O!M:P 4 6 6 6 6 2 2 2,
6 , 3 6 6 8.! .!9
6
, 2 2 , , 4 2 2 4 2 0 2 2
2 6 2 6 6 &2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, 0 616 81 19
2 6 6 & @ 2
6 81 .!% 6 2 6 & .!9 ,6 , 2
, 2 2 2 ; 2
1 2 1 2 ,6 , 3
2 6
%
2 2 2 ,6 6 , 2 O)P &2 1 2 6 3 2 3 O(P 6 ,
2
3 2 6 2 6 6 6 2 . &6
6 6 , 2 2 2 , 6 2 2 3 2 2 26 26 ,
, , 2 2 2 & 6 2 &
2 2
, 2 ,6 2 6 6 , , 2 2 , 2 2 26 6 , 2 2 , &, 0; 2, 1 26 6 2 6
&, = 6 &6 26
, &
, 6 2 2,
, &
C!
= , 2
2
6 6 2
D 2 ,
2 6 2 76 6 2
2, ? 6 3 , 2
O"P 2 6 2 , 6 26
, 6 2 , 2 6 6 6 ,
,
, 6 2 3
7 6 8
9 . 4 6 , 2 ,
6 , 6 6
1 ,
, 2 2 6 6 2 , , 2 ! , & 2 6 2 2 , 2
26 2 2 6 2 2 2 , 5 2 ,
, 6
6 2 ,
, 4 6 5 2 2
, ,6
2
.! ? 2 ; 2 - ; .2 6 06 2 1 8 9 2 0
4 ,6 6 * 6 , 6 6 6 6 1 0 2 6 / 4 6 2 8 9
A 4 6 6 2 &6
= 6 2 2 6 6 8 6 ,
9
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 2
= 6
, , , 2 6 2 2 2
2 , 3 , , 2 2 2 62 , 3 6 2 6 6 , 6 2 2 . 4 6 , , 2 , 2 6 1 ; 6
6 2
2 6 26 6 2 2 , 2 6 7& 6 2 2 22 6 2
6 & 6 2
2 2 .2
1 6 6 2 , 2 2 2 6 , 2 , ,
6 2 6 , ,6
2 6 2 , & , ,> 6 2 6 ; 6 2 ,
(N > 6
, 2 , 6 & 8 , 69 S 2&22 66
6 2 , 2 & (N 6 6 2 6 2 2 2
62 , 2
26 01 , 8 , 9
8 , 6 ,6 2 9 26
26 , 2 6 , 6 2 , 2 2 6 2 , 6
2 , 2 &
6 1 2 ,
2 2 6
26 6 , 6 6 7& 0 2 3 , , 4 2
3 1 , 6 2 6 7 22
8 6 76 , ,6 U9 A
/ 6
2
,6 ,
6 6 6 2 6 > 2 6 2 6 2 2 , 6 6 , , 2 2 2 , 2
6 2 ,6 2 & 2 6 2 , 2 2 , 6 2 6 0 6 2 ,
, 4 2
2
4 2 ,> 6 2 6 2 , 6 &
6 2 2 , 4 6 2
6 2 2 ,
2 6 2 5 1 2 6 4 2 , 2 2
6 2,2 2 , ?2 2 , 7 2 2 6 2 2
6 2 8 9 .2 , 2 2 6 6 2 , 2 / 4 6 3 6 2
7 , 6 2 2 6
6 > , , ,
6 6 6 26 2 ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
C!
6 6 2 7 2
6 !N
2 2 !(N , 2 , 6 26 86 26 9 6 ,
& 6 2 2 2 2 6 2 & , 6 2 & , 2 , 2 6 & / 6 2 2 ,
6 6 2 2 2 2 , 2 2 6 6 2 , , ,
& , 6 6 2 2 2
, 2 4
2 2 2 , 26 6 , 2
6 !! =
2 , 2 2 , 2 2,
2 6 6 2 , 2
.! ?? 2 ; 2, 5 2 ;
@&
2 6 & , 0 >
; , 6 +,6 6 4
2 ,6
1 , F 6 A 2,
6 4 6
06 2 6
2 6 6 ,
06 2 2 <
6 6 8 6 2
, 9
2 2
2 , ; , 2 6 2 & 6 6 2 , 2 6 2 6 ,
, 2 6
22 @ 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 2
? 2 72 6 , 6 3 6 6 2 26 0 , , ,
6 2 2
2 6 ,6
1 0 4 02 , 6 2 2 ? 72 6 2 2 = 2 2 6 2> 6 6 ,
2 8 9 6 8
9 62 6 6 , 2 B 2 6
. 6 2 & 5 2 6 2 6 6 2
6
2 26
26 2 6 2
6 S 6
6 2 2, 6 B 2 6 , 2 2
2 6 2 6 , ;
6 2 2 6 - 6 2 6
, 2 6 6 2 ; 7 6 2
72 2 , ,
3 > . 2 6 6 , , 2 ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 6 , !N B,6 ! 2, 2 2 2 , , , 3 6 , . 4 6 6 , 6 0 7 6
6 6
, , 0
, 6 4 7 & , 2 , , 7 , ,2 2 , 2 B
, ,2 6 2 & 6 & 6 2 & .2 , , 6 2 6 2 2 'M'(N & 6 2 6 F
,
, 6
4 6 , 6 6 2 2 72
2 2 , ? , 2 , 6 6
6 , 2 2 4 2 72 6 OP 6 , 2 2 O'P , 2 , , 72 2 2 2 6 @ , 2
2
2 2 2 6 ,6 O("P =
3 6 6
, 0 21 2 , , 6 2 ,
6 2 , A 6 6 2
2 6 2 , 2
, 2 6 , &
6 6 2 0 2 6 2 6 2 2
, , 6 2 5 2
6 2 ,
6 2 6 , 0
, 2 2 72 , 2 2 6 , ,6
6 2 6 6 (M!(N 6 ,6
2 6 2
? 22 6 6 , 2 , 3
, ,
6
2 2 2
, 2 4
6 2 , ,
6 6
, 2 ,
6 2 2 , 2 6 , A 2 6
& 6> ,6
6
6 26 6 2 2 ,
, 21 ,
,
, 2 6 72 2 6 &2
, 6 6 2 5 , , 89 , 89 , 89 O$P
) *& 2 -#&! "&! !# . 6
2 , 6 6 2 3 , 2 + 2 4
, 2
2 6 2 6 2 2 2 , ! 2 6 8 7 9
2 2 2 8 > 9
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
.! ?
5 @ 0 2
06 , 89 06 ? G . ; 8 2 , , 9 G6 & 6 F
2 - 82, 6 ,9 - 1 + &
8 , , 9 - 2
2
6 8
9 B
6
2 , ,
6 ? 2 2 > 2 2
0 2 6 2 2 , 5 2 26 2 & ? ,
,
? 2 2
6> ,2 6 2
6
S 6 , 61 2
, , ,
, 2 6
6 , 2 2
, 2 A
2 2 6 26 , 6 2 / 26 6
6 2 6 , ? 02 4
2 6 2 2, 2 8 ,
69
2 3 ; 6 , & ,
22 6
, @& & 6 2 8
7 9 2 6 2 , ; 26
& , - 2
6
2 , 2 & , 2 . ,
+
2 2 2 6 6 6
2 2 , 2 26 , 6
2 , + 2 6
6
, , ,6
2 & , 2 2 6 2 6
2 , 2 42 , 6
2
6 + 26 7
&4 6
2 6 4 6 6
2 & 2 2 & 2 , 7 2 1 6 2 , 2
/ 7 2
2 2
6 , 2 2 2 6 , 4 2 6 8 9 6 6 6 2 ,
, 2 2 , 2 2 2
2 2 6 2
26 6 2& , 2 0 , , , 6 6 . ,
2
- 26 2 2 , 6 6 2 6 , < 2
2 > 2 2 2 , 2
@ 6
,
4 4 1 2 & = 2 , 2
%
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, 2, 2 6 2
, 6 , 2 2 2 2 4
8 ,9 6 , , 2 2 4 2
6 , 2 & , 6
2 2 - 2 2 , 1 1
2 6 4 6 , , 6 6 2 2 62 2 6 6
, 6
6 2 & , , 6 66
2 22 6 , 2 2 , , , D 2 , , 02 3 , ; 7
2 6 2 2 4 6 2 6 2 2 + 26 6 ? 2 ,
, 2 0 2 3
2 36
, 6
, , A
D 2 26
6 2 2 2 6 2
, , 2 1 2 - 2 & 2 * , 6 6
, , 6 6 6 6 &2 6 ,
, ?
, .
4 , 6 6 3 , 2
2
, , 2 . 22 , 4 6
2
, 1 & > & , ,
,
, 6 D 26 2 , 6 1
, , 2 & = , 6 6
, 8 , 6 2 , 9 ; 6 2
, 2 6 , , 2 2
2 2 2 2 , 8 , , 9 5 7 , , 6 2
,
,
") 1 2 " 2 7 6 - &2 2 2 (N 2 2 2 - 2 6 6
2, 4
2
2 + 2 ,
6 6 2 > , 6 6
1 2 6 2
2 7 6 2 , , 2
,
( 2 , 2
6 6 6 6 2
! 2
, . 6 2 2 2 6 2, 1 0 6 2 2 2 ; 6
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 2 D , 8 6 2
,9 2
2 2 6
6 , , , 1 02 2 6 ,
, 26 . 4 6 ? & ,6 , 6
? 7 , 2 6 2 26 , , 6 2 ,
6 5 A 0 - 2 5 2 6 8A0-59 2 2 2 4 7 , 2 8'( .9
7 6 , - 2 , 6 2
, : 2 2, 7 4 2 2 2 ( 2 , 6 2 & ( !
