Modern history “Mode “Modern rn Age” Age” redire redirects cts here. here. Modern Age (disambiguation). (disambiguation) .
For For other other uses, uses, see had access to the divine divine.. Tradition was sacred was sacred to to ancient cultures and was unchanging and the social order of ceremony of ceremony and morals and morals in a culture could be strictly [9][10][11][12] enforced. Modern history , also referred to as the modern period or the modern era , is the the historiographical approach historiographical approach to the timeframe after the post-classical the post-classical era (known era (known as the Middle Ages). Ages).[1][2] Modern history can be further broken down into the early modern period and and the late modthe French Revolution and Revolution and the Industrial the Industrial ern period period after the French Revolution.. Contemporary history is Revolution history is the span of historic events that are immediately relevant to the present time. The modern era began approximately in the 16th century..[3][4] tury
1
See also: Ancient also: Ancient history and history and Medieval Medieval history
1.2. 1.2.2 2
In contrast contrast to the pre-modern pre-modern era, Western estern civiliz civilizaation made a gradual transitio transitionn from premodernity to modernity when scientifi scientificc methods were developed developed which which led many to believe believe that the use of science science would lead to all knowledge, thus throwing back the shroud of myth under which which pre-modern peoples peoples lived. New informainformation about the world was discovered via empirical observation,,[13] versus the historic use of reason servation of reason and and innate innate knowledge.. knowledge
The stud study of mode modern rn histo history ry
Some events, while not without precedent, show a new way of perceiving the world. The concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments. 1.1 1.1
Sour Source ce text text
1.2
Termi Termino nolo logy gy and usage usage
1.2.1 1.2.1
Pre-Mo Pre-Mode dern rn
Mode Modern rn
The term “modern” was coined shortly before 1585 to describe the beginning of a new era. [4] The European The European Renaissance (about 1420–1630) is an important transition period beginning between the Late the Late Middle Ages and Ages and Early Modern Times, which started in Italy.
The term “Early Modern” was introduced in the English language in the 1930s. [14] to distinguish the time between Main articles: Historical articles: Historical method and method and Source Source text what we call Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment ment (1800) (1800) (when (when theme the meani aning ng of theterm Moder Modernn Ages Ages The fundamental fundamental difficulty of studying modern history is was was deve develo lopi ping ng its conte contempo mporar raryy form). orm). It is imp import ortant ant to the fact that a plethora of it has been documented up to note that these terms stem from European History. In usthe present day. It is imperative to consider the reliability age in other parts of the world, such as in Asia, and in of the information obtained from these records. Muslim countries, the terms are applied in a very differFurther information: information: Historiography and Historiography and Philosophy Philosophy of ent way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age the Age of Discoveries. Discoveries.[15] history
2 2.1
Mod Modern era era Signific Significant ant devel developm opment entss
The modern period has been a period of significant development in the fields of science science,, politics politics,, warfare warfare,, and technology.. It has technology has also also been been an an age of discovery and globalization.. During globalization During this this time, time, the the Europ European ean pow powers ers and later their colonies, began a political, political, economic, and cultural colonization tural colonization of of the rest of the world.
In the Pre-Modern era, many people’s sense of self and purpose was often expressed via a faith faith in in some form of deity of deity,, be that in a single God or in many gods gods..[5] Pre-modern cultures cultures have not been thought of creating a sense of distinct individuality, [6][7][8] though. Religious Religious officials, who often held positions of power, were the spiritua spirituall intermediar intermediaries ies to the common common person. person. It was only through these intermediaries that the general masses
By the late 19th and 20th centuries, modernist modernist art, art, politics, science and culture has come to dominate not only 1
2
2
Western Europe and North and North America, America, but almost every civilized area on the globe, including movements thought of as opposed opposed to the west west and globali globalizati zation. on. The modern era is closely associated with the development of individualism,,[16] capitalism individualism capitalism,,[17] urbanization[16] and a belief in the possibilities of technological and political progress..[18][19] progress The brutal wars and other problems of this era, many of which come from the effects of rapid change, and the connected loss of strength of traditional religious and ethical norms, have led to many reactions against modern development. [20][21] Optimism and belief in constant stant progr progress ess has been been most most recen recentl tlyy critic criticiz ized ed by postmodernism while postmodernism while the dominance of Western Europe and Anglo-America and Anglo-America over over other continents has been criticized by postcolonial by postcolonial theory. theory. 2.2
Modern Modern as post-me post-medie dieval val
One commo commonn conc concep eptio tionn of modern modernit ityy is the condi conditio tionn of Western history since the mid-15th century, or roughly the European development of movable type[22] and the printing press. press.[23] In this context the “modern” society is said to develop over many periods, and to be influenced by important events that represent breaks in the continuity. [24][25][26] 2.2.1
•
The Age of Reason Reason
•
The Enlightenment
•
the Romantic era Romantic era
•
the Victorian era Victorian era
As an Age an Age of Revolutions dawned, Revolutions dawned, beginning with those revolts in America in America and France and France,, political changes were then pushed forward in other countries partly as a result of upheavals of the Napoleonic the Napoleonic Wars and Wars and their impact on thought and thinking, from concepts from nationalism to organizing armies.[29][30][31] The early period ended in a time of political and economic change as a result of mechanization of mechanization in in society, the American Revolution, Revolution, the first French first French Revolution; Revolution; other factors included the redrawing of the map of Europe by the Final the Final Act of Act of the Congress the Congress of Vienna [32] and the peace established established by Second by Second Treaty of Paris which Paris which ended the Napoleonic Wars. [33] 2.2.2
Early Early modern modern period period
Main article: Early article: Early modern period The modern era includes the early period, called the early modern period, which lasted from c. 1500 to around c. 1800 (most (most often often 1815). 1815). Particu Particular lar facets acets of early early modermodernity include:
•
•
•
Late modern modern period period
As a result of the Industrial Revolution and the earlier political revolutions, the worldviews of Modernism emerged. The industrialization of many nations was initiated withthe with the industri industrializ alizati ation on of Britain. Britain. Partic Particular ular facets acets of the late modernity period include: •
•
MODE MODERN RN ERA ERA
The Renaissance The Renaissance The Reformation and Reformation and Counter Counter Reformation. Reformation. The Age The Age of Discovery Rise of capitalism of capitalism
Important events in the early modern period include: include: •
The invention invention of the printing the printing press
•
The English The English Civil War
Increasing Increasing role of science of science and and technology technology
•
Mass literacy Mass literacy and and proliferation of mass of mass media
•
Spread of social of social movements
•
Institution of representative of representative democracy
•
Individualism
•
Industrialization
•
Urbanization
Other important events in the development of the Late modern period include: •
The Revolutions The Revolutions of 1848
•
The Russian The Russian Revolution
•
The First World War and War and the Second the Second World War
Our most recent era—Modern Times—begins with the end of these revolutions in the 19th century, [34] and inThe French The French Revolution cludes the World Wars era [35] (encompassing World (encompassing World War I and World and World War II) II ) and the emergence of socialist of socialist counThis combination of epoch events totally changed think- tries tries that that led to the Cold the Cold War. War . The contemporary era ing and thought in the early modern period, and so their follows shortly afterward with the explosion of research date datess serv servee as well well as any any to sepa separa rate te the the old old from rom the the new new and incr increas easee of knowl knowledg edgee known known as the Inform Information ation Age [27] modes. Particular Particular ways to categorize categorize early modernity in the latter latter 20th and the early 21st 21st century. century. Today’ Today’ss [36] include: Postmodern era Postmodern era is seen in widespread digitality widespread digitality.. •
•
The American The American Revolution
2
2
Western Europe and North and North America, America, but almost every civilized area on the globe, including movements thought of as opposed opposed to the west west and globali globalizati zation. on. The modern era is closely associated with the development of individualism,,[16] capitalism individualism capitalism,,[17] urbanization[16] and a belief in the possibilities of technological and political progress..[18][19] progress The brutal wars and other problems of this era, many of which come from the effects of rapid change, and the connected loss of strength of traditional religious and ethical norms, have led to many reactions against modern development. [20][21] Optimism and belief in constant stant progr progress ess has been been most most recen recentl tlyy critic criticiz ized ed by postmodernism while postmodernism while the dominance of Western Europe and Anglo-America and Anglo-America over over other continents has been criticized by postcolonial by postcolonial theory. theory. 2.2
Modern Modern as post-me post-medie dieval val
One commo commonn conc concep eptio tionn of modern modernit ityy is the condi conditio tionn of Western history since the mid-15th century, or roughly the European development of movable type[22] and the printing press. press.[23] In this context the “modern” society is said to develop over many periods, and to be influenced by important events that represent breaks in the continuity. [24][25][26] 2.2.1
•
The Age of Reason Reason
•
The Enlightenment
•
the Romantic era Romantic era
•
the Victorian era Victorian era
As an Age an Age of Revolutions dawned, Revolutions dawned, beginning with those revolts in America in America and France and France,, political changes were then pushed forward in other countries partly as a result of upheavals of the Napoleonic the Napoleonic Wars and Wars and their impact on thought and thinking, from concepts from nationalism to organizing armies.[29][30][31] The early period ended in a time of political and economic change as a result of mechanization of mechanization in in society, the American Revolution, Revolution, the first French first French Revolution; Revolution; other factors included the redrawing of the map of Europe by the Final the Final Act of Act of the Congress the Congress of Vienna [32] and the peace established established by Second by Second Treaty of Paris which Paris which ended the Napoleonic Wars. [33] 2.2.2
Early Early modern modern period period
Main article: Early article: Early modern period The modern era includes the early period, called the early modern period, which lasted from c. 1500 to around c. 1800 (most (most often often 1815). 1815). Particu Particular lar facets acets of early early modermodernity include:
•
•
•
Late modern modern period period
As a result of the Industrial Revolution and the earlier political revolutions, the worldviews of Modernism emerged. The industrialization of many nations was initiated withthe with the industri industrializ alizati ation on of Britain. Britain. Partic Particular ular facets acets of the late modernity period include: •
•
MODE MODERN RN ERA ERA
The Renaissance The Renaissance The Reformation and Reformation and Counter Counter Reformation. Reformation. The Age The Age of Discovery Rise of capitalism of capitalism
Important events in the early modern period include: include: •
The invention invention of the printing the printing press
•
The English The English Civil War
Increasing Increasing role of science of science and and technology technology
•
Mass literacy Mass literacy and and proliferation of mass of mass media
•
Spread of social of social movements
•
Institution of representative of representative democracy
•
Individualism
•
Industrialization
•
Urbanization
Other important events in the development of the Late modern period include: •
The Revolutions The Revolutions of 1848
•
The Russian The Russian Revolution
•
The First World War and War and the Second the Second World War
Our most recent era—Modern Times—begins with the end of these revolutions in the 19th century, [34] and inThe French The French Revolution cludes the World Wars era [35] (encompassing World (encompassing World War I and World and World War II) II ) and the emergence of socialist of socialist counThis combination of epoch events totally changed think- tries tries that that led to the Cold the Cold War. War . The contemporary era ing and thought in the early modern period, and so their follows shortly afterward with the explosion of research date datess serv servee as well well as any any to sepa separa rate te the the old old from rom the the new new and incr increas easee of knowl knowledg edgee known known as the Inform Information ation Age [27] modes. Particular Particular ways to categorize categorize early modernity in the latter latter 20th and the early 21st 21st century. century. Today’ Today’ss [36] include: Postmodern era Postmodern era is seen in widespread digitality widespread digitality.. •
•
The American The American Revolution
3.1 3.1
Asia sia
3
Early Early mode modern rn perio period d
3 1800
Main article: Early article: Early modern period Historians consider the early modern period to be apUnitedKingdom France Portugal Spain Netherlands United States RussianEmpire Ottoman Empire
Colonial empires in 1800
Southeastern Europe, and parts of the Middle East and North Africa. Africa.[38] Russia took possession in Eastern Europe, Asia, and North America. Waldseemüller map with map with joint sheets, 1507
3.1 3.1
Asia
proximately proximately between 1500 and 1800. It follows follows the Late Main articles: Qing Dynasty, Dynasty, Mughal Empire, Empire, Maratha Middle Ages period and is marked by the first European Empire Empire and and Tokugawa Tokugawa shogunate colonies, colonies, the rise of strong centralized governments, governments, and the beginnings of recognizable nation-states that are the direct antecedents of today’s states. In Afric Africaa andthe and theOtt Ottoma omann Empire Empire,, the Muslim Muslimex expan pansi sion on took place in North and East Africa. In West Africa, various native nations nations existed. The Indian Empires and civilizations of Southeast Asia were a vital link in the spice trade. trade. On On the Indian Indian subcont subcontine inent, nt, the Great Great Mughal Mughal Empire existed. The archipelagic empires, the Sultanate of Malacca and later the Sultanate of Johor, controlled the southern areas.
