Macpherson - English for Writers and Translators

E N G L IS H for W R IT IT E R S and T RA N SLA TO R S Robin Macpherson

WYDAWNICTWO NAUKOWE PWN WARSZAWA 2007

Projekt okładki i stron tytułowych Maryna Wiśniewska Redaktor Barbara Wewiór Redaktor techniczny Leonard Zieliński

Table of Contents Preface

Copyright © by Robin Macpherson Warszawa 1996

ISBN 978-83-01-11864-8 978-83-01-11864-8

Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN SA 00-251 Warszawa, ul. Miodowa 10 teł. 022 69 54 321 faks 022 69 54 031 e-mail: [email protected] www.pwn.pl

Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN SA Wydanie IV - 3 dodruk Arkuszy drukarskich 15,0 Druk ukończono w październiku 2007 r. Druk i oprawa: Drukarnia WERS DESIGN Sp. z o.o.

Part One Paragraphing ‘Brainstorming’ and Ordering Mater ial The First Paragraph Substantiating Substantiating the Argument Preserving Clarity Na rra tiv e

7

9 13 21 24 30 34

Part Two Coordination Left- and Right-H ande d Sentences Emphasis Comparison and Con trast Cause and Effect Qualification and Concession Discourse Marke rs Word-Order Punctuation

41 45 64 78 83 97 104 113 132

Part Three Style and Regis ter Words of Latin Origin Foreign Borrowings Words and Expressions Best Avoided Confusing Words Collocations

149 151 151 162 162 168 168 174 174 183 5

Projekt okładki i stron tytułowych Maryna Wiśniewska Redaktor Barbara Wewiór Redaktor techniczny Leonard Zieliński

Table of Contents Preface

Copyright © by Robin Macpherson Warszawa 1996

ISBN 978-83-01-11864-8 978-83-01-11864-8

Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN SA 00-251 Warszawa, ul. Miodowa 10 teł. 022 69 54 321 faks 022 69 54 031 e-mail: [email protected] www.pwn.pl

Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN SA Wydanie IV - 3 dodruk Arkuszy drukarskich 15,0 Druk ukończono w październiku 2007 r. Druk i oprawa: Drukarnia WERS DESIGN Sp. z o.o.

Part One Paragraphing ‘Brainstorming’ and Ordering Mater ial The First Paragraph Substantiating Substantiating the Argument Preserving Clarity Na rra tiv e

7

9 13 21 24 30 34

Part Two Coordination Left- and Right-H ande d Sentences Emphasis Comparison and Con trast Cause and Effect Qualification and Concession Discourse Marke rs Word-Order Punctuation

41 45 64 78 83 97 104 113 132

Part Three Style and Regis ter Words of Latin Origin Foreign Borrowings Words and Expressions Best Avoided Confusing Words Collocations

149 151 151 162 162 168 168 174 174 183 5

Capital Letters Italics The) The Article (A/A n/ The)

184 184 186 187

Appendix A: Verb Complements:Infinitive Complements:Infinitive orGerund? orGerund?

206

Appendix B: A Few RecurrentErrors RecurrentErrors ofLanguage of Language

219

Appendix C: Spelling

222

Key to the Exercises

225

Preface This book aims to give practical and detailed guidance to foreign learners of British English who are interested in writing the language at an advanced level, whether they be students, scholars, translators, or in some other way professional writers. It is organised into three pa rts, the first deal ing with the wo rk as a who le an d with ways of organising the material; the second and third are largely concerned with style — the second on the level of sentence-structure, and the third on the level of individual words. Wherever possible exercises have been provided, since they are generally indispensable for any mastery of the material. In certain crucial sections the exercises are very extensive, in the hope that teachers will then reinforce and consolidate the material in successive classes. A key to the exercises will be found at the back of the book. The great majority of examples and exercises are based on a wide variety of “authentic” sources — fiction, magazines, western radio stations — and every effort has been made to select ones that are as colourful and as arresting as possible, not least in order to facilitate memorisation. The learning of a foreign language is a voyage over an endless ocean, and those people who have lived in an English-speaking country for a long time naturally enjoy a great advantage over others. No handbook can be a substitute for such exposure to the language; those who wish to write English in contexts other than college essays or private correspondence should generally try to have a native speaker check it for errors of language, above all for mistakes with tenses, articles, and word-order. However, such an observation does not exclude the possibility of attaining a broad mastery of the subject. 7

PART ONE

Finally, I would like to thank my students for granting me the per mi ssio n to dra w on the ir wo rk for a few of my exam ples. Many paths exist to learning to write good English, ones which are often very different from those described below. below. This b ook is addressed addressed especially to those people who have so far been unlucky.

Paragraphing

Gdańsk, 1995

In most written English the paragraph is of crucial importance, since that which the writer is trying to say is essentially conveyed by a good ordering of paragraphs. Generally speaking, any prose which lacks regular paragraphs deters potential readers. There is great freedom as regards length, though anything between 50 and 150 words might be considered optimal. Prose which is divided up into one-sentence paragraphs is often felt to be slovenly or in bad taste, especially when the aim of the writer is to ‘create an effect’. Here is a typical example of such writing:

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The war in Vietnam lasted nearly forty years and was one of the biggest wars of liberation this century. The Vietnamese people displayed the highest degree of heroism, endurance and patriotism. The war ended in defeat for the foreign aggressor. But Vietnam paid a high price for the victory. It is still paying. One tenth of the population died in the war. The killed, killed, the butchered, and the napalmed go by the name of “the martyred”.

Such paragraphing is generally alien to English. English idiom would be more likely likely to reduce the text to two paragrap hs, w ith the sec ond one perhaps beginning with the sentence The war ended in defeat fo r the foreign aggressor (1. 4). Before we examine the mechanics of paragraph-writing, it is worthwhile to examine some prose where the paragraphs have been om itte d. Wh ere sho uld pa rag rap hs be pla ced in the follo win g passag e? The history of Britain spans many centuries, and its origins are lost in the mists of time. In its earliest phase Britain was linked to Europe by a land-bridge, and it was only gradually that Britain became an island, perhaps around 5000 5000 B.C. B.C. The earliest known inhabitants of Britain 9

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were Paleolithic hunters , who have left little behind on the physical landscape except cave-dwellings and a few primitive earthworks and barrows. Gradually, however, however, perhaps around 4000 4000 B.C., B.C., farming — agriculture and pastoralism — was introduced into Britain, Britain, and the Neolithic peoples who practised it have left behind far more in the way of artefacts artefacts and above all standing standing stones, stones, barrows and tumuli, which which 10 marked out ancestral claims to property. There were also enclosures, which were centres of ritual and seasonal tribal feasting. From them developed, late in the third millennium, more clearly ceremonial ditch-enclosed earthworks known as henge monuments, some of them 15 of great size. size. Thus British Neolithic culture developed its own own in dividuality. One very distinctive ethnic group that settled in Britain in Neolithic times was a curly black-haired type whose descendants are to be found in parts of Wales and Cornwall, and whose counterparts may be sought in northe rn Spain. Spain. The next wave o f settlers settlers (arriving around 20 2300 B.C., and the first to leave behind some truly impressive ar chaeological remains) is the mysterious Beaker Folk, a Late-Neolithic and Early-Bronze Age people that extended over much of western Europe some 4000 years ago and was responsible for the transformation of Stonehenge, Britain’s most important historic site. Magnificent 25 though thou gh this structure struct ure is, is, not least from the technical viewpoint, its exact function is shrouded in mystery, as are the origins of the builders. The Beaker Folk are identifiable mainly because of the metallurgy that they introduced and their practice of burying their dead in individual individual graves, graves, often with the “ beakers” beake rs” . The next settlers were mainly Celts, Celts, who 30 colonised Britain in successive successive waves, the earliest being the the representatives representatives of the Iron-Age Hallstatt and Urnfleld cultures (700-500 B.C.). Some of the first hill-forts in Britain were constructed in this period, suggesting powerful chieftains chieftains and conditions of strife. strife. These These Celtic Celtic settlers settlers were were followed by those of the highly sophisticated La Tene culture (as from 35 300 B.C.) and by the Belgae (c. 150 150 B.C.), who settled above all in Southern England. By 200 B.C. Britain had fully developed its insular, Celtic character. The next great phase of settlement is the Roman colonisation of Britain, which began in 43 A.D. and lasted until the early fifth century, and which was confined to England and Wales. Several 40 Roman authors have written about Britain, and we also possess possess a wealth wealth of archeological and numismatic evidence from that period. Where do the paragraphs belong in this unwieldly passage? The only feasible ones would be more or less coextensive with each new ph ase o f colo nisa tion : {The earliest known inhabitants ... [1.4], Gradually, howeve r... [1.7], One very distinctive ethnic group ... [1.16], The next wave o f settlers settlers ... [1.19], The next settlers ... [1.29], possibly These Celtic 10

settlers ... [1.33], and certainly The next great phase of settlement...

[1.37]). The first sentence sentence of any pa ragra ph is usually of special importance, being pro gra m ma tic in nat ure , des cribi ng wh at the pa ra gr ap h is going to be about. Hence it is often called the topic sentence. All the suggested paragraphs in the above text begin with topic sentences. In addition parag raphs very often end with sentences sentences that summ arise the previous text. Examples from the passage are the sentences sentences beg innin g Thus British Neolithic culture... [1.15] [1.15] an d By 20 0 B.C . Britain had fully developed. .. [1.36]. In such linear, chronological material, the ordering of paragraphs is very straightforward. The same tendency to divide up prose into manageable units is also in evidence, however, in passages where the framework is not chronological, as in the following:

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10

15

It is impossible to date exactly the fall of the Roman Empire. The year 476, which is widely held to mark the end of the Roman Empire in the West, used to be favoured by historians, since they were attracted by the drama of the last emperor being forced to abdicate and being succeeded by a barba rian king. But this date also poses problems, since much of the West was to be reconquered by the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian Justinia n in the sixth century. Anoth er alterna tive is to date the fall to the capture captur e of Constantinop Consta ntinople le by the Crusaders in 1204, 1204, or even to its capture by the Turks in 1453. The problem with these two dates is that by that time the society society and culture of Constantino Consta ntinople ple was scarcely recognisable as “Roman”, being rather a strange blend of Greek, Oriental and Christian influences. A further possibility is Napoleon’s abolishing of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, an institution which claimed claimed to be the inheritor and continuer of Roman rule. But again, again, th at shadowy entity had long been a cadaver, neither holy nor Roma n nor an empire.

This passage lists a number of possibilities for dating the end of the Roman empire. Again the obvious thing to do is to begin new paragraphs with each new option, namely the sentences be ginning Another alternat ive... (1.7) and A furt her pos sibi lity.. . (1.12). We would then have three paragraphs of roughly comparable length. 11

Suggested Exercise (01):

Divide the following into manageable paragraphs and give your reasons: There is a clear link between industrial waste gases and car exhaust fumes fumes on the one hand and environmental destruction on the other, even though some of the exact details are still a matter of debate. Thus sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen, emitted by various sources, 5 combine with clouds to form acid rain, which in turn acidifies the soil, soil, making it impossible for forests to survive. When the forests go, there is little to protect the topsoil, which is blown or washed away. The result is often a steppe-like landscape, as can be seen in several areas of Central Europe, including Germany, the Czech Republic, and Poland. Another 10 consequence of dying forests is the destruction of the earth’s atmosphere, since forests play an essential role in the creation of oxygen. There is no need to point out the effects that oxygen-depletion is having and will have on human life. This destruction of the earth’s atmosphere is also reinforced by emissions of so-called “greenhouse gases”, above all 15 carbon carb on dioxide, which which are bringing abo ut “global warming” , i.e. a gradual rise in the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere. A rise of one degree celsius would be especially catastrophic for many countries which already have a warm or hot climate, since certain of man’s greatest enemies, above all the mosquito, would colonise new areas. 20 Such a rise rise in temperatur e would also entail the gradual melting of the polar ice-caps, ice-caps, bringing with it the prospect of a rise in sea-level sea-levels. s. One consequence of this would be that certain low-lying areas of Europe, such as London, Venice, and Amsterdam, would be threatened by flooding. Even if the sea-level were to rise by only a few centimeters, the 25 costs of building sea-walls sea-walls for many of the world’s towns and cities would be astronomical. Another by-product of global warming is that areas which are at present highly fertile, such as Northern Italy or the Ukraine, would tend to become arid, while areas further to the north, such as the Russian taiga, would tend to become agricultural. Thus, 30 acid-rain is opening up a Pandor Pan dor a’s box of problems whose ramifications are potentially endless.

‘Brainstorming’ and Ordering Material Anyone embarking on a piece piece of writing writing must be clear about a number of things. Obviously, that person must know who he is writing for; that is to say, he must know his audience, and know what kind of language to use. More importantly, there must be something worth saying. Those who do a lot of writing try to allow their ideas to incubate over days, weeks, months, and sometimes even years. Indeed, in the English culture the belief is widespread that one should “sleep on” a problem or task: in other words that one of the benefits of sleep is to allow the unconscious to provide answers to problems or at least to enhance our perception of them. Before one writes a school- or college-essay it is important to read the title carefully and to think about it for a while. Needless to say, the more time one devotes to this stage, the better. In an exam it is important to spend ten or fiftee n m inutes just thinking ab out the title and jott ing down on a piece of paper whatever — names, ideas, examples — may come to mind. This process is generally known as ‘brainstorming’. Let us suppose that you have got a homework assignment with the title: “What Needs to be Done to Improve This Country’s EducationSystem?” So you sit down and after some minutes you have come up with the following random assortment of words and phrases, largely bas ed on yo ur mem ories o f scho ol: 35 in a class (!!!) hopeless teachers learning parrot-fashion Latin — boring! Dracula’s Coffin 13

art classes — a joke ancient textbooks terrorist teachers too much homework sports school meals stupid timetable the truant teacher-student relations teachers’ wages choice of studies surnames sex education? Anyone who has ever written an essay will recognise such a list of ph ras es wh ich com e to m ind wh en dea ling with a given topic . Yo u should now have a collection of ideas, key phrases and examples, which need to be sifted carefully. The material can generally be built on and grouped into categories, and from these the outline of an essay can be constructed, as in the following: I. (Introduction.) Catastrophic situation. National scandal. School examresults abysmal. Many people still cannot read or write, or locate our country on an atlas (!!!!) 35 students in a class on average. II. Antiquated methods. Tedious exercises and presentation of material. Learning par rot-fashion. Excessive homework-demands. III. Antiquated attitudes. Lack of mutual trust, let alone of dialogue. Boys called by their surnames. Terrorism in the classroom. Corporal punishment still allowed. The boy who played truant. IV. Anti quate d system. No choice. Inflexible curricula. Useless subjects. Our maths lessons (!!!!) Why not typing, shorthand, computer science? Cooking and domestic science? Sex education? V. Neglect of artistic subjects — music, painting, drawing, embroidery? Dancing? Sports? Judo, etc. VI. What’s to be done? Revolution in attitudes and priorities. More money for new schools, better wages for better teachers, new textbooks, sports facilities, libraries, computers, proper school meals. Once you have got this far with your essay you are ready to begin the writing proper. Obviously you can modify the outline as you see necessary, and divide the paragraphs further. 14

The principles underlying the arrangement of the paragraphs are, of course, up to the writer. If he is writing narrative, i.e. relating a story, recounting history, or describing a process, they may be chronological, with each development clearly marked out from the preceding one. Or the paragraphs may be arranged according to categori es o f importance-, that which the writer considers the most important or remarkable would generally come at the end. But whatever approach is taken, the structure of the work must be apparent, with clear, manageable paragraph s, each logically progressing one from the other, and if necessary with headings and subheadings clearly marking the way. Need less to say, gre at care m ust also be dev ote d to a clear, coherent introduction on the one hand and an equally clear conclusion on the other. Students who have difficulties with finding material for an essay should concentrate on possible examples and illustrations. This is very important as a way of making a piece of work interesting and of commanding the reader’s attention. In the above outline you will see that virtually all of the paragraph s contain concrete examples, and none of the paragraphs are purely abstract. Generally speaking, concrete examples are especially effective in the first and last paragraphs. A clear plan is crucial for any piece of work, and while examples, illustrations, and recapitulations at regular intervals are very much to be welco med , digre ssion s are no t. Wr iters of Eng lish ten d to avo id digressions, except in frequently discursive contexts such as travel adventures, memoirs, speeches and the like. In an exam-situation the student himself must decide whether to write the final essay the first time round or not. He may choose to write it first in rough and then in a ‘clean copy’. Unless he is very experienced, however, he will be well advised to write the essay twice over, since teachers and examiners generally find untidy w ork irritating and difficult to mark. Above all, it is crucial to spend plenty of time reading the work over when it has been finally written, checking especially for mistakes of spelling and grammar. In an exam of two and a half fours, at least twen ty minutes should be devoted to this last stage! If you are writing a homework-assignment, use A4-sized paper (i.e. 15

297x210 mm). Remember that teachers tend to experience a great feeling of relief when they receive work that has been neatly typed, instead of handwritten. Alw ays leave a wide margin (at least 3 cm) on the left-han d side.

One last point: when writing homework-assignments in general and exam-essays in particular, it is not a bad idea to check whether you have remembered to write your name as well as the title of the essay at the top! Some people do forget. Suggested Exercises (02): 1.

Choose one of the following list of topics, then do some ‘brainstorming’ and finally write an outline-essay for your ideas, making the principles of organisation clear. a. Would children be better off by being given unlimited freedom? b. What things do you find most attractive and/or unattractive in American culture? c. W hat are the main job-prospects for students of your department? d. Eu rope’s environm ental future. e. Classify the main youth-cu ltures at this point in time. 2. You have been asked to write a brochure designed to introduce your department to prospective students. Jot down the basic elements of the curriculum and anything else students might need to know, and from there make an outline. Finally write a brief but informative description of the place where you are studying. 3. Do the same, but this time preparing a bro chure for people who intend to visit your country. Put in the brochure the information that foreign visitors urgently need to have. Here is a list of items which you might find useful; all of them except nos. 20 and 28-36 are most likely to be found at the beginning of the sentence (brackets usually indicate a word that is optional): 1. 2. 3. 4.

first firstly first and foremost firstly and most importantly

5. to begin with 6 . to star t with 7. second 16

8 . secondly 9. in the second place 10 . 11 .

third thirdly

12 . next 13. then (= next) 14. also 15. in addition 16. furthermore 17. moreover 18. besides 19. w hat is more 20 . likewise 21 . similarly 22. in the same way 23. again

24. 25. 26. 27.

lastly last but not least finally (and) to conclude

28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

apart from... aside from... except (for)... excluding... if we exclude...

33. 34. 35. 36.

as well as... including... not to mention... to say nothing of...

37. 38. 39. 40.

as mentioned earlier equally importa nt is... more importantly more centrally

41. worse (still) 42. making matters worse 43. more worryingly 44. 45. 46. 47.

the first thing to con sider is... the first thing to consider is whether... the first point I want to make is that... at the outset let me begin by saying that...

2 — English...

48. 49. 50. 51.

my next point is that... the next point I want to make is that... this brings us (on/back) to... if we turn to X, we see that...

52. 53 . 54 . 55 .

incidentally by the way to digress for a moment for the record

56. 57. 58. 59 . 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

to go on to resume to return to the previous point one should also mention... one might also mention... also worth mentioning is/are... it might also be mentioned that... it is also worth mentioning that... we may note in passing that... one should also bear in mind (that)...

N.B. 1. Nos. 46-65 are found primarily in speeches, talks and lectures. 2. Nos. 52-55 introduce digressions or illustrations (especially anecdotes). 3. Nos. 56-58 are used resumptively to mark the end of a digression or illustration and to mark the next stage in the discussion. similarly), and 23 {again) deserve special attention, 4. Nos. 20 0likewise), 21 Q since they can be extremely useful, as in the following example: The Romans took nearly all their literary genres from the Greeks. Thus, Ennius, the first Roman poet, attempted epics in the manner of Homer. Similarly the first Roman historian of distinction, Sallust, took Thucy dides as his model. Cicero, Rome’s greatest orator, likewise saw himself as continuing the tradition of Isaeus and Demosthenes. Again, when we take the Roman comedy of Terence, we see it was largely an adaptation of the works of Menander. 5. Also to be noted are the useful phrases others again and still others, which can be used quite elegantly: Some ascribed the conquests to the genius of one man. Some put them down to a sudden flowering of the Mongol national spirit. Others again {Still others) sought the truth in the supposed simplicity and freedom of

nomad life. 18

There is thus a regular word-pattern consisting of the following sequence:

i. some, ii. some or others, and iii. others again or still others.

Suggested Exercises (03):

Fill in the gaps in the following sentences with suitable link-words and phr ase s from the abo ve list. 1. He often misses classes .----------- he is never prepared. 2. The aim of my government will be to accomplish a thoroughgoing overhaul of all the official bureaucracy and administration that has been hampering the national revival. ----------- we are anxious to get the economy moving again. 3. The book is highly original. ----------- it has been acclaimed by many scholars. 4. Some came out of the depths of the forests, where they had managed to survive; ----- i.----- returned from the concen tration camps, where they had not yet been exterminated;----- ii.----- came back from the Soviet Union as repatriated persons. 5. We have just been examining the problem s of alcoholism and drug-abu se. the problem of drug-addiction in general. 6 . The Government has been facing mounting discontent lately over its economic reforms, while there have been increasingly angry scenes in the Parliament-Building. ----------- , there is rumoured to have been an attempt on the president’s life by hard-liners. 7. In the holiday period there are loads of cars on the roads. — ---- = -----there are countless people travelling by train and bus. 8 . In vegetarianism concerns abo ut the ecosystem predominate, with all the fuss about how livestock farming is a waste of environmental resources. -----------i.-------- there is the heavenly food notion, in which certain foods are deemed fit for divine consumption (examples being asphodel and honey).-------- ii.-------- we have those who believe that a diet of vegetables is conducive to good health... Suggested Exercise (04):

Fill in the missing words or phrases in the following passage (not all of them are to be found in the above list): The fall of the Soviet Empire has already had momentous repercussions 19

for the entire world. ----- 1----- in East Asia, where the USSR's withdrawal of its fleets may be followed by those of the USA, leaving a power-vacuum for other big regional powers, ----- 2----- Japan, China and India. Pakistan ----- 3----- is suffering as a result of the end of the Cold War, as the USA is putting more pressure on it to abandon its clandestine nuclear programme ----- 4----- to improve its human-rights record. ----- 5----- the Middle East, the end of Cold-War rivalry has ----- 6----- that peace for once looks possible, ----- 7----- the Arab states have lost their main military backer, the USSR; ----- 8 ----America has felt freer to twist Israel’s arm — over Jewish settlements in the West Bank, ----- 9----- . -----?when we look at Africa, th at continent has been changed in a number of ways. ----- 11 ----- , the concept of central planning has been largely discredited and many governments are beginning to convert to more market-minded philosophies. ----- 12----- , the USSR is no longer in a position to finance governments and insurgencies all over Africa, and various regimes have been gravely weakened. ----- 13----the West no longer feels it necessary to support right-wing, pro-American regimes, ----- 14----- Kenya, Malawi and Zaire. ------ 15----- , scenes ----- 16----- those showing the deaths of the Ceacescus have been widely televised in Africa, ----- 17----- a change of attitude among some heads of state. ----- 18----- , when we turn to Europe, we see how the continent has been transformed. Gone is the Warsaw Pact. ----- 19----- a group of new countries has appeared. Germany has unified. ----- 20----- others have broken up, ----- 21------Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Every where new regimes have come to power, most paying at least some lip-service to democracy and economic reform. In many places, ----- 22----- , nationalism is rapidly spreading, ----- 23----- in Germany, partly ----- 24----- the new wave of refugees from Eastern Europe. —■—25------- the Euro-Communist parties in Italy, Spain and France are in danger of dwindling into insignificance. ----- 26----- the biggest privatisation-drive in history is underway throughout Europe, ----- 27----many stresses and strains, ----- 28----- soaring unemployment and high, ----- 29----- hyper-inflation. ----- 30----- , the cost of unification is putting the German economy under great strains. ----- 31----- it is uncertain how long American forces will remain in Europe, ----- 32----there are few obvious reasons for their being there any longer. ----- 33----- the demise of the “evil empire” has produced as many problems as it has solved, and may not necessarily make the world a safer place.

The First Paragraph Once the brainstorming-phase has been accomplished, ideas and key words assembled, and the outline of the projected work constructed, the next step will be to write the first paragraph. Needless to say, the first paragraph is one of the most important of all, and its function is generally both introductory and programmatic in character. It must lead on to what is to follow and be clearly related to it. There are many ways to start such a paragraph, depending on the type of audience. Below are a few of the many possible formulas: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Many people suppose that... The present thesis will be concerned with... Once upon a time... ( children’s narrative) Today I am going to talk about...

But the possibilities are virtually unlimited. Often it is a good idea to begin the paragraph with rather graphic, even provocative language, designed to arrest the reader’s attention, as in the following suggested opening of our essay on education (note, by the way, how the first sentence begins with “Our schools and colleges”, so as to avoid the colourless abstraction “Our education system”): Our schools and colleges are widely held to be in terminal decline. People speak of a ‘catastrophic situation’ on almost every front, whether they mean the quality of the staff, the teacher-student ratio, the curricula, or the final exam results and the skills which the young are supposed to have learnt; they point to statistics purporting to show that many are unable to read even the simplest instructions, let alone to write.... Here, even before the writer has directly introduced himself, it is clear from the words “widely held to be”, “Peop le speak o f ’, and 21

“statistics purporting to show” that he implicitly distances himself from the view or views expressed in the first two sentences. Subsequent sentences of the same paragraph can hint at his own pos itio n: ...But is this picture really justified? Are grounds for hope completely lacking? An attempt will be made to show that sweeping judgements are as much out of place when discussing our education-system as they are in most other aspects of life. With this, the first paragraph of the essay would be complete and the writer can develop the individual stan dpo int suggested in sentences 3, 4 and 5. It is generally a good thing, by the way, to bring the subject of your writing as far to the front as possible, as in the above paragraph, where “Our schools and colleges” actually begins the first sentence. But what if the essay were not about the national education-system, bu t ab ou t the aims o f ed uc ati on in gene ral? The essay wo uld sta rt quite differently, of which the following passage is one of many poss ibiliti es: When one talks about ‘education,’ one needs to be very precise. Does one mean education in the narrow sense, the institutional setting of schools and curricula, teachers and students? Or does one mean education in a broader sense: all the learning that goes on at home, at work, or in the ‘university of life’? For the purposes of this essay, education will be taken to mean the latter. Generally speaking, if there is any word in the title of the essay that may create confusion, then it is good to define what you mean by that word, as in the above paragraph. Sometimes it is a good idea to begin the essay with an arresting or pro vo cat ive qu ot ati on , as in the follow ing: “There are few virtues which the Americans do not possess, and there are few errors which they have ever avoided.” This striking sentiment comes from no less a figure than Winston Churchill, and visitors to America would do well to remember it. Let us examine this remark more carefully.... Paragraphs should be of manageable length, ideally between 50 and 150 words long, though great leeway is possible. Just as the first 22

sentence, often know n as the topic sentence, is generally programm atic and introduces the rest of the paragraph, so the first paragraph should effectively introduce the rest of the text. By the way, in printed English the first paragraph is generally left wnindented. Suggested Exercises (05):

Write introductory paragraphs for the following essay-titles: a. The Perils of Cigarette-Smoking. b. What are the Causes o f Vandalism? c. The Dangers Faci ng Today’s World.

S u b s t a n ti a ti n g t h e A r g u m e n t With many kinds of writing a very great danger is to make statements which are unsubstantiated, i.e. unsupported by any evidence. If they are unsubstantiated, the writing will not be taken seriously by anyone, let alone those whose views about the subject are different. Let us look at the following passage, which is taken from a student essay on Russia:

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10

What I find most alarming is the revival of nationalist, even fascist, ideology in Russia, which one can notice especially in the Russian attitude to people of other cultures. Russia also tries to have its way in different countries and to subordinate them to its own power; the only objective which Russia is aiming at is control over everything that is happening in the world. Russia has accepted the idea of European coexistence, but only under Russian hegemony. Moreover, Russia does not want to accept any foreign influences. In any normal country intelligent people try to learn foreign languages, but in Russia the situation is quite the opposite. People over there think that their own language is the most important international one and that everybody else should study it. So it is impossible to use English there, although English is spoken all over the world.

Many teachers will immediately recognise such writing. The sweeping generalisations contained in it are completely unsupported. Let us take the first allegation, namely that nationalism and fascism are on the increase in Russia (line 1); here one notices the absence of examples. Appropriate ones would have been the burgeoning of ultranationalist, neofascist, and antisemitic organisations. In short, the first paragraph needs to be supplemented by examples and illustrations, as in the following: What I find most alarming is the revival of nationalist, even fascist, 24

ideology in Russia, especially noticeable in the attitude to people of other cultures. There is no need to dwell on the growing popularity of Mr Zhirinovsky, whose political agenda is reminiscent of the Nazis. Even if he does not become the next president of Russia, all the signs are that the vacuum left by the fall of communism will be filled by politicians of his stamp. Indeed, i f foreign co rrespondents’ reports are to be believed, the culture of xenophobia an d antisemitism is becoming more pervasive by the day, with walls and subways daubed with swastikas and the number of ethnically motivated attacks steadily rising. This leaves us with the last part of the first paragraph, which is about Russia’s policies towards its neighbours (lines 3-7). Hence it deserves to begin a new paragraph, expanded to include examples or illustrations: At critical moments Russia also tends to pay scant regard to the idea of European partnership: witness its lack of compromise as regards Russian minorities in the Baltic republics and Moldova, which has led to the continued stationing of Russian troops in supposedly independent states; witness the slaughter in Chechenya, in u tter disregard of civilised norms of behaviour and the protests of Russia’s European “partners”; witness also the Russian government’s continued moral and political support for Serbian intransigence in Bosnia, in total defiance of the rest of the international com munity.... In the second paragraph of the original essay the allegation that Russians have no interest in foreign languages would also need to be substantiated. Here the writer would do well to refer to the tales bro ug ht bac k b y to uris ts, busin essm en, jo urn ali sts an d oth er foreig ners. In strictly scientific writings clear, systematic documentation of sources is especially necessary. Thus in the revised first and second pa rag rap hs any m ate ria l on righ t-w ing extr em ism an d go ver nm en t policie s wou ld need to be bac ked up by scrupulous documentation of ^sources. The more seriously the scientific approach is taken, the more caution is needed in making any statement whatsoever, even one which may appear at first to be self-evident. It is important to remember that examples and illustrations do not on their own prove an argument. Thus, if you are given an essay with the title “Alcohol and Creativity,” and you set out to prove that alcohol is detrimental to creativity, you may refer to famous writers and artists who might have been far more creative had they left 25

alcohol alone, giving examples. The fact, however, is that counter examples are also possible, “proving” that writer X, painter Y, or composer Z attained their greatest degree of creativity precisely at a time when they were heavy drinkers. Illustrations are not only important in making one’s point; they also mak e the w riting more lively: few discussions are readable w here there are no examples, no illustrations, only an endless abstract discourse. It is in the nature of the human mind that we learn more from concrete examples than from abstractions and generalisations; it is the examples, the illustrations, the anecdotal evidence that is long remembered. Let us now look at one more passage, where the writer has illustrated his initial point: In discussing the Polish nation it is important not to forget about the Church, without which it is impossible to understand why Poles are as they are. Indeed, if one does not take the Church into consideration much of Polish literature and history ceases to make sense. How, for instance, would it be possible to read Deluge by Henryk Sienkiewicz and understand the importance of religious motifs in it, if one were ignorant of the fact that Poland won the War of 1655 against Sweden because Poles succeeded in defending the monastery of Czestochowa? Similarly, Adam Mickiewicz’s Forefathers’Eve, which is one of the central works of Polish literature, would be inaccessible to foreigners without an understanding of the many religious motifs that it contains. And it is the Church that has been a major, if not the dominant factor in shaping our culture over the centuries. After all, Poland is 97 percent Catholic. Thus by the use of examples the writer is able to command the reader’s attention and to make the discussion become more alive. Examples are important in one more context: namely in explaining an abstract or difficult term. Thus let us take a neologism of the late 70s, the word yupp ie, which is generally defined as “young, upwardly mobile, urban professional male”. This definition still does not pro vid e any real pic ture of wh at a typi cal yup pie is really like. Best would be to give an example, as in the following: By “yuppie” we mean a young, upwardly mobile, urban professional male. Thus, fo r the sake o f example, the archetypal yuppie is in the supertax-bracket, possesses a flat in Chelsea with luxurious and stylish furnishings, drives a Porsche, buys clothes in certain boutiques associated 26

with pop-stars, has his hair styled at particular exclusive hair-salons, and has an orientation to life generally characterised by ‘conspicuous consumption’. In short, illustrations help to substantiate generalised statements, they enliven the discussion, and they are also often invaluable when it comes to explaining a word. Here are a few words and phrases with a similar function: 1. 2.

example instance 3. case in point 4. illustration While these four words are not completely interchangeable, their meanings differ in terms of nuance rather than substance. A case in poi nt tends to mean “a very good and striking example”. Typical constructions are as follows: This is a good example {instance etc.) of sth. An interesting example {instance etc.) o f this is... 5. as is the case with... Several poor African countries have had their debts to foreign creditors cancelled, as is the case with Mali, Niger, and Chad. 6.

for example 7. for instance 8 . such as These three expressions differ from no. 5 in that they often stand before the main verb:

Several poor African countries, for example Mali, Niger, and Chad, have had their debts to foreign creditors cancelled. A number of Asian cities — Jakarta, for instance — have enormous population-problems. Science has made great progress in the conquest of disease: killers such as diphtheria and smallpox have largely disappeared. 9. take for example... take for instance...

10 .

Life-expectancy in Third World countries is much shorter than in the 27

industrialised West. Take Dahomey, for instance, on the West-African coast, where the average life-expectancy is currently 39 years. 11 .

look at... (informal) As we have seen, in Eastern Europe anti-semitism has increased. But it is not only Jews who are suffering from race hate. Look at former Yugoslavia, where people are being expelled from their homes or killed, simply because of their ethnic origins.

12 .

witness (irare and rhetorical) 1 13. this can be illustrated by... 14. one need only think of... When left on their own, children lose their natural innocence. One need only think of the street Arabs who throng the cities of the Third World. Their life consists of brutality and an everyday struggle for survival. 15. as in (= as for example in...) When Grimm compared Latin and German, he noticed a general pattern where “v” in German is represented by “p” in Latin, as in German “Vater” and Latin “pater”. 16. in particular 17. above all Suggested Exercises (06):

1. Explain the following terms using examples: a. a genius b. the permissive society c. a democratic system of government d. good taste 2. Write a paragraph supporting or denying the following statements, providing concrete examples: a. America is a country which the rest of the world ought to imitate. b. Computers have generally improved our lives. c. Football-matches generally lead to hooliganism. d. Society is too liberal. 3. Make generalised statements about the behaviour and attitudes of young people at present and give specific examples. 1 For an example of the use of witness, see p. 25 above. 28

4. Make generalised statements about manifestations of poverty in your country and give specific examples. 5. Supply the missing words and phrases in the followi ng sentences: a. Unemployment has been a disturbin g feature of British life in the 1980s. ----------- parts of Man che ster , ------------ , where youth unemployment is

currently running at 80 percent.

b. The Nazis exploited forbidden forms. The pre-war German body-culture movement is a ----------- . c. Several senior American statesmen and po liticians have been implicated in the Irangate-affair, ----------- ex-presidents Ronald Reagan and George Bush. d. Many people ----------- my milkman and postman carry out their duties efficiently while still having time for a friendly ‘Good morning’. e. Many of Stalin’s victims were themselves fervent Marxists, ----------Zinoviev, Trotsky, Radek, and Bukharin. f. Some vegetables, ----------- potatoes and carrots, are available at all times of the year. g. Gang members especially enjoy it when the situation gets out of hand ---------------the events at Haysel Studium. h. In Central Europe it is often the “ right” who seek to preserve the social and economic agenda of the collectivist left--------------- the programme

of the Republican Party in the Czech lands.

words would find such a summary very helpful. Ideally it should be written on a separate sheet of paper. Another method is simply to state what you intend to talk about, pre pa rin g the rea de r f or wh at is to come, as in the follo wing form ula s: In this paper I am going to talk about (argue, suggest that...).

Preserving Clarity Everybody is familiar with the stereotype of the absent-minded pr ofe sso r wh o is so eng ros sed in his sub ject th at he has cease d to notice that his audience is unable to follow him. Unfortunately, the ph en om en on is ve ry wid esp rea d, bu t it can be avo ide d in a n um ber of ways. Put simply, no coherent discussion can dispense with clear organisa tion an d progression of ideas, with each stage in the discussion clearly marked. I. Clar ity o f Organisation:

There are various ways of marking each stage. One way is by the clear division into chapters, sections, subsections, and paragraphs, often with the aid of words such as Firstly, Secondly, Thirdly etc. New sections or subsections may be marked by leaving a space of two or more lines. Subheadings can also be provided. When writing longer academic articles it is often a good idea to put a summary or ‘abstract’ at the beginning, perhaps of 80-100 words in length, as in the following example: Summary This article will discuss the main alternatives to fossil fuels in Europe and examine the ways in which each can affect the environment. It will be argued that although nuclear energy poses risks to the environment, these can be minimised by means of certain precautions; on the other hand, while ‘alternative’ forms of energy such as wind-, solar, and hydro-electric have considerable potential, they can never in themselves provide the bulk of Europ e’s energy needs. Any teacher presented with a written assignment of more than 1500 30

Constant recapitulation is also important in preventing the reader from getting lost, especially when it is a question of a lengthy discussion, extending over dozens or even hundreds of pages. Useful ph rase s inclu de In other words, In short, To re peat, To conclude etc. Transitions often need to be explicitly marked, as in the following examples: So much, then, for solar energy: let us now turn to other alternatives to fossil fuels, such as wind energy.

The question of the authorship of these poems need not detain us further. Suffice it to say that a comprehensive stylistic analysis leads to the conclusion that they are the work of more than one person. Let us list some of the phrases available in order to mark a transition: We have been discussing how... Hitherto we have focussed on... So far our discussion has centred on... So far we have argued that... So far we have been examining... As we have seen... So much for... (somewhat informal) This question (problem etc.) need not detain us further. There is little sense in dwelling on (this issue etc.) Suffice it to say that... I am now going to examine... Now it is time to examine... Let us now go on to... Let us now turn to... In formal academic contexts (e.g. dissertations, scientific articles) digressions are generally avoided wherever possible. However, if they do occur, they can be marked by the following words and phrases: 31

a. Introducing a digression:

Incidentally By the way (informal) To digress for a moment Let us by way of digression examine (turn to etc.) b. Mark ing the e nd o f a digression:

To resume To return To return to the previous point 2. Appro priate Language:

Quite apart from good organisation, often supported by verbal markers, the writer must also use language that is appropriate to his audience, explaining every single term or name that his readers or listeners cannot be expected to be familiar with. The crucial thing is to have a sense of one’s audience. Let us take as a negative example two passages from a scholarly work on Ancient Persia1. When the author comes to discuss the religious leader Zoroaster, whose dates and homeland are still ultimately a matter of speculation, he devotes something in excess of a thousand words to discussing the possible dates of Zoroaster’s birth and death. This is fine, if the projected audience is a group of postgraduate students specialising in Persian history, but for anyone else such detailed treatment is demotivating. Similarly, when the author goes on to discuss the question of where Zoroaster lived, he devotes several more hundred words to examining the evidence. Again, this is appropriate in a university lecture or an article in some learned periodical; but in a book supposedly addressed to the general public a few sentences would have sufficed, with all the discussion of contradictory evidence assigned to a footnote, as in the following: For a variety of reasons it is impossible either to fix Zoroaster’s dates or to locate his homeland with any degree of certainty. That said, however, a number of cogent grounds do exist for following some 1 R. N. Frye, The Heritage of Persia, London 1976 (2nd ed.) pp. 29-33. 32

scholars in assigning Zoroaster to eastern Iran of the early sixth century BC. 1 One final point: be careful not to overburden the reader with information — and especially not at the beginning. It is good to repeat key items of information a number of times, so that the reader (who is quite possibly tired and has a limited attention-span) will have a chance to assimilate the essentials. Suggested Exercise (07):

Describe and explain something about which you have a specialised knowledge in a way that anyone can understand it.