2 '
, -
2 2 2 22 2 2 2 & 2 6 2
2 - 2 ,
,
> A0- TT 2 2 2
8 9 - 6 A 0 2 , 6
,
2 2 2 6 4 2 2 , , 2 !$" & 2 6 6 0
2 , , 2 , 2 2 2 6 , 2 ,
2 ,
46 O'P -, , 2
2 , 2 6 2 ,
, 2
2 2 6
6 2 6 , 2
2
A 0 2 2 2 @ 2 ,
2 , , 2 ,
, 2 A 2 2
, 6 , - 4
622 02
, 2, 2 6
2 F 2
2
, , , & 2 6 - 2 2 06 2 , 2
2
@ , 2
, 2 6 , 2 2 - 6 6 2 4 3 2 6
2 , 2
4
+ , 6 6 6 2
2 6 2 &
6 3 , 2 6 2 7 2 3 6 2 2 6 A0- ,
) -&&! !$& 2 , 6 2 26 7 2 2 2 , 2 82 9
72 6
6
6 , 6 . 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2
6 , 6
6
4 6 72 & 2 1
, 2
2
2
6 2 6 2 0
,6 D 6 2 26 6 , 6 0 2 6 2
26 6
2, 7 , 6 6 , 46
, 2 5 2 6 3
6% , 3 ,
, 6 2 , 2 , 2
2 6 ? , 2 2 2 2 6 6 , &6 2 8&
29 D 2 82 7& 9 * ,
5 2 , &
2 6 2 2 D 0 2 4 2 ,2 , &6 2 2 2
, 2 6 6 2 2 2 72 6 72 & 2 6 2
, 6 3 2 21 , , = 2 &6 ,
6 6 6 72 0 2 , 2 6 2 6
6 6 ;
6 ,6 26
2
, 1
,
2 6 2 6 6
,2 ,
, , ,
2 ,6 . 2
2 2 , 2
2 , & = 6 2
2 2 6 2 6 6 6 2 1 7 1 &
2 + 2
2
2 6 0
6 6 8,2 9
& , ,
& , 6 @ 2 , 2 76 4 6 & 2 6 2 ,6
3 , ? 2 2 & - 2 6
) ' ,#~* &F& .9&!$&! "& ; 2 2 2 6 ,
2 6 O'!P 2
6 ,
, 2 6 G 6 6 + 8 2
69 ,
26 F , 22 , 6 ,
8 9 F , 2 6 6 62
, 62
6 2 1 6 , , 2 , 62 6 8 , 9 ; 1 4 3
, 2 8 9 D22
6 26
2 6 2
, 6 1
2 6
22
, 6
6 , 2 6 22
,6 3
,
7 2 , 6 &
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
,
2 ,6
,
2, 2 , , 2 6
; 2
2 4 , , 2 2 , 6 6
+1+" ! - F 2 , # 0" . 2
- 2 = , . !$: !"! * F = /
B + = .B. . B / , , )(: 8!$:9 : E 5 B2 E H E / H 0
* 5 ;
0 !() :): 8!$""9 ) B H 0
+ / -6 B (! " 8$!9 ( = , * : 2 - !$) " - @ 0 * 6 F2 F =2
/ @ / 8B
* - , 9 0 , G , !$': (:M" H = , @ =
+, H 2 - 2 ) !' 8!$('9 ' B H 0 H 2 ) ::) 8!$"(9 $ + /
E,2 2 $" ))! 8!$"9 ! B H 0 H 2 )' $ 8$"9 !! B = + # ! ;& A 6 - !$"( " ! 0 B2 . A 6 ., - ., !$() " !: @ E 1 2 '" "!! 8!$"9 !) B / 0, 0 H (( !!:) 8!$"9 !( * 01 / 0 : ! 8!$"9 !" E1
/ H - # +"
., 0/ G ' 8/ / /
H * 9 0 , G , !$ !: ! 0 -
= B B 2 06 (" "! 8!$)9 !' B F,, - . H6 ! (" 8!$)9 !$ / H 0 .2 . 2 ) !$ 8!$:9 E F 2 - 2 .2 ' 8!$"9 ! H B # 0" . 2
- 2 = , . !$: $ B / 0, . - 2 !" '"$ 8!$)9
: H H G @ 0
@ B + . - 2 !" $!$ 8!$:9 ) = B * ,
5 :( 8!$'"9 ( * = . 6 ! G ! 8B 0 F ,
F = 9 .B. - / B 5F !$': :M(! " = . 0 . !$' !)$M! H - 6 B + *6
+ " !
8B F / ,
+ 9 !$'$ (!!M($ ' . B / + /
* F 56
! 8B F / ,
+ 9 !$'( !':M! $ F / 5 !
8B F / ,
+ 9 !$'$ !:M : = ,
. +6, H B *6
H + , H 8G
- F1 9 2 - !$' !M:( :! = ,
. +6,
H B *6 H 2 " (": 8!$)9 : + + 2 * F 56
= +,
. B / H - 2 0 "$ '! 8!$'9 :: * F 56
@ @ F
E / , 2 0 E *
0 @ + " . G .B. - / B 5F !$' :) . * .
85 1
+ 9 + 2 - , !$': !"M!': :( 0 B
H 0
@ H - 2 - 2 : )'" 8!$'9 :" + - / F * 2
F / H 2 " !( 8!$!9 : H E H ! !! 8!$!9 :' * F 56
! 8 C . C .
8B / ,
+ 9 !$'$ M(! :$ * F 56
0 + 6
H B2 H - 2 0 ": )$ 8!$)9 ) B H 0
B F / , . G 8F * 2 9 ;& A 6 - !$': !((M!$( )! +,
0 0 H - 2 0 ($ !:" 8!$9 ) 0 0 +,
H + B6 , - 2 0 ) : 8!$)9 ): B H 0 + / * H /
H 5 H 2 ( ": 8!$"$9
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
)) * F 56
" " + " ! 8 B * 6
. H + 6 9 @ !$$ $:M!' )( B ; -
B + *6 - 2 B $ "": 8!$$9 )" Q @ . 1
; / H . 0 ' :" 8!$"'9 ) -
. 5& H 0 .2 . 2 !" :($ 8!$"(9 )' 0 5 @ = +,
F = / H 2 - 2 80 @ 9 ) !: 8!$(!9 )$ / = / 6 H - 2 - 2 ! (:: 8!$"$9 ( 0 2 52 = @ 0 . B
B H / $ "$ 8!$)9 (! 4 ' @
2 ; H !$) !)" ( * F 56
H B 2 H - 2 0 " !' 8!$!9 (: * F 56
H - 2 0 " :)( 8!$!9 () +, # # "!"=<"+ A 6 , !$$ (( = 02 ! ): " ! # "! + A 6 , !$' (" . 0, / 0 ! ::$ 8!$9 ( = E 1
B 2 '$ )! 8!$")9 (' * 0
/ 02
. 2 )' !:( 8!$('9 ($ 0 + 6 * F 56
* 0 H - 2 0 "! '( 8!$9 " * F 56
0 + 6 H - 2 0 "! ':' 8!$9 "! @ = 2 - 2 .2 ' ! 8!$"(9 " +, H 0 .2 . 2 !! '( 8!$"9 ": E + / / H -
G - H !! )" 8!$9 ") + 0
@ B 2 C ! E , / !$$" !:M: "( = E 1
B / 0, 2 '" "' 8!$"9 "" . 5 + G / 0 ! ! 8!$9 " B / 0, 2 $! "( 8!$"(9 "' B H 0
F B H 0 .2 . 2 ! '(: 8!$9 "$ 0 * @2
E F H 0 .2 . 2 !$ !": 8!$"'9 B H @& 3 , 6
- 2 ,6 0 0622 !!
, 2 - 2 ., G ) ) ! * 2
/ = / 6 " !
8B F / ,
: )
(
+ 9 !$'$ ("M($: = 2
, ! 8B . 0 B + *6
H + , 9 /. 0 F
!$$ !!M! /
= +,
- B6 - 2 B ( ("" 8!$''9 = +, = = 0
H F 5& * F 56
= 5 + + B G 6
. /
! . 8H
0 = E2 9 - 2 - !$') !M 0 @ +
* F 56
- 2 B :809 (( 8!$'"9
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
" * F 56
= " C 0/ ). 8B * 6 9 -G 0, !$$: ::M"( * 2 / H -
+, H - 2 0 (' !$' 8!$"$9 ' / H - @ , G .4
E1 H - 2 0 ( $' 8!$"'9 $ G - 0 F
0 G , H - 0 6
B F =2 . , : " , 8G - 0
+ 9 - 2 - !$$: )!)M)) ' F ; E , ; B ,
F 0 - 2 0 : !$ 8!$""9 '! 5 @ -
/ E 2 !) '" 8!$!9
Chapter 9 Disperse Systems Wandee Im-Emsap and Juergen Siepmann * 7 F , ,
Ornlaksana Paeratakul / 7 , 0 ,
) .+0/".0
*) "!F&
6 2 7 , 6 2 8 9 8 & 9 G 2 6 2 7
& , , 4 6 2 2 7 , ,
2 ,
2
2 6 2 @2 6 2 2 2 6 2
4
2 1
1 6 2 2 LL >> , , 4 2
,, , 26 7
? . ' !