3.1. 3.1.1 1
Chin Ch ina a
In China, urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew grew more complex. complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing and Beijing,, also contributed tributed to the growth growth of private private industry industry.. In particuparticular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain porcelain goods. goods. For the most part, however however,, relati relativel velyy small small urban centers centers with markets markets proliferated proliferated around the country. Town markets markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or or oil. Despite Despite the the xenophobia xenophobia and and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism of neo-Confucianism,, China under the early Ming Dynasty was not isolated. Foreign Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased consid considerab erably. ly. Chinese Chinese merchants merchants explor explored ed all of the Indian Ocean, Ocean, reaching East Africa with the voyages of Zheng He. He.
In Asia, various Chinese dynasties and Japanese shogunates controlled the Asian sphere. In Japan, the Edo period from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period. And in Korea, from from the rising of Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong Gojong is referred referred to as the early modern modern period period.. In the Americas, Americas, Native Americans had built a large and varied civilization, including the Aztec Empire and alliance, the Inca civilization, the Mayan Empire and cities, and the Chibcha Confederation. In the west, the European kingdoms and movements were in a movement of reformation and expansion. pansion. Russia Russia reached reached the Pacific Pacific coast coast in 1647 and The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) was founded after the Ming,, the last Han Chinese dynasty, dynasty , by consolidated its control over the Russian the Russian Far East in East in the defeat of the Ming the Manchus Manchus.. The Manc Manchu huss were were forme formerl rlyy known known 19th century. as the Jurchen. When When Bei Beijing jing was capt captur ured ed by Li Later religious trends of the period saw the end of the Zicheng Zicheng's 's peasant rebels in 1644, the last Ming Emperor expansion expansion of Muslims and the Muslim world. Christians Chongzhen Chongzhen committed committed suicide. The Manchu then allied and Christendom saw the end of the Crusades and end with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and Sangui and seized conof religious unity under the Roman Catholic Church. It trol of Beijing of Beijing,, which became the new capital of the Qing was during this time that the Inquisitions and Protestant dynasty. dynasty. The Manchus Manchus adopted adopted the Confucian Confucian norms norms reformations took place. of traditional Chinese government in their rule of China During the early modern period, an age of discovery and discovery and proper proper.. Schoppa Schoppa,, the editor editor of The Columbia Guide to trade was undertaken by the Western European nations. Modern Chinese History argues, “A date around 1780 as Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what and France went on a colonial expansion and took pos- we know today as historical 'reality'. It also allows us to session of lands and set up colonies in Africa, southern have a better baseline to understand the precipitous deAsia Asia,, andNor and North th andSou and South th Americ America. a.[37] Turkey Turkey colonized colonized clin clinee of the Chine Chinese se polity polityin in thenin the ninete eteent enthh and twent twentie ieth th
4
3
centuries.” [39]
3.1.2
Japan
EARLY MODERN PERIOD
The development of New Imperialism saw the conquest of nearly all eastern hemisphere territories by colonial powers. The commercial colonization of India commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company, [43] in 1765, when the Company was granted the diwani , or the right to collect revenue, in Bengal and Bihar,[44] or in 1772, when the Company established a capital in Calcutta, appointed its first GovernorGeneral, Warren Hastings, and became directly involved in governance.[45] British and Dutch colonization
In pre-modern[40] Japan following the Sengoku Period of “warring states”, central government had been largely reestablished by Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi during the Azuchi-Momoyama period. After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, central authority fell to Tokugawa Ieyasu who completed this process and received the title of shogun in 1603. In order to become shogun, one traditionally was a descendant of the ancient Minamoto The Maratha states, following the Anglo-Maratha wars, eventually lost to the British East India Company in 1818 clan. with the Third Anglo-Maratha War. The rule lasted unSociety in the Japanese "Tokugawa period" (Edo soci- til 1858, when, after the Indian rebellion of 1857 and ety), unlike the shogunates before it, was based on the consequent of the Government of India Act 1858, the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi British government assumed the task of directly adminisHideyoshi. The daimyo, or lords, were at the top, fol- tering India in the new British Raj.[46] In 1819 Stamford lowed by the warrior-caste of samurai, with the farmers, Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for artisans, and traders ranking below. In some parts of the Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their ricountry, particularly smaller regions, daimyo and samu- valry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarrai were more or less identical, since daimyo might be cated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. From trained as samurai , and samurai might act as local lords. the 1850s onwards, the pace of colonization shifted to a Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social strat- significantly higher gear. ification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts which The Dutch East India Company (1800) and British East did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary India Company (1858) were dissolved by their respective value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samu- governments, who took over the direct administration of rai landowners were worth less and less over time. This the colonies. Only Thailand was spared the experience of often led to numerous confrontations between noble but foreign rule, although, Thailand itself was also greatly afimpoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants, ranging fected by the power politics of the Western powers. Colofrom simple local disturbances to much bigger rebellions. nial rule had a profound effect on Southeast Asia. While None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously the colonial powers profited much from the region’s vast challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent.[47] powers. 3.2 3.1.3
Europe
India
Many major events caused Europe to change around the start of the 16th century, starting with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the fall of Muslim Spain and the discovery of the Americas in 1492, and Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation in 1517. In England the modern period is often dated to the start of the Tudor period with the victory of Henry VII over Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485.[48][49] Early modern European history is usually seen to span from the start of the 15th century, through the Age of Reason and the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century.
On the Indian subcontinent, the Mughal Empire ruled most of India in the early 18th century. [41] The “classic period” ended with the death and defeat of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707 by the rising Hindu Maratha Empire,[42] although the dynasty continued for another 150 years. During this period, the Empire was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting the different regions. All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterised by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results. The Maratha Empire was located in the south west of present-day India and expanded greatly under the rule of the Peshwas, 3.2.1 Tsardom of Russia the prime ministers of the Maratha empire. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat which Main article: Tsardom of Russia halted imperial expansion and the empire was then divided into a confederacy of Maratha states. Russia experienced territorial growth through the 17th
3.2
5
Europe
century, which was the age of Cossacks. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling pirates and pioneers of the New World. In 1648, the peasants of Ukraine joined the Zaporozhian Cossacks in rebellion against Poland-Lithuania during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. In 1654 the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, Aleksey I. Aleksey’s acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War (1654–1667). Finally, Ukraine was split along the river Dnieper, leaving the western part (or Right-bank Ukraine) under Polish rule and eastern part (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian. Later, in 1670–71 the Don Cossacks led by Stenka Razin initiated a major uprising in the Volga region, but the Tsar’s troops were successful in defeating the rebels. In the east, therapid Russian exploration andcolonisation of thehuge territories of Siberia was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian river routes, and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in the Eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the Pacific coast. In 1648 the Bering Strait between Asia and North America was passed for the first time by Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnyov.
Renaissance humanism took a close study of the Latin and Greek classical texts, and was antagonistic to the values of scholasticism with its emphasis on the accumulated commentaries; and humanists were involved in the sciences, philosophies, arts and poetry of classical antiquity. They self-consciously imitated classical Latin and deprecated the use of medieval Latin. By analogy with the perceived decline of Latin, they applied the principle of ad fontes , or back to the sources, across broad areas of learning.
3.2.2
The Scientific Revolution was a period when European ideas in classical physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, and other classical sciences were rejected and led to doctrines supplanting those that had prevailed from Ancient Greece to the Middle Ages which would lead to a transition to modern science. This period saw a fundamental transformation in scientific ideas across physics, astronomy, and biology, in institutions supporting scientific investigation, and in the more widely held picture of the universe. Individuals started to question all manners of things and it was this questioning that led to the Scientific Revolution, which in turn formed the foundations of contemporary sciences and the establishment of several modern scientific fields.