Narrative Na rra tiv e, whic h m ean s telli ng w hat hap pen ed, is one of th e co mm one st of all the processes of writing. Generally speaking, it is important to follow the chronolog ical order exactly, describing how one thing happens after another. (Literature is an exception, where flashbacks, anticipations of the story, and narratives which drift from association to association frequently occur.) Here are some words an d phrases associated with narrative (brackets indicate a word that is optional):

Just then Thereupon It was now that At this juncture 1 Next After this/that Afterwards Later (on) Subsequently Not long after this In the end In the event As it turned out Finally Eventually At last Ultimately The upshot was that... 2 Suggested Exercises (03):

To begin with At first Initially At the outset Before this/that Formerly Prior to this/that Meanwhile While Simultaneously (to this) In a separate development1 At about the same time At roughly the same time as this At around this time While (all) this was happening Rumour has/had it that... It is/was widely rumoured that... There are/were persistent rumours (or reports) that... There are/were unconfirmed reports that... 1 This expression, which means “simultaneously to this”, is typical of BBC news broadcast s. 34

1. Write a chronological description of your educa tional backgro und. 2. Here are the bare details (in chronological order) of the troubles afflicting the British royal family in 1992, as well as a few pieces of important background-information. Write a simple summary, based on the pa st tense. Use the information sele ctivel y . The Queen’s Annus Horribilis Newspapers carry photographs of Sarah Ferguson, the Duchess of York, topless with a boyfriend (a Texas oilman) in front of her two children at a Mediterranean villa (January). Sarah Ferguson (“Fergie”) leaves her husband, Prince Andrew. There is an announcement from Buckingham Palace that the five-year marriage between Sarah Ferguson and Prince Andrew is effectively over (late March). The head of Buckingham Palace’s press office describes the Duchess of 1 This expression, which means “simulta neously to thi s”, is typical of BBC news broadcasts. 2 This expression is highly informal. 35

York as “unsuitable for royal and public life”, but apologises for the remark the next day. “Fergie” threatens the Queen with a lawsuit to keep custody of the children. Princess Diana, the wife of Prince Charles (heir to the throne), leaks information to the press about her depressions, bulimia and six suicide attempts (late June). Princess Anne gets an uncontested divorce from her husband, Captain Mark Phillips (summer). The press get hold of a tape purporting to be of a telephone conversation between Diana and James Gilbey, a man about town; he repeatedly calls her “darling”. Charles and Diana visit South Korea. Newspapers publish many photographs of the couple looking very miserable (early November). The press get hold of a tape purporting to be of a sexually explicit telephone conversation between Charles and a married woman, Camilla Parker-Bowles. (Diana has already referred to her as “the Rottweiler”, while Camilla has referred to Diana as “that ridiculous creature”.) While Charles celebrates his 44th birthday at home, Diana visits Paris (November 14). There are rumours that Diana gets on better with the dashing King Juan Carlos of Spain than with her own husband. Charles and Diana announce that they are to separate (December 9). Doubts arise as to whether Charles will be able to remain heir to the throne. Charles forbids Diana to see their children. At a state banquet in early December the Queen reveals that she has had an “annus horribilis”. December 13: Anne to remarry. Diana refuses the Queen’s invitation to spend Christmas at Sandringham. Newspapers report that the Queen’s youngest child, Edward, is “not much interested in girls”. Since narrative writing forms a specific genre within English, it is often characterised by certain distinctive syntactic patterns. Especially typical are sentences beginning with adverbial phrases like “Rou nd the comer”, “At the table” etc. When they are used in conjunction with intransitive verbs such as come, g o , rise and fal l, inversion is common: 36

Round the corner came the sailors. From the audience came not the slightest sound. In an adjacent room lay a wounded soldier. At the table sat three men. At the bar stood a stranger. Not e 1: this syn tact ic pa tte rn is im poss ible if th e sub ject is a pro no un . (One cannot write: “Around the corner came they” etc.) Note 2: this syn tact ic pa tte rn is mo st freq uen tly me t wit h wh en the verb is in the past simple tense. If the past progressive is used, then inversion is possible but much less likely: In an adjacent room a wounded soldier was lying. At the table three men were sitting. At the bar a stranger was standing. Not e 3: in na rra tiv e a sim ilar pa tte rn is oft en fou nd in the rep ort ing of direct speech (see pp. 137-8). The past progressive and the past simple tenses are very important in narrative. The former is often used for descriptions or ‘background situations’, while the latter is used for events and actions: Over the skies black clouds were advancing, the air was becoming more oppressive by the minute, and the traders were beginning to pack up their wares and leave the marketplace. Suddenly a strong gust of wind sent up flurries of leaves, and then came the first spots of rain. The modal auxiliary would is also very typical of narrative, being used to describe repeated actions and characteristic behaviour in the past: Every day Susan would clean the flat thoroughly; after that she would do some washing, and then go shopping; finally, in the late afternoon she would prepare the evening meal. No te th at if used to were to be substituted for would in the above pass age, it wo uld cease to sou nd like wr itte n na rrat ive . Not e 4: would , unlike used to , cannot be used for states, conditions or situations: Berlin used to be divided by a wall. She used to have a grand piano. 37

No te 5: ne ith er used to nor would can be used when we want to say how often something happened or for how long something con tinued: They visited Tahiti five times in all. She was living (or: lived) in New York for seven years.


Write a children’s story, perhaps using personified creatures of the wild (“Mr Toad” etc.). Here are phrases associated with myths, children’s stories and fairy-tales: Once upon a time there was... There once lived... In days of old In times of old In the beginning Many years ago Long, long years ago Time was when... Legend has it that... Tradition has it that... My story starts with... The story goes that... Little did he/she know that... (cf. p. 71) To cut a long story short And so they all lived happily ever after. So ends the tale of... Anyway Now To go on Well Now is a curious word, and especially used by professional story tellers, as in the following example, part of a fairy-tale:

Very many years ago there ruled over England a king who was called Richard Coeur de Lion, which in French means lion-hearted, because of his great bravery in battle. It may seem strange that an English king 38

should have a French name, but more than a hundred years before this king reigned a French duke named William came to England, defeated the English in a great battle, and declared himself king of England. Now King Richard had decided to set off for the Holy Land to capture Jerusalem from the Saracens, who at that time ruled in Palestine.... Now is not a temporal expression; rather its purpose is to introduce new facts and expedite the narrative, especially after a sho rt digression, as in the above one about William the Conqueror. In this passage Any way (followed by a comma) would also be possible, but would sound highly informal. A more formal equivalent of Any way and Now is To go on (always followed by a comma). Well is a very colloquial word, but it often occurs in informal English generally, and especially narrative, as in the following example:

To cut a long story short, within two days the boy had smashed up a car, broken into several shops, and been arrested for drunken and disorderly conduct. Well, you can imagine the father’s surprise when there was a tele phone-call from the local police st atio n... . Both Now and Well begin sentences, and their function is to command the concentration of the reader or listener. Now merely introduces new material (especially after a digression); Well also introduces new material, but tends to have the nuance “In view of all this”. Incidentally, it is important to note that the genre of fairy stories and children’s tales tends to prefer words of Anglo-Saxon origin to Latin ones, if there is an easy choice, as in the following examples: 1. He set out for the woods, acutely aware that he would never come back. (Latin) He set out for the woods, keenly aware that he would never come back. (Anglo-Saxon) 2. This one thing distinguished her from the others. (Latin) This one thing set her apart from the others. (Anglo-Saxon -f Mediaeval French) 39

PART TWO

Additional Note:

In summarising the plot of a play, book or film, the so-called historic present is generally used: The main character is a German doctor, Rabik, who emigrates to France because of his political beliefs. Although he is a clever, skilled, and experienced surgeon, he cannot work as he used to.... The natural candidate for the title of ninth Duke d’Ascoigne, Louis Mazzini, has been disinherited by his family. Louis suffers the additional blow o f the loss of his mother, who was his one friend and ally. Soon, however, he evolves a precise plan of revenge.

Coordination Good English is generally very careful to express things which are par alle l in tho ug ht in a way whi ch is c orr esp on din gly pa ral lel in form . This is especially important when enumerating lists of items: The constitutional functions of HM the Queen include opening Par liament, receiving new ambassadors, giving her consent to new legislation, as well as being the supreme head of the Church of England. This sentence, listing the Queen’s constitutional functions, is clearly and consistently organised by means of a series of gerunds (opening... receiving... giving... being...). An equally possible alternative would have been a sentence like the following: Among her various constitutional functions, HM the Queen is expected to open Parliament, to receive new ambassadors, to give her consent to

new legislation....

or even a sentence like this one: The constitutional functions of HM the Queen include the opening of Parliament, the reception of new ambassadors, the granting of her consent to new legislation.... One of the most common mistakes is to list items in a grammatically inconsistent manner, using different grammatical categories, as in the following sentence: The Roundtable recognises three projects — to cross the Channel by bridge, the tunnel between Denmark and Sweden, and developing a new European high-speed rail network. Here the three projects are not expressed in any coordinated way: the sentence needs to be rewritten in a consistent manner, either: “to cross the Channel..., to build the tunnel..., and to deve lop... ”, or: “ the 41

bridg e ac ross the Channel , the tunn el..., and a new European high-speed rai l netw ork

A related error of coordination involves the use of the pronoun one. It is important to be consistent when using the word, as in the following sentence: One must not forget that one is, after all, but a temporary sojourner on this earth (instead of: “One must not forget that he...”).


Rewrite the following in more coordinated (and where necessary, grammatically correct) English: 1. He is neither a member of Parliament n or of a political party. 2. The auth or’s intention was not only to attack social hypocrisies but also an appeal for greater humanity. 3. This kind of understanding requires a great deal of effort — both from the teenagers and older sections of the community . 4. Languages are disparate not only in regard to grammar an d vocabulary but also they differ phonetically. 5. Industrialisation does more harm than good to forests, animals, and indirectly to ourselves. 6 . The police do not only not want to protec t black people but sometimes even beat them up. 7. Australians almost worship their sports heroes irrespective of their worth as individual people and without distinguishing the importance of their achievements. 8 . The vicar said tha t there was too muc h permissiveness in society anyway and therefore the young were in need of firm moral guidance. 9. We need a person who is not afraid of responsibility and making important decisions. 10. No t only are there no funds for classroom equipment, scientific laboratories and sports facilities, but even for basic needs of schools. 11. He talked about the famine, how more supplies were urgently needed, and that the situation was serious. 12. Besides, this project would not only become a major tourist attraction but a profitable business for the town as well. 42

13. We knew that everyone important, whether British of from America, would be at the meeting. 14. The book was written not only for the edification o f young people but also to remind adults of their own duties. 15. Either they will go west for a few years or forever. 16. He not only presents the events bu t also his reactions to them. 17. Their religion teaches them to be kind, tolerant, love other people, nature and life. 18. The heroine becomes on the one hand the object of Wayne’s love and devotion, and on the other of Benjamin’s hatred. 19. They turn to theft, steal cars, break into shops or private houses, and finally they are sent to prison. 20. Before the War no t only teachers were very rigid but also parent s. 21. That has become an important date not only in the history of the USA but also of the whole world. 22. Th at would be good both for the children and teachers. 23. The reader does not only witness spectacular events but also takes part in the daily life of the main characters. 24. Many people merely show their respect for convention rath er than they really believe in God. 25. So if we want our family life to change for the bette r, do your best an d try first to change yourself, and then start to find the way to communicate with your parents. 26. The author planned to write something completely devoid of culture, taste, good manners, shocking and disgusting for a typical Parisian bourgeois. Similarly one should avoid making the verb-form change unnec essarily within the same sentence, as in the following: These refugees had known degradation, for every conceivable injury had been inflicted on them. This sentence is confusing because the subject of the first verb is no t the subject of the second, even though the switch in subject seems to serve little purpose. Better would be a sentence like: These refugees had known degradation, having been subjected to every conceivable injury. 43

Much the same can be said about the following sentence, where the switch in subject makes the sentence especially unclear: Research has been done on this virus by scientists at our department, but it still remains an enigma. Perhaps the worst thing about the sentence is that it can refer to researc h , virus, or departme nt. A possible way of improving the text

Left- and Right-Handed Sentences

would be to write: Scientists at our department have been conducting research into this virus, but so far they have not met with much success. Suggested Exercises (11):

Typical of many types of good English is the striving to create variety in sentence patterns, the avoidance o f mono tony. This ca n be illustrated by mea ns of two alte rna tiv e beg inn ings to a br ief bio gr ap hic al en try for Marilyn Monroe:

Rewrite the following sentences in more coordinated English:

A.

Marilyn Monroe was born in Los Angeles on June 1, 1926. She was the illegitimate daughter of a depressive mother. Her early life was passed in various foster homes. She was selected as a model by an army photographer in 1944 and became a forces’ pin-up overnight. She won a Twentieth Century Fox contract in 1946, but until the mid-50s her film appearances were restricted to minor roles. She was complex, driven, demanding, self-absorbed, and an early convert to the dubious pleasures of psychoanalysis. She ceaselessly revealed, reinvented and deconstructed herself at interviews and soon came to exercise a hypnotic fascination over a whole generation of Americans.

B.

Born in Los Angeles on June 1, 1926, the illegitimate daughter of a depressive mother, Marilyn Monroe’s early life was passed in various foster homes. Selected as a model by an army photographer in 1944 and becoming a forces’ pin-up overnight, she won a Twentieth Century Fox contract in 1946, but until the mid-50s her film appearances were restricted to minor roles. Complex, driven, demanding, self-absorbed, and an early convert to the dubious pleasures of psychoanalysis, she ceaselessly revealed, reinvented and deconstructed herself at interviews, soon exercising a hypnotic fascination over a whole generation of Americans.

1. The book was well received by critics, and they praised the scrupulous scholarship of the author. 2. They were arguing for days, but no agre ement was reached. 3. It mu st be a person who is not afraid of responsibility, and at the same time any kind of criticism should not worry him or her. 4. Women in our cou ntry like the idea of equality of the sexes, and the picture of the “modern woman” is very tempting to them. 5. At that time Castro expressed warm friendship for the communist countries, and closer economic ties were established with them. 6 . After its discovery Canad a was first a French colony and then the British acquired it. 7. People in Europe not only ado pted so-called American tastes but also some of their habits changed to what we might call the American life.

In Passage A every single sentence begins with the subject of the main verb, thereby creating an impression of monotony and failing to capture the attention of the reader. In Passage B, by contrast, no sentence begins with the subject. In the first sentence the subject is preceded by a participial clause (Born...) and an appositional phrase (the illegitimate daughter...). In 45

the third sentence the subject is preceded by a series of adjectives 0 Complex , driven, demanding...) and a phrase (aw convert...) in apposition, while the main verb is actually followed by a participial clause as well (soon exercising...). This variation in word-order is a crucial technique for avoiding sentence monotony, and its importance can hardly be overestimated. It is favoured by many writers of English — and especially by jou rn ali sts , review ers, bio gra ph ers , an d tra ns lat or s of lite rat ure . Here are a few more such sentences, which are sometimes referred to as ‘left-handed’: 1. A semi-secret network, the Broederbund considers itself responsible for maintaining the interests of the tribe. (Instead of: The Broederbund, which is a semi-secret network, considers itself responsible for... .) 2. A lonely figure, he was compelled to react in the gl oom of the 30s to the political situation. (Instead of: He was a lonely figure and he was compelled to react in the gloom... .) 3. Fiercely clan-ridden and individualistic, that nation has always thwarted any encroachments on its collective independence. (Instead of: Since it is fiercely clan-ridden and individualistic, that nation... .)


Rewrite the following sentences using similar syntactical patterns: 1. They are the first sectarian killings this year. They highlight the increased activity of the Protestants in recent months. 2. The new clerk was hard-working an d reliable; within a short time he had made himself indispensable. 3. Go wen is a former Springbok captain; he has received many international awards for rugby. 4. He was a corpulen t man with a short black moustach e; he was wearing what appeared to be an old military uniform. 5. These groups were jealous of their traditional prerogatives and implacably hostile to any change. They were organised in a supreme council known as the Congress. 6 . He was a solitary man; he was a retired chemist for a large mining company; he had no relations in South Africa. 46

7. Elizabeth Regina, who is more a monarch than a mother, continues to reign and shine. 8 . He was a democrat of the Left and kept a tactical distance from the Communists. 9. She was petty and vindictive, and soon made a bad reput ation for herself. 10. Panama, which was weaker and poorer, was defending itse lf fiercely. 11. I was hungry for knowledge. I was occasionally able to lay my hands on other publications. 12. They were cousins. They were both from failed marriages. They were polar opposites in temperament but equally fragile in character. They conspired in their own destruction. 13. Slovenia was once the scene of Turkish raids, peasant revolts, and religious persecution. It underwent rapid economic development in the nineteenth century. 14. Lumumba was a politician of vibrant energy and ch arismatic powers. He was also abrasive and unstable. 15. Oliver Scott was himself a Vietnam war-veteran . He spares us no details in portraying the full horrors of that conflict. 16. He was almost mad with fear; he tried to reaso n with his captors. 17. He was anxious to appear the peace-broker, an d relished every possibility of mediating between the two sides. 18. He was an admirer of Hitler, and was constantly on the look-out for Nazi paraphernalia. 19. Yeltsin was an old hand in the Kremlin: he was used to such tactics. 20. Jagger was never one to turn down a free meal. He bore Driberg’s company through long lunches at the Ritz. 21. The $87 million structure is cozily small and acoustically excellent, thoug h it will not be to every taste. 22. Mrs Castle has been traditionally at the left of the Labou r Party; she has always been that party’s conscience. 23. Andrew was frequently away on military duty. He began turning Fergie into a grass-widow. 24. He sat there impassively, ashen faced, and purse-lipped; he was an old man close to tears. So far we have examined left-handed sentences which consist of nouns and/or adjectives in apposition to the subject. One special variety, however, exists which deserves attention. If we go back to Passage B of the Monroe-biography and study the first sentence, we 47

will see that the subject of that sentence is not Monroe but Monroe's early life; nonetheless, this subject is preceded by Born and the illegitimate daughter. These words refer, of course, not to early life but to Mon roe , which here is in the possessive case, namely Monroe's. Here is another similar sentence: 4. A writer of the first magnitude, Singer’s books have been translated

into 64 languages. (Instead of: Singer was a writer of the first magnitude. His books have been translated into 64 languages.) Some more conservative authorities of English would question this construction, but ultimately it is up to the individual writer whether he or she wishes to adopt it.


Rewrite these sentences using the same construction: 1. Belloc was a lover of Franc e, Sussex and the sea. His best work lies in his histories where he presents a rich vision of Catholic Christendom. 2. She was a brilliant correspondent: her letters often bettered her more polished efforts in p rint. 3. It is one of the most disturbing films ever made, and its place is now guaranteed in Hollywood’s Valhalla. A more common form of left-handed sentence, however, involves the use of partic iples in apposition to the subject of the sentence, as in the second sentence of Passage B of the Monroe-biography (Selected...) and in the following examples: 5. Lacking a proper infrastructure, that country seems ill-equipped to face the twenty-first century. (Instead of: Since it lacks a proper infrastructure, that country... .) 6 . Written in the 1930s, the book aroused little interest for many years. (Instead of: The book was written in the 1930s. It aroused little interest for many years.) In Example

it is just about possible to start the sentence with Having been writte n..., but Written... is simpler, and therefore more elegant. Generally it is a good idea to avoid past participle passives of the type Having been written etc. Similarly, in Passage B of the

48

6

Monroe-biography, Born ... and Selected... are preferable to Having been born and Having been se lected.


Rewrite these sentences using a participial construction: 1. The sketch, which is drawn in heavy strokes, is a harsh reminder of everyday realities a century ago. 2. He was forced out of office three years later and d evoted the rest of his life to the problems of North-South confrontation. 3. Comprehensive schools were introduced in the 1960s. They sought to guarantee a good education to all, irrespective of their academic abilities. 4. He was galvanised by Franc o’s invasion o f Spain, and covered the war as a journalist. 5. She was abandoned by her moth er at the age o f four and mistook her father’s mistress for her own until the age of eight; she grew up emotionally impoverished. 6 . The Observer was founded in 1791. It is the world’s oldest Sunday newspaper. 7. Wajda’s film, which has been made in black an d white, skilfully evokes the Warsaw of 1939. 8 . She was endowed with an excellent memory and spo ke several languages perfectly. 9. Mladych, who has been waging a campaign of slaughter and has been deaf to threats or pleas for mercy, has led his army to de facto victory. If the sentence expresses a clear causal relationship, then it is generally possible to turn phrases like “he is”, “she was” etc. into the par ticip le being: 7. Being acutely aware of the weakness of his position, he avoided open confrontation. (Instead of Since he was acutely aware of the weakness of his own position, he avoided open confrontation.) Thus, in Example 7, where a causal relationship is expressed, the sentence begins with the participle Being. But it is also possible to leave the word out (“Acutely aware...”). In Example 3, similarly, there is a relation of cause and effect: the fact that “that nation” is “fiercely clan-ridden and individualistic” is 4 — English...

49

bas ical ly the rea so n why it has “thwarted any encroachments on its collective independence”. Thus, it is possible to insert the word Being (“Being fiercely clan-ridden and individualistic...”). Similarly, when we look at Passage B, the fact that Monroe was “Complex, driven, demanding and self-absorbed” explains her behav iour at interviews. Therefore it is possible to insert the participle Being be for e “ Co mp lex ...” . In sente nces like this one , as well as tho se in Examples 3 and 7, you must decide how close you wish to be to a literary register: leaving out being is more typical of literary registers than inserting it. By contrast, when we go back to Example 2 the fact that the subject was “a lonely figure” is merely an interesting circumstance, and not the actua l reason why he “react[ed]... to the political situation” . Therefore the word Being should not be inserted before “a lonely figure”.


Look at Exercises 12, 13 and 14 above and decide whether it is pos sibl e to use the par tici ple being. Here are two more examples of participial clauses: 8. Suffering a major heart attack in 1925, he lived for another four

years, producing some of his finest work during that period. 9. Studying in Paris from 1910 to 1913, he returned to London in 1914, joining up with the British Army a year later. Examples 8 and 9 illustrate a curious feature of English style: people often write Suffering... and Studying... etc., using the present participle, when what they actually mean is Having suffered... and Having studied... One clause in Passage B of the Monroe-text (“becoming a forces’ pin-up overnight”) is similar, since what it really means is “having become...". In other words, the tense of the participle may sometimes be simplified, as long as it does not mislead the reader. In the last sentence of Passage B of the Monroe-biography and in Examples 8 and 9 above we actually have a participial clause coming afte r the main verb (exercising a hypnotic fascination..., producing..., 50

joining up...). Such a syntactic pattern is almost as frequent as those

that go before the main verb. Here are two more examples: 10. They sat there drinking wine, completely unmoved by the spectacle. 11. He stood there, a lonely and alo of figure.

Need less to say, such senten ces are some times refe rred to as ‘right-handed’.


Rewrite the following sentences, using syntactical patterns outlined above: 1. The liberals came third. They polled 14% of the vote. 2. He was the first Indian leader to achieve internati onal status. He became a symbolic figure throughout the Continent. He gave people a new pride and confidence in themselves. 3. Grass’s novels are prolix, sprawling and anarchic; nevertheless, they are full of delights for those who persevere: they offer profound insights into the creative mind. 4. 1 am God’s victim: I have been lying in Delhi for two weeks now like Lazarus; I have been struggling against fever. 5. Lumumba became increasingly radicalised by the difficulties his government faced in the immediate aftermath of independence. He turned to the USSR for support. Thus he alienated the Western powers. Left- and right-handed clauses are also very useful in rewriting clauses involving the conjunctions as, because, since and {although: 12. Living as I do in a heavily industrialised area, I often go to the mountains for fresh air. (Instead of. As, Because, Since I live....) 13. These beliefs are rejected by modern science, finding them misguided as it does. (Instead of. ...as, because, since it finds them misguided.) 14. Annoyed though he was, he said nothing. (Instead of: Though he was annoyed....)

N.B. This con stru ctio n can only be used with the wor ds as and though. Cf. also pp. 65-66. 51


Rewrite the following sentences, using the syntactical pattern outlined above: 1. Since they were tired after the long journey, they had no great desire to socialise. 2. She decided to ignore his invitation, since she was annoyed by his earlier welcome. 3. Th ough it is inadequate, it is still our only source for the sain t’s life. 4. Since I am a poor sinner, it is not for me to instruct othe rs. 5. Capital punishment has generally disappeared from West-European coun tries, as they find it distasteful. 6 . I work in the police force. I (thus) have special opportunities to study criminals. So far we have been looking at sentences where the subject of the pa rtic ipi al clau se is, gen erall y spe akin g, the same as th at of the mai n verb. One particular kind of related construction deserves special attention, since it is very widely used in more sophisticated English. Instead of writing something like 15a. Since most people in Srebrenica have not eaten f or several days, the situation there is desperate. it is easy to formulate the sentence as follows: 15b. With most people in Srebrenica not having eaten for several days, the situation there is desperate. Here we see that not having eaten takes the place of have n ot eaten. In other words, the construction involves the use of the word with and the substitution of a participle for one of the finite verbs. Other sentences can be treated the same way: 16. With the discussion breaking down and many of the delegates arguing furiously, the assembly had to adjourn. (Instead of. The discussion was breaking down and many of the delegates were arguing furiously. In these circumstances the assembly had to adjourn.) 17. With the central authority growing weaker and weaker, there was a resurgence of local nationalisms. (Instead of As the central authority grew weaker and weaker, there was a resurgence of local nationalisms.) 52

One final example is particularly noteworthy: 18a. When negotiations finally failed, the future began to look very bleak indeed. Here it is possible to formulate the sentence as follows: 18b. With negotiations having failed, the future began to look very bleak indeed. or: 18c. With negotiations failing, the future.... In other words, the tense of the participle may sometimes be simplified, especially when there is no danger of causing confusion. This is reminiscent of Examples 8 and 9 as well as of a sentence in Passage B of the Monroe-text (“becoming a forces’ pin-up overnight”). “Right-handers” are possible as well: 19. Wildlife has been severely affected, with many species moving northwards. (Instead of: Wildlife has been severely affected and many species have been moving northwards.) Here the words have been mov ing have been replaced by moving. (It is also possible to write having been moving, but doing so adds nothing to clarity; the phrase is longer, and therefore less elegant.) 20. The Latin system of cases gradually fell into disuse, with their functions being generally taken over by various prepositions. {Instead of: ...and their functions were generally taken over....) In the latter example, the words were taken over arę replaced by being taken over. Bu t it is also possible to leave ou t being (“...with their functions taken over ...”). 21 .

South Africa is now well on the way to regaining international respectability, with all remaining restrictions on trade now being lifted. (Instead of: All remaining restrictions on trade are now being lifted.) Here a present participle ( being lifted) replaces the present continu ous (are being lifted). In this particular example it would be wrong to miss out the word being and to write “with all restrictions on trade now lifted ” , since that would imply that all remaining restrictions have already been lifted. 53

$

I

Thus, in several of the sentences examined in this section we may note a tendency to simplify the verb form whenever it is possible to do so without misleading the reader. Sometimes instead of a participial construction a ‘nominalisation’ is also possible. For example, going back to Example 17 (“With the central authority growing weaker and weaker...”), one might just as easily write: With the steady weakening of the central autho rity....

Similarly, Examples 18b and c can be replaced by: With the failure o f negotiations.... Suggested Exercises (18):

Use left- or right-handed constructions with the following sentences, after deciding where they can best be applied; when you are in doubt, rephrase tho se words which explain, illustrate, or generally complement the basic statement: 1. Pressure is growing of Belgrade: Germany’s foreign minister has been calling for Serbia’s international isolation. 2. India’s political life is undergoing great changes, and many women are running for Congress. 3. Inflation is running at over 50%. The Government must do something soon. 4. The other day I saw a young couple kissing passionately in the Metro, while other Parisians were paying not the slightest attention. 5. There have been huge demonstrations throughout Germany; the biggest ones have been taking place in Berlin and Koln. 6 . The political crisis is deepening: the prime minister has offered his resignation, but the president has refused to accept it. 7. The third system is syllabic: one sign stands for one syllable. 8 . The campaign is entering a final phase, and no prisoners are being taken. 9. Coloure d glass works in a similar way: the ray of light penetrates our aura. 10. Exploding popula tions are pl unging such countries into seemingly irreversible poverty. How will they find the resources to embark on the industrialisation that will bring employment? 54

11. There are ominous signs of a deterioration in the situation, and several cases of cholera have been recorded. 12. Hung ary’s situation is likely to improve: workers are being made to realise that industry cannot be subsidised indefinitely. 13. As the launch was called off five times due to technical problems , take-off came as a great relief. 14. The British Isles have been experiencing unusually har sh weather. Heavy rain has been falling in SE England. 15. Mrs Aquino has been declared the winner, while Mrs Imelda Marcos came second. 16. Speculation has been continuing about the marriage of the Prince and Princess of Wales, and Princess Diana has taken a two-week skiing holiday in Switzerland. 17. The country seems set to disintegrate, and the South will fall under Afghanistan’s influence. 18. The Mexican government is trying to steer a middle course between inflation and recession. The IMF is breathing down its neck and says that inflation is the lesser of the two evils. 19. World attention has been focussed on Bosnia. The Somalian famine has been largely ignored. 20. There have been renewed reports o f officially sponsored terro rism in the Punjab: the security forces have been supposedly acting as judge, jury, and executioner. 21. The shortage of organs is critical: many people die every year for lack of suitable donors. 22. Three quarters of the vote has already been declared. Pre sident Bush is conceding defeat. 23. Europe’s foreign exchanges have opened to a stormy start. The pound is expected to come under renewed pressure. 24. Work has been planned for the weekends. We will ensure that as few passengers as possible are affected by the service changes. 25. The Pentagon has published its long-awaited report on the Gulf War. A number of embarrassing facts have been omitted. 26. In the novel the affair seems both loveless and characterles s; Marlowe has been cast as the heartless sadist. 27. Three thousand foreigners were convicted in the UK in 1992. It makes more sense to have them serve their sentences in their native countries. 55

25a. The Ang olan civil war has reached a new stage of intensity. The worst fighting has been around Huambo.

Left- and right-handed sentences are especially possible when there are clauses containing the verb to be. Let us look at the following sentence:

Here the sentence can be joined in the way wh ich we have already seen:

22a. Since the Japanese are do minant in so many fields, the West will do well to understand something of their psychology.

25b. The Angolan civil war has reached a new stage of intensity, with the worst fighting having been around Huambo.

Here, if we wish to use a left-handed sentence, the verb of the subordinate clause (are) can simply be changed into the participle: 22b. With the Japanese being dominant in so many fields, the West will do well to understand something of their psychology. Similarly, the sentence 23a. There are many remarkable features of English life, and love of tradition is one of them. can be made more elegant by putting the second verb in the participle: 23b. There are many remarkable features of English life, with love of tradition being one of them. However, in b oth of these examples it is possible to leave the participle

But it is also possible to leave out the having been: 25c. The Angolan civil war has reached a new stage of intensity, with the worst fighting around Huambo. Similarly, if we take the sentence 26a. Since its quorum was complete, the Congress proceeded with its agenda. the word was can be rendered elliptically: 26b. With its quorum complete, the Congress proceeded with its agenda.


being out:

22e. With the Japanese dominant in so many fields.... 23c. There are many remarkable features of English life, with love of tradition one of them. It is not always a matter of taste whether the participle being is to be left ou t or no t. In a nu mb er of co mm on phr ase s, especi ally ones involving adverbs or prepositions (including to be up, to be down, to be under, to be behind , to be to , to be about to , to be due t o , to be set to, to be stil l to ), the word being is generally left out: 24a. Lond on is faced by a pressing law-and-order problem: th e crime rate is up by 50% since last year. 24b. London is faced by a pressing law-and-order problem, with the crime rate up by 50% since last year. In left- or right-handed sentences other tenses of the verb to be are also frequently rendered in an elliptical manner: 56

Convert the following sentences, using the structure(s) introduced above: 1. The Bosnian peace-talks are resuming in Geneva today. The new proposals are at the top of the agenda. 2. Now that Communism is gone, we have ceased to live in a bipolar world. 3. All of Southern Africa is suffering from a severe droug ht. Mo zambique and Zimbabwe are among the worst-hit countries. 4. Big celebrations are planned for tomorrow, an d the Pope is due to address the crowds in St Peter’s Square. 5. The impeachment proceedings against the president are continuing this week. The commission is likely to find him guilty. 6 . The crisis in Italy is deepening: the parties there are appare ntly unable to form a government. 7. The Allies are about to capture the key city of Basra, and Saddam Hussein’s position now looks very weak indeed. 57

8.

The Ear th Summit in Rio is drawing to an end, an d the USA is in danger of being completely isolated. 9. The Iraq W ar sparked off lots of good will, while the USA, UK, France, China and the USSR were especially willing to discuss arms control. 10. The economic crisis in Japan looks set to continue: the One Hundred Index is currently 14 points down on last week. 11. Since Nelson Man dela was in prison, it was Oliver Tambo who provided the ANC with leadership through the darkest years of apartheid. 12. Talks are ab out to begin in London, and regional security will be high on the agenda. 13. The plan called for the collectivisation of agriculture; the surplus food was to be used for the rapid development of heavy industry. 14. One million people are o ut o f work and th e country is deep in recession. General prospects are gloomy. 15. Ted Dexte r was on 47. The game was adjourned till the following day. 16. T here must be a reorg anisation o f the education system, in such a way that teachers will be free to implement the syllabus as they like. 17. The meeting was over, and so the delegates went home. 18. As food an d medicines are in short supply, the situatio n is desperate. 19. Democracy itself is unde r threat, and the reforms deserve all the support they can get. 20. As the president wants more power and parliament is fragmented, the political impasse looks set to continue. 21. Since demand is low, shops are struggling. 22. There will be a tough referendum later this month. President Yeltsin’s position has never looked weaker. 23. A new nation al curriculum will be introduced, and Shakespeare is to be compulsory reading for teenagers. 24. Since the situ ation is as it is, extreme caution is necessary.

Exercise 18 (p. 54-55) 9 (the ray o f light penetrating...) (several cases of cholera having been recorded) (workers being made to realise...) 25 (a number of embarrassing fac ts having been omitted) 26 (Marlowe having been cast...) 11

12

Exercise 19 (pp. 57-58) 3 (Mozambique and Zimbabwe being among..) (the parties there being apparently unable to...) (the USA... being especially willing...) (The meeting over, the delegates...) (Food and medicine being...) (The situation being as it is...)

6

9 17 18 24

Whether or not the word with may be left out seems in many cases to be a matter of the writer’s intuition. When with is left out, it is usually (though not always) necessary to add a participle1. With is necessary in most cases. There exist a number of useful phrases which employ a similar construction: 1.

...the aim being to... The book is divided into five sections, the aim being to make it easier for the reader to find his way around.

2.

the (basic, main etc.) idea being to..., the (basic, main etc.) idea being that... should..., A special ballot-procedure will be introduced, the idea being to guarantee absolute fairness. In April 1991 John Major proposed the establishment of a Kurdish enclave in Iraq, the idea being that such an enclave should be supervised by UN forces.

Sometimes the word with can be left out. This is especially possible in the following instances: example 18b (Negotiations having failed...) example 20 (their Junctions being...) example 23b (love of tradition being...) example 25b (the wo rst fighting having been...) example 26b (Its quorum complete, the Congress...) 58

3. ...the only problem being (that)... This is a very plausible theory, the only problem being that certain things remain unexplained by it. 1

See also below, p. 60. 59

4. ...an [one] example being..., examples being...

There have been cases of former Communist leaders benefiting from the “new world order”, an example being President Milosevic of Serbia. 5. ...the (basic, essential, main, most important) difference being (that)...

The literary language of Silver Latin is much the same as that of the Golden Age, the main difference being the predilection for terseness and novelty o f expression. (Or: ...the main difference being that terseness and novelty of expression were of crucial importance etc.) 6. ...the suspicion being that...

The relatives are calling for a massive police-hunt, the suspicion being that the girl has been abducted.

7. ...the implication being that...

The UN has always tried to negotiate with the Moslems and Serbs of Bosnia in an impartial manner, the implication being that the Moslems and the Serbs are morally on a par. 8. ...the reason being that... (Cf. below, pp. 84-87.) ...the rationale being that...

Finally, there exists an impo rtant variation o f the above construction which is especially typical of literary narrative. It consists usually of a right-handed sentence, but with one crucial difference: generally speaking, neither the word with nor any participle is present. Thus, to take an example, let us look at the following sentences: 27a. She turned to him. Her eyes were bright and clear.

This can easily be rewritten as: 27b. She turned to him, her eyes bright and clear.

The most important thing to remember about this last construction, exemplified in 27b, is that it is mainly ‘right-handed’, coming after the main verb, and that it is restricted to brief descriptions in literary contexts. 60


A:

Rewrite these sentences more appropriately. In none of them is the word with necessary. In those marked with an asterisk (*) the word with is hardly possible:

1 . The delegates have gone home: the problem has been resolved already. 2. Since unity was restored, the Huns continued their advance. 3* Some ethnic groups are famous for their longevity. Examples are the Abkhazians in Georgia, the Hunza in the Kashmir, and the Indians of Vilcabamba in Peru. 4* Since his suspicions were aroused, he ordere d a search of the house. 5* If the weather permits and if there is enough time, I’ll be dropping by early next week. 6. After his speech was over Yeltsin walked out. 7* Mr Vance is on his second peace mission (the first one failed). 8 * Students who retake the year must pay extra for their studies; the idea is to increase student motivation. 9* The Government drastically increased taxes; its aim was to resolve the budget crisis. 10* This is a good proposal: the only problem is that oth ers may not agree to it. 11. In 1937 he left for the USA. His inventio n was still his own. 12. My round was over. I proceeded to the prison gate. 13. He sat silently for hours. Copies of his official reports to the Kais er were on his knees. 14. The South Sea Bubble began with a perfectly plausible scheme to ship slaves from London to South America. (King George I was one of the better-known names.) 15. The eunuch sat at the entrance to the harem. A dagger was tucked into his belt. 16* She was the daughter of a shop-assistant and a man whose name she knew but whom she had never met (he had abandoned her mother one week before her birth). 17. They stood outside. Their faces were against the veranda windows. 18* As there was no further business, the meeting broke up. 19. He watched his father disappear down the hallway: his black boots were squeaking; his bent silhouette was framed by the light. 20. She turned away; her eyes were red with tears.

61

21. He sat by the window; a cigarette was in his hand. 22. The king sat on his throne. The hall was illumined by twelve magnificent chandeliers. 23. The country has a tota l foreign debt of 40 billion dollars. The largest share is owed to Germany. 24. Ali came in. His blue turba n had been newly bound. 25* They held out until one by one their fortresses were subdued. (The last one was Masada.) 26* With 150 troops the UN has created a safe-zone in Srebrenica. The logic is that the Serbs would not dare to attack them. 27. The colonel assumed a suitable attitude, and his right hand was thrust into the front of his frock coat. 28. Private enterprise was responsible for most new construction in the 1980s. (Wimpey Homes were typical of the domestic architecture of that era.) 29* John spoke of himself as “the voice of one crying in the wilderness”. (The allusion was to the fulfilment of the prophecy in Isaiah xl.) 30. I collapsed; the taste of blood was in my mouth. 31* She gazed at them with admiratio n. He r face then wore a grave and serious expression. 32. I kept driving throug h a country at war. (A cloud of dust was behind me.) 33. Since America is America, any result is possible. 34. They refused the king’s request. The prime minister in particula r was using strong language. 35. Is this a normal job like any other, while the only difference is that the office or laboratory is separated from the home by a distance of several thousand kilometers? 36. He stood there. His whole attitude conveyed an impression of unutterable contempt. 37. We arrived. Our pockets were bulging with banknotes. 38. The Gipsies were forced to work as boilermakers (special use was made of their age-old crafts in metalworking). 39. Miss Fenn walked barefo ot onto the set; golden tresses were flying behind her, and she was accompanied by her official Best Friend and masseur. 40* The prisoners ’ attack on the sex-offender was likely to be repeated, since it would be otherwise impossible to contain the moral outrage of thieves, arsonists and murderers. 62

41* These wax figures are produced only for external consumption. Their role is to frighten non-Gipsies and engender superstitious awe. 42. He grimaced like a child; fears filled his eyes. 43* We canno t say on the basis of the New Testament how many apparitions there were. The traditional number of 12 is quite arbitrary. 44. It has been five years since the coming down o f the Berlin Wall. Its destruction is symbolic of the fall of communism. B. C.

