1
Contents: PAGE
2 Preface Preface 3 1 . The Highway landscape
4 The Highway Experience 6 The Elements of Attention 8 The Sense Sense of Motion 10 Road Alignment
Motion of the Field 11 The Motion 12 The Sense of Space
13 The Extension of Self
Goal Approach " Orientation 16
11 Meaning 11 Rhythm and Continuity 18 Sequential
39 4. Methods of Design Design
Form
39 The Central Central Artery. Artery. Boston on
v es of Design 18 The Objectives
40 The Boston Image Image 19 2. Record Recording ing
Highway Highway
42 Design Procedure
Sequenc Sequences es
45 The Size and Eccentric Eccentricity ity of the Ring
21 An Abstract Abstract Notation Notation of Motion and Space
45 Orientatio Orientation n
24 The Notation of Orientation
of the Road System
46 The Fixing of the Main Intersecti Intersections o ns 27 3. Analysi Analysis
of an Existing
46 Orientation Orientation to the City
Highway Highway
47 Space-Moti Space-Motion on
and View View Diagrams Diagrams
29 The Approach to Central Central Boston via the Mystic River River Bridge
49 The Riverway
30 Sequence Diagrams
49 The Centerway
32 A Trip on the Northeast Northeast
Expreasw Expreaswav av
49 The Crossing
35 The Trip in Review ew
51 Interpretative
Drawings
51 Road Environment 53 Some Comparisons risons with the Official Official Route 54 Road Detail 57 The Night Scene 56 A Running n g Commenta Commentary ry
62
on a Clockwise o ckwise Trip
5. In Conclusion
64 Bibliography
and Photographic
Credits
Published lor the JOint Center for Urban Slud,es es of the Massachusetts ts
tnsmute of Technology
and Harvard v ard University Massechusens Cambnd!jo, ThiS book's
by the MIT
Press,
Ins\l!me of Technology,
Massacbuseua one of a seuee published under
Ille auspices c es of the Jomt Center fat Urban Studies. a ccopereuve Massachusetts
venture of the
rnsutute u te 01 Technology
Harvard Umverslty
and
The JOInt Center was
founded In 1959 to organl~e and encourage research on urban lind regional Partlc,pa l c,pantS have Included helds of anthfOpology.
problems e ms
scholars a rs from the
architecture, u re,
city planning, economics.
bus.ness.
eoucauco.
engineer
lng, hiStory, law, philOSOphy, political
SCience,
and SOCIology
The nndmgs and coocrue.one
or th>s book are.
as wllh all JOIn! Center oobucaucos. the responSlb>llty ollhe
The View View from from the Road Road .~
B BV V DONALD NALD
AP PLEVARD LEVARD,
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K KE EV VIN
LV LVN NCH CH
sofery
auuicrs
AND
JO JOH HN N
R. MVER
3
2
Preface
1. The Highway Highway Landscape Landscape
This monograph deals with the esthetics esthetics of highways the way they look to the driver v er and his passengers. and what this implies for their
Ugly ~oadsare often taken to be one price of CIVIlization, like sewers or police. The boring, chaotic, c , disoriented roadscape seems
design. We emphasize the potential beauty of
to be the natural habitat of that useful but
these great great engineering engineering achievements. as contrasted with their current ugliness. Since
awkward monster, the American c an automobile. From this point of view, we spend too much
the realization z ation of this visual s ual potential lies in
of our lives in the car. car. It would be better better to arrange cities so that everyone could walk to work, or to let automatic devices take the
the hands of the men who design them, this monograph is addressed to the highway engineer. We hope that he will find our ideas of use. Design involves v es a balanced balanced judgment judgment
about
many factors, factors, of which visual requirements requirements are only one set. We are convinced, convinced, however, that these requirements are among among the most important that a road must satisfy, satisfy, and that they should have substantia substantial
weight in final
design judgments. We became interested
wheel. so that we could pull the shades and watch TV. The authors take a different f erent position: o n: roadwatching n g is a delight. and the highway highway isor at least least might be-a work of art. The view from the road can be a dramatic dramatic play of space and motion, of light and texture. u re. all on a new new scale. These long sequences could make our vast metropolita metropolitan areas comprehensible: the driver would see how the city is organized,
in the h e esthetics i cs of
highways out of a concern concern with the visual visual formlessnes e ssness of our cities and an intuition i on that the new expressway expressway might be one of our best means means of re-establi re-establishing s hing coherence and order on the new metropolitan metropolitan
scale. We
were also attracted to the highway highway because it is a good example of a design design issue typical typical of the city. the problem of designing g ning visual sequences for the observer in motion. o n. But if in the end the study study contributes b utes
something
toward making the highway highway experience e nce a more enjoyable enjoyable one, we will be well satisfied.
what it symbolizes, symbolizes, how people use it. how it relates e s to him. To our way of thinking, thinking, the highway is the great neglected neglected opportunity u nity in city design. The first highway designers were railway men, who learned their trade when grades were flat and alignments alignments straight. g ht. when the surrounding landscape was an obstacle a cle to
Those who are alarmed alarmed by the ugliness ugliness of our roadways emphasize z e the repression o n of vice.
questions o ns far too urgent urgent to allow thought for
rather than the encouragement of virtue. u e. Roads should melt into the landscape, billboards should be controlled, controlled, the scars of construction should be disguised by planting. n g.
looks. Only the engine driver had to watch watch the view, and he was paid for his trouble. trouble. This
There is little t le discussion of turning n g the highway experience experience to any positive positive account.
overcome, and cost. power, and safety were
attitude is still widespread, widespread, even among highThis monograph monograph results t s from a study study begun under a grant grant from the Rockefeller l er Founda-
way users, who bear with resignation o n the vacant hours of commutation. a tion.
tion and continued n ued in the Joint Center for
than a necessary necessary evil. There are other kinds of journeys which are enjoyable in themselves: walking, n g, horseback-riding, boating, rides in
Urban Studies of M LT. and Harvard. Harvard. We are particular c ularly grateful u l to the latter latter for their r support of an expensiv expensive process of publicapublica-
amusement parks or on open open bus tops. There are even a few roads in this country on which
tion. Some of the basic ideas which underlie ie it are expressed in a previous o us study.' Many of the ideas, of course, are part of the general heritage a ge of the design g n professions,
driving n g a car is a delight. Most often they pass through fine natural natural landscapes, but there are some pleasant episodes on high1 ways in our big cities e s New York, Chicago,
applied to
a new subject.
Philadelphia, and San Francisco.
Most of our particular c ular conclusions are the result of a series series of studies of existing n g high-
There is a tradition tradition of the scenic road in this
ways and of people's people's reactions o ns to them. They
country, and a few have been built. The original n al parkways, so quickly engulfed e d by general traffic, were primarily intended for pleasure-driving, like the old pedestrian a n or
have been further modified by our attempt to develop appropriate methods of design. g n. Chapter 1 contains a summary of our findings n gs
IE. 17~
and conjectur e ctures, while Chapter 2 proposes a new graphic language for describing n g visual sequences on the highway. highway. Chapters 3 and 4 use these concepts and this language language to analyze the impact of an existing existing road, and
C,7
to illustrat u strate
how a new road might might be
designed. Richard Peterson organized z ed and conducted ed the field work for the sketch sketch interviews on the Northeast Expressway. The remainder of the work was done by the joint authors. Cambridge, d ge, 1963 Donald Appleyard Kevin Lynch John R. Myer 'Kevin Lynch. The Image of rhe City. The Technology Press and Harvard University Press. Cambridge. 1960.
When so many people spend so much of their time on the road, when they persist in driving driving for pleasure, pleasure, it may be that driving is more
carriage promenade. The Golden Gate 1
In an affluent f luent society, we may well choose to build roads in which which motion, space, and view are organized organized primarily for enjoyment. enjoyment. But even on highways whose primary function is the carriage carriage of goods and people, visual form is offundamental importance a nce and can be shaped without t hout interfering e ring with traffic flow. It is the landscape landscape seen from these workaday highways that we will deal with here. Highways have special visual qualities qualities if we consider them as art. We will discuss them from the standpoint standpoint of the driver driver and his passengers, ignoring the issue of how the highway looks from the outside. We will also restrict ourselves v es to the limited-access limited-access highway in the city, although although much of our material al will be applicable applicable to other roads. We make this restrictio restriction because urban highways highways seem to pose the greatest problems and to promise promise
Copyright © 1964 by the Massachusetts
lnsntute
of Technology
Th"d p"nung. October
1971
ISBN 0 262 01015
1 (hardcover)
the richest visual returns.
LIbrary of Congress Catalog o g Card Number 63-9038 Primed in the uouec
For explanation
States of Amence
01these drawings
see page
58
Rotcij
3
2
Preface
1. The Highway Highway Landscape Landscape
This monograph deals with the esthetics esthetics of highways the way they look to the driver v er and his passengers. and what this implies for their
Ugly ~oadsare often taken to be one price of CIVIlization, like sewers or police. The boring, chaotic, c , disoriented roadscape seems
design. We emphasize the potential beauty of
to be the natural habitat of that useful but
these great great engineering engineering achievements. as contrasted with their current ugliness. Since
awkward monster, the American c an automobile. From this point of view, we spend too much
the realization z ation of this visual s ual potential lies in
of our lives in the car. car. It would be better better to arrange cities so that everyone could walk to work, or to let automatic devices take the
the hands of the men who design them, this monograph is addressed to the highway engineer. We hope that he will find our ideas of use. Design involves v es a balanced balanced judgment judgment
about
many factors, factors, of which visual requirements requirements are only one set. We are convinced, convinced, however, that these requirements are among among the most important that a road must satisfy, satisfy, and that they should have substantia substantial
weight in final
design judgments. We became interested
wheel. so that we could pull the shades and watch TV. The authors take a different f erent position: o n: roadwatching n g is a delight. and the highway highway isor at least least might be-a work of art. The view from the road can be a dramatic dramatic play of space and motion, of light and texture. u re. all on a new new scale. These long sequences could make our vast metropolita metropolitan areas comprehensible: the driver would see how the city is organized,
in the h e esthetics i cs of
highways out of a concern concern with the visual visual formlessnes e ssness of our cities and an intuition i on that the new expressway expressway might be one of our best means means of re-establi re-establishing s hing coherence and order on the new metropolitan metropolitan
scale. We
were also attracted to the highway highway because it is a good example of a design design issue typical typical of the city. the problem of designing g ning visual sequences for the observer in motion. o n. But if in the end the study study contributes b utes
something
toward making the highway highway experience e nce a more enjoyable enjoyable one, we will be well satisfied.
what it symbolizes, symbolizes, how people use it. how it relates e s to him. To our way of thinking, thinking, the highway is the great neglected neglected opportunity u nity in city design. The first highway designers were railway men, who learned their trade when grades were flat and alignments alignments straight. g ht. when the surrounding landscape was an obstacle a cle to
Those who are alarmed alarmed by the ugliness ugliness of our roadways emphasize z e the repression o n of vice.
questions o ns far too urgent urgent to allow thought for
rather than the encouragement of virtue. u e. Roads should melt into the landscape, billboards should be controlled, controlled, the scars of construction should be disguised by planting. n g.
looks. Only the engine driver had to watch watch the view, and he was paid for his trouble. trouble. This
There is little t le discussion of turning n g the highway experience experience to any positive positive account.
overcome, and cost. power, and safety were
attitude is still widespread, widespread, even among highThis monograph monograph results t s from a study study begun under a grant grant from the Rockefeller l er Founda-
way users, who bear with resignation o n the vacant hours of commutation. a tion.
tion and continued n ued in the Joint Center for
than a necessary necessary evil. There are other kinds of journeys which are enjoyable in themselves: walking, n g, horseback-riding, boating, rides in
Urban Studies of M LT. and Harvard. Harvard. We are particular c ularly grateful u l to the latter latter for their r support of an expensiv expensive process of publicapublica-
amusement parks or on open open bus tops. There are even a few roads in this country on which
tion. Some of the basic ideas which underlie ie it are expressed in a previous o us study.' Many of the ideas, of course, are part of the general heritage a ge of the design g n professions,
driving n g a car is a delight. Most often they pass through fine natural natural landscapes, but there are some pleasant episodes on high1 ways in our big cities e s New York, Chicago,
applied to
a new subject.
Philadelphia, and San Francisco.
Most of our particular c ular conclusions are the result of a series series of studies of existing n g high-
There is a tradition tradition of the scenic road in this
ways and of people's people's reactions o ns to them. They
country, and a few have been built. The original n al parkways, so quickly engulfed e d by general traffic, were primarily intended for pleasure-driving, like the old pedestrian a n or
have been further modified by our attempt to develop appropriate methods of design. g n. Chapter 1 contains a summary of our findings n gs
IE. 17~
and conjectur e ctures, while Chapter 2 proposes a new graphic language for describing n g visual sequences on the highway. highway. Chapters 3 and 4 use these concepts and this language language to analyze the impact of an existing existing road, and
C,7
to illustrat u strate
how a new road might might be
designed. Richard Peterson organized z ed and conducted ed the field work for the sketch sketch interviews on the Northeast Expressway. The remainder of the work was done by the joint authors. Cambridge, d ge, 1963 Donald Appleyard Kevin Lynch John R. Myer 'Kevin Lynch. The Image of rhe City. The Technology Press and Harvard University Press. Cambridge. 1960.
When so many people spend so much of their time on the road, when they persist in driving driving for pleasure, pleasure, it may be that driving is more
carriage promenade. The Golden Gate 1
In an affluent f luent society, we may well choose to build roads in which which motion, space, and view are organized organized primarily for enjoyment. enjoyment. But even on highways whose primary function is the carriage carriage of goods and people, visual form is offundamental importance a nce and can be shaped without t hout interfering e ring with traffic flow. It is the landscape landscape seen from these workaday highways that we will deal with here. Highways have special visual qualities qualities if we consider them as art. We will discuss them from the standpoint standpoint of the driver driver and his passengers, ignoring the issue of how the highway looks from the outside. We will also restrict ourselves v es to the limited-access limited-access highway in the city, although although much of our material al will be applicable applicable to other roads. We make this restrictio restriction because urban highways highways seem to pose the greatest problems and to promise promise
Copyright © 1964 by the Massachusetts
lnsntute
of Technology
Th"d p"nung. October
1971
ISBN 0 262 01015
1 (hardcover)
the richest visual returns.
LIbrary of Congress Catalog o g Card Number 63-9038 Primed in the uouec
For explanation
States of Amence
01these drawings
see page
58
Rotcij
, 5
The Highwav Highwav Experience Experience If the highway is a work work of art. what are the
The highway experience has some further special characteristics. It is usually reversible: people may traverse the road ineither direction, It is as if a movie or a recording had to be enjoyed when played backward as well as forward This limits possible effects, or demands some technique of masking the "backward" "backward" form while the "forwar "forward" d" form is being sensed.
raw materials a ls of that art, and what are its
..
principles? The sensation of driving a car is primarily one of motion and space, felt in a continuous sequence. Vision, rather than sound or smell. is the principal sense. Touch is asecondary asecondary contributor contributor to the experience, via the response of the car to hands and feet. The sense of spatial sequence 2 is like that of large-scale architecture; the 3 continuity and insistent temporal flow are 4 akin to music and the cinema. The kinesthetic sensations are like those of the dance or the 5 amusement park. although rarely so violent. These are all arts and situations from which the highway designer may begin to learn his technique.
nt e second place, ahighway ahighway designer cannot be sure that people will watch his drama from beginning to end,They will enter and leave the highway at intermediate points, even if these points are as limited in number asthey are on asuperhighway, The sequence must therefore be interruptible. The driving experience can now be described as being asequence played to the eyes of a captive, somewhat fearful, but partially inattentive audience, whose vision isfiltered and directed forward. It is a sequence which must be long, yet reversible and interruptible.
While the road makes a dynamic impression on the driver and his passengers. it also exists 6 asa static, c , bulky object in the landscape, landscape, a substantial piece of the urban scene for those who live along its borders. This presents a two-faced problem. much as if a theatrical 7 designer had 10beconcerned with the visual 8 form of his backstage apparatus. However important important.. it is aproblem that we will not consider here. Evenamong the users of the road. there are several different kinds of audience. The tourist seesthe landscape with a fresh eye. heattaches relatively few personal meanings to it. but is urgently engaged in orienting himself within it, The commuter. or other habitual userof the road. is more likely to ignore larger landscape features. in favor of activities, new objects, or the moving traffic of the road. The driver must watch the scene constantly: hisvision is confined to a narrow forward angle and focuses on the events in the road itself. His passenger is freer to look or not to look, hasa wider angle of vision, and is not necessarily concerned with immediate traffic. Both driver and passenger are likely to be an inattentive audience, whether through the compulsion 10watch only a small part of the scene. or conversely through the very freedom to let attention ion wander. They may be partially preoccupied with conversation, squabbling among the children, or private worries, Yet at the same time both are a captive audience who cannot avoid remarking. even if only subconsciously, the most dramatic events of ascene which is too mobile and 100 dangerous to be ignored, In both cases, vision isdirected forward, forward, afact which provides d es the designer with a means of directing attention Inboth cases. there isan undertone of risk, which may be fearful or stimulating. 9 The modern car interposes a filter between the driver and the world he is moving through Sounds, smells, sensations of touch and weather are all diluted in comparison with what the pedestrian experiences Vision is framed and limited, the driver is relatively inactive He has less opportunity to stop, explore, or choose his path than does the man on foot. Only the speed. scale, and grace of his movement can compensate for these limitations,
This sequence is made up of many elements. it is convenient to group them according to a presumed progression in the process of visual perception. The incoming light rays evoke immediate perceptions of intensity and color, of textures, motions, and outlines. These perceptions are organized into i dentifiable objects, which are then interpreted as moving in space, The observer locates these moving objects and spaces in atotal structure, orienting himself with regard to the world around him. In addition, he reads meanings into this world, When perceived over an extended period of time, these identifiable objects, motions, spaces, oriented structures, and meanings are organized at an even higher level ascomplex sequences.
