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12
Retaining walls 12.1 TYPES AND EARTH PRESSURE
12.1.1 Types of retaining wall Retaining walls are structures used to retain earth which would not be able to stand vertically unsupported. The wall is subjected to overturning due to pressure of the retained material. The types of retaining wall are as follows: 1. In a gravity wall stability is provided by the weight of concrete in the wall; 2. In a cantilever wall the wall slab acts as a vertical cantilever. Stability is provided by the weight of structure and earth on an inner base or the weight of the structure only when the base is constructed externally; 3. In counterfort and buttress walls the slab is supported on three sides by the base and counterforts or buttresses. Stability is provided by the weight of the structure in the case of the buttress wall and by the weight of the structure and earth on the base in the counterfort wall. Examples of retaining walls are shown in Fig. 12.1. 12.1. Designs are given for cantilever and counterfort retaining walls.
12.1.2 Earth pressure on retaining walls (a) Active Active soil soil pressure pressure
Active soil pressures are given for the two extreme cases of a cohesionless soil such as sand and a cohesive soil such as clay (Fig. (Fig. 12.2). 12.2). General formulae are available for intermediate cases. The formulae given apply to drained soils and reference should be made to textbooks on soil mechanics for pressure where the water table rises behind the wall. The soil pressures given are those due to a level backfill. If there is a 2 surcharge of w kN/m on the soil behind the wall, this is equivalent to an additional soil depth of z =w/ where is the density in kilonewtons per cubic metre. The textbooks give solutions for cases where there is sloping backfill. (i) Cohesionless soil, c=0 (Fig. 12.2(a)) 12.2(a)) The pressure at any depth z is given by
Page 370
Fig. 12.1 (a) Gravity wall; (b) cantilever walls; (c) buttress wall; (d) counterfort wall.
where is the soil density and is the angle of internal friction. The force on the wall of height H 1 is
(ii) Cohesive soil, theoretically by
=
(Fig. 12.2(b)) 12.2(b)) The pressure at any depth z is given
p= z í2c where c is the cohesion at zero normal pressure. This expression gives negative values near the top of the wall. In practice, a value for the active earth pressure of not less than
is used.
Page 371
Fig. 12.2 (a) Cohesionless soil ( c=0); (b) cohesive soil ( =0).
Page 372 (b) Wall stability
Referring to Fig. 12.2 the vertical loads are made up of the weight of the wall and base and the weight of backfill on the base. Front fill on the outer base has been neglected. Surcharge would need to be included if present. If the centre of gravity of these loads is x from the toe of the wall, the stabilizing moment is Wx with a beneficial partial safety factory f =1.0. The overturning moment due to the active earth pressure is 1.4 P 1 H 1/3 with an adverse partial safety factor factor f =1.4. =1.4. The stabilizing moment from passive earth pressure has been neglected. For the wall to satisfy the requirement of stability Wx1.4 P 1 H 1/3 (c) Vertical pressure under the base
The vertical pressure under the base is calculated for service loads. For a cantilever wall a 1 m length of wall with base width b is considered. Then area A=b m2 modulus Z =b2/6 m3
If If M is the sum of the moments of all vertical forces W about the centre of the base and of the active pressure on the wall then /2)í P 1 H 1/3 xíb/2)í M =W ( x The passive pressure in front of the base has been neglected again. The maximum pressure is
This should not exceed the safe bearing pressure on the soil. (d) Resistance to sliding (Fig. 12.2)
The resistance of the wall to sliding is as follows.
(i) Cohesionless soil The friction R between the base and the soil is µW where µ is the coefficient of friction between the base and the soil (µ= tan ). ). The passive earth pressure against the front of the wall from a depth H 2 of soil is
(ii) Cohesive soils The adhesion R between the base and the soil is b where is the adhesion in kilonewtons per square metre. The passive earth pressure is
Page 373 2 P 2=0.5 =0.5 H 2 +2cH 2
A nib can be added, as shown in Fig. 12.2, 12.2, to increase the resistance to sliding through passive earth pressure. For the wall to be safe against sliding 1.4 P 1< P 2+ R where P 1 is the horizontal active earth pressure on the wall.