Write a biographical entry for a famous person. Review any book or film.

I.

The Sogdians were historically insignificant, so we can leave these Persians (if they were in fact Persians) until a later chapter. The Sogdians were historically insignificant, so we can leave these Persians, if such they were, until a later chapter.

J.

The general was expecting the rebels to attack, and they did attack. The general was expecting the rebels to attack, and attack they did.

K.

Emphasis is one of the most important means of commanding the reader’s attention. It is often achieved by using word-order which is unexpected, out of the ordinary, and untypical of any colloquial register. Obviously it is not be overused.

“Th at nice gentleman is Ernest Hemingway” , she whispered. He was certainly Ernest Hemingway, but he was not nice. “That nice gentleman is Ernest Hemingway”, she whispered. Ernest Hemingway he was. Nice he was not.

L.

Europe has been transforme d. The Warsaw Pact is gone. Europe has been transformed. Gone is the Warsaw Pact.

1. Deviation from the Expected Word-order

M.

Emphasis

Sometimes emphasis can be achieved merely by a deviation from the expected word-order, as in the following pairs:

As the pollutio n is heavy, it will be a big task cleaning up the coastline. Heavy as the pollution is, it will be a big task cleaning up the coastline.

N. A. B.

Those who find homes are lucky. Lucky are those who find homes.

C. D.

F.

It would be better to change the construction altogether. The Kurd s were told to rise against Saddam. They did so, and now they have been betrayed. The Kurds were told to rise against Saddam. That they did , and now they have been betrayed. No t the slightest sound came from the audience. From the audience came not the slightest sound.

G.

He did not pay her the slightest attention. He paid her not the slightest attention.

H.

Notwith standi ng our economic difficulties, life in our country continues. Our economic difficulties notwithstanding, life in our country continues.

64

O.

Although he wanted very much to study, he had to go out and support the family. Much as he wanted to study, he had to go out and support the family.

P.

No matter how hard he tried, he could not find the place on the map. Try as he might, he could not find the place on the map.

Q.

The problem is so difficult tha t a solution is many years off. So difficult is the problem that a solution is many years off.

I sat there sullen and withdrawn. There I sat, sullen and withdrawn. Better would be to change the construction altogether.

E.

Thoug h the city is cha rming, it does have its disadvantages. Charming though the city is, it does have its disadvantages, or: Charming as the city is... or: However charming the city is...

The tension moun ted slowly. Slowly the tension mounted.

In all of the sentences except G and H emphasis is achieved by br ing ing th e thi ng s to be em ph as ise d (slowly, lucky, there, better, that, fro m the audience, such, att ac k, nice, gone, heav y, charming, much, try , so difficult) to the front. In sentence I the words if they were in fact Persians have been transformed into the phrase if such they were....

65

In sentence O the words Although... very much have been transformed into the phrase Much as ... . In sentence P the words No ma tte r how hard he trie d have been transformed into Try as he might. In sentences similar to N the w ords as and though are no t completely interchangeable: sometimes the use of as may give rise to ambiguity. To be on the safe side, it is better to use though with such sentences all the time. A much less common syntactic pattern is to place the word to be emphasised at the end. Thus, if one takes the sentence There are many causes of Rome’s fall. the preferred form of emphasis is to put the word many at the end: The causes of Rome’s fall are many. This syntactic pattern is, however, generally limited to the words few , man y, and seve ral, and to possessive adjectives (see below, p. 69). This last example might be found in the introductory or concluding sentences of a paragraph or essay, and it is in such places that emphatic constructions are especially appropriate. Anyone reading sentence B ( Lu cky are those who fin d homes.) would naturally expect the ensuing sentences to explain why o r how they are lucky. Similarly, sentence K (Nice he was not.) would be typical in an essay that is about to present a character-assassination of Hemingway. Even when they are not in introductions or conclusions, such sentences are very often explained, illustrated, or generally enlarged upon by subsequent sentences. Thus sentence J (...and attack they did.) could naturally be expected to introduce a description of the rebels’ attack.

2.

Some people think tha t the book is not only well written bu t brilliant as well. The book is well written; it is not brilliant.

3. We have called Chinghis “kin g” , and in fact he now was a king. 4. The disease strikes its victims down so quickly that children who were playing in the m orning may be d ead in the af ternoon. 5. Thoug h it is lovely here, I do not want to stay. 6.

There ar &few trains at that time of the day.

7. The army begged Alexander to turn back. He refused to do that, and he did not listen to his mother’s entreaties. 8.

Thou gh they are dull-witted, they are not totally incapable of instruction.

9. The Government wished this trading in missile technology to continue. So, it continued, right up to the invasion of Kuwait. 10. He is not charismatic, but he radiates honesty and reliability. 11. Though it is good, it still fails to satisfy the highest criteria. 12. The audience were there to see Nijinsky dance, and he danced. 13. They have been so persuasive that they have won over many people. 14. Fath er is working again. He is not lazy, that is certain. 15. They had to supp lement their food supply. They did this by hunting. 16. To attain her objectives she needed to murder a nd she did indeed murder. (Leave out “indeed”.) 17. Although he tried very hard, he could make no progress. 18. In June 1957 Toth info rmed his superiors th at I was “a British intelligence officer who slandered Hungary in the London press.” I never was an officer: I was just a simple journalist. 19. Though it seems odd, he was actually a very good musician. 20. Th at is all that I remember. I canno t say anything more. 21. Little kindness was shown by the teachers; there was brutality in abundance. 22. Altho ugh the place appealed to him very much, it did not stop him from becoming depressed.


Make the following sentences more emphatic (sometimes the words to be em ph as ise d ar e in italic s): 1. T houg h it may sound incredible, this is what actually happened. 66

23. As he was a good organiser, he had made all the necessary arrangements long in advance. 24. To civilised neighbours the nomads always appeared to live a free and happy life on the wide expanses of the steppes. They were not free, their very wanderings being bound by strict rules. 67

traumatic to Chrysler employees, they have 25. Though the cutbacks are traumatic absolutely overwhelmed Wall Street analysts. 26. 26. But back to Abdullah junior. He is not Sinatra, nor ever will be, but there are worse disasters in this world than not being Frankie-boy. fortunate. 27. Th ose few who who reach America are fortunate. 28. The vampire’s eyes were bright and piercing; its hair was brown and its face was brown; its body was pale and skeletal; it had no blood at all. 29. Thu s Madrid has plenty of disadvantages. It is not ‘Romantic Spain’, but it does evoke an extreme, sometimes delirious attachment. suppressed ssed.. 30. They needed suppressing an d they would be suppre 31. To conclude, it is hard to find arguments against disestablishing the disestablish lished. ed. Otherwise it will Church o f England. England. I t should certainly be disestab forfeit any claim to moral authority. 32. 32. I under stand yo ur argument, b ut I don ’t agree with it. it. such that any reform of it is impossible. 33. 33. The nature of that party is such 34. My ministry sometimes takes exceptional measures: we make short-term that. loans available to struggling enterprises. We certainly do that. 35. At first the stud ent may feel that this is all that really matters. It certainly does matter, but it should be stressed that other aspects need to be taken into consideration as well. fighting 36. 36. They regarded trad e as being sordid and ignoble; they considered fighting together together a path to glory. surprising ing, they are not the worst. 37. 37. Thoug h it may seem surpris next. 38. 38. Catego ry B prisoners come next. 39. Though they are violent, they are still preferable to the others. 40. Murder s do not happe n too frequently. Cases of children being introduce d to a criminal way of life are, however, very common. 41. Islam tried to co nquer the world. It failed to do that, but it did lead to the founding of a new society. 42. Though the influence of classical music was great, it was Celtic folk tradition that was all-important for him. 43. There must be taxes. There must be taxes . But we must be careful they do not act as a disincentive. 44. There are several reasons for this behaviour. 45. Before the war Yugoslavia was well on its way to western-style prosperity. The large private houses overlooking the roadside hills were most impressive. 68

dogs. 46. They believed in being top dogs and they were top dogs. Al. If they had heard anything — and they must be hearing something g — then hearing somethin

it was not discernible from their postures. 48. The suggestion that the king of Saudi Arabia sent the Conser vatives 10 million dollars is ludicrous. The suggestion that the sultan of Brunei sent us an enormous donation is equally ludicrous. remove that, you will remove the last remaining safeguard of 49. If you remove democracy. 2. Emphasis by Mea ns o f Poss essi ve Words

The following are particular kinds of deviation from the expected word-order. Again, these syntactic patterns are to be used sparingly. Al. It is their decision. theirs. The decision is theirs. 2. They are your words.

yours. The words are yours. B.

They write down every word of his. his every word. They write down his

N.B. ‘his (her etc.) every word ’ has a rather formal, even literary ring to it. The construction is found only with every. C. This is also the place to draw attention to another useful construction, occurring in the following example: Our greatest writer lived a century ago. His was a life o f hardship hardship and persecution, and yet he lived to see his coun try liberated. (C f the the more one o f hardship... hardship....) usual: His life was one


Make the following sentences sentences more emph atic by means o f the the syntactic pa tte rn s de scr ibe d abo ve: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Their situatio n was hopeless in the extreme. Ou r country is not normal. He r family was hardly an ordin ary one. I would not wish his fate as my own. own. 69

5. I t was basically her problem. 6.

H e was looked u pon as an intelligent man, but his intelligence was very peculiar. 7. His genius was far from being purely destructive. 8 . Our area is particularly important. 9. T heir depth of feeling feeling is authentic. 10. 10. It is his decision. 11. 11. His achievement was magnificent. 12. 12. Our predic ament is unique. 13. 13. They would refuse all her requests. 14. 14. Our society is increasingly hypocritical. 15. 15. My generation was the first one to question this. 16. 16. Her case is not an isolated one. 17. 17. His study is the first serious one of Rasputin .

3. Inversion afte r Ne gati ve Expre ssion s and ‘Only9

Ne ga tiv e inv er sio n is on e o f th e wa ys to ach iev e em ph asi s. By pl ac in g an y o f th e fol low ing wo rd s an d ph ras es at th e beg inn ing , the word-order may be inverted: 1. On no account On no account is this medicine to be taken with alcohol. (Cf. the less emphatic: This medicine is on no account to be taken with alcohol.) 2. Under no circumstances Under no circumstances is a reapplication possible. 3. In no way In no way can the veracity of this account be called into question. veraci ty o f this account can can in no no way be called cal led (Cf. the less emphatic: The veracity into question.) 4. Nowhere Nowhere Nowhere will you find more interesting conditions. 5. At no time. Not (even) once, Never once, Never before, Never again a. At no time was the president aware of this scheme. (Cf. the less emphatic: The president was never at any time aware of this scheme scheme.) once ( Not once once) did he b. Never once he complain. complain even even once.) once.) (Cf. the less emphatic: He did not complain 70

before have have I encountered such incompetence. c. Never before again was was she to see her children. d. Never again (Cf. the less emphatic: She was never again to see her children .)

N.B. The word never cannot on its own result in an inversion of the word-order. Thus you cannot say, “Never could I be a yuppie”, “Never would I say that one is better than the other” etc. 6. Seldom, Rarely; Rarely; Hardly/Scarcely Hardly/Scar cely ever been found in these parts. (Cf. the a. Seldom has such a beautiful specimen been less emphatic: Such a beautiful specimen has seldom ever been found....) were the predictions justified. b. Hardly ever were 7. Hardly... Hardly.. . when..., Scarcely... Scarcely. .. when... when... Hardly had the the book appeared when it was attacked in the press. (Cf. the less emphatic: The book had hardly appeared when it was attacked in the press.) 8. No sooner... than... No sooner had the scandal died down than another one flared up. (Cf. the less emphatic: The scandal had no sooner died down than an other other one one flared u p) 9. Not only... also... Not only is he misguided: he is also dishonest. misguided d but but also dishones dishonestt .) (Cf. the less emphatic: He is not only misguide 10. Neither/Nor

nor are they to be unpunctual. Teachers are not to miss classes; nor (Cf. the less emphatic: Teachers are neither to miss classes nor to be unpunctual.) 11. 11. Little

a. Little did she she realise that she had made a major breakthrough in medicine. (Cf. the less emphatic: She did not realise that... .) b. Little did she she know that the wicked stepmother was planning to poison her. N.B. This construction is very typical of narrative, and in particular of children’s tales.

12. 12. Only

a. Only after a considerable time will the the effects become apparent. b. Only in a few countries is environmental pollution not a significant problem. c. Only in this way can the problem be solved. d. Nurses must be better paid. Only then will their their motivation increase. can the problem be solved. e. Only by logical reasoning can Cf. the less emphatic: The effects will become apparent only after a consid considerab erable le time etc . 71

And if this event were were recorded in some B ook o f the the Ye ar, we might order the sentence thus:


Mak e the following sentences sentences more em phatic by means o f the syntactic pa tte rn s de scr ibe d abo ve: 1. This thou ght did n ot cross her mind even once. 2. They were were no sooner released released by order of the court thanthey thanthey were rearrested by the police. 3. He did not understand the complexities of the situation or its dangers. He understood the weakness of his own position least of all. 4. He is not only a buffoon: he is a dangero us buffoon. 5. One can become accomplished in this art only after manyyears manyyears of determined application. application. 6 . Such people mu st in no way be antagonised . 4. It is ( wa s). .. who (th at ). ..

Especially relevant for writers of good English are certain words and expressions which offer an opportunity to change the word-order, above all the word-pattern it is (was)... who (that).... Consider the following branching sentence:

Leon Trotsky Trotsky was assassin assassinate ated d

■

on the orders of Stalin in Mexico Mexico City City on August 20, 1940

It was was in August of that same year that the assassination took place of

Leon Trotsky....


Make the following following sentences sentences more em phatic by means of the syntactic pa tte rn de scr ibe d ab ove : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Jac k ough t to apologize, not Jill. I saw him again only afte r many years. Tom made the decision, not Jerry. At tha t moment gunfire was heard. Medic al science deserves all the credit. The principle of the “balance of terror” prevented war.

5. What. .. is (w as ). .., The thing that ... is (w as ). ..

There also exists a somewhat similar construction, one widely used in English. Instead of writing a sentence like: He was fascinated above all by the phenomenon of telepathy. \

many would prefer to rephrase this as: In a biography of Trotsky he would, as here, be regarded as the most important element of the sentence and put in the subject po sit io n, na me ly th e v ery beg inn ing . If, ho we ver , th e sen tenc e oc cu rre d in a book about Stalin, we would prob ably find a different word-order:

What fascinated him above all was was the phenomenon of telepathy.

or:

The thing that fascinated him above all was the phenomenon of

telepathy.

Stalin ordered the assassination....

or:


It was Stalin who (that) ordered....

And if this event were recorded in a book about Mexico City, we might order the sentence thus: It was was also in Mexico City that the assassination took place of Leon

Trotsky. 72

Make th e following following sentences sentences more em phatic by means of the syntactic pa tte rn de scr ibe d abo ve: 1. We want greater democracy on the campus. 2. We’re not saying that the situation will improve overnight; we’re saying that these are the right policies to pull the country out of recession. 73

3.

4. 5. 6.

7.

They don’t deserve kid-glove treatment: they deserve the full rigour of the law. He liked writing vitriolic reviews of his colleagues’ books more than anything else. We do not expect you to kn ow everything; we would, however, like you to learn the basics. I like his attitude more th an anything. These latest revelations do not show that the Government’s financial sources are immoral: they show that the Government’s finances are subject to a certain imbalance in political funding.

8 . Abru pt Sente nce- Alter natio ns

The following rhetorical device is occasionally met with: Liberalism believes that poverty and social injustice cause crime. They do not. Conservatism teaches that potential criminals can be deterred by harsh penalties. They cannot. Here the effect consists in ab rup t alternations o f long and laconically short sentences.


6. Re sum ptive Use o f ‘this’ or ‘these*

The following construction is rarely used — and even then in rather exalted contexts; nonetheless, it is useful to know: The Yuan period in China, Moghul art and literature in India and Persia, these have given treasures to humanity which will remain forever precious.


Restructure the following sentence in a similar way: The will to change the world, to make it different or even better, to do things differently, to create new priorities, is what characterises the way of thinking of each new generation.

7. Climactic Word-order Compare the following two sentences: Quality and q uantity are the only ingredients necessary for a good meal. For a good meal only two ingredients are necessary — quality and quantity.

In the second sentence the effect is achieved by putting the element to be emphasised at the end, and separated by a dash. 74

Try to make the following sentences more emphatic, using any of the syntactic patterns described above (italics are given for guidance): 1. His childhood was singularly unhappy. 2. I have seldom read a more enjoyable book. 3. Such people deserve the most exemplary punishments. 4. She ought to know that. 5. Their view of the world is deeply pessimistic. 6 . She liked sailing mos t of all. 7. She never complained even once. 8 . Why should I reform myself? You should reform yourself! 9. Tho ugh I enjoy his writings very much, he is not my favourite autho r. 10. Our part of the world is very beautiful. 11. He never apologised even once. 12. He little realised that he was entering a trap. 13. John stole the money. (I did not steal it.) 14. It is basically your responsibility. 15. The night drew on imperceptibly. 16. The dose may be exceeded under no circumstances. 17. As he was a good general , he lost no time in occupying all the strategic points around . 18. He had little idea that his best friend was against him. 19. Env ironmen tal protection is adequa te only in a few co untries. 20. In watching a boxing match, it is silly to ask why the boxers are there. The reasons why the spectators are there are far more disturbing. 75

21. Their names are the only Armenian ones in the cemetery. 22. The desperatio n of the people in the besieged town is such that cannibalism is rife. 23. All three of the JFK-bio grap hers ten d towards hostility to their subject. Ellen Wayne is guiltiest of this. 24. That nation has a characteristic tendency to exclude foreigners. 25. The Bosnian Serbs have never given this goal up at any time . 26. The night belongs to us. 27. She seemed to be the mother of all the accused — her looks, her smile were so full of tender anxiety. Though it may seem strange, she had received the police with pistol shots and had wounded one of them in the head. 28. The Greeks’ unbroken descent from Homer, Plato, and Alexander sets them apart; they have a higher civilisation, a loftier destiny. 29. I had never seen anyone more grotesque than this Sumo-wrestler in my entire life. 30. The concept of death needs to be redefined, and it is redefined : in the teachings of the Orthodox Church. 31. To quote the Bible: “Vengeance belongs to m e” 32. Now he gave the order. 33. She was in no way informed o f what was happening. 34. He had the ordinary condition of a condemned man, resembling a deep stupor. 35. The solutio n to the Bosnian proble m has two components — air strikes and ground forces. NATO certainly has one component, namely air strikes. It does not, however, have the readiness to commit ground forces. 36. “A beautiful, simple solution,” said the doctor, po inting to his suicide-kit. It may be simple, but it raises the horrifying spectre of abuse of assisted suicide. 37. The disease of loneliness is more devastating than malaria, fevers or dysentery. 38. Ma ny old colleagues of mine were already MPs or even ministers. And I was here, trekking across endless deserts in search of a few pathetic human remnants. 39. Very rich, very thin people give me migraine. I ca n just ab out cope with the rich,famous and fa t , but I have major problems with the seriously slim variety. 76

40. But he doesn’t include this wonderful anecdote. After all, his book is a serious one. 41. The convers ation was in Swahili, and I did not understand a word. 42. I suddenly felt that, thou gh it was a sad truth, I had been more at home back there in the desert than here now. 43. The problem facing the G7 is not the amount of money to be found. Though it is a large amount, the G7 recognises that the money can be found. 44. On the way to the gallows the country showed signs of spring. But the condemned noticed nothing o f all this. 45. We Americans despised the South Vietnamese soldiers for their cowardice. We held the North Vietnamese in high esteem. 46. One newspaper has declared the referendum -result a victory (if indeed it was a victory). 47. The Governme nt considers the restructuring of this branch of industry, as well as its privatisation , one of its priorities. 48. Thus Mazdaism was gaining new adherents. Th e spread of Christianity , however, was more significant. 49. The love of the working people for Lenin, for his genius, is boundless; their respect for everything connected with his life is infinite.

Comparison and Contrast One of the most obvious things which any writer must be prepared to do is to compare and contrast two different things. There are a number of ways the writer might go about this. One possibility would be to say all that he wants to say about item X, and then to turn to item Y, comparing and contrasting point by point. Another po ssi ble wa y w ou ld be fo r th e wr ite r to pr es en t one aspect of X, and then present the corresponding aspect of Y; then a new aspect of X, and then again the corresponding aspect of Y; and so on until all the aspects are covered.


Which type do the following paragraphs conform to? A:

B:

78

One of the main differences between Nor thern and Southern England lies in the degree of economic diversification: while the North has tended to be dependent on a small number of traditional heavy industries, such as shipbuilding and coal-mining, economic life in the South is far more influenced by the service sector. This basic difference has meant that the two parts of England have responded differently to periods of economic decline: while the No rth usually bears the b runt of economic recession, with many people there suffering from long-term unemployment, the South — and above all the South-East — has traditionally been the first area to emerge from any economic slump. This in turn has c ontributed to the continuing attractiveness of London for people from the North. In consequence, one of the enduring differences between the two areas is that the population of the North is static or contracting, while that of the South is increasing. One of the main differences between Northern and Southern England lies in the degree of economic diversification. The North has tended to

be dependen t on a small n umber of traditi onal heavy industries, such as shipbuilding and coal-mining, a consequence of which is that the area is highly vulnerable when there is an economic down-turn, with many people suffering long-term unem ployment. By contrast, economic life in the South is far more influenced by the service sector. This has meant that the South — and above all the South-East — is traditionally the first area to emerge from any economic slump, which in turn has contributed to the continuing attractiveness of London for people from the North. Here are some words an d phrases which are associated with comparison and contrast (brackets indicate that the word is either optional or alternative):

I. Comparison and Contrast:

1. by contrast...

One dictionary is very good; the other, by contrast, is very bad. 2. on the contrary...

Many people think that ours is a good university. On the contrary, it is very bad. 3. on the one hand... on the other (hand)... On the one hand he is very clever, but on the other hand he is very lazy. 4. if... (then)... If Jack is clever, then John is absolutely brilliant. 5. compared with..., in comparison with..., when set beside... Compared with Mike, Peter is extremely brilliant. When set beside Peter, Mike is not exactly brilliant.

II. Similarity and Difference:

1. like...

Eire, like Spain, is overwhelmingly Catholic. (N.B. “Eire, similar to Spain...” is not correct.) 79

2. as with... As with all the other problems, I will be dealing with this one very

cursorily. (= “As is the case with”.) 3. similar to... in (respect of) etc.

i. The two brothers are very similar to each other in outlook and temperament. Punks are similar to skinheads in their having no hierarchy1. Punks are similar to skinheads in that they have no hierarchy1. ii. Hong Kong is fairly similar to Taiwan in respect of its economic life. In respect of (As regards, In regard to , In terms of With regard to) its economic life, Hong Kong is similar to Taiwan. 4. different (from, to)... in (respect of) etc.

Norway and Greece are different from each other in respect of climate, customs, and economic life. 5. one (point of) similarity between X and Y... is that... One point of similarity between Eire and Spain is that both are over

Further Vocabulary:

po in t o f sim ila rity (between X and Y) po in t o f res em bl anc e (between X and Y) po in t o f c or res po nd en ce (between X and Y) marked or close resemblance (between X and Y) po in t o f d ive rge nce {of X from Y) make a distinction (between X and Y) A distinction should be drawn (between X and Y). not unlike (= rather similar to) resemble correspond to be co m pa ra bl e to compare (un)favourably w ith 1 pu t on e in m ind of be an alo go us to be ar a res em bla nc e to; be ar littl e (or no) resemblance to in the same way correspondingly

whelmingly Catholic. 6. one difference between... is that (...) while (whereas)... One difference between Slovenia and Bosnia is that the former is cultur ally homogeneous, while the latter is extremely heterogeneous. One difference between Slovenia and Bosnia is that while the former is

culturally homogeneous, the latter is extremely heterogeneous. 7. different (from, to)... in that (...) while (whereas)...

The North and the South of Italy are different from each other in that while the former is economically vibrant, the latter suffers from decades of economic stagnation and neglect. 8. differ in terms of (as regards, in respect of)...

North ern and Southern Ireland differ in terms of religious denom ination: while the North is predominantly Protestant, the South is almost completely Catholic. 1 A typical error is to write a sentence like the following: “Punks have no hierarchy, just as skinheads”. As it stands, it is slightly unclear whether skinheads have a hierarchy or not.

80


I. Supply the missing word or phrase in the following sentences: 1. The LA com mu nity ,------------- many others across the States, had to face the inevitable question. 2 . ----------- Bankok is ugly ,------------ Manila is indescribably hideous. 3 ----------- so many things in life, it is best to preserve a certain inner distance from the stupidities of those who govern us. 4. The other courses are terrible; this on e----------- is fairly interesting. 5. Such phenomena----- i ------ racism have not found many adherents in Denmark,----- ii------ in Germany. 6 ----------- the previous essay, this one also begins with a long quotation. 7 ----- j ------ use(j t0 be fashionable to have long hair and wide trousers, ----- ii------ it will soon be fashionable to have short hair and narrow trousers. 1 In this use compare is intransitive, e.g. “In terms of standard of living, Hungary compares favourably with Austria”.

6 — English...

81

8.

Many suppose tha t the news came as a blow to him ,----------- , he was delighted. 9. ----------- America, Canada can sometimes be a dangerous place for tourists. 10. Highways are still toll-free in this country, ----------- Italy. ( Italy has highway-tolls)

11. There are those who,----------- my friend, beg to disagree. 12. This boo k is interesting; the oth er ,----------- , is terribly boring. 1 3 . ----------- agricultural and technological revolutions have released the developed world from the Malthusian trap, billions in the developing world are caught in it, condemned to poverty. 14. Many consider him hard-wo rking .----------- , he is very lazy. 15. ----------- other European countries Spain has its own unique traditions. 16. ----------- the previous exercise, this one will also be devoted to the future tense. II.

1. Describe and compare two teachers from you r schooldays. 2. Compare an d contrast two major cities known to you. 3. Compare and contrast two youth movements (e.g. the hippies and the yuppies).

Cause and Effect The passage about acid rain (p. 12) describes the process of cause and effect, i.e. why things happen the way they do. Any serious analysis of events or of processes will involve a discus sion of causes and effects. It is impo rtant to remember th at very often a cause may have more th an one effect, while an effect may have more than one cause. When something causes something else, which in turn results in a third thing happening, we call this a chain re action. An ever-present temptation facing each writer is to regard two ph en om en a wh ich are clea rly rel ate d to eac h ot he r in time as bein g causally related. To take one example, a number of studies into violent children have pointed out that the children in question regularly watch violent video-movies. From that it is easy to argue that the children are violent because they see such movies. In reality, however, it is just as possible to argue that both the children’s violent behaviour and their love of violent video-movies are the result of some other underlying factor — for example, an unhappy family life, poor living conditions etc. Ano ther example concerns the activities of certain mystical sects in the West: their ad herents have been know n to organise well-publicised meditation-gatherings to pray for “world-peace”. At the conclusion of the gathering, they often single out one event from the news — for example, the announcement of peace-talks in some trouble-spot — wh ich the y clai m to be the res ult of the ir pra ye rs fo r pea ce. Th ei r dishonesty or self-delusion lies in the fact that at any moment in time it is alway s possible to po int to a “positive” or “negative” development. In other words, finding correlations is a game at which one can not lose. Another danger is to confuse cause and effect. To take one more example, this time from medical science, cancer-sufferers are known 83

to have very low vitamin-levels. From that some people might conclude that cancer is actually caus ed by low vitamin-levels. In reality, however, one could just as easily argue that the low vitaminlevels are themselves the effect of the illness. Causes are very difficult to identify with absolute certainty, and if you are not absolutely sure, then it is important to be honest and say that you are not sure. Here are some phrases which express the tentative, the provisional, the speculative: It would seem/appear that... It is quite possible that... It is likely that... It is said that... Presumably... There is evidence to suggest that... X may be responsible for Y. Recent findings suggest that... There is a tendency for X to (+ infinitive) There appears to be a (statistical) correlation between X and Y. Many words and phrases are available which can express relation ships of cause and effect, including the following, which here are organised into a number of groups for the sake of clarity: Group 1: 1.

because 2 . as 3. since 4. for (iuncommon) 5. the reason being that 5a. the rationale being that 6 . for the simple reason that 7. especially as/when 8 a. (all) the more so as/when 8 b. the less so as/when 9. no t least because 1 0 . now that (informal) 11 . seeing tha t (informal) 1 2 . considering tha t 13a. given that 13b. given the fact that 14. in view of the fact that 84

15. owing to the fact tha t 16a. insofar as 16b. inasmuch as N.B.

1. Nos. 4-9 cannot begin a sentence. 2. Because tends to be used when the reason is the most important part of the sentence. The because-clause usually comes at the end: I like New York because it is the most exciting place in the world to live. “Why are you leaving?” “Fm leaving because I’m bored!” 3. As and since are used when the reason is already well known or is less important than the rest of the sentence. Since is slightly more formal than as: As it’s my turn, I’m going to pay for everybody. Since they’re so horrible, we won’t invite them again.

4. For is uncommon, even literary, and always comes at the end. It suggests an afterthought, and thus could almost be written in brackets: I decided to stay the night at the inn, for it was getting late and I was tired. I decided to stay the night at the inn (it was getting late and I was tired). 5. Especially as, all the more so as etc., and not least because (nos. 7-9) present additional reasons for something: We really ought to go to the party — especially as it will be a chance to socialise with the boss. He fell increasingly under the spell of his guest — the more so as she was obviously possessed of culture and refinement. (Also: especially as.) Frankly, I have little interest in Old English — the less so when I think of how much time I had to spend studying it. (Also: especially when.) Honesty is certainly the best policy in life — not least because lying and deception demand so much ingenuity. (Also: especially as.) 6 . Insofar as and inasmuch as are used especially in the absence of other reasons:

Inasmuch as he once helped us, I suppose we ought to help him (i.e. there are no other reasons for helping him). 85


Supply the missing words for the following sentences: 1. Jimmy Carter won the election s,----------- he had the nicest smile. — ---------sanctions ---------sanctions are leading to inflation of 2 0 0 % per annum, it is not

2.

surprising that people are worried. 3. His laziness laziness makes me me very an gr y, -------------I think of how much I’ve

paid for his ed ucation. 4. ----------- the doctor was tired when he made that mistake, it is wrong to judge him too harshly. 5. He was offered offered the jo b ,----------- because his uncle was pr esident of the company. 6 . Some students value our diplomas only----------- they guarantee good, secure jobs. 7. ----------- the boss has gone, I suppose we can take a tea-break. 8 . ----------- you’ve tried hard you deserve a reward. 9. It will be a waste of time time inviting hi m ----------- - he is sure to offend somebody. 10. ----------- that writer deals with my home town, I find him interesting

to read. 11. 11. I’ve got very little little sympathy f or h er ,-------------1 realise how much distress she’s caused others. 1 2 . ------------he ------------he has lied before, his account is to be treated with great caution. 13. 13. ------------Mr Chernom yrdin is a communist of the old school, his first press conference was uns urprisingly awful. 14. 14. It is good to be polite to customs offici als,----------- they have the power to refuse entry. 1 5 . ----------- they are so conscientious, it seems only fair to increase their salaries. 16. It is good to dress up warm,----------- the weather may change for the worse. 17. ------------you’re all here, let’s get down to business. 18. 18. I lend him mon ey ---------- - I know I will always get it back. 1 9 . ----------- hundreds of millions of dollars had gone into that project, it was undoubtedly a failure. 20. The king always always gave the farmers a good price for their their cro ps,----------he was a just man. 86

21.

----------- their forces are overwhelmingly superior to ours, there is no point in carrying on. 22. 22. Informed observers say the country’s economy is heading for a catastrop hic slump,----------- the Government has been unable to attract the necessary necessary foreign investment. Group 2:

17. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

owing o wing to due to on accou nt of (n ot least) because of thanks to

2 2.

by reason of (format) 23. 23. by virtue of (format)

24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

given considering in view of resulting from consequent upon attributable to

30. out of 31. in the face of N.B.

1. Due to needs to be used carefully. Many people feel that it is an adjective, not an adverb, and therefore must modify some noun, as in the following sentences: due to illness. His absence was due due to negligence. The mistake was due

More questionable would be a sentence like: Due to illness I have had to cancel the meeting.

Better would be: Owing to (or Becaus Becausee of) illness I have had to cancel the meeting. reason of and By virtue virtue of are rather formal, even literary. Their 2. By reason meaning is identical; typical collocations are ‘abilities’, ‘resources’, ‘merits’, ‘years ‘years of service’ etc.

She was awarded the post by virtue of her outstanding qualificatio qualifications. ns. 87

3. Out of usually refers to hu man motivat ions: to do something out of politeness, charity, jealousy etc. 4. Nos. 27-29 do not normally begin a sentence. Generally they are

resulting g from negligence”). Attributable Attributable to can postmodifie rs (e.g. “d amage resultin also come after the verb to be (e.g. “His death was attributable to consequen uentt upon upon has a peculiarly legal ring to it. alcoholism”). The phrase conseq

5. Nos. 24 -26 are virtually synonymous. 6 . In

the face of means “faced wi th” (especially problems, dangers, criticism). criticism). In the face 0/ universal universal condemnation he has decide decided d to resign. resign.

17. ----------- all his objective difficulties, it is amazing how Shostakovich composed anything at all, let alone works of such brilliance. 18. ---------- - power-shortages classes have been cancelled until further notice. 19 enormous pressure from the international community the government had no choice but to back down. 20. The delay delay w as ----------- a traffic jam in the centre of town. 2 1 . ----------- mounting problems, he has decided to call a referendum. ----------- drunken driving. 22. 22. His driving license license was was end ors ed ----------driving. 23. It was really only ----------- politeness tha t he bothe red to atte nd the celebrations. 24. ----------- the general snail’s pace of fraud proceedings in the UK, it is not surprising that Asil Nadir was not kept in custody.


Supply the missing words for the following sentences: 1. He stood u p ----------- respect for the old man. 2. How could Charles and Diana make their coronation-vows, ----------their farce of a marriage? 3. They were given given the con tra ct----------- their good reputation. 4. Environmental pollution has much intensified ----------- industry. 5. -------- — so many problems a coherent policy will will be difficult difficult to formulate. 6 . Indian women often stand ou t----------- their grace and beauty. 7. Many people go to church only ----------- habit, a sense of duty, or a desire to conform. 8 . ---- ------ the economic situation, an increase in wages cannot be expected. 9 . ----------- bad weather conditions the football- match has been p ut off till next week. 10. Lloyds does not pay compensation for any dama ge----------- war. ----------- the excellent suppor ting staff. 11. They succeeded ----------12. 12. Califor nia is a magnificent magnificent part of the w or ld ----------- all the beautiful country to be found there. 13. 13. M oza rt’s death i s ----------------------- a variety of factors. 14. 14. He was given a “golden han dshak e” ---------------his ---------------his long years years of servic service. e. 1 5 . ----------- her past failures she is unlikely to be the person to solve this problem. 16. 16. She got to the to p ----------- her remarkable talents. 88

Group 3:

32. 33a. 33a. 33b. 34. 34. 35a. 35b.

therefore this/t hat is/was why why which wh ich is/was why for this/t hat reason this explains why this th is helps to explain why

36. 36. 37. 38. 38. 39. 40.

(and) so (informal) hence thus cons conseq eque uent ntly ly accordingly

41. 41. not surpr surpris isin ingl gly y 42. 42. need needle less ss to say say 43. under underst stan andab dably ly 44. pre presuma sumabl bly y 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 50. 51. 51.

beca becaus usee of thi thiss as a resu result lt (of (of thi this) s) in consequence (of this) in vie view w of this this with the situation (being) as it is a consequence of this is/was (that) the effect (result, outcome) of this is/was (that)

52. in t ur ur n 89

N.B. therefore tends to be very much overused by foreign students of 1. The word therefore English.

2. Which is why simply means “and this is why”. 3. The phrase with the situation {being) as it is can only start a sentence. accordingly, and in consequence of this are somewhat formal. 4. Consequently, accordingly

5. The phrase in turn is often used in contexts where we are talking about chains chains of causality, or else wish to convey some kind of reciprocation: X causes Y, which in turn causes Z. Z is the result of Y, which is in turn the result of X. Napo leon never h ad a high opinion of women, and they in turn did not care much for him.


11. I think;----------- I am. 12. All the previous governments had been corrupt;----------- many people were now distrustful of the new one. 13. The company’s competitive edge derives from its low production costs, efficiency efficiency and flexibility, flexibility, w hic h----------- result from its financial indepen dence. 14. 14. The director received many complaints ab out the secretary, and --------- he sacked her. 15. During the national emergency the old man volunteered for military service. ----------- he was refused. 16 there is no point in continuing the discussions. 17. There was a government clamp-down and many people were unjustly ----------- . imprisoned ----------18. They always monopolise the conversation. ----------- I don’t like inviting them. 19. 19. The standa rd of discipline discipline here is is terrib le;----------- I have no choice but to give a general warning.

Supply the missing words for the following sentences: 1. The compa ny employs the disabled, which gives gives it the status of a protected labour institution, institution, wh ich----------- involves certain tax exemptions for its contractors. 2. H e is a very jolly and affable fell ow ,----------- everybody likes him. 3. I am sure the fire started inside the cult’s compound, and ----------the action which the FBI took was justified. 4. Prince Charles was not available for interviews concerning the tapes: ----------- he found the whole business embarrassing. (= one imagines that.) 5. In suspending the constitution the Guatemalan government has been alarmed by the rise of activism activism in the army, which ha s----------- been alarmed by the increased activism activism of opposition parties. 6 . Here is is the the bus station ,----------- the train station cann ot be too far away. away. 7. Eating too much cholesterol clogs up the arteries, which ----------- can lead to heart disease. 8 . H er boyfriend has just left left he r.----------- she is very upset. 9. The new school regulations prohibit any extravagant forms of dress or person al ap pe ara nce ;----------- , as from now boys are forbidden to have long hair. 10. 10. Several horses were also k ille d.-------------we left the bullfight feeling feeling sick. 90

Group 4:

53. if this is so 54. if this is the case 5 5 . by the same token (= for the same same reason) reason) 56. it follows tha t 57. ergo

N.B.

1. These words and phrases are all used in making logical deductions. The then: phrases if this is so and if this is the case are often followed by the word then: If this is so, then then we must express our disapproval. Ergo is a rare word with a scholastic ring to it. Yet it is sometimes used, 2. Ergo even by journalists, either to present a valid inference inference in a very striking way or to expose an inference that is false:

The professor went further and described Freudian psychoanalysis as a ‘science’ where empirical evidence was subordinate to other elements: ergo not a science. {Making a valid inference.) There is a very widespread fallacy, and it goes like this: this: ‘My enemy is my enemy; ergo the enemy of my enemy is my friend’. {Pointing out an invalid inference.) 91


3b. In case is followed by should especially when the main verb is in the past tense:

Supply the missing words for the following sentences: 1. Many r eporter s from the 60s were more willing to spy for the FBI than to reveal its secrets.----------- most people preferred to see their leaders as they wished to be seen. 2. All chauvinism is wr on g.----------- Jewish chauvinism is also wrong. 3. You ng offenders cann ot be considered fully responsible for their actions. ----------- they would benefit especially from rehabilitation-programmes. 4. The British government has spent nearly fifty million pounds on the containment of AIDS through health education, and it appears that AIDS has been more or less contained;----------- (some will say) the money was well spent. 5. I f you invite the average Chinese person to some French cheese, he or she will run away, saying that it stinks.----------- if you treat a Westerner to bird ’s nest s oup, he will find it unsavoury.

She left a message in case John should drop by. It is considered more formal than writing the simple past: She left a message in case John dropped by. 4. In order that and so that generally use the modals could o r should when the main verb is in the past tense. The modal might is a rarer and more literary alternative to could and should. They worked hard all their lives in order that their children might receive a good education. 5. Lest has a literary, even old-fashioned ring about it; nonetheless, it is often found in c ontemporary journalism. Lest occurs with the modal verb should or (rarely) with the subjunctive: We must go this very moment, lest we be caught. 6.