I
Perception does not in fact operate in such neatly divisible successive steps. The processes are highly interrelated and may be occurring simultaneously, But this analysis singles out the fundamental actions, and arranges them by successive levels of organization. It makes aconvenient framework for discussing the highway experience, using the conclusions and speculations which arose from the studies described in Chapter 3. 7.8 Looking at a highway and lookIng n g out from it at the same POIntS Isee arrow in FIg, 6)
r
,,..
-
r
g
•
~
••••
=-
......
I A simple
o'gani>ed sequence
In the
,o--. ,o--.l.l .......:::e : ::e ~~... . -'--~ -'--~~~
approach to
a Japanese shrine IGoshojinja, i nja, Karnakura) Come upon oblIquely, y , lhe entrance gate slands alone. then reveals lhe path ahead and some distant steps
•
3 Spatial a l Sequence In ArchiteCTure. The Shah Zinde. Samarkand
as an loterrneorare goal Recurrefllstatues mark one's forward progress, and the steps develop mID a double flight. partly ,n shade. Midway through this double flIght, above and beyond a light screen. lhe final goal appears obliquely onCe more. A small rephca of
4
Spatial a l Sequence in Architecture,
80 Lin Ssu Temple, Peiping
I
e r
The Elements
of Attention Let us look first at the kinds of identifiable elements which capture the attentio n of a front-seat passenger.
It is clear that these
objects occupy a rather limite d part of the potentia l visual field. Along one route on
which reactions were tested by us,two-thirds of all objects sighted were straight ahead,
and only one-third were to either the right or left. Even then. almost all thin gs seen to the side of the road were obliquely forward rather than perpendicular or backward to the line of
travel. On another very open and straightforward
route, one-half of all sightin gs were
straig ht ahead. The view of the passenger, as well as that of the driver. is strongly focused.
'OJTipping and pointin g the road is a powerful way of directing his att ention. On New York's West Side Drive, for example, observers noted that the focus of attention
regula rly
switched from side to side as the road wove back and forth. Not only is vision directed forward.
but it is
also att racte d to the im mediate environs of the right- of-way-the near and apparently "moving"
objects. rather than the larger
number of dis tant. seemingly "stable " ones. Again. on one route, two-thirds of the impressions noted were caused by things in or adjacent to the road itself. The color and texture of the road surfa ce, the shape and rhythm of the objects at the should er (signs, guard rails. retaining walls) set the visual tone. In the forward view of the multi-lane highway, most of the visual field is filled by the pavement and the sky. The differentiatio n of lanes, shoulders, and medians by texture,
The quality of light will also affe ct what is seen, so that a view against the sun, empha-
color, and width will articulate and enliven this scene,
sizing silhouette. will be grasped quite differently from one with the sun at the side. where texture and detail become distin ct. Artific ial light is a resource for directing attentio n, for cha ngin g apparent spatial form. for producing
Even in periods of wide scannin g, attentio n regularly returns to the road itself. The only excepti ons to this rule occur in those brief periods where the observer passes some im-
visual sequences At night. the famili ar day' time landmarks and activities may be picked
portant barrie r and, being anxious to reorie nt 11'himself , surveys a new landscape. This is the moment for visual revela tions, sure of an audience attentiv e
when one is to large effects .
But all this is modif ied by the speed at which the vehicle is travelin g. As speed increases. attentio n is confined to a narrower forward
! J
16 out to give a reassurinq sense of continuity. A.S The lights of other vehicles indicate and en17 liven the road, On special occasions, a new world of light may be created, or displays of light may be made, The nocturnal panorama of Los Angeles from Mulholl and classic example.
Drive is a
angle, since coming events must be predic ted further ahead. As near objects rush past more rapidly, they are harder to perceive and atten-
If we consider these visual resources. we see that the road designer has many ways of di-
tion may shift to more distant and relati vely more stable elements, landmarks are seen in
rectin g and shaping the driver's impressions, even if he can do little to form the larger environment in whic h the road is inserted.
clusters rather than singly: larger spaces and bigger land forms take command. The scene shifts from detail to generalit y.' 11
"IAtt~ntion is concentrated at th e poin ts of decisio n. such as at the beginning of an offramp. The details of the object which divides the ramp from the main roadway will loom very large in the driver's total impression. So will dista nt landmarks, partic ularly if they are sharply silhouetted Simila r points of concentrated attentio n occur when the space is sharply constricted. No one fails to remark
12
:~?= 13
structures which approach the road closely enough to make an apparent sidewall. canyon. or tunnel. nor does he miss any overhead 13 structure. such as a bridge. however, momen14 tary its appearance Can any driver be ignorant of his passage under the George Washington Bridge. or his entrance into the Holland Tunnel? These are all Opportunitie s for visual emphasis that will claim attention despite a normal state of distractio n. The silh ouette of an overpass, the texture of a retaining wall. 15 the shape of a bridge column, guard rail or lamp standard are important events. • An inte restin g example of these effects is the stunt movie, Go Slow Onthe Brighton Line. The film has been speeded up to give an apparent velocit y of some 600 miles per hour.
•
8 9
The Sense of Motion Beyond the concentration fundamental
sensation
on near detail. the
of th e road. conti nu-
ously referred to, is the visual sense of motion and space. This includes the sense of motion of self. the apparent
motion
of surrounding
objects. and the shape of the space being
The sense of varied motion
moved through. These facto rs
joyable if continuous
are all inter-
twined. since the visual judgment of motio n is based on the apparent motion of exterior
.-::::r ______
~
objects and is interpreted
'~
~
in relation
_ =: ~ __
L
~
,--'"
'~~~~ ~ ~
:.-------
~
~ r / e-,
?
spatial
/
~
of self is perhaps the
f ee li ng , Tr ue ki ne sth et ic
are slight in a steadily
~
"
---'"
----
----.
~
moving
s en sa ti on s car on a mod-
of one route. An amusement
ride capit aliz es on this by creati ng an entire
found on hig hways
for instance,
Simil ar 23A
the rhyth-
mical humpin g of the New Jersey Turnpike, 26 or the repetitiv e
River
Bridge.
Motio ns of this kind are most satisfacto ry
levels of speed, or even gentle climbs or
expla ined-explained
descents Bodily sensations become strong only at points of abrupt changes in speed or in
ually . Puzzling variatio ns
riders de-
p$nd on vision to give them a sense of the motio n they are under oin .They mterpret the apparent motio n of surroun
mg 0 rects.
which they know to be really fixed, to be theresult of their own progression. m'ay inclu de the
These clues
assa e of roadside det;rr:--
8 the' apparent rotati on of near obje cts aroun far obje cts, the seeming outward radiation of 19 detail and textu res from the point dead
,,.
sweeping turns of the ap-
proach to Boston over the Mystic
shuts his eyes ti is very diff icult for him to distinguish steadily held turning movements,
, angle of clim b or fall ~uto mobile
19
rable moments
sequence of such motion sensations.
form.
ern hiqnwav The driver receives some cues through his contr ols, but if the passenger
'\
L
as being motion
en-
25 sequences, though of a milder sort. may be The sense of motion p ri ma ry
___ 18
10 the enclosing
is inherently
and not too violent. A
strong dipping turn was one of the memo-
irrita nts.
not logic ally
if
but vis-
in the line are minor
If the road forms a hump, it should
seem to be rising over something: it should flow down into something
if it sinks, or be
27 forced down by an object overhead. If the A,H,C road turns, it should pivot about something 28 be deflected by some other object:
or
if it di-
verges, it should be split by something,
These
objects clarify the motio n, make it expli cit and seemingly
easie r to perform.
may be relatively insig nifi cant crucial in the driver's view
Although
they
in size, they are
20 ahead, and the illusio n of growth as obje cts approach. Changes of direction are gauged from more complex relations. Occasionally. where the motion of the car is rather simple and regular, there may be a sudden reversal of sensation, and the landscape will seem to be rolli ng past under the wheels of a stationary vehicle.
Where surroundin g or featu reless,
"c
objects are far off , or few,
or movin g with the vehicle,
then the sensati on is one of floatin g, of no forward
movement.
This is the experience
one has in an airplane, and the effect is felt on very elevated highways or those of simple alignment which have bare, open shoulders. Such a sensation may be a relief as an interlude, or as an opportunity
to see thin gs of
special interest. But our superhighways induce sleep, frustration,
simply because of this long-continued :::-terpar..J his
can
or excessive speed, visua I
apparent inability ~
21 Objects might therefore be placed along the road simply to reassure the driver about his real motio n. or even to accentuate his real motio n, if it is desirable that he slow down. Perhaps most frustr ating local aimless movement
of all is a sense of (as in humping
up
and down), when it is couple d with this lack of apparent forward landscape.
progressio n
in th e larger
onversetv. where the near environment 2
has
any highly articulated objects, the sensatio n ay be one of great velocity,
ae
,
so that the ap-
arent speed at 30 miles per hour on a narrow forest road may be much greater than at 60 miles per hour on a wide open freeway. Things passing overhead are especia lly remarkable, but th e detail close at hand-at roadway edge or on the pavement-is effective'
the
26
also
the textu red walls of a cut, the
rhythm of lights , pickets or telephone poles, 24 or the passage of pavement underneath .
joints or patterns
All of these, according
to their
frequency and closeness, reinforce the sense of speed. Apparent
speed also seems to be
23 A
heightened
23 B
turn, while tempo slackens going upward.
on the downgrade or on a sharp
Thus a curving dip occurring where speedmarking detail becomes close and frequent will impart a doubled sense of velocity, and vice versa.
•
'0
The Moti on
Road Alignment
The road alignment
generates
the driver. Since it predicts
the motion
future
Whil e
of
movement,
landscape
29 the shape of that line is alw ays of compelling
In previous
interest,
highway
studie s.
perspective
view of the alignment
considered
paramount.
of the Field
the apparent
motion,
this
There is an optimum
moti on
of objects
is used as a clue to interpret
it is also a delight
has been
A,B pass overhead,
along with landscap-
dramati c 42 Building
slip sidewise,
"growth "
or rotate.
example
curvin g
and varied but with out
line.
Bridge.
visual breaks
seen sidewise
The
or interruptio ns. Smooth contin uity is most Long easy curves are recommended.
its own apparent
desired.
around
changes
rotati on
curves of gradually
changin g
radius. Ex-
nous. Sim ilarly,
long vertical
without
,
Horizontal
and vertic al
grades
coincid e
where possible.
be of
between
a curving
tangents
broken-back
on summits,
36 highway:
of nearly the
may move against be caught
and revealed,
a single landmark-and
has
just his Viewing
distance
his sequences
the highway
specti ve.
Parti cularly from
of a distant
rather open naturalla ndscape.
in per-
an ocean
it gives the as
a specifi c
Contin uity
of
may also be served
A kink, a sudden slash may some-
times be part of the artis tic
intent.
ping turn in Boston's
Northeast
3, was undoubtedly
in Chapte r
contin uity
Expressway,
Therefore
stable,
ferred
either by of the road is
viewed in the fie ld, or by making simple threemodels of the centerline,
can be viewed
with
lights
and advertis ements,
near objects
Some-
to above, Occasionally,
,,
which
by moving the eye or a peri-
scope along the model (see Chapter 2}, 'See: F. W. Cron, "The Art of Fitting the Highway to the Landscape." in The Highwav and the Landscape. W. B. Snow. editor; C. Tunnard and B. Pushkarev, ManMade America. part 3' "The Paved Ribbon."
Most
rushing,
(and potentia lly
is very re-
with out
and whic h
be possible
view down
to be "qrowinq"
down
to present
at an
a view which
is meant
and which in some
the city or some importa nt
part of it. Such "classical"
views of a cit y San Francisco
along the Charles, Bay, Manhattan
are important
from across the
experie nces,
so im-
portant
that they may be remembered
visuall y
static and long-continued
as
even if in
rea li ty they are seen only briefly and in motion. Such views glimpsed
may be valuable
somewhat
road axis, or through momentarily
/~
if the road
{Bosto n Hudson}
,
the
at this poin t, it may
to be looked at carefully .
across the
-
the driv er can fix his
rate. Particularly
should be sloping
way epitomizes
This effect.
losing touch with the road,
is too distant
appreciable
a dy-
or growing. unsett ling)
static of all is th e distant
axis of the road, on whic h
re-
when the road
then the visual field becomes
35 attenti on
a are
sensati on
turn or the view
namic one' rotating, is a powerfu l
I
moving against
If these close objects
one has the "flo ati ng"
stricted,
on tra ns-
which the landscape
for a
the head- and
of other cars and the blinking
makes a sweeping
in advance,
parent plates through
of nearby cars
visual impression
driver to whom the road is highly night he will follow
removed,
to
by sketches
by outline drawings
to
concern. The
and idiosyncrasies
larger background,
feature
perspective
drawings,
of the ac-
he is forced
The total visual field may seem to be generally
of the road line
it is useful
of all is th e motion
and which even his passengers
times this mobile world will lapse into chaos.
study this appearance
dimensional
can excite as
traff ic, to which
of th e road signals
road, and it is
space is an important
impressive
tail-lights
felt
of li ne wil l be the
tone of a pleasant
on photographs,
inte rsecti on
be att entiv e,
famillar.At
event,
also clear that the appearance in the fo rward
in the
roads, a je tthe way in which
companying
preoccupied
kink by the road's de-
signers. Yet it is a powerful
of the landscape,
that
or pass by his own. The "spa-
of a modern
may be the prin cip al
The dip-
described
Nevertheless,
The
of a tug or
liner. He wil l be inte reste d
maneuvers
in alig nment,
prevail ing
are in real mo-
progress
will watc h with subconscious
by
off, a long straight
to be an awkward
ma-
fascin ation,
even if
to the right or left of the long slots which
in an oblique
forward
open
direction.
may be achieved.
Ex-
presence
of
seen over th e Jersey
dome of Florence's
on the road from Poggibonsi.
catheA
a sense of quiet contem-
plation and also the expectatio n to come.
well as terrif y,
is the essence of a road, but drama
32 and even conti nuity sharp changes
proaches
or slid e past
whic h
or a rail road-and
ghetti"
Most of gainin g
effect. not basic principle s,
sheering
a la nd-
axial view, the dramatic or of foreground-back-
of Manhattan
the sky, conferring
train, watch the ascent of an air-
they intersect
and movement
and eventf ul.
dral. which rises over the hills as one ap-
style.