12.2 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER WALLS
12.2.1 Design procedure The steps in the design of a cantilever retaining wall are as follows. 1. Assume a breadth for the base. This is is usually about 0.75 of the wall height. The preliminary thicknesses for the wall and base sections are chosen from experience. A nib is often required to increase resistance to sliding. 2. Calculate the horizontal earth pressure on the wall. Then, considering all forces, check stability against overturning and the vertical pressure under the base of the wall. Calculate the resistance to sliding and check that this is satisfactory. A partial safety factor of 1.4 is applied app lied to the horizontal loads for the overturning and sliding check. The maximum vertical pressure is calculated using service loads and should not exceed the safe bearing pressure. 3. Reinforced concrete design for the wall is made for ultimate loads. The partial safety factors for the wall and earth pressure are each 1.4. Surcharge if present may be classed as either dead or imposed load depending on its nature. Referring to Fig. 12.3 the design consists of the following. (a) For the wall , calculate shear forces and moments caused by the horizontal earth pressure. Design the vertical moment steel for the inner face and check the shear stresses. Minimum secondary steel is provided in the horizontal direction for the inner face and both vertically and horizontally for the outer face. (b) The net moment due to earth pressure on the the top and bottom faces of the inner ooting causes tension in the top and reinforcement is designed for this position. (c) The moment due to earth pressure causes tension in the bottom bottom face of the outer ooting. The moment reinforcement is shown in Fig. 12.3. 12.3.
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Fig. 12.3
Example 12.1 Cantilever retaining wall (a) Specification Design a cantilever retaining wall to support a bank of earth 3.5 m high. The top surface is horizontal behind the wall but it is subjected to a dead load surcharge of 15 2 kN/m . The soil behind the wall is a well-drained sand with the following properties: 3
3
density =1800 kg/m =17.6 kN/m angle of internal friction =30° =30°
2
The material under the wall has a safe bearing pressure of 100 kN/m . The coefficient of friction between the base and the soil is 0.5. Design the wall using grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement. (b) Wall stability The proposed arrangement of the wall is shown in Fig. 12.4. 12.4. The wall and base thickness are assumed to be 200 mm. A nib has been added under the wall to assist in the prevention of sliding. Consider 1 m length of wall. The surcharge is equivalent to an additional height of 15/17.6=0.85 m. The total equivalent height of soil is
3.5+0.25+0.85=4.6 m The horizontal pressure at depth y from the top of the surcharge is 2 17.6 y(1í (1í0.5)/(1+0.5)=5.87 y kN/m
The horizontal pressure at the base is 2
5.87×4.6=27 kN/m
Page 375
Fig. 12.4
The weight of wall, base and earth and the moments for stability calculations are given in Table 12.1. 12.1.
(i) Maximum soil pressure The base properties are area A=2.85 m2 modulus Z =2.85 =2.852/6=1.35 m3
The maximum soil pressure at A calculated for service load is
The maximum soil pressure is satisfactory.
(ii) Stability against overturning The stabilizing moment about the toe A of the wall for a partial safety factor factor f =1.0 is
Page 376 Table 12.1 Stability calculations Load Horizontal load (kN) Distance from C(m) Moment about C (kN m) Active pressure 4.99×3.75=18.71 1.875 í35.08 0.5×22.01×3.75=41.27 1.25 í51.59 Total 59.98 í86.67 Vertical load (kN) Distance from B (m) Moment about B (kN m) Wall+nib 4.35×0.25×24=26.1 í0.5 í13.05 Base 2.85×0.25×24=17.1 0 0 Backfill 1.8×3.5×17.6=110.88 0.525 58.21 Surcharge 1.8×15=27.0 0.525 14.18 Total 181.08 59.34
59.34+(181.08×1.425)=317.4 kN m The overturning moment for a partial safety factor factor f =1.4 is 1.4×86.67=121.34 kN m The stability of the wall is adequate.
(iii) Resistance (iii) Resistance to sliding The forces resisting sliding are the friction under the base and the passive resistance for a depth of earth of 850 mm to the top of the base:
For the wall to be safe against sliding 128.69>1.4×59.98=83.97 kN The resistance to sliding is satisfactory.
(iv) Overall comment The wall section is satisfactory. The maximum soil pressure under the base controls the design.
(c) Structural design The structural design is made for ultimate loads. The partial safety factor for each pressure and surcharge is f =1.4.