!) 6 2 2 2 6 2 2
, 2 O!P
6 2 7 6 .7 6 !
2 2 4 , - 2 6 2 2 2
80
2
0 G
G% 2
. !)9 4 , , 4 , 2 4 4 2 6 22 4 8 , , 9 8 , 7 , 9 , 6 2 , 7 2 1
2 2 8 9 26 6 6 1 2 , 6 1 ,
2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Table 1 Classification Scheme of Disperse Systems on the Basis of the Physical State of the Dispersed Phase and the Dispersion Medium Dispersion medium
Dispersed phase
Solid
Solid
Solid suspension (zinc oxide paste, toothpaste)
Liquid
Solid emulsion (hydrophilic petrolatum USP, butter) Solid foam Foamed plastics Pumice
Gas
Liquid
Gas
Suspension (tetracycline oral suspension USP, bentonite magma NF) Emulsion (mineral oil emulsion USP, Milk)
Solid aerosol (epinephrine bitartrate inhalation aerosol USP, smoke) Liquid aerosol (nasal sprays, fog)
Foam Effervescent salts in water Carbonated beverages
None
Pharmaceutical and other examples are given in parentheses.
and molecular dimensions. Generally, three classes are distinguished: molecular, colloidal, and coarse dispersions. Molecular dispersions are homogeneous in character and form true solutions. Colloidal dispersions are intermediate in size between true solutions and coarse dispersions. The term ‘‘colloidal’’ is usually applied to systems in which the particle size of the dispersed phase is in the range of 1–1000 nm and where the dispersion medium is a liquid. Nanoparticles distributed within a liquid and aqueous polymer dispersions for pharmaceutical coating applications are examples of colloidal systems. (Colloidal dispersions are described in more detail in Table 2
Sec. VI.) Dispersions containing larger dispersed phases, usually 10–50 mm in size, are referred to as ‘‘coarse dispersions,’’ which include most pharmaceutical suspensions and emulsions. The defined size ranges and limits are somewhat arbitrary since there are no specific boundaries between the categories. The transition of size ranges, either from molecular dispersions to colloids or from colloids to coarse dispersions, is very gradual. For example, an emulsion may exhibit colloidal properties, and yet the average droplet size may be larger than 1 mm. This is due to the fact that most disperse systems are heterogeneous with respect to their particle size [1–2].
Classification Scheme of Disperse Systems on the Basis of the Particle Size of the Dispersed Phase
Category Molecular dispersion
Colloidal dispersion
Coarse dispersion
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Range of particle size < 1.0 nm
1.0 nm–1.0 mm
> 1.0 mm
Characteristics of system
Examples
Particles invisible by electron microscopy; pass through semipermeable membranes; generally rapid diffusion Particles not resolved by ordinary microscope but visible by electron microscopy; pass through filter paper but not semipermeable membranes; generally slow diffusion Particles visible by ordinary microscopy; do not pass through normal filter paper or semipermeable membranes
Oxygen molecules, potassium and chloride ions dissolved in water Colloidal silver sols, surfactant micelles in an aqueous phase, aqueous latices and pseudolatices Pharmaceutical emulsions and suspensions
6 2 22 6 7 , 6 6
2 2 6 S 6 8 , 6 62 6 6 1 9 2 2 6
&
4 6
6 6 2
8 , 4 9 2 2 2 6 B , 2 , 7 6
2 2 6 6 2 2 6
, 2 6 26 ;
6 6 2 , 6 2 6
6 2 6 2 , 6 22 2 2
, 1 6
7 2 &
6 2 @&2 6 2 2
2 2 & D 6 2 6 2 2 , 2 2 6 2 7 ,, , 2 2 8 9 6 2 2 , 2 2 26 2 2 ,
62 2 6 2 2 , 2 2 ,, , 2 4
) -&&! *!& 6 2
6 26 OP F4 2
, , 6
D &6 2 , 2 6 2
6 8 2 9
2 1 , 6 2 , 7 , ,
6 6 2 , 2 , , ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
O:MP 2? 2 6 , , 2
, 4 , 4
2 1
, ,
1 , , 2 2 6 6 2 , O'M!!P , 2 2 6 2 , . 6 2 & 6
26
, 6 . 26
2 ,
8 , !$' $$2
9% ? , 22 3 , 8 , & 9%
, 8 , 9 O!P .
, 2 3 2 O!:P .
3 , 2
6 , 6 6 2 2 6 2 ,
1 6 2 2 & 2
. , 6 6 2 2 6 6 6 6 , , ,
, O!)M!'P 6 , 2 2 & ,
2 &2 6 &6 6 8+@09 6 2 &
4 62 &
&
6 62 , M 6 2 , 2 ,
, O!$MP - 6 2 2 6 2
, 2 ;
, , ? & 2 2 2 6 2 , 2 O:M'P 2 M & 2 , , ,
, 2 4 6 8;=9 2 2 = 6
2 2 6
, , 2
2, ;= 2 2 8=;9 2 6 2 6
2
3 0 2 2
2 4
6 @2 2 6 2 6 4 2 2
2 6 O$M:"P 0 6 2
2 2 , & 2 2 6 7 2 6 6 2 4 6
6 , O:P 0 4
, 26 2 , 2& ,
, 2 ,
, 6
4 ,
4 7 , 4 , 6 2 O:':$P 2
, 2 , 6 , 6 - 2 , 2 6
X 6 , , 2
27 4 0 , , 8 , 9 6 52 , 2
, ; 6 2 5 2 6 2 2 2 , , 2 6
26 1 8 , 2 , 2 9 , 2 , 2 2 1
2 & , 0 62 62 , , 2 , 2 2 6 6 2
; ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
62 4 62 , 2 , 2 , 2 2 6 2 ,
7 2 , 6 , 2 1
) 1/*%.*4 -+0-+. *) -&! - 2 , 7 1
/
, 6 2
6
2 2 2 1
3
, 2 , , 6
6
6 . 6 2 1 3
, 2 , 2 2 6 6 6
6 2
2 , 2 , 6 6
6 2 2
,6 2 85 2 4
42 6 2 1
0 G9
, 2 & 2
2 , 2 2
1
7 5 &2
2 22 , 6
26 6 , ,
,6 , - 2 6 26 & , , 2 2 , , 2 ,, ,
, 6
2 ,6
7
3 6 O)P 22
2 6
6 @27 2 21
5 &2 62 & 6 66 6 2 62 1
62 1 1 2 2 2 O!)!P -62 & 2 2 62 6 27
, G 2 & & 2 , 2 6 2
, 2 2 02 6 , , ,
&, , ,
6 26 . 1 , 6
6 2 6 2
2 2 3 6 2 2 1 6 + 6 S
2 S
,
D O)P 2 6 2
, , ,
8 9 26 2 , 2 8 , , 6
, 9
>
6
6 - , 6 7 ,2 2 4 2 * 1
0
O):P 2
1 26 3 , 6 ,
1 , 6 6 3 , 8 , 72
29 6 0622 2
, , 622 2 2 6 O))P 6 3 6 0 2 6 6 6 2 , , 6 2
6 D ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
,
& 2&22 &
2 2
2
6 ,6 - D 2
2 3 6 ,
2 2 1
1 6 2 , 4 ,
, 6
6 2 1 , 7 6 , O")(P .
6 , 2 4 7 1 , &2 , , 6 !M( 2
, ! 2 1 6 &
2 2 = 622
4 2 1 2 , 2 8 2 9 2 2 82 2 9 2 2 8 ? 2 9 O)"P 1 26 & , 0 > 2 4
, , 2 2 2 ;6 6 2 D 2
42 26 2 , 1 0 6 6 6 8 2 2 6 2 1 9 6 6 2 1 1
1 6 ,
, 2 = 2 , 6 , 1 , , 1 , 2 1 , 8, 29 4 6 O!:P 6 2 ,
1 , 1 6 ,2 2 4 6 5 2
2 1
& 6 6 26 2 G
2 *
, 2 2
6 2 4 7 2
+ 2 2 6 2 2 4 6 4
, 2 4 22 6 5 &2 ,
2 1 ,
, O))P 0 2
1 2 , 2 - , 26 2 2 2
2 G
2 6 , 4 2 6 , 6 6 2 , 2 . 2 2 2 , , 4 2 2 , +. 4
) 2& - 2&! - ; 2 6 2 &
2 2 O)'M(P = ,
2 # 7 ,6 1
7 %
, 2
2
, 6 6 2 , ,
) 7
6 4
4 4 2 6
2 6 ; 6 4 , 829 , !6 2? 2 , 2 , , , ,6
6 2 2 6 26 ,6 2 ! #
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
$ !
$$ !
!