Reason and Enlightenment
Further information: Great Divergence
The quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns was a literary and artistic quarrel that heated up in the early 1690s and shook the Académie française. The opposing two sides were, the Ancients ( Anciens ) who constrain choice of subjects to those drawn from the literature of Antiquity and the Moderns ( Modernes ), who supported the merits of the authors of the century of Louis XIV. Fontenelle quickly followedwith his Digression sur les anciens et les modernes (1688), in which he took the Modern side, pressing the argument that modern scholarship allowed modern man to surpass the ancients in knowledge. 3.2.3
Scientific Revolution
Main article: Scientific Revolution
Traditionally, the European intellectual transformation of and after the Renaissance bridged the Middle Ages and the Modern era. The Age of Reason in the Western world is generally regarded as being the start of modern philosophy,[50] and a departure from the medievalapproach, especially Scholasticism. Early 17th-century philosophy is often called the Age of Rationalism and is considered to succeed Renaissance philosophy and precede the Age of Enlightenment, but some consider it as the earliest part of the Enlightenment era in philosophy, extending that era to two centuries. The 18th century saw the beginning of See also: History of electromagnetism and Science in secularization in Europe, rising to notability in the wake the Age of Enlightenment of the French Revolution. The Age of Enlightenment is a time in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the 18th century in which reason was advocated as the primary source and legitimacy for authority. Enlightenment gained momentum more or less simultaneously in many parts of Europe and America. Developing during the Enlightenment era, Renaissance humanism as an intellectual movement spread across Europe. The basic training of the humanist was to speak well and write (typically, in the form of a letter). The term umanista comes from the latter part of the 15th century. The people were associated with the studia humanitatis , a novel curriculum that was competing with the quadrivium and scholastic logic.[51]
3.2.4
The French Revolutions
Main article: French Revolution Toward the middle and latter stages of the Age of Revolution, the French political and social revolutions and radical change saw the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy transform, changing to forms based on Enlightenment principles of citizenship and inalienable rights. The first revolution led to
6
3
EARLY MODERN PERIOD
government by the National Assembly, the second by the that annexed different states of the Italian peninsula into Legislative Assembly, and the third by the Directory. the single state of Italy in the 19th century. There is a The changes were accompanied by violent turmoil which lack of consensus on the exact dates for the beginning and included the trial and execution of the king, vast blood- the end of this period, but many scholars agree that the shed and repression during the Reign of Terror, and war- process began with the end of Napoleonic rule and the fare involving every other major European power. Sub- Congress of Vienna in 1815, and approximately ended sequent events that can be traced to the Revolution in- with the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, though the last clude the Napoleonic Wars, two separate restorations of città irredente did not join the Kingdom of Italy until after the monarchy, and two additional revolutions as mod- World War I. ern France took shape. In the following century, France would be governed at one point or another as a republic, constitutional monarchy, and two different empires.
3.2.6
End of the early modern period
Toward the end of the early modern period, Europe was National and Legislative Assembly Main articles: dominated by the evolving system of mercantile capitalNational Assembly (French Revolution) and Legislative ism in its trade and the New Economy. European states and politics had the characteristic of Absolutism. The Assembly (France) French power and English revolutions dominated the political scene. There eventually evolved an international During the French Revolution, the National Assembly, balance of power that held at bay a great conflagration which existed from June 17 to July 9 of 1789, was a tran- until years later. sitional body between the Estates-General and the NaThe end date of the early modern period is usually astional Constituent Assembly. sociated with the Industrial Revolution, which began in The Legislative Assembly was the legislature of France Britain in about 1750. Another significant date is 1789, from October 1, 1791 to September 1792. It providedthe the beginning of the French Revolution, which drastically focus of political debate and revolutionary law-making transformed the state of European politics and ushered in between the periods of the National Constituent Assem- the Prince Edward Era and modern Europe. bly and of the National Convention. The Directory and Napoleonic Era
French Directory and Napoleonic Era
Main articles: 3.3
North America
The French and Indian Wars were a series of conflicts in North America that represented the actions there that accompanied the European dynastic wars. In Quebec, the wars are generally referred to as the Intercolonial Wars. While some conflicts involved Spanish and Dutch forces, all pitted Great Britain, its colonies and American Indian allies on one side andFrance, its colonies and Indian allies on the other.
The Executive Directory was a body of five Directors that held executive power in France following the Convention and preceding the Consulate. The period of this regime (2 November 1795 until 10 November 1799), commonly known as theDirectory (orDirectoire)era, constitutes the second to last stage of the French Revolution. Napoleon, before seizing the title of Emperor, was elected as First The expanding French and British colonies were conConsul of the Consulate of France. tending for control of the western, or interior, territories. The Napoleonic Era was centered around the campaigns Whenever theEuropean countries went to war, there were of the French Emperor and General Napoleon Bonaparte. actions within and by these colonies although the dates of Born on Corsica as the French invaded, and dying sus- the conflict did not necessarily exactly coincide with those piciously on the tiny British Island of St. Helena, this of the larger conflicts. brilliant commander, controlled a French Empire that, at its height, ruled a large portion of Europe directly from Beginning the Age of Revolution, the American RevoParis, while many of his friends and family ruled coun- lution and the ensuing political upheaval during the last tries such as Spain, Poland, several parts of Italy and half of the 18th century saw the Thirteen Colonies of many other Kingdoms Republics and dependencies. The North America overthrow the governance of the ParliaNapoleonic Era changed the face of Europe forever, and ment of Great Britain, and then reject the British monarold Empires and Kingdoms fell apart as a result of the chy itself to become thesovereign United States of America. In this period the colonies first rejected the authority mighty and “Glorious” surge of Republicanism. of the Parliament to govern them without representation, and formed self-governing independent states. The Sec3.2.5 Italian unification ond Continental Congress then joined together against the British to defend that self-governance in the armed Italian unification was the political and social movement conflict from 1775 to 1783 known as the American Rev-
7
John Trumbull 's Declaration of Independence , showing the fiveman committee in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia
olutionary War (also called American War of Independence). The American Revolution begun with fighting at Lexington and Concord. On July 4, 1776, they issued the Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed their independence from Great Britain and their formation of a cooperative union. In June 1776, Benjamin Franklin was appointed a member of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Although he was temporarily disabled by gout and unable to attend most meetings of the Committee, Franklin made several small changes to the draft sent to him by Thomas Jefferson. The rebellious states defeated Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War, the first successful colonial war of independence. While the states had already rejected the governance of Parliament, through the Declaration the new United States now rejected the legitimacy of the monarchy to demand allegiance. The war raged for seven years, with effective American victory, followed by formal British abandonment of any claim to the United States with the Treaty of Paris.
North America 1797
with a series of revolutions in the late 18th and earlyto-mid-19th centuries. The Spanish American wars of independence were the numerous wars against Spanish rule in Spanish America that took place during the early 19th century, from 1808 until 1829, directly related to the Napoleonic French invasion of Spain. The conflict started with short-lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing the composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville. When the Central Junta fell to the French, numerous new Juntas appeared all across the Americas, eventually resulting in a chain of newly independent countries stretching from Argentina and Chile in the south, to Mexico in the north. After the death of the king Ferdinand VII, in 1833, only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule, until the Spanish–American War in 1898. Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not divide their colonial territory in America. The captaincies they created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador (later relocated to Rio de Janeiro) which reported directly to the Portuguese Crown until its independence in 1822, becoming the Empire of Brazil.
The Philadelphia Convention set up the current United See also: Latin American wars of independence and States; the United States Constitution ratification the fol- Timeline of the Spanish American wars of independence lowing year made the states part of a single republic with a limited central government. The Bill of Rights, comprising ten constitutional amendments guaranteeing many fundamental civil rights and freedoms, was ratified 4 Late modern period in 1791. 4.1 Modern Age Timeline 3.3.1
Decolonization of North and South Americas
Main articles: Decolonization of the Americas and Spanish American wars of independence The decolonization of the Americas was the process by which the countries in the Americas gained their independence from European rule. Decolonization began
Main article: Timeline of modern history See also: Early modern timeline Dates are approximate range (based upon influence), consult particular article for details
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Modern Age Other
change whereby a human group is transformed from a pre-industrial society into an industrial one. It is a subdivision of a more general modernization process, where 4.2 Industrial revolutions social change and economic development are closely related with technological innovation, particularly with the Main articles: Industrial Revolution and Second Indus- development of large-scale energy and metallurgy protrial Revolution duction. It is the extensive organization of an economy The date of the Industrial Revolution is not exact. Eric for the purpose of manufacturing. Industrialization also introduces a form of philosophical change, where people obtain a different attitude towards their perception of nature. 4.2.2
Revolution in manufacture and power
An economy based on manual labour was replaced by one dominated by industry and the manufacture of machinery. It began with the mechanization of the textile industries and the development of iron-making techniques, and trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads, and then railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacA Watt steam engine. The development of the steam engine turing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production started the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain.[52] The steam capacity. [55] The development of all-metal machine tools engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the them to be deepened beyond groundwater levels. manufacture of more production machines for manufacHobsbawm held that it 'broke out' in the 1780s and was turing in other industries. not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, [53] while T.S. Ash- The modern petroleum industry started in 1846 with ton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 the discovery of the process of refining kerosene from (in effect the reigns of George III, The Regency, and coal by Nova Scotian Abraham Pineo Gesner. Ignacy George IV).[54] The great changes of centuries before the Łukasiewicz improved Gesner’s method to develop a 19th were more connected with ideas, religion or military means of refining kerosene from the more readily availconquest, and technological advance had only made small able “rock oil” (“petr-oleum”) seeps in 1852 and the first rock oil mine was built in Bóbrka, near Krosno in Galicia changes in the material wealth of ordinary people. The first Industrial Revolution merged into the Second In- in the following year. In 1854, Benjamin Silliman, a scidustrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and ence professor at Yale University in New Haven, was the economic progress gained momentum with the develop- first to fractionate petroleum by distillation. These disment of steam-powered ships and railways, and later in coveries rapidly spread around the world. the 19th century with the internal combustion engine and electric power generation. The Second Industrial Revolution was a phase of the Industrial Revolution; labeled as the separate Technical Revolution. From a technological and a social point of view there is no clean break between the two. Major innovations during the period occurred in the chemical, electrical, petroleum, and steel industries. Specific advancements included the introduction of oil fired steam turbine and internal combustion driven steel ships, the development of the airplane, the practical commercialization of the automobile, mass production of consumer goods, the perfection of canning, mechanical refrigeration and other food preservation techniques, and the invention of the telephone. 4.2.1
Industrialization
Industrialization is the process of social and economic
4.2.3
Notable engineers
Engineering achievements of the revolution ranged from electrification to developments in materials science. The advancements made a great contribution to the quality of life. In the first revolution, Lewis Paul was the original inventor of roller spinning, the basis of the water frame for spinning cotton in a cotton mill. Matthew Boulton and James Watt's improvements to thesteam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both the Kingdom of Great Britain and the world. In the latter part of the second revolution, Thomas Alva Edison developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world and is often credited with the creation of the first industrial research laboratory. In 1882, Edison switched on the world’s first large-scale electrical supply network that provided 110 volts direct current to
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Industrial revolutions
the French Revolution of 1848, soon spread to the rest of Europe.[58][59] Although most of the revolutions were quickly put down, there was a significant amount of violence in many areas, with tens of thousands of people tortured and killed. While the immediate political effects of the revolutions were reversed, the long-term reverberations of the events were far-reaching.