Group 5:

58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70.

after all the reason is tha t th e reason lies in the fact that the explana tion is tha t so that in order that in order to so as to, so as not to the aim being to (cf. p. 59) th e idea being to; the idea being that... s hould (cf. p. 59) in case lest (format) for fear of (uncommon)

N.B.

1. After all means “We must bear in mind that”, “We mustn’t forget that”. 2. So that is more common and less formal than in order that.

3a. In case can be with or without the modal should: I am taking an umbrella in case it rains. I am taking an umbrella in case it should rain. The second sentence implies that it is less likely to rain. 92

The phrase for fear of takes the gerund: We always returned by nine, for fear of annoying the landlady.


Supply the missing words for the following sentences: 1. We can resolve our differences without recourse to viol en ce.----------we are civilised people. 2. It is best to leave a note on the d o o r ----------- anyone comes. 3. The CIA disseminated a huge amount of disinformation about Castro, destabilise his regime. 4. He must not be punished too severely.---------- , he acted under extreme provoca tion. 5. UN military intervention in Yugoslavia is imperative, ------ ----- the turmoil should spread to the rest of the Balkans. 6 . I don’t know what young people are complaining abou t all the time. , their parents simply know what is best for them. 7. In 1988 an act of Parliam ent deprived those between 16 and 18 of their right to claim Social Security benefits, ----------- they should be living at home and attending school or a training scheme. 93

8.

You must not be too angry about his winning the election :-----------he is the best man for the job. ( = you must remember that) 9. The UN-n egotia tors have always tried to avoid blaming the Serbs, ----------- preserve an appear ance of imp artiality. 10a. We must be nice to h im ;------------ , we may need him some day. 10b. We must be nice to him ,----------- we need him some day. Verbs:

cause give rise to lead to result in occasion (anxiety, price rises, a remark) provo ke (anger, laughter, a smile, a crisis, a riot etc.) trigger off (a crisis, violence, a chain reaction etc.) precipit ate (a crisis, disaster etc.) entail (doing sth — especially sth difficult) involve (doing sth — especially sth difficult)


Find the missing words or phrases in the following passage; not all of them have to do with relations of cause and effect: In all Western countries marriage is on the ----- 1------. In America one marriage------2 ----- every two can be expected to end in divorce, and the figure is not much better in Britain, Denmark and Swed en.------- 3--- , people marry later, divorce earlier, have more children out of wedlock, and cohabit more frequently. T h e ----- 4 ----- for this general trend are controversial, and it is unclear ------5 ------any one factor lies behind it. The rise may b e ------ 6 ----- a pervasive cultural change, an erosion of morality----- 7------with the decline of religious belief and the rise o f materialism. So me ----- 8 ------these trends to changes in the law that have made divorces easier to obtain, while others ----- 9----them with the rise in women’s employment. The most cogent------10------ for the general trend does seem, however, to ------11 ------in improved job-chances for women: in Western countries almost two-thirds of women have paid work, which----- 12 ------in their being largely independent of their spouses.----- 13------the more time women spend in paid work, the more likely their marriage is to end in divorce. The days have long since passed when women would stay in an unhappy marriage----- 14-----one day finding themselves without a ro of over their heads. 94

The arrival of children often places marriages under a new strain, since

----- 15------ them couples generally have less time for romantic dinners over candlelight and meaningful conversations.----- 16------often that the parents

become strangers to each other. Divorce frequently----- 17------problems of its own, ------- 18----- for the man, the woman or the children.----- 19------divorced men and women are much more likely to die prematurely than their married counterparts. ----- 2 0 ----- , divorced people are much more likely than married people to be admitted to mental hospitals.----- 2 1 ----- divorce tends to have more serious financial ----- 22----- for women than for men, ----- 23------ a very large propo rtion of divorced women receive no alimony from their husbands . But divorce is also very bad for children,----- 24----- it has been proved that they are much more likely to grow up maladjusted and educationally backward, if th eir parents split u p :----- 25----- the chances of a child going to university are halved. Suggested Exercise (36):

Imagine that you are preparing an article entitled “The Cold War” for the Ency clopaed ia Britannica. Write the final paragraphs dealing with events in Central and Eastern Europe in the year 1989. Here are some notes which may prove useful: Autumn 1988

— General liberalisation in Hung ary’s political and cultural life. New freedom in the media. Late 1988 — Polish government begins negotiation s with Solidarity (‘Round Table Talks’). 1989 — The Iron Curta in along Hun gary’s Austria n bord er is dismantled. Thousands of East Germans are allowed to escape to Austria. April—June 1989 — Solidarity restored to legal status in Poland. Partially free elections held. Tadeusz Mazowiecki forms Po land’s first non-Communist government in 50 years. July 1989 — At a Warsaw Pact summit Gorba tchev stresses the need for “independent solutions to national problems”. Autumn 1989 — Massive peaceful demon strations organised by the so-called New Forum in various cities of the GDR. October 1989 — Honecke r resigns as head of the GDR. October 1989 — Hunga ry’s constitution ceases to recognise the “leading role of the Party”. 9.11.1989 — The opening of the Berlin Wall. 10.11.1989 — Presid ent Zhivkov of Bulgaria forced to resign. Soon 95

17.11.1989

15.12.1989 End of 1989

after, Article 1 of the constitution, guaranteeing the Party a monopoly of power, is repealed. — Protests and strikes begin to spread around Czecho slovakia, led by Vaclav Havel’s Civic Forum move ment. — Uprising and civil war in Roman ia, leading to the execution of Ceausescu (25.12.89). — The Commu nist governmen t of Czechoslovakia re signs. Vaclav Havel is elected president.


Study the following data concerning the lives of famous writers: Percy Bysshe Shelley, 1792-1822, English poet.

First wife drowns herself after being deserted. Joseph Roth, 1894-1939, Austrian novelist.

Wife develops schizophrenia and is sent to an asylum for the insane. Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz, 1885-1939, Polish painter and novelist.

Qualification and Concession Any mature thinker is wary of making sweeping generalisations. Very often when we make statements, we like to qualify them, so that they appear more fair, balanced, and judicious. The following are some words and phrases by which qualifications can be expressed (brackets indicate that the word is optional): 1.

Fiancee commits suicide.

Ingmar Bergman is arguably one of the world’s greatest living filmdirectors (= this, at least, is my opinion, and I can give arguments for it).

Luigi Pirandello, 1867-1936, Italian novelist and dramatist.

Wife develops paranoia and is sent to an asylum for the insane. Francis Scott Fitzgerald, 1896-1940, American novelist.

Wife never recovers from a mental breakdown in 1930. James Joyce, 1882-1941, Irish novelist. Daughter develops a violent mental disorder and is sent to an asylum. Heinrich Mann, 1871-1950, German novelist. Wife commits suicide. Thomas Mann, 1875-1955, German novelist and brother of the preceding. Two of his children commit suicide. Ted Hughes, 1930-, English poet. Wife, Sylvia Plath, American poet, commits suicide. Ludwig Wittgenstein, 1889-1951, Austrian philosopher. Two brothers commit suicide. Arthur Miller, 1915-1980, American dramatist. His wife, Marilyn Monroe, commits suicide a year after their divorce. What can these facts suggest? Are any of them misleading? What conclusions may be drawn from them? Write a carefully argued essay, using some of the above data. Perhaps you will be able to provide further examples illustrating your argument.

arguably

2.

if not...

Ingmar Bergman is one of the greatest, if not the greatest living film-director (= or perhaps even). 3. if not..., (then) certainly... if not..., (then...) to say the least.

The Royal Family’s image has been, if not ruined, then certainly tarnished. The Royal Family’s image has been, if not ruined, then tarnished to say the least. 4.

not so much... as...

For many Mrs Thatcher is not so much a respected public figure as a symbol of British life. 5.

but then (again) but there again

He may come, but then again he may not (= but on the other hand). 96

6a. admittedly.. ., (but... certainly)... 6b. to be sure..,, (but... certainly)...

12. having said that, that said (informal)

It’s difficult to imagine a more bungling and inept politician as prime minister. Having said that , the job calls for such special abilities that John Major is perhaps not to be blamed too heavily. (= despite these

Admittedly life in the South of France does have its drawbacks, but it is certainly better than Birmingham.

negative comments)

N.B. The emphatic form (
N.B. As in the above example, these two participial phrases are often grammatically unrelated to the subject of the main verb. Other such phrases, which are quite acceptable, are considering (that), seeing that , speaking of generally speaking, regarding, concerning, talking of, judging by, assuming that, supposing that , and owing to.

(it is true that)..., (but) the fact remains that... It is true that some of our pupils do get to university, but the fact remains that it is generally a second-rate school.

N.B. The empha tic form (do, does etc.) is often used with this construction. 8.

it is not (so much) that...: the point is (rather) that...

13.

I disagree with her way of running the school — not that I have anything against her personally (= but this is not to say that).

It is not so much that the Russians do not like foreigners: the point is rather that they have little experience of coexisting with them. 9.

granted (that)...

not that... (informal)

14.

Granted, our policemen are badly underpaid. That does not mean that

at least, at any rate

Smith is going to resign — at any rate that is what I have heard.

they can just go on strike. or: Granted that our policemen are badly underpaid, that....

15.

Much as I would like to go there, I simply do not have the money. (= Although I would very much like...).

10a. despite, notwithstanding... Notwithstanding her excellent references she was passed over for the job.

N.B. With notwithstanding a postposition is also possible, although it is felt to be more formal: Her excellent references notwithstanding, she was passed over for the job.

N.B. This constru ction is especially fo und with verbs of wishing, liking, desiring, hating etc. 16. pace (highly formal)

Short, sharp punishments are not the way to solve the problem of delinquency, pace Mrs Thatcher (= with all due respect to).

10b. for all... For all Mrs Thatcher’s harsh words, we now know that she undertook no cuts in welfare benefits (= despite, notwithstanding). 11. (but) for all this (but) for all that

She certainly has her bad points; but for all that , she is still basically a good teacher (= despite that). N.B. These phrases are often preceded by concessive word s or phrases such as certainly, admittedly, it is true etc., and followed by still. Simpler alternatives to for all this, for all that are even so and still: She certainly has her bad points; still, she is basically a good teacher. 98

much as...

N.B. This word, which is mostly written in italics, expresses th e d isagree ment of the author. It does not normally begin the sentence. 17. in itself, in himself etc. In itself it is a good enough syllabus; the only trouble is that we do not

have the staff to make it work. 18.

albeit (highly formal)

They accepted the peace-proposals, albeit with great reluctance. (A less formal equivalent is though.) 99


Supply the missing word or phrase in the following sentences (not all the words are listed above): 1.

2. 3

4. 5.

6.

7. 8.

9. 10. 11 .

12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

A few days ago I saw two lovers passionately kissing on the Metro, without anyone else taking the slightest notice.----------- the Parisians always were very forward with kissing. The theory is fascinating and original in the ex trem e.----------- , it does have its faults. ----------- the events in Ruanda are civil war, does that then justify the international community turning its back on the place? He was one of the greatest, ----------- the greatest writer in this century. To be fair, I had n’t known abo ut Robert Kennedy having an affair with Monroe,----------- Monroe’s biographer seems to know next to nothing about the affair either. That subject demands great con centr ation .----------- , that is no reason to ignore it. A major part, ----------- the main part, of his life is taken up with computers. His portrai t of the king’s charac ter is ----------- a detailed treatment ----------- a series of skilful touches. If Saddam’s forces were not completely knocked out, they we re----------greatly weakened. This is a very good sugge stio n.----------- I cannot do anything without first consulting the others. ----------- , drugs medication is generally given in combination with some kind of therapy. Yet it is generally acknowledged that psychoanalysis holds the key to less than 1 % of those who suffer from depression. It is a very good boo k,----------- a number of criticisms can be made. He is not, ----------- , very talented, but he ----------- has plenty of motivation. She may be at ho m e,----------- she may not. The jury accepted this evidence, ----------- with considerable reserva tions. They squeal like stuffed pigs when they are treated the way they treat others. ----------- , they are an extremely amusing pair, witty, even scintillating, and never tedious.

17 .

------------------------ this progress, great problems remain.

18. the place appealed to him, it did not stop him from becoming depressed. 19. It is not a bad pla n ----------- , but I don’t think anyone has the skill to carry it out. 20. She receives no financial support from her parents, b u t----------- she does not need their help. 21a. He was sacked ,----------- his excellent record of service. 21b. He was sacked, his excellent record of serv ice----------- . 22. ----------- he is unintelligent:------------ he is lazy. 23. The UN envoy is getting nowhere with the Israelis. ----------- no one expected that he would. 24. He certainly has plenty of faults, such as laziness, po or judgem ent, and unreliability; ------------ , he is still a good husband. 25. If he made such mis tak es--------------- he ever did so — it must have been as a result of the enormou s pressures on him. 26. ----------- he wanted to study for his Ph.D., he was obliged to go out and support the family. 27. The EC could impose an oil-embargo on Belgrade ,----------- the Serbs do not need Western oil. -- alcohol is not harmful; the trouble is tha t peop 28. 29. I imagine that my two colleagues will take the secret of why they are so repellent to women with them to their graves.----------- I have anything against those two beauties — I’m sure they’re very nice people. 30. The date of the elections could be postponed until next yea r,----------that would risk an increase in the level of frustration among non-whites. 3 1 . ----------- ?it does have its shortcomings, but it is still a very nice car. 32. They say they’re going to sack more staff. ----------- that’s what I’ve heard from the secretaries. 33. As a politician he is incompete nt, ----------- most politicians in this country are incompetent. 34. She has made some pr og res s,------------- modest. 35. If the Yanks were smarter, Clinton would not be pre side nt,-----------neither would most of the bums presiding over us. 3 6 . ----------- the hate and slaughter that now divide them, the peoples of Yugoslavia are all friendly, hospitable and family-oriented. 37. The publishers accepted the bo ok ,----------- with some modifications. 38. It is ----------- a book------------ a collection of essays.

39.

That government wa s,----------- not fascist,------------ certainly undemo cratic in spirit.

40. I walked up and down the rows of houses and felt safer than in any deprived neighbourhood in Chicago.----------- , it was daytime, but there were no stares, no gangs, no graffiti or piles of rubbish. 41.

The auth or actually escaped being mugged while in prison. ----------he was not in one of the tough places.

42.

All the techniques for beating TB exist.----------- , we do seem to have had little success in combating that disease in the Third World.

43.

So this is the new China: a place where people no longer instinctively stop you doing thing s.----------- , of course, this is untypical evenof the whole of Peking, let alone of the vast hinterland.

44.

People make spectacles of themselves withou t even realising it .----------- , if it were otherwise, there would be no literature.

45. The only English newspaper I read was the Morning Star. ----------I was a Co mmunist: it was simply the on e English-language newsp aper readily available. 46. South Africa has got some precious metals and some potential for tourism. ----------- , you have exhausted her economic attractions. 47. These people were not brou ght up as nicely as you we re---------------they are to blame for that, but certain advantages that you have had were denied them. 48. ------------ 1 want to be president; it is simply my duty to serve my country. 49. There is no question tha t the UN is suddenly going to pack up and go home overnight. ----------- , the murder of this UN worker does raise serious doubts about the UN’s future presence in the country. 50.

The skills needed for the twenty-first century will be harder to ac quire, ----------- the hopes being pinned on retraining.

51. Prope rty prices in Paris are at absolut e bottom, since people are dying to sell. ----------- , that place still looks prosperous after 12 years of Socialist rule; London, after 15 years of Conservative rule, looks anything but. 52. ----------- all his knowledge, the renowned physician was helpless in the face of the new epidemic. 53.

Perhap s I expect too much from life and have an egotistic attitud e to it. , I cannot say that I have ever known true happiness.

54. There seems to be little reason, ----------- Freud, to attach much importance to any ‘Oedipus complex’. 102

----- 1.------ Saudi Arabia’s strategic position, it is surprising that the

West does not exert greater criticism of its human rights record. ----- 2 .----- it is perhaps precisely its strategic position that allows that country to escape criticism. (1 = In view of; 2 = On the other ha nd one must remember that...)

3. 4. 5. 6.

Discourse Markers

7. 8. 9.

One of the most important aspects of writing good English is the ability to link clauses, sentences and paragraphs to each other by means of so-called “discourse markers”. There exists a wide variety of words and phrases with precisely this function, a few of which are assembled below:

10. 11. 12.


Here are discourse markers organised into groups. Choose the most appropriate one to fill in the gaps in the sentences below (sometimes several alternatives are possible): 1. Discourse Markers that Emphasise and/or Enumerate:

above all and no one more (so) than exactly for one thing..., for another... in particular let alone more importantly more to the point not least not to mention on the one hand..., on the other... precisely to say nothing of what is more 1. I do not trust them .----------- , they are lazy;----------- , they are unreliable. 2. Th ere is not one good ro ad there, — --------a cycle path. 104

13. 14.

She is stupid, lazy and v ai n;----------- , she is extremely malicious. The country lacks a basic infrastru cture,----------- a functioning economy. He was a great thinker and scien tist;----------- he was a true philanthropist. Certain textbooks are in short supply;----------- French dictionaries are urgently needed. Everyone was happy,----------- the bride and groom. They may feel that they do not need to learn the grammar. But that is what they are expected to do. That factory should be closed down: ----------- , it is uneconomical; ----------- , it is polluting everything around. --------- by Signior These accusations are being taken very seriously, — Andreotti himself. I don’t want to see him again: he’s got no mann ers an d doesn ’t know how to dress prop erly.----------- , my mother doesn’t like him! Your bicycle has got no brakes, no lig hts ,----------- prop erly function ing gears. The whole British political establishment has rou ndly cond emned Serbia, Mrs Thatcher. He said he would not work against our interests, bu t that i s ----------what he has done.

2. Discou rse Ma rke rs tha t Exp res s Cer tain ty: absolutely altogether beyond all/any dou bt beyond question definitely downright (informal) indeed nothing short of unquestionably 1. 2. 3. 4.

----------- we have all benefited enormously from industrialisation.

Such behaviour is ----------- dishonest. John is a(n) ----------- nicer person than his brother. The standard of service h a s ----------- improved since last year. (Find an alternative to certainly.) 5. The Serbs show no shame or compunction wh atsoeve r:----- ----- , they are proud of the ir actions. 105

— ------ - he is a great asset to our firm. 7. Charging them so much is ----------- daylight robbery. ----------8 . So you thi nk she’s slightly difficult at times, do you? I find h e r impossible. 6

3. Discourse Markers that Express Doubt or Possibility

it is anyone’s guess (\informal) it is quite likely that it may well be that it remains to be seen presum ably 1. They have promised to mend their ways and to try harder. ----------whether they will. 2. I was struck by the fact that the autho r submitted the manuscript without any footnotes.----------- they do not exist. 3. We have heard nothing from him for some years.----------- he was killed in the war. 4. His presidency has got off to a good st ar t.----------- what the rest of it will be like. 5. John ha sn’t come back ye t.----------- he has been forced to do overtime.

2. The plane crashed from a great heig ht.----------- no one was hurt. 3. It is unclear how much the Irangate scandal will affect the position of ex-President Ronald Reagan or, ----------- , of ex-Vice-President George Bush. 4. F or Far Easter n societies harmo ny is more impo rtant tha n Westem-style democracy.----------- , Asia is not equipped to swallow Western liberalism whole. 5. From the new evid ence ----------- he was innocent. 6 . The Muscovites look with envy at the luxury goods in the shop-windows, out o f reach of all but a lucky few — o r, ------------, of the average Western correspondent. 7. This is not a task to be embarked on lig htly .----- ------ much preparation and planning. 8 . Some people think t hat if I paid my employees more money I’d get better work out of them. But----------- : no matter how much I pay them, they’ll work badly. 9. Wilfred Owen survived years of wa r,----------- killed one week before the Armistice. 10. In that co untry things have not got better for fifty years — or ,----------- , even for five hundred years. 11. He asked her to lend him a thousand dollars. ----- ------ he was unsuccessful.

4 . Dis cour se M ark er s that Introdu ce Ne w Facts:

curiously enough, strangely enough for that matter for the record (informal) in fact in the event it emerges that it is a question of it just so happens that it transpires that needless to say ...only to (be) surprising as it may seem that is/that’s just the point the fact is (that) the thing is (that) (informal) 1. All that day they were waiting for the doctor to arriv e.----------- he didn’t come. 106

12. I like chocol ates: ----------- I adore them.

13. The Institute for Research into U FOs has helped to enlighten hundreds of people.----------- , and to dispel doubts about its existence, I would like to point out that it is now based in Somerville, New Jersey, and that it was visited by myself and my wife in 1990. 14. He sent the War Office details of his new inv en tio n,------ — - see them locked away until the end of WW2. 15. Today’s vandalism (and inner-city riots,----------- ) is the work of those of us who fail to tame their instincts. 16. Foreigners in France have good cause to worry. ---------- new, dis criminatory leglislation is now before the French Parliament, and it has every chance of getting through. 17. Now that the files have been opened ----------- she was working as a double agent. 18. To lead our department, we would need a person with very special qualifications. ----------- we have such a candidate. 19. I don’t like his parents mu ch .----------- I don’t like Mm very much either. 107

20. This is not an impressive list of achievements.------------ Gaitskell’s overall influence on the country was far greater than the sum of his specific triumphs.

6. Discourse Markers that Express Conditionality:

conditional upon if only in any case in case in case of in the event of irrespective/regardless of irrespective/regardless of whether no matter how, regardless of how no matter whether provided (that) providing (that)

5. Disc ourse Ma rke rs that Expr ess Corres pondence: any more than correspondingly either for his (her, their) part in the same vein in turn respectively similarly sure enough (informat) 1. H e said he would be there an d ,-----------he was there. 2. O ur MP is always accusing the unemployed o f being laz y.----------- she recently made a speech in Parliament demanding that special labour camps be set up for them. 3. The workers did their task, and h e----------- paid the wages punctually. 4. The children’s behaviour was shocking, and the parents were----------furious. 5. John works in London, Susan works in Brighton. J. and S. work in London and Brighton----------- . 6 . H e’s not going, and I’m not goin g------------ . 7. We had better not mention the scandal involving the Vatican and the Banco Ambrosiano at all, ----------- our clerical watchdogs do. 8 . The vicar delivered a sharp attack on the Gay Rights acti vist s.----------he accused punks and hippies o f promoting moral collapse. 9. In principle we are prepared to increase wages. But our employees, ----- ■------ , will have to be more productive. 10. She said she would win an d ,----------- , she did. 11. The Queen and Mr Major are the British head of state and prime minister ----------- . 12. My uncle is a racist and thin ks that white people are superi or to others; —- he is always making fun of bla ck people. 13. He did not care very much about his children, and they----------- had little time for him. 108

1. We must go th er e, ----------- we feel. ----------- fire, the number to dial is 997. 3. Do n’t blame yourself. It would have ha pp en ed --------------------. 4. The same bonus will be given to ever ybo dy,-merit or seniority. 5. They must be evac uate d, ----------- they want to stay or not. 6. my death, you will find my will deposited in the local Barclays Bank. 7 you should lose your keys, I have left anot her set with the neighbours. 8 . Whether we should have helped him or not, is simply an academic question.----------- , he would not have succeeded. 9. The results will be published today, ----------- they arrive in time. (Find an alternative to if.) 10. Promotion is ----------- good performance. 11. We must be prepared to keep these people un der close observati on, ----------- we have firm evidence or not. 1 2 . ----------- they can keep a close eye on inflation, the prospects for tha t country are none too bad. 2.

7. Discou rse Ma rke rs that Expr ess Refer ence: apropos (of) (rather informal) as regards as such here in connection with 109

in particular in/with regard to in respect of in terms of in this connection in this regard in this respect on this point on this score (informal) talking about (informal) with respect to with special reference to while on the subject of (informal)

8 . Miscel laneo us

actually all in all as it is/was etc. as such by way o f compariso n by cont rast, by way of co ntrast in theory... in practice... let us suppose for the sake of argument that namely put simply so much for (somewhat informal) so to speak still strictly speaking suffice it to say that then to the effect that words to that effect

I ----------- the environment the situation could hardly be worse. ( = When

one talks about...) 2. The film is well pro du ced .----------- it is excellent. 3 ----------- the Government, I think that the finance minister deserves special credit. (= While we are discussing...) 4. Some have questioned his ab ility .----------- , however, we need have no doubts. 5 ----------- the proposed casino I would like to point out that our town lacks tourist attractions. 6 . This new Ford has many remarkable feature s.----------- I would like to poin t to the design.... 7 its general economic development the recent history of Zaire has been catastroph ic. 8 . I will be discussing Shakespeare’s ima ge ry,----------- Othello . 9. The two twins are different ----------- personality and intelligence, but otherwise are indistinguishable. 10. There are too many mediocre politicians like Clinton. And ----------mediocrities, isn’t it amazing that John Major hasn’t resigned yet? 11. They have these problems because of bad management.----------- I am absolutely certain. 12. One mustn’t regard the fall of the Roman Em pire----------- moral decline b u t ----------- social and cultural change. (Find a better alternative to as.) 13. The great questi on----------- the results is why so few people voted Labour. 14. He talked about Wellington’s abilities as a general ----------- the Peninsular War. 110

1.

Ms Smith graduated from our department with a mark of distinction. In addition she has a formal teaching qualification. ----------- she has every hope of becoming an excellent teacher. ( = Since this is the case) 2. There is an old st or y----------- two lovers who fled by sea to France were blown off course and after m any adventures shipwrecked at Madeira. 3. Unfortunately, the actual owner of the prop erty ,----------- the Duke of Mayfair, is unable to be present. -------- , 4. Korea has one of the most dynamic economies in the world. — it is becoming a serious rival of Japan. 5 ----------- ?it is not a bad school. 6. -------- , Life’s hard , and holding down a job is one of life’s nastiest tricks. — having a job means that you have got to be there eight hours a day, five days a week, and with people who may not necessarily be your cup of tea. 7. The vicar was always giving tea-parties for his female parishioners. He w as ----------- a ladies’ man. 8 . She said that the school needed to be reorganised from top to botto m, o r ----------- . 9 ----- the Queen is the control is always exercised by means of her Government. 10 . 1 ------ the Renaissance in Italy. ----- 2----- let us turn to the Renaissance in France. I ll

11. Her last will and testament w as ----------- her eldest son was to inherit all the property. (= essentially that.) 12. Vandalism is the outcome of social problems as much as it is a social problem in its elf .----------- it has received special attention from sociol ogists. 13. Just look at what some pensioners are receiving — £30 per week! ----- :------ they did not have to spend any of it on rent, heating, or rates. How on earth can anyone survive on so little? 14. She claims to be honest. W hy ,----------- , has she not paid the money back? 15 -------- — ? illegal, but this time I’ll let you keep the extra bottle of whiskey. 16. By the year 1993 the country was badly in need of political stability. -------- — , the politicians had spent the previous years arguing abou t trivial matters. 17. Her remarks were ----------- all her colleagues were incompetent. 18. Considerations of space preclude any more detailed discussion of the Sarmatians. ----------- , Herodotus’ account of their customs is largely born e out by archeology. 19. It ’s no good making the situatio n worse: things are bad enou gh----------- . 20. He told her to shut up, o r ----------- . As with all the items in this book, discourse markers are not to be overused: while good English is impossible without them, it is a mistake to think that the more they appear in an essay or article, the better the language will be.

Word-Order In this area more than any other the importance of long exposure to the living language becomes manifest. If the student of English does not have the advantage of having lived in an English-speaking environment for many years, then the next best thing is regular, pr efe rab ly dai ly, re ad in g o f En gli sh bo ok s an d ma ga zin es. But whatever the degree of exposure to English, it is good to be aware of some of the rules governing English word-order. The follow ing makes no claim to exhaustiveness: Position of Adjectives

In English most adjectives are able to go in two places in a sentence: 1. with a noun (known as the attr ibut ive position), e.g. A nice couple live next door. I like old books. 2. after the verbs be, becom e, look and a few others (known as the pre dic ativ e position), e.g. He’s not very clever. You look ill. The weather’s turning nasty. Some adjectives, however, are only able to go in one or the other po sit ion . Ot he rs ch an ge th ei r m ea nin g, de pe nd in g on wh eth er th ey ar e in the attributive or the predicative position. 2a. Adjectives which are able to go only in the a ttributive position: chief elder, eldest 113

little live (meaning the opposite of “dead” — contrast below, 2cA) main mere principa l sheer utter

2)

the op posite of wealthy 3) inadequ ate, no t very good (e.g. a poor result). When poor has the first meaning, it can only be in the attributive position. 2d. Attributive adjectives that are sometimes able to come afte r the

noun:

N o te als o th e ph ras es “ a bad loser”, “a heavy smoker”, and “a light sleeper”.

A. present e.g. “the people present”; cf. 2cC

2b. Adjectives which are normally able to go only in the predicative

B. proper e.g. “the book proper” means “the book itself’ — not the table of contents etc.; “After the hors d’oeuvres we went on to the meal proper”.

po sit io n: awake afloat afraid alight alike

alive alone ashamed asleep content

ill lit upset well

2c. Adjectives which change the ir meaning, depending on their po sit io n: A. live “The broadcast is live from London”; “The wire is live”; but “a live salmon”, “a live squirrel”. B. old When used with words like friend (“an old friend”), old means “o f long standing”; but “My friend is old ” means “My friend is elderly”. C. present “He was not present” means “He was absent”. But “the present owner” means “the person who is at present the owner”; and cf. 2dA. D. proper a proper meal = real, not a snack; but cf. 2dB. E. early/late “A late train” means “a train which travels very late in the day”, while “The train is late” means that it has not arrived on time. (The same applies to early). In the attributive position late also has the meaning of “deceased” (e.g. my late husband). F. poor Poor has three possible meanings, usually ascertainable from the context: 1)

114

deserving pity or sympathy

C. some adjectives ending in -able or -ible: e.g. “no tickets available”, “the only answer possible”, “the one way out imaginable”, “the person responsible”. D. Adjectives come after anything, anywhere, everything, nothing, somebody, something, and similar words: e.g. “somebody nice”, “something new”. E. when an adjective is part of a larger expression: we cannot say “a bad at maths child”, “a wishing to compete person”; we must say “a child (who is) bad at maths”, “a person wishing to compete Sometimes we may put part of the expression before the noun, and the rest of it after the noun: a better coat than this one (or: a coat better than this one) an easy skill to acquire (or: a skill easy to acquire; but not: “an easy to acquire skill”) the last person to arrive (or: the person last to arrive; but not: “the last to arrive person”) a different approach from normal (or: an approach different from normal, but not: “a different from normal approach”) This dividing up of the expression is possible with different, similar; easy, difficult, impossible; next, last, first , second etc.; comparatives and superlatives. N.B. Some expressions with superlatives have to be thus divided up: the best boy in the class (not: “the best in the class boy” or “the boy best in the class”) the fastes t horse of all (not: “the fastest of all horse” or “the horse fastest of all”) F. participles used as adjectives: We say “a stolen car”, when all we are doing is describing the car; but 115

when we say “the car stolen yesterday”, what we really mean is “the car that was stolen yesterday” — i.e. we are also talking about an action or event. Some participles can go only after the noun: left (the only option left) taking part (the sportsmen taking part) obtained (the results obtained) questioned (the people questioned) wishing (people wishing to emigrate) discussed (the topics discussed) examined (the subjects examined) The word those is very often followed by a participle: those chosen, those interested . Some participles have more than one meaning, depending on the position: 1.

adopted a. the solution adopted (= the solution that was chosen) b. an adopted child

2.

involved a. the people involved b. an involved explanation (= complicated)

3. concerned a. the people concerned (= the people who are involved, who have something to do with the business) b. a concerned expression (= worried).

He is too polite a person to swear. (Also: He is a person too polite to swear.) Thus, the structure generally consists of as / how / how eve r/ so / too + adjective + a/an + noun. Adj ectiv es: Ord er

When several adjectives occur together, the w ord-order is no t arbitrary. Thus, we say “big black dog”, while “a black big dog” is not English. The following are general guidelines: 1. Immediately before the noun comes the adjective of purpose or function, what the thing is for: a carving knife riding breeches an administrative building a dinner jacket 2. Just before these come adjectives which say what the thing is made of: a stainless-steel carving knife nylon riding breeches a red-brick administrative building a velvet dinner jacket 3. Just before these come adjectives which say where the thing comes from, its origin:

Special Word-Order with as, how, however, so, too:

In a formal style it is possible to use the words as , how , howev er , so, and too in a special structure with an indefinite article: This is as good an offer as we are likely to get. (Also: This is an offer as good as....) How extraordinary a spectacle!

(Instead of: What an extraordinary spectacle!) However good a mother she is, she cannot cope on her own.

(Instead of: However good she is as a mother....) She is so pleasant a girl that she is bound to pass the interview. (Instead of: She is such a pleasant girl....) 116

a Swedish carving knife Turkish damask trousers an Italian velvet dinner jacket 4. Before these come colo ur adjectives: brown French riding boots a black Italian velvet dinner jacket

5. Before these come words for age, shape, size, and temperature : an old wooden house a young Spanish lady an enormous black cloud cool red Bulgarian table wine

a small, oval swimming pool an ancient rectangular structure

6. Before these come words which tend to express the personal attitude of the writer or speaker: a gorgeous young black cat an ugly, red-brick administrative building a hideous ellipsoid concrete edifice a magnificent old wooden house a horrible enormous black cloud 7. Before these come numbers: two gorgeous young black cats

8. At the beginning of all come genitives: Susan’s two gorgeous young black cats the University’s ugly red-brick administrative building

The above guidelines for the order o f the adjectives must, unfortunately, be ta ke n wi th a ce rta in pi nc h of sal t, since the y are su bje ct to considerations of word-rhythm. Why, for example, is it just as good to say “a grey rectangular structure” (i.e. colour + shape) as “a rectangu lar grey structure” (as the above guidelines would suggest)?

She looked up suddenly. c. initial position (at the beginning o f a clause and before the subject): Suddenly she looked up.

N o t all ad ve rbs ca n go in all th ree po siti on s. Th e ini tia l po si tio n is restricted to certain kinds of adverbs (see below, p. 123). Most adverbs can go in mid-position and end-position (see below). 3. Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases Most adverbs can go in mid-position and end-position: Do you frequently watch TV? Do you watch TV frequently? She furiously picked up the receiver. She picked up the receiver furiously. The following may not go in mid-position: a. Adverbial phrases. These generally come at the end of the clause, bu t in a fo rm al or lite rar y style ca n som etim es also be in i nit ial po siti on : I met Churchill many years ago. Many years ago I met Churchill. (Not: “I many years ago met Churchill”.)

Position of Adverbs

1. Verb and Object English does not generally allow anything to come between the verb and the object. Thus, adverbs also cannot go there. 2. Normal Position of Adverbs There are three main possibilities: a. mid-position (before the verb or part of the verb, but after simple tenses of the verb to be): She suddenly looked up. He has frequently been late. They are always polite. b. end-position (at the end of a clause): 118

A girl was sitting by the window. By the window a girl was sitting. (Not: “A girl by the window was sitting”.) He arrived on Thursday. (Not: “He on Thursday arrived”.) Exceptions are a few common adverbial phrases: at once, all o f a sudden, all too often, quite often, very ofte n :

He all too often comes home drunk. She at once recognised the symptoms. b. Adverbs of place (e.g. anywhe re, awa y, every wher e, here, inside, outside, somewh ere, there, uphill, westwa rds), which generally come at the end of the clause but in a formal or literary style can also go in initial position: 119

There was rubbish everywhere. Everywhere there was rubbish.

She anxiously gazed at her daughter. She gazed at her daughter anxiously.

A man was waiting outside. Outside, a man was waiting.

But note:

We sailed westwards. Westwards we sailed.

When there is a verb + preposition + object, the adverb can also go before the preposition:

c. Adverbs of definite time (e.g. ye ste rd ay , tod ay , tom orrow ), which can go in initial and end-position: I’m going to London today. Today I’m going to London. d. Adverbs of definite frequency (e.g. dail y, wee kly , month ly ), which usually go to the end-position: We see each other daily. By contrast, words of indefinite time and frequency (e.g. alwa ys, fre qu en tly , lat ely , never , 0/ten, rec entl y, rep eate dly, seldo m, som etim es, stfi//) can go in mid-position: They always forget She immediately called the doctor. She called the doctor immediately. He’s never been to Brighton before. Never before has he been to Brighton. (Formal/literary) I often go there. I go there often. He repeatedly called me a liar. He called me a liar repeatedly. Repeatedly he called me a liar. (Formal/literary) They still dislike each other. They dislike each other still. e. Adverbs of manner (e.g. slow ly, anxious ly) can generally go in mid-or end-position, but when they give crucial information they must go to the end. Compare:

He was driving carefully along the road. She gazed anxiously at her daughter. f. Adverbs of evaluation (e.g. well, badly), which usually go to the end-position, but may also come befor e past participles: She sings beautifully. (Not: “She beautifully sings”.) The book is written beautifully. The book is beautifully written. The food has been cooked badly. The food has been badly cooked. However, in the phrase badl y needs (“He bad ly needs a drink.”), bad ly means “urgently”, and therefore can go to mid-position. g. Adverbs describing character or intelligence (e.g. arro gan tly, fo ol ishly, generously, kindly, meanly, stupidly) change their meaning according to their place in the sentence: He foolishly replied. (i.e. He was foolish enough to reply.) She kindly treated us to ice cream. (i.e. She was kind enough to treat us to ice cream.) By contrast, when such words come at the end, the meaning is different: He replied foolishly. (i.e. He replied in a foolish manner.) She treated us kindly. (i.e. She treated us in a kindly manner.)

He was carefully driving along the road. There was ice on the road, so he was driving carefully. 120

121

The following cannot generally go in end-position:

Adverbs that can go in the initial position:

a. Adverbs of likelihood ( certainly, definitely, probably), which es pecially belong to mid-position. An exception is perhaps, which usually goes in the initial position:

a. Only and even, when they refer to the subject:

He will certainly be there. Perhaps she will sing. b. Adverbs o f degree (e.g. almost, nearly, hardly, quite, rather, really, scarcely), which normally go to the mid-position: He has almost got to the end. I quite like her. The medicine really works. Of course, when quite qualifies an adjective or another adverb, the word-order is different: He had quite good exam results. You can do the exercises quite quickly. c. ‘Focussing ’ adverbs, which focus the attention on one part of the clause (e.g. also, especially, particularly, simply), usually go in mid position, but only and even can also go at the beginning under certain conditions (see below, p. 123): The monkey also likes bananas. She was particularly interested in Derrida. Exceptions are too, as well, and either, which usually go to the end of the clause: I want to come along too (or: as well). He doesn’t wish to either. N.B. Putting other ‘focussing’ adverbs at the end is typical of conversation. d. When the object is long, the adverb does not generally take the end-position: He carefully walked around the puddles, stones, and broken glass. He walked carefully around the puddles, stones, and broken glass. 122

Only he knew the code for the safe. (i.e. no one else knew) Suddenly everyone fell silent. Even the children stopped talking.

Here only and even come directly before the subject. (For only, see below, p. 129) b. Perhaps and possibly usually go in initial position (though in informal English the end-position is also possible): Perhaps she’ll be there tonight. Possibly he was killed in the War.

Most adverbs expressing degrees of certainty (actually [= really, in fact], apparently, certainly, clearly, evidently, obviously, presumably, surely, undoubtedly) can be in initial or mid-position. (Putting them in the end-position is typical o f informal or colloquial English.) Definitely is rarely in the initial position, and generally in mid-posi tion. c. Most adverbial expressions of time (e.g. lately, today, this spring, at first): Lately the weather has improved. This spring they’ll be getting married. At first he did not notice anything strange.

d. Some adverbs of frequency (e.g. occasionally, sometimes, usually), and especially phrases (time and again, as often as not): Sometimes they do and sometimes they don’t.