$
$$
4 2 2
4 4 6 G 6 2 ,6 , 6
, 2 ,6 6 2 4 2
26 2 6 6
) 2 2
2 2 2 & ,6 0
1
2 ,
2 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 4 , , 2 2 26 2
6 /
2
,,2
, 6 6 2 2 2, 6
2 G 6 ,# 89 E 2 89
6
89
M
F
8 9 , , , 3 6 , ,
,
1 5
3 6
89M89 , = 2 2, 6 , 6 6 , 6 " @ , 6 6 = 6 ,
, 7 , 2 2
4
2 6 6 2 0 .
+ ) 2 4 , 4 2 2 , 26 2 2 2 5 &2
1 , &6 2 , ,
& 1
+
2 2 5 2 ,
6 6 2 8 , 62 2 & 9 , 5 &2 6 &6 , 2 2 6 & ,
2 6 , 26 2 , 6 ,
2 6 6 2 1 , 8-Q.9 +
, 1 , , 26 6 7 0 , 6 5 &2 , ;= 2 & , , 2 , 6 , 7 6 26 , 6 2 6 & , , 2 , :
6 6 0) , 7 , 02 6 2 , & , # , 6 6 6 : = , 2 2 ,
, 5 , 2 O!:P B,6
4 6 , # 7 6 , ,6
6 2 3 1
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
7 8 , 6 2 2 6 2 9
, LL >> LL >> , ?, F
G 6
; 6 , , , ,6
O(!M(:P 6 FG; 6 6 6 2 6
, , 6 2 2 ,, , ,, ,
4 6 2
3 6 6 2 , FG; 6 2
, 2 O()M("P
;= 2 =; 6 2 2 & 2 5, ! O!:P 6 ,6 ,
# ,6 3! ,6 3
,6 3 ,6
1$) ? FG; 6# , 8 ,6 3!% ,6 3%
,6 39
3 7 2
, # 3 3! 3
5 2 2
,6 2 22 3 , ,6 3 2 6 , =
,6
6 2 22 3 2 2
2&22 32& 6 6 2
6 , 2&22 ,6 32& ,6 2 2 S 6 6 2 6 ,6 2 22 , , 2 6 6 2 2 2 ,6 ,6 /12
2 32& 6 !M
1 &2 6 ( 2G O)!P
6 2 22 , 8 ( , 9 2, 2
D D 0 D
6 2 22
2 ,6 2 22 2 2 ,6
,, , 6 6 / 2 , FG; 6 6 2 2 ,6 S 2 ,6 32& 6 6 2 , , ,6
, ,6 32& 2
89 1 , 6
6 89 2 6
89 8 , 9 2 2 6 2 , 6 ,6 3 , ,6
, 6 6 2 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 2 6 , 2 ! ! V
, , 6 2 6 8 , 6 9 2 6
2 2 2 , 6 4 D , , 5 &2 : 4 D 2 6
01 + 6 O!:P
4 6 6 4 D 6 ! 2 6 , 6
6 , , 5 2 S 6 6 ,
& 6 6 6
+2 6 , , 6
, S 6 , 6 5 & 2 2 . B +) F
/ 0 . ,
. , 2 6 6 4 6 2 8 9 2
2 7 ,
2
6 6 2 2 2 , A , 6 4 2 2 ;6
6 6 4 2 6 2 6 @& 2 6
, , 6 , , 7 6
, 4 , 2 4 2 , # , 4 , 4
, ,
&
4 2 6 6 4 - , ,
$ , , $ 7 , 4
6 , !' 6 4 +6 6 6 4 , , 2 , ; 6 26 , 7 6 6 4 6 2 ;
6 6 6
4 6 6 6 4 6 2 2 , 2 4 6 2& , 6 , 6 7 , +6 2 & 2 6 S
, 2 4 ,
2 26 ? D 4 , 6 5 6 3
6 26 2 2 6
, 2 2 2 2 2 , 6 , 4 , , 2 2
6 6 4 2 2 3 & 2 2 2 S 6 , , 5 &2 6 ,
, ,
2 , 6 4 2 , 6 3 , , 6 , , ,1 ,1 , * , , 6 , 2 , ,1 , , 4 6 2 3 2 2 S 6 , , 8 , 9
6 4 2 6 2#
D 2 7 2 4 2 2
2 6 2 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
!
6 2 2 3 2
, 2 4 , 26 ,
26 4 , 4 4 4 , 2 LL >> ,
LL , >> , 2 # 89 6 6
7
6 ,6
89 2
7
, ,6 ; 4 ,
2 4 4 4
4 0 , 2 2 72
, 8
2 9
8 9 6
, 2 6 2 6
2 2 6 2 2 26 2 26 , 2 2 & 2 2 6 6 2
2 , 3 6 , ,6
6 ,, , 2
1 6 2 , 7 6
3 2 , 6 ,
? , 6 , 6
2 , 6 - 62 2 -62 2 26 6
, 62 6 4 2 2 6 2 4
2
2 ,6
2
, 62 6 62 2 1 , 6 1 2 O)!P @ 1 , 62 6 ? , 2
,2 2 2 62 ,
, 6 ,
, 2 6
, 6 2 2 2
2 62 6 2 2 62 ,2
2 , 62 2
D& D&
S 2 ,,2 , & , D
,, , ; 2 ,, ,
,,2 6 62 85 2 2
0 G
G 69 , 6 2 2 6 26 6 2 2 LL >> , 2 2 6 26
, ,6 26 6
,
2
&2 6 6 2 2 , S 6 , , =
, 6 4 , , 2 2# 89 2 ,
% 89 2 , 2
") ! !< "&
1 6 2
6 FG; 6 8 9 , , 2 , 2 , 1 ,
, , , , ,6 32& & ,6 ,
2 S 6 2 8 = 9 2 6 2 3 ,6 6 S
, 2 6 $' E 4 ! ! ! , ! ! ( H .
,6 2 6 6 1 :
" 2G
, & 6 6 1 "
! 2G + 1 & ! 2
6 ,
! ,2: 3 1 2 , 7 6 , 2
2
. 26
, 2 6 2 4
, ,, ,
, D 2 8 9 2 ,
8 2 9 2? 2
2 , 2 6 2
) 6 26 2
6 6 2 ,6 A 6 2 ,6 , 2 2 5 , 6
2 ,
2 6
, A , D
D
02 2 ,, ,
,,2 # ,, , 2 ,6
D 6 2 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 +
, 2
6 , 6 26 46 , 2 ,
2, , 1 , 3
, 6 ,
1 6 2
2 8 , ,6 6 ,69 4 2 2 6
2, ,6
6 2 6 2 2 ,
2 = ,6 6 6 62 6
6 4 2 2 S 6 62 &
5 &2 6 62 , , 6 6 2
= 62 1
2 , , 6 2 , > 62 8 , ,2 9 8 , 6 '9 S ,
? 62 2
- ,
2 8 , 9 &
4 8 , 9 O(P 02 2 2 ? , 4 6 , D , 1 , S 6 2 2
S 6 , 6 2 2 2 2 72 2 2 1 , # 1
2 @ 1 , 62 6 ? , 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
,2 2 2 62 ,
, 6 ,
, 2 6
, 6 2 2 2
2 62 6 2 2 2 2 62 ,2
2 , 62
2
D& D& 0 1 6
6 , 27 ; 2? , 2 1 6
6
& 6 3 2 , 6 , 7 6 2 2
) +!$&! - B ,6 6 D
2 2
D & 6 4
2 B , 2
2
2 , 2 ,
5 2 6 2 2 6 0 6 2 & 2 & ,
2
2 , O('M")P
0/ 4 $ / 0/ */ 1 , 2 2 2 7 . 4 2 ? , 5, 4 2 6 ! 2 6 , 7& =
6 2 6 6 2 6
6 2 6 2 6 6 , 8v 3 6 v
2 4 6 9 #
v
:
1$) 4 2 ? , 4 2 6 2 6 , 7&
* ! 4 D , 8* 9# *
* !
)
6 , *
& # * v !
*
(
S 6 6 * 6 , 2 D 5 6 ,, 2 6
2 6 , 6 4 , , 4 , 6 6 8 6 7 9 6
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 , 4 6 ! 2 4 ! 2
6 ! 2 2 8 4 ! 9 2 D 6 7 6#
!