Industrial age reform movements began the gradual change of society rather than with episodes of rapid fundamental changes. The reformists’ ideas were often grounded in liberalism, although they also possessed aspects of utopian, socialist or religious concepts. The Radical movement campaigned for electoral reform, a reform of the Poor Laws, free trade, educational reform, postal reform, prison reform, and public sanitation. Industrial age reformism
Following the Enlightenment’s ideas, the reformers looked to the Scientific Revolution and industrial progress to solve the social problems which arose with the IndusNikola Tesla sits in front of the spiral coil of his high-frequency trial Revolution. Newton’s natural philosophy combined transformer at East Houston Street, New York. a mathematics of axiomatic proof with the mechanics of physical observation, yielding a coherent system of verifiable predictions and replacing a previous reliance on revfifty-nine customers in lower Manhattan. Also toward elation and inspired truth. Applied to public life, this apthe end of the second industrial revolution, Nikola Tesla proach yielded several successful campaigns for changes made many contributions in the field of electricity and in social policy. magnetism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 4.2.4
Social effects and classes
The Industrial Revolutions were major technological, socioeconomic, and cultural changes in late 18th and early 19th centuries that began in Britain and spread throughout the world. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting the majority of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous and is often compared to the Neolithic revolution, when mankind developed agriculture and gave up its nomadic lifestyle.[56] It has been argued that GDP per capita was much more stable and progressed at a much slower rate until the industrial revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, and that it has since increased rapidly in capitalist countries.[57] The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout the European continent. Described as a revolutionary wave, the period of unrest began in France and then, further propelled by Mid-19th-century European revolts
4.2.5
Imperial Russia
Main article: Russian Empire Under Peter I (the Great ), Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721 and became recognized as a world power. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War, forcing it to cede West Karelia and Ingria (two regions lost by Russia in the Time of Troubles),[60] as well as Estland and Livland, securing Russia’s access to the sea and sea trade. [61] On the Baltic Sea Peter founded a new capital called Saint Petersburg, later known as Russia’s Window to Europe . Peter the Great’s reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia. Catherine II ( the Great ), who ruled in 1762–96, extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and incorporated most of its territories into Russia during the Partitions of Poland, pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. In the south, after successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia’s boundary to the Black Sea, defeating the Crimean khanate.
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European dominance and the 19th cen- Electricity, steel, and petroleum enabled Germany to become a great international power that raced to create emtury pires of its own. Main articles: 19th century and International relations The Meiji Restoration was a chain of events that led to (1814–1919) enormous changes in Japan’s political and social structure Historians define the 19th century historical era as that was taking a firm hold at the beginning of the Meiji Era which coincided the opening of Japan by the arrival of the Black Ships of Commodore Matthew Perry and made Imperial Japan a great power. 4.3
Russia and Qing Dynasty China failed to keep pace with the other world powers which led to massive social unrest in both empires. The Qing Dynasty’s military power weakened during the 19th century, and faced with international pressure, massive rebellions and defeats in wars, the dynasty declined after the mid-19th century. European powers controlled parts of Oceania, with French New Caledonia from 1853 and French Polynesia from 1889; the Germans established colonies in New stretching from 1815 (the Congress of Vienna) to 1914 Guinea in 1884, and Samoa in 1900. (the outbreak of the First World War); alternatively, Eric Hobsbawm defined the “Long Nineteenth Century” as The United States expanded into the Pacific with Hawaii becoming a U.S. territory from 1898. spanning the years 1789 to 1914. Disagreements between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa led to the Tripartite Convention of 1899. 4.3.1 Imperialism and empires “The World’s Sovereigns”, 1889.
See also: Chronology of colonialism Main article: Imperialism In the 1800s and early 1900s, once great and powerful 4.3.2 British Victorian era Empires such as Spain, Ottoman Turkey, theMughal Empire, and the Kingdom of Portugal began to break apart. Main articles: British Empire and Victorian era Spain, which was at one time unrivaled in Europe, had The Victorian era of the United Kingdom was the pebeen declining for a long time when it was crippled by Napoleon Bonaparte’s invasion. Sensing the time was right, Spain’s vast colonies in South America began a series of rebellions that ended with almost all of the Spanish territories gaining their independence. The once mighty Ottoman Empire was wracked with a series of revolutions, resulting with the Ottoman’s only holding a small region that surrounded the capital, Istanbul. TheMughal empire, which was descendedfrom theMongol Khanate, was bested by the upcoming Maratha Confederacy. All was going well for the Marathas until the British took an interest in the riches of India and the British ended up ruling not just the boundaries of Modern India, but also Pakistan, Burma, Nepal, Bangladesh and some Southern Regions of Afghanistan.
National flag of the United Kingdom.
riod of Queen Victoria's reign from June 1837 to January 1901. This was a long period of prosperity for the British people, as profits gained from the overseas British Empire, as well as from industrial improvements at home, The King of Portugal’s vast territory of Brazil reformed allowed a large, educated middle class to develop. Some into the independent Empire of Brazil. scholars would extend the beginning of the period—as With the defeat of Napoleonic France, Britain became defined by a variety of sensibilities and political games undoubtedly the most powerful country in the world, and that have come to be associated with the Victorians— by the end of the First World War controlled a Quarter of back five years to the passage of the Reform Act 1832. theworld’s population anda third of itssurface. However, In Britain’s “imperial century”, [62] victory over Napoleon the power of the British Empire did not end on land, since left Britain without any serious international rival, other it had the greatest navy on the planet. than Russia in central Asia. Unchallenged at sea, Britain
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European dominance and the 19th century
France.
The British Empire in 1897, marked in the traditional colour for imperial British dominions on maps
Napoleon III and Bismarck after the Battle of Sedan
The Franco-Prussian War was a conflict between France and Prussia, while Prussia was backed up by the North German Confederation, of which it was a member, and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. The complete Prussian and German victory brought about the final unification of Germany under King Wilhelm I of Prussia. It also marked the downfall of Napoleon III and the end of the Second French Empire, which was replaced by the Third Republic. As part of the settlement, almost all of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine was taken by Prussia to become a part of Germany, which it would retain until the end of World War I.
adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica, and a foreign policy of "splendid isolation". Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain’s dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many nominally independent countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been generally characterized as "informal empire".[63] Of note during this time was the Anglo-Zulu War, which was fought in 1879 between the British Empire and the Zulu Empire. The French Third Republic was the republican governBritish imperial strength was underpinned by the ment of France between the end of the Second French steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented Empire following the defeat of Louis-Napoléon in the in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to con- Franco-Prussian war in 1870 and the Vichy Regime aftrol and defend the Empire. By 1902, the British Em- ter the invasion of France by the German Third Reich in pire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, 1940. The Third Republic endured seventy years, makthe so-called All Red Line. Growing until 1922, around ing it the most long-lasting regime in France since the 13,000,000 square miles (34,000,000 km 2 ) of territory collapse of the Ancien Régime in the French Revolution and roughly 458 million people were added to the British of 1789. Empire.[64][65] The British established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and Fiji in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the British Em- 4.3.4 Slavery and abolition pire. Main article: Abolitionism 4.3.3
French governments and conflicts
Slavery was greatly reduced around the world in the 19th century. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, The Bourbon Restoration followed the ousting of Britain forced the Barbary pirates to halt their practice Napoleon I of France in 1814. The Allies restored the of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans, banned slavery Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. The ensuing pe- throughout its domain, and charged its navy with endriod is called the Restoration, following French usage, ing the global slave trade. Slavery was then abolished in and is characterized by a sharp conservative reaction and Russia, America, and Brazil. the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic Church as a power in French politics. The July Monarchy was a period of liberal constitutional monarchy in France under 4.3.5 African colonization King Louis-Philippe starting with the July Revolution (or Three Glorious Days) of 1830 and ending with the Rev- Following the abolition of the slave trade, and propelled olution of 1848. The Second Empire was the Imperial by economic exploitation, the Scramble for Africa was Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, initiated formally at the Berlin West Africa Conference in between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in 1884–1885. All the major European powers laid claim
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to the areas of Africa where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate. The French gained major ground in West Africa, the British in East Africa, and the Portuguese and Spanish at various points throughout the continent, while King Leopold was able to retain his personal fiefdom, Congo.
Akita,[68] William Beasley, James B. Crowley, John W. Dower, Peter Duus, Carol Gluck, Norman Herbert, John W. Hall, Mikiso Hane, Akira Iriye, Marius Jansen, Edwin O. Reischauer, George B. Sansom, Bernard Silberman, Richard Storry, Karel van Wolfram, and Ezra Vogel.[69][70] 4.4
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United States
Meiji Japan
Main article: History of the United States (1865–1918) Around the end of the 19th century and into the 20th Further information: Territorial evolution of North century, the Meiji era was marked by the reign of the America since 1763 Meiji Emperor. During this time, Japan started its mod- See also: Colonial history of the United States and ernization and rose to world power status. This era name American Indian Wars means “Enlightened Rule”. In Japan, the Meiji Restoration started in the 1860s, marking the rapid modernization by the Japanese themselves along European lines. See also: 19th-century North American Natives Much research has focused on the issues of discontinuity versus continuity with the previous Tokugawa Period. [66] In the 1960s younger Japanese scholars led by Irokawa 4.4.1 Antebellum expansion Daikichi, reacted against the bureaucratic superstate, and began searching for the historic role of the common peo- The Antebellum Age was a period of increasing diviple . They avoided the elite, and focused not on political sion in the country based on the growth of slavery in the events but on social forces and attitudes. They rejected American South and in the western territories of Kansas both Marxism and modernization theoryas alien and con- and Nebraska that eventually lead to the Civil War in fining. They stressed the importance of popular energies 1861. The Antebellum Period is often considered to have in the development of modern Japan. They enlarged his- begun with the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, although tory by using the methods of social history.[67] It was not it may have begun as early as 1812. This period is also until thebeginning of the Meiji Era that theJapanese gov- significant because it marked the transition of American ernment began taking modernization seriously. Japan ex- manufacturing to the industrial revolution. panded its military production base by opening arsenals in various locations. The hyobusho (war office) was replaced with a War Department and a Naval Department. The samurai class suffered great disappointment the following years. Laws were instituted that required every able-bodied male Japanese citizen, regardless of class, to serve a mandatory term of three years with the first reserves and two additional years with the second reserves. This action, the deathblow for the samurai warriors and their daimyo feudal lords, initially met resistance from both the peasant and warrior alike. The peasant class interpreted the term for military service, ketsu-eki (blood tax) literally, and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary. The Japanese government began modelling their ground forces after the French military. The French gov- American westward expansion is idealized in Emanuel Leutze's ernment contributed greatly to the training of Japanese famous painting Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way officers. Many were employed at the military academy (1861). in Kyoto, and many more still were feverishly translating "Manifest Destiny" was the territorial expansion of the French field manuals for use in the Japanese ranks. United States from to 1848. Manifest Destiny incorpoAfter the death of the Meiji Emperor, the Taishō Em- rated the belief that the United States was destined, to peror took the throne, thus beginning the Taishō pe- expand across the North American continent, from the riod. A key foreign observer of the remarkable and rapid Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean. During this time, changes in Japanese society in this period was Ernest Ma- the United States expanded to the Pacific Ocean—"from son Satow. sea to shining sea”—largely defining the borders of the Representative Western scholars include George contiguous United States as they are today.