Page 377
(i) Wall reinforcement The pressure at the base of the wall is 2
1.4×5.89×4.35=35.7 kN/m
The pressure at the top of the wall is 1.4×4.99=6.99 kN/m 2 shear=(6.99×3.5)+(0.5×3.5×28.76) =24.47+50.33=74.8 kN moment=(24.47×0.5×3.5)+(50.33×3.5/3) =101.51 kN m
The cover is 40 mm; assume 20 mm diameter bars. Then
2
Provide 16 mm diameter bars at 140 mm centres to give a steel area of 1435 mm /m. Determine the depth y1 from the top where the 16 mm diameter bars can be reduced to a diameter of 12 mm. As=807 mm2/m 100 As/bd =100×807/(1000×200)=0.4 =100×807/(1000×200)=0.4 2 (Fig. 4.13) 4.13) M /bd =1.6 (Fig. =1.5×1000×2002/106 =64 kN m
The depth y1 is given by the equation 2
3
64=6.99 y1 /2+1.4×5.87 y1 /6 or 3 2 y1 +2.55 y1 í46.73=0 Solve to give y1=2.92 m. Referring to the anchorage requirements in BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.12.9.1, bars are to extend an anchorage length beyond the theoretical change point. The anchorage length from Table 3.29 of the code for grade 30 concrete is (section (section 5.2.1) 5.2.1) 37×16=595 mm Stop bars off at 2920í 2920í592=2328 mm, say 2000 mm from the top of the wall. The shear stress at the base of the wall is
Page 378 The design shear stress is
The shear stress is satisfactory. The deflection need not be checked. For control of cracking the bar spacing must not exceed 3 times the effective depth, i.e. 600 or 750 mm. The spacing at the bars in the wall is 140 mm. This is less than the 160 mm clear spacing given in Table 3.30 of the code for crack control. For distribution steel provide the minimum area of 0.13% from Table 3.27 of the code: A=0.13×1000×250/100=325 mm2/m Provide 10 mm diameter bars at 240 mm centres horizontally on the inner face. For crack control on the outer face provide 10 mm diameter bars at 240 mm centres each way. (ii) Inner (ii) Inner footing Referring to Fig. 12.4 the shear and moment at the face of the wall are as follows:
2
Provide 12 mm diameter bars at 120 mm centres to give 942 mm /m.
This is satisfactory. For the distribution steel, provide 10 mm bars at 240 mm centres. (iii) Outer Footing Referring to Fig. 12.4 the shear and moment at the face of the wall are as follows: shear=1.4(72.41×0.8+11.36×0.8/2í17.1×0.8/2.85) shear=1.4(72.41×0.8+11.36×0.8/2í =1.4(57.93+4.54í =1.4(57.93+4.54í4.8) =80.74 kN moment=1.4[(57.93í moment=1.4[(57.93í4.8)0.4+4.54×2×0.8/3] =33.13 kN m
Page 379 Note that the sum of the moments at the bottom of the wall and at the face of the wall for the inner and outer footing is approximately zero. Reinforcement from the wall will be anchored in the outer footing and will provide the moment steel here. The anchorage length required is 592 mm and this will be provided by the bend and a straight length of bar along the outer footing. The radius of the bend is determined to limit the bearing stress to a safe value. The permissible bearing stress inside the bend is
Fig. 12.5
Page 380 where a b is the bar spacing, 140 mm. The internal radius of the bend is
Make the radius of the bend 150 mm:
This is satisfactory. See the wall design above. The distribution steel is 10 mm diameter bars at 240 mm centres. (iv) Nib (iv) Nib Referring to Fig. 12.4 the shear and moment in the nib are as follows: shear=1.4(13.2×0.6+31.68×0.6/2) =24.39 kN moment=1.4(7.9×0.3+9.5×0.4) =8.65 kN m 2
The minimum reinforcement is 0.13% or 325 mm /m. For crack control the maximum spacing is to be limited to 160 mm as specified in Table 3.30 of the code. Provide 10 mm diameter bars at 140 mm centres to lap onto the main wall steel. The distribution steel is 10 mm diameter bars at 240 mm centres. (v) Sketch of the wall reinforcement A sketch of the wall with the reinforcement designed above is shown in Fig. 12.5. 12.5.