"
A0 - 2 & 2 6 O 89
89P 7 6
6 6 4 7 2 # E 2 6 5 2 D 8 , 9 , , ,
, 89 85, : 9 O"(P 6
, 2 + 2 6 2 6 & 2 D
6 ,
2 , 6 2
7 26 2 2 2
2
7 6 2 7
&
*/ 6 D 6 , LL
,>> 2 2 D
,6 4 D , 2 LL >> 85, :
/9 2 2 26
,,2 2 6 2 , 62 A
,
1$) @
# 89 D 7 % 89 6 7 85 2 B "(9
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, = 62 & 2 2 2
D , - D
2 2 , , , 62
2 , D LL >> 85, :
9 @&2 , 1 62 , ,6 ,2 6 2
4
*/ - D 4 & LL6 >> 85, :
.9 6 & 2
/ 6
2 , 2 4 6 8 / ,2 4 9 6 6
2 8 / ,2 4 9 6 4 8. 4 9 - D
D
*/ 2 6 , 6 2 2 2
& 6 2 4 6
6 2 7 2
6 * 6 2 , , 2 & 2 2 2 & 6
2 , , &2 , 2 & 2 , 5, ) O!:P + , * 2
6 6 # 8 6 2 9 8 2 9 , , %
4 6
, ,
6 , 6 2 6 6 2 2 , 2
1$) 5 6 2 & , & 6
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 6 , M 6 2 26 , D , ,
6
7 ,6 4 2 %
2 ,62 6 2 2 ,
, 6 2 LL >>
) 10+%/4*.0 *.6 *) 2& , = 7 2
LL 2 2 , 6
>> 5 &2
6 6 6 8 9
.;; , 6 8 9 / , 2 6 2 6 O""P 3 6 2 , & 2 86 4 9 8 9 0 2 , 6 6 2 6 4 6 , 2 2 , 6 6 2 6 26 6 2 / 1 , S 6 D , 2 2 6
6 = 6 , 6 4 &2 6 &2 & 2 + , 6 2 8 2 ..9
2 .. 2 ,, , 2 2 /6 ,
, 2
6
2 , 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 2 2 26 2 , 6 &,
2 4 6 % 26 6 2 F4 6 2 6
2 2 6 2
2 0 7 , 6
6
6
6 2
.5 8.2 , +
9 6 , & , # , , 26 , , 2 6 1 , ,
, , 2 7 6 0 7 , 6 2 S 7 2 6 6 6 6 7 2 , > , 6, 3 , 2
6 7 6 , 7 6 2
,
6 , , # 2 81 9
6 , ,
, , 2
0 6 6
. 6 , 6 , , 2 6 2 6 @&2 4 6 22 2 2
6 2 622 2 2 . 2 2 6 2
, ,
0 600 2 6,6
, A
6 6 + ,
6 06 6&6 6 , 2 .+:8.+98;.+.+9 ;+ !
!'
"
" , &2
- 6 6 7 6 8+F/9 6 2 O""'P 6 * S O"$P ( 6 , 2 +F/ 6 * S > , 7 +F/ , 86 ,9 6 6 ( 6 2 2 , # +F/
N 6 (
'
* S 2 6 6 & 8@;9
6 LLN @;>> LLN 6
>> 0 2 +F/ 6 2 2 6 6 1 2 6 , , 8 G/ 2 +F/ 6 2 7 4 27
2 9 5 6 2 , 6
26 , , 2 6 2 72
, - 6 6 2 ;= 2 2 6 6 2 =; 2 2
2 4 6 26 6 82 2 9
,2 82, 2 2 2 9 2
6 4 6 4 6 ? & 2 22 2 2 ( (N
6
6 2 , ,
1 6 2 2 2 6 2 6 2 2 & 72 , &2 0 6 2 . O!P
) -&, "!! 6&#$ *$ - 6
2 : 7 2 ,2
6 62 , , OP - , ,
,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 26 , , O:)P *
2 2 1 , 26 62
&
,2 2 1 2 6 , ,2 6 4 2, , 2 6
, 4
6 2 + 2, 6 + ,
6
6 3 6 , , ,2 2 2
6 , / 6 6 6 2,
, , 26 , ,
62 , , 06 2 &62 6 6 &6 6 6 &6 6 2 6
2 6 , 6
7 8 , 2 ,9 62 6 8¨!N9
6 6 , 8©!N9 0 ,
, 7 6 , 2 2
A 2 6 62
2 6 2 = 2 6 6 & = 62
6
, , 22
2 , ,
2 6 , 3 = , 2 26 , 1 ,
& 6
2
2 , 2 6 &
6 & 6
6 , 2 2
") "!!$ *$ 6 2 6 2 & 6 6 ,
.! @ .7 - . 8,2
62 9 , ; , .7
; ,
-
&
0 &
0 &
2
-
& 5 & *
@& 6
0
=
06
0 & - 2
,
.6 2 &
- E 6 ,2 , ,2 *2 * ,2 F ,2 -62 C . ,
, , F ,2 - 0 T ,2 &
.
*
E
0 . # 2 6 2 &6 2 6 * 6 62 -6 62 6 6 & 62 02 6
, 6 +6 52
8 B
+ 7 + 4 6 2
2 + , 4 3 6 2 , 1 , + D 6
6 3 , 6 2 & 2 2 , 6 ,
3 6 6 2 ;2 8 , 2 9
1 8 , 2 9 26 6 , 6 & 2
1 ?2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 6 6 , 6 4
, 2 ? 6 2 5 2 6 1 6 6 2 2 2 6 2 +
62 6 , ,6
+ 6 2 5 &2 6 6 & ,2
2 6 2 +
6 2 + , )M! 26 D
& 2 +
&2 + 6 4 , 6
, +
6 2
) -,, - , 2 , 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 , 2
2 6
2 , 6 6 2 O(P 4 4 2 2 2
& 2 8 , 6 6 9 & 2 2 , 2 , 2 / , 1 2 2 , 8 9
& , 26 & .
6 2 6 D 26 2
D 1 4 6 2 , 2
, .
+ A0-
2 22
7 2 2 , 2
2 2 +
6 2 .
@2 6 2 6 ,
6 . 2 26 2 , 2 5 4 2
6 2 2 6 6 0
6 2 1 62
O"P 2 , 4 6 22 2 2
8 , 1 2 9
2 6 6 26 6 2 2
6 26 , .6
, 4 6 2 , 6 2
?
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, ,
2 6 , 2
26 2 6 1 6 , 7 2 , 4
26 , 7 2 2 4 0 2 , 2
, 2 3 6 ;= 2 5 2 2 6 2 6 &6 1 8 9 2 6 0 2 , 2 22
, 3
2? S 6 , 2 2 , 2 6 8 9 &6 1 , 3 26 ,
, 2
; 7 26 8 , & 2 9 +
2 2 6 , 8 2 9
8 9 , , 2 O'P 5 6 2 2 ,
2
* , - 8*-9 ,
S 6 6 2 2
) *9 6 2
, & , , ? & 1 2 &6, G2
2
& 1 6 2 6 , 7 6 2 2 ,
2 , 26 6
, 22 6 2 ? &
4 2 &
6 , 6 6 6 2 2 & , 89 89 &6,
& 0 &
2 ,
,
2 &6, 6 2 , & 7 2 , 7 , 2 , & 6 & 6 ,
, @&2 6 , 6 6 &6 8/+9
6 6 &6 8/+9 6 22 6 , , 2 ! !N &
, 2 , , , & , 6
2 6 & 1 6 26 @&2
2 2 , 2 2 7
6 , 2 & 6 , , 4 ,
, , & 3 2 & 6 , 6 2 61 & 6 , 2
&
6 &6 S 6 26 ,
2 & , 2 6 4 2 2 7 ,6
6 6 ; & 6 , 6 2
6 6 &6 G2 @ & ? 2 6
6) /-0 7 6 2
2 2 4 5 &2 8
9
26 ,
, 2 2 8
, 9 & 2 22 , 6 2, , , 7 , 1 .
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, ! 2 1 2 ( 2 2 2 , 2 !
( 2 = 2 , , 2 6
2,6 6 2 2 0 , , 2 6 2 4 , 4 6 , 2 B 6 6
& , 6 , 2 4 2 6 2 , 4 6 0 2 , , , ,
2 2 2
2 2 2 6 , , 2 76 6 , 4 , 2 ;
2 , 26
, 6 6 2 6 6 0 2
2 2 , 4 6 2 6 6
4
6 6 2 , 2 , 2
+ 2 ,
2 , , 6 , 2
*) '= 48 2 4 S
2 , 0 2 6 2
, 6 2 26 26 , 6
S 6 2
1 2 2 ,
2 2
, 2 2 2 LL/
2 >> 2 2 , 6#
:0
$
, 2 2 0 , > 2 6
2 , 5 6 , 6 2 7 LL 2 2 >> 809 / 2 S 2 2 0 6
6
6 6 2 ,
/ 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 , , 6
, 4 , 2 2 0 > 6 2 v # v
. ! . ! $ !'
!
2 !
2 2 6 . 6 , 6
6 2 2 , 6
2 ,,2
D 2 6
0 , 6
6 6 , 2 6 2 2 2 2 0 , 6
,
2 , 2 26 & 2 , 8;= 6 9 2 , 8=; 6 9 2 ,
3
& 0 > , 6 6 2
6 6
26 S 6
2 2 O$P ;6 4 6 6 22 2
2 2 2 2 6 7 + 4
2 6 2 , 2
, ?2 2
2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
0 2 , 1 1 7 6 + ,
& 2 , 7 6 7
6 2 2 , 2 26 6 6 , 6 / 6 2 5 2 0 > 6
3 2 2
6 + 2 6 !:
, , 6
6
S6 6
, , 02 & 3 6 6 6 6 ;
2 6 6
6 * 6 6 6 2 6 ? 6 6 ,
7 2 7 2 2 ?2 2 6 1 26 1
6 6 2 , 2
,
) 1!&&! &&! - 1 2
, 2 2 = 6 , 6 & ,6
6
LL D >> 6
2 6 2 , 6 2 ,6 6 , 2 2 2 2 6 2
2 S 2 6 , . D 2
,,2 , 6 2 6
, 6
6
, , 1 M 2 , , , 6
S 6 2
2 A
26 6
2 ,,2 2 LLD>> LLD >> LLD >> 8LLD >> 6 29 = 2
D D 6
2 , 2 2 2 D 6
26 6 2 2 , . D 6 2 6 2 6 2, 2
, , 6 6
26 2 6 6 5 , , 2 6 , 1
, @&2 2 8!M!N9 2 8 , 2 2 9
8 , 2 2 9 O'M':P ? 6 2 + 3
D , , . D 6
62 + , , 2 6 O'!P D 2 6 2 D , , 2 2
, 6 ,
, 1
A
1 1
2 , &2 2&22 D
1 2 S 6 , D D 2&22 2 2 2 D 2 26
?