4.5
Science and Philosophy
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See also: American frontier and Territorial changes of absorbed or destroyed most of its competition. the United States The creation of a modern industrial economy took place. With the creation of a transportation and communication infrastructure, the corporation became the dominant form of business organization and a managerial revolu4.4.2 Civil War and Reconstruction tion transformed business operations. In 1890, Congress Main articles: American Civil War and Reconstruction passed the Sherman Antitrust Act—the source of all American anti-monopoly laws. The law forbade every era of the United States contract, scheme, deal, or conspiracy to restrain trade, though the phrase “restraint of trade” remained subjecThe American Civil War came when seven (later eleven) tive. By the beginning of the 20th century, per capita Southern slave states declared their secession from the income and industrial production in the United States exU.S. and formed the Confederate States of America ceeded that of any other country except Britain. Long (the Confederacy). Led by Jefferson Davis, they fought hours and hazardous working conditions led many workagainst the U.S. federal government (the Union) under ers to attempt to form labor unions despite strong oppoPresident Abraham Lincoln, which was supported by all sition from industrialists and the courts. But the courts the free states and the five border slave states in the north. did protect the marketplace, declaring the Standard Oil Northern leaders agreed that victory would require more group to be an “unreasonable” monopoly under the Sherthan the end of fighting. Secession and Confederate na- man Antitrust Act in 1911. It ordered Standard to break tionalism had to be totally repudiated and all forms of up into 34 independent companies with different boards slavery or quasi-slavery had to be eliminated. Lincoln of directors.[71] proved effective in mobilizing support for the war goals, raising large armies and supplying them, avoiding foreign interference, and making the end of slavery a war 4.5 Science and Philosophy goal. The Confederacy had a larger area than it could defend, and it failed to keep its ports open and its rivers Replacing the classical physics in use since the end of the clear. The North kept up the pressure as the South could scientific revolution, modern physics arose in the early [72] barely feed and clothe its soldiers. Its soldiers, especially 20th century with the advent of quantum physics, those in the East under the command of General Robert substituting mathematical studies for experimental studexamining equations to build a theoretical strucE. Lee proved highly resourceful until they finally were ies and [73] The old quantum theory was a collection of ture. overwhelmed by Generals Ulysses S. Grant and William mechanics, but T. Sherman in 1864-65, The Reconstruction Era (1863– results which predate modern quantum [74] 77) began with the Emancipation proclamation in 1863, were never complete or self-consistent. The collection were and included freedom, full citizenship and the vote for of heuristic prescriptions for quantum mechanics [74][75] Outthe Southern blacks. It was followed by a reaction that the first corrections to classical mechanics. side the realm of quantum physics, the various aether left the blacks in a second class status legally, politically, theories in classical physics, which supposed a " fifth elesocially and economically until the 1960s. ment" such as the Luminiferous aether,[76] were nullified by the Michelson-Morley experiment—an attempt to detect the motion of earth through the aether. In biology, 4.4.3 The Gilded Age and legacy Darwinism gained acceptance, promoting the concept of Main article: Gilded Age adaptation in the theory of natural selection. The fields of geology, astronomy and psychology also made strides and During the Gilded Age, there was substantial growth in gained new insights. In medicine, there were advances in population in the United States and extravagant displays medical theory and treatments. of wealth and excess of America’s upper-class during the post-Civil War and post-Reconstruction era, in the late 19th century. The wealth polarization derived primarily from industrial and population expansion. The businessmen of the Second Industrial Revolution created industrial towns and cities in the Northeast with new factories, and contributed to the creation of an ethnically diverse industrial working class which produced the wealth owned by rising super-rich industrialists and financiers called the “robber barons”. An example is the company of John D. Rockefeller, who was an important figure in shaping the new oil industry. Using highly effective tactics and aggressive practices, later widely criticized, Standard Oil
The assertions of Chinese philosophy [77] began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. By the time of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were many calls, such as the May Fourth Movement, to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There were attempts to incorporate democracy, republicanism, and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by Sun Yat-Sen (Sūn yì xiān, in one Mandarin form of the name) at the beginning of the 20th century. Mao Zedong ( Máo zé dōng) added Marxist-Leninist thought. When the Communist Party of China took over power, previous schools of thought, excepting notably Legalism, were denounced as backward,
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lution of the paradox of specific heats, and his connection of fluctuations and dissipation. Despite his reservations about its interpretation, Einstein also made contributions to quantum mechanics and, indirectly, quantum field theory, primarily through his theoretical studies of the photon. 4.5.2
Xinhai Revolution in Shanghai; Chen Qimei organized Shanghainese civilians to start the uprising and was successful. The picture above is Nanjing Road after the uprising, hung with the Five Races Under One Union Flags then used by the revolutionaries.
Social Darwinism
At the end of the 19th century, Social Darwinism was promoted and included the various ideologies based on a concept that competition among all individuals, groups, nations, or ideas was a “natural”framework for social evolution in human societies. In this view, society’s advancement is dependent on the "survival of the fittest", the term was in fact coined by Herbert Spencer and referred to in "The Gospel of Wealth" written by Andrew Carnegie.
and later even purged during the Cultural Revolution. Starting one-hundred years before the 20th century, the 4.5.3 Marxist society enlightenment spiritual philosophy was challenged in various quarters around the1900s.[78][79][80][81][82][83] Developed from earlier secular traditions,[84] modern Humanist ethical philosophies affirmed the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal human qualities, particularly rationality, without resorting to the supernatural or alleged divine authority from religious texts. [85][86] For liberal humanists such as Rousseau and Kant, the universal law of reason guided the way toward total emancipation from any kind of tyranny. These ideas were challenged, for example by the young Karl Marx, who criticized the project of political emancipation (embodied in the form of human rights), asserting it to be symptomatic of the very dehumanization it was supposed to oppose. For Friedrich Nietzsche, humanism was nothing more than a secular version of theism. In his Genealogy of Morals , he argues that human rights exist as a means for the weak to collectively constrain the strong. On this view, such rights do not facilitate emancipation of life, but rather deny it. In the 20th century, the notion that human beings are rationally autonomous was challenged by the concept that humans were driven by unconscious irrational desires. 4.5.1
Notable persons
Sigmund Freud is renowned for his redefinition of sexual desire as the primary motivational energy of human life, as well as his therapeutic techniques, including the use of free association, his theory of transference in the therapeutic relationship, and the interpretation of dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires.
The Communist Manifesto
Albert Einstein is known for his theories of special relativity and general relativity. He also made impor- Karl Marx summarized his approach to history and politant contributions to statistical mechanics, especially his tics in the opening line of the first chapter of The Commathematical treatment of Brownian motion, his reso- munist Manifesto (1848). He wrote:
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The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles .[87]
The Manifesto went through a number of editions from 1872 to 1890; notable new prefaces were written by Marx and Engels for the 1872 German edition, the 1882 Russian edition, the 1883 German edition, and the 1888 English edition. In general, Marxism identified five (and one transitional) successive stages of development in Western Europe.[88]
failures and discontent, the Qing Imperial Court did attempt to reform the government in various ways, such as the decision to draft a constitution in 1906, the establishment of provincial legislatures in 1909, and the preparation for a national parliament in 1910. However, many of these measures were opposed by the conservatives of the Qing Court, and many reformers were either imprisoned or executed outright. The failures of the Imperial Court to enact such reforming measures of political liberalization and modernization caused the reformists to steer toward the road of revolution.