Note that always is rarely in initial position, except in commands. e. Some adverbs of place or direction (e.g. away, down, everywhere, here, inside, off, round, there, up), especially in literary writing. Note the changes of word-order: Away flew the pigeon. (But: Away it flew.) Down came the curtain. (But: Down it came.) We opened the chest. Inside was a sealed envelope. Nowhere will you find better service. 123

Off went the alarm. (But: Off it went.) There stood the captain. (But: There he stood.) Up went the flag. (But: Up it went.) The same applies to adverbial phrases of place:

On the wall hung a Rembrandt. (But: On the wall it hung.) Out of the bushes sprang a deer. (But: Out of the bushes it sprang.) Round and round hovered a moth. (But: Round and round it hovered.) f. Some adverbs of mann er (e.g. anxiously, gently, silently, slowly, somehow):

Gently she rocked the baby. (Formal/literary) Silently the men advanced. (Formal/literary) Somehow the men escaped. (Formal/literary) g. Discourse markers (e.g. Actually, Admittedly, (Un)fortunately, Frankly, Naturally, Officially, Surprisingly etc.) are often in the initial position.

Admittedly, he was rather tired. Frankly, he is a swindler. Officially, you’re not supposed to know this. When Honestly is a discourse marker, then it goes to the initial position, but when it means “in an honest manner” it goes to the end:

Honestly, this is the best solution. He didn’t earn the money honestly.

Since there is apparently no reason.... (Instead of: “Since apparently there is no reason...”.) Since they’ll be getting married this spring.... (Not: “Since this spring they’ll be getting married...”.) Seeing that they sometimes do and sometimes don’t.... (Instead of: “Seeing that sometimes they do and sometimes they don’t...”.) While she gently rocked the baby... . (Not: “While gently she rocked the baby...”.) As the men silently advanced.... (Not: “As silently the men advanced...”.) However, this proviso does not apply to the words only and even when they refer to the subject (a bove, p. 123):

Since only he knew the code for the safe.... When even the children stopped talking.... In addition, this proviso does not apply to “discourse markers” (above, p. 124):

Since, admittedly, he was rather tired.... Although officially you’re not supposed to know this.... Note 2: When a main clause is preceded by a subordinate clause, the former is less likely to begin with an adverbial expression:

h. Certain negative expressions (see above, pp. 70-72). Note 1: The initial position is far less likely when the adverbial word or phrase is part of a subordinate clause, especially a clause beginning with as, although, because, since, though, while, when etc.:

Since she may be there tonight.... (Instead of: “Since perhaps she’ll be there tonight...” — no te the parap hrase of the wo rd perhaps.) Even though he may have been killed in the War.... (Not: “Even though possibly he was killed...” — no te the parap hrase of the word possibly.)

Seeing that it is a very important occasion, she may be there tonight. (Instead of: “Seeing that it is a very importan t occasion, perhaps she will be there tonight”. Note the paraphrase of the word perhaps.) Now tha t the bureau cratic hurdles have been overcome, they’ll be getting married this spring. (Not: “Now that the bureaucratic hurdles have been overcome, this spring they’ll be getting married”.) Since the room was very faintly lit, he did not at first notice anything strange. (Instead of: “Since the room was very faintly lit, at first he did not notice anything strange”.)

When the chest was opened, a sealed envelope was found inside. (Not: “When the chest was opened, inside a sealed envelope was found”.) As we approached the edge of the field, a deer sprang out of the bushes. (Not: “As we approached the edge of the field, out of the bushes sprang a deer”.) While the police searched the flat, she gently rocked the baby. (Not: “While the police searched the flat, gently she rocked the baby”.) As the snow drifted, the men silently advanced. (Not: “As the snow drifted, silently the men advanced”.) However, this proviso does not apply to the words only and even when they refer to the subject (above, p. 123): When the soldiers arrived, even the children stopped talking.

You really ought to see a doctor. You ought really to see a doctor. She certainly would have been there. She would certainly have been there. She would have certainly been there. But the verbs have to and used to generally have the adverb before them: You often have to remind her. They never used to quarrel. He always used to read the Bible at bedtime. 2b. When an auxiliary verb is used alone instead of a verbal phrase, the adverb comes before it: “Do you like riding horses?” “I certainly do.” He knows he should give more help, but he never does.

Position of Adverbs: Mid-position (details) 1. Generally speaking, mid -position adverbs go before the verb, but they go after simple tenses of the verb to be: He frequently arrives late. They quickly left the house. She is often rude. He was never at home. 2. When a verb has several parts (e.g. will be invited, would have been present, has been sleeping), the most common position is after the first auxiliary verb: He will probably be invited. She would certainly have been present. Those boys have definitely been smoking. They were eventually arrested. He hasn’t ye t been to the bank. N.B. She still drinks. (= She is still a heavy drinker.) but: She is still drinking. (= i. “She is still a heavy drinker.” or ii. “She hasn’t yet finished drinking.”) 2a. However, other positions are also possible, especially when the first part of the verbal phrase is a modal auxiliary (i.e. can, c ould , ma y, mig ht, mu st, needy oughty shally should, willy would , etc.): 126

2c. When adverbs of manner (e.g. quickly, slowly, completely, somehow) go in mid-position, they are normally put after all auxiliary verbs: He will have completely forgotten everything. The road was being gradually repaired. 3. In emphatic sentences, many adverbs are put before the first auxiliary verb (and before am, are, is, was, were): She certainly is hard-working. (Instead of the more usual: She is certainly....) He really does know how. (Emphasis on does.) De Sade’s works are not widely accepted and they never will be widely accepted. (Emphasis on will.) (Instead of the more usual: ...and they will never be....) 4. In negative sentences some adverbs come before or after not, depending on the meaning. Compare: He really doesn't want another drink. (i.e. Why don’t you believe him?) He doesn't really want another drink. (He’s just pretending.) 127

When adverbs come before not, they must also come before the auxiliary verb do :

2. When there are two adverbs of position, the larger place is men tioned last:

He really does not want another drink. (Not: He does really not....) 5. The determinants all, both and each can come in the same position as mid-position adverbs: You are each going to receive a book. They have both been punished. They all would have been asleep at the time. They would all have been asleep at the time. They would have all been asleep at the time. Position of Adverbs: End-Position

1. Generally speaking, adverbs of manner (‘how’) are put before adverbs of place (‘where’), while adverbs of time (‘when’) come last of all: He’s going abroad tomorrow. (place before time) The child was behaving so badly at school this morning. (manner before place before time) They were working so hard in London last year. (manner before place before time)

Away, back, down, forward, home, in, off, on, out, round and up usually precede adverbs of manner: They climbed down quickly. He came in silently.

Here and there also precede adverbs of manner, with the exception of hard, well, better, badly and worse: He sat there absently. but: No one w orks hard here. They feel better here. The children behave badly there. 128

She worked at a library in Oxford.

The Adverb Only

In formal written English only often precedes the word to which it refers, and especially when this is the subject: 1. 2. 3.

Only John is able to ride that stallion. He only hoovered the bedroom, (i.e. He didn’t do anything more to it.) He hoovered only the bedroom, (i.e. He didn ’t hoove r anywhere else.)

But in informal English, whether written or spoken, only is usually placed before the verb: He only hoovered the bedroom. In this sentence only can refer either to the hoovering or to the bedroom. The meaning will be clear either from the context or from the word which is stressed in the speech.


1. Insert the designated words into the following sentences, making changes to the original where necessary (often more than one word-order will be possible): 1. Both sides of the argume nt should be examined. + always 2. The minor characters contribute to the plot. + also 3. Is the work so horrible? + really 4. This man may be seen on TV. + sometimes 5. I have been given the report . + finally 6 . Havin g spent several months , I know the place quite well. + there 7. Moth er noticed that something was wrong. + also 8 . The average priest is not a merciful, warm-hea rted servant. + unfortunately + God’s

9. Every time I arrive at my office, suicidal tendencies make themselves felt 4 - immediately 10. Many forme r Communists have changed into good Christians. + surprisingly abruptly 11. Youn g people are likely to be hurt. 4 - especially 12. They spent an hour. + there 13. “I t’s an eagle”, said the younger brother. + presently 14. The cottages were built by the first settlers, -f probab ly 15. It will be a place assoc iated with home. -I- always 16. He lived in a hut. + situated a t the edge of the forest 17. As Mrs Wright made fun of the weaker students, she was hated. + also + sometimes + widely 18. I was presen t at his death. + by chance 19. The National Park is a breathtaking creation. + Nature’s 20. I hope ou r government will help the poorest. + especially 2 1 . She would cross herself. + every now and then + also 22. The USA has been the first to protest, -f always 23. Having worked, they resigned. + for three weeks + under awful conditions + there, 24. An exaggerated faith can be dangerous . + also 25. One may notice many young people. + here 26. She found an old diary. + there 4 - unexpectedly 27. They went to the village. 4 - together 28. He will be shown the documents. 4 - soon

2. Select the correct word-order in each of the followin g alternatives (sometimes more than one is possible):

la. a Hungarian nineteenth-century patriot lb. a nineteenth-century Hungarian patriot 2 a. granite precipitous peaks 2 b. precipitou s granite peaks 3a. an example of one such Lond on district 3b. an example of one of such London ’s districts 4a. a beautiful young girl 4 b. a young beautifu l girl 130

5a. 5b. 6 a. 6 b. 7a. 7b. 8 a. 8 b. 9a. 9b. 10 a. 10 b. 11 a. lib . 12a. 12b. 13a. 13b. 13c. 13d. 13e. 13f. 14a. 14b. 15a. 15b.

T hanks to these all attractions, L.A. is a wonderful place. T hanks to all these attractions, L.A. is a wonderful place. this amazing little creature this little amazing c reature He tries to bring bac k to life Simone. He tries to bring Simone back to life. the American prosperou s film industry the p rosperous American film industry I know two such places. I know such two places. the church official records the official ch urch records a long dark dress a dark long dress The film has scenes that move audiences to tears by bo th their hu mour and their poignancy. The film has scenes that move audiences to tears by their both h umo ur and poignancy. They claim to lead better, honest, new lives. They claim to lead new, better, honest lives. They claim to lead better, new, hone st lives. They claim to lead honest, better, new lives. They claim to lead new, honest, b etter lives. They claim to lead hones t, new, better lives. his rough red hands his red rough hands historic, beautiful Prague beautiful, historic Prague

2. A mistake that is frequent among foreign learners o f English is to write a phrase such as “these area’s problems”, when what the person actually means is these problems o f the area. 3. It is best to use the apostrophe when you want to show the plural of something which cannot normally be plural:

Punctuation Bad punctuation can often make even the best writing unintelligible. On the other hand, good punctuation can make your meaning clear and your language effective. English punctuation generally differs from that of other European languages; even though there is often considerable room for personal preferences, a mastery of the basic rules is indispensable. There is one overriding principle: to use the bare minimum of punctuation necessary to keep the writing intelligible. The following list of rules makes no claim to exhaustiveness. I. Th e Apost roph e (’)

1. men’s, women’s, children’s, people’s It is correct to write this a rea’s problems, meaning “the problems of this area”, and these areas ’ problems, meaning “the problems of these areas”: in fact, putting apostrophes anywhere else would be wrong. But the plurals of man, woman, and child are exceptions to this general rule: thus we write the men’s wives, the women’s husbands, the children’s mothers, and nothing else. Another important exception is the word people when it denotes the plural of “person”: thus we would write these peo ple’s behaviour, meaning “the behaviour of these persons”, but these peoples’ behaviour, meaning “the behaviour of these peoples” (i.e. ethnic groups). Other irregular plurals are treated in the same way as men, women, children, and people : above all the plurals of ox, sheep, goose and mice (e.g. the oxen’s pasture, the sheep’s wool, the geese’s flight, the mice’s tails). 132

The past tense of occur is spelt with two r’s. I accept the idea in principle, b ut there are a lot of if s.

4. Strings of apostrophes are to be avoided. Thus one should write the friends o f that man’s son, instead of “that man’s son’s friends”. 5. We say in ten days’ time, in twenty years’ time (i.e. we use the apostrophe).

6. We say each other’s, not “each others’ ” (e.g. to get on each other’s nerves).

II. The Colon (:)

1. Quotations The colon is often used to introduce quotations: To quote Nietzsche: “God is dead!” As the bard so aptly puts it: “All the world’s a stage”. The colon can also be used to introduce direct speech, especially in rather formal or serious contexts: Finally Mark Antony began his address: “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears...”. N.B. i. The colon is not used to introduce conversation. ii. Direct formal quotations begin with a capital letter (cf. also pp. 142-3, 185). lit. The colon is not used to introduce quotes consisting of very brief phrases: Do you know that Mrs Thatcher actually said “shut up” to Lord Carrington? 133

2. Explanations The colon is often used after a main clause where the following statement explains, elaborates, or illustrates that clause, especially in formal contexts. It may sometimes be replaced by a full stop or a semicolon. There is no point in worrying: disasters are sure to happen anyway. (Full stop and semicolon also possible.)

The Church is totally opposed to two aspects of the permissive society: that is, abortion on demand and artificial methods of birth control.

Apartheid was not overthrown: rather, it died a natural death. (Full stop and semicolon also possible.)

The question is this: Is killing ever justified? He certainly has a drinking-problem: I once saw him drink a whole bottle of whisky. (Full stop and semicolon also possible .) There is one good thing about skinheads and punks: they absolutely hate each other.

3. Lists Colons can also be used to introduce lists or enumerations, often using the following phrases: as follows , for example, for instance, such as, and the following. In the world described in Orwell’s Animal Farm two basic principles become all-importa nt: (i) all animals are equal; (ii) some animals are more equal than others. Our solar system consists of the following planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. N.B . Try to avoid sentences like the follo wing , where the subject and the verb are separated from the complement:

The ingredients of gunpowder are: saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal. Better would be to remove the colon, or else to rephrase the sentence:

The ingredients of gunpowder are as follows : saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal.

1. Defining and Non-defining Compare the two following sentences (a and b): a. Pop-stars who earn fortunes should pay higher taxes.

(Defining relative clause — i.e. only those pop-stars who earn fortunes shouldpay higher taxes.) b. Pop-stars, who earn fortunes, should pay higher taxes.

(Non-defining relative clause — i.e. all pop-stars earn fortunes and therefore should pay higher taxes.) The first sentence refers only to some pop-stars, while the second sentence refers to all pop-stars. Note that in the second sentence there are two commas (not one), to mark the beginning and the end of the clause. The same principle operates with the words when and where. Compare the following: a. The day when JFK was assassinated I was crossing the Atlantic. b. On November 22, when JFK was assassinated, I was crossing the Atlantic.

c. The town where I was stationed was pretty arid. d. Quetta, where I was stationed, was a pretty arid place. Note that a comma is possible in a (after assassinated), but not in c. The same principle also extends to appositional phrases. Compare the following: a. Nietzsche’s work The Gay Science was written in 1888. b. Nietzsche’s last work, The Gay Science, was written in 1888.

c. The famous thinker Michel Foucault has just died. d. A famous thinker, Michel Foucault, has just died. e. The Prime Minister, Marga ret Thatcher, has just resigned. f. Marga ret Thatcher, the Prime Minister, has just resigned.

or:

Gunpowder has three ingredients: saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal. 134

III. The Comma (,)

In a the title of the work is defining, i.e. The Gay Science was only one 135

of several works by Nietzsche. In b the title is non-defining, because only one work can be the author’s last. In e Michel Foucault is not the only famous thinker; therefore, the name Michel Foucault is defining, and hence no commas. In d A famous thinker and Michel Foucault are one and the same; therefore, Michel Foucault is non defining, and hence commas. Sentences e and f are non-defining (and therefore with commas), because in Britain there is only one Prime Minister at any one time. Before we go on, it is important to point out that that cannot be used in a non-defining relative clause:

The wine that we’ve just been drinking comes from Spain. (Defining relative clause.)

Wine, which has been one of man’s favourite beverages for several millennia now, is rich in trace elements. ( Non-defining relative clause — i.e. all wine; hence, the word ‘that’ is impossible.)

2. Comma Splice A comma cannot normally be placed between two grammatically separate sentences; instead, a full stop or a semicolon is used: John is more quick-witted. On the other hand, Peter is more intelligent. (A typical mistake is to write: “John is more quick-witted, on the other hand, Peter is more intelligent”.)

In the sentence given in quotation marks the faulty use of the comma makes it slightly unclear what the phrase on the other hand is referring to. Cf. also below, p. 221.

3. “Which” Referring to the Previous Clau se(s) Peter was sulking all the time, which ruined the atmosphere of the party. If which does not refer to any particular noun as such but to the whole preceding sentence, then there must be a comma.

4. Commas do not Usually Introduce Noun Clauses or ‘that-clauses’ in General: She realised there was no hope. 136

He asked if he could go out for a second. They didn’t know what to say. He knew where the money was concealed. You say that you have been to India. They were so tired that they could go no further. In none of these sentences is a comma possible.

5. Commas S eparating Direct Speech from the Res t o f the Sentence: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Then he muttered, “ There’s no fool like an old fool” . “Ther e’s no fool like an old fool”, he muttered. The down-and-ou t remarke d, “Glue-sniffing helps pass the time” . “ Glue-sniffing helps pass the time”, remarked the young down-a nd-ou t. Then I thought, “Th at’s very strange” . “T hat ’s very strange” , I though t. J ohn said, “Why d on’t we see a film?” “Why do n’t we see a film?” said John. He turned to her and asked abruptly, “Who are you?” “Who are you?” he asked abruptly. Dad sho uted, “ Come here, so I can hit you!” “Come here, so I can hit you!” Dad shouted . The doctor said to her, “ You r son is doing well”. “Yo ur son is doing well”, the doctor said to her. “You r son”, the docto r said to her, “is doing well”. “Well, well”, exclaimed the professor, “how very interesting!” “Yes, I suppose you’re right ” , she said. “I’d better go” .

N.B. i. Some writers leave out the comma in introducing direct speech, and especially when there is no real pause in the conversational equivalent. Thus, in example 11 the comma is not indispensable. ii. In constructions where the direct speech comes first, it is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma (as in examples 2, 4, 6, 14, 15, 16 and 17); an exception is when the direct speech ends with a question mark or an exclamation mark, as in sentences 8, 10, and 12. iiia. Literary English very often puts the reporting verb {he said etc.) in the middle or at the end of the direct speech, as in examples 137

2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16 and 17. (Note a lso the comma after her in 15 and professor in 16.) iiib. If, however, the direct speech consists of two separate sentences, as in example 17, then the interpolated words finish with a full stop (cf. the full stop after she said). Iiic. If you use this construction of putting the reporting verb in the middle or at the end of the direct speech, then you can sometimes invert the usual word-order, as in examples 4, {remarked the young down-and-out), 8 {said John), and 16 {exclaimed the professor). This inversion is especially typical of narrative and of literary English in general. This inversion of word-order is especially possible when the subject is a long one, as in example 4. It is less usual, however, where there is a pronoun, as in examples 6 (“thought I” instead of I thought) and 17. (In 10 it is virtually impossible to write “asked he”.) An inversion of word-order would be most uncommon in 14 and 15, since there is also the phrase to her to complicate matters.

6. With Adverbs and Short Phrases Words and phrases such as furthermore, however, nevertheless, more over, meanwhile, fo r example, fo r instance, surprisingly, fortunately, to sum up, and believe it or not are generally followed by commas. N.B. The word ye t is not generally followed by a comma. 7. Repetition for Clarity; the Avoidance o f Clumsiness

Environmental pollution is one of the greatest evils of our times, which threatens the future of our planet. The trouble with this sentence is that which is far removed from the word it refers to. The sentence would be greatly improved if a word or two were inserted, as in the following alternatives:

Environmental pollution is one of the greatest evils of our times, (and) one which threatens the future of our planet.

Environmental pollution is one of the greatest evils of our times, an evil which threatens the future o f our planet. (N.B. “a n evil”, not “ the evil”.) 138

Environmental pollution is one of the greatest evils of our times, an affliction which threatens the future of our planet. (N.B. “ an affliction”, not “the affliction”.)

IV. The Dash (—)

The dash should be used sparingly, except in highly informal contexts. (Foreign students of English often overuse the dash.)

1. Instead of Colon or Semicolon ( Informal ) In highly informal kinds of writing the dash is often used instead of the colon or the semicolon: As every housewife knows, only two ingredients are necessary for a good meal — quality and quantity. She’s a really nice lady — all the neighbours think so too.

2. Afterthoughts In direct speech and highly informal kinds of writing the dash often indicates afterthoughts: “I think I’ll try some of that haggis — on second thoughts, perhaps not”. He’ll be here later — or at least that’s what he said.

3. fo r example, namely, that is The dash often precedes fo r example, namely, and that is when they introduce appositional or parenthetic matter: Darwin said that one principle underlies all biological evolution — namely, the survival o f the fittest. (N.B. In this sentence a colon can also be used instead of a dash.)

4. Parentheses Dashes are often used to indicate parentheses, as in the following sentence: The two poles of our existence — birth and death — generally involve physical suffering. 139

In the above example brackets could also be used, but then the sentence would lose some of its force. N.B . In such sentences two dashes are necessary, not one. 5. Dashes may not Replace the Verb ‘to be’ or any other Verb:

The first type of conflict is a civil war, and the second type is an international war. In this sentence the second verb may not be replaced by a dash. If you want to, you can leave the second verb out:

The first type of conflict is a civil war, and the second type an international war.

V. Th e Ellipsis (... or ....)

1. Omission o f Mater ial The ellipsis can be used to indicate an omission in quoted matter: The crucial words in the will were as follows: “I... bequeath my property... to my sole surviving son, with the proviso that the general public should have access to my Oriental Collection”.

2. Interrupted or Unfinished Sentences The ellipsis can also be used to indicate a sentence that is interrupted or unfinished: “If I could... have a little water... that would be....” The dying man suddenly broke off.

2. Clarity The main purpose of the hyphen is to reduce the chances of ambiguity in compound adjectives. The following distinction is generally observed: The Fiat is twenty years old. He bought a twenty-year-old Fiat for next to nothing. One ticket to Cardiff, please, second class. She bought a second-class ticket to Cardiff. The wall was ten foot high. In the garden was a ten-foot-high wall. N.B. There is on e imp ortan t gr oup of comp ound adjectives where no hyphen is used, namely those containing adverbs which end in -ly: thus we would say a freshly dug grave, a newly ironed shirt, environmentallyfriendly technology.

3. Word-divisions at the End o f a Line If you choose to divide up a word at the end of a line, it can be done by means of a hyphen at the end of the line (never at the beginning of the next line). The places where a word can be divided up for such purposes are limited, and need to be checked in each case in A. S. Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. (Few dictionaries give details of word divisions.) Important to remember is that words should not be divided up at the very end. Take, for example, the word incommensurate. In Hornby’s Dictionary you will read that it is possible to divide the word up in the following places: in-com-men-sur-ate : nonetheless, dividing up the word before the last syllable (i.e. incommensurate) is still widely regarded as being clumsy and to be avoided at all costs.

N.B. If the ellipsis mark s an unfinished sentence, then fo ur d ots are used, no t three. VII. The Parenthesis VI. The Hyphen (-)

1. With Set Phrases Ex-wife; clear-headed, sharp-witted, broken-hearted etc. 140

Parenthetical matter can be expressed by parentheses (as here), by dashes — as here —, or by commas. Whichever you choose, there are two things to remember:

1. Keep the parenthesis short.

2. The contents of the parenthesis have no influence on the grammar of the rest of the sentence. Compare the two following sentences: The Queen (and, of course, the royal corgies) was there. The Queen (and, o f course, the royal corgies) were there.

The word ‘bimbo’ is an American coinage. Death is a kind of ‘mirror’ of life. b. When there is a quotation inside a quotation, use the kind of quotation marks that you are not using for the main quotation:

The second sentence is wrong.

VIII.

Quotation Marks (“ ” or ‘ ’)

1. When quot ation marks set off a complete statement, the first word of the quotation generally begins with a capital letter, except when the quotation is preceded by that: There was an announcement on the radio: “A bomb has gone off in the centre of London”. but: The announcement on the radio was that “a bomb has gone off in the centre of London”.

2. You are free to finish a quotation by putting the full stop or other punctuation either before or after the quotation marks: a. Luther said: “Here I stand.”

Luther said: “Here I stand”. b. “Your son,” the doctor said to her, “is doing well.”

“Your son”, the doctor said to her, “is doing well”. The first of each pair is American, but is increasingly popular in Britain. Your freedom is limited only by logic, as in the following: “How do you find John?” he asked. but: What do you make of his remark that “there are too many sheep in the world”?

3. You can choose between single quotes (‘...’) and double quotes (“...”). There are two provisos: a. Single quotes are very often used when we discuss an individual word or phrase or else use it in an unusual way: 142

The witness said: “I clearly heard him say ‘watch out’; then there was gunfire”. or: The witness said: ‘I clearly heard him say “watch out”; then there was gunfire’.

4. Quotation marks are used to enclose the titles of short poems, lectures, articles, chapters and sections o f books. By contrast, the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, long poems, plays, films and TV programmes are italicised, without quotation marks. The names of firms, publishing houses, pop-groups, restaurants and cafes are neither placed in quotation marks nor italicised. 5. Only one other mark accompanies closing quotation marks, no matter what the sense demands: Get out of here! but: Is that very nice of you, shouting “Get out of here”? N.B. 1. If you are writing an article for a learned journal, there may well be special guidelines to follow. 2. The quotation marks begin at the top of the line, never at the bottom. (We don’t write: .Get out of here!’)

3. In handwriting the beginning and final quotat ion marks resemble the numbers 6 and 9 (or 66 and 99) respectively, without the holes.

IX. The Semicolon (;)

1. Bringing Together Pairs or Strings o f Sentences Functionally speaking, semicolons are at a halfway stage between 143

commas and full stops. They are often used with statements or clauses which are grammatically independent of each other, but where the meaning is very closely linked: A man acts in haste; he repents at leisure. Some people are sent home after a day or two; others stay for a couple of weeks; still others require very long-term treatment. N.B. In the first example a comma is also possible, since there two short clauses are balancing each other. In the second example commas would be unusual.

2. The semicolon is often used to link two sentences that are grammatically separate but connected in thought when the second one is introduced by a conjunctive adverb, such as the following: accord ingly>also, consequently, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, in fact, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, so, still, then, therefore, thus, yet. All these years he has done conscientious work; hence, it is clear he deserves promotion.

3. The semicolon often separates phrases and clauses that are themselves broken up by commas or other punctuation: The country possesses huge oil-deposits, though yet to be fully exploited; extensive coffee plantations, albeit hampered by antiquated technology; and, finally, almost unlimited resources of rain-forest. The duties of the monarch are to open Parliament; to appoint ministers; to act as head of the Church of England, as well as of the British Commonwealth; and generally to try to keep far away from the tabloids, which are always in search of salacious gossip.


Supply the punctuation in the following sentences, making changes to the text where necessary: 1. The Chu rch which has always played a key role in tha t country is likely to oppose the idea. 2. Music expresses their feelings he said and should not be treated as a means of earning money. 144

3. As Mr Jones the owner has demonstrated such a project would benefit everybody. 4. Given the fact tha t malaria is a very danger ous disease the fight against mosquitoes must be given top priority. 5. One subculture is especially remarkable I mean the followers of Krishna. 6 . Surprisingly enough nobo dy not even the clergymen who sho uld be the first to criticise and ban such an activity finds it morally corrupting to watch such films or to patronise such clubs. 7. I would even say that this is a very superficial approa ch to the pro blem and that these so called critics take too much for granted. 8 . Their pacifism was present in every aspect of their lives including music fashion and leisure in general. 9. In fact however these activities were only the visible reflection of these youths assertion of their individuality they provided the opportunity for an escape from traditional stereotypes and cliches. 10. Now when state care of the homeless has diminished and unemp loymen t has been spreading the number of people deprived of any livelihood is greater than ever. 11. Michael Heseltine the Minister for Trade and Industry has openly criticised Mr Major. 12. She begins her day with a morning service later at home she recites prayers as tho ugh they were magical charms. 13. As a matter o f fact there exists a considerably wider spec trum o f yout h subcultures in the contemporary world than used to be in the past. 14. In not being ashame d of their nakedness which in fact is very natu ral for man and in establishing nudist beaches naturists simply wish to express the vital relationship with and essential dependence on nature and its laws without which human existence is inconceivable. 15. I was lucky abou t 100 others were not. 16. Foreigners are regarded as easy touch they can be robbed or even blackmailed. 17. A subculture is still a culture it is governed by rules as strict as in any society. 18. These suggested reforms mainly concern political life however the consequences of those reforms would be changes in our economic social and cultural reality in general. 19. The music they listened to hunti ng songs of exotic origin or guitar ba llads was tuneful and harmonious.

20. This will cause serious problems in Africa and South America where insects often carry life threatening diseases. 21. T hou gh the subculture I have just described is based on national symbols its counterparts exist in other countries as well. 22. There were certain circumstances tha t made life a little easier for some. 23. Cakes tha t are fattening should not be eaten. 24. M any of the flower power generation died of a drug overdose moreover many of the rock stars who sang about peace also sang about drugs and died of drug abuse. 25. He was willing to help anyone who asked for advice. 26. The questio n still is whether this has been a good way to change the world whether the dress hair and cacophonous songs could really offer any answer to the worlds ills. 27. Th eir marriage th at used to be considered so successful has now come to an end. 28. Some features of our cou ntry are especially striking for foreigners who pay atten tion to even the smallest details of our lives. 29. The traffic in London is terrible which makes buses there very unpunc tual. 30. A song by the Sex Pistols Theres Anarchy in the U K became the anthem of all punks. 31. Well I think these people should be admired as they are exceptionally motivated. 32. How ever they have succeeded in creating their own remarkable style. 33. So it is with most subcultures those who take th eir ideas too seriously are bou nd to be disillusioned. 34. The worst thin g is that there is no reason for these attacks on innocent people the skins just do it fo r the hell o f it. 35. Even o ur MP the man we trusted so much even he suppo rts the idea. 36. H e succeeded where so many would be conqu erors had failed because he quickly took control of the regions oil because he was able to harness religious sentiment to his own ends and above all because Muslims felt that at last they had a splendid opportunity to work off their ancient grudges against the now fragmented western world. 37. Subcultures are smaller societies than the global culture they help to create therefore it is easy for burgeoning individuals to blossom on their soil. 38. Mr s Potte r was not a good teach er she did not make us like her subject we were not interested in physics at all. 146

39. This of course is also the case with rock and roll music as well which planted on American soil has led to the birt h of a totally new artistic idiom. 40. Another thing of great importance that has recently been emerging as a result of air pollution is the greenhouse effect. 41. The less you play the better they used to say so it is not surprising that what the audience was given was often nothing more than a chaos of sound. 42. Everybody knows that such people exist everybody also knows what they look like. 43. If I have ever met any impressive iron man or punk it was he not the subculture which he belonged to that was exceptional. 44. The incident is a real disgrace for us their parents and teachers indeed for the whole community. 45. These two persons that I have already presented are typical o f our school. 46. There is one feature which they all share it is generally speaking rebellion. 47. For this reas on the earth is becoming warmer and in consequence the ice is melting which is why the sea level is generally rising. 48. Eastern religions especially those which advocated the relinquishing of earthly desires came into vogue. 49. It is true that she is absent minded but t hat is no reason to sack her. 50. The Americas of the sixteenth century when Europea n settlers started to make their appearance were remarkably disease free. 51. Details such as earrings rings chains with pentagr ams or skulls are welcome. 52. We have called Chinghis king for now he was indeed a king. 53. It is not surprising that air pollution has become one of the greatest problems nowadays. 54. Such communities examples of which are skins metalmaniacs pun ks o r discomaniacs possess an invisible inner force that attracts many young people. 55. The opponents conceded this fact nevertheless they maintained that the casino would contribute to a decline of morals. 56. Many o f my friends have gone abroad where they hope to find work. 57. The minds of some people in our congregation have lately become preoccupied with a bizarre idea that seems to pose a hidden danger to our community. 58. Our cakes that are always fresh can now be obtained seven days a week. 59. The writers last words were one of us has got to go its either me or the wallpaper. 147

60. Teachers should change their attit ude to stu dents who have always been considered inferior unlike in western countries. 61. I appro ve of teaching French at secon dary schools however I would not give up teaching Latin and I would put stronger emphasis on German. 62. There would be two examination s the entrance one very difficult to make sure that the candidates who pass are really appropriate and the second one the thesis after five years. 63. D racula leaves his homeland Transylva nia and comes to England. 64. The first thing I would do if I were education minister would be to make all students pay for their education. 65. They do these things because they are mentally unstable. 6 6 . Thei r only activity was to denounce wha t they considered to be the sins of the world. 67. Th at is why I think tha t education shou ld be the responsibility of local government in England. 6 8 . Eliots ashes were taken to the church at Easter Coker the home of his ancestors and buried there. 69. There was a real hullaballoo when Fleet Street got hold o f two tapes of telephone conversations one between Diana and James Gilbey a man about town who repeatedly called her darling and the other sexually explicit between Charles and a married woman Camilla Parker Bowles. 70. Brai n surgeons in my coun try who have stressful highly responsible jobs should be paid more. 71. The numb er o f places is very limited which makes competition fierce. 72. Sometimes we are all so sure that they will not listen to us that we do not even try. 73. The older generatio n cannot und erstan d the way teenagers dress talk and behave they cann ot unde rstand why we wan t to listen to rock music or why we listen to it so loud. 74. Africa is said to be the poorest co ntinent while North Americ a is said to be the most affluent. 75. Hopkin s acts the part o f Van Helsing the fearless conquero r of vampires. 76. At an early age she decided she wanted to be only one thing in life an actress. 77. In 1947 his wife Vivien died ten years later he got married to his secretary Valerie Fletcher.

PART THREE

Style and Register Before embarking on any piece o f writing, the writer must be very sure of who his audience is. Thus, if he is a journalist writing for a daily whose aim is to attract the widest possible readership, his tone and the language that he uses will be quite different from those employed by the author of a learned dissertation destined for a highly specialised readership. Then again, the learned dissertation will be very different in language from a paper read out at an academic conference, from a lecture given to students, or from a radio-talk delivered to the general public. The fact is that great differences of register exist, and nowhere more so than between spoken English and written English, and different rules apply. The most important thing is simply to be consistent in the language that you use. The following is an excerpt from a student homework, where the student recounts his adventures in catching a train: I got to the platform ten minutes before the train was due to come in. Suddenly there was an announcement over the loudspeaker: the train had been delayed for three hours, and I had got to be at Gatwick airport by eight o’clock. Thus I was obliged to address the problem of alternative transpo rtation an d darted off immediately to the bus station. Here the student has mixed two completely different registers. The words “got” and “darted o f f ’ immediately identify the language as being highly colloquial. However, the student has also used words of a very elevated register, namely “was obliged to” and “address”, rather than the colloquial equivalents “had to” and “cope with” respectively. Unfortunately there are no real short-cuts to mastering register; the

149

best way is long exposure to the language, especially extensive reading of all kinds, and above all practice in writing the language. A detailed list of simple words and their more formal equivalents will be found below, at pp. 151-161. Suggested Exercises (42):

Words of Latin Origin

Identify the incongruous elements in the following passages and then try to rewrite them in consistent language: a. British trade-un ion leaders would appear to be amenable to reason. What they’re out for is an end to people getting sacked just like that. If they get treated O.K. by British Coal, they will be prepared to enter into negotiations. b. One of the world’s principal pharmaceutical companies for nearly

a century, Glaube-Roche is a big European supplier of all sorts of stuff that protect and improve our daily lives. c. Today I wanna discuss problems connected with thermodynamics, and I’m gonna present some new material which I trust will be of considerable interest to all the people at this conference.

Differences of register are characterised above all by differences in vocabulary. In English there are pairs of words whose meanings very largely overlap (they are synonyms or near-synonyms), but which differ in the level of formality or technicality usually associated with the one or the other. One group is that of words with a Germanic etymology, while the other generally consists of those derived from Latin or French. To give an example: while a sentence like “Avignon is a big, old town” might be typical of many postcards, someone offering a special ised study might well write “Avigno n is a town of considerable size and antiquity Or, to give another example, the informal utterance “Reuters says that many people have been killed or wounded” translates into a typical news pronouncement: “Reuters reports heavy casualties”. In the first example the Anglo-Saxon words big and old have been paraphrased using the words considerable and antiquity, which are of Latin origin. Similarly, in the second example, the Ang lo-Saxon words says and killed or wounded are replaced by the words reports and casualties, which come from Latin. The sentence-pairs in both examples mean exactly the same thing, but the sentences where these words of Latin origin occur sound somehow more formal and authoritative. Sometimes, however, it is actually the aim of the writer or speaker to overawe his audience by means of rather pretentious language. Thus in 1992 a white South African politician could give a speech in which he said that “we must institute a new system of government promptly and expeditiously”, when all he really meant was: “We must waste no time in setting up a new system of government”. Some of these virtual synonyms are listed below. Those in the 151

left-hand column which have been marked with an asterisk would simply be impossible in the more formal contexts given in the right-hand column. able

all the time*

a lot*

a lot of*

always

Sometimes capable, in a(ny) position etc. are preferable (e.g. “For the foreseeable future certain Third World countries will not be in a position to feed themselves”). Cf. continuously, continually, constantly, perpetually etc. (e.g. “From the end of the eighth century England was

almost continuously exposed to Viking raids”; “Dis sidents in Malawi were continually being persecuted by the secret police”). Continually, constantly and perpetually are virtual syn onyms, meaning “time and again”, while continuously means “non-stop”, “in an unbroken sequence”. Cf. markedly, noticeably, considerably, a great deal, substantially, etc. (e.g. “The boy resented the petty restrictions a great deal”; “The second draft of the play is substantially better than the first”). Cf. many, numerous, a wide variety of (themes), a whole range of, a wide spectrum of (problems, themes), an abundance of (opportunities, sources), etc. Cf. also the verb to abound (of opportunities, dangers, misconceptions, mistakes etc.). Cf. also the phrase There are any number of (reasons, factors etc.). Cf. invariably (e.g. “Resistance to the invaders invariably met with the most savage reprisals”; “When he was challenged about his conduct during the War, he would invariably argue that he was only following orders”).

amount

Sometimes quantity is preferable (e.g. “The quantity of drugs found on the arrested dealer turned out to be negligible”; “After WW2 American aid flowed into Western Europe in enormous quantities”).

as a result

Sometimes consequently etc. is preferable (e.g. “Attend ance has been poor. Consequently further lectures have been cancelled” ). There are also the adjectives consequent (~ damage, loss) and resultant (problems).

as good as

152

Cf. practically, virtually (e.g. “The project is virtually complete”, instead,of: “...is as good as complete”).

at hand, there

Cf. available (e.g. “Colleagues are expected to be avail able for work at all times”; “At present no conclusive results are available”).

basically

Cf. essentially, in essence, substantially (e.g. “Prague is

be, am ount to

Cf. constitute (e.g. “Failure to pay back a debt at the appointed time constitutes a breach of faith”).

become smaller*

Cf. be on the decline, be on the decrease, decline, decrease, diminish, dwindle, recede etc. (e.g. “American power is on the decline”; “The Soviet presence here is on the decrease”; “The threat of war has greatly receded”; “The chances of finding peace in Bosnia have dwindled lately”).

become worse

Cf. deteriorate (e.g. “Conditions are continuing to deteriorate”; “The situation in the Gulf is rapidly deteriorating”; “Relations between the superpowers have continued to deteriorate”); also escalate (of crises, conflicts).

before

Cf. prior to (e.g. “Prior to the signing of the agreement trade between the two countries was impossible”).

begin

Cf. commence (e.g. “The peace-negotiations commenced some weeks after the end of hostilities”; “All lectures will commence tomorrow”; “The doctor commenced the treatment”). Cf. also below, p. 156, set up.

better

Cf. superior (e.g. “Her command of English is superior to that of the others”).

be(come) used to

Cf. be(come) accustomed to (e.g. “The old king was accustomed to being obeyed”; “The politician had long been accusto med to anonym ous threa ts” ; “It is vital f or us to become accustomed to these new realities”).

big

Cf. major, significant, or substantial (of differences, improvements, sections etc.).

carry out

Cf. conduct (experiments), execute (commands), commit

change

Alter/alteration, modify/modification etc. are sometimes preferable (e.g. “The censors accepted the text without

still substantially intact”).

(crimes, offences), implement (programmes), perpetrate (crimes, atrocities etc.).

153

any alterations”; “The programme has undergone con siderable modification”). deal with

Sometimes in the event of, in case (of) etc. are preferable (e.g. “She specified that in the event of her death her wealth was to be distributed among the poor”; “In the event of war it will be crucial to evacuate the children from the cities”; “Supplies of this medicine should always be available in case of emergency”).