62 2 2 2 D 4 62 2 6 , 6 , &6 2 6
26
6 1
6 . 2 6 26 D , ,
62 2 = 2 , D 6 2 2 2 26 D , , 62 1 ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 < 6 6
66 < , 6 6 A ,
6% 6
6 2 D , 6 % 6
") "#! 58 -!# , 2 ,6 ,
4 , 1
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2
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::
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6 2 % 6 , 4 2 2
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,, 2
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, , 2 6 ? 2 6 , . 2 3
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, &
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6 2 22 6 2 ,2 , 6
6 , 6 , , , 2 D 8 9 2
2 3 2
26 2 , -62 2 3 6 26 2
, 26
, , 2 2 6 2 2 2 62 2 6 2, , , 6 2
6 , , 5 &2 , 6 6 ,
26 6 6 2 6 2 26 & 3 2 ,
& 6 3 , 2
, 2 2 , 6 62 89 G , & 3 6 2 2 8 ,
9 2 2 2 2 2 -62 , , 2 = ? 6 1 4 6 6 4 2 , 6 2 3 26
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 ? 7 2 1 +, 6 , 26 2 , 2 ,6 2 , & , 7 6 , 6
, 6 2 O')P
1 6 ,
,
, 3 & , 3 3 ,6 , 22 6 ,
,
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4 26 26 O$'$P# 89 1 , % 89 2 6 2 ,% 89 , ,6 2 , , 1 % 8 9 , , 8 , 9
8 , 2 , 72
9% 8 9 6
4 6 , %
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, ,
) -&&! 66 2 2 2 2
2
7 89 2
, 6 2 , , , D , , D , ,
89 2
, 8 & 9 , + ,
3 2 , ,D , ,
4 2 , 6
6 6 6 6 2 ; 6 2 , , 8 , 4 , 9 2? 22 2 26 6 6 5 &2 26 !(M( 2, , ( 2F 26 2 2 , 6 !M 2F 4 6 , 2
2 2
, &2 6 ,2
7
2 2 2 , 6 , 4
4 6 6 2& 2 , * 6 6 2& 2 6 6 ,
,
7 4 6 8 , 9
2 2 O$P 66 , A0- 6 2 LL5 ; 0 >> 6 26 , LL; 0 >> 6 2& , D 8 , 2 9 1 , , 8 , 2 9
, , 8 , , ,2 & ,2 2 6 9
8 , 2 1 9 2 6 2 S6 2 , 6 4 6 2 5 2 4 , 2 , & 2 & 2
& , O$M$:P 2 & ,
2 & , 2 2 -
6 2 /6 4 , 2 & & ,
, 2 & 2 , , 62 6 6 ,6 ) 6 , , 62 6 O$)$(P
4 8 2 2 , , 2 &9 , 2 + , 2 , 4
, 4 6 3 6 2 8 9 , 2 6 2
6 , 2 & 2 8 , +
6 * 9 & , 6 2 6 , & , , , 2 6 &2 6 & O &1 -
@&
B 0 8-
9P
& 6 0
2 ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
&2 / 6
&6 2 2 , 6 2 6
, , 2
2 6 4 , 6 6 (
(N & 2 26 & :N , 2 2 ? 06 , 6 2 ? , 2 6 S 6 ? .22
, 6 , ;2
6 2 2
6
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,
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, 2 2 2 6
7 , 6 2 2 2 2 2 , 2 & , 6
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2 6 2 5 &2 ! 2F 2 , 6
7 , 2 2F * 26
, * 2
= * ! 2
,
6 , 2 4
2 , 6 6
2 , D
D 6 2 , 2 2 2 , , O$"P
D $N , 8* $9
6 6 , D 7 2 2 D * 2 2
D * & #
* *
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, D &
2 2 , 2 D 5 &2 ( 2 2 2 D 6 2 7 2 D 6 , D * 2 & , , 6
2 2 LL 3 >>
3 , 2 2 2 D 0 2
6 , >
2 2 , 6
26 2 , 4
2 2 G 6 5 &2 ! 2F , 6
,
2 , :" 2
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2 2 6 26
,
, 2 2 7 2
2
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9 , 8 9 4 8 & 9 , 6 1 6 26 , , O'!$P @2 6 2 6 #
O$'M!P , O!!!P
, O!:M!$P 2 O!!M!!)P
2 O!!(M!!$P G 6 4 6 2
2 2 6 , W 2 - 2 2 6 6 2 ,
, , @2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
6 # 2 , 2 809 6 2
*) .# 2 ! /
2 2 6 2 2
, 4
6 2 2 0 ;= 2 , 6 2 4 2 )(N ,
6 27 . 6 4 6 2 2 =; 2 , 6 2 4 )(N ,
27 * 6 ;= 2 2 =; 2 2 7 6 6 , 2 2
2 ;= =; 6
, ;= 2 2 ,
, 2 =; 2 26 2 6 2 6
2 2 2 6 2
, 7 6 3
2 2 2 , 2
6 22 1 ) O!P
+ 6) %/40 2 6 2 , 22 4 8 4
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 2 2 & 6 2 2 2 6 2
.! 2 6 2 8=; ;=9 -
6 6
.
6
;
- 2 ,
2 2
2 2 6 4 6 6 2
2 , 2 6 22
& 2 & , 2 2 6
2 2 5, ( 26 =;= 2 O!!:P ! 4
6 , A 2& , =; 2
2
=; 2
4 , 6 A 2& , 2 =;= 2 2 = 8=;=9
6 2 8;=;9 6 2 2 B 6 2 2 , , , ,6 , 2
6
, O!)P S 6 6 2
=;= ;=; =;;
=;;; 2 O!(P .2 6 , 2 2 2 1 , 2 , 7 ;=
=; 2
!$($ H + 02 2 LL2 2 >> 2 2 6 2 O!"P /6 2 2 6 2
, 2 , & 2 2
5, " O)P 4
2 2 2 6 0?J2 O!P 2 2 2 2 6
2 6 26 O!' !$P 2 ?
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
, 4 , O!:M !:P + 6 , & 6 2
2 ,6 2 2 2 1 6 2
2 2 2 6 2 2
2 2 26 3 1 # 2 2 2 1 , 866 !M! 29 2 8 2 2 2 9 2 2 ,
$ F2 6 2 2 , , ( 2
2 6 2 2 2 6
, 4 2 2 6 2 , 2 2
, 6
3
2 2 6 G 2 O!::P , 3 6 85, 9 O!:)P 6 2 6 , 6
, , , O!:(M!:P 5 6
, 6 6 2 . !(
!"
) * . 0 6 2 7 6 / 2
O!:'M!)P 6 6 2
1$) D 0 2 =;= 2 85 2 B '9
2 ;; ;= 2 / , 4 0 6 2 6 ? 2 6 6
4 6 2 2 2 6
6, D 0 6 2 2 ,
, 62 2 2 27
& 6 4 ,
2 1 2 ;; ;= 2 A 4 6, D 62 , 62
7
, 2 2 2 , 2 ,
5 2 , ,
, 2 2? , ,6 2
2 2
, 2 26 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
) 1! - .& 2 ! 4 2 6
, , 2 ,
42 8 0 T9 @ 2 4 ,6 6 2 6 2 , 1 , 6 2 4 4 2
4
,, 2 7 2 6
2 , 2 2 , 3 2 6
7 2 2 2 6 2 4 26 , , 89
8 9 89 7 2 , 6
2 ,
1$) , 2 , & 2 2 85 2 B )9
3 2 2 2 2 , 6 D 2 2
2 , 4 6 , 6 7 2 2 ,
(N 6 2 , 2 2 + 2 26 , ,
, ,6 2 2 6 !N 6 2 . 6 , , , 82 N9 6 & 8 2 2 29
+ . !. @2 2 6 26 6 2 + , 26 , ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
8 27 9 6 6 2 , 7 6 6 27 6
6 , 2 8 6
, , 9 26
&
& @26 , , 7 , , # ! 0 2 2 2 72
2 2 2 2 22 72
;= 2 6 4 6 & 6 26 , ,
3 , 6
2 2 + 6 3 2 , , ? 6
6
+
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:
G 6 7 6 4 4 2 , 72
, .
6 3 6 1 , > 1 2 6 2 2 2 1
2 & , 8 9
6 O!)!P
26 , ,
2 &
6 27 2 4 4 2 72 6 2 2
B , 2 27
6 6
5 4 6 2 2 26 , , OP 89 4 6 89 S 6 , 72
89
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 6 & . 2 26 3 27 5 &2 , 26 , , , 6
, 2 0 7 , 6 8+F/9 6 2 O!)P 6 * S 8 0 9 +F/ 6 2 6 6 8+F/ , 2
, , 6 69 27 27
, ( +F/ 2 2 6 0 +F/ 8"9
=; 2 % , +F/ 8'9
1 ;= 2 " , 2 , 2
, +F/ +F/ 4 27 22 6
& 2 , O!):P
.! D +F/ G 0 .22 6 A - 2 - 0
+F/
0 2 80 9 0 2 2 80 )9 0 2 80 "9 0 2 80 '9 0 2 80 '(9 -6&6 6 89 2 8 9 -6&6 6 89 2 2 8 )9 -6&6 6 89 2 8 "9 -6&6 6 89 2 8 '9 -6&6 6 6&6 6 62 8- -&2 9 2 F 8 2 ,, 6 6 9 +6 ,
0 2 6 /
+F/
6 2& , 4 , +F/ 2& 8
/9# +F/
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5 &2 2& :N 0 ' 8+F/ ):9
N ' 8+F/ !(9 +F/ +F/ : ): !( !!'