These are techniques movement
the
are dramatic
trace of other moti ons-oth er stream,
It is, in fact. a rath er well-
artistic
to foll ow,
his own moti on with
plane, or see the state ly
if the road swings
same sense of vita l rhythm developed
to the
poin t to point of a fine and
31 a skier's track.
adAs in
will keep
rising road may be used to direct attentio n
hand.
in the landscape
driv er will compare
is both easy to drive appeara nce
accordingly, distances
of this are the startling
flats, or the floating
land-
It may launch itself toward
terial to the designer's
for if it is
out and well matched
and has a harmonious 30 smooth ly
amples
to give a
as a sequence
an important
the towers
frame,
Two import ant
into conjunctio n,
tion exert a corresponding
landscape,
against
ground discontinuity ,
or rota te first one
it. All of th ese impressions
Thin gs
carrie d
legible
37 effect of truncation,
a background
in a moving
mark, or may feint, jog. swerve,
the road. *
skillfu lly
intricate are seen to-
alignment,
view as kinks in
In general this is a sound approach.
tota l skyline, a dis-
the cinema, contrasting
sense of being "on line." The road
landscape,
in
road, and so on. these will all ap-
pear in the perspecti ve
can decide what he
tinct character,
and is th us itself seen as moving through
bridges
the designer
wants to emphasize-a
River
become
Landmarks
marks may come
curves. reverse
flat or straig ht
motions
groups of objects a road of complex
ahead is in terpreted
short curves curves
camera
a large object
as one swings
gether from
powerful
In more detail.
avoids small dips or humps,
between
to long shot depend-
its entrance,
34 way and then another
should
the designer
same direction,
dances when
be masked
and their vertic es
points of inflecti on
These apparent
or a fo reground,
between.
curves should
the same order of length, and perhaps th'ir
curves are
easily one to the other,
appa rent straight
in tlie separation
Where the road or terrain slopes upward
lines at all, are to be avoided as too monotodeemed best, fitte d
viewing
the price of
ing on what is bein g said . So it is on the city
blending one into the other through transition tended straight tangents. or even any straight
determines
tells its story with dramatic
and actor, from close-up
of form to make visible
to approach
in a theate r
for ex-
on th e
Mysti c
in the approach,
enough differenti ation
distance
amount of detail desired. Optimum seats. The cinema
from the south on
of the effect of putting
viewinq
most objects, depending
distance
of the Unit ed Nati ons
as it is approached
very close to the road. Boston's now favors a "flowin g"
self-
in itself , Objects
the East River Driv e in New York City is an
this subject. opinion
amining
33 well up and fall behind, break in two as they
ing and the control of roadsid e detail. Therefore there has already been some study on
General
in the
-,. 34
of a view
to
"
The Sense of Space
The visual field is interprete d not only as series of remote views, or a colle ction of ob jects in motion.
but also as a space, a void within which the observer can move, visually or physicall y. The basic sensation of space is one of confinement and of the di-
mensions of that confinement. But this sensation may be modified in many ways: by space 38 form or its proportions, by the character
of the definin g elements or objects in the space. by the position of the observer, One can be low down in a concave shape. or high up in a convex one. A space can be narrow or wide, with solid or jagged. opaque, netted. or transparent
wall s
It may open out in
front or to the side. The sensation is modified by the speed at which one is traveli ng,
so that an opening
which is readable at 60 miles an hour is formless and vast at 3 miles an hour, Simil arly, perception
is affe cted
by the circumsta nces
under which the driver is moving'
a road
which is open at the sides may seem pleasantly spacious under normal conditions,
but if
The Extension
that road is fill ed with fast traffic, there will be an uncomforta ble
off, Moving at superhig hway driver needs consta nt is occupying
his proper posit ion
large envir onment.
that he
when confronte d
in space.
enough, powerful
that positio n or that other objects will intrude upon it,
made by cuts , tunnels,
especiall y significant.
of establishing
such as
parity in size between reverse sensation
signs, seem to be
So are the moments
the vast hills and endle ss tangents of the
---_/-/~.~---
is aware of the sky or a distant panorama,
strongest on skis or on a motorcycle ,
visual im-
ford from the Wilbur
where one is "outside"
J
are irrelevant
one
both maneuverable
into a cut thence into a short tunnel. and
Parkway
Fairmount
way and allowing
Park and the ex-
perience of passing under a succession
of
bridges, each of diff erent
of
velocity and of sensuous the traffic
it to be more responsive to
local form, increase the intimacy of contact.
in Cleveland share a
simple effect of this kind the repeti tive
to
the vehic le which
conta ct. Split lanes, by narrowing
finally bursts out into the centr al park. The Rockefelle r
and where it is impossible
to the moti on through the land-
scape The sense of mastery is th e product
crosses the river while elevated. descends
road in Philadelphia's
envir onment
in contact with the
make body motions within
to Hart-
Cross Highway:
where
the vehicle is small and delicately controlled.
out"
pact Spatial change may be perceiv ed as a unifie d sequence. as in the approach
modern highway. The scale relati on is gone. The sense of personal maste ry of space is
40 Spatial contr ast. as when Bosto n's Centr al Artery passes North Station and "comes
a man and a city , The
occurs when a car breaks
down, and the driver must move on foot over
of
the city falls away. and the driver
into the inner city, makes a strong
with
such a sense at a new level. At
the very least, it begins to neutralize the dis-
or the
enclo sures.
spati al freedom, as when the road rides up over an emin ence.
enough. identifiable
its speed and personal control. may be a way
tall buildings.
bridges or even overhead
by a vast space: that even
enough, In th is regard. the automobile.
are alw ays notable, wheth er
39 sides of hills , Overhead
a feeling of adequacy
in the midst of such a world one is big
and that there is no danger that he will lose
Confi nements
is a re-
lation of scale between an observer and a
speeds, the
assurance
of Self
One of the strongest visual sensations
sense of being pushed
The design of the vehic le itself may do much to encourage
this sense. The car might be
smaller. easie r to open up or to see through,
quali ty. The East
more sensit ive to the "feel"
41 River Drive in New York City subjects the
of the road.
Exterior sounds might be rebroadcas1 within
driver to a dramatic serie s of riverside spaces.
the car. On the other hand, were movement
progressin g from open to sidehill . to tunnel. to open-walle d tunnel. to cut and sidehill
to become too vivid, the driver might react by
again . Such a sequence can be a thril ling
reducing speed, In any case, by makin g the
one.
motio n of the car viv id with respect to the landscape, and the exterior spaces clear in their relation to the car's occupants.
the high-
way designer can increase the driver's sense of mastery and connection.
---- .--- .~. ...
,_.. -----
I
t
rs Goal Approach At the next level of orga r-rzatton. the driver is engaged in building a locational envir onment.
and in orie ntin g
image of his
himself within
this image. In the most direct sense. movement along the road consists of a succession of approaches
to goals. These are the prom-
42 inent landmarks or focal points which the observer moves towards. attains. and passes by. or which represent his final destination. By them he measures his progress and foretells his futu re. They may be distant goals which symboliz e the final destination
and
change only slowly, Or they may be nearer 43 objects. which are approached
more rapidly
and which divid e the road into visual segments,
<:!::L=
If a goal is not always visible. it should reappear consistently.
so that the sense of for-
ward progress is not long absent Goals may 44 A be organized as a sim ple succession. one followin g anoth er in a contin uous
444
chain . On the
prair ie. a road may go from one tall silo to the 44 8 next Or the sequences may overlap: a
/
driver may pass a whole serie s of nearby goals while he is still within sight of a more 44 C distant one. On the Northeast Expressway approaching Bosto n, as one goal is attained. the following one is already in sight. The approach
interval
is roughly the same for each. and this provides a basic rhyth m. Within these intervals are several smaller approaches
-
and overlap-
ping them are two longer ones indicating
the
final goal. In a simil ar way, the towers of Manhattan
indicate the eventual destination
of the New JerseyTurnpik e. while maneuvering
which is mean-
through a monumenta l
in-
dust rial landscape, There is a pleasurable tension. on both roads, between the persis tent view of the dista nt goal and the succession of events that pass along the immediate roadside. <.
:~'I;'I,i'';'I''Io''''':'~'J'''ll'"j,''';:~~':-' These goals may be disappointing. if they are not visibly attained. east Expressway,
On the North-
Fennos Hill is satisfying
cause it is sighted. approached. 45 by-wit h
however.
-
be-
.:.
and passed
---
.
44'
./
a chance for a backward look. But
the Custom House Tower. which has been sought so patiently, at the last moment drops behind lesser buildings and disappears. 46 Masking the goal temporarily excit ement
may add to the
of the trip. if when the goal is re-
veale d again it shows a new face or a new intensity. But where a dip in the road blots out the main landmarks
and their return to view
reveals nothing new. the effect is one of disappointment,
Similarly. it is an anticlimax
when the Centr al Artery breaks through
4'
43
the
"edge" of Boston at North Stati on. only to find itself still in a peripheral region. Other kinds of prolongation 47 may be interesti ng.
of the approach
such as the way in whic h
the Boston road seems to search for a way to reach the Mystic River B ridge. or to cut through a hil l. The railroad approach to Manhatta n from the east, over the Hell Gate Bridge. has a sim ilar quality: the train sweeps in a wide arc around the Manhattan approaching them indirectly.
towers.
44C
-
re Orientation
While the access ramps are the most crucial
Beyond the sense of direct progression goal, the driver and his passengers ing themselves
to a
are orient-
in the general environment,
locating its principal features and discovering their own positio n with relatio n 10them. In part this is a practical. and in part an esthetic.
activity. Findin g a way through the intricacies of a modern city is a demanding performance.
points at which connectio n with the local landscape
throuqh which it is
Rhyth m
Using all these elements,
activ itv.
of the surfa ce streets:
or a sense of the meanin g and use of
areas, is an important
in the country, the road must be made to lie easil y in the topoqraphv
Finally the driver seeks to find meaning in what he sees: to relate the visible objects to the stock of ideas in his mind. The sight of
passing, In the city, this will mean paying attenti on to the "grain"
pleasure of the road.
For the Sunday driver on the rural highway,
(or new topography
the chance of seeing country
may have to be built to fit the road). While this
and one cannot depend entir ely upon such
country
rule may not always be a practic al one, and a
conventio nal
drive, Unfortunately,
desig ner may at times wish to break with the
is a pleasure progressively
not without
aids as directional
signs. at least
some emotional insecuntv
When
not aware of general locatio n with respect to the landscape. a driver is lik ely to make mistakes and is sure to be under stress.'
In additi on, there is a positive pleasure in being able to recognize the urban scene and to fit it together.'
• The fast highway is a new
means for makin g the structure of our vast citie s comprehensible
people and
life may be a principal motiv e tor his the sig ht of other people denie d to the high-
way driver. The colorful
and unusable pieces of ground and to destroy
food market is hidden from drivers on the
between
highway image and
landscape image, The Centr al Artery
of Bos-
ton, for example, tramples across the local
view of fascinating
kill Driv e in Phil adelphia
spaces, and ragged
river traffi c. The Schuylvisib ly contr asts
the
meanings of park and dense city. The activity of an airport
or the bustle of new construction
50 may be the major events of a commuter's
to the eye, If con-
scio usly desig ned for the purpose, they could
trip. The road itself serves the highly mean-
present the city as a vivid and well-ordered Image,
ingfu l function
of cir cula tion:
accompanying
traffi c
the sense of
may be made more vivid
by hil ls, curves, amphitheater The shapelessness
sente d to the driver approaching frequent perio ds of orienta tion
blindness
it from the rest of the city
fabric by landscaping,
are
may be to reduce the
roadside to dull meaninglessness
New York's East River Drive, on
the other hand, is satisfying
to depress the urban high-
way, Dr to "buffer"
and the
spirals, or the
of vario us lanes. One result of the
current tendency
via the
Mystic River Bridge, is dis appointi ng, disquieti ng.
interplay
of central Bosto n, as pre-
Would
48
it be possible
to use the highway as a
means of education,
a way of making the
driver aware of the function, clarified. Successive sections may be visibly differentia ted as dis tinct
histo ry, and hu-
man values of his world? The highway could
The image of the highway itself may also be
51 be a linear expositio n,
so that they can be recogniz ed
cente rs, exposing
parts, Thus the motorist can see
out the symbols
runnin g by the vita l
the workin g
parts , picking
and the historic al
that he is "in the hilly part," as well as "ap-
Signs might be used for something
proaching
givin g directions
the center."
The general alignment
problem of the highway is th e shapin g of its sequentia l
form. In such term. the princip al
aim is to preserve conti nuit y embellishing, conti nuit y,
while developin g,
and contrasting
the material.
an essenti al thread of
but it must be supported
by suc-
cessions of space, motion, orientatio n,
and
meaning which seem to be parts of a connecte d whore. An overlapping this, or a repeti tion
of goals may do
hills in successively
of previous movements deeper cuts. Continuity
in memory can be also apprecia ted, the build ings pedestria n
of a distric t
the new viewpoint
and enjoyed from
of the highway, A basic
rhyth m of atte ntio n of contin uity ,
as when
known to the
are recogniz ed
will strengthen
the sense
whereas tOD sudden a change
in the tempo will snap the thread. Tempo and rhyth m are the primiti ve
essence
of any sequence, The tempo of atte ntion
ap-
pears to be a sensiti ve index of the quality of the road. In most cases recorded by us, where this tempo was rapid . attentio n concentrated
was
on near obje cts straight ahead
in the road: where this tempo was slow.
just because it is
so visibly located along the river at the very edge of a great city,
the basic artistic
on a new scale, such as the passing of similar
New York's East
River Drive, on the other hand, affords a cle ar
streets of the market distr ict. and the result is confu sio n, disordered building ends.
activ ity of Boston's
artery almost overhead.
and Continuity
The road itselff urnishes
old mold, such breaks are bound to leave ugly 49 the rela tion
"
Meaning
must be achieved,
the highway should have sorne general fit
landmarks. more than
or pressing a sale They
observers
were scanning from right to left.
givin g more attention
to far objects. The first
case was couple d with a sensatio n forced attention,
and heig htened
of rushin g, tension, the
second with a slow floating quali ty-a leisurely tasti ng of the landscape. The periods of concentration experience,
added spice to the total
but they became oppressiv e
long continued,
when
as in a tunnel. Uninterrupted
scanning may be wearying.
too, unless the
may be made to appear as a sim ple geometric
could point out the meaning of the scene.
form. Conti nuit ies
qeneralla
what is produced there, who lives there. how
When there is a slow tempo and little to con-
it grew, what it stands for, Even where they
centr ate on but the road itself , there is a
of edge, surface, or rhythm
may be used. Typical sequences and gradients may be developed,
are used as adverti sements,
and the sequence in
one direction may be made recognizably
dif-
grouped or controned
they may be
ndscape is of particular
interest.
sense of torpid boredom. The long flat high-
to enhance envir on-
ways of the prairie are notorious
for this
ferent from the sequence in the other The
menta l meaning, advertisements
road ahead may be exposed, and strategic
favored which relate to the build ing they are
everywhere,
attached
quency of accidents due to inattention.
points may be artic ulated.
The form of inter-
sections may be clarified, so that turning cisions become self- evid ent, congruent
.,
de-
with the principal flow of traffic.
Applications
of many of these ideas are illus-
trated in the imaginary
to, or which
of some facilit y
and the shape is
may be
quality, but it is shared by the new freeways
herald the approach
which suffe r an alarming fre-
or servic e. Local broadcasts
might be made to expla in the history orfunc-
It may be that there is an optim um
tion of an area. Dr even the local news, to the
the time interval
passer-by.
that longer intervals cause boredom. and
desig ns in Chapter 4.
between
range for
strong impressio ns:
shorter ones bring on strain and confusion. The various aspects of a highway-its
se-
Were this true, it would mean that a road-
Even where the general images of the city
quence of space and motion,
and the highway have been clarif ied and their interrelation established. there still remains'
express-are
the diffic ult task of linking the road to its im-
sense. The posit ion of an object is part of its
media te envir ons. This is most crucial where
beat could be varied, but the variation should
meaning and is read while moving through
the driver is about to make the transitio n
be coherent
space. Its presence
48 the local landscape
envir onmental
to
of streets and bUildings.
separate world s, myste riously
connected,
important, and
comin g off the ramp of a modern highway
is
'0
scape should have a basic beat, a regular
image, the meaning it helps to only separable in an academic
helps to communicate
motio n, and its meaning
The highway and the city street are two
its role in the
experiences
occur when all three levels are working unison, when a tower
that
makes its presence
The most powerful
frequency
with which decis ions
ing visual impressions
and interest-
are presented,
and wit hin the optim um
This range.
Since it would be measured in time units , the actual location intervals
would depend
on the speed of travel.
in
roote d in communit y
If a fundamental
rhyth m of atte ntio n,
within
usually a moment of severe disorientation.
histo ry is the visible goal of a trip , and the
Ramps should be carefully connected
to the
the optim um
visib le pivot about which the road turns. The
visual desti nati on
the
road or a group of simil ar roads, the driver
pivot of motio n on a hig hway
would know when to expect points of deci-
transition prolonged,
they are leading to :
must be prepared for, and perhaps For example, off-ramps
rather long, projectin g
might be
out from the road for
some dista nce and be dir ecte d toward their desti nati on.
On-ramps, on the other hand, can
be clear even when short, if they run paralle l to the expressway being entered. •See: Driver Needs in Freeway Signing, Automotive Safety Foundation.Washington.Dec.1958. •• See: The Image of the City, op.cit.
likely a temporary
today is all too
shanty. and its goal a
52 whis key advertisement.
On the other hand,
range, were assigned to a
sion and major visual events, Various kinds of channels-freeways,
colle ctors,
local streets
a historic build mq. or the central stock
-might
exchange,
consistent
with their functi on
transport,
so that rhythm itself served to dif-
cannot be seen.
be given particular
visual rhythms and mode of
ferentiate and clarify the transport hierarchy. Thus it would be possible to say that on a given road the frequency
of visual events was
too rapid or too slow. or that this frequency varied in an incoherent ramp decis ions
manner. Multi ple
in a downtown
area might
be examples of visual events which come tDO fast. and whose frequency has been built up tODsuddenly.
ia Sequential
All of these are abstract
Form
The tradit ional
way of managin g
management
a sustain ed
rupted. prolonged. and embell ished
models for the
of transiti on,
tenance of continuity
temporal conti nuit y is to set in moti on a driv e toward a final goal. This drive may be inter-
at
of highway desig n, and no effect can be so
If we want to change the view from the road,
powerful.
the first essentia l
for example,
spati al confinement
desti nation
as th e emergence
at the climax, subsidin g
then to
with tension resolved.