12.3 COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALLS
12.3.1 Stability and design procedure A counterfort retaining wall is shown in Fig. 12.6. 12.6. The spacing is usually made equal to the height of the wall. The following comments are made regarding the design. (a) Stability
Consider as one unit a centre-to-centre length of panels taking into account the weight of the counterfort. The earth pressure under this unit and the resistance to overturning and sliding must be satisfactory. The calculations are made in a similar way to those for a cantilever wall. (b) Wall slab
The slab is much thinner than that required for a cantilever wall. It is built in on three edges, free at the top, and is subjected to a triangular load due to the active earth pressure. The lower part of the wall cantilevers vertically from the base and the upper part spans horizontally between the counterforts. A load distribution commonly adopted between vertically
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Fig. 12.6 (a) Section; (b) back of wall.
and horizontally spanning elements is shown in Fig. 12.6. 12.6. The finite element method could be used to analyse the wall to determine the moments for design. The yield line method is used in the example that follows. The yield line pattern for the wall is shown in Fig. 12.7(a). 12.7(a). Reinforcement for the sagging moments on the outside of the wall covers the whole wall. Reinforcement for the hogging moments extends in a band around the three side supports as shown in the figure. (c) Base
The inner footing is a slab built in on three sides and free on the fourth. The loading is trapezoidal in distribution across the base due to the net effect of the weight of earth down and earth pressure under the base acting upwards. The base slab can be analysed by the yield line method. The yield line pattern is shown in Fig. 12.7(b). 12.7(b). The outer footing, if provided, is designed as a cantilever. (d) Counterforts
Counterforts support the wall and base slab and are designed as vertical cantilevers of varying T-beam section. It is usual to assume the distribution of load between counterforts and base shown in Fig. 12.6. 12.6. A design is made for the base section and one or more sections in the height of the counterfort. Links must be provided between the wall slab and inner base and the counterfort to transfer the loading. Reinforcement for the counterfort is shown in Fig. 12.7(c). 12.7(c).
2 8 3 e g a P
. t r o f r e t n u o c f o t n e m e c r o f n i e r ) c ( ; b a l s e s a b n i n r e t t a p e n i l d l e i y ) b ( ; l l a w n i t n e m e c r o f n i e r d n a n r e t t a p e n i l d l e i Y ) a ( 7 . 2 1 . g i F
Page 383 Example 12.2 Counterfort retaining wall
(a) Specification A counterfort retaining wall has a height from the top to the underside of the base of 5 m and a spacing of counterfoils of 5 m. The backfill is level with the top of the wall. The earth in the backfill ba ckfill is granular with the following properties: Density Angle of internal friction Coefficient of friction between the soil and concrete
15.7 kN/m 3 30° 0.5 2
The safe bearing pressure of the soil under the base is 150 kN/m . The construction materials are grade 35 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement. Set out a trial section for the wall and base and check stability. Design the wall slab. (b) Trial section The proposed section for the counterfort retaining wall is shown in Fig. 12.8. 12.8. The wall slab is made 180 mm thick and the counterfort and base slab is 250 mm thick. (c) Stability Consider a 5 m length of wall centre to centre of counterforts. The horizontal earth pressure at depth y is 2 15.7 y(1í (1í0.5)/(1+0.5)=5.23 y kN/m The stability calculations are given in Table 12.2. 12.2. The loads are shown in Fig. 12.8. 12.8.