.! B / A 0 - - 2 , 5 2 6 =
+F/ G +F/
6
!M) :M" "M'
- 6
,
0 26
'M! !M!: !:
.
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
0
=; 2 = , , = , , % ;= 2 ;= 2 ;= 2 % 1 , ,
'" " ) ): !' !" !(" !)$ !( $ M! M! ) M(
3 ") . !. 6 2 2 6 6 6 & , 6 2 ,
6
@&2 6 62 , , ,
&62 6 6 6 6 6 &6 6
2
+ > : 4 27 2
6 / OP
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, 2& , 6 3 1 6
6 7 2 B,6 27 2
, # !
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5 &2
;= 2 4
5 =; 2 2
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B 4 +F/ G @27 ;
=& .22 6 A - 2
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0 ! F ; B . 6 0 6 6 / & . . & . . . . 0 !
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@6 1 6 26 6 2 E F 6 2 - & - 2 - B 0 06
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0 6
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2
2 6 2
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&2 .
4 4 6 2 5 6 6 8 , , 2 6 9
2 ;= 2 : & , 2 , 2 4 6 2
2 )
26 , , 2
6 2 27 4 6 2
") ! !# ) 5 2? 2 6 6 2 # D 2 ,
, 85, '9 O!))P
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
* 7 2 2 , ,, , 6 , 8 G/9 5 , 6 ,
3 2 2 6 72
2 6 D
2 6 ,
2
2
,6 2 6 6 O!)(P .
D 2 2 2
D , * 6 2 2 , 6 , , , 0 > 2
5 2 , 2 2 6
2 B , 1
, 2 21 2 , 2 2 6 6 2 S 2 , 6 , 85, $9 O!))P
7 6 . 82 9 . 6 2 72 , 2 2
1$) 0 2 3 6 6 2
2 6 ? 6 , 6 2 6 2
2 ,
2 6 2
2 ,
6 , 2 2 2 6 6
6 2 2 2 6 , ,
2 6
2 2
0
2 2 6 6 , , 2 0
26 26 , 6 2 2
,
1$) 0 2 D
2 85 2 B !))9
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
4 ! . 2 2 2 + , 6 6 > 6 2 2 , 5 2 , 2 2 2 3 , 2 6
2 6 2 2 6 4 @2 6 2 2 2 &% 6 2, 2 89 2
27 89 , , 6 , 2 89 2
, , 2 ,
,
8 9 2
2 26 2 6 6 2
2 O!))P 2 1 ) . 2 6 ) , 2 2 2 O!:)P
2 26 27
2 6 O!)P * , 26 46 , 4 2
2 6 2 2 2 2 , , O!)!P / O!P
, :( 2 ! 2 , ( 4 3 , 6 6 , 2 2 2 , , 2 , , 2 O!)P , , 2
4 26 6 2
+ + 2 2 22 6 2 3
2 , 6 2
6 2 2
1 6 &2 2 26 6 , 2 , D
2 2 2 , 4 2 S , 6 , 6 6 2 26 4 6 2 2 2 2 ,
2 2 , 4 2 6 6 B O!)"P
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
. ,6 2 2
2 , 6 6 1
, D 4 6 6 , 0 2 2 6
2 6 6 2 + ,
1 82 , 9 27 2
6 6 2 , 7 6 D
8 0 .9 B 6 2 2 2 , 2 O!) !)'P
6 2 3 , ,
3 2 2
2 2 , 7 ;= 2 2 & , 2 6 O!)$ !(P 2 6 2 > 6 6 2 1 2 2 1 2 8 0 G9 ; 2 6 , 2 2 , 4 6 2 , , ! 2 6 , , 3
2 2 2 , 2 1 O!(! !(P
6) "0440 * "0440*4 -+0 7 6 2 , 1 , ! 2 ! 2 O!(:P ; 2 2 2 2 6 2 7 , 6 6 6 6 2 2
1 , 6 2 ,, , 1 , 8 6 29 6 6 2 6 6 ,
2 , 6 2 , 2 6 7 , 6
, 6
2
6 6
, 2 2 , 2 ' O!P 6 6 2 2 6 , 4 62
8
9
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2 2 62 6
, 2 M: 2 , 2 4 62
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6 62 1 27 2 2
4 , 2 6 62 1 2 2 , 3 27 4 8 9 2 2 2 7 ,
27 1 2 2 2 , 62 2 & 6
2
62 1 2 2 6 21 , 62 1
2 6 2 5 , 2 22 6 O)!P# !
27 # 62 22 , 8 2& 9 62 2 27 , 4 , 2 6 2 27 # 6 2 22 , 8 2& 9 62 2 2
, 6 8 , 9 , 2& , 42
2& 6 4 , =; 2
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
;= 2
4 , 2 6 2
O!() !((P : 0 27 # 62 2 2 7 26 6 8 , 2 9 8 , &69 ,
6 2
, 27 F
6 , 2 , 2
2? , 2 , 4 ,
) &!
6 2 1 , ! ! 2 2
2
8 6 29 2 & 6 2 ,6
8 , 4 62
1 9 4 62 7 , 2 2 62 , 62 1
6 2 2 2
62
6 2 , , 2 , 6W26 2
, 6 5 2 , 2 2 6 6 , , , , S , 6
6
0
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62 62 , 27 4 ;= 2 2, 1
, 2, 1 42
.!
@&2 . A - - 2 , 5 2
. 2 , / .2 . 2 . &62 6 . . &
@6 *
* ,2 +6 &6 6 6 -&2 !'' -6 6 ,6 -62 6 0 & 0 ,
A @2 2 2
, , 2 62 , , ,
01 , , ,
, , 62 , , @2 , , ,
, , @2 , , ,
, , ,
@ , , /
, 01 62 , ,
1 , , , G62 , , 2 2
2
, ,
, , G62 , , 1
G62 , , 2 2 , , , @2 62 , , , , ,
, ,
, , , , @2 1 , , , , , 2 , , * , , 2 , , 1 52 , 2 , ,
F
62 , , 6 , , /
, @2 62 , ,
, ,
8 2 B !
8 , 2 D 1 9 62 1 , 1 , O!("M!($P , 27 M 2 2 , A 7
, & , S , & 4 , 27 1 7 2 6 1 27 62 M ,M
2, 1 42 6 2, 1 O!P 6
O!(M!($P
6 2 D 1 O!($P = 2 D 1 1 , ,
, 2 6 O!($P 1 3 6 6
6 , 62
4 O!($ !"P
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 4 27 3 2 2 ? 2 2 O!"!P E2 O!"P 2& 6 2 2 6
-F*
2 2 2 , % 6 22 ,
,
4
3 4 , 62 -F
-F 62 6 8 9 6 LL 62 2 2>> O!":M!""P
2 22
, 62 2& 62 ,
22 2
&
4 4 , 2 , 6 2&
, , , , 2 7 2 LL , >> O!"M !P 6
,
4 6 6 62
, 2 ,
,
;= 2 2 0 , 4 26
6 ,
2
;= 2 2 2 2? , , 2
22 6 2
0 # 6 62 8 , 2 , 6 9 6 =; 27 4 2 2 O!:M!"P + , 2, 1 42 ! 2 2
2 1 , /6 4 62 27 & 2 2 , 6 2, 1 A 2 62 6
6 , 1 , 62 , 2 , 6 , , ,
2 , S , 2
& *
6 26 , ,
8:N9 6 , , 26 , , , 2 , O!P =; 2
, 4 , . 6 6 6 , , 0 6 2 2 6 26 , 4 & O!'P , ,
4 27 6
2 ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2 , 6 2 6 26 , 4 6 6 27 4 =; 27 2 , 2 & 2 2 6 , , 6 2 , , ,
,
6 27 4 6 1
*
2
, 2 2 6 8 , 2 22 2 9 O!$M!'P
2 2 2 1 , , 22 2 6 2 & , 6
21 2 2 2 , O!':P LL2 , >> 6 , 62 66 2 4 , 7 2 2 , 2 2 26 , 2 , 6 , , , S 7
, , 62
6) -*+.+*4 -+ A.% , : 6 , 7 2 2 2 2 2 4 6
6 6 2 6 , O!') !'(P 0 2 6 2
3 6 , ? B 2 2
, ,
, O!'"M!'$P
*) -! ! F 2 4 6 , &
and stable. Unique to parenteral emulsions are the requirements for droplet size and surface charge [190], since the parameters have a direct effect on both toxicity and stability.