Climax
examples of the development contr ast,
should not be 100 long delayed, nor should tension. once developed, be thrown away
from
is maintained.
and transitio n
of sequence,
appear in Chapters
3 and 4
The principal
enters and leaves at different
mariz ed. The first is to present the viewer
points. or may
from end to beginning rather form
episodes,
in shaping the high-
with a rich, coherent
sequenti al and rhyth m
has continuit y
transitions,
provides contr asts ,
well- join ed of space or
those of motio n (both of self or the external
have to be symmetrical,
with climaxes at both
envir onment).
It may be constructed
audie nce
modulatio ns
in li ght. colo r, or texture,
can be
composition,
jazz or medieval
The second objective
or such tales as
and str engthen vironment.
a dif ferent
through the use of
structured,
masking,
possible.
composition,
designer risks inducing for the driver.
from from
even via secondary
But here the
severe disorientation
of the design is to clarify
the driv er's
image of the en-
to give him a picture which
is well-
disti nct,
as
and as far-rangin g
He should be able to locate himself.
the road, and the major featu res
of the land-
scape, to recognize those featu res with surety, and to sense how he is movin g
In any case, the balances and connections not static ones, where position
are
by or ap-
The third objecti ve
over time, in which dissonances
grasp of the meaning of his environment:
later intervals
reactions
This is the counte rpoin t
music. In future sophistic ated
designs,
in
is to deepen the observer's
give him an understanding
of
nature, or symbolism
it may
surroundin g
be a fa scinati ng
Ideally, all three objectives
diverging,
and meeting,
of the use, history,
The roadside should
devic es of counte rpoint:
two or three pro-
to
of the highway and its
landscape,
be possible to use some of the more advanced gressions played simultaneously
book to read on the run.
by means which interlock
should be achieved at every level.
and reacti ng again st each other. We believe these objectives
can be achie ved
in highway desig n. Usually,
alas, one aspires
The problem of transitio n
will be faced re-
to nothin g more than an absence of irritation on the road.
peate dly in the highway,
as the road moves
grammar.
For example, one characteristic melt into the other, like a
movie dissolve 53 B Or the first may disappear
before the second
"A~l
builds up 53 c The latter
model may be embelli shed
by an
alternati on of characte r before the new character is fully establi shed, by use of hints and echoes: The transition
.; may be abrupt and shocking
53 E The change may be media ted
necti ng link of a dif ferent
by a min or con-
kind, as when the
Holla nd Tunnel stands between and Manhattan 53 F Contr ariw ise,
by a continuous ground:
connecti on invariant
New Jersey
53D
.~'
may be maintained characte ristic,
or
53F~
.'
... :.J
both in its
Many of the elements that go into making up a vis ual sequence venti onal
can be recorded in con-
ways. A detaile d
location and elevation
map, showing the
of the road, plus
and oth er natural features,
use, building
land
mass, and open space, furnishes
much information
This may be supplemented
54 by obliq ue and ground photo graphs,
for detail
effects. The aerial
obliq ues should be taken from many viewpoints: the ground obliq ues must capture the sequence
of vie ws at reasonably
close inter-
vals. Very often, a quick perspective
sketch
in the field is more valuable than a photograph, since ti eliminates and exaggerates
unnecessary
verti cal elements,
eye records them, If the sequence
detail
just as the being
maps and sketc hes
without
photo graphic
These methods of representatio n been developed, interpretativ e
and if the user has enough
skil l. they give him the informa-
sulting visual sequence. an imaginary
the re-
Chapter 4 describes
highway design for Boston
that was constructed vanta ges.
aids,
have already
tion from which he may reconstruct
primarily
from such
But they also have many disadIn parti cula r,
they fail to select
essentia l elements from the mass of things potentially
perceivable;
to reconstruct patte rn
they requir e the user
a thir d dimension:
present the materia l
use or form, There
are models for this problem in sequentia l 53 A may gradually
This chapter will discuss the prob-
lem of recording visual sequence, objective and subjective aspects
techniques,
A sequence of motion might be played against a sequence of space, for example.
through areas of different
cccurredl, but the growth of the art is thereby
exis ting reali ty, then we must depend on base
disposed around a pivot, They are balances tions call forth compensating
Both are possible land have
recorded is a proposed design rather than an
proaching them
and mass are and distor-
be analogous to
a notation, or architecture
drawings,
and three-dim ensional
in
"Br'e r Rabbit." Alternativ ely. it is possible to make each of the two directio ns on a road split lanes or differential
short of buildlnq and rebuilding
roads. This would
topography
senses such as sound, smell, or touch.
but
of the kind typified
polyphony,
roadside detail, or perhaps
form may
have to be abandoned for the articulate d
of its
such a technique,
and devel-
and a moving balance, This form
may be built out of the sensations
each with a
form of its own: or forms may
played to: or the unifie d clim actic
530
form, a form
ends, so that a two-way
"endless"
alternatives,
restr icte d.
may now be sum-
which
opment. which
may have to be more like a magazin e serial. total development
in which an underlying self- contained
objectives
way visual experience
and communicating
we are unable to express or refine design full- scale without
of Desig n
This is a useful model for highway design. but it suffe rs from the handicap that the audie nce
depends on separate
,
music without The Objectives
is to develo p a technique
analy zing,
... visual sequences. Without
Some
in anticlimax.
than vice versa. Thus the sequential
recording,
into a spatial expanse-
provided that continuity
be proceeding
2. Recording Highway Sequences
Contr ast and change are the meat and drink
rhyth mic intervals . but it never entirely loses forward momentu m. and it achieves its a conclusion
"
or for the main -
in the midst of change
and they
as a static , over-all
rather than as a dynamic sequence.
Even skilled designers shortcomings.
are misled by these
20
The sense of realit y is improved
if a scale
There are techniques
for circumventin g
model is prepared. showing the road and its
defects. Several co-ordinated
environs,
be used. and their film may be proje cted
and perhaps allowing
of the road in alternative
for placement
positions. The situa-
tion is still seen as an over-all
wide-angle
these
tends to the periphery
carefully executed. or even exaggerated.
reali ty. and the eye of the observer can scan
the model may convey the general spatial form but obscure the way in which this is modifie d and overlaid by detail and texture. Neverth eless, quick and rough study models, made of such inexpensive cardboard.
and plia ble materials
as
Plasticin e, balsa. or Styrofoam.
are
an essential part of the process of designing a spatial composition,
It is also possib le to captu re some sense of effect from a model. if the eye is
sequenti al
brought down by some optic al means to a simulate d
posit ion on the road surfa ce and
then is moved along that surface at a speed which corresponds
to the real speed at the
for communication
and nor
in a permanent
form
55 A that can be shown to large groups of people. Movies may be taken of existi ng highway sequences, either at normal speed or at exaggerated speeds. to convey in briefthe movies.
which are quit e useful in conveying the sense of moti on, There are technical
problems of
support for the camera to prevent vibration. but the most serio us diffi cult y diffe rence
is the inherent
between the camera and the hu-
man eye. The eye has a very small angle of acute visio n. coupled with a very broad angle of hazy vision, It perceives the detail s of irregular motion. relationships
anoth er. while the vehicle is moving. The re-
Our proposal for a technique borrows
no compensato ry
Philip Thiel.'
to assure him
that the world is stable when the visual field
while sensing the spatial
tion in depth. The technique
it by placin g elements along a line or staff, as in musical nota-
directly as in a movie, but rather
vices, such as the panning shot. the dissolve,
conti nuous
the close-up, These symbolize the scanning.
tion. This is probably
sele ctiv e actio n of the eye. but in a very slow
any simple presentation
an inevitable
featu re of
on paper.
be logically. is never at first intuitively
obvious.
time and some practice before any such sys-
(whether
tem will seem to communicate
good or bad]' which has alr eady
complicated
the scene. and
orientati on,
to studies in map, sketc h. and model form. Multicamera.
wide-angle
permanent
recordings
road-changes textu re-is
meaning) is quite difficult therefore
sequences,
Selective
vision. Furtherdoes not leap
aspects. as supplements to other records. Motio n pictu res may be employed to communic ate.
experience
the "fe el" of a
of motion.
The perceptio n
such as the absence
visio n and a fixed rather than a
va riable depth of focus. but these seem to here,
meaning of a sequence, has been thoroughly stood. High-speed
spreading
or shrin king
general stability
passing rotation.
of outline
or instability;
a. Presence and position of enclosing
objects
and degree of
b. General proportions
of the space enclosed;
scale with respect to the observer: of the observer.
position
of c. Quality of the light which makes the space
may be brought to bear
apparent.
intensity and direction.
camera d. Relati onship of spaces in sequence and overlapping.
correct scale could be
a model. Thus the visual effect of a great
e. Directio n
number of alte rnative
eye toward diffe rent enclosure.
envir onment
paths through a giv en
could be recorded and com-
pared. or the appearance
jointing
envir onments would
could be predicted
as they
be seen by the movin g observer. The
view of a pedestria n-or
that from an auto-
or any other vehicle-along
and at any velocity could be
easily simulated. This would be valuable not only in highway layout but also in many
with blinders on Its attention appears to be fixed with insane intensit y, It can have a
Such an instrument
hypnotic effect and wil l exaggerate
veloped by us. but it presents problems of
landscape,
and
has been partiall y
de-
featu res as road curvature. traffi c, or the
lighting,
visual "growth "
ing and moving the periscope. Even when
exposure,
and particula rly
will neglect many other elements. such as the
perfected.
sense of tota l space. or the appearance
counter the diffic ulti es
of mount-
the result ing films will still en-
and scanning
of prin cipal views. which draw the aspects of the spatia l
of proposed new
phases of architectural. city-planning design,
more distant objects in the landscape which are not directly ahead.
motio n of the visual field overhead, or underneath,
or surfaces. their soli dity enclosure,
events of a tr ip into
movie. taken while looking ahead along a road
of
and
movie s may be used to
and seems to be taken either from a tunnel or
of objects at the roadsid e, It
parts speed. direction.
3. Spatial characteristics:
and under-
from a moving platf orm,
such
self -motion:
made of any desired path of motion through
mobile. airplane.
looks "flat" to us.
of moti on and space may be
apparent velocity or lack of it.
after that sequence
analy zed
compress the outstanding a brief compass.
any trajectory is that a
of motio n (both of self
analy zed into the follo wing
or texture,
,
as a work of art. the character or
55 C movies of apparently
from object to object as does the eye, There
for
of: (1) locauona! orientation.
and of surroundings) through a changing, light-filled spatial form.
translati on;
camera work. in the
style . can be used to
record brief sequences, details. or special
size. In one way. it records too
more. its center of atte ntio n
to analy ze, We
chose to develop techniques
and (2) the experience
alongside.
existing
moderate
littl e by reducing perip heral
in lig hts, signs, rails. or paving
easily recorded. The sequence of
meaning (beyond that of simple functional
2. Apparent
films are useful as
of important
can be coupled to a mobil e peris cope. then
a human eye; in another way. it records too
meaning of the
of roadside details
sense of sequence that it is a valuable adjunct
movie presentation
of
and the apparent
landscape, The sequence
that are signifi ca nt at the scale of the entire
their changes (stop-go, accelerate-decelerate. up-down. right-left).
cost. a motion pictu re gives such a direct
acute visio n over an angle of the workings
of the highway consists
of roadside detail, the sense
The reader should be warned that it will take
to be shown. The result is a work of art interpreted
experience
communication
Any abstract notation. however clear it may
and must perforce
unifo rmly
be less important
does not present
sequence symboliz es
on the study of proposed desig ns via the use
sight. The
The net effe ct of these diffe rences
who has worked on this ques-
have
many compromise
of scale models. If a moti on-pictu re
are also other differences.
of this type
heavily from the previous work of
de-
developed
Our studies have led us to thin k that the essential
in the percepti on
therefore
camera. on the other hand. is a staring eye of
of binocular
of sequence al-
is moving so rapidly. Movie cameramen
It is als o possible that the advanta ges
of the whole field partly by
much, if we want to simulate
would allow the rapid com-
and comparison
stripped to their essentials.
of motio n and space, the feeli ng of basic
objects by searchin g the visual field in a quick
means of blurred, perip heral
munic atio n ternatives.
sult is verti go for the observer. since he has
more conventio nal
essentia ls of the major visual effects. We have made a number of such highway
the camera may be pointe d at one object after
Despite these problems of techniq ue
to go to motion pictu res.
which record sequences
""
1. Apparent
to groups of people,
We are thus tempte d
Such a techniq ue
mechanis m
of
easily
essence of the experie nce into a small space,
the scanning of the human eye.
require a skil led operator.
Therefore
it is still not adequate for comparability ,
and expensive.
however. To simulate
to
to com-
the sense of sequence. It would be
usefu l to devis e a sim ple graphic technique
select the visual elements and interrelations
We now have a techniq ue that records the record is peris hable
munic ate
made. easily understood, reproducible drawings on paper. which could Compress the
the whole scene much as it would in reali ty, is difficult
abstr act the essentials. or of inabilit y
recording visual sequence. employing
librium of the observer. These techniques
a small mirror. and much better by a hand558 held peris cope or one on a mobile mount,
visible to only one person at a time
of his vis ion, There
and Space
offailure
and formal way. so as not to disturb the equi-
model scale. This can be done crudely by
sequence, but
:r
with a view which ex-
results a marked sense of three-dimensional
The technique
of Motion
suffer from disad-
vanta ges of cost or complexity.
or curved screen. so that the ob-
server is presented
Notation
All of these techniques
on a
patte rn rather than as a sequence. but it occupies threedimensional space. Detail s may have to be especially just at the roadside. Otherwise
An Abstract
cameras may
of simutannq
perip heral
vision The periscope itself.
however, has alr eady been developed
to the
point that it is useful for the direct visual inspection of scale models, * "This type of model·viewing periscope is now manutecurec commercially by Optec Ltd,. 54 Upper Montagu SI.. London W1, England
55C A periscope movie of a model of the same road,
• See his unpublished memoranda: 'The Urban Spaces at Broadway and Mason," August 1959: "An Architectural and Urban Space-Sequence Notation:' August 1960. his article in the Town Planning Review for April. 1961. entitled: "A Sequence· Experience Notation:' and that in Landscape. Autumn 1961 "To the Kamakura Station."
All these characteristics their sequential
must be shown
and concurrent
each oth er. The follo wing all these elements vertical
proposal
as occurring
23
in
relation
58 Where
to
indicate s
along a
drawn regularly
are
spaced lines to in dicate
An illustrative
motion
highway sequence,
band. Where the road passes under a
over the motion
to be read in sequence
from bottom to top. In th e background
time
DROPPING INTO A CUT
intervals.
t
even though
of separate
a band representing
apparent
composed
self-motion,
by shading
RISI~G INTO A TUNNEL
vertical
surface.
pro-
files of th e road. laid flat and attached turning
progression
movements.
base
bolize the subjectiv e
to the observer, is located
resent apparent
velocity .
vertical
lines to rep'
are the lines.
Stops are shown by whit e
bars across the
('.'1-
•
the fronta l NA~~OW SLOT, DISTANT END
and a dark in
by a dot in the secdot
OBSERVE~ LOW AND LEfT ,"
TROUGH DISTANT END
a
a small space in relation
and vice versa, The section
so that the observer
SAME SPACE OBSeRVER HIGH AND RIGHr
dots are in
line and occur at the poin t in the
road to whic h
the greater the
speed. the closer together
..·w X;:::'
HIGH WALL RIGHT
or
of th e observer
size of the observer
large dot symbolizes
the band is
horiz ontal
WALL CLOSE AHEAD
scale of the space is indicated
by the relativ e
sense that sharp mo-
band is marked with
on the oval symbolizing
a light oval being distant
tion. General
broken and then picked up again, Finally . the
.:::? ... . .' .
sensatio n.
length of lines in section,
the space is represented
To maintain
along the base line and to sym-
tions are entities to themselves.
might then look like this'
majo r
of the space is shown
oval close. The posit ion
to base. The band is bent right or left to symboli ze
proporti on
by the relati ve
just as if it were
of two exaggerated
a brief
~I
in the sec-
band to indicate
AND SCALE
The genera l
to show ascent and nar-
rows to show descent.
recording
colo r are placed at
affect the spatial
PROPORTION
the central line is overlaid by
This band widens
total diagram.
rein-
visual events.
they are repeated
the edge of the motion
SELF-MOTION
56 In our system,
band. These symbols
force the sense of im portant tions, Arrows views which
APPARENT
Occurs at the side
brid ge or into a tunnel. a dark tone is laid
base line, scale d to elapsed time.
which is intended
strong confinement
of the road. a black edge is added to the
the section
refers.
L O W AN D L £ n
I N V,RY lARGE TROUGH
S.AME OBSERVER POSITION WALLS LITTlE HIGHER THAN OBSERVER
band.
LIGHT
The quali ty
of light in the space is shown
another separate APPARENT 57
MOTION
The apparent
OF THE VISUAL
ill a contrasting
moving alongsid e
apparent
ing a base tone showing
directl y
or on top of th e self-motion
These are drawn
from bright
band.
or apparent
.. .,:,:::.'