1. Primitive Communism: as seen in cooperative tribal In 1912, the Republic of China was established and Sun Yat-sen was inaugurated in Nanjing as the first societies. Provisional President. But power in Beijing already had 2. Slave Society: which develops when the tribe be- passed to Yuan Shikai, who had effective control of the comes a city-state. Aristocracy is born. Beiyang Army, the most powerful military force in China at the time. To prevent civil war and possible foreign in3. Feudalism: aristocracy is the ruling class. Mertervention from undermining the infant republic, leaders chants develop into capitalists. agreed to Army’s demand that China be united under a 4. Capitalism: capitalists are the ruling class, who cre- Beijing government. On March 10, in Beijing, Shikai was sworn in as the second Provisional President of the ate and employ the true working class. Republic of China. 5. Dictatorship of the proletariat : workers gain class After the early 20th century revolutions, shifting alliances consciousness, overthrow the capitalists and take of China’s regional warlords waged war for control of the control over the state. Beijing government. Despite the fact that various warlords gained control of the government in Beijing during 6. Communism: a classless and stateless society. thewarlordera, this did notconstitute a new eraof control or governance, because other warlords did not acknowl4.6 European decline and the 20th century edge the transitory governments in this period and were a law unto themselves. These military-dominated govMain article: 20th century ernments were collectively known as the Beiyang government. The warlord era ended around 1927. [90] Major political developments saw the former British Empire lose most of its remaining political power over 4.6.3 World Wars era commonwealth countries.[89] The Trans-Siberian Railway, crossing Asia by train, was complete by 1916. Other See also: Timeline of modern history, Timeline of World events include the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, two world War I and Timeline of World War II wars, and the Cold War. 4.6.1
Australian Constitution
In 1901, the Federation of Australia was the process by which the six separate British self-governing colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia formed onenation. They kept the systems of government that they had developed as separate colonies but also would have a federalgovernment that was responsible for matters concerning the whole nation. When the Constitution of Australia came into force, the colonies collectively became states of the Commonwealth of Australia. 4.6.2
Eastern warlords
The last days of the Qing Dynasty were marked by civil unrest and foreign invasions. Responding to these civil
Four years into the 20th century saw the Russo-Japanese War with the Battle of Port Arthur establishing the Empire of Japan as a world power. The Russians were in constant pursuit of a warm water port on the Pacific Ocean, for their navy as well as for maritime trade. The Manchurian Campaign of the Russian Empire was fought against the Japanese over Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of operations were Southern Manchuria, specifically the area around the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden, and the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow Sea. The resulting campaigns, in which the fledgling Japanese military consistently attained victory over the Russian forces arrayed against them, were unexpected by world observers. These victories, as time transpired, would dramatically transform the distribution of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japan’s recent entry onto the world Start of the 20th century
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stage. The embarrassing string of defeats increased Rus- sination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. sian popular dissatisfaction with the inefficient and cor- However, the crisis did not exist in a void; it came after a rupt Tsarist government. long series of diplomatic clashes between the Great PowThe Russian Revolution of 1905 was a wave of mass ers over European and colonial issues in the decade prior political unrest through vast areas of the Russian Em- to 1914 which had left tensions high. The diplomatic pire. Some of it was directed against the govern- clashes can be traced to changes in the balance of power ment, while some was undirected. It included terrorism, in Europe since 1870. An example is the Baghdad Railworker strikes, peasant unrests, and military mutinies. way which was planned to connect the Ottoman Empire It led to the establishment of the limited constitutional cities of Konya and Baghdad with a line through modernmonarchy,[91] the establishment of State Duma of the day Turkey, Syria and Iraq. The railway became a source Russian Empire, and the multi-party system. of international disputes during the years immediately In China, the Qing Dynasty was overthrown following the preceding World War I. Although it has been argued that Xinhai Revolution. The Xinhai Revolution began with they were resolved in 1914 before the war began, it has that the railroad was a cause of the First the Wuchang Uprising on October 10, 1911 and ended also been argued [92] Fundamentally the war was sparked by World War. with the abdication of Emperor Puyi on February 12, 1912. The primary parties to the conflict were the Impe- tensions over territory in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary rial forces of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), andthe rev- competed with Serbia and Russia for territory and influolutionary forces of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance ence in the region and they pulled the rest of the great powers into the conflict through their various alliances (Tongmenghui). and treaties. The Balkan Wars were two wars in Southeastern Europe in 1912–1913 in the course of which the Edwardian Britain The Edwardian era in the United Balkan League (Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece, and SerKingdom is the period spanning the reign of King Ed- bia) first captured Ottoman-held remaining part of Thesward VII up to the end of the First World War, includ- saly, Macedonia, Epirus, Albania and most of Thrace and ing the years surrounding the sinking of the RMS Ti- then fell out over the division of the spoils, with incorpotanic . In the early years of the period, the Second Boer ration of Romania this time. War in South Africa split the country into anti- and prowar factions. The imperial policies of the Conservatives eventually proved unpopular and in the general election of 1906 the Liberals won a huge landslide. The Liberal government was unable to proceed with all of its radical programme without the support of the House of Lords, which was largely Conservative. Conflict between the two Housesof Parliament over the People’s Budget ledtoareduction in the power of the peers in 1910. The general election in January that year returned a hung parliament with the balance of power held by Labour and Irish Na- Various periods ofWorld War I; 1914.07.28 (Tsar Nicholas IIof Russia orders a partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary), tionalist members. World War I
Main article: World War I
The causes of World War I included many factors, including the conflicts and antagonisms of the four decades leading up to the war. The Triple Entente was the name given to the loose alignment between the United Kingdom, France, and Russia after the signing of the AngloRussian Entente in 1907. The alignment of the three powers, supplemented by various agreements with Japan, theUnited States, and Spain, constituted a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance of Germany, AustriaHungary, and Italy, the third having concluded an additional secret agreement with France effectively nullifying her Alliance commitments. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism played major roles in the conflict. Theimmediateorigins of thewar lay in thedecisions taken by statesmen and generals during the July Crisis of 1914, the spark (or casus belli) for which was the assas-
1914.08.01 (Germany declares war on Russia), 1914.08.03 (Germany declares war on Russia’s ally France), 1914.08.04 (Britain declares war on Germany), 1914.12 (British and German Christmas truce), 1915.12 (French and German Christmas truce), 1916.12 (Battle of Magdhaba), 1917.12 (British troops take Jerusalem from the Ottoman Empire), and 1918.11.11 (World War I ends: Germany signs an armistice agreement with the Allies). ---- Allies and Central Powers in the First World War Allied powers and areas Central powers and colonies or occupied territory Neutral countries
The First World War began in 1914 and lasted to the final Armistice in 1918. The Allied Powers, led by the British Empire, France, Russia until March 1918, Japan and the United States after 1917, defeated the Central Powers, led by the German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. The war caused the disintegration of four empires—the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones—as well as radical change in the European and Middle Eastern maps. The
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Allied powers before 1917 are referred to as the Triple Entente, and the Central Powers are referred to as the Triple Alliance. Much of the fighting in World War I took place along the Western Front, within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a "No man’s land") running from the North Sea to the border of Switzerland. On the Eastern Front, the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and—for the first time—from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries’ home fronts on account of food shortages and genocide committed under thecover of various civilwars and internal conflicts. Notably, morepeople died of the worldwide influenza outbreak at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become a pandemic.[93]
National flag of the Soviet Union.
Another action in 1917 that is of note was the armistice signed between Russia and the Central Powers at BrestLitovsk.[95] As a condition for peace, the treaty by the Central Powers conceded huge portions of the former Russian Empire to Imperial Germany and the Ottoman Empire, greatly upsetting nationalists and conservatives. The Bolsheviks made peace with the German Empire and the Central Powers, as they had promised the Russian people prior to the Revolution. Vladimir Lenin’s decision has been attributed to his sponsorship by the foreign office of Wilhelm II, German Emperor, offered bythe latter in hopes that with a revolution, Russia would withdraw Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the from World War I. This suspicion was bolstered by the old world order that had emerged after the Napoleonic German Foreign Ministry’s sponsorship of Lenin’s return Wars, which was modified by the mid-19th century’s to Petrograd. The Western Allies expressed their dismay nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I at the Bolsheviks, upset at: would be important factors in the development of World War II approximately 20 years later. More immedi1. the withdrawal of Russia from the war effort, ate to the time, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was a political event that redrew the political bound2. worried about a possible Russo-German alliance, aries of the Middle East. The huge conglomeration and of territories and peoples formerly ruled by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new 3. galvanized by the prospect of the Bolsheviks making nations.[94] The partitioning brought the creation of the good their threats to assume no responsibility for, modern Arab world and the Republic of Turkey. The and so default on, Imperial Russia’s massive foreign League of Nations granted France mandates over Syria loans.[96] and Lebanon and granted the United Kingdom mandates over Mesopotamia and Palestine (which was later divided In addition, there was a concern, shared by many Central into two regions: Palestine and Transjordan). Parts of the Powers as well, that the socialist revolutionary ideas Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula became parts would spread to theWest. Hence, many of these countries of what are today Saudi Arabia and Yemen. expressed their support for the Whites, including the provision of troopsand supplies. Winston Churchill declared that Bolshevism must be “strangled in its cradle”. [97] Main articles: Russian Revolution (1917) and Russian Civil War The Russian Revolution is the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. Following the abdication of Nicholas II of Russia, the Russian Provisional Government was established. In October 1917, a red faction revolution occurred in which the Red Guard, armed groups of workers and deserting soldiers directed by the Bolshevik Party, seized control of Saint Petersburg (then known as Petrograd) and began an immediate armed takeover of cities and villages throughout the former Russian Empire. Revolutions and war
The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed and the Soviets under the domination of the Bolshevik party assumed power, first in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) and then in other places. In the wake of the October Revolution, the old Russian Imperial Army had been demobilized; the volunteer-based Red Guard was the Bolsheviks’ main military force, augmented by an armed military component of the Cheka, the Bolshevik state security apparatus. There was an instituted mandatory conscription of the rural peasantry into the Red Army. [98] Opposition of rural Russians to Red Army conscription
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units was overcome by taking hostages and shooting them when necessary in order to force compliance. [99] Former Tsarist officers were utilized as “military specialists” (voenspetsy),[100] taking their families hostage in order to ensure loyalty. [101] At the start of the war, threefourths of the Red Army officer corps was composed of former Tsarist officers.[101] By its end, 83% of all Red Army divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers. [102] The principal fighting occurred between the Bolshevik Red Army and the forces of the White Army. Many foreign armies warred against the Red Army, notably the Allied Forces, yet many volunteer foreigners fought in both sides of the Russian Civil War. Other nationalist and regional political groups also participated in the war, including the Ukrainian nationalist Green Army, the Ukrainian anarchist Black Army and Black Guards, and warlords such as Ungern von Sternberg. The most intense fighting took place from 1918 to 1920. Major military operations ended on 25 October 1922 when the Red Army occupied Vladivostok, previously held by the Provisional Priamur Government. The last enclave of the White Forces was the Ayano-Maysky District on the Pacific coast. The majority of the fighting ended in 1920 with the defeat of General Pyotr Wrangel in the Crimea, but a notable resistance in certain areas continued until 1923 (e.g., Kronstadt Uprising, Tambov Rebellion, Basmachi Revolt, and the final resistance of the White movement in the Far East). In 1917, China declared war on Germany in the hope of recovering its lost province, then under Japanese control. The New Culture Movement occupied the period from 1917 to 1923. Chinese representatives refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, due to intense pressure from the student protesters and public opinion alike. The May Fourth Movement helped to rekindle the thenfading cause of republican revolution. In 1917 Sun Yatsen had become commander-in-chief of a rival military government in Guangzhou in collaboration with southern warlords. Sun’s efforts to obtain aid from the Western democracies were ignored, however, and in 1920 he turned to the Soviet Union, which had recently achieved its own revolution. The Soviets sought to befriend the Chinese revolutionists by offering scathing attacks on Western imperialism. But for political expediency, the Soviet leadership initiated a dual policy of support for both Sun and the newly established Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
The flag of the Kuomintang , one canton of the flag of the Republic of China.
work for the Comintern). In early 1927, the Kuomintang-CCP rivalry led to a split in the revolutionary ranks. The CCP and the left wing of the Kuomintang had decided to move the seat of the Nationalist government from Guangzhou to Wuhan. But Chiang Kai-shek, whose Northern Expedition was proving successful, set his forces to destroying the Shanghai CCP apparatus and established an anti-Communist government at Nanjing in April 1927. Main articles: Interwar period, Roaring Twenties and Great Depression The 1920s and the Depression
The interwar period was the period between the end of the First World War and the beginning of the Second World War. This period was marked by turmoil in much of theworld, as Europe struggled to recover from thedevastation of the First World War. In North America, especially the first half of this period, people experienced considerable prosperity in the Roaring Twenties. The social and societal upheaval known as the Roaring Twenties began in North America and spread to Europe in the aftermath of World War I. The Roaring Twenties , often called "The Jazz Age", saw an exposition of social, artistic, and cultural dynamism. 'Normalcy' returned to politics, jazzmusic blossomed, the flapper redefined modern womanhood, Art Deco peaked. The spirit of the Roaring Twenties was marked by a general feeling of discontinuity associated with modernity, a break with traditions. Everything seemed to be feasible through modern technology. New technologies, especially automobiles, movies and radio proliferated 'modernity' to a large part of the population. The 1920s saw the general favor of practicality, in architecture as well as in daily life. The 1920s was further distinguished by several inventions and discoveries, extensive industrial growth and the rise in consumer demand and aspirations, and significant changes in lifestyle.