Fig. 12.8
4 8 3 e g a P
) ) m m N N k k ( ( B . C 9 . t 3 8 t . 3 . 8 u 6 u 0 0 1 . 0 . 0 9 o o 4 b 7 2 2 0 b 1 1 7 í 1 a 5 í a í t t n n e e m m o o M M
) ) m ( m ( B C m m 6 6 9 4 7 o o 6 4 r r . 6 . . . 0 6 0 f f 1 . 0 0 1 0 e e í í + + c c n n a a t t s s i i D D
2 . 6 . 0 . 3 4 9 0 . 2 5 . 1 . 0 0 0 7 1 0 0 1 1 4 1 3 4 = = = = = 1
) 5 . ) N k 7 2 N ( k 3 ( d = a d o 5 l × a 7 o . 5 l l 4 5 a × l t 2 1 2 n . a × × c o i 6 5 7 . 5 z 2 t 2 i r . 5 2 . r × e 4 0 1 0 o 5 V . × × × 2 4 2 2 5 H 0 × 2
s n o i t a l u c l a c y t i l i b a t S 2 . 2 1 e l b a T
d a o L
5 × 3 . 3 . 7 . 7 3 4 . 5 . 3 × × × 4 3 5 5 2 × × 7 7 3 8 5 . . . 1 3 . 2 . 4 4 × × 0 0 × × × 5 . 5 . 5 . 5 5 0 4 0
e r u s s e r p e v i t c A
t r o f r e t l n h e l t s u r a a o a W B C E
l a t o T
Page 385
(i) Maximum soil pressure The properties of the base are as follows: area A=3.5×5=17.5 m 2 modulus Z =5×3.5 =5×3.52/6=10.21 m3
The maximum soil pressure is
The pressure under the base is shown in Fig. 12.8. 12.8. The maximum soil pressure is satisfactory. (ii) Stability against overturning The stabilizing moment about the toe A of the wall for a partial safety factor factor f =1.0 is (1400×1.75)+72=2522 kN m The overturning moment for a partial safety factor factor f =1.4 is 1.4×546.9=765.7 kN m The stability of the wall is adequate. (iii) Resistance (iii) Resistance to sliding The friction force resisting sliding is 0.5×1400=700 kN For the wall to be safe against sliding 700>1.4×327.5=458.5 kN The resistance to sliding is satisfactory. (iv) Overall comment The wall section is satisfactory. The maximum soil pressure under the base controls the design. (d) Wall design The yield line solution is given for a square wall with a triangular load with the yield line pattern shown in Fig. 12.9(a). 12.9(a). One parameter z , locating F, controls the pattern. Expressions for values and locations of the centroids of loads on triangular plates are shown in Fig. 12.10(a). 12.10(a). The expressions for the loads and deflections of the centroids of the loads for the various parts of the wall slab are shown in Figs 12.10(b) 12.10(b),, 12.10(c) and 12.10(d) respectively. Formulae for the work done by the loads found by multiplying each load by its appropriate deflection from Fig. 12.10 are given in Table 12.3(a). 12.3(a). The work done by the load is given by the expression
The slab is to be reinforced equally in both directions and the reinforcements for sagging and hogging moments will be made equal. The ultimate resistance moment in all yield lines is taken as m kN m/m. The work done in the yield lines is given by the expression
Page 386
Fig. 12.9 (a) Yield line pattern; (b) pressure.
2ma +8 +8mz and formulae are given in Table 12.3(b). 12.3(b). Equate the work expressions to give Put dM /d /d z =0 =0 and reduce to give The maximum pressure w on the wall slab is 2
1.4×26.2=36.7 kN/m
and the dimension a=5 m. The equation becomes
z 3í8.12 z 2í25 z +93.75=0 +93.75=0 Solve to give z =2.43 =2.43 m. Then m=13.54 kN m/m. Increase the moment by 10% to allow for the formation of corner levers. The design moment is
m=14.89 kN m/m Use 10 mm diameter bars and 40 mm cover. =180í40í 40í10í 10í5=125 mm d =180í
Page 387
Fig. 12.10 (a) Plates subjected to triangular loads; (b) plate DFC; (c) plate GFD; (d) plate AEFG.
Page 388 Table 12.3(a) Work done by loads Area Load DFC
Deflection
Work =load ×deflection
GFD
FHC
AEFG EBHF
Table 12.3(b) Work done in yield lines Line Length L Rotation in yield line
No. off
DC AD BC
a a
EF
aí z
1
DF
z
2
EC
(on (on DC)
Referring to Fig. 4.14, 4.14, z /d =0.95 =0.95 and
1 2
Work =mL ×no. ma 4mz
2
ma
2ma +8 +8mz
Page 389 2
Provide 10 mm diameter bars at 240 mm centres to give a steel area of 327 mm /m. The same steel is provided in each direction on the outside and inside of the wall. The steel on the outside of the wall covers the whole area. On the inside of the wall the steel can be cut off at 0.3 times the span from the bottom and from each counterfort support in accordance with the simplified rules for curtailment of bars in slabs. Alternatively, the points of cut-off of the bars on the inside of the wall may be determined by finding the size of a simply supported slab that has the same ultimate moment of resistance m=13.54 kN m/m as the whole wall. This slab has the same yield line pattern as the wall slab. The clear spacing of the bars does not exceed 3d and the slab depth is not greater than 200 mm and so the slab is satisfactory with respect to cracking.