, -':
,.,. "',
apparent
:'"
immobili ty
I I
general intensity
defined
covered
has qualities
conditi on
general field and are shown where they are perceived. tant feature
at the point If a single impor-
is bein g referred to. a dot is
a pp en de d
•
t
are not
SUBDUED fRONTu!
The light will
different
t
These are als o shown where they are perIncrease in apparent
field is indic ated of the arrow,
velocity
and apparent
by increasing
the length
diagrammatic sequence.
sion of cross-sectional SOliD flOOR
~~O lEfT
W~LL. SCReEN OVER
characte ristics
, , souo
\ nOOR
SCREEN AHEAD
'-'
}
Enclosing
narrowin g.
position).
a series of
may be used,
lines. screens or other objects. a sense of enclosure blocking
SOLID RIGHT WALL ANO AHEAD. SCREEN UNDeR
01
diagrams
without
underneath,
which give by dotted lines.
and side surfa ces
are drawn in diagrammatic
while those in front are shown oval. To the right of the space section small separate indicate
appears a
symbol of another color. to
the degree to which the tota l space
is defined. A circle indicates and clearly bounded, ill-defi ned
or
0
>
8>
-
DEFINED
0
and a cross, a space so or almost
~
dissolu tio n
SOMEWHAT DEFINED
gateway
desirable
,
and chaos betw een
lighting,
two spaces
it would be
to add a sense of the activity
which
these spaces. the in-
of accompanying
Since this is a fluctuating ILL D£FINED
CoO="> I·
repre sentati on
fills and characteriz es tensity
'%:
portal or constricting
traffi c
in particular.
quantity .
like the
we have yet to find an easy way to
This
the
being presented'
the other symbols Settin g
immediately
handling,
I ~ij'JI ><
an abrupt shift
To this whole
a space sharply
as to be imperceptible.
in tervening
while
would
color
merging
considering
do not read as
since they have been "laid flat" on the paper,
paper model, would
the dia-
STRONGLY DEFINED
section.
as a facing
) a gradual
is probably inescapable .
are map or poin t such sectio ns
along the line, as in a simple
is shown by sym-
as follows: (
First, it
must be read as three parallel columns.
representatio ns,
and nature of the transiti on
by solid
completely
vision. are indicated
Overhead, screens
showing the
are represented
in a concentrated
form, It has at least three deficiencies.
easily in sequence as do the other elements. OBSERvm RISING IN A~D MOVING 10 CENT£R OF A NAAROWrNG SLOT
I.
and in contrasting
speed begins to pick up. and the
Second, the space sections
change in the
change of observer
sections.
obje ct on the left which appears to
number of elements
serves for the entire
(widening.
grammatic
of the space being traversed.
surfaces
section
Where progressive
bols to the right of and between
band is a succes-
OBSERVER BETWEEN TWO WAllS ~ FLOOR COMMON TO LARGER SP~CE WITH DISTANT L"·l WALL ANO ,No SCRUN
one
space is signific ant
from one space to anoth er
CHARACTERISTICS
can
in section, Where the constant.
seems to
ends.
This puts the experie nce
SPACES
concurrently
form is essenti ally
The duratio n SPATIAL
prominent be growing;
CHANGING
be shown overlapping spatial
diagrams
To the right of the motion
AND
speed slacks off. unti l at the
peak of th e climb the observer
at some special time under study
OVERLAPPING
the observer
it. The light is bright
"float." and an important view opens up to the right. The road then drops again toward a
of the light. or the
Spaces that are perceived FiElD GOING BY
I
of th e
plain and rises high above
sequence
I
ceived and not where they are physically located.
I
conditio n
of the road, while ap-
again and comes from the rear. The road rises .
at night.
(the rush hour. for example].
r:
the road swings right
bursts out of the slot into a vast. ill-defined
change from hour to hour, or season
to season. and be markedly
OBJECT GOING OVER RAPIDLY
of the
an object
The light becomes
parent speed is at it s highest,
The symbol can only be used to indicate a
These refer to the characteristics
slot
Before this
however,
and the visual field on the
clockwise.
the lowest elevatio n
DARK DIfFUSE
The
of shape. move-
and color which
predomin ant
at th e bottom,
dimmer and ente rs from above, SUddenly, at specific ation
by th is simple symbol.
normally
lit from the left.
This space gradually
flies rapidly overhead, left rotate s
DIM CROSSuT
{no dot}
ment. texture,
I
has a floor and a screen
is complete d.
(still dropping).
illumination F i El D I M M OB I LE
speed in an ill -
merges into a small, deep. and narrow transit ion
This is a bare minimum
; "
space which
with the observer
GROWS
....
to top,
in this way: The road is
gathering
and in which the general visual field is mov-
ERIGHT BACK!.IT
. '
with
at the right. and is brightly
of the liqht:
or crossut OBJECT
I or shrinkage
dropping
backlit
diffuse
rotatio n
apparent growth
,,',
the directio n
reading from bottom
can be translated
frorrtllt
0
I
movement
59 The diagram.
includ-
ing past the observer
•
I
in
of contrasting
to dark. and a shaded dot symbol
indic ating
color:
or over,head
sidewise
diagram
color to the right of the space section.
motion of the visual field is
shown by small arrow symbols . alongsid e
FIELD
I
()
A GRAOUAl MERGING
but
draftin g.
Third. fluctuatin g
characteristi cs.
such as activit y
not adequately
handled. As it stands, the sys-
tem has reasonable A PORTAL OR GATEWAY BETWE[N
complicate
and reproductio n.
upright
three-dimensio nal
solve this diffic ulty
below to describe
and light. are
merit and will be used a real highway.
• In this regard, it may be interesti ng to compare this technique with a recording system developed for ballet. See: Labanotation, Ann HutchinSOfl. New Directions. New York, 1961
--
-
......
24
The Notation of Orientation Space and motion is th e immediate essence
We have used the shorthand
of a highway
axis to the same scale of elapsed time as the
vario us elements
run. But there is an important
given below. The
are shown along a vertical
aspect of the trip which is more complex and
space and motion diagram. and are sym-
conceptual. This is the sense of orientationthe general image of the road and the landscape that develops inthe mind. partly as a result of what is presently visib le. partly
bolized as follows
as a result of the memory of past experie nce. Recording this image demands a subje ctive
paths
interpretation.
ments "
previously developed.'
the element
111111/111 111\ 11/1
ele-
tt-
Paths are the lines in the mental
image of the environment
along which the railEdges are those
observer feels he can move (highways, roads. canals, walkways),
6
lines which appear as barriers or boundaries (lake shores. riverbanks.
edges of develop-
edges
distinctive
is no arrowhead,
nodes
fades out uncerta inly ,
indic ate viewing
landmarks
of a visibility parti cula r
the areas of some extent which
are
he imagines
creasing intensity,
located and remembered
may be
from the highway.
is m i portant.
ening the district darkening
of a total diagram might then look
formation,
These lines
CONTINUITY BETWEEN THREE PATHS
from left to right in order of
tinuous forward-dir ecte d proach and atta inment an importa nt
and
Loss of continuity. lOSS OF CONTACT
is one of con-
In-
two diagrams must be read as one experience. The dia grams would be supple mented
SEEN IN RETROSPECT
motio n-picture diagrams would
or of abilit y to recognize
envir onment,
the road itself.
outside ~
A"
orienta tion sequence diaqram must fore show the foll owing thin gs: ,
to the outside
visual effect, they might be evaluate d
appear as superim posed
pendently
GOAL FIRST SIGHTED
with the "out-
arrows.
and continuity
of the
Points of de-
LANDMARK
serie s of alternative and orientati on,
SHIFTS
relation.
ment. includin g
the designer
composit ions
of motio n
The chosen scheme will guide
He may wish to use an even more abstract
6t
notation, which simply shows the location ing way At the beginnin g,
POINT OF DECISION
in the follo w-
reading from bot-
tom to top, there is a district of indefinit e
they are at-
ward extension
out-
on the right. and a strong
and timin g of major visual events, or the level 62 of general visual intensity . specification,
edge (perhaps a lake shore) on the left, while
band. would
a node on the road ahead (an intersection. for example) is visible as a goal. This goal dis-
the basic rhythmic
origin is unclear enters from the left rear
envir on-
INVISIBLE UNCERrAIN WHfRE PASSW
perio ds of loss of conta ct.
Ihe edge on the left is losing its visual importance. The node is reached. occurs, and immediate ly
cit
point
a str ong barrie r edge in the
right dista nce
(for example. a ridge of hills ).
The road swings right
VISIBLE
a decision
a new and important
goal is visible
the edge goal disap-
pears. the edge on the left begins to fade out. and the path that the driver is on loses its VISIBLE V,RY
IMPORTANr
sense of contin uity . new goal appears build ing)
This is resolv ed when a a landmark
(such as a tail
to the right of the road, But this
disappears
again . no part of the scene beyond
the road itself is visib le. and there occurs an image blackout. its continuity.
although the path maintain s
Suddenly.
both the landmark
and the strong edge are visible again , and the path that the driver is on becomes
SHORI APPROACHES
stronger as a visual element. The landmark
1
J
disappears
and then is suddenly and visib ly
arrived at and also seen from the rear, while the edge goal maintains OVERLAPPING
IMPORTANT APPROACH
its vis ibility ,
now
straight ahead, The image of the path itself
without
62
further
Such a diagram. which would
look like a time graph. or a vario usly
appears. then reappears, while a path whose
and strength of the
•• See The Image of the City. op,
to be
to be avoided.
the detailed desig n of the road.
there is a "back reference"
image elements of the "outsid e"
elements (majo r
desir e lines. connections
can quickly sketc h out and evaluate a whole
to them, and how they overlap and succeed one another. 3. The location,
Whil e referring to conven-
existing strong visual elements),
61 This diagram can be translate d
tained. wheth er
rough sketch in ordin ary
made. areas and structures
path. plus the sequence of elements that are
when they are visible. wheth er
serve the functio n
of the prelim inary
topography,
VIEW BACKWARD TO LEFT
associated with the path itself . and the pOlnl at whic h the driver must make locational decisions. 2. The principal goals along the trip, showin
inde-
and from
desig n procedure.
tional maps showing "fixed"
elements.
INVISIBLE IN PASSrNG
1. The image strength
of the other material,
veloped. They will therefore
cision are shown by black circles in the path,
the,,}
the or
them a more concrete desig n may be de-
image. or majo r
apparent motio ns of the outside PATH TURNS RIGHT
have to be simplified
Since the diagra rns conta in the kernel of the
is
side" image (as in a tunnel or cut) is shown by
with respect
.
?
by a break in the path line, plus a
an overlay tone of the color of the outside elements. Majo r apparent turns of the path
the
by a
com'"eas expressive as possible for a particular purpose.
SEfN 6RIULY
goals is
studies. Undoubtedly.
addep to for individ ual cases. in order to be-
elements
of successive
or perspective
serie s of rough study models, or perhaps by
with the path, and the path
the ap-
by a
as to signifi-
sketches. They can also be reinforced SEE'! AND REACHW
and
the path or its relati on to an intersectio n,
map. by notati ons
cant detail, and by photographs
symbol. dark-
tone, and thickenin g
question mark. Loss of contact
driver seeks to gain some sense of the structure of the surrounding
the mot ibn sequence itself. In any case. the
conventi onal
movement
featu re of it. In addit ion.
in-
as when the view of all important
diagram fit a point where it radic all y influ ences
111111 I 1111111111
and overlaps
the size and dark-
itself. are shown in bla ck. "Outs ide" are in another color.
represente d Since the highway experience
be
the elements from
landmark is shown on the space-motion
other paths, enters districts. passes landa sequence made up of image elements,
necessary to cross-refer
one diagram to another. or to duplicate
the line of path or edge, Elements
directly associated ... BREAK IN
through nodes, breaks through edges. crosses marks. Thus it is both an image element
desig n in
Chapter 4. page 38. It will someti mes A portion like this:
clarity, and importance
by increasin g
ness of the node or landmark
of the large-
The highway itself is of On its course it goes
not where they are perceived.
are indicated
course a path, with more or less clarity of form and directi on.
one Darkening
cases.
used are relatively few.
For an example. see the imaginary
They are shown where they are physically located,
office dis-
scale envir onment,
mark
60
and identi-
just as in any other experience
compress both aspects into one diagram. where the elements
or arriv al mark shows that this
moment
can be arranged
fiable (residential
tricts. large parks). All these elements
should be the same. A better notation would This may be possible in individual
other than straig ht
is an important
of space-
overlap. Ideally. as
clarify both (and to express meaning as well)
but
lines. Small
on the visibility
since the perception
motio n and of orienta tion
we have note d before, the means used to
c
as being relatively homogeneous neighborhoods,
them togeth er.
of the line means that the
length, so that successions can be shown.
enter (tall buildings. Distr icts
directions
ahead. Darkening
districts
from the road. It will be necessary to read
there
with no back reference.
red arrows superim posed
the one symboli zing
we can quickly record the essence of the view
to which it refers,
the line also fades out in dotted
may
space and motion and the other orientati on.
and a dotted line ties the
goal line to the element
intersections).
signs. monuments).
With these two diagrams.
look is
Where the goal is not only not attained
posit ions. and within which
he does not customarily
is not stable. In that case. the diagram have to be broken into parts,
marks after the
indic ate that a backward
total approach
are the points in his image which
are only reference
repre-
points to
Where the goal is never visibly attained.
which he imagines that he can enter (city Landmarks
the relation of the outsid e image to the path
which was the goal at the
of arrival. Visibility
arrowhead
ments , walls ). Nodes are the focal points into squares. railroad terminals.
"pennant"
system. unless
the track of the road is very complex and
possible, These lines and their projections are in black.
paths, nodes. distric ts, edges. and
landmarks.
and a triangular
moment
This seems to be a satis factory
visible is indicated by
line to the right of the image
diagram. Along it. tr iangular proje ctio ns sent the periods in whic h it is pote ntia lly visible.
•
we will use the "image
within which a sin gle goal
is at least occasio nall y a vertical
but we can use some concepts
and te chniques
In particular.
60 The total distance
shaded
be useful to analyze or express structure
of a road.
ae 27
3. Analysis of an EXisting Highway
signs of emotional
reaction. When several
runs are compared.
they prove to be valu able
indic es of where attention
This monograph is based on various tests of the visual impact of the highway. The sub-
focus on a common
is compelled
to
object and where it
ranges more widely.
stantiv e results have been summariz ed in the first chapter. but we must also describe the
A similar graphic technique
tests themselves
the Northeast
in order to identif y the source of our conclu sions To illustrate both source and method. this chapter will concentrate on the test results from one particular route.
of people (twenty
sample
mostly, but
and professional).
Here the subject was given a small pad of paper and requir ed
to sketch the scene at an
extremely
Storrow
pressure that he cannot
Expressway
wider
subjects :
not entirely, middle-class
OUf conclusions were built up from the study of many urban highways in the East: Route 2. Drive. and the Northeast
was used on
Expressway only, and was
carried out by a somewhat
rapid tempo, averaging
three
drawings per minute , Again he is under such consciously
contr ol
in Boston, the approach to Hartfo rd over the Connecticut River. the East River and West
what he records. The sketches were timed
Side Drives in New York City, the Jersey Turnpike from Newark to New York: the
was made: they could then be arranged
Schuylkill
Expressway
as the approach
in Philadelphia,
to the central
delphia through Fairmount
to indic ate the location in whic h each in rows one above another, all drawn to a
as well
part of Phila-
Park: the Rocke-
common time scale. Thus it was possible to see what the entire set of subjects at similar points on the road.
recorded
felle r Parkway in Clevela nd. We have drawn upon the visual experience
of many other
The drawings are necessarily
roads, but we have studied the above roads
many of the indications
in some detail. All of them were chosen be-
as to be unin telligib le
cause they have at least some quality as sequences. The basic technique
know the road, Each subject was asked to
used was the one com-
mon to all artistic criti cism
crude, and
are so compressed to those who do not
numerous
identify all ambiguous
elements
drawinqs immediately
after the run was
of his
complete .
Most of the subjects
minim um
graphic skill (little as this may
be apparent
had at least
repetitions of the experience. and its analysis and evaluation both on the spot and from
few were completely
memory. The process was aided by the use of
drawings exhib it a poor abili ty to connect
under such conditions untrained,
I), but a
The latt er
tape recorder. camera, and sketc h pad to
parts . They have a fragmenta ry
record momentary
impressions.
conte nt is still simila r to the more highly
sions are therefore
based largely on the re-
Our conclu-
actio ns of alert and presumably
sensitive
and
educated observers. The reacti ons of other subje cts might be expected
connected
drawings.
to expand these tests among other groups, parti cula rly
among the daily users of a route.
to be less sharp.
but what scanty evid ence we have indic ates
This sketch technique
that they would not differ markedly in kind.
on the tempo of atte ntio n
at least among other middle-class
of att entio n.
people to
is "forced:'
The greatest divergences
are surprisingly
are likely to occur
quantity
(about which we know nothing).
be recorded,
or possibly
whom we have extremely
littl e data. is th at they
muted) way wherever was a powerful
on the road
they might be able to shut out the view from conscious attention. stimulate d
although
if th ey were
to look they would enjoy even
these mild and famil iar scenes. much as we find pleasure in driv ing through a wellknown countryside.