The policy of working with the Kuomintang and Chiang Kai-shek had been recommended by the Dutch Communist Henk Sneevliet, chosen in 1923 to be the Comintern representative in China due to his revolutionary experience in the Dutch Indies, where he had a major role in founding the Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI) - and who felt that the Chinese party was too small and weak to undertake a major effort on its own (see Henk Sneevliet’s Europe spent these years rebuilding and coming to terms with the vast human cost of the conflict. The econ-
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America’s Great Depression ended in 1941 with America’s entry into World War II. [110] The majority of countries set up relief programs, and most underwent some sort of political upheaval, pushing them to theleft or right. In some world states, the desperate citizens turned toward nationalist demagogues—the most infamous being Adolf Hitler—setting the stage for the next era of war. The convulsion brought on by the worldwide depression resulted in the rise of Nazism. In Asia, Japan became an ever more assertive power, especially with regards to China.
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Main article: Nanjing decade The “Nanjing Decade” of 1928-37 was one of con-
Nanjing period
Europe between 1920 and 1938.
omyof the United States became increasingly intertwined with that of Europe. In Germany, the Weimar Republic gave way to episodes of political and economic turmoil, which culminated with the German hyperinflation of 1923 and the failed Beer Hall Putsch of that same year. When Germany could no longer afford war payments, Wall Street invested heavily in European debts to keep the European economy afloat as a large consumer market for American mass-produced goods. By the middle of the decade, economic development soared in Europe, and the Roaring Twenties broke out in Germany, Britain and France, the second half of the decade becoming known as the "Golden Twenties". In France and francophone Canada, they were also called the " années folles " (“Crazy Years”).[103] Worldwide prosperity changed dramatically with the onset of the Great Depression in 1929. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 served to punctuate the end of the previous era, as The Great Depression set in. The Great De pression was a worldwide economic downturn starting in most places in 1929 and ending at different times in the 1930s or early 1940s for different countries. [104] It was the largest and most important economic depression in the 20th century, and is used in the 21st century as an example of how far the world’s economy can fall. [105] The depression had devastating effects in virtually every country, rich or poor. International trade plunged by half to two-thirds, as did personal income, tax revenue, prices and profits. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially those dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by roughly 60 percent.[106][107][108] Facing plummeting demand with few alternatesources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries suffered the most. The Great Depression ended at different times in different countries with the effect lasting into the next era.[109]
With Sino-German cooperation until 1941 , Chinese industry and military was improved just prior to the war against Japan.
solidation and accomplishment under the leadership of the Nationalists, with a mixed but generally positive record in the economy, social progress, development of democracy, and cultural creativity. Some of the harsh aspects of foreign concessions and privileges in China were moderated through diplomacy. See also: Sino-German cooperation until 1941, National Resources Commission and Chinese Civil War
The interwar period was also marked by a radical change in the international order, away from the balance of power that had dominated pre– World War I Europe. One main institution that was meant to bring stability was the League of Nations, which was created after the First World War with the intention of maintaining world security and peace and encouraging economic growth between member countries. The League was undermined by the bellicosity of Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, the Soviet Union, and Mussolini’s Italy, and by the non-participation of the United States, leading many to question its effectiveness and legitimacy. The League and crises
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A series of international crises strained the League to its limits, the earliest being the invasion of Manchuria by Japan and the Abyssinian crisis of 1935/36 in which Italy invaded Abyssinia, one of the only free African nations at that time. The League tried to enforce economic sanctions upon Italy, but to no avail. The incident highlighted French and British weakness, exemplified by their reluctance to alienate Italy and lose her as their ally. The limited actions taken by the Western powers pushed Mussolini’s Italy towards alliance with Hitler’s Germany anyway. The Abyssinian war showed Hitler how weak the League was and encouraged the remilitarization of the National flag of the Third Reich (Nazi Germany). Rhineland in flagrant disregard of the Treaty of Versailles. This was the first in a series of provocative acts culminating in the invasion of Poland in September 1939 war in history, culminating in the Holocaust and ending and the beginning of the Second World War. with the dropping of the atom bomb. Few Chinese had any illusions about Japanese designs on Even though Japan had been fighting in China since 1937, China. Hungry for raw materials and pressed by a grow- the conventional view is that the war began on Septeming population, Japan initiated the seizure of Manchuria ber 1, 1939, when Nazi Germany invaded Poland, the in September 1931 and established ex-Qing emperor Drang nach Osten. Within two days the United Kingdom Puyi as head of the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932. and France declared war on Germany, even though the During the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), the loss of fighting was confined to Poland. Pursuant to a then-secret Manchuria, and its vast potential for industrial devel- provision of its non-aggression Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, opment and war industries, was a blow to the Kuom- the Soviet Union joined with Germany on September 17, intang economy. The League of Nations, established at 1939, to conquer Poland and to divide Eastern Europe. the end of World War I, was unable to act in the face of the Japanese defiance. After 1940, conflicts between The Allies were initially made up of Poland, the United the Kuomintang and Communists became more frequent Kingdom, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, in the areas not under Japanese control. The Com- South Africa, as well as British Commonwealth counmunists expanded their influence wherever opportunities tries which were controlled directly by the UK, such as presented themselves through mass organizations, admin- the Indian Empire. All of these countries declared war istrative reforms, and the land- and tax-reform measures on Germany in September 1939. favoring the peasants—while the Kuomintang attempted Following thelull in fighting, known as the"Phoney War", to neutralize the spread of Communist influence. Germany invaded western Europe in May 1940. Six weeks later, France, in the mean time attacked by Italy as well, surrendered to Germany, which then tried unTripartite Pact The Second Sino-Japanese War had successfully to conquer Britain. On September 27, Gerseen tensions rise between Imperial Japan and the United many, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense agreeStates; events such as the Panay incident and the Nanking ment, the Tripartite Pact, and were known as the Axis Massacre turned American public opinion against Japan. Powers. With the occupation of French Indochina in the years of 1940–41, and with the continuing war in China, the United States placed embargoes on Japan of strategic materials such as scrap metal and oil, which were vitally needed for the war effort. The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource-rich, European-controlled colonies of South East Asia—specifically British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia). In 1940, Imperial Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. World War II
Main article: World War II
Ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy.
The Second World War was a global military conflict that Nine months later, on June 22, 1941, Germany launched took place in 1939–1945. It was the largest and deadliest a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, which promptly
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joined the Allies. Germany was now engaged in fighting a war on two fronts. This proved to be a mistake by Germany - Germany had not successfully carried out the invasion of Britain and the war turned against the Axis. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor, bringing it too into the war on the Allied side. China also joined the Allies, as eventually did most of the rest of the world. China was in turmoil at the time, and attacked Japanese armies through guerilla-type warfare. By the beginning of 1942, the major combatants were aligned as follows: the British Commonwealth, the United States, and the Soviet Union were fighting Germany and Italy; and the British Commonwealth, China, and the United States were fighting Japan. The United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union and China were referred as a “trusteeship of the powerful” during the World War II [111] and were recognized as the Allied “Big Four” in Declaration by United Nations [112] These four countries were considered as the "Four Policemen" or “Four Sheriffs” of theAllies power and primary victors of World War II.[113] From then through August 1945, battles raged across all of Europe, in the North Atlantic Ocean, across North Africa, throughout Southeast Asia, throughout China, across the Pacific Ocean and in the air over Japan.
the deliberate and systematic murder of millions of Jews and other “unwanted” during World War II by the Nazi regime in Germany. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war’s beginning, or if the plans for it came about later. Regardless, persecution of Jews extended well before the war even started, such as in the Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass). The Nazis used propaganda to great effect to stir up anti-Semitic feelings within ordinary Germans. After World War II, Europe was informally split into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Western Europe later aligned as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Eastern Europe as the Warsaw Pact. There was a shift in power from Western Europe and the British Empire to the two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. These two rivals would later face off in the Cold War. In Asia, the defeat of Japan led to its democratization. China’s civil war continued through and after the war, resulting eventually in the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. The former colonies of the European powers began their road to independence. 4.6.4
Post-1945 world
Italy surrendered in September 1943 and was split into a northern Germany-occupied puppet state and an Alliesfriendly state in the South; Germany surrendered in May 1945. Following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered, marking the end of the war on September 2, 1945. It is possible that around 62 million people died in the war; estimates vary greatly. About 60% of all casualties were civilians, who died as a result of disease, starvation, genocide (in particular, the Holocaust), and aerial bombing. The former Soviet Union and China suffered the most casualties. Estimates place deaths in the Soviet Union at around 23 million, while China suffered about 10 million. No country lost a greater portion of its population than Poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16%, of its pre-war population of 34.8 million died. The Earth seen from Apollo 17. The second half of the 20th century saw an increase of interest in both space exploration and the environmental movement .
The mid-20th century is distinguished from most of human history in that its most significant changes were directly or indirectly economic and technological in nature. Economic development was the force behind vast changes in everyday life, to a degree which was unprecedented in human history. Flag of the Italian Empire.
The Holocaust (which roughly means “burnt whole”) was
Over the course of the 20th century, the world’s percapita gross domestic product grew by a factor of five,[114] much more than all earlier centuries combined (including the 19th with its Industrial Revolution). Many
22 economists make the case that this understates the magnitude of growth, as many of the goods and services consumed at the end of the 20th century, such as improved medicine (causing world life expectancy to increase by more than two decades) and communications technologies, were not available at any price at itsbeginning. However, the gulf between the world’s rich and poor grew wider,[115] and the majority of the global population remained in the poor side of the divide.[116] Still, advancing technology and medicine has had a great impact even in the Global South. Large-scale industry and more centralized media made brutal dictatorships possible on an unprecedented scale in the middle of the century, leading to wars that were also unprecedented. However, the increased communications contributed to democratization. Technological developments included the development of airplanes and space exploration, nuclear technology, advancement in genetics, and the dawning of the Information Age. Main article: Pax Americana Pax Americana is an appellation applied to the historical
American Peace
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Borders of NATO (blue) and Warsaw Pact (red) states during the Cold war era.
The Soviet Union created the Eastern Bloc of countries that it occupied, annexing some as Soviet Socialist Republics and maintaining others as satellite states that would later form the Warsaw Pact. The United States and various western European countries began a policy of "containment" of communism and forged myriad alliances to this end, including NATO. Several of these western countries also coordinated efforts regarding the rebuilding of western Europe, including western Germany, which the Soviets opposed. In other regions of the world, such as Latin America and Southeast Asia, the Soviet Union fostered communist revolutionary movements, which the United States and many of its allies opposed and, in some cases, attempted to " roll back". Many countries were prompted to align themselves with the nations that would later form either NATO or the Warsaw Pact, though other movements would also emerge.