Cf. address, discuss, examine (problems).

do

Cf. conduct, transact (business).

do not

Cf. fail to, omit to (cf. “The author fails to provide an

adequate introdu ction” ; “Of course, in her emphasis on Saddam Hussein’s despotic rule she omits to point out that some adjacent states have equally despotic govern ments”).

in the end

Cf. eventually, finally, ultimately (e.g. “Hard work must ultimately bear fruit”).

keep (doing)*

Can often be avoided by means ofcontinue, continually, continuously, consistently, constantly, persist in etc. (e.g. “The author consistently misrepresents the facts”).

know

Be aware of, conversant with, familiar with etc. are sometimes an alternative (e.g. “She was aware of what her enemies were planning”; “He was fully conversant with the conventions of etiquette”; “The players are familiar with all the rules”).

Cf. comparatively, moderately etc. (e.g. “The subject-

later

Subsequent or subsequently are often used (e.g. “The book tells the story of h er arrest, trial, and subsequent release”).

find out

matter is comparatively interesting”; “The teacher gave them a moderately difficult homework assignment”). Cf. ascertain (the causes of sth, the truth of sth, whether sth is true or not, what really happened etc.); discern, discover (the causes of, factors behind sth, hidden interrelationships etc.).

less and less

Cf. decreasing(ly) (e.g. “The budget-cuts mean that the country will be decreasingly in any position to defend itself’).

fitting

C f proper, appropriate (e.g. “That was hardly an ap

let, allow

Cf. permit etc. (e.g. “The law does not permit a man to have two wives”; “She received permission to visit the West”); cf also forbid, prohibit.

like

Cf. to be partial to sth; cf. also below, liking.

liking

Cf. predilection for sth (“to have a predilection for red wine”); also partiality for sth (e.g. “to have a partiality for Italian cuisine”).

long

Cf. extensive (coverage, footnotes, passages, scope), protracted (delay, negotiations), prolonged (illness, inter rogation).

look at

Cf. consider, examine (argument, fact), explore, inves tigate (possibility), observe (behaviour), scrutinise (ar guments, details) etc.

mean

Cf. involve, entail (e.g. “Writing a book entails [doing] a great deal of research”).

money

Funding, funds, resources etc. are often preferable (e.g.

do without

Cf. dispense with (help, formalities, an introduction, footnotes etc.).

end

Cf. conclusion (e.g. to bring sth to a ~).

enough

Cf. ample, sufficient (grounds, evidence), adequate (grounds, preparation, resources etc.).

everywhere fairly

get* hatred

have

154

Cf. ubiquitous (~ mistakes), pervasive (influence).

prop riate subject for a homework assignment” ; “The adage is very appropriate”; “The rude fellow did not address Her Majesty in the proper way”). See below, pp. 170-1. Cf. animosity (e.g. “The negotiators will have to come to terms with the deep and long-standing animosities that exist between Arabs and Israelis”). Also: animus (e.g. “Sometimes her animus inspires her to ludicrous accusations”); the word means “basic hostile disposition or intention”, and is rarer than animosity.

Sometimes contain, be equipped with, possess etc. are possible (e.g. “The novel contains many memorable passages” ; “The book is equipped with several appen  dices and a critical apparatus”; “This design possesses one great advantage over the others...”). Also: conduct (a conversation).

155

“The University would like to expand, but it lacks adequate resources”). more and more

Cf. increasingly (e.g. “The old woman grew increasingly reclusive”; “The battle against malaria looks increasingly set to dominate medical research in the decades to come”).

show

Cf. demonstrate, evince, manifest (e.g. “These techniques have been convincingly demonstrated”; “The child evinces a remarkable musical talent”; “The students have manifested no desire to cooperate”). Cf. also reveal, divulge etc.

side

Cf. aspect (of a problem).

size

Cf. magnitude, dimensions etc. (of a problem, e.g. “the

much

Cf. considerably, substantially (e.g. “This study is sub stantially better than the other one”).

need

Cf. demand, require (e.g. “This problem requires more extensive treatment than can be offered here”).

small

Cf. adjacent (e.g. “The two houses [rooms] are adjacent to each other”).

therefore

Cf. consequently etc. (See pp. 89-90).

thing

Element, aspect, object, factor, consideration etc. are often

next to now

Cf. at present, at this juncture, at this moment, currently etc. are often preferable (e.g. “Many scientists are at present [currently] working on this proble m” ; “At this junc ture th e President decided to intervene p ersonally” ).

often

Frequent(ly) is frequently possible and even preferable (e.g. “The tram-drivers frequently go on strike”; “In El Salvador political murder is a frequent occurrence”).

quick(ly)

C f rapid(ly), promptly) etc. (cf. “The treaty envisaged

the rapid deployment of American missiles”; “The situation is rapidly approaching anarchy”; “They un dertook to repay all the debts promptly”). Cf. also expeditious(ly), which has the extra nuance of “efflcient(ly)”. rich, wealthy

nouns affluence and opulence. Cf. appropriate, correct, proper (e.g. “That seems to be the appropriate conclusion to draw”; “The answer is correct”).

rough(ly)

Cf. approximately) (e.g. “The approximate size of the farm is fifty acres”; “The two books were published at approximately the same time”).

set up

Cf. establish (a new state, a government, a business), institute (custom, inquiry, rule, restrictions, democracy, government).

sharp

Cf. abrupt, drastic (of rises and falls, e.g. “In the 1980’s

much of Africa experienced a drastic reduction in living standards”).

Cf. minor or insignificant (problems, differences etc.), marginal (differences).

possible. Excessively, inordinately, unduly etc. are often preferable (e.g. “The book is inordinately long”; “Fees for British

visas are excessively high”; “He seems to be unduly alarmed”). too little

Cf. poverty (of ideas). N.B. The word generally means lack or inferiority (e.g. the title of K. Popper’s book, The Poverty of Historicism). Also: paucity (of evidence).

too many

An excessive number of or even a disproportionate number of is sometimes preferable (e.g. “The book contains an

excessive number of spelling mistakes”; “A dispropor tionate num ber of criminals are of working-class origin”).

Cf. affluent, opulent (a society, a life-style), and the

right

156

too

sheer magnitude of these countries’ problems”; “prob lems of enormous dimensions [proportions]”).

too much

try

Cf. excessive(ly) (e.g. “His writings were characterised by excessive verbosity”; “The Prime Minister shows great self-confidence, indeed at times excessively so”). N.B. Excessively) is not to be overdone; sometimes the simpler alternative is preferable (e.g. “Her speech contained too much verbiage and too little substance”). A profusion of is also possible when referring to evidence, details, mistakes (e.g. ~ evidence), the nuance being that there is almost too much for the reader or viewer to grasp or comprehend.

More typical alternatives would be attempt, endeavour, strive etc.

The last two words have an especially literary ring about them — compare: “The doctor tried to save her life” 157

with “The bishop always endeavoured [strove] to protect the poor and downtrodden”. understand

Cf. appreciate (e.g. “It is often impossible for English people to appreciate the feelings which many Israelis have when they hear German spoken”; “One may appreciate their point of view without having to agree with it”).

unneeded

Often superfluous, redundant etc. are preferable ( e.g. “In writing a book it is important to remove redundant [superfluous] material”).

ups and downs

Cf. vicissitudes (of war, history, fortune).

very

Cf extremely, in the extreme, immensely, intensely (e.g. “The situation is dangerous in the extreme”; “The problem is immensely [intensely] complicated”).

without

devoid of (e.g. “The essay is devoid of any serious content”; “Such people seem to be completely devoid of any altruism”). Contrast deprived of, which means “denied”, “robbed o f’ (food, drink, oxygen, warmth, love, educational opportunities, necessary things etc.).

yield

Cf. produce (results).

There is no short cut to developing your sensitivity as regards register and choice of vocabulary. Only one piece of advice can be repeated over and over again: namely obtain maximum exposure to the language, whether in the form of reading, writing or conversation, and preferably all of them. Only then will a sense of appropriateness develop as regards choice of words. I f you are at all unsure about whether to go for the formal or the less formal, then go for the less formal: the most important thing is to avoid anything stilte d or unnatural. There are plenty of fine writers of English who, given a choice, prefer words of Anglo-Saxon origin. To a very large extent it is a question of personal taste and the projected audience. Sometimes words of Latin origin can have a terribly cumbersome effect on the language, especially when used in concentration. Sometimes they are plain pretentious. Sometimes, however, they can be a great enrichment to expression: quite apart from lexical gems like germane (“germane to the topic under discussion”), 158

they can express what you want to say with great precision: thus, instead of “he said”, why not write “he proposed”, “he suggested”, “he insinuated”, “he commented”, “he observed”, “he pointed out”, “he noted”, each of which is derived either directly or indirectly from Latin and has a different nuance? Below are some sentences where it is possible (but generally not essential) to use this more formal vocabulary in certain contexts. Those sentences have been marked with an asterisk where more formal language is really called for.


Find more formal equivalents for the words in italics and supply such a word for any of the gaps. 1. These changes are the result of later additions to the text. 2. London is one of the world’s greater cities.* 3. He is always being rude to strangers. 4. I will do without his services. He is fired. 5. The physics building is next to the maths one. 6 . The two sides have reported big progress in the talks.* 7. Too long a delay can be expected at the border.* 8 . They are always friendly to visitors. 9. Long exposure to radiation is harmful. 10. The boy has no character whatever. 11. The state has too little money to pay nurses enough* 12. One of the candidates delivered an inflammatory speech immediately before the voting.* 13. Many people are now studying English. 14. I see your arguments, but I cannot agree with them. 15. He didn’t waste time on formalities. 16. Writing a book means doing lots of work. 17. My colleague never comes to work on time. 18. Any furthe r discussion is unneeded. 19. The situation is very confused. 159

20. 21. 22. 23.

Schools and colleges should prepa re students for their later lives. I would like you to write back as soon as possible. This exam is far too difficult. Many little things must be taken into account when it comes to making big policy decisions.* 24. They carried out the commands without delay. 25. The gap separa ting the two sides is really very tiny. 26. Our forces are simply better than theirs.* 27. H er knowledge of English has much improved. 28. His condition became worse during the night. 29. In view of her brilliant critique o f his writings any further comments are simply unneeded. 30. Th at was an impo rtant fact, but the defence did not mention it. 31. There is a very big difference between these two systems.* 32. Our army has got the latest technology. 33. The q uality o f these goods is not as good as those others.* 34. Nation alism poses a big threat to peace.* 35. The Government looks less and less able to tackle these problems. 36. He had something to do with the robbery. 37. Our boss is in a strange mood today. 38. Elvis was a star of the fir st -----------. (Nostar was greater than Elvis.) 39. The ex-minister had his villa and yacht taken away from him. 40. O btaining a British visa means going to a great deal of trouble. 41. Such clothes are not right for a funeral. 42. Our education minister is completely withoutany intelligence.* 43. There are many, many mistakes in this book. 44. Their demands are outrageously high. 45. F or such people this punishment is ve ry----------- . 46. Any his torian dealing with modern h istory will have a task coping with th e ----------- of sources. 47. The two sides have been getting on fas t with the negotiations. 48. F or many years now the North has time and again suffered higher levels of unemployment than the South. 49. The two sides must try to avoid things that would start the fighting all over again. 160

50. The fact that the sources arefew makes it impossible to present a definitive picture of t hat age. 51. Such mistakes must be got rid of .* 52. In Italian political life corruptio n seems to be everywhere. 53. The spokeswoman refused to give any further details. 54. In that country food production is too little advanced.* 55. A huge number of theories have been put forward to explain this. 56. Pollution is a big problem.

Foreign Borrowings Many words and phrases from foreign languages are to be found in written English. They are often indicative of register. French bor rowings tend to be especially favoured by journalists, feuilletonists, and literary figures in general; Latin borrowings are most likely to be found in works of scholarship, but also in discussions of current affairs. When used most sparingly and selectively, they can noticeably enhance the expressiveness of the writing. Here is a list of some of the most important foreign words (plural forms are given in brackets): French:

ancien regime arrive(s), arriviste(s) bete(s) noire(s) carte blanche cause(s) celebre(s) coup de grace coup d’etat debacle demimonde denouement de rigueur detente double entendre emigre(s) eminence(s) grise(s) en bloc en masse enfant(s) terrible(s) en route esprit de corps fait accompli faute de mieux 162

faux pas femme(s) fatale(s) fin de siecle frisson idee(s) fixe(s) joie de vivre laissez faire noblesse oblige nouveau(x) riche(s) oeuvre(s) par excellence parvenu(s) passe raison(s) d’etre recherche risque sansculotte(s) savoir faire tour(s) de force tout court vis-a-vis volte-face German: Angst Leitmotiv Lumpenproletariat Schadenfreude Wanderjahre Wanderlust Weltanschauung(en) Weltschmerz Zeitgeist Italian: cognoscente (pi. -ti) dilettante (pi. -ti) illuminati Latin (asterisks denote words with an especially academic ring): ad hoc ad infinitum ad nauseam a fortiori* alter ego

annus mirabilis* a posteriori* a priori casus belli de facto de jure deus ex machina ex cathedra ex officio ex post facto in extenso* inter alia in toto ipse dixit* ipsissima verba* ipso facto magnum opus modus vivendi mutatis mutandis* non sequitur pace* (cf. above, p. 99) pars pro toto* per se prima facie pro forma qua quid pro quo reductio ad absurdum sine qua non status quo sui generis* summum bonum* tabula rasa via media vice versa Suggested Exercises (44):

Look up the meaning of the above words and phrases, and substitute one of them for the italics or gaps in each of the following sentences (in a few cases a paraphrase of the adjacent words will also be necessary): 164

1. The letter was intercepted on the way. 2. This argum entatio n is unacceptable. It is a mass of illogicalities. 3. Under that tyrant he tried to steer a middle course between servility an d independence. 4. The whole business is over and done with. It is too late now to do any thing. 5. Their view of the world is deeply pessimistic. 6 . The utterance recorded in that passage of Luke could not have been Christ’s ----------- . 7. When the news spread tha t the hated minister had been foun d guilty of corruption, everybody felt very glad. 8 . The Tyson-trial has made legal history. 9. Revolutionaries often wish to destroy the past and create a ----------on which they can construct everything anew. 10. At every wedding a suit is obligatory. 11. Asking her abou t her boyfriend was a terrible blunder. 12. He only accepted the post because there was nothing better. 13. The character of the twentieth century is materialistic in the extreme. 14. Our teac her gives us so many assignments that we are all sick of them. 15. His role as a peace-ne gotiator requires great tact. 16. Our MP used to be the local Party-boss; now he is a Christian Demo crat. He has performed a skilful about-turn. 17. Alterations to the programme have always been m ad e----------- , as the need arises. 18. Even before we look into the facts more closely, there is an ----------- case for supposing that Marcos ordered the assassination of his chief rival. 19. Al Capone was the American ga ng ste r ----------- . In other words, he was the classic example. 20. To be a policeman in this country a low IQ is virtually a must. 21. Those poets were famous for their learned and highly sophisticated lan guage. 22. The new government tried to pursu e a policywhere the state interfered less in economic life. 23. The army has a magnificent morale. 24. The highest good of Utilitarianism was “the greatest happiness of the greatest number”.

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25. M r Zhirinovsky has attained notoriety as Russia’s ----------- . 26. The re are no firmly ground ed ethical objections to contraception , with all due respect to certain moral authorities. 27. The Muslim delegatio n has made an impo rtant concession to the Serbs. Now they are expecting something in return. 28. His works consist of many hundreds of paintings. 29. H e must be fair to you and you must befair to him. 30. The government accepted the ultima tum in its entirety. 31. The Archbishop of Canterbury is appointed by the Queenin her capacity of head of the Church of England. 32. Rousseau spent much of his energies attacking Voltaire. Voltaire was Rousseau’s ----------- . 33. His atte mpt to seize the capital ended in complete disaster. 34. Under the old government dissidents were simply murdered. 35. The detective story has a quite unexpected ending. 36. Proust’s great work is about the fringes of respectable society in Paris. 37. The Zulu tribesmen attacked in one huge mass. 38. M arryin g such an ancient gentleman has completely extinguished her zest for life. 39. On Ju ne 5 a law was passed sanctioning the events retrospectively. 40. The decision of the Germa n governmen t to pull out really was the final blow for the European space-project. 41. Mo st inventions are not harmful in themselves; the way they are used is the crucial thing. 42. Revolutionaries do not accept the existing social order. 43. And so the planet repeats its orbit, for ever and ever. 44. Cliff Rich ard’s music is sim ply ----------- : it belongs to a bygone era. 45. His speech was a fantastic feat of brilliance. 46. Many would argue that the British monarchy has lost its reason for existence. 47. One could take the argument to its ultimate, ridiculous conclusion: if we send drug-addicts to prison, then we should do the same with smokers and alcoholics. 48. Des pite his self-effacing manner, the cardina l was the real power behind the throne. 49. Is this measure ----------- or permanent?

166

50. Seeing pictures o f those exotic places certainly increases one ’s desire to travel. 51. The megaliths on Easter Island really are quite unique. 52. In his book he discusses the document at great length. 53. The Treuhandanstalt has full powers to privatise East German state enterprises.

5. like

This word is often overused or misused, like in the present sentence (better would be “as in the present sentence”). Cf. also the following sentence:

Wo rds and Expressions Best Avo ided

They must be encouraged by certain privileges, such as tax-concessions, advertising etc. instead of the clumsy

...like tax-concessions, advertising etc. In any form of communication consistency of language is generally crucial. On the one hand, written English tends to eschew words which might seem pompous, archaic, obscure, or in any way unnatural.1 However, the use of colloquialisms is the error more frequently met with. Here is a list of words and phrases which are widely felt to be colloquialisms and thus inappropriate for much “serious” writing, unless there is a specific reason to use them. 1. a bit Use instead slightly, to some (small) degree, somewhat, rather, noticeably, perceptibly, tangibly, palpably, marginally etc. 2. a couple of Use instead a few, a number of, several etc. 3. a lot of, lots of Use instead many, a large (a very considerable) number of, a mass of, numerous, countless, a whole range (variety) of, all manner of, a wealth of etc. Cf. p. 152. 4. ...and so on This expression needs to be paraphrased, as in the following sentence: One must preserve old churches, city walls, burghers’ houses, hospices and such buildings. (Instead of: and so on.) Another possible way of avoiding and so on is etc., although it is often felt to be highly informal. 1

Examples of this category are spouse for “husband” or “wife”, sibling for “brother” or “sister”, and the word creature to describe any human being. Cf. also youth, below, p. 173. 168

6. maybe This word is more common in American than in British English. In British English perhaps is preferable. 7. nice, nasty These words are acceptable only in informal contexts. 8. pretty ( = fairly) Only in colloquial and extremely informal contexts. 9. funny (= strange, queer) Only in colloquial and extremely informal contexts. When there is any danger of ambiguity, the word is best avoided. 10. kids (= children, youngsters)

This word is extremely colloquial. 11. Short forms such as isn’t, aren’t etc. are also to be avoided. In conversation, letters to friends, and informal writing generally they are, of course, quite acceptable and often preferable. Certain patterns are available for avoiding short forms: a. They have no money (instead of: don’t have...). b. The book fails to provide advice (instead of: doesn’t provide...). c. They have ceased to identify with the system (instead of: don’t... any longer). d. This is important, but he omits to mention it (instead of: doesn’t mention it). e. They have no such customs (instead of: don’t have such...).

12. Except in informal contexts the pronoun you meaning one must be avoided, as in When you go jogging every day, you feel fitter. 169

Use one or else a paraphrase. Thus in this particular instance it is po ss ibl e to writ e: When one goes jogging every day, one feels fitter.

Often a passive construction is possible: thus instead of the sentence The solving of this problem is more difficult than you (one) might suppose.

it is possible to write: The solving of this problem is more difficult than might be supposed.

In fact, writing one is often merely the lesser of two evils, since in contemporary British English it is widely felt to be somewhat unnatural. 13. get This is the most overused verb in the English language. It is generally good to avoid it wherever it is possible to do so without sounding unnatural. Suggested Exercises (45):

In each of the following sentences the verb to get is used rather colloquially. Find a more appropriate equivalent. 1. She gradually got tired of this existence. 2. That is how he got to this conclusion. 3. He must get rid of the mistakes in his English. 4. Do not get discouraged by his forbidding manner. 5. It is easy to get confused when one looks at this problem. 6. They first got acquainted at a dinner party. 7. When the weather got worse the mountaineers were forced to make camp. 8. The scientists got very excited over this discovery. 9. For his years of hard work he finally got his reward. 10. The reader soon gets lost amidst this profusion of material. 11. They soon got irritated with her. 12. That student has got an excellent command of the language. 13. He’s got a heart condition. 170

14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

They get much financial support fro m the local authorities. The pantomime got some good reviews. She got very upset when she heard th e news. Getting knowledge involves much effort. She got a good educatio n. After spending many days in bed she finally got better. They have long since got used to each other. Soon he had got r id of his only serious rival. This car has got many good features. In the course of transp ort the vase got smashed.

These are just a few of the colloquialisms that should be guarded against, unless the specific aim of the writer is to approach the spoken language. Other words and phrases should be avoided because they are felt to be clumsy. A few of them are listed below: 14. Split infinitives Many English-speakers are sensitive to these. Such a sentence as The author attempts to once andfor all disprove their theories, would be simply unacceptable. It would be necessary to correct it to

...to disprove their theories once andfor all. Even such a sentence as The book is likely to rapidly gain acceptance as a standard work, would strike many as inelegant. Better would be:

The book is likely to gain acceptance very rapidly as a standard work. or:

The book is likely to gain rapid acceptance as a standard work. Very often, however, avoiding a split infinitive results in obscurity or awkwardness. In that case, it can be used without hesitation. 15. Strings of Saxon genitives are to be avoided. Thus, write “the 171

daughter of the writer’s acquaintance”, instead of “the writer’s acquaintance’s daughter.” 16. 1, my These words should not be used too frequently, except where they are to be expected (autobiography, speeches etc.). Least of all should they occur in academic writing, where they can be generally replaced by phrases such as the present author ( writer, reviewer) etc., or by impersonal constructions such as as we will see, as will be argued below, it would seem that, it is tempting to suggest that, one may conclude that, it may be safely concluded that, in conclusion etc. There is also the expression arguably, meaning “this is my opinion and, if I wanted to, I could easily provide evidence or arguments in support of it... ”. Arguably generally goes in mid-position: Sometimes a government can forfeit all moral right to rule. This is arguably the case with John Major’s government.

N.B. The phrase “according to me” in the sense of “in my opinion” does not exist. 17. there is, there are... These phrases are often overused or used in a clumsy manner, as in the following sentences: There are various subcultures. Within a few years there were more and more differences among the various punk groups.

Better would be to recast the sentences: Various subcultures exist. More and more differences emerged.... 18. very much This phrase tends to be used in a very clumsy manner. Very often it is better to use enormously, a great deal or even very considerably. But a complete paraphrase may well be best o f all. Thus a sentence like They contributed to European culture very much.

can be replaced with: They made an enormous contribution to European culture. 172

19. youth This word has three meanings: a. the opposite of “old age”. b. a word for “teenage boy” , especially in newspaper- or radio-contexts.

c. “young people” collectively. In this last meaning the word very often sounds stilted, as in the sentence, “In the opinion of Baroness Thatcher British youth are in need of firm moral guidance”. Generally it is preferable to use young people, teenagers etc. (For other such words, cf. above, p. 168, n. 1.) 20. therefore This word tends to be used when accordingly, as a result, conse quently, hence, thus, this is why etc. are better. 21. cruel This word is often used wrongly, as in the following sentences: Skinheads are often very cruel. War is a cruel way of solving problems. Better would be the words brutal, vicious, savage, sadistic etc. 22. all over the world This phrase is such a terrible cliche that it is often best avoided. Use universally, everywhere you look, anywhere (everywhere) in the world, the whole world over, world-wide etc. 23. others’ Better to write “the attention o f others” than “ others’ attention”. 24. it is widely known that... Use it is widely realised that, it is common knowledge that... . 25. as it soon appeared Use it soon emerged that, it soon turned out that... . 26. what follows This expression is wrong if it is intended to mean “because of this” or “it follows that...”. 27. it is so because... Write this is because.... 173

Confusing Words i. Here are some words which are frequently confused by foreign writers of English. How do they differ in meaning? 1.

adopt advice 3. affect 4. bom 5. by contrast 6 . classic 7. comic 8 . community 9. complement 1 0 . complementary 1 1 . content 1 2 . continual 13. counsel 14. critique 15. cultural 16. defective 17. dependant 18. deprecate 19. device 2 0 . disease 2 1 . disinterested 2 2 . disposal 23. economical 24. economy 25. efficient 26. elemental 27. every one 28. extent 29. historical 2.

174

adapt advise effect borne on the contrary classical comical communion compliment complimentary contents continuous council criticism cultured deficient dependent depreciate devise decease uninterested disposition economic economics effective elementary everyone extant historic

contented

30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59.

hoard human hypocritical ingenious ingenuity intense later lied like live literary motif partially passed perpetrate personal perverse physician politic practice presently principal prophecy sensible sensuous technique terrific urban use vivid

horde humane hypercritical ingenuous ingenuousness intensive latter laid alike alive literal motive partly past perpetu ate personnel perverted physicist political practise at present principle prophesy sensitive sensual technology terrifying urbane usage vivacious


efficacious

Decide which word best goes with each of the sentences below, using the appropriate form of each word (e.g. singular or plural, present or past tense); the number of each question corresponds to the number of each word in the above list: la. These old teaching methods are still useful, but they need to be----------to the needs of the present, lb. In speaking to him she ----------- an entirely different tone. 2. H e ----------- me to keep out of town. 175

3. This circumstance did n o t----------- the committee’s final decision. 4. He snapped his fingers and the platters were quick ly-------------away by the servants. 5a. Peter is intelligent; Fred ----------- is not. 5b. Many people consider Fred to be intelligent.----------- , he is not. 6. a----- languages; to study the ----- b----- ; a ------c----- error; a ----- d ----- example of incompetence;------ e----- music; Shakespeare is a ----- f ----- . 7a. The overall effect of the tramp ’s appearance was ra th er --------------- . 7b. Few writers are able to write in a tru ly ----------- vein. 8 a. The poets of the Romantic Age sought a very spe cia l---------- with Nature . 8 b. T h eshould do more to rehabilitate criminals. 9. TheUS-forces in Mogadishu are still well below their full--------------of 35,000 men. 10a. When Susan saw my new perm, she was ve ry ----------- .

10b. You’re lazy but well-organised, while I’m hard-working but badly organised. I think we’re ---------- . 11a. She emptied th e ------------- of the can into the saucepan. lib . The book is rather poor i n -------------. 12. There w a s ------------ rain from dawn to dusk: it never let up even for a moment. 13a. The old minis ter ------------- a firm response to the challenge. 13b. Y ou should follow th e----------- of reason more. 13c. He worked on the loca l---------- . 14a. Weber’s thought is a remark able----------- of Marxism. 14b. I am tired of your con sta nt------------ . 15. people do not swear like that. 16a. The local diet i s -------------in certain vitamins. 16b. Boeing 747’s have a ----------- design and should no longer be used. 17a. She is abs olu tely ------------on her parents. 17b. Do you have an y -----------? 18a. In his introduc tion the prof essor ----------- all previous work done on the

subject. 18b. Hasty interve ntion in Bosnia is only to be ----------- . 19a. Finally they ----------- a solution. 19b. This is a very dang erou s----------- . 20. My family will be well provided for on m y------------ .

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21. In cultivating the friendship of that wealthy centen arian she was not completely ----------- in regard to her motives. 22a. He has twenty men at hi s----------- . 22b. She was of a mild, agr eea ble----------- . 22c. Before the battle the general reviewed the ----------- of his troops one last time. 22d. The ----------- of nuclear wastes is a very hazardous undertaking. 23a. 23b. 23c. 24a. 24b. 25a. 25b. 25c. 25d. 26. 27a. 27b. 28.

The car is ve ry ------------- . Mos t so-called political refugees ha ve----------- motives. The government wishes to control every branch o f ----------- life. She is stu dy ing ------------- . Such an embargo would damage our count ry’s ----------- . Automization is generally mo re----------- than manual labour. This medicine is espe cially---------------- . He’s not very------------- as a parent. The children never obey him. Such measures would be ver y----------- . The hurric ane’s ------------fury exceeded everybody’s expectations. ----------- of his projects was a failure. ----------- was present. Only three manuscripts of this work are ------------. The others have been lost or destroyed.

29a. Man’s landing on the moon was a tru ly ----------- event.

29b. Romulus was not a figure: he never actually existed. 30. They were chased by a ------------ of football hooligans. 31. Cattle ought to be slaughtered in a ------------------------------------ manner. 32a. I do think you’re being somewhat ------------as regards the secretary. After all, this is her first day here. 32b. It is ----------- to denounce others when one’s own existence is immoral. 33. That child is to o ------------ to tell a lie. 34. Devising such a machine requires con side rab le----------- . 35a. He underwent a period o f ----------- training. 35b. That was a ve ry ----------- experience. 35c. Such ----------- agriculture is not good for the soil. 35d. In this photograph the young poet has a very----------- expression on his face. 36. Syria and Israel were represented at the conference. Delegates from the protest ed at the fact tha t the PLO had also been invited. 37. The dog pro udl y----------- the bone at his master’s feet.

177

38. 39a. 39b. 40. 41a.

The two brothers are very m uc h----------- . This music is being broa dca st----------- . The heretic was b ur n t----------- . The ----------- meaning is often different from the metaphorical. The ----------- s of the sea and the great Mississippi river were always present in his poetry. 41b. The ----------- s for the murder are unclear. 42a. The house was con struc ted ----------- of brick,------------- of wood. 42b. The withdrawal of American troops has bee n----------- completed. 43a. This old car is ----------- repair. 43b. Frankly, he is ----------- the age of romance. 44a. Many crimes have bee n----------- in the name of religion. 44b. Elitist schools like Eton me rely ------------class-divisions. 45. Drastic reductions in ----------- will be necessary. 46. The decision of the judge to let the murderer go unpunished was clearly very ----------- . 47. The Queen has been advised by h e r ----------- to take a long holiday. 48. At the UN peace-conference it was on ly----------- for Lord Carrington to treat both sides with impartiality. 49. He needs t o -------------------------- his English. 50a. He will be h er e-------------------- . 50b. ----------- he is working in the States. 51. A ne w ----------- has been appointed to the college. 52a. T h e------------turned ou t to be true. 52b. H e ----------- the end of the world. 53. Tha t is a -----------decision. 54a. Artists need to have a heightened awareness of th e ---------- . 54b. Nero led a very ----------- existence. 55a. The pian ist’s -------------------- is breathtaking. 55b. The coun try enjoys a high level o f --------. 56. As a racist phenomenon the skinhead-movement is ---------- , 57. In his behaviour he is invariably agreeable an d ----------- . 58a. Excessive----------- of alcohol is to be discouraged. 58b. This ----------- cannot be found in any nineteenth-century dictionary. 59a. I so much enjoy her company: she is s o----------- . 59b. She still has ve ry ----------- recollections of Berlin before the war. 59c. Am erica has a interest in the Gulf.

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II.

The following words often cause problems for foreign students of English; look up the meanings in a dictionary: actual, actually confident; confidant, confidante consequent, consequently, consequence consumptive, consumption demented demoralise discriminate, discrimination, discriminatory, discriminating eventual, eventually hazard lunatic motivate occupant, occupy, occupation, opinion pathetic perspective psychic, psychical specific sympathetic Suggested Exercises (47):

Supply the missing word or phrase in the following sentences (sometimes you will have to find a word that is not in the above list): 1. In the nineteenth century many children had lung ailments, especially . (Use a word from the above list.) 2. Christmas in our country has a ve ry----------- atmosphere. (“Specific” is hardly possible. Find some other word.) 3. This timetable is no longer ----------- . (“Actual” is wrong. Find some other word.) 4. This is a gentleman of the mo st----------- tastes. He always knows artistic excellence when he sees it. (Use a word from the above list.) 5. These suggestions are very general. Could you be more ------------? (Use a word from the above list.) 6 . The partisans stepped up their attacks on the N az i----------- . 7. His command of French is abso lutely----------- . He cannot say a single correct sentence. (Use a word from the above list.) 179

8.

We’ll give you a very ----------- horse. He won’t throw you off. (“Sympathetic” is impossible. Find some other word.) 9. The old gypsy-woman had a reputation as a ----------- and was said to conduct seances. (Use a word from the above list.) 10. Mountaineers----------- their lives. (Use a word from the above list.) 11. Every Y.I.P. must rece ive----------- treatment. (“Specific” is impossible.) 12. In this desperate situation ----------- action is needed. (“Consequent” is hardly possible. Find some other word.) 13. Foreigners don’t understand th e----------- conditions that prevail in our country. (Use a word from the above list.) 14. In some respects the American life-style is to o----------- . (“Consumptive” is hardly possible. Find some other word.) 15. Smokin g is a ----------- to health. 16. That man is an abso lute----------- . He shouts to people from his window at all hours of the day and night. (Use a word from the above list.) 17. Odysseus wandered all the world over, but ----------- reached home. (Use a word from the above list.) 18. The ----------- is not favourable. (“Perspective” is impossible. Find some other word.) 19. He is a person of n o ----------- . He is an utter nobody. (Use a word from the above list.) 20. He looks so healthy, but in fact he is ----------- . (Use a word from the above list.) 21. The neighbours did their best to avoid the old spinster because of her very behaviour. (“Specific” is not possible. F ind some oth er word.) 22. She had gone to great lengths to prepare for the party and w as----------very upset when people dropped out at the last moment. (Use a word from the above list.) 23. This whole issue is no longer ------ ----- . (“Actual” is impossible. Find some other word.) 24. Our firm has excellent ----------- for the future. (“Perspectives” is impossible. Find some other word.) 25. I t is difficult to ----------- the sharp rise in the crime-rate. (“Motivate” is impossible. Find some other word.) 26. O n Christmas Eve some drivers behave lik e----------- . (Use a word from the above list.) 27. Much of Tokio is now under sea-level, with th e----------- dangers of widespread flooding. (Use a word from the above list.) 180

28. That part o f the world has ver y----------- religious traditions. (Do n ot use “specific”.) 29. Our country does not deserve such a bad ---------- . (“Opinion” is impossible. Find some other word.) 30. The news of this disaster was too much for the old m an, a nd he became . (Use a word from the above list.) 31. If that cou ntry is to prosper, what it needs is a ----------- economic policy, instead of changes every few months. 32. The effect of low salaries on teachers is t o ----------- them: teachers lose their motivation to work properly.

III.

The following words are often used wrongly: cruel exaggeration mutual occur vivid


Supply the right word or phrase in the following sentences: 1. Skinheads are notorious for their ----------- behav iour toward s outsiders. (Not: “cruel”.) 2. Such drastic steps ar e ----------- . (Not: “exaggeration”.) 3. The Croats and the Moslems have joined forces against their ----------enemy. (“Mutual” is acceptable only in informal contexts.) 4. This count ry has seen some ver y----------- changes over the last few years. (“Vivid” is impossible.) 5. In pre paring food an d drink for the meeting it would be silly t o ----------- . (Not: “exaggerate”.) 6 . People were amazed when the boy was found n ot guilty. His father, as it later ----------- , was a friend of the judge. (Not: “occurred”.) 181

Additional Note:

socialist communist The term socialist has different connotations for the average westerner than for inhabitants of the former Soviet bloc: the English language clearly distinguishes between socialist and communist, whereas in post-communist countries the terms are often treated as synonyms.

Collocations When we learn any English word, we can only use it when we know how it relates to other words. Thus, to give examples, we generally say ‘a big problem’, but ‘a large part’: it is unusual to say ‘a large problem’ or ‘a big part’. People may be vivacious, but a picture or impression of something may not be vivacious, but rather vivid or lively. In the same way one talks of mounting unemployment, rising inflation, a deepening recession, a worsening trade balance etc. When somebody has mastered this aspect of language, we say that he or she has mastered its collocations. Collocations are especially important when it comes to verbs. Thus, you can refuse to do something, but object to doing something. You may exert criticism, and be beset with problems; you may gather or collect information, but accumulate wealth; and you may precipitate or provoke a crisis. The list is endless. Of course, it is also possible to make a criticism, to have problems, and to get information, which is closer to spoken English, but not generally felt to be as sophisticated. There are no short cuts with collocations, and every new word has to be learnt together with them. Fortunately, good works are available which provide ample information, such as The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English: A Guide to Word Collocations, by M. Benson, E. Benson, and R. Ilson (Amsterdam-Philadelphia 1986), as well as certain dictionaries (e.g. Hornby’s). Be rigorous in checking and double-checking.

183

6. A direct quotation often begins with a capital letter, except when common sense dictates otherwise: To quote Jesus: “Leave the dead to bury their dead”. (N.B. The actual words in the Bible are: “Follow me and leave the dead to bury their dead ” .)

Capital Letters

But compare: The ancient Greeks spoke of “the golden mean”.

1. The names of professions and official pos itions begin with capital letters if they are used as titles: My father is a major. Have you heard that Major Saunders will be there? He’s been appointed archbishop of Canterbury. Here is Archbishop Ramsay. 2. Capitals are used for creeds, confessions, and religious denomina tions: Christianity, Catholicism, Protestantism; Islam; Buddhism Christian, Catholic, Protestant; Muslim; Buddhist 3. Capitals begin the names of events, periods and epochs in history, literature and geology. They are also used in laws and treaties etc: the Battle of Hastings, the War of Jenkins’ Ear, the Weimar Republic, the Renaissance, the Triassic, the Middle Ages, the Western Roman Empire, the Second Amendment etc.

4. Capitals begin the names of geographical areas: the New World, the Middle East, the Deep South 5. Capitals are used in the titles o f all books, essays, poems, songs, periodicals etc. with the exception of unemphatic prepositions, conjunctions and articles: The Decline and Fall o f the Roman Empire Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance

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At the age of twenty he told his father that he was “taking an early retirement”. Do you know that Mrs Thatcher actually said “shut up” to Lord Carrington? 7. A direct question placed within a sentence begins with a capital letter: In investigating such crimes the thing one must ask oneself is, ‘Who can benefit?’ The hippy-generation asked the question, Why fight wars?

Italics

T he A r t i c l e (A/An/The)

If you do not have a computer, you can express italics by means of underlining. Italics may be used in the following contexts:

Many foreign writers of English have problems with the article. Complete mastery of it can come only after very prolonged exposure to the language, and in practice it is generally necessary for those people who are writing for a western audience to have their work checked by a native speaker. Nonetheless, the vast majority of the mistakes can be eliminated by patient learning of the rules, by extensive reading, and by regular writing practice. The following is a summary of the main rules, concentrating on those mistakes which even people who are otherwise advanced tend to make.

1. to gi ve emphasis:

In contradistinction to the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation the Protestants evolved the concept of consubstantiation. He didn ’t order him to do it: he only prompted him. 2. to write words and phrases of foreign provenance that are still very strikingly foreign: tout court, Wanderlust, mutatis mutandis, nom de guerre

but compare:

confetti, junta, nirvana, sauerkraut 3. for titles of book s etc. See back, p. 143.

Basic information

1. Determiners Articles are part of a group of words called determiners, some of the most important of which are the following:

a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

This, that, these, those My, yo ur, his, her, our, their, whose Some, any, no, none Each, every; either, neither Several Much, most What; which

Two determiners cannot generally be used together. Thus one cannot say ‘the this book’, ‘a their problem’, or ‘a woman whose the cat...’, but simply this book, their problem, whose cat etc.

186

187

N.B. The word what can be used with a/an in exclamations, but not in questions:

What brilliant idea have you come up with? (question) but: What a brilliant idea!