On the other hand, ex-
cept again for dramatic commuter,
sequences,
a daily
even if he chooses to look. may
possibly find pleasure or meaning primarily in oth er kinds of phenomena' as new constr ucti on.
changing
novelties
such
activ ity or
signs, new detail . movin g traff ic, We lack information on this,
the high selectivit y
at the side or overhead. outli nes again st the sky, roadside detail.
obsta cle s to visio n or movement build ings
and general
view of the roadway. spati al
silhouett ed
the visual sequence
one, Elsewhere
the vast
was striking. Featu res such as
the forward
would respond in the same (if in a somewhat
attention
by many people
similar. Considering
of objects that could potentially
concurrence confi nement
Our guess as to commute rs
and the objects moments,
and the drawin gs
among people of anoth er class or culture along a highway, on
gave us further data
At clim actic
whom the road is not a matt er of long habit .
among daily commute rs
look. but the
It would be interesti ng
like large
or the rear ends of trucks. and
long axial views appear again and again . Detailed results of these verbal and graphic recordings are woven into the analysis described below, Other tests of the subjecti ve
impact of the
road mig ht be imagined
the correlation
physiological
to vis ual events .
reactions
laboratory
experiments
experience
is simulated
more contr olle d
of or
in which the highway and varie d in a
fashion, There might be
testing of other groups' those with different degrees of familiarity, temperament
or with different
or background.
Responses
of subjects who are placed in diffe rent Durin g our investigations.
we made all trips
in the dayti me, in the presence of normal
posit ions
in the car might be studied. (Our
examinati on
dealt primarily
with the case of
city traffi c, but not at rush hours, Thus they
the front-seat
do not convey the night-time
other tests have been attempted
view or the ex-
perie nce of the road in very heavy traff ic, Most of our data comes from this subje ctiv e evaluati on.
but other kinds of tests and
records were also made. The use of photographs, sketches, and motio n pictures has already been noted. We experimented recording
a continuous
with
stream of verbal im-
pressions. given without
pause and at such
speed that the observer loses much conscious contr ol of his observatio ns
and must say the
first thing that comes into his head. These were done for a number of the roads. par63 ticula rly the Northeast
Expressway
by several research personnel.
in Boston,
These record-
paasenqe r.] None of these by us.
....... 28
! The Approach to Central Boston via the Mystic River Bridge Boston affords at least one interestin g example of the approach to the central city: the Northeast Expressway, which comes in at a high level over the Mystic River Bridge. It traverses strong topographical and urban forms and has a decid ed shape of its own. In its variety
it lilustrates
and its tempo
many of the visual possibilities
of urban highways:
panoramas,
fast concenmotio ns, the interplay of major and minor qoals. It has many visual flaws. and yet it affords a dramatic approach to the city. This is the approach that Whitehill trated
refers to in the openin g words of his book on the history
f",
of Boston:"
"Only resid ents
of Essex County and Maine
and New Hampshiremen,
I
approach
traveling
by car,
Boston with any decency, From the
upper deck of the Mystic River Bridge, partic ularly
in the early mornin g,
panorama
of the city in Monet-like
a marvelous blues
and grays unfolds itself" A study was made of this route from its intersection
with Squir e Road in Revere to
63 -the Fort Hill exit in the heart of downtown 64 Bosto n, a dis tance of 6Y. mile s, This trip takes 12M minutes at an average speed of 32 miles per hour. Map 64 shows the general layout of the road, From the flat ground near the Revere airport. it runs south west through a thinly settled area and th en turns southeast
to pass around the nose
of Fennos Hill, It swin gs south west Mt Washington
between
and Powder Horn Hill
and makes a similar double turn once again as it ente rs Chels ea and comes into line with the Mystic River Bridge. It crosses the river at a high level. crosses a small er channel on anoth er bridge, and descends easte rn end of Charlesto wn,
across the
to turn south-
east once more as it traverses the mouth of the Charles River in a regio n of railroad yards and docks. Passing alongside
North
Stati on, it enters Bosto n proper, still at an elevated grade. skirting Haymarket
and
Dock Squares and curving around the easte rn edge of the financia l Although
the expressway
distr ict.
now continues
on south past South Statio n, at the time of our test it termin ated exit, where the off-ramp
at the Fort Hill turns sharply to the
right and descends to street level between massive old buildings.
HARBOR
The impressions
of this road given below are
primarily those of two men who took the trip many times, both as driver and as front-seat passenger.
They are built on the basis of
on-th e-spot
recordings
These recordings
of the experience.
were verbal (in both a
"stream-of-conscio usness" considered
and also a more
style ) and graphic (rapid on-the-
spot sketches. plus slid es and movie sequences). The vie w is fundarnentall v the front- seat conscious
,
."Ie" '%;",.
< ';-1.1:;-
<\<~'
, 64 Map of Northeast
Expressway
passenger
attention
by th ese two observers
was supplemented
the rapid sketches of twenty
,,I.
that of
who is payin g
to the scene. The analy sis other subje cts.
'Walter MuirWhilehilL BosWn. A Topographical History, Harvard University Press. Cambridge. 1959.
by
ar
I
10
.La
_
I..... S K Yll r. l E
~
..
70
~tJt
'...!.'
cft , \
7 ' - -- -- :-
1---" , , l-!...I
~:L]
"
'\. \ "' \\ ,
10
'1I!1
'..!..'
. '.I.'
i ,
.. ..
,
,
",
"
69
··'. ....,., V· ..
•
BRIDGE
\
[J 1II111t':l!11II1II1
ea
4- __
..... Sequence
1
Diagrams
Some of the visual components
of this expen-
.. .1£
65 ence are graphically presented in Figures 65
'
66 and 66, drawn to a time scale, in which the course of the road has been diagrammatically simplified to a straig ht line, The time mark64 ings on the conventional
map, Figure 64,
allow the reader to relate it to these special 65 drawin gs. Figure 65 is a dia gram of the passenger's sense of motion and space. while 66 Figure 66 illustrates
11111111111111111111
67
his orientation-his
image of the total landscape, Both of these diagrams follow the conventions the previous chapter.
develo ped in
1~--_
o
o
1
, ,,
I
az 33
A Trip on the Northeast Expressway Let us describe a brief trip on this road. as it
ready passed gives a sati sfying
might impress a typic al
pletion and Continuity
passenger.
At the
between
start after rising up onto the road by a short ramp, there begins the first or familiarization,
phase. Atte ntion
the confi nement
tween the ridges is equally Satisfying,
traffi c, to the
For a
time after coming out. the sketches of various observers
fly-by of small close objects which give the basic sensation of speed. In the late afternoon in winter. when mosl of the trips were made.
show a striking similarity
as th ey
focus on certain features, such as the hill opposite, a factory on the left. and the curving sweep of the road ahead.
the road points at a low sun. and the qtistening of the sky and of the road and car sur-
The basic motion
of the road here is interest-
ing and pleasant
Having approached
In th e beginning
versed and now approaches
Hill on the left- hand there is litt le to orient the
and he has to trust the road for di-
recti on. The route lacks those elements distant
directi on
in which
on. A foretaste
on the right.
z<
in th e ordinary
while the outside
of ordinary highway-driving,
Attention
observation
falls off markedly.
the sketc hing slackened
by th e sample
is repeated
still
A
group also
for
the two hills there is another small dip (min ute 3M). The motion
since
is not yet the boredom
the early stretch at minute panoramas
the primary
of
1M there are in-
on all sides, But sin ce
purpose of a road is motion.
if it were too prolonged,
one
landscape were proporti onately highways
may be stupefy ing
unless the intense. Our
partly because
they fail for long perio ds to give a sense of motion to the driver Although
the proportion
noticed now
of distant
rose signif icantl y,
objects
it is interesting
to see th at there still was a regular return to
with
pivoting
the objects
a sweep to the rig ht
about a
But like the mound at
mediate ,
moment of confusion
The Mysti c
with
and doubt as to the
Momenta rily
the observer
heig htened
atte ntion.
in the road itself , Even the non-
driving passenger
1M. the dip is rather puzzling, the tempo of attention slows down: there is a road's intentio ns.
spur of
most irritating
views. This little rail
appears again and again in the drawings.
since it is combined
visual interest, the northern
the
be searching
minute
The tempo of
be
rail just at eye level, an annoy-
in itself is not unpleasant, housing project.
of
at this point.
As the road approaches
in a leis urely way, He would
ance that now becomes
teresti ng
later, on th e ap-
River Bridge, where
observer feels that he might the road into Boston. Betw een
1 to 1M. is most like the run
trip , from minute
landscape
of a balustrade
might guess that the leisure would change to
and unexplained
land-
scape is still of weak quality, This part of the
cente rs on the road ahead. but the tempo
slowly. and that he is able to enjoy the whole able, that is, except for the usual annoyance
boredom
proach to the Mystic
of the road and in the basic sense of
at th e same real
speed, he feels that he is going much more
This leisureliness
Powder Horn Hill
Horn Hill once more on the
same movement
the route to the left, would
be of great value.
to dista nt
the sea, boats, the Bosto n
While traveli ng
left. Thus there is a sense of scouting or
edge parallelin g
speed diminishes.
industr y,
panorama.
probing for a way to cross the barrier. This
tower, for example, or a sense of the water
features
objects
Fennos
side, the road has re-
It shortly reverses itself again.
and puts Powder
of
it is so rich farther
view of the Custom House
Soon the original interest
begins to scan right
it blocks off sweeping
faces is a notable feature. The attention to silhouetted objects is heighte ned.
observer.
ably, and the observer
and left and to pay more attentio n
of the cut and the
sense of the open but still defin ed valley be-
is confined to the road itself.
to the signs and accompanyin g
sense of com-
The spatial contrast
deprived of
minute
awaits his release On ris ing to the
River Bridge is finally reached at
7, and gives a strong impression
of
motion while the trusses pass overhead alongsid e.
Logically
and
enough, the crest of th e
Fennos Hill. the interest begins to rise again.
crest, he expects some announcement:
At first it is not clear how. or if, the road will
view of the city, a new landmark.
pass this barrier. The cut is turned at an angle
vivid view of a previous goal, But the confine-
climb. One reaches the crest with anticipa-
to the road and is th erefore
ment of the dip is succeeded
tion and, surmounting
proachin g
The ap-
ribbon of road that may point it out
is obscured vertical
invisible,
by a small mound and dip in the
alig nment
at min ute
67 passes over a road which is larg ely invisible to the observer, an inexplicable small variati ons.
and featureless
horizon. Confinement
hiding. without
equivale nt
whose origins
but
are not visu-
becomes
into the cut.
quency of comments
tion at the crest of the long rise has been
scheme. The turning conveying
bridges) centration
sidewise,
is reflected
and tempo
continuity
out of the cut, the observer's
sweep the far landscape
a
cut, a sharper turn, the This in tensif icatio n
before, the framed
of
gives a sense of both
and forward
progressio n.
Just as
view slides quickly to the
chimneys
and gas tanks roll
River Bridge, then the
to
70 appears, smaller
than the first, an inexpli cable
bridge, since the Mystic
River is presumably
past. (The new bridge crosses the Little Mystic
Channef. ) This bridge block'S off the
city panorama,
and when
the latter is re-
the long wait.
now continue to be visible almost It is still a compellin g
view. however,
and the
rate of sketc hing
reached a peak, and the
observers
notatio ns
bridges.
fore and after the second bridge. noting
of cut
are notably
signs. and distant
similar.
common features: chimneys.
The road passes through
sketch
an industrial
distric t.
distant
as rapidly as they can, bemany
the skyline, industrial landmarks.
There is a
strong sense of the central city and its rna ny
pick up the next majo r event. Powder Horn
dips down. and swings to the right as before.
recognizable
Hill, whose
Here, however,
House, the State House, the John Hancock
princip al
and a wate r
landmarks
(a hospital
view while the observer
degree turn to the left (actually 68 nearer 60 degreesl. himself
69 larger rhythm
is moving through
the first bridge. There is an apparent
towered
90-
objects are still visible,
and then
House tower appears
and engages
sliding moti on, first to the right
moving along the back side of Fennos
the
of majo r goals , a small two-
over the rooftops
finds
With in
church on the left is sighte d
passed by. The Custom
the turn is
and the observer
distant
there is no break of continuit y.
tower) are seen in the framed
in an arnusmq then to the
Hill. whose rocks and slopes make a pleasant
left. The Mystic
contrast
to the right. and then swings over to the left.
backward
to the urban scene at the right. This view of an orie ntatio n
element
----
al-
River Bridge is at first far
giving that same sense of scouti ng.
--
Further-
more, since it is a long linear landmark a distinctiv e
silhouett e.
into line a turnin g
with
it can be seen to turn
that persists with
increas-
ing speed and tension up to th e very moment of entr ance. The tempo of sketches marks slacked off here. but certain
~'
features
ea
At minute with
and retypical
appear, particu larly the church and
the approaching
~
to-
when
vealed again, its impact is already dulled by of
eyes
and immediate ly
directly
the toll barrier is passed, a second bridge
up to the end of the route. At this point. the
of atte ntion.
down,
reveal th e entire city, Unfo rtunately,
orienta tion
This
and the observer.
is ready for a climax.
Since the road now points
ward Boston, it would now be opportune
of the earlier crossing'
by, th en the Mystic
in th e con-
and intensif ied,
pausing momentarily.
repetition
landmarks On bursting
at
to a halt at minute 8
of this second ridge, in fact, is an in-
Custom House tower, These basic themes
by the cut and the
to move swiftly
stretc hed
brid ges,
to the left. The
is brought
crossin g
right. Industr ial
I
causing the far land-
scape (which is framed strong impression
•
of the road adds to the a sense of centrifu ga
Like
to pay his toll. Thus the moment of anticip a-
tensifi ed
bridges closer together.
edge in the orientation
force and apparently
by two overhead
the earlier experience
and the bridges
and the cut marks the pas-
sage of an important
and sketches
the road swings
deeper. narrower
and makes a
left turn. Visual speed is inte nsifie d
by the spatial confinement passing overhead.
appears. just
the observer
a poin t where
to Fennos
clear. and excitement
under the two bridges overhead,
on the rig ht. At
the same time the toll barrie r at the end of the bridge,
Fennos Hill. this new ridge is also traversed
act only as minor irritants.
mounts as the road plunges
interest.
The Bunker Hill Monument
to the
Powder Horn Hill is approached on the left , to the accompaniment of an increasing fre-
by a cut crossed
sweeping
and
visual intensity
the long
it, pic ks up a new goal:
Coming down over the crest to the toll ba mer.
in th e line,
Once past this hump, the approach Hill suddenly
river and ocean fully explaining
only by a bland
and so the hump is for him irregula rity
Changes of level can be quite exciting. ally explain ed,
long rise is in the bridge itself. the visible
or a more
upon release. is a disappointment observer.
1X This mound
a
seems to check his im-
moving environment.
mouth of the brid ge.
5X, the road begins a long rise, and,
udde
break-through
at the level of
skyline objects
the Custom
Building,
the Court House, the Old North
Church.
North Station, the Hotel Madison.
Unfortu natelv. this view has no recognizable general form, nor is its relatio n in any way clear.
to the water
The road now sweeps down. focusing attention ahead. On the left are docks. factories. and aset of brightly painted chimney stacks. which seem to move and grow in an interesting way. At the right is the Bunker Hill Monument, now drawing abreast. so that the road appears to pass a gate marked by pylons on either side, Both of these objects were drawn by almost everyone. The road seems to gather speed, pointing at a tangle of traffic lanes below. which convey the sense of abig city, and produce a feeling of doubt, or even concern, At minute 9, the road enters anexaggerated dip at Charlestown, an unforgettable experience of motion and space occasioned by the intersection at City Square. The road plunges steeply down, directly at a small building which divides the roadway like the cutwater of a boat. then veers left to avoid this building and.at the very bottom, sweeps up and over in an ascending reverse curve to the right. The alignment of the road is strongly reinforced by the little "divider" building, and then by the lofty windowless wall of a warehouse on the left, seen asthe road climbs out of the hole andis pressed back to the right. Finally, asthe road rolls over the top. it again swings left and toward the city. This isa strong motion experience. aswell as asharp break inorientation continuity. It caused arapid increase in the tempo of observation, both verbal and graphic. The key elements in the sequence are drawn repeatedly. More drawings are produced here than at anyother time on the trip. The motion experience isstrong enough to carry the observer through the break in orientation, and the break itself intensifies the Boston approach, last seen asa general panorama and now. after this momentary hiding, to be entered directly. Coming upthe crest. there is asense of disappointment as before. since the horizon is empty and the expected view of the Charles Riverdoes not materialize, But the paceof movement carries the observer beyond the turn. and asthe road swings left. hesees Boston for the second time. now close at hand. At minute 10. still scanning, he is swept under the stub end of a roadway at a higher level. oppressive but exciting. The sketches are typically heavy and black, This ceiling comes over him too fast. before he has been able to adjust to his closeness to the city. There is asense of darkness. confusion. and strain. Under the girders hesees the baseof the Custom House again, and suddenly he slides sideways to the right and rushes toward the gap alongside the massive bulk of the North Station. with the Custom House much enlarged and directly on axis. and the signs flying by overhead. This isa climactic moment. Hardly one sketcher failed to record it. On bursting through this apparent wall around the central city. the observer again scansthe landscape. The objects in view are now all nearby objects; he has arrived. The wide road sags away before him, bending slightly l eft (like an echo of the hill crossings?) The city behind the wall opens out into a rather formless bowl. whose edges are undistinguished, except for the presence of the Custom House. now shifting right.