The Cold War saw periods of both heightened tension and relative calm. International crises arose, such as the Berlin Blockade (1948–1949), the Korean War (1950– 1953), the Berlin Crisis of 1961, the Vietnam War (1959–1975), the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), the Soviet war in Afghanistan (1979–1989) and NATO exercises in November 1983. There were also periods of reduced tension as both sides sought détente. Direct military attacks National flag of the United States. on adversaries were deterred by the potential for mutual assured destruction using deliverable nuclear weapons. In concept of relative liberal peace in the Western world, the Cold War era, the Generation of Love and the rise resulting from the preponderance of power enjoyed by the of computers changed society in very different, complex United States of America starting around the start of the ways, including higher social and local mobility. 20th century. Although the term finds its primary utility in the latter half of the 20th century, it has been used in The Cold War drew to a close in the late 1980s and the various places and eras. Its modern connotations concern early 1990s. The United States under President Ronald the peace established after the end of World War II in Reagan increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressure on the Soviet Union, which was already suffering 1945. from severe economic stagnation. In the second half of For more details on this topic, see American Century. the 1980s, newly appointed Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the perestroika and glasnost reforms. The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, leaving the United States as the dominant military power, though Russia reCold War era Main article: Cold War tained much of the massive Soviet nuclear arsenal. The Cold War began in the mid-1940s and lasted into the early 1990s. Throughout this period, the conflict was expressed through military coalitions, espionage, weapons development, invasions, propaganda, and competitive technological development. The conflict included costly defense spending, a massive conventional and nuclear arms race, and numerous proxy wars; the two superpowers never fought one another directly.
In Latin America in the 1970s, leftists acquired a significant political influence which prompted the right-wing, ecclesiastical authorities and a large portion of the individual country’s upper class to support coup d'états to avoid what they perceived as a communist threat. This was further fueled by Cuban and United States intervention which led to a political Latin America polarization
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polarization. Most South American countries were in some periods ruled by military dictatorships that were supported by the United States of America. Around the 1970s, the regimes of the Southern Cone collaborated in Operation Condor killing many leftist dissidents, including some urban guerrillas.[117] However, by the early 1990s all countries had restored their democracies.
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Contemporary era
Main article: Contemporary history In the Contemporary era, there were various sociotechnological trends. Regarding the 21st century and the late modern world, the Information age and computers were forefront in use, not completely ubiquitous but often present in daily life. The development of Eastern powers was of note, with China and India becoming more powerful. In the Eurasian theater, the European Union and Russian Federation were two forces recently developed. A concern for Western world, if not the whole world, was thelate modernform of terrorism andthe warfarethat has resulted from the contemporary terrorist acts.
5
Modern history education and schools
The humanities are academic disciplines which study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytic, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural and social sciences. Although many of the subjects of modern history coincide with that of standard history, the subject is taught independently by various systems of education in the world. This high-resolution image of the Hubble Ultra Deep Field includes galaxies of various ages, sizes, shapes, and colors. The smallest, reddest galaxies, are some of the most distant galaxies to have been imaged by an optical telescope
5.1
British education
Students can choose the subject at university. The material covered includes from the mid-18th century, to analysis of the present day. Virtually all colleges and sixth Space Age The Space Age is a period encompassing forms that do teach modern history do it alongside stantheactivities related to the Space Race, space exploration, dard history; very few teach the subject exclusively. space technology, and the cultural developments influenced by these events. The Space Age began with the development of several technologies that culminated with 5.2 Universities the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union. This was the world’s first artificial satellite, orbiting the Earth in At the Universityof Oxford 'Modern History' has a some98.1 minutes and weighing in at 83 kg. The launch of what different meaning. The contrast is not with the MidSputnik 1 ushered a new era of political, scientific and dle Ages but with Antiquity. The earliest period that can technological achievements that became known as the be studied in the Final Honour School of Modern History Space Age. The Space Age was characterized by rapid begins in 285. [118] development of new technology in a close race mostly between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Space Age brought the first human spaceflight during the Vostok programme and reached its peak with the Apollo 6 See also program which captured the imagination of much of the world’s population. The landing of Apollo 11 was an List of World Map changes event watched by over 500 million people around the world and is widely recognized as one of the defining moHistory of modern literature ments of the 20th century. Since then and with the end of the space race due to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Modernism Framework: Premodernity, public attention has largely moved to other areas. Modernism, Postmodernism •
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Boyd, Andrew, Joshua Comenetz. An atlas of world affairs . Routledge, 2007. ISBN 0-415-39169-5
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Palat, Madhavan K., History of Civilizations of Central Asia, ed. , vol. 6, Towards the Contemporary Period: From The Mid-Nineteenth Century To The End Of The Twentieth Century, UNESCO, Paris 2005. Robinson, James Harvey, and Charles Austin Beard. Readings in Modern European History; A Collection of Extracts from the Sources Chosen with the Purpose of Illustrating Some of the Chief Phases of Development of Europe During the Last Two Hundred Years .
Black, Edwin. Internal Combustion: How Corporations and Governments Addicted the World to Oil and Derailed the Alternatives . New York: St. Martin’s
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REFERENCES
Boston: Ginn & Co, 1908. Briggs, Asa, andPeterBurke. A Social History of the Media: From Gutenberg to the Internet . Cambridge: Polity, 2002. 8 References Barzun, Jacques. From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life : 1500 to the Present . General information New York: HarperCollins, 2001. Books
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Footnotes
[1] Intrinsic to the English language, “modern” denotes (in reference to history) a period that is opposed to either ancient or medieval—modern history comprising the history of the world since the close of the Middle Ages. [2] The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, Page 3814 [3] Dunan, Marcel. Larousse Encyclopedia of Modern History, From 1500 to the Present Day. New York: Harper & Row, 1964. [4] modern. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
25 [5] Tirosh-Samuelson, H. (2003). Happiness in premodern [27] Contemporary history of the world by Edwin Augustus Grosvenor Judaism: Virtue, knowledge, and well-being . Monographs of the Hebrew Union College, no. 29. Cincinnati, Ohio: [28] A summary of modern history by Jules Michelet, Mary Hebrew Union College Press. Charlotte Mair Simpson [6] Nation, civil society and social movements: essays in polit[29] Crawley, C. W. (1965). The new Cambridge modern hisical sociology by T. K. Oommen. Page 236. tory. Volume 9., War and peace in an age of upheaval, [7] Premodern Japan: a historical survey by Mikiso Hane 1793–1830. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [8] Griffin, D. R. (1990). Sacred interconnections: Postmod- [30] Goldman, E. O., & Eliason, L. C. (2003). The diffusion of ern spirituality, political economy, and art . SUNY series military technology and ideas. Stanford, Calif: Stanford in constructive postmodern thought. Albany: State UniUniversity Press. versity of New York Press. [31] Boot, M. (2006). War made new: Technology, warfare, [9] Maine, H. S., & Dwight, T. W. (1888). Ancient law: Its and the course of history, 1500 to today. New York: connection with the early history of society and its relation Gotham Books. to modern ideas . New York: H. Holt and Co. [32] Bloy, Marjie (30 April 2002). “The Congress of Vienna, [10] Boylan, P. (1922). Thoth, the Hermes of Egypt: A study of 1 November 1814 – 8 June 1815”. The Victorian Web. some aspects of theological thought in ancient Egypt . LonRetrieved 2009-01-09. don: H. Milford, Oxford university press [33] Hazen, Charles Downer (1910). Europe since 1815. [11] Fordyce, J. (1888). The new social order . London: Kegan American historical series, H. Holt and Company. Paul, Trench & Co. [34] Duruy, V., & Grosvenor, E. A. (1894). History of mod[12] Lectures on the Early History of Institutions ern times: From the fall of Constantinople to the French revolution. New York: H. Holt and company. [13] Baird, F. E., & Kaufmann, W. A. (2008). Philosophic classics: From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, N.J: [35] Johnson, P. (2001). Modern times: The world from the Pearson/Prentice Hall. twenties to the nineties . New York: HarperPerennial. [14] New Dictionary of the History of ideas , Volume 5, Detroit [36] Martín Lister, New media: a critical introduction. Psy2005. Modernism and Modern chology Press, 2003. Page 14 [15] Islamic Culture and the Medical Arts: Late Medieval and [37] Taylor, Alan (2001). American Colonies . New York: PenEarly Modern Medicine guin Books. ISBN 9780142002100. [16] National, cultural, and ethnic identities: harmony beyond [38] “Ottoman Empire”. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Reconflict by Jaroslav Hroch, David Hollan trieved 2013-02-11. [17] Capitalism and modernity: the great debate by Jack Goody [39] R. Keith Schoppa (2000). The Columbia Guide to Modern [18] Progress and its discontents American Academy of Arts Chinese History. Columbia University Press. p. 15. and Sciences. "Technology and politics.” Western Center [40] or early-modern [19] A companion to the philosophy of technology by Jan-Kyrre Berg Olsen, Stig Andur Pedersen, Vincent F. Hendricks [41] “The Mughal Empire”
[20] Marx, Durkheim, Weber: formations of modern social [42] “Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s)". bbc.co.uk . London: BBC. Section 5: Aurangzeb. Retrieved 18 October 2010. thought by Kenneth L. Morrison. Page 294. [21] William Schweiker, The Blackwell companion to religious ethics . 2005. Page 454. (cf., “In modernity, however, much of economic activity and theory seemed to be entirely cut off from religious and ethical norms, at least in traditional terms. Many see modern economic developments as entirely secular.”) [22] Early European History by Henry Kitchell Webster [23] The European Reformations by Carter Lindberg
[43] Bose & Jalal 2003, p. 76 [44] Brown 1994, p. 46, Peers 2006, p. 30 [45] Metcalf Metcalf, p. 56 [46] “Official, India”. World Digital Library. 1890–1923. Retrieved 2013-05-30. [47] Commercial agriculture, mining and an export based economy developed rapidly during this period.
[24] The new Cambridge modern history: Companion volume [48] Helen Miller, Aubrey Newman. Early modern British hisby Peter Burke tory, 1485–1760: a select bibliography, Historical Association, 1970 [25] Plains Indian History and Culture: Essays on Continuity and Change by John C. Ewers [49] Early Modern Period (1485-1800), Sites Organized by Pe[26] Weber, irrationality, and social order by Alan Sica riod, Rutgers University Libraries
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External links
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Vistorica - Timelines of European modern history Journal of Contemporary History .
SAGE Publications. ISSN 1461-7250 (Print ISSN 0022-0094)
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