2. Position of articles Articles generally come before anything else. Thus we say “a really good school”, “the very best clothes” etc. The following are the main exceptions: all the old clothes both the clean shirts quite a good bargain----------- but also: a quite good bargain exactly the right answer just the right size such a fine horse what a marvellous film

She is as good a teacher as you are ever likely to find. How good a rider is he? However good a car you have, it is sure to break down. He is simply too truthful a boy to tell lies.

c. When we are talking about particular examples or cases of something, it is important whether the reader or listener knows exactly which ones we mean. If the reader or listener does know, then we generally use the; and if he does not, then we use a(n), some, or no article at all. Arti cles: Coun tabl e and Uncou ntab le Nouns

By countable nouns (e.g. one car, two towns, three brothers etc.) we mean nouns that can be counted, and which therefore have plurals. A(n) really means one, so it can be used with singular countable nouns, but not with plurals. Thus, the plural of a friend is friends. but:

The indefinite article (a/an) cannot be used with uncountable nouns (e.g. weather, gardening), just as it is impossible to say ‘one weather’ or ‘one gardening’. The following uncountable nouns are frequently given the indefinite article by foreign writers of English:

health weather advice information furniture research news progress nonsense

3. The use of articles The use of articles depends on three basic things: a. Articles are used differently, depending on w hether we are dealing with singular countable nouns (car, street), plural countable nouns {cars, streets), or with uncountable nouns (e.g. weather, gardening). Here it is assumed that the writer of English is more or less familiar with the difference. b. Articles are used differently, depending o n whether we are dealing with things in general, or with particular examples of these things. Thus we say, “Life is short”, i.e. life in general; but we also say, “ The life of a mayfly is short”, i.e. one particular example of life. Similarly, we say that “Englishmen are phlegmatic”, i.e. Englishmen in general; but we also say, “ The Englishmen I know tend to be phlegmatic”. Likewise, we say, “Milk is good for you ”; but we also say, “ The milk I bought yesterday has gone o ff ’. 188

I’ve got a friend in London. I’ve got friends in London.

With none of these words is a/an normally possible.1 Sometimes a noun that is uncountable in one meaning is countable in another (e.g. country, a country; wood, a wood). A.S. Hornby’s Oxford Advanced Learner ’s Dictionary of Current English carefully distinguishes between countable (“C”) and uncountable (“ U ”) nouns. There is no alternative to carefully looking up, checking, and double-checking any word which you are not absolutely sure about. 1

The plurals of advice and information are pieces of advice, bits, items or snippets of

information etc. 189

N.B. One very large group of generally uncountable nouns consists of abstracts: hatred, poverty, honesty, happiness, socialism etc. Here are the complete rules for the use of articles with countable and uncountable nouns: 1. Alan can only be used with singular countable nouns (a car). 2. The can be used with all kinds of nouns (the car, the cars, the weather). 3. Plural nouns and uncountable nouns need not be used with any article (cars, happiness), but singular countable nouns have to have an article. For example, we cannot say ‘car’: we have to say ‘a car’ or ‘the car’. 1 N.B. A typical mistake is to write sentences like the following: “He is teacher”, “She wants to be nurse” etc.; the word a is necessary.

Art icl es: Talk in g Abo ut Thin gs in Gener al

a. When we talk about things in general (i.e. all cars, all music, all poetry), we generally use 1) countable nouns in the plural, or 2) uncountable nouns (in both cases without any article): Guns are so dangerous, (i.e. all guns) Music is the food of love. (i.e. all music) When a plural or uncountable noun is used with an article, the meaning is not general but particular: The guns were purchased here. The music in this disco is monotonous.

You might think that nineteenth-century German music is a very particular concept and therefore needs to be preceded by the. However, it is very general when compared with the music that I have jus t been listening to, and thus needs no the. But articles are often used when the noun is followed by of. Compare:

1

190

Exceptions are given below, pp. 196-200.

Nineteenth-ce ntury Russian literature is unique. The Russian literature of the nineteenth century is unique. Canadian wildlife is under threat. The wildlife of Canada is under threat. b. It is also possible to make a generalisation by means o f a singular countable noun with the article. The indefinite article a/an is very commonly used in this way: A dying man sees his entire life flash before him. In a tolerant society there is freedom of worship. A good opportunity should never be missed.

In each of these sentences a really means any, and the sentences could also be written in the plural with no article: Dying men see..., In tolerant societies..., Good opportunities.... The is also commonly used to make such generalisations, especially with science and technology: The tiger is threatened with extinction. The car is a wonderful invention. Baird discovered the television. But: Fleming discovered penicillin. (Penicillin is uncountable.)

The is also used with adjectives to refer to general classes of people: the living, the dead, the rich, the poor, the old, the young, the lonely, the blind, the unemployed, the sick, the English, the French etc.

Note that such phrases are always used in the plural: In this country the rich do not help the poor. (Not “does”.) The adjectives that can be turned into nouns in this way are very limited in number, and their use is often a matter of ‘native-speaker intuition’.


Do the following sentences take a, the, or nothing at all? 1. ----------- B/books can be very expensive. 2. ----------- C/cats eat ------------ mice. That’s simply their nature. 191

3. ------ V/vegetables are good for you. 4. ----------- W/women all over ------------ world are overworked. 5 — ------- S/strawberries are cheap at this time o f ---------------- year. 6 . ----------- D/death is ------------ life’s final joke. 7. No one can survive with ou t----------- air. 8. ------- B/big cities are very much alike all over--------------world. 9 ----------- H/horses are ------------ good-natured creatures. 1 0 . ----------- M/men fear ------------ death. 11. What I enjoy most in ----------- life i s ------------ wine,------------ women a n d ----------- song. ----------- C/child needs-------- — love a n d ----------- attention. 13 ----------- T/traditional British servant has disappeared. 14 — ------- British humour is something unique. -------D/dog needs to be walked regularly. 15. 16 — ---- G/girls in India are especially charming.

The is also generally used with sun, star s, eart h, moon, equa tor, sk y, and sea, since it is clear what is meant: there is only one sun, only one earth, one equator, and by stars we mean all the stars.

2. By contrast a has an indefinite meaning: when we say, “Give me a cigarette” or “I’d like a room for the night”, we mean any cigarette or any room; when we say, “He is a fan of the Rolling Stones”, it obviously means that he is one of many fans; when we say, “I met a friend of yours”, we imply that there is more than one friend, and

that the listener does not know which one is being referred to. In such cases the is not used. When there is a singular countable noun, ajan is used: She’s had an accident. He owns a car. She’s got a degree. He needs a holiday (i.e. any). Compare the following two sentences:

Art icl es: Talki ng abou t Parti cul ar Thin gs

When particular things, not things in general, are being talked about, there is an important difference between a and the: 1. The has a definite meaning. The house , the dog etc. is used in either of two cases: i. when the listener already knows which house, which dog is meant. We must insure the house. (Here it is obvious which house is meant: our own house.) Will you walk the dog? (Again, it is obvious which dog is being referred to.) Pass the salt, please (i.e. the salt on the table). She’s in the garden (i.e. right outside the house). ii. when the listener is being told which house, which dog the speaker means. That’s the house which I’m planning to buy. (The end o f the sentence makes it clear which house is meant.) That’s the dog which attacks people. 192

The cat is in the garden. A cat is in the garden.

In these two sentences it is clear to the listener which garden is meant. In the first sentence it is clear to the listener which cat is meant, but in the second sentence it is a question of a cat that is unknown to the listener. In the case of uncountable and plural nouns the indefinite meaning is expressed by means of som e/a ny or else nothing at all: Would you like some bread? He doesn’t have any money. There are boats on the lake. A/ an is also used when we say that a person or thing belongs to a certain class or group (for people it is often a profession, a nationality, a religion); ajan occurs especially with a noun complement:

He is an actor (a Dutchman, a Buddhist). This is a hammer. It’s a great place to visit. He called me an idiot. 193

But with uncountable nouns and with plurals a, the, some and any are not used: “What’s that?” “It’s caviar”. They are actors (Dutchmen, Buddhists). These are hammers. They’re great places to visit. He called us idiots. 3. When something is mentioned for the first time, the article a/an is normally used. But when it is mentioned a second time, the is used: On my way to work a girl came up to me and handed me a political pamph let. I took one look at the pamphlet and then politely handed it back to the girl. And when the things that are being mentioned for the first time are either uncountables or plurals, then some or no article whatsoever is used: This morning there was some litter in my back garden. The litter had been left there by my children. Today I met some students on the way to work. The students looked very worried.... When I got up, I could see (some) clouds. But by lunchtime the clouds had dispersed.


Supply a/an or the, where necessary: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

“ How much a re ----------- strawberries over there?” ----------- I/information about------------ incident is still scarce. She has ha d ----------- unhappy life. ------------ P/pint of — --------beer, please. We’ve just bought----------- T.V. It’s ------------ one I pointed out to you yesterday. 6 . ------------J/journ ey was very tir in g: ------------ train was packed. 7. ------------A/air in this room is not fresh. 194

8. Th at’s --------------------boy I was telling you about. 9. ----------- P/postman looked very miserable today. 10. ----------- D/death of the puppy made all------------ children sad. 11 . ----------- I/information that I got wasn’t very useful. 12. I’ve bought----------- strawberries. They must b e ------------ first this year. 13. ----------- H/history of this country is very colourful. 14. I don’t normally have ----------- appetite at ----------- breakfast, but ----------- breakfast you served was really excellent. 15. We can’t go: ----------- car’s broken down. 16. That stupid waiter has brought u s----------- black curran t juice: it c ertain ly doesn’t taste like----------- wine. 17. We a re ----------- tourists. 18. They live in ----------------- flat off Fifth Avenue. 19. “He’s bought----------- ioniser”. “What’s ------------ ioniser?” 20. We had ----------- great time: ----------- people were very friendly, ----------- weather was wonderful, and ------------ food was delicious. 21. There’s ----------- strange car outside. I’ve never seen one like that before. 22. In this jo b ------------- time goes by very quickly. 23. ----------- P/prime minister is coming under ----------- heavy criticism. I’m sure ----------- Government will soon fall. 24. When we arrived home, we went straight t o -------------kitchen and opened ----------- fridge. 25. Where’s ----------- wine I bought yesterday? 26. By the fire we saw a cat and a kitten. ----------- mother was licking ----------- kitten. 27. As we grow ol de r,----------- time goes by ever more quickly. 28. ----------- N/na ture i s ------------ greatest artist of all. 29. ----------- L/life ought to be beautiful, b u t-------------life I led in those years was horrible.

The Article: Special Rules and Exceptions

1. The is not used after a noun in the possessive case: the journey’s end (not: “the journey’s the end”) the boy’s parents (not: “the boy’s the parents”) 195

2. Genitives of Proper Names The article is not used in genitive expressions where the first word is a proper name: Mozart’s symphonies (not: “the Mozart’s symphonies”) Peter’s shoes (not: “the Peter’s shoes”) 3. The is indispensable a. before superlatives (the best, the worst etc.) b. before the adjectives firs t, second, th ird etc. c. before the adjective only (e.g. the only son) 4. In English there are some set phrases which simply do not require the article, especially the following: in, to, out of hospital in, to, out of prison at, to, from school, college, university in, to bed in, to, from church at, to, from work at, to sea on foot, by air, by sea by bicycle, car, bus, boat, plane, train, tube to go home, to be at home to watch television, to be on television (but: to be on the radio, to listen to the radio) at night, at sunrise, at midday (but: in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening) to commit suicide To be in hospital and to be in the hos pital mean different things: a person who is in hospital is a patient there, while a person who is in the hos pita l is simply inside a building known to the speaker and the listener, possibly as a visitor. Similarly, we say, “He went to prison” (i.e. as a prisoner ), but “He went to the prison” (e.g. as a visitor). Likewise, we say, “He went to church” (i.e. to pray), but “He went to the church” (e.g. as a tourist). Likewise, we say, “My daughter is still at school” (i.e. either she hasn’t come home y e t fr om her class es or she is sti ll a schoolgirl)', but we also say, “My daughter is at the school” (i.e. possibly as a visitor), 196

and “My daughter is at a good school” (i.e. she is receiving a good education at one particular school).

In addition there are plenty of phrases like fr om top to bot tom , by land and s ea, head over heels, day afte r day , day by day etc. 5. Radio and Television When these words refer to radio and television in general, we do not use articles: Television and radio have revolutionised our lives. N.B. We say, “I saw it on television”, but “I heard it on the radio”. 6. The word God has no article. It is spelt with a capital and generally refers to the supreme deity in Judeo-Christian religions. Compare: God spoke to Moses. Mars was the Roman god of war.

7. The words man and woman can be used without the article in generalised statements: a. Man has been tilling the soil for thousands of years. b. God created man and woman for each other. But here the plural is also possible: c. Men have been tilling the soil for thousands of years. d. God created men and women for each other. Man in sentence a and men in sentence c stand for “mankind”. However, we sometimes generalise by using the phrase a man, a woman:

A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle.

8. The word society is mostly used without any article, especially when it means “the society in which we are living”: Skinheads are the enemies of society. Society is often hypocritical. The aim of school is to prepare young people for society. Capital punishment is an admission that society has failed. Eighteenth-century British society. British society in the eighteenth century. 197

Society sometimes occurs with the article in cases similar to the following: A society that cannot feed its members is no society. (i.e. Any society.) The societies that we have examined so far provide us with rich comparative material, (i.e. Those societies.)

9. Space is generally used without the article in the context of astronomy and abstract physics: The sputnik was lost in space. Is time another form of space? 10. The is generally used with musical instruments: I am learning the flute, (i.e. the art of flute-playing) Can you play the piano? (i.e. Are you a pianist?) 11. Names o f games are normally without the article: He plays golf (football, tennis). 12. Numbers We say a dozen, a hundred, a thousand, a million etc. 13. Exclamations We do not normally miss out a /an in exclamations with what (or such) and singular countable nouns: What a feeble argument! Such a lovely person!

but: What feeble arguments! but: Such lovely people!

But note: What/Such lovely weather! (Weather is uncountable and thus can never be preceded by a.) 14. Appointments and Professions Incertain constructions (generally involving verbs of electing, ap pointing, crowning etc.) the article is often left out when describing a person’s new position: She was elected president (not: “the”). He was crowned king of England (not: “the”). N.B. i. It is nearly always a question o f a complement after verbs of 198

electing, appointing, crowning etc. We cannot say, “President attended the meeting” etc. ii. It is generally a question of a unique position. Contrast the following sentences: At the age of 52 he was made party-chairman. (i.e. the only party-chairman) At the age of 52 he was made a High-Co urt judge. (i.e. he was not the only one) Warning: beware of writing “I am docto r” or “My so n wants to be train-driver”. With both of these a is necessary. 15. Place Names We normally use the article with the following kinds of place names: mountain-ranges (the Alps) seas and oceans (the North Sea, the Pacific) rivers (the Thames, the Amazon) deserts (the Sahara) areas (the Lake District, the North of Italy, the French Riviera, the Far East, the Deep South, the Third World) island-groups (the British Isles, the Canaries) hotels, cinemas, theatres, galleries, museums (the Ritz, the Odeon, the NFT, the Louvre, the Tate).

The is also normally used in phrases consisting of a noun + of + a noun: the Bay of Biscay the Gulf of Mexico the Cape of Good Hope the United States of America

We normally use no article with the following kinds of place names: continents (South America, Australia) lakes (Lake Balaton) countries (exceptions: the USA, the Netherlands, the USSR, the United Kingdom) counties, states, departments (Oxfordshire, Thuringia, Ohio) towns (exceptions: The Hague, The Hook of Holland) streets 199

Compart the following sentences: a. Lond on is a crime-infested city. b. The London of the 1840’s was a crime-infe sted city.

c. Thuringia is an area rich in tradition. d. The Thuringia of Goethe and Schiller was rich in tradition. Sentences b and d contain ‘particular cases’ of London and Thuringia, and hence the article. Note the pattern the... of, already met with (above pp. 190-191). 16. Abbreviations The article is generally used with abbreviations (the USA, the USSR, the BBC, a UFO, a Ph.D., the RSPCA, an MP). However, no article is used with acronyms, i.e. a kind of abbreviation where all the letters are pronounced as one word: UNESCO, NATO etc. Contrast the IRA, which is not an acronym, and UNITA, which is an acronym. 17a. Names o f Historical Figures (Biographical Contexts) When we mention the name of a historical figure with an attributive adjective, we mostly use the definite article for surnames, but no article at all for first names: young Wolfgang the young Mozart

17b. Summaries of Plots When one is reviewing a book, play or film, it is often necessary to summarise the plot and to introduce one or more characters, as in the following: Musil’s tale recounts the experiences of Tórless, a cadet, in a military school during the last years of the Austro-Hungarian empire. As the plot unfolds, the sensitive and lonely Tórless is brutally initiated into the realities o f army life.... Here the article (in italics) is necessary because the character Tórless is described by attributes (“sensitive and lonely”). Usually in such contexts the definite article is required, no matter whether it is a first name or a surname. 20 0

In the following example, however, the indefinite article is possible, indeed preferable to the definite article: In Peter Weiss’s play a rather reflective Marquis de Sade conducts a wide-ranging dialogue with an equally reflective Jean Paul Marat. Here the indefinite article is used because the playwright has chosen to present Sade and Marat as “reflective”, out of many possible representations: Sade and Marat are still controversial figures even today, and their characters are open to a wide range of possible interpretations. If he had wanted to, the playwright could have represented Sade and Marat as possessing other qualities (e.g. “a rebellious Sade”, “an idealistic Marat” etc.).

Golden Rules: 1. AIan is not used a. before plural nouns (the plural of a house is houses) b. before uncountable nouns (e.g. weather, gardening, happiness, information) 2. Do not use singular countable nouns w ithout articles: the bicycle a bicycle but not: bicycle

3. Do not use the before abstract nouns Death is life’s final joke. Happiness is something to be treasured.

except when they are used in a specific sense: Life can be beautiful, but the life that I le d as a teenager was horrible. The happiness o f millions is at stake.

4. Of is very often preceded b y an article (two words before): the challenges of life the decline of the British royal family.

When the article does occur before of, then it is more likely to be the definite article. 201


Supply the article for the spaces marked. Sometimes no article is necessary. In cases where more than one possibility exists, select the most likely choice. 1. Everybody detests----------- racism. 2. Who is not afraid o f ----------- old age? 3. Nietzsche proclaimed ----------- death o f ------------ God. 4 ----------- E/education is indispensable. 5. These neonazis want to build ----------- new world,-------------world of ----------- wars and ------------ concentration camps. 6 . ------------US economy is in ------------ terrible state. 7. ----------- P/picture captures -------------hopelessness o f -------------life in ----------- Calcutta. 8 . ------------K/knowledge is always useful. 9 . ------------N/nuclear war would me an ------------ destruction o f ----------civilisation. 10. ----------- S/school i s -------------good idea. 11. ----------- H/hippies are ----------- nomads, like ----------- tribe that wanders over ----------- face o f ------------ earth. 12. This is very far fro m ----------- truth. 13. These people lac k ----------- culture. 14. Fo r ------------ most people----------- skinheads are ju st ------------ source o f ----------- disorder an d ------------- violence, -------------fact that finds ----------- confirmation in ------------ police records. 15. ------------ Y/young people cannot bear --------------hypocrisy o f ----------older generation. 16. This disease is generally spread b y ----------- means o f ------------ sexual contact. 17. Every Sunday they go to ----------- church. 18. There is not much hope fo r ----------- mankind. 19. ----------- Western Europe is more prosperous now that it was 40 years ago. 20. Everybody is hoping fo r ----------- bette r fu ture. 2 1 . ----------- S/school was demolished ------------ last year.

20 2

22 . -----------

C/civilisation o f --------■---- Incas is o f ------------ special interest to me. 23. I have ----------- knowledge of — •---------- foreign languages. 24. How can we keep these people out? Perhaps----------- strengthening of our border patrols would b e ----------- right solution. 25. ----------- P/punks are ------------ danger t o ------------ society. 26. ----------- E/education I received was quite inadequate. 27. ----------- C/culture which is not able to keep up w ith -------- — times is doomed. 28. This is part o f ----------- everyday life. 29. ------------D/dishonesty is flourishing. 30. ----------- No rth America is divided betw een------------ USA and ----------Canada. 31. I’m afraid that ----------- society is very intolerant. 32. This man is ----------- genius. 33. This is -------------- man of --------- genius. 34 . ----------- A/art of ------------ Greeks is especially fascinating. 35. Ev erybody thoug ht that his life was very gla mo rou s.----------- R/reality was far different. 36. ----------- E/every branch o f ------------ economicsneeds to be studied. 37 ----------- D/development o f ------------ science has led togreat changes in our view o f ----------- world. 38 ------------ T/tradition of - man kissing ----------------------- woman on ----------- hand has died out in ------------ most parts o f ------------ Europe. 39. Wh at we need is ---------------integrated Europe. 40. He couldn ’t possibly have written that. He la ck s----------- imagination. 41. He devoted himself to ----------- education of his children. 42. What do you think --------- —future will hold? 43. When he became--- president he began to lo se -------------------------------------- contact with ----------- reality. ----------44. France of ------------ Louis XIV wa s------------ literary golden age. 45. She is ----------- expert in ------------ Indian music theory. 46. ----------- E/education holds ----------- key to ----------- future of our country. 4 7 ----------- English have ----------- especial attitude towards ------ ----tradition. 203

48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54.

55. 56.

These savages know nothing o f ------------ blessings of ------------ civilisation. These ideas are central t o ----------- American consciousness. He is not a t all imaginative. He lac ks---------------- imagination. ----------- P/people are not born with------------- consciousness of ----------right an d ----------- wrong. ----------- China of ------------ Tang Period wa s------------ world of -----------great variety. At least he provided me with --------------- education. ------------Russian nation is renowned for its love o f ------------ vodka. They had little to look forward to, o n ly------------ future o f ----------loneliness and --- poverty. ------------H/human imagination does haveits limits.

57. I have ------------- information for you. 58. This woman has ----------- genius.

59. 60. 61. 62. 63.

There has been ----------- suicide. ----------- West of England is very hilly. ------------ F/flowers are wilting fo r -------lack o f ------------------sunlight. He lo ve s------------------classical music. ------------ N/new, dynamic Spain o f nineties looks set to achieve ------ -----high standard of living. 64. He com mit ted---suicide. 65. F or m e ----------- borde r b etw een ------------ East and West Germany was not only ----------- line that separated ------------ two countries; it was ----------- line that limited ------------ possibilities of my imagination as well. 6 6 . ----------- USA is ------------ big coun try.

67. — ------- America o f ------------ today is quite different from then. 6 8 . ----------- Cold War is over. Thank God it never became -------- — hot war. 69. Verwoerd will long be remembered for his fanatic ism,----------- fanaticism that did much to consolidate----------- apartheid. 70. Only b y ----------- education can ------- ----- society be taught------------tolerance. 71. She lives in ----------- different world ,------------ world of ------------ dreams. 72. Some o f ----------- youth groups are irresponsible. 73. ----------- S/suicide is always discouraged. 7 4 . _— ------ D/dolphin is ----------- friendly creature. 20 4

75 . -----------

A/artists want ------------ people t o se e------------ world they live in ,-------------------world that is ugly and beautiful a t -------same time. ---------- problems. 76. ----------- W/war is ------------ ghastly way of solving — 77 ----------- M/modern art is sometimes------------ pretentio us rubbish. 78. S/sarcasm is ------------ lowest form o f ------------ wit. 79 ----------- H/history i s -------------long catalogue o f ------------ murder and ----------- theft. 80. ----------- H/humo ur is w hat m ake s-------------life bearable. 81. ----------- D/death is not to be feared. 82. I n ----------------------------------------------- second sce ne courtier attempts virtuous Madame de Tourrel. 83. ----------- F/flowers wilt when they have no sunlight. 84. ----------- G/general left behind ------------ note in which he said he could no longer endure ----------- pain of ----------- cancer that had been plaguing him for years. -

tosed

AP PE ND IX A

CONSENT She consented to let her son go. DECIDE We have decided to refuse the offer. DECLINE (rather format) He declined to make further comments.

V e r b C o m p l e m e n ts : Infinitive or Gerund? A frequent source of confusion concerns the use of the infinitive (e.g. I like to go ) or the gerund (e.g. I like going) after the verb. For the sake o f convenience a list o f the most important instances is given here. I. Verbs Generally or Always Followed by the Infinitive:

A: As object (directly following the verb): AGREE They agreed to lend me the money. AIM We aim to establish a good reputation. APPEAR (rather format) The UN appears to be running out of patience with the Iraqis. ARRANGE They’ve arranged to drop by at six o’clock.

DEMAND The thieves demanded to know where the money was kept. ENDEAVOUR (highly format) The new ruler endeavoured to avoid the mistakes of his predecessors. FAIL (this usage is formal) I fail to see your point. ( = “I am unable to see your point”.) The money failed to arrive. (= “The money did not arrive”.) He failed to follow the instructions. (= “He neglected to.. .” .) HAVE (= be required to, forced to) He has to go away tomorrow. HOPE He hopes to get an invitation. IS (= should; must) Am I to do this exercise as well? LEARN He must learn to be reliable. LONG I long to have such an opportunity. MANAGE He managed to reach safety.

BE BOUND She is bound to make a mistake: she hasn’t learnt the material.

NEG LECT (this usage of the word is formal) She has neglected to thank him for the present.

CARE (formal; only in the interrogative and the negative) Would you care to come this way? (= “Would you like to?”) I don’t care to see him again. (= “I have no desire to...” .)

OFFER He offered to go with us to the police.

CHOOSE (= decide) The Bosnian Serbs have chosen to ignore the UN ultimatum. CLAIM He claimed to have been Napoleon in a former life. 20 6

OMIT (formal) He has omitted to perform a number of important tasks. OUGHT She ought to be more polite. He ought to be here by now.

PLAN They plan to visit the States shortly.

B. As object complement, following a nonn or pronoun object:

PLEDGE (format) He pledged to carry out her last wishes in every detail.

BELIEVE (this usage o f the word is highly format) I believe this letter to be a forgery. (Cf. the more usual: “I believe that this letter is a forg ery”.)

PRETEND She pretended not to notice him. PROCEED (format) After defeating the main army the general proceeded to mop up the last pockets of resistance. PROFESS (format) I do not profess to know much about sub-atomic particles. PROMISE He promised not to do it again. This promises to be a good book. REFUSE The prisoner refuses to eat. RESOLVE (format) The Security Council has resolved to take firm action. SEEK (format) The author seeks to establish the underlying factors at work. SEEM They seem to enjoy working here. STRIVE (highly format) We must strive to help our poorer neighbours. THINK He thought to increase his prestige by these means. (= intend or plan to do something; imagine or expect — this usage o f the word is highly format) THREATEN They are threatening to retaliate.

CAUSE (this usage of the word is rather format) This remark caused him to sit up. DRIVE Utter poverty drove them to go west. ENCOURAGE He encouraged the young man to develop his musical talents. FORBID I forbid you to see that boy. FORCE The police forced him to sign a confession. INVITE (this usage o f the word is rather forma t) The conjuror invited one of the audience to come onto the stage. JUDGE (this usage o f the word is rather forma t) He judged the moment to be most propitious. KNOW (this usage o f the word is rather format) We have never known him to use such language. PERSUADE They persuaded her to come along. PROMPT (this usage o f the word is rather forma t) The sight prompted him to make one of his characteristic remarks. REMIND Please remind me to return the book. SHOW (this usage o f the word is highly format) The trial has shown him to be a liar. (Cf. the more usual: “The trial has shown that he is a liar”.)

UNDERTAKE (format) They have undertaken to publish ten new books every year.

SUPPOSE (this usage o f the word is format) Many suppose him to be innocent. (Cf. the more usual: “Many suppose that he is innocent”.)

VOLUNTEER He volunteered to mark all the papers.

TELL (= advise, warn, command) They told the journalists to turn back.

208

TRUST I can trust him to return the money. UNDERSTAND (= interpret — this usage o f the word is format) They understood this remark to mean that it was time to go. (N.B. The sentence could be rewritten as follows: “They interpreted this remark as meaning that it was time to go”.) URGE (i rather format) I can only urge you to leave the area as soon as possible. WARN We must warn them not to use that road. (N.B. This construction is generally followed by not.) C. As (1) object (directly following the verb) or (2) object complement (following a noun or pronoun object). These verbs may have different meanings in the two cases: ASK 1. She is asking to be allowed in. (= “is requesting permission”) 2. He asked her to drop by. (= “invited”) BEG 1 . Y ou thin k the Age of Chivalry is dead. I beg to differ. (= “I take the liberty to express a differing point of view” — this usage is highly format) 2. She begged him to see her. (= “asked earnestly” ) DARE 1. These peop le should dare to stan d up for their rights more. (= “be brave enough”) 2. I dare you to call me that again. (= “challenge”) DESIRE (the following usages are rather formal) 1. We always desire to earn the maximu m amou nt for the minimum effort. 2. He desires you to go at once. DETERMINE ( format) 1. They determine d to make the long journe y that same evening. (= “decided”) 2. Wh at determined the Gove rnmen t to change its policy? (= “caused... to decide”) ELECT 1. She elected to become a journa list. (= “chose”, “decided” — this usage of the word is highly format) 21 0

2. They elected several people to speak on th eir behalf. (= “chose... by voting”) EXPECT 1. They expect to do well in the exam. ( = “thin k or believe that they will do well”) 2. En gland expects every man to do his duty. ( = “require s”) HELP 1 . He helped (to) lay the table. 2. He helped her (to) lay the table. (N.B. Leaving out to is typical of a less formal style.) PREPARE (rather format) 1. He prepared to set out. (= “made” or “got ready”) 2. The nurse is preparin g the girls to go to hospital. PRESUME (the following usages are highly format) 1. It seems that she presumes to call His Majesty by his first name. (= “dares to do something which she has no right to do”) 2. F rom their att itude I presumed th em to be the owners of the estate. (C f the more usual construction: “I presumed that they were the owners...”, i.e. “I supposed”.) PROVE (the following usages are rather format) 1. The suspicions proved to be well founded. ( = “tur ned ou t”) 2. I can prove every one of these documents to be a forgery. (= “demonstrate that”. Cf. the more usual construction: “I can prove that...”.) WANT (= wish) 1. He wants to go home. 2. He wants the children to go home. (Exception: Your hair wants cutting = “needs”)

II. Verbs Generally Followed by the Gerund

ACKNOWLEDGE (this word is format) He acknowledges having made such a comment. ADMIT She admits having done wrong. ADVOCATE (rather formal) I advocate setting up more schools. 211

ANTICIPATE (this word is rather formal) We do not anticipate meeting with serious resistance.

FINISH They have finished cleaning the house.

APPRECIATE (this usage o f the word is rather forma l ) We really appreciate not having to work on Monday.

GIVE UP You must give up smoking.

AVOID You must avoid meeting her. BEGRUDGE (this word is rather format) No one can begrudge your receiving this award. CANNOT HELP He cannot help being like that. CONTEMPLATE (this word is rather format) He contemplated resigning, but in the end decided not to. COUNTENANCE (this usage o f the word is highly format) She refused to countenance his taking such liberties. DEFER (this word is format) For a while he deferred repaying the debt.

INCLUDE Her interests include reading, dancing, swimming and hiking. INVOLVE Being a doctor very often involves working unsocial hours. JUSTIFY He tried to justify his taking the money. KEEP Why do you keep doing that? KEEP FROM What kept you from coming to our party? KEEP ON Despite the noise he kept on reading.

DELAY For some reason she delayed opening the premises.

LEAVE OFF In the end the customs officials left off checking the passengers’ luggage and got off the train.

DENY He denies having done that.

LOATHE He loathes being forced to tell such lies.

DETEST I detest having to work in such conditions. DISCONTINUE (this word is rather format) She was forced to discontinue learning French. DISLIKE He dislikes going there. ENDURE (this word is rather format) I will not endure going through all that again. (N.B. This verb is especially used in negative sentences.)

MIND Would you mind giving me a lift into town tomorrow? (N.B. This word usually occurs in interrogative, negative, and conditional sentences.) MISS How I miss having countryside on my doorstep! NECESSITAT E (this word is formal) This proposal would necessitate doing a lot of extra work. OBJECT TO I don’t object to meeting him in principle.

ENJOY I enjoy dancing.

POSTPONE He postponed doing the homework until the following week.

ESCAPE He narrowly escaped being beaten up.

PRACTISE He practised fasting.

21 2

21 3

PREVENT Nap oleo n could not preven t th eir c apturing Paris. (N.B. Equally possible is the construction: “prevent them fro m capturing...”.) PROHIBIT (this word is formal) The law prohibits under-eighteens fro m drinking alcohol. PROPOSE (this word is rather format) The speaker proposed sending a fact-finding mission to Bosnia. REGRET (this word is rather format) He regrets having punished the children so severely. (N.B. the set phrases 1 regret to inform you and I regret to say.) RELISH I really relish seeing these criminals behind bars. RESENT He resents being paid less than his colleagues. RESIST I couldn’t resist having a sip of your cognac. RISK Every policeman risks being mugged. SANCTION (this word is format) The UN Security Council has sanctioned bombing the Serb positions. STOP Will you stop whispering? SUGGEST I would suggest taking more exercise. (N.B. Also possible is the construction: “I would suggest that you/he/we/they take m ore exercise”.) TOLERATE His parents tolerated his smoking and drinking. VISUALISE Try to visualise being in darkest Africa. III. Verbs Foll owed by the Infinitive or by the Gerund

A: As object (directly following the verb). Some of these verbs and verb-phrases have a different meaning or nuance when followed by an infinitive than when followed by a gerund. 21 4

AFFORD Can we really afford to go to Monte Carlo this year? Can we really afford going to Monte Carlo this year? They cannot afford to make such mistakes. (N.B. The infinitive is more usual than the gerund.) ATTEMPT (this word is rather format) He attempted to interrupt Mrs Thatcher, but it proved impossible. Whenever she attempted roller-skating, the result was disaster. (N.B. The infinitive is much more frequent.) BEGIN (this word is more for ma l than START) 1. The infinitive is preferred when the gram matic al subject is lifeless: It began to grow cold, so we returned to the house. The butter is beginning to melt. The ship began to sink. 2. The infinitive is preferred when the predicate denotes a state of mind: He began to feel irritable. I’m beginning to get worried. I’m beginning to wonder if the report is really true. N.B. After begin the verbs realise and understand are used only in the infinitive: Gradually she began to realise that she was unwelcome. Either the infinitive or the gerund may be used for an activity: When did you begin studying / to study English? He began writing / to write. However, if begin is used in one of the progressive tenses, an infinitive follows, not a gerund: The boy is beginning to read (not: “is beginning reading”). CANNOT BEAR I can’t bear to be kept waiting. I can’t bear being kept waiting. CEASE This project has ceased to be interesting. This project has ceased being interesting. CONTINUE If you continue to smoke, you’ll ruin your health. If you continue smoking, you’ll ruin your health. DESERVE After all their efforts they deserve to be rewarded. After all their efforts they deserve being rewarded. 215

DREAD I would dread to undergo that experience again. I would dread undergoing that experience again.

(N.B. the set phrases I dread to think / imagine, e.g. “I dread to think what would have happened if we hadn’t arrived in time”.) FORGET 1. He forgot to p ay the bill. (= “neglected” . In this sentence the gerund is not possible.) 2. I shall never forget bumping into Mick Jagger. (= “I shall always rememb er” — usually with the negative. In this sentence the infinitive is not possible.) GO ON 1. I f the Neonazis succeed in terrorizing foreigners, they will go on to per secute other groups as well. (= “the next thing they will do will be to persecute...” . In this sentence the gerund is not possible.) 2. Des pite attempts to comfo rt her the woman went on sobbing. (= “con tinued ” . In this sentence the infinitive is not possible.) HATE I would hate to go there. I hate drinking tea without sugar. (N.B. also the set phrase I hate to think = I DREAD to think.) INTEND He intends to see her tomorrow. He intends seeing her tomorrow. LIKE She likes to go out every evening. She likes going out every evening. LOVE (see LIKE) MEAN 1. He did no t mean to be so late. (= “int end” , especially with negatives. In this sentence the gerund is not possible.) 2 . Accepting this job will mean working weekends. (= “will have as a necessary consequence”. In this sentence the infinitive is not possible.) NEE D (= require) 1. This chapter does Does the washing 2. This cha pter does Does the washing 216

n ot need to be rewritten. machine need to be repaired? not need rewriting. machine need repairing?

N.B. The gerund is generally restricted to instances where — as in the above — it stands for the present infinitive passive (“to be rewritten ”, “to be repaired”). Furthermore, the gerund is restricted to instances where need is an ordinary verb, no t modal-auxiliary in character: one can not say, “The chapter needn’t rewriting”, “Need the washing machine repairing?” etc. For a detailed exposition of this confusing verb, cf. Michael Swan, Practical English Usage (Oxford University Press 1980) sections 399-400, 335. PREFER At night he generally prefers to watch television. At night he generally prefers watching television. (N.B. If the sentence involves preferring one thing to another thing, then the gerund is generally used: At night he generally prefers watching television to going for walks.) REMEMBER 1. He remembered to visit John. ( = “He took care not to forget...” .) 2. She remembers meeting John Wayne when she was very young. (= “She recollects meeting”, “ She has childhood memories of meeting...”.) START The dog started to howl. The dog started howling. (N.B. If start is used in one of the progressive tenses, an infinitive follows, not a gerund: we cannot say, “The dog is starting howling”.) TRY 1. She tried to climb over the wall but failed. (= “att empte d to” , “made an effort to”. In this sentence the gerund is impossible.) 2. She tried adding spices to the soup. ( = “She added spices as an experiment, to see whether th at would imp rove the taste”. In this sentence the infinitive is impossible.)

B. The following verbs are accompanied by a gerund when the second verb is used as object (directly following the verb), and by an infinitive when the second verb is an “object complement” (i.e. following a noun or pronoun object): ADVISE 1. I don’t advise (your) going out af ter dark. 2. He advised her to take a taxi. 21 7

CONSIDER 1. He’s considering resigning. (= “He is contemplatin g resigning” . The infinitive is impossible in this sentence.) 2. They consid er this to be the supreme good. (= “It is their opinion that this...”. N.B. This construction is much more formal than writing, “They consider that this...”. The gerund is impossible in this sentence.) IMAGINE 1. I can not imagine living in America. (= “I t is so unlikely that I will ever live in America that I can not even imagine it”.) 2. I imagine Japanese to be an extremely difficult language. (= “My impression is that Japanese is very difficult”.)

A PP EN DIX B

A Few Rec u r r en t Er rors o f L an g uag e 1. D o no t put a sho rt item after a longer item, and certainly not after a series of longer items: a.

Many people believe in telepathy or paranorm al forms of communication between individuals. {Not: Many people believe in paranormal forms of communication between individuals or telepathy.)

b.

It is not our situation that is to blame but tradition, our way of thinking, of bringing up children. (Not: It is not our situation that is to blame but our way of thinking, of bringing up children, tradition.)

PERMIT 1. Th e docto r will not permit (your) smoking. 2. The d octo r will not permit you to smoke. RECOMMEND 1. I recommend (y our) going for long walks. 2. I recommend you to go for long walks. (N.B. The structu re “I recommend that you go...” is more common.)

A related error is to end sentences with insignificant words and phrases. The result is clumsiness: A country’s intellectual and cultural future depends on the quality of its education system, obviously. Other phrases which should never be placed at the end of the sentence include: though, I suppose, and it must be admitted. (The phrases so it seems to me and or so it would seem should never be used at all in written English.) 2. Long subject followed by short predicate. This error makes the sentence difficult to follow: Humour is a good indicator of the compatibility of two cultures. (Not: A good indicator of the compatibility of two cultures is humour.)

3. The verb to be agrees only with the subject: One sign of poverty is the beggars. (Not: One sign of poverty are the beggars.)

219

note 1: Plural titles do not change the construction:

a.

Wuthering Heights was published in 1847.

(“were” is wrong.) note 2: The United States is usually singular, and so is the United Nations. 4. Sentences withou t verbs While some journalists do write such sentences, they generally create the impression of slovenliness. When the writer is a non-native speaker, the effect is often to raise doubts as to whether the person is even capable of more complex sentences:

Nurses are the worst-paid group in my country. And probably the most patient one too. 5. Norm ally the verb is directly followed by its object:

Every nation in the world has created its own distinctive culture according to its own rules of behaviour. (Not: Every nation in the world has created, according to its own rules o f behaviour, its own distinctive culture.) 6. Great care must be taken not to violate the syntactic patterns of English:

a.

This is caused by the rise of nationalism and all phenome na connected with it. (Not: This is caused by the rise of nationalism and all connected with it phenomena.)

b.

I would change some elements of the education system which I believe to be scandalous. (Not: I would change some scandalous, in my opinion, elements of the education system.)

7. Overuse of it A most frequent mistake is to use the word it without any clear antecedent: 22 0

b.