-- - == --------------- - ------em
The observer's elation gradually ebbs away. He is not at the city center-after all. but in some fringe region, The tempo of attention slows again. though not as drastically as before. since there are a number of interesting objects and signs around him, While verbal comment drops off. the rate of sketching is maintained for some time. If the observer knows Boston. he may regret his inability to seeany evidence of the market activity below him. or to sense the presence of the nearby ocea n. The bust I ing market area appears gray and chaotic from the rooftop level, one of the finest harbors on the Atlantic coast is two blocks away but has disappeared without atrace
"
" -
rc
Meanwhile. the observer is faced with two off-ra mp decisions in rapid succession the first to Haymarket Square. the second to Dock Square. The tempo of decision, so placid before, has increased alarmingly. The acceleration of this tempo, although perhaps a natural featu reof the center, has in this case been extreme. The Custom House now slips off to the right, sinks behind lower buildings, and becomes visible only fleetingly down the side streets. This major goal. which has been apparent from an early stage of the trip. is now neither decisively reached nor visibly passed by. since the surrounding buildings block off the view asit comes alongside and falls behind This failure adds to the disappointment of the arrival. Meanwhile, the road reaches the edge of the open bowl. and pivots sharply to the right around the end of an old mercantile buildinq. Attention is focused momentarily on its brick and stone, and the marks of old stair treads on its end wall. This pivot building not only marks the turn but strengthens its sensation. much as one can swing quickly around when one grasps and pivots on a corner post. The building appears frequently in the drawings. The road now takes on, for a short time. a new and pleasant motion, Running level. it weaves gently from side to side. passing close by the upper stories of the commercial buildings at the fringe of the office district. This weaving motion. pleasurable in itself, directs the attention now to this and now to that side of the building wall, picking out various features for attention. The closeness of these structures, and the fact that they are already familiar in a different context as seen from the streets below, greatly adds to the interest of the scene. For the moment. one seems to be on tour. The spatial proportions are quite pleasing. A new "divider" appears, a yellow cutwater. with its sign directing the observer to his exit. The path sweeps down to the right, past a new parking garage which slowly rotates on the left. The tempo qraduallv slows, and the vehicle sinks down into the dark slotted spaces of the central city. For the last lime. the sketchers concur in recording these key features. Although this exit lacks the satisfaction of a strong terminus to the journey, it has acommendable feature. While most expressway exits are quite sudden and plunge quickly into the confusion of the lower streets, the Fort Hill exit descends straight ahead for some distance, As he gradually enters the heart of the city, the observer has time to adjust himself to the new scale. and to reorient himself. A short, turning ramp often leaves the observer dizzy and adrift.
e
e
•
,
-
N~AR OBJ~CT
A H EA O
-
R IG HT
The Trip in Review Going back over the whole experience, it is interesting to analyze, in a rough quantitative way, the items mentioned in the rapid recordingof verbal impressions, Roughly two-thirds of the sightings were directed straight ahead. and only one-third either to right or left, Even in the latter case, almost all things seen were obliquely right or left rather than perpendicular to the line of travel. Vision in motion is apparently strongly focused, even for the passenger Two-thirds of the remarks had to do with nearby and apparently moving objects. rather than the potentially larger number of distant "stable" ones, Almost two-thirds of the impressions were caused by things in or ad jacent to the right-of-way. As a resuIt half of all the comments hadto do with things which were in the right-of-way, were near and apparently moving, and were inthe central sector of vision. This limited portion of the landscape was disproportionately important asthe source of visual material. How these characteristics varied during the trip is 71 illustrated in Figure 71, which shows. in the case of one observer, the timing of his comments and the relative distance and angle of the things to which he refers. If the total of recorded comments by the two men who studied the road in detail is broken down by subject matter. we can summarize them in the following table: Number of comments Subject maner
168
Featuresof the RoadscapeItself: signs the structure of the road system detail and texture of the edge traffic pavement
128
TheSenseof Spaceand Motio n without Other Specific Reference
94 The Meaning of the Surroundinglandscape: aClivityand use topography. natural features structures at medium distance
81
61
TheSenseof Orientation, Location andApproach Miscellaneous: silhouette light. weather, and sky detail and texture not at the road edge plants people, etc.
532
Total Comments
36
The correspondence
of these data to the
drawings
on the details of the roadscape (in whic h the signs were particularly menta l sensation,
important),
conti nuously
commonly
surroundin g
Certa in sequences
143! S EN SE O F B UI LD IN G l EF T
crude drawings,
motio n of
LAMPS
(58!
The majority of the sketchers petent drafts men.
[includinq the sense of approach, the location
build ings.
sense of orientation.
proper in detail,
and the meaning
highway experience.
It is diffi cult
since
But if we classify all the objects drawn in all the sketches, and compare the frequency of notati ons in each class with the total number of notations.
we can constr uct
the
table to the right.
frequency,
2 0- 25 %
f-i:i •::l ti •
10-15%
·-
5- 10 %
ofthe
,
~~ ~ rtl
achie ve the frequency
2Jo1-5%
to indicate graphically between things.
signs lampposts
0
73 Figure 73 is someth ing
traffic
2~
of things passing overhead
of a sense
hills
approxim ates
CUSTOM HOUSE TOWER
same drawing
----
however, since in some portions
The impact
many are
on the outs ide of a curve. toward which the by the pointing of the car.
Undoubtedly.
CUSTOM HOUSE
TW'N·TOWERED CHURCH LEFT
CITY HALL TOWER
this highway,
CUSTOM HOUSE
course of the road. dividers. pivots. or obstacles
failu re to produce that the isola ted objects
was never his conscious aim, But it is the
wheth er
lamps. chim-
thesis of this paper that highways
verti cal objects
conscious
is the importance
Anoth er
strik ing featu re
water tower, the Seagram's House tower, Contr ary to expectati on,
(49)
DOUBLED BRIDGES
Therefore
BRIDGE IN DISTAriCE
w ' -' - -' ' -" - -' " -'- "- B RI D GE S '
D E PT H E X AG GE R AT ED
Expressway
the Northeast
as if it were such a deliberate its fail ures
HOSPITAL BUILO'NGS
and appla ud-
17· Q
(44)
and very
noted it often.
FACTORY lEFT DF ROAD
most not at all. Perhaps it was more diffi cult to note. or the subje cts felt that they "weren't supposed"
~
SIGN
(53)
esthetic experience.
we have discussed
attempt. analy zing ing its successes,
JThIl
to draw such thin gs, Where it
did appear, the view most frequentl y
~
I) LAMPS
~
could be
traff ic appeared
Some observers
1~
~
OVERHEAD SIGN_jl'~IP\
works of art, that the material
coherent and delightful BUILDlriG WALL
BRIDGe STRUCTUR,
sign. the Custom
rather seldom in the drawings. irregularly,
the
H O US E
5~~1\
is at hand with which to make drivin q a
of objects in axia l view
as th e road comes out of confin ement:
.
a work of art, if this
It is also remarkable
neys. or towers. are typically
I . IS T OM
by the desig ner of
He was involv ed with the
which are recorded. seen in silhouette .
ROAD CURVES LEFT
problems of cost. traffic capacity, safety, and structure. He can hardly be censured for
visibly avoided by the alignment.
M
3
most of these impressions
were never consid ered
the
amoce
C
147)
made but of all the same things. The symbols
These last are most often either buildings
or buil dings which seem to "direct"
[(m.""",,,
~.
are being made but of diverse
alongside the sketches indic ate the general tempo of drawing.
objects which occur right at the roadsid e
DISTRIBUTED]
LOZENGESHAPED ROAD SIGN
'";~.~_
(38!
_
GUARD RAil IG,NERALlY
t
is
INSIDE BRIDGE
f\_"_"_ce_,
the same
objects. and in oth ers few drawings
is also notable,
TOLL GATES AND LAMPS
aD·
It does not reflect the tempo of drawing. sketches
I
(57!
focused or forced, and what it is focusing on.
of
~x
If-I IAjl
of observers were making the at approxim ately
point. Thus it shows where attention
TWIN TOWERED CHURCH
-[fif,', , 11' ? v--, ,A
-
view
111
III BUNKER HILL MONUMENT
•
the connections
the most usual detail ) when-
ever a majority
as is that of the buildin gs or other large
eye is dir ecte d
;"'M""~
(46)
APPROACHING SECOND BRIDGE
A~ .
BOSTON SKYlIN,
of what the sketc hers saw. that is. it reproduces a sketch (in a simplified style which
noted in the table. it
the sketc hes of every observer
They diff er
of a composite
BUL I DN I G A N D F L YI N G· A S I GN R OA D D IV ID ES A ri D D IP S A HE AD
~Jlt---~--~
while the un-
drawings note somewhat of orientation,
It;
d ~ ~D I VI D ER
most likely this is simply due to an inability
skylines
to
appears each time in th e great majority
1//-, ( ~(
drawings and very weak in the others. But
8-
• • ,, ,, o
ON LEFT
of space. which is str ong in the skill ed
guardrails, and other edge detail
perspective
view of the road is especially strik ing,
LAMPS AND SIGNS NEAR CREST
were drawn some-
most sharply in the conveyance
distant landmarks
sketch sequences,
The repeated appearance
C O NF I NE M EN T U N DE R S T UB
CREST, BRIDGE UP IN OISTANCE
WAREHOUSE ~.
and so were signs, Traffic
of sil houette,
sophisticated
sense of confinement at the side
o _ :0'15
:=
at the roadside
fewer elements
but with rather similar frequencies
in most of the individual
;0 "".,
_______~ 1
similar to that of the other group
importance
objects overhead large objects at the edge of the road
.;;;iii ti b
"
Almost all the groups above the 5 per cent line appear not only with that average
noted down, But a quantitative
the groups are much the same. Both convey the sense of dynamic movement and the
shape of the road ahead
0
are not easy to construct.
",Me os
D AR K NE S S A r D i )~
(471
and hills were rarely recorded, Otherwise
e ~
~:5o
to compare the sketches
directly with the verbal comments. parallel categories
elements
what more often.
Class of objects drawn
Our studies of other
are generally the basis of the
'~~~~{I \l'"
""
~
skil led,
a lack of abili ty to connect the
Build ings
to be
highway experience.
CUSTOM HOUSE TO RIGHT
analy sis of the classes of things shown is
of this particular
roads lead us to guess that these same four elements
c
this might
showing
surprisin gly
of the
being traversed-appeared
the basic components
G,O';oM "CO,"",
make. Their sketches were obviously cruder
These four
roadscape
of space and motion, the
to see what diffe rence
72 than those done by the graphically
its activities.
and natural featu res,
landscape
intereste d
and on reading the meaning of
the impressio n
were com-
but six of the twenty
PIVOT BUILOING Ori RIGHT
I
(r (
subje cts had no graphic skil l. and we were
of major urban and natu ral features with respect to self. and the noting of distant
elements-the
R AM P R IG HT A ND S IG N
;11 ~ 11
space being moved through.
landscape:
~
1M t
there is also a strong sense
of spatial character. of general orientation. and of silhouette.
Attention otherwise centers on orientation
the surrounding
•
entry past North Station. Even in these
objects. and the shape of the
landmarks).
CANYON SPACE, RAMP DOWN
~.~
are
drawn as such the approach to
the bridge. the dip at City Square. the
throughout the trip. was the visual sense of motion and space, includin g the sense of one's own motio n. the apparent
convey a very strong feeli ng of
motio n and sequence.
the funda-
referred to
'Ir'
7
As far as we can judge, and this is necessarily a very subjective judgment, most of the
general categorie s discussed in Chapte r 1 may be remarked. Beyond the concentration
shown
WATER TDWER ON HILL
OVERHEAD SIGN
) j ) S·CURVE IN ROAD
HOSPITAL Ori HILL
139)
was the rear end of a large truck which
lri DiSTANCE
~
WATER TOWER IN D1STAriC E
c ~
,
tended to block the view. There was substantial traff ic on the road. but it was not at a peak. Sketches durin g the rush hour might WALL
have shown more oars.
WALL
" " •r
~•
BRIDGE OVERHEAD IN CUT
a: 140) ill
• DISTANT OBJECT
• r ill
u
" < ill
•
W::-;: RI.IC K
J."1
" ~
a
to
RAMP UP AND EMBANKM"H
FRDM REAR G I EriE RALLY DISTRIBUTEDI
d
(49)
LEFT
OVERH,AD SIGN ROAD CURVES AHeAD
. 1
LOZENGe-SHAPED SIGN
"'1\---
"
~ ~ ~
ml-
,i
U
~
"
~~"",CENTER
ANDLANDMARK
39
4. MethodsofDesign
The road shoots through a sl.nrt tunnel and suddenly emerges in a park, which recalls the rural land of the approach.
><
If we look at highways as works of art experienced
by the driver, what effects of
space or sequence
might be achieved?
As a first illustration. an imaginary
city,
74 This is shown in Figure 74, which illustrates how a simplified analysis of both spacemotio n and orientati on drawing.
can be shown in one
an approaching view,
road recalls the original rhyth m of risin g
the main
sweeping horizontal
of the curve. and the view is dir ected Thus the spatia l opening regularly
reverses from one side to another. When
rises and falls over the rolling rural hinterla nd. In a dip, the highway passes a solit ary
looking right. the view is of city development, while the leftward views are of the river
landmark (build ing,
and its green banks. Meanwhil e, gradient conti nues to rise.
which symboliz es
pylon. gateway,
sign)
the city and announces
view. The pavement
a
the activity
boundary of the main
re-enters the park. running directly along
etrate s the ridge in a deep cut. a strong
the river itself. The space is confined.
spati al confi nement,
park contrasts
the
with the intense activit y of
framed in the walls of the cut. the driver
the road, and above the trees floats a
enjoys a sustain ed axial view of the city
truncated view of a tall central build ing. very close
cente r to which
he is going. marked by some
tall build ings.He
sees a great bridge in the
middle dista nce,
which forete lls his fu ture
course. and he senses the entire city before him,
now
A last landmark announces the final view. The road breaks out of the park. rising in a great curve which crosses the river and embraces the center itself. The highway
The road drops to the valley botto m: dista nt view disappears, conta ct
momentarily
right- hand
The driver makes
with the river. on his
side, and then enters an outlying
urban region. From this poin t conti nues
the
the highway
to rise and fall. just as it did
in the rural area. but now it rises on artif icia l elevated structures
S SUB-CENTER
I.
again in the middle dista nce.
while the
appears close at hand, The road
sinks; he loses sight of all but local detail,
urban space. to plunge into an underground terminus at the foot of the central build inq. Leaving his vehicle. the driver may walk out where the water skirts the
intensive inner core of the centra Idistrict. close under the shadow of the tall buildin g which has symbolized the beginning, This is a simplifie d
the city center from
situation,
but not an
unusual one. Any real design must fit a detai led pattern of topography
and develop-
while activ ity build s up. When his vehicle
ment. and must serve particula r
rises once more, the driver finds the sub.
of circulati on.
cente r immediate ly
before him. He descends
illustrate
into it in a sweeping
turn. entering an
urban space where activ ity reaches an initial peak of visual interest.
demands
But perhaps the example will
that a highway can be thought
of as a sequential
experience.
diagrams are a convenie nt
and that our
means of ex-
pressing and designing that experience. Using them, we were able to consider and organize the structure
of the movin g view.
while leaving open the questio ns form and character,
I ~
The design illustrates ties: susta ined
R I VE R
interwoven
~
v
elevation
of detailed
a few simple possibili-
progression
to a fin al goal
with approaches
goals : establishment transmuted
AURAL
activ e
At the next rise, the driver sees the bridge subcenter
,.
drops down through an inte nsely
to the riverbank.
to prelim inary
of a basic rhyth m.
but not broken, the use of
to give distant views. and of
curves to give sidewise views: the contrast of rural and urban development,
or of
open and closed space; the regular repetition of such featu res as contact announcin g
with a river,
a vie w by a prio r symbol. or
entering a nodal point via a descending turn, the gradie nt of activit y which leads up to each clim ax, but which is interrupted moment
of hesitatio n
the culmin atio n, and development of approach.