Particle Size The British Pharmacopoeia (1980) states that the diameter of emulsion globules for intravenous administration may not exceed 5 mm. Emulsion globules larger than 4–6 mm are known to increase the incidence of emboli and may cause changes in blood pressure [32, 190]. However, lipid particles larger than 7.5 mm have been reported to deform and pass through the pulmonary vasculature without difficulty [191]. In general, emulsions that contain globules 200–500 nm in size tend to be most physically stable. Smaller emulsions are utilized by the body more rapidly than larger ones [190].
Surface Charge A reduction in the electrical charge is known to increase the flocculation and coalescence rates. Sufficient high zeta potential (> 7 30 mV) ensures a stable emulsion by causing repulsion of adjacent droplets. The selection of suitable surfactants can help to optimize droplet surface charges and thus enhance emulsion stability. Lipid particles with either positive or negative surface charges are more stable and are cleared from the bloodstream more rapidly than those with neutral charge [192, 193].
Ingredients Oils. Among many investigated oils, soy oil, middlechain triglycerides (MCT), safflower oil, and cottonseed oils are favoured for use as the oil phase due to their low incidence of toxic reactions. Purity is regarded as an important criterion for parenteral use. Undesirable contaminants such as hydrogenated oil, saturated fatty materials, pigments, or oxidative decomposition products should be minimized. Emulsifiers. Natural lecithin is one of the most widely used emulsifiers because it is metabolized in the body. However, type I allergic reaction to soybean lecithin emulsified in lipid solutions has been observed [195]. Among the synthetic emulsifying agents, block copolymers of polyoxyethylene-polyoxypropylene (poloxamer) have attracted increasing interest for parenteral emulsions. Other examples of emulsifiers commonly found in parenteral formulations are given in Table 9 [190].
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Table 9 Most Commonly Used Emulsifiers in Parenteral Emulsions Emulsifiers
Range
Egg lecithin Soyabean lecithin Phosphatidylcholine Glycerol=propylene glycol Glyceryl fatty acid esters Pluronic F68, 88, 108 Poloxamer 401 (Pluronic L121) Polysorbate 80
1–3% w=w 1–3% w=w Approximately 50% 30–70% w=w individually 3% w=w 1.5–10% 5% 4%
Source: Adapted from Ref. 190.
Additives. Additives are used to adjust the tonicity and pH of emulsions and to increase emulsion stability. Glycerol is a commonly used isotonic agent for parenteral emulsions. The pH of the emulsion should be also adjusted close to a physiological pH of 7–8 by adding aqueous solutions of NaOH or HCl. Tocopherols and oleic acid may be added as antioxidants and stabilizer, respectively. Some commercially available fat emulsions and their compositions are listed in Table l0 [144].
Sterilization Autoclaving can be used for the sterilization of parenteral emulsions, provided the required sterilization conditions do not lead to significant product degradation. Alternatively, parenteral emulsions can be Table 10 Compositions of Some Commercially Available Fat Emulsions Trade name (company)
Oil phase
Emulsifier
Intralipid (Kabi-Vitrum) Lipofundins
Soybean oil 10–20% Soyabean oil
(Braun) Lipofundins
10–20% Cottonseed oil
(Braun) Liposyn (Abbot) Travemulsion (Travenol)
10% Safflower oil 10–20% Soybean protein 10–20%
Lecithin 1.2% Soyabean lecithin 0.75–1.2% Soyabean lecithin 0.75% Lecithin 1.2% Lecithin 1.2%
Source: Ref. 144.
Other components Glycerol 2.5% Xylitol 5% Sorbitol 5% Glycerol 2.5% Glycerol 2.5%
1 6 7 2 , , 7 5 2
7 2 2 2 ,22 26 + ,22 1 3 2 6 6
2 ,
2, 2 6 , 2 , 2 7
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2 , 2 , ,
2 D O!$"M!$'P @& 6 ,
&
26 5 ,
, , 2 , 2
6
, 2 = ? 2 6
2 2 2 2
4 2 6
6 @& 2 4 16 1 ,6 6 6 6 ,6 ,6
O!$$P 1 2 2 61 6 6 , 61 6 & ,
6
,22 1 2 2 , , 6 2 2 2 + 7 6 , 2, 1 OP 1 2 4 !M ( 2 , 2 O!P * 2 2 , . !
6) "*+*".+7*.0 01 -+ A.% *) -&! < *!# - 1 2? 6 2 - 1 2 2 ,, , 6
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
,
1
26
2 46
2 6 2 1
2 ,
2 G 4
42 2 2 1
2 2 6 6 2 2 6
. ,
7 , , , , , 2 6 4 2 1 2 2 6 / 6 42 6 3 4 2 6 3 1 2 2 26 26 2 2 2
2 , 2 &6
2 2 6 2 7 2 42 2 2
2 6 2 , 6 2 1 , 2 ! 2 = 2
2 , 2 2
2 , 2 6 7 2 2 , 6 2 26 2 7 , ? 2 2 @
, 42
2 6 2 , 6 2 , 2 2 # > 2 8 7 , 2, 9 5 > 2 8
2 2 7 , 2 7& 9
? 2 8 7 2 , 2
9 = 6 4 S 6 , 2 4 6 2 6 ,
2 , 4 , X 2 ; , 2
2
,, , , ,
,, , , 2 2 6 8 9 2 , ,
% 2
,
2 2 8:M(9
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2 , &2 6 ( V 0
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7 2 ,6 6 2
2 6 8@9 OP
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2 , 6 , 2 7 )) 2 8 :( 9 0
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2 , 4 2 $ ( 2 6 , 5 2
1 , , 8 6 2 9 ,
7 2 2 61
2
2 2 6 , , 2 2
, 2 2
&2 2 2 & 4 6 2 4 6 6 0 , 2 2 , ,
6 , O:P 0 ,
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
1 , 2 2 0
, 2 26
1 3 2
2 0 > 8 0 G9 - 4 2 2
2
.
2
2 , , 2 , 2 02 2 2 ,
2 2 6
6 ,
, , . 2 6 2 , 2 ; , 2 2 6 / 2 1 , 6 , ( 2 2 ( 2 , 2 26
6 2 , 3
3 2 2 , 2 2 , 7 , 2
+ . . . . 2
2 2 6 26 6 2 2
2 4 2 2 v 6 42 2 6 1
2 2 , , 1 , 7 , 2 7 D , , , 2
27 , 26 2 , &2 6 )
,
1 6 2 @ 6 ,
,
2 @&2 . .
@ 1 . . @ 2 2 2 1 , 2 . ) 61 , 1 , :M: 2 2 2 ,
3 S
$.
. 4 , , 4 8C@F09 6 8-.09 , ,
26 2 2 2
1 86 69 F, ,
5 66
3
6 2 2 , 1
0 , 26 2 6 6 , , , = 62 2 6 , , 2 , 2
1 F, ,
6 6 62
6 B 6 O) (P C@F0 , 2 3 S
1 0 > 2 , 2 2 2 2
2 , , 86 $ 9 C@F0 &2 ,, , 22 2 2 , 1 , , 2 ( 2 &2 6 : 2 1 , & /
2 2
, 4 2 2 D
6 , -.0
1 6 2 , 6 2 2 6 2 , 2 7 D
C@F0 1 1
# . 2 6 , , 2
&2 ! 2 - 3 1 3
1
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
) 2 !&&! - 2 2 ,
? 4
6 , 2 # 2 2
2 , @ 2 2 , , 4
D
3 2
6 1 7 = 2, 6 , , ? 6 2 2
/ 2 6 2 2 2 6 46
2 - 2 2 1 6 6 6 2, v 7 , 1
6 6 2 2 4 6
2 2 2 6 2 ,
&2 6 !M!( 2 , 2 2
, 5 2 2 6 26 8 7 v+ + , 9 @ 2 6
22 6 2 , 6 , 4 2 , , 2 2 D 4 , , 2
@ 2 2 , 1 0 2 , 3 2 2 6 , 4 D , , 0 2
2 ,
, 2 2 1 6 2 2 , ,
2, ,
3 6 6 2 8 0 /9 O(" "M'P 2 2 6
,, , 1 , 2 2
2 O$ !P 2 22 6 2 2 6 6 , 2 61 8Q - 61 2 2 . 9 2 ,
8+6 F
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2 2 1 6 2 , 2 6 , 7 8Q B E2 0
% Q F Q - E 2 .9 7
2 , , 1 6 2 , , 2 2 2 6 2
") +!$&! % B , 2 2 &
, 6 2 46 6 2 5 &2 46 6
46 ,2 62 , , 7 2 6 , 6 ,2 62 6 , 2 , 2 6 3 > 6
, 1
1 D 6
6 2
D , , D , G6 26 6 6 6 , 2 6 2 6 6 2 , , 4 2 2
& 6 6 6 2 6 62 2 ,
,
2 +,6 , , 2 , 62
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
6 2 8 , , 2 2 9 , , 6 2 6 6 , , 2 4 , , 2
2
2 G2 7 ,
2 & 2 2 4 2 2 6 26 6 , ,
6 2 2
2 2
6 D
, 6 .
5 A
; 2 2 2 2 2 , 2
2 , 6 6 , 2 ,
2 2 , 2 &
2 , 2
6
6 G2 6 6
2 6 2 02 2 0 2 2 . 2
/ 7 2 / 7 2 2 , 42 2 , ,
2 2 6 ,
2 , 2 2 D
2 2 , , 2 2
,
6 6 4 2 , S 2 2 2 & 1 , D 6 2 2 5, &6
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