People here like to quarrel — the politicians are the best example ofthis tendency. (Not: the politicians are the best example of it.) Teachers should be better paid, since that would improve morale. Higher wages would also attract more qualified people. (Not: Teachers should be better paid, since it would improve morale. It would also attract more qualified people.)

8. Splices These occur when a phrase is inserted between two clauses in such a way that it is difficult or impossible to tell where that phrase actually belongs:

After exotic trips to Italy, Indonesia, and Australia, using family connections, he acquired Swiss nationality in 1915. This sentence is a catastrophe, because it is unclear whether the person used family connections to go on exotic trips or to acquire Swiss nationality. If the writer meant the former, the sentence might be recast as follows:

After using family connections for exotic trips to Italy, Indonesia, and Australia, he acquired Swiss nationality in 1915. If, as is more likely, the writer meant the latter, then the sentence might be recast as follows:

After exotic trips to Italy, Indonesia, and Australia, he used family connections to acquire Swiss nationality in 1915. See also back, p. 136.

AP PE ND IX C

Spelling The spelling of the following words frequently causes problems. They deserve careful study. Only those in the first column are correct: correct accomm odation accordingly achieve acqua inted advertisement advisable aggressive all righ t applicable appearance be gi nn ing bo un d ar y cannot catastrophe choice comm ittee criticism devise disappea r disease divide eighth 22 2

incorrect (acommodation, acomodation, accomodation) (acordingly) (acheive) (acquianted, acquinted) (advertisment, advertizment) (advisible) (agresive, aggresive,agressive) (alright) (aplicable) (appearence) (be gin ing ) (b ou nd ry ) (can not) (catastrophy) (choise) (comittee, commitee, comite) (critisism) (devize) (dissapear, disapear, dissappear) (desease) (devide) (eigth)

embarrassing emphasis existence expense extremely foresee fourteen forty furthermore hypocrisy independence innocent insufficient intellectual intelligent invisible irresistible millennium millionaire necessary negligence no-one, no one noticeable occurred occurrence offering opening pre dic tab le pr ed om in an tly pre fer red pr ete nt iou s priv ileg ed receipt rose receive referring resistant

(embarrasing, embarassing) (emphisis, emphesis) (existance) (expence) (extremally, extremelly, extremaly) (forsee) (for teen) (fourty) (futhermore) (hipocrysy, hypocriticality, hypercrisy) (independance) (inocent) (insuffisient, insuficient, insufficent) (intelectual) (inteligent) (invisable) (irresistable, iresistable) (millenium, milenium, milennium) (milionaire, milionnaire, millionnaire) (neccessary, neccesary, neccessery) (negligance) (noone) (noticable) (ocurred, occured) (occurance, occurrance) (offerring) (openning) (predictible) (predominently) (prefered, preffered, prefferred) (pretensious) (priveledged, priviledged, priveleged) (recept) (rised, rosed, arosed) (recieve) (refering) (resistent)

revise succeed surprise technique tolerant westerner

(revize) (suceed) (suprise, surprize) (technic) (tollerant) (westener)

Key to th e Exercises (01 , p. 12 ): Suggested new paragraphs at: Thus sulphur dioxide (11.3-4), Another con sequence (11.9-10), This destruction (1.13), Such a rise (1.20), Another by-prod uct (1.26), Thus , acid-rain (11.29-30). (03, p. 19): 1. Worse still 2. More importantly, More centrally etc. 3. In addition, What is more 4i. others ii. still othe rs 5. This brings us back (or: on) to 6 . More worryingly, Worse still 7. Similarly. 8 .i and iiThen, Next, In addition (04, p. 19): 1. Let us start 2. like, such as; mainly, principally etc. 3. in partic ular 4. as well as 5. In; Turning to, If we turn to 6 . mea nt 7. as, since 8 . similarly; while 9. for instance, for example 10. Again, Similarly, Likewise, In the same way 11. Firstly, To begin with 12. Secondly 13. Similarly; Thirdly 14. such as 15. Moreover, What is more, Similarly, In addition; Fourt hly 16.such as, like 17. encouraging, bringing abo ut etc. 18. Again, Similarly 19. Indeed, In fact, Wha t is mo re 20. By co ntra st 21. examples being, for example, such as, witness 22. however 23. especially, particularly, above all; an d nowhere more so than 24. as a res ult of; in reaction to 25. In addition 26. In fact, Indeed 27. resulting in, leading to, causing etc. 28. in cluding; no t least; especially, in particu lar 29. indeed; or even 30. Worse still, More ominously; What is more; In addition, Besides 31. See 30 32.as, since, seeing tha t 33. To sum up, To conclude; Overall, Generally speaking etc. (06, p. 29): 5a. Take... for instance b. case in point c. in particular; above all d. such as e. as was the case with f. for example; such as, like g. witness h. witness; take for example 225

(10, p. 42): l.He is a member neither of Parliament nor of... 2. but also to appeal for... 3.from both teenagers and... (also: from both younger and older sections...) in regard not only to grammar and vocabulary but also to phonetics . (or: not 4. only grammatically and lexically but also phonetically as well.) 5. to forests, to animals... (or: to forests, animals, and indirectly ourselves.) 6 , The police not only do not want to... 7.irrespective of their worth as individual people and (or: or) the importance of... 8 . and that the young were therefore in need... 9. of taking on responsibility... (or: of responsibility and important decisions.) 10. There are no funds for classroom equipment, scientific laboratories or sports facilities, or even for... 11 .the urgent need for more supplies, and the seriousness o f the situation. 12. would become not only a... 13. wheth er from Britain or America... (or: whether British or American...) 14. not only to edify young people... (or: not only for the edification of young people but also as a reminder for adults of...) 15. They will go west either for a few years or fo r ever. 16. He presents not only the... 17. to be kind and tolerant, (and) to love other p eople, n ature and life. 18. becomes the object on the one hand of... 19 .they steal cars, they break into... (or: and finally are sent...) 20 . not only teachers but also parents were very rigid. 21 . an important date in the history not only of... 2 2 . and fo r the teachers, (or: good for both the children and the teachers.) 23. The reader not only witnesses... 24. rather than any real belief in God. (also: rather than really believing in God.) 25. we must first o f all do our best and try to change ourselves, and then start to find the way to communicate with our parents, (or: So if you want your family life to change for the better, fir st o f all do your best etc.) 26. culture, taste and good manners, something shocking... (11, p. 44): l.The book and its scrupulous scholarship were well received by critics, (also: The critics gave the book a good reception, and they...) 2. but withou t reaching any agreement, (also: but reached no agreement.) 3. of responsibility or any kind of criticism. 4. and they find the picture of the “modern” woman very tempting. 5. and established closer econo mic ties with them. 6 . first a French and then a British colony. 7. adopted not only so-called American tastes but also some of the habits of what we might call the American life. (12, p. 46): l.The first sectarian killings this year, they... 2 . Hard-working and reliable, he had within a s hort time... 3. A forme r Spr ingbok captain, Go wen has received... 4. A corpu lent man ..., he... 5. Jealous... and implacably hostile..., these groups... 6 . A solitary man, a retired chemist..., he... 7. More a monarch..., Elizabeth Regina continues... 8 . A democrat of the Left, he kept... 9. Petty and 226

vindictive, she... 10.Weaker and poorer, Panama was defending itself... 11. Hungry for knowledge, I was occasionally... 12. Cousins, both from failed marriages, polar opposites..., they conspired... 13. Once the scene..., Slovenia underwent... 14. A politician..., Lumumb a was also... 15. Himself a Vietnam war-veteran, Oliver Scott... 16. Almost mad with fear, he tried... 17. Anxious to appear..., he relished... 18. An admirer of Hitler, he was... 19. An old hand in the Kremlin, Yeltsin was... 20. Never one to turn down a free meal, Jagger bore... 21.Cozily small..., the $87 million struct ure will n ot be to... 22. Trad i tionally at the left..., Mrs Castle has always... 23. Frequently away..., Andrew began... 24. Ashen-faced and purse-lipped, he sat there impassively, an old man close to tears. (13, p. 48): 1. A lover..., Belloc’s best work... 2. A b rilliant co rrespondent , her le tters... 3. One of the most..., its place is now... (14, p. 49): 1. Drawn..., the sketch is a... 2. Forced..., he devoted... 3. Introduce d..., comprehensive schools sought... 4. Galvanised..., he covered... 5. Abandoned... and mistaking..., she grew up... 6 . Founded..., The Observer is the world’s... 7. Made in black and white, Wajda’s film skilfully evokes... 8 . Endowed..., she spoke... 9. Waging... and deaf..., Mladych has led... (15, p. 50): The word being is possible in 12, p. 46-47, nos. 1, 2, 7, 8 , 9, 11, 15 (Being himself...), 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 (Never being one...), and 23 (Being frequently away); in 13, p. 48, no. 2 (Being a brilliant correspondent...); and certainly in 14,p. 49, nos. 4, 5 and 8 . (16, p. 51): 1.polling... 2. (Being) the first..., he became..., giving... 3 .Prolix..., Grass ’s novels are neverthel ess full of..., offering... 4. God’s victim, I have been lying..., struggling... 5. (Becoming) increasingly radicalised.. ., Lumu mba turned..., thus alienating... (17, p. 52): 1.Tired as they were... 2. annoyed as she was... 3. Inadequate though it is..., Inadequate as it is... 4.Poor sinner as I am... (also: Poor sinner that I am...) 5. finding it distasteful as they do. 6 . Working as I do in the police-force, I have special opportunities... 22 7

(18, p. 54): l.with Germany’s foreign minister calling... 2. ...changes, with many women running... 3.With inflation running... 4.with other... paying... 5.with the biggest tak ing place... 6 . with the prime minister offering... and the president refusing... 7.with one sign standing... 8 . With the campaign entering... (or: with no prisoners being taken.) 9. with the ray of light penetrating... 10. With exploding populations plunging... 1 1 . ...situation, with several cases... having been recorded. 12. with workers being made... 13. With the launch having been called off... 14. with heavy rain falling... 15. with Mrs Imelda Marcos coming... 16— Wales, with Princess Diana taking.. . 17 __ disintegrate, with the South falling... 18. with the IMF breathing... and saying... 19. With world attention focussed... 2 0 . with the security forces acting... 2 1 . with many people dying... 2 2 . With three -quarte rs of the vote already declared... 23. with the pound expected... 24.With work planned... 25.with a number... omitted. 26.with Marlowe cast... 27. With three thousand foreigners convicted... (19, p. 57): 1.with the new proposals at the top... 2 . With Communism gone... 3. with Mozambiq ue... among... 4. ...tomorrow , with the Pope due... 5. with the commission likely... 6 . with the parties there apparently unable... 7 . With the Allies about to capture... Basra, Saddam Hussein’s... 8 .with the USA in danger... 9. with the USA... (being) especially willing... 10. with the One Hund red Index... down... 11. With Nelson Mandela in prison... 12. ...in London, with regional security high... 13. with the surplus food to be used... 14. With one million people out of work and the count ry deep in recession... 15. With Ted Dexter on 47... 16. ...of the education system, with teachers free... 17. With the meeting over, the delegates... 18. With food... in short supply... 19. With dem ocracy itself under threat, the reforms... 20. With the presiden t wanting... and parliame nt fragmented... 21. With demand low... 22. With a tough re ferendum later this month ... 23. with Shakespeare to be compulsory reading... 24. With the situation being as it is... (20, p. 61): l.(w ith) the problem having been... 2. (With) unity restored... 3 .examples being... 4. His suspicions aroused... 5. Weather and time permitting... 6 .His speech over... 7. the first one having failed. 8 . the idea being to... 9. its aim being to... 1 0 . the only problem being that... 1 1 . (with) his invention still his own. 12. My rou nd over... 13. (with) copies... to the Kaiser on his knees. 14. (with) King George I being... 15. (with) a dagger tucked.. . 16. he having aband oned.. . 17. (with) their faces against... 18. There being... 19. ...down the hallway, (with) his black boots squeaking, his bent silhouette framed... 2 0 . (with) her eyes red... 2 1 . (with) a cigarette in... 2 2 . (with) the hall illumined... 228

23. the largest share being owed... (or: with the largest share owed...) 24. (with) his... bound. 25. the last being... 26. the logic being that... 27. (with) his right hand thrust... 28. Wimpey Homes being... (or: with Wimpey Homes typical...) 29. the allusion being to... 30. (with) the taste of blood in my mouth. 31. her face wearing... 32. (with) a cloud of dust behind me. 33. (With) America being America... 34. (with) the prime minister... using... 35. the only difference being that... 36. (with) his whole attitude conveying... 37. (with) our pockets bulging... 38. (with) special use being made... 39. (with) golden tresses flying..., accom panied... 40. it being otherwise... 41. their role being to... 42. (with) tears filling his eyes. 43. the trad itiona l nu mber of 12 being... 44. its des truction being... (or: [with] its destruction symbolic...) (2 1 , p. 6 6 ): 1. Incredible though (or: as) it may sound... 2. brilliant it is not. 3. and king he now was. 4. So quickly does the disease strike that... 5. Lovely though (or: as) it is... 6 . Trains are few... 7. That he refused to do... 8 . Dull-witted though (or: as) they are... 9. continue it did... 1 0 . Charismatic he is not... 11. Good though (or: as) it is... 12. and dance he did. 13. So persuasive have they been that... 14. Lazy he is not... 15.This they did... 16. and murder she did. 17.Try as he might... (not: “Try though...”) 18.Officer I never was... 19. Odd though (or: as) it seems (or: may seem)... 20. More I cannot say. 21. brutality there was in abundance. 22. Much as the place appealed to him... 23. Good organiser as he was... 24. Free they were not... 25. Traumatic as the cutbacks are..., Much as the cutbacks are traumatic... 26. Sinatra he is not... 27. Fortun ate are those few who... 28.its hair was brown and brown was its face; pale and skeletal was its body; blood it had none. 29.‘Romantic Spain’ it is not... 30.and suppressed they would be. 31. Disestablished it sh ould be. 32. Much as I unde rstand... 33. Such is the natu re... that... 34. Tha t we certainly do. 35. Matter it certainly does... 36.fighting together they considered a path to glory. 37. Surprising though (or: as) it may seem... 38. Next come... 39. Violent though (or: as) they are... (also: However violent they are...) 40.Very common, however, are cases... 41. That it failed to do... 42. Great though (or: as) the influence of classical music was... 43. Taxes there must be... 44. The reasons... are several. 45. Most impressive were... 46.and top dogs they were. 47. — and something they must be he aring — 48. Equally ludicr ous is the suggestion... 49. Remove that, and you will remove...

(22, p. 69): 1. Theirs was a situation... 2. Ours is not a normal country. 3. Hers was hardly an... 4. His is not a fate which (or that) I would wish... 5.The problem Was basically hers. 6 . but his was a very peculiar intelligence. 7. His was far from being a purely destructive genius. 8 . Ours is a particularly importa nt area. 22 9

9. Theirs is an authentic ... 10. The decision is his. 11. His was a magnificent achievement. 12. Ours is a u nique p redicament. 13. her every request. 14. Ours is an increasingly hypocritica l society. 15. Mine was the first gen eration... 16.Hers is no isolated case. 17. His is the first serious study... (23, p. 72): l. N o t even once did this thought cross... 2. No soo ner were they released... than ... 3. Least o f all did he under stand. .. 4. Not only is he... 5. Only after many years... can one become... 6 . In no way are such people to be... (24, p. 73): 1. It is Jack who... 2. It was only after many years that... (or: Only after many years did I see...) 3. It was Tom who (or: that) made... 4. It was at th at moment that... (also: It was no w that ...) 5. It is medical science that... 6 . It was the principle of... tha t prevented war. (25, p. 73): l.W ha t we want on the campus is greater democracy. 2 . what we’re saying is that these are... 3. what they deserve is the... 4. What he liked doing more than anything else was writing... 5. what we would, however, like you to learn is the basics. 6 . What I like more than anything is... 7. what they do show is that... (26, p. 74): — this is what... (or: — all this characterises...) (27, p. 75): l.His was a singularly unhappy childhood. 2. Seldom have I read... 3. What such people deserve is the... 4.That she ought to know. 5. Theirs is a deeply pessimistic... 6 . Most of all she liked sailing, (or: What she liked most of all was sailing.) 7. Never (or: Not even) once did she complain. 8 . It is you who should... 9. Much as I enjoy... 10. Ours is a very beautiful part... 11. Never (or: No t even) once did he apologise. 12. Little did he realise that... 13. It was John who (or: tha t) stole... 14. The responsibility is basically yours. 15. Imperceptibly the night... 16. Under no circumstances may... 17. Good general as he was... 18. Little did he kno w th at... 19. Only in a few countries is... 20. Far more disturb ing are th e reasons why... 21. Theirs are the only Armen ian names... 22. Such is the desperatio n... that.. . 23. Guiltiest of all is Ellen Wayne. 24.Characteristic of that nation is a tendency... 25. Never at any time have... 26. The nig ht is ours. 2 7.— so full of tender anxiety were her looks... Strange 230

as (or: though) it may seem... 28. Theirs is a higher civilisation... 29. Never in my entire life had I seen... 30. and redefined it is: 31. Vengeance is mine. 32.It was now that he... 33. In no way was she... 34. His was the ordinary... 35. One compone nt NAT O certainly has... What it does not have is... 36. Simple it may be... 37. More devastating than... is the disease of... 38. And here I was... (also: And here was I...) 39.The rich, famous and fat I can just abo ut cope with, bu t... 40. His is a serious book. 41. and I understood not a word. 42.1 suddenly felt that, sad truth though it was... 43 .Large thoug h it is... 44. But nothing o f all this did... 45 .The No rth Vietnamese we held... 46.if a victory indeed it was. 47.The restructuring... privatisatio n the Governme nt considers one of its priorities. 48. More significant, however, was... 49. infinite is their respect... (29, p. 81): 1. like (not “similarly to”) 2. If... then... 3. As with 4. by contrast 51. as ii. unlike 6 . Like, As with (not: “Similarly to”) 7i. If ii. then 8 . On the contrary 9. Like (not: “Similarly to”) 10. unlike in 11. like (not: “Similarly to”) 12. by contrast 13. If (also: While, Whereas) 14. On the contrary 15. Like (not: “ Similarly to” ) 16. As with, Like (30, p. 8 6 ): l.not least because 2 . Given that 3. the more so when, especially when 4. Seeing that, Considering t hat 5. not least 6 . insofar as, inasmuch as 7. Now that, Seeing that, Since 8 . Seeing that, Since 9. seeing th at 10. Ins ofar as, Inasmuch as 11. the less so as, the less so when; especially as, especially when 12. Since, Seeing that, Cons idering th at 13. Given that, Given the fac t that , Considering th at 14. especially as, no t least because, simply because, for the simple reason that 15. Seeing that; Insofar as, Inasmu ch as 16. seeing that 17. Now that 18. since, because 19. Considering that, Given the fact tha t 20. for 21. As, Seeing that, Since 22. given the f act that, in view of the fact that, owing to the fact that (31, p. 88 ): 1. out of 2. given, considering 3. on account of, in view of 4. on account of, because of 5. In the face of 6 . by virtue of, on account of 7. out of 8 . Given, Considering, In view of 9. Owing to 10. consequent upon 11. thank s to 12. because of 13. attributable to; was due to 14. for; by virtue of, by reason of; in view of 15. Given, Considering, In view of (also: Bearing in mind, In the light of) 16. because of, by virtue of, by reason of 17. Given, In the face of 18. Owing to 19. In the face of 20. due to (also: caused by) 21. In the face of 22. on account of, owing to 23. out of 24. Given, Considering, In view of 231

(32, p. 90): Lin turn 2.so, and so; which is why 3.so, hence, thus (also: that being the case) 4. presumably 5. in turn 6 . so 7. in turn 8 . Understandably; Needless to say 9. in consequence, consequent ly, accordingly 10. Not surprisingly, Needless to say 11. therefore 12. not surprisingly, needless to say 13. in turn 14. so, therefore, this was why; in consequence, accordingly etc. 15. Needless to say 16.In view of this; With the s ituation being as it is 17. as a result 18. This is why 19. accordingly, consequently (33, p. 92): 1. By the same token 2. Ergo; It follows that 3. By the same token; If this is so, If this is the case 4. ergo 5. By the same token (34, p. 93): 1. After all 2. in case 3. the aim being to; in order to 4. After all 5. in case; lest 6 . After all 7. the idea being that 8 . after all 9. so as to, in order to 10a. after all 1 0 b. in case (35, p. 94): 1. decline 2. in; o ut of 3. What is more, Moreover, In addition 4. reasons 5. whether 6 . due to, attributable to; linked with, connected with etc. 7. con comitant; connected, linked 8 . attribut e, ascribe 9. associate 10. reason 11. lie 12.results 13. Indee d 14. for fear of 15. as a result of 16. The result is, The consequence is 17. brings, creates, involves, entails 18. whether 19. In fact, Indeed 20. What is more, Moreover, In addition 21. But, Yet 22. consequences, implications 23. since; while 24. since 25. in fact, indeed, the fact is that (38, p. 100): 1. But then (again), But there again 2. Still, For ail that, Notwithstanding this, This notwithstanding 3. Granted that, Assuming that, Supposing that 4. if not 5. but then (again), but there again 6 . Even so, Still 7. if not; indeed 8 . less... than; not so much... as 9. at least, at any rate, certainly 10. Yet; The fact remains that 11. Grante d, Admittedly 12. but, even though 13. to be sure... certainly; it is true... certainly 14. but then (again), but there again 15.albeit 16. That said, Having said that 17. Despite, For all, Notwithstanding 18. Much as 19. in itself 20. then again 21a. + b. notwiths tanding 22. It is not th at... the poin t is rath er that 23. But then (again), But there again 24. tha t said, having said th at, for all that, nevertheless 25. not that 26. Much as 27. but then (again), but there again 28. In itself 29. Not that 30. but then (again), but there again 31. Admittedly 32. At least, At any rate 33. but then (again), but there again 34. albeit 35. but then (again), but there again 36. For all, Notwithstand 23 2

ing 37. albeit 38. not so mu ch... as 39. if... then 40. Gran ted, Admittedly 41.But then (again), But th ere again 42. All the same, Ev en so, Ha ving said that, Nevertheless, Notwithstanding this etc. 43. But then 44. But then (again), But there again 45. Not that 46. Having said that, Once you have said that 47. not that 48. It is not that 49. Still, Nevertheless; Having said that 50. for all 51.Even so 52. For, Despite 53. Having said that, Still 54. pace 55.(1) Given, Considering (2) But then (again), But there again (39, p. 104): (1): 1. On the one hand... on the other; For one thing... for another 2. let alone; to say nothing of; not to mention 3. what is more (also: more importantly, more to the point) 4. See 2 5. above all 6 . in particular 7. and no one more (so) than; not least 8 . exactly, precisely 9. See 1 10. above all; not least 11. See 3 12. See 2 13. See 7 14. See 8 (2, p. 105): 1. Beyond all (or: any) doubt, Beyond question, Unquestionably 2. absolutely, downright, nothing short of 3. altogethe r 4. beyond all (or: any) doubt, beyond question, unquestio nably, definitely 5. indeed 6 . See 1 7. nothing short of 8 . See 2 (3, p. 106): 1. It is anyone’s guess, It remains to be seen 2. It is quite likely that, It may well be that 3. See 2 4. See 1 5. It is quite likely that, Presumably (4, p. 106): l.In the event 2. Curiously enough, Strangely enough 3. for that matter 4. In fact, The fact is, The thing is 5. it emerges that, it transpires that 6 . for that matter 7. It is a question of (also: It involves, It entails) 8 . that’s just the point 9. only to be 10. for t hat matt er 11. Needless to say 12. in fac t 13. Fo r the record 14. only to 15. for that matter 16. It just so happens that, The fact is that, The thing is that 17. See 5 18. It just so happens that 19. In fact 20. The fact is that, The thing is that (5, p. 108): 1. sure enough 2. In the same vein 3. for his part, in turn 4. correspondingly 5. respectively 6 . either 7. any more than 8 . In the same vein 9. for their part 10.sure enough 11. respectively 12. in the same vein, similarly 13. for their part, similarly, in turn 233

(6 , p. 109): 1. no matter how; regardless of how 2. In case of, In the event of 3. in any case 4. irrespective of; regardless of 5. no matter whether, irrespective of whether, regardless of whether 6 . In the event of 7. In case 8 . In any case 9. provided (that), providing (that) 10.conditional upon 11.See 5 12.If, Provided (that), Providing (that) (7, p. 11 0 ): 1. Apro pos (of), As regards, In (or: With) regard to, In respect of, With respect to 2. As such, In this regard, In this respect 3. Apropos (of), Talking about, While on the subject of 4. Here, On this point, On this score 5 . Apropos (of), As regards, In connection with, In (or: With) regard to 6 . In particular 7. See 1 (also: In terms of) 8 . with respect to, with special reference to 9 . as regards, in (or: with) regard to, in respect of, in terms of, with respect to 10.See 3 11.See 4 12.in terms of, in terms of 13.apropos (of), as regards, in connection with, in (or: with) re gard to, with respect to 14. with special reference to (8 , p. Ill): 1. As such 2. to the effect that 3. namely 4. As such 5. All in all 6 . Put simply 7. so to speak (also: in a manner of speaking) 8 . words to that effect 9. In theory... in practice 10.(1) So much for (2) By way of comparison, By way of contrast 11. to the effect that 12. As such 13. Let us suppose for the sake of argument that 14. then 15. Actually, Strictly speaking 16. As it was 17. to the effect that 18. As it is (Also: Suffice it to say that Herodotus’ account...) 19. as they are, as it is 2 0 . words to that effect (40, p. 129): (1, P- 129): 1. should always be 2. also contribute 3. work really so 4 . Sometimes this man; may sometimes be; on TV sometimes 5. have finally been; have been finally; report finally 6 . mont hs there 7. Mothe r also noticed 8 . Unfortu nately, the average prie st is no t G od’s merciful... 9. tendencies immediately make; felt immediately 10. have surprisingly a brupt ly changed; Christian s surprisingly abrupt ly 11. are especially likely 12. There they; ho ur there 13. broth er presently 14.were pro babl y built 15. will always be 16. He lived in a h ut situated etc. 17.As Mrs Wright also sometimes made; As Mrs Wright sometimes also made; was widely hated 18. By chance I was 19. is Natu re’s breatht aking 20.will especially help 21. Every now and then she would also; She would also cross herself every now and then 2 2 . has always been; has been always the first 23.Having worked there for three weeks under awful conditions, they resigned; Having worked there under awful conditions for three weeks, they resigned 24. faith also can; can also be 25. people h ere 26. There she; diary 23 4

there; Unexpectedly she; She unexpectedly found; diary there unexpectedly (but not: Unexpectedly there or There unexpectedly...) 27. Together they; village together 28. Soon he; He will soon; documents soon

(2, p. 131): lb. 2b. 3a. 4a. 5b. 6 a. 7b. 8 b. 9a. 10b. 11a. 12a. 13b. + 13e. 14a. 15b.

(41, P- 144): l.The Church, which has always played a key role in that country, is likely to oppose the idea. 2. “Music expresses their feelings,” he said, “and should not be treated as a means of earning money.” 3. As Mr Jones, the owner, has demonstrated, such a project would benefit everybody. 4. Given the fact that malaria is a very dangerous disease, the fight against mosquitoes must be given top priority. 5. One subculture is especially remarkable — (colon also possible) I mean the followers of Krishna. 6 . Surprisingly enough, nobody, not even the clergymen, who should be the first to criticise and ban such an activity, finds it morally corrupting to watch such films or to patronise such shops. 7 .1 would even say that this is a very superficial approach to the problem, and that these so-called critics take too much for granted. 8 . Their pacifism was present in every aspect of th eir lives, including music, fashion, and leisure in general. 9. In fact, however, these activities were only the visible reflection of these youths’ assertion o f their individuality; (colon also possible) they provided the opportunity for an escape from traditional stereotypes and cliches. 10. Now, when state care o f the homeless has diminished a nd unemployment has been spreading, the number of people deprived of any livelihood is greater than ever. 11. Michael Heseltine, the Minister for Trade and Ind ustry, has openly criticised Mr Majo r. 12. She begins her day with a morning service; later at home she recites prayers, as though they were magical charms. 13. As a ma tter of fact, there exists a considerably wider spectrum of youth-subcultures in the contemporary world than used to be in the past. 14. In no t being ashamed of their nakedne ss, which in fact is very natural for man, and in establishing nudist beaches, naturists simply wish to express the vital relationship with, and essential dependence on nature and its laws, without which huma n existence is inconceivable. 15. 1 was lucky: ab out 100 others were not. 16. Foreigners are regarded as easy touch: they can be robbed or even blackmailed. 17. A subculture is still a culture: (semicolon also possible) it is governed by rules as strict as in any society. 18. These suggested reforms mainly concern political life. However, the consequences of those reforms would be changes in our economic, social, and cultural reality in general. (N.B. After life a semicolon is also possible .) 19. The music they listened to, hunting songs of exotic origin or guitar ballads, was tuneful and harmonious. ( Dashes are also possible instead o f commas.) 20. This will cause 23 5

serious problems in Africa and South America, where insects often carry life-threatening diseases. 21. Thoug h the sub culture I have just described is based on nation al symbols, its count erpar ts exist in other countries as well. 22. unchanged 23. unchanged (N.B. I f you mean that aU cakes are fattenin g, and therefore should not be eaten, then the sentence needs to be rewritten: Cakes, which are fattening, should not be eaten.) 24. Many o f the flower-power generation died of a drug-overdose; moreover, many of the rock-stars who sang about peace also sang about drugs and died of drug-abuse. 25. unchanged 26. The question still is whether this has been a good way to change the world; whether the dress, hair, and cacophanous songs could really offer any answer to the w orld’s ills. 27. Their marriage, which used to be considered so successful, has now come to an end. 28. Some features of ou r coun try are especially striking for foreigners, who pay attention to even the smallest details of our lives. 29. The traffic in London is terrible, which makes buses there very unpunctual. 30. A song by the Sex Pistols, “There’s Anarchy in the UK,” became the anthem of all punks. 31. Well, I think these people should be admired, as they are exceptionally motivated. 32. However, they have succeeded in creating their own remarka ble style. 33. So it is with most subcultures: those who take their ideas too seriously are bound to be disillusioned. 34. The worst thing is that there is no reason for these attacks on innocent people: the skins just do it for the hell of it. 35. Even our MP, the man we trusted so much, (or dash) even he supports the idea. 36. He succeeded (comma possible) where so many would-be conquerors had failed, because he quickly took control of the region’s oil, because he was able to harness religious sentiment to his own ends, and above all because Muslims felt that at last they had a splendid opportunity to work off their ancient grudges against the now-fragmented western world. 37. Subcultures are smaller societies than the global culture they help to create; therefore it is easy for burgeoning individuals to blossom on their soil. 38. Mrs Potter was not a good teacher: she did not make us like her subject; we were not interested in physics at all. 39. This, of course, is also the case with rock-and-roll music as well, which, plan ted on American soil, has led to the birth of a totally new artistic idiom. 40. Ano ther thing o f great importan ce th at has recently been emerging as a result of air-pollution is the greenhouse-effect. 41. “The less you play, the bette r,” they used to say, so it is n ot surprising that what the audience was given was often nothing more than a chaos of sound. 42. Everybody knows that such people exist; everybody also knows what they look like. 43. If I have ever met any impressive iron-man or punk, it was he, not the subculture which he belonged to, that was exceptional. 44. The incident is a real disgrace for us, their parents and teachers, indeed for the whole community. (Dashes are also possible instead o f commas.) 45. unchanged 46. There is one feature which they all share: it is, generally speaking, rebellion. 47. For this reason the earth is becoming warmer, and in consequence the ice is melting, which is why the sea-level is g enerally rising. 48. Eastern religions, especially those which 236

advocated the relinquishing of earthly desires, came into vogue. 49. It is true that she is absent-minded, but that is no reason to sack her. 50. The Americas of the sixteenth century, when European settlers started to make their appearance, were remarkably disease-free. 51. Details such as earrings, rings, chains with pentagra ms o r skulls are welcome. 52. We have called Chinghis “king”, for now he was indeed a king. 53. It is not surprising that air-pollution has become one of the greatest problems nowadays. 54. Such communities, examples of which are skins, metalmaniacs, punks (comma possible) or discomaniacs, possess an invisible inner force that attracts many young people. 55. The oppone nts conceded this fact; nevertheless, they mainta ined that the casino would con tribute to a decline of morals. 56. Many of my friends have gone abroad, where they hope to find work. 57. unchanged 58. Our cakes, which are always fresh, can now be obtained seven days a week. 59. The writer’s last words were: “One of us has got to go: it’s either me or the wallpaper.” 60. Teachers should change the ir attitude to students, who have always been considered inferior, unlike in western countries. 61.1 approve of teaching French at secondary schools; however, I would not give up teaching Latin, and I would put stronger emphasis on German. 62. There would be two examinations: the entrance one, very difficult, to make sure that the candidates who pass are really appropriate; and the second one, the thesis, after five years. 63. Dracula leaves his homeland, Transylvania, and comes to England. 64. The first thing I would do, if I were education minister, would be to make all students pay for their education. 65.unchanged 66 . unchanged 67. unchanged 68 . Eliot’s ashes were taken to the church at Easter Coker, the home of his ancestors, and buried there. 69. There was a real hullaballoo when Fleet Street got hold of two tapes of telephone conversations: one between Diana and James Gilbey, a man about town, who repeatedly called her “darling”, (semicolon also possible) and the other, sexually explicit, between Charles and a married woman, Camilla Parker-Bowles. 70. Brain-surgeons in my country, who have stressful, highly responsible jobs, should be paid more. 71. The num ber of places is very limited, which makes compe tition fierce. 72. unchanged 73. The older generation cannot understand the way teenagers dress, talk (comma possible) and behave; they cannot unders tand why we want to listen to rock-music, or why we listen to it so loud. 74. Africa is said to be the poorest continent, while North America is said to be the most affluent. 75. Hopkins acts the part of Van Helsing, the fearless conqueror of vampires. 76. At an early age she decided she wanted to be only one thing in life: (dash also possible) an actress. 77. In 1947 his wife, Vivien, died. Ten years later he got married to his secretary, Valerie Fletcher.

(42, p. 150): Incongruous (i.e. highly colloquial) elements: a. What they’re out for; ge tting sacked just like that; get treated O .K. b. all sorts of stuff, c. w anna, gonna. 23 7

Suggested improvements: a. What they are seeking is an end to arbitrary dismissals. I f they receive fair tre atmen t from British Coal... b. sundry prod ucts c. would like to; intend to

(43, p. 159): 1. subsequent 2. major 3. constantly; continually 4. dispense with 5. adjacent to 6 . substantial 7. An excessive delay 8 . invariably 9. Prolonged (also: constant; continual; continuous) 10 . is devoid of 11 . lacks the resources to pay nurses an adequate wage (or: has insufficient resources at its disposal to pay nurses properly ) 12. prior to 13. at pre sent 14. appreciate 15. dispensed with 16. invol ves; entails 17. is invariably late for work 18. superfluous 19. extremely confused; confused in the extreme 20 . subsequent; future 2 1 . 1 would appreciate it if you could write back 22 . excessively; inordinate ly 23i. minor factors, aspects, consid erations etc. ii. major 24i. executed ii. promptly , immediately 25. insig nificant 26. superior to 27. significantly; considerably; substantially 28. deterio rated 29. superfluous; redu ndan t 30. omitted to; neglected to; failed to 31.significant; substantial; important etc. 32.has... at its disposal; possesses; has obtain ed 33. inferior to 34. major; serious 35 i. appears ii. capable of (tackling) 36. was involved in 37. peculiar 38. magnitude 39. confiscated 40. in volves going to considerable trouble 41. appropriate 42. devoid of 43. Mistakes abound in this book. 44. exorbitant; extortionate 45. appropriate 46. abundance; profu sion 47. making rapid progress 48. consistently 49. lead to a renewed outbreak of hostilities (also: precipitate a renewed outbreak...) 50. The paucity of sources 51. eliminated 52. ubiquitous; omnipresent 53. declined to give any further details; declined to elaborate. 54. insufficiently 55. multitude 56. major

(44, p. 164): 1. en route 2. non sequiturs 3. via media 4. a fait accompli 5. Weltanschauung 6 . ipsissima verba 7. experienced feelings of Schadenfreude 8 . is a cause celebre 9. tabula r asa 10.de rigueur 11. faux pa s 12.fau te de mieux 13. Zeitgeist 14.gives us assi gnments ad nauseam 15. savoir faire 16. volte-face 17. ad hoc (also: on an ad hoc basis) 18. an a priori case 19. par excellence 20. sine qua non 21. recherche 22. a policy of laissez-faire 23. esprit de corps 24. summum bonu m 25. enfant terrible 26. Pace certain m oral authorities 27. a quid pro quo 28.His oeuvre consists of 29. and vice versa 30. in to to 31. qua head of the Church 32. bete noire 33. ended in debacle 34. ancien regime 35. denouement 36i. magnu m opu s ii.t he Parisian demimonde 37. en masse 38.joie de vivre 39.ex pos t fa cto 40. coup de grace 41. per se 42. status quo 43. ad infinitum 44.passe 45. tour de force 46. raison d’etre 47. One could offer a reductio ad absurdum 48. eminence grise 49. ad hoc 50. Wanderlust 51.sui generis 52. in extenso 53. carte blanche 23 8

(45, p. 170):

l.grew , became 2. reached, arrived at 3. eliminate 4. be, become 5. become became 7. deteriora ted 8 . were 9. received 10. loses his way 11. became, grew 12.possesses, has 13. suffers from, has 14. receive 15. had, received 16. was, became 17. Acquiring 18. received 19. recovered 20. grown, become 21. elim inated 22. possesses, has 23. was 6.

(46, p. 175):

la. adapted lb. adopted 2. advised 3. affect 4. borne 5a. by contrast 5b. On the contrary 6 a. classical 6 b. classics 6 c. classic 6d. classic 6 e. classical 6 f. classic 7a. comical 7b. comic 8 a. communion 8 b. community 9. complement 10a. com plimentary 10 b.com plem entary 11 a. contents lib.co nten t 12 . continuous 13a. counselled 13b. counsels 13c. council 14a. critique 14b. criticisms 15. Cul tured 16a. deficient 16b. defective 17a. depen dent 17b. dependants 18a. de preciated 18b. deprecated 19a. devised 19b. device 20. decease 21. disinterested 22a. disposal 22b. disposition 22c. disposition 22d. disposal 23a. economical 23b. economic 23c. economic 24a. economics 24b. economy 25a. efficient 25b. effective, efficacious 25c. effective 25d. effective 26. elemental 27a. Every one 27b. Everyone 28. extant 29a. historic 29b. historical 30. horde 31. human e 32a. hypercritical 32b. hypocritical 33. ingenuous 34. ingenuity 35a. intensive 35b. intense 35c. intensive 35d. intense 36. latte r 37. laid 38. alike 39a. live 39b. alive 40. literal 41a. motifs 41b. motives 42a. partly 42b. partially 43a. past 43b. past 44a. perpetrated 44b. perpetu ate 45. personnel 46. perverse 47. phys ician 48. politic 49. practise 50a. presently 50b. At presen t 51. princip al 52a. prophe cy 52b. prophe sied 53. sensible 54a. sensuous 54b. sensual 55a. technique 55b. technology 56. terrifying 57. urbane 58a. use 58b. usage 59a. vivacious 59b. vivid 59c. vital

(47, p. 179):

1. consumption 2. special; unique 3. valid; up to date 4. discriminating 5. specific invaders, occupying forces etc. (not: occupants) 7. pathetic 8 . nice; friendly; good-natured 9 . psychic 10 . hazard 11 . special 12 . firm; decisive; single-minded 13. specific (also: peculiar) 14. materialistic 15. hazard 16. lunatic 17. eventually 18.outloo k (also: prospects are) 19. consequence 20. consumptive 21. peculiar; odd 22. consequently 23. topical 24. prospects 25. explain; account for 26. lu natics 27. consequent 28. particular; distinctive; special 29. reputa tion 30. de mented 31. consistent 32. demoralise

6.

(48, p. 181):

1. vicious, savage, sadistic etc. 2. excessive; uncalled for 3. common 4. exciting, 239

Macpherson - English for Writers and Translators

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