IlmU1I1II EDGeS
...""" ~
~AR~ IMAGE BLACKOUT
-
¥ rr-
by a
or suspense before
These techniques
of contr ast
serve to underlin e the act
This example is no more than an illustratio n CONFINEMENT
NODE
of method,
It lacks real content and negle cts
many possibili ties
of light and form, of
textu re and deta il. The outward L/l,NDMARK
GOAL ARRIVAL
been considered.
This artery is an inner-ring
road of expressway
to the central busin ess
area. Although
trip has not
draining the part of this
inner ring has now been constructed,
the
location of other parts is controversial. There is one publis hed route for this artery, however, which has been the route used as a basis for our analysis.' We have accepted the basic concept and the general patte rn and function of the redesigned
At the second curve to the left, the road
river system. The road rises high, yet penOn the downgrade.
We proceed to make
desig n. but this time it will
standard which will encircle centr al Boston,
Centr al Artery,
rises to ascend the next
ridge, the topographic
OmrUmH1J1I
as the road
situation,
anoth er imaginary
metropolit an
How might such an approach be organized? A basic rhythm is established
a more concrete illustrati on. and to explo re specific methods and proble ms, let us turn to an exis ting
the major radial expressways
turns. At each turn,
structures confi ne the space on the inside outwards,
I
ex-
distr ict at one point, and which will receiv e
cente r along the general line of the river.
~
as a purely hypothetical
ample . has neither the problems nor the visual interest of a real case To present
comin g tangentia lly
to the flat urbanized valle y botto m, the and fallin g by making a succession of
approaching
The foregoin g,
Boston
The road goes up onto the great bridge
of a river. The road will enter the metropolitan and will pass by an
Artery.
be one whic h is based on Boston's proposed Central Artery.
area from hilly farmland urban subcente r.
BRIDGE
symbolizes
central core is in view again. Descending
cente r of a large city located on the banks
~ ~ ~
turn. bringing
more. He begins to rise out of this riverside park, passing anoth er landmark which
which has been foreseen, and crosses the river, From the crest of the bridge, the
A radial highway is directed toward the
RIVER
up by a sweeping horiz onta l
the driver into touch with the river once
we have constructed
approach to an imaginary
Inste ad of
risin g again , the approach rhythm is picked
The Central
but have relo cate d and
it as if no investment
had yet
been made in plans, land acquisition. struction.
The crit erion
governing
or con-
this imagi-
nary design has been the visual, esthetic experience
of those driving on the road. The
only constrain t reasonableness No attempt
imposed was that of general as to cost and traffic function.
was made to find the cheapest or
the most efficient layout. above this level of general reasonableness. The desig n is therefore tion. not advanced
a theoretic al
as someth ing
the present official proposal. illustrate
construc-
bette r than
but used to
how roads might be shaped if vis ual
form were the dominant
crite rion,
vious that in actual practice
It is ob-
other criteria
would be of equal or greater importance. in this early stage of develo pment
But
we can
clarify our ideas best by emphasizin g esthetic factor.
the
• The Master Highway Plan for the Boston Metropalitan Area, Charle s A, Maguire and Assocs" Boston. 1948.
The
Boston Image Our first step was to put down the basic organization ofthe central city, as it can be grasped through land-use maps,topographic maps, area photographs, and general experience.This pattern of organization was 75 charted on a map (Figure 75). The original settlement of Boston was on a peninsula at the mouths of the Charles and Mystic Rivers. which form a good harbor as they run into a combined estuary. The peninsula was made up of several hills. fringed by tidal flats and connected by a narrow neck with the mainland, In time. the hills were leveled, the tidelands reclaimed. and the neck greatly enlarged. The harbor now reaches up the Mystic River, while the Charles River has been dammed to make an ornamental basin. The downtown area hasexpanded and developed into several districts of diverse activity. Shopping has grown down Washington andTremont Streets. pivoting around the Common and up Boylston to Coplev Square, the higher-quality shopping center, The financial district still centers on State Street and Post Office Square. while a new business center is growing up around Copley Square To the State House and Court House on Beacon Hill will be added new city. state. and federal buildings to form agovernment center running from Beacon Hill down to Dock Square. Cultural activities have become focused inthe Huntington Avenue and Copley Square areas.A new cluster of office buildings isplanned on the railroad yards just west of Copley Square, The old street system radiates out from the original hub. the majority of the radials fan out along the old neck.while a few cross the Charles and the inner harbor on bridges and in tunnels, The railroad lines converge on two termini at the north and south. the southern lines slashing across the neck in an awkward diagonal line. Just to the north. across the inner harbor. lies Logan International Airport. On this pattern of circulation is now being imposed still another element, the new expressway system. How well is this organization perceived by the inhabitants of the city? From the air the form of acity might express its function in a relatively clear way, but on the ground, where it is seen and experienced by the people who use it. the city may make a very confused image in their minds. The nature of this image was deduced from the results of interviews made in connection with another project * • Reported in The Image of the City. op. cit.
A selected group of Boston residents were askedto indicate their knowledge of the layout of the central peninsula. andfrom these interviews a composite map of the commonly remembered parts of the city was made 76 (Figure 76)',Thesesurveys were conducted on alimited scale.using a small group of peopleand covering only the central part of our area.But the results have been confirmed in other ways, Thecharting of sucha map provides very useful information. for one primary aim of this highway design isto repairand reinforce this city image and to orient the driver to it Among the weaknesses of this image, the following stand out asthe most significant
The strength of an image in the minds of city dwellers depends on three things: its visual impact, its functional or symbolic meaning. and whether anyone is there to see it, A dramatic but relatively meaningless advertising sign may be impressive. or a relatively small but significant church spire may be remembered, But both have to be within the visual reach of a sufficient number of people. The dock area in Boston, for instance. is both visually exciting and symbolically important, yet it is blocked off from the main viewing points. remaining blank on the image map.
1.The location ofwater in the city isconfusing,The Charles River is lost soon after it has flowed past the Longfellow Bridge. because it isinterrupted bythe Charles River Dam and various road and railroad crossings. The water surface is sliced up into so many fragments that it disappears as acontinuous visual form. The Fort Hill Channel on the South Baysuffers from a similar disruption.
1. From the air and on a plan. the layout of the central peninsula, surrounded by water, and even the radial street layout seem very clear. This order may at present be very difficult to decipher on the ground, but at the scale of an expressway this could be resolved.
The unknown origin of the Mystic River in the industrial flatlands behind Charlestown is also puzzling. and even the harbor itself is so cut off from the main traffic streams that its shapeand presence isperpetually elusive Boston isa port. andyet many people never seethe sea.even though it is within ashort distance of the downtown area, 2. The hubor radial pattern of downtown Boston. with its irregularly converging routes. isanother source of disorientation, There is no clear compass direction. so that people useother more local elements infinding their way, These characteristics will betroublesome for a ring road. 3. Several parts of the central city are invisible from the official expressway route Scollay Square.Tremont andWashington Streets. the Boston Common. Boylston Street. These four lack integral landmarks which are visible from the "outside." 4. The bend in the axisof the central district at the Common presents its own orientation difficulty, The loosely clustered cultural center of Huntington Avenue and the Fenway lacks landmarks or clear connections to the rest of the city. 5. Inner-ring "grayness" isa characteristic of almost every American city. The central core is recognizable, familiar. and often dramatic. but the surroundings arefeatureless and un. known, Thus. although the low hills of Roxbury. Somerville. Eastand South Boston surround the central peninsula. they are not very tall. and their landmarks-local churches and town halls-are seldom seenfrom the building-enclosed streets. Skyline views are infrequent in Boston. with the exception of those seenfrom the Charles River Basin.
" KEY RETAil SHOPPING INSTITUTIONAL PARKS
=
_
SOMERVILLE
INDUSTRIAL ORIGINAL SHORE liNE
Of aOSTON
HARVARD CAMBRIDGE
Some of the visual potentialities of Boston can also be listed:
EAST BOSTON
2. The presence of large open spaces around the central peninsula-the Charles River. the harbor. and even the large tracts of the railroad yards outside North and South Stations-maintains asense of free space around the center where one can stand back and look at the city. 3. The surrounding hills indicate specific locales. with their town halls as in Somerville, or churches as in Charlestown. South Boston. and Mission Hill. These landmarks, which greatly increase the apparent height of the hills. could be much better appreciated if the road were built high enough to look over the rooftops, 4. The downtown districts are varied and have distinctive landmarks: the Government Center with the State House and the Court House. the financial district with its high buildings: the new office center which is to contain afifty-story tower over half again as high asthe already overpowering John Hancock Building. Each of these clusters of landmarks is quite different in character. possibly excepting the confusion between the Court House and other office buildings. Although very much out of scale with Boston as it stands today. the proposed new office center (the Prudential I nsurance Company development) will nevertheless provide. together with the John Hancock Building as the other pole. a clear axis down the peninsula. which will tell travelers how they are oriented to downtown. The square plan of the proposed tower, however, may cause some confusion when the building is seen alone, since every side will appear the same.
RoxaURV
-------
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75 Map of Structure of Boston 76 Existi ng Image of Boston
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EAST BOSTON
BROOKLINE
6. Almost the whole south side of the peninsula fades away in the image. for this is an area of transition, of extensive railroad yards, of old and new industry-a region of formlessness.scattered objects, and ragged enclosure. From ground level there seems to be no order beyond that of the downtown landmarks in the distance. and the glimpse of the hill of South Boston by the sea Only from the air orfrom high upoff the ground can the lines anddirections of the railroad tracks be understood. The lack of visual connection between the north and south side of the peninsula constitutes a further problem.
OORCHESHR BAV
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KEY _
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STRONG IMAGE IMAGE
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MAJOR
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MINOR LANDMARKS NODES EDGES
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KENMORE S OU AR E
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Design Procedure Detailed explorations were made along the general alignment of the officially proposed route, to study the character of the districts passedthrough, the possible landmarks, nodes,vistas, etc. Excursions were made off the route to gain an idea of possible alternative locations. Important views of the city were also studied. Skyline relationships between different landmarks were noted from 77 different positions and different heights.' Thecoincidence and overlapping of landmarks give certain viewpoints a more concentrated importance than others, Thus the view from the Cottage Farm Bridge. which takes in the towers of the financial district. the State House on Beacon Hill, and the Charles River infront of all, sums upa great part of central Boston in one glance. This view would be seizedupon as a basic reference point.
!
D E PA RT M eN T C O UR T Of PUBLIC HOUSE
n ~~J _ ~_~IvjMANGER
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CUSTOM HOUSE TOWER
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COURT HOUSE
Theform of the city has to be seenfrom different viewpoints. from different heights. and even from different speeds, so that the range of possibilities can be grasped before choices are made.The designer must place himself in the position of a motorist traveling along a road that isn't there. He imagines buildings cleared away and new buildings where none now exist. Hepictures the future form of the road infront of him, placing himself high up in the air.A helicopter would be of great use.while some sort of mobile extension ladder might also be helpful. This particular survey was carried out by climbing buildings of different heights. The static view is alsovery different from the moving one. and sometimes a study from a moving vehicle ismore useful. even if not in the precise projected location. Other techniques can be used in addition to direct field reconnaissance: a visual recording of alternative routes taken through a carefully made scale model, the layout of routes on oblique aerial or ground photos taken from different angles. or the study of possibilities by means of the notation developed in Chapter 2.
77 Example of Reconnaissance Sketch Present expressway designers who are not accustomed to using these or equivalent methods must havevery little idea of the visual experience they are creating, or of the possibilities that they have within their power They areworking blind, and one imagines the surprise with which new vistas open up to them asthey travel along their new roads, Our design. while the product of extensive personal surveys, must beconsidered a limited first attempt The drawings which illustrate it begin with the location of the 79.81 proposed road on a map of Boston, plus an 80 aerial perspective and a section through the road,followed by progressively subjective drawings interpreting different aspects of the road experience. The plan, section, and perspective show the proposed road's physical relationship to the city, the section illustrating vertical alignment 78 i n relation to structures both inside and outside the ring, The reasonsfor certain basic decisions must first be given. • Dia grammati c sketches were often found to be more useful than photographs 01skylines, since the camera reduces distant objects out of all proportion to their apparent visual dimensio ns
I
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HUNTINGTON AvENUE
SYMPHONY HMl
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PRUDENTIAL
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JOHN HANCOCK
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COLUMBUS POINT TOWERS
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SOUTH BOSTON
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BUNKER Hill MONUMENT
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79 Location of Proposed Inner Belt
CUSTOM HOUSE TOWER
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81 Comparison
of Proposed
The Siz e and Eccentricit y The first noticeable
Route with Officia l
ofthe
Ring
Route
Orienta tion
difference between this
proposal and the offic ial scheme is th at our 81 locatio n encloses the city in a tig hter ring.
of the Road System
A circular road presents a difficult in orientatio n,
problem
The radials under the ot-
ficia l scheme enter the belt at many differ-
The official route suffers grave disadvantages in its western portio n, since it travels low
ent points and would be very troubling
through
ing these radials togeth er at three key points
"lost. "
residential
areas and is consequentl y
The alte rnativ es
road further
are eith er to take the
out onto the slopes and along the
summit s of Bosto n's surrounding bring it closer in, Unfortu nately ,
hills or to
on the ring road, the points representin g
the
directions north, south, and west. The bulge on the eastern side contacts the sea. wit h offramps at Sumner Tunnel to cross the harbor.
the structure of Boston would
not be so comprehensible
to
hold in mind, This is solved here by gather-
from those hills as
82 The ring road now becomes a tria ngle rather than a circle, with a large three-way
inter-
it might appear The confu sed path structu re,
sectio n at each apex. It would
the dense foreground
sible to grasp the general direction of the
develo pment,
and the
lack of any really high viewing points result
now be pos-
radials: those going north leave from the
in obli que views of the city which are inde-
northernmost
cipherable at the speed of the motorcar. In
plan, Route 2 traveling west joins and leaves the belt at the north ernmost point. ) The
this case, a carefull y told sequence may be clearer than an over-all view,
clustering
point, and so on. (In the offic ial
of radials into three groups of two
would simplify decision makin g: instead of There are advantages in taking the road extremely close to the center: close contact is always excit ing. Unfortu nately, ways comprehensible ,
it is not al-
decis ions that have to be made at high speed
therefo re been tightened,
80 Bird's
Eye Perspectiv e
in heavy traffic, rather than to avoid boredom,
road and city if the sense of that
city is to be communicated.
as on many rural roads For anyone crossing
The ring has in comparis on
choose one out of three. The problem of the urban expressway is to reduce the number of
expressway speeds
requir e that a certain distance be held between
choosing one out of six exits, the driver would
the center city. it would be necessary to with
negoti ate only one leg of the triangle. Each
the officia l line, ju st enough to allow each
leg would have its own recognizable
part of the road to be within proper viewin g
acter: the section passin g through
distance of the cente r city, AI the same time,
we shall call the Riverway: the one which
eccentricit y
sweeps around the city cente r, the Center-
has been maintain ed,
allowing
the eastern part to run close to the center, An equidistant
ring would be monotonous.
experie nce of unvarying impact. and lacking in the sense of arrival at a goal.' Oil is true that if the ring were enlarged on the east
charCambridge
way; and the third leg, whic h returns across an
the old peninsula , the Crossing.
."
• H
•
b
•
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McGUIRE ROUTE
-
S UG GE ST EO R OU TE
46
~ GOVERNMENT'"
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It"r)) * MARkET
N-
fIN,,-,"CIAl ... DISTRICT ."".
KENMORE SOUAR~
NIGHT LIFE
~KN t-:RUDENTIAL BAS.SAlL
HANCOCK CENTER
STADIUM
,
I
82 Structure of Trip
The Fixing of the Main Intersections The locatio n of the intersections
becomes
Orientation to th e City The new ring road is rela ted to the city in
very importa nt in this type of scheme. The river-crossing at the Cottage Farm Bridge has
several ways, so that an incomin g traveler will recognize and comprehend what he is ap-
been chosen as the western apex of the tri-
proaching, The city core stretches northeastsouthwest from the old harbor on the Center-
angle, There is already a defin ite break here in the continuity of the river. If a new bridge were built elsewhere. the Charles River would
way to the midpoint of the Crossing, at Symphony Hall. There is a bend in this linear
be so broken up into small stretches afwate r that its breadth and continuity would be lost.
core, as noted above, but the Prudential-John Hancock sectio n parall els the Riverway. So
Moreover. from the Cottage Farm Bridge the river widens into the Basin. to provide one
there are tw o poles about which the route runs. the older and the newer centers. The
of the finest long views of the city skyline. The north and south intersectio ns are located in the railr oad yards outside North and South
goal. for no sooner has he passed through the downtown area at the easte rn end than he is
Stations, open areas where there is space for the construction of large intersections com-
moving out and along towards the Prudentia lJohn Hancock pole at the weste rn end. The
manding good views. The harbor is the climax
approximate nature of these directions is perfectly adequate, since a motorist cannot gauge exact angles,
of the Cente rway and might be considered as a symbolic eastern intersection, were there roads that went out to sea,
driver is always approaching some sort of
The Riverway and the Centerway emphasize the form of the peninsula, the Crossin g confines it at its neck, This effect would be strengthened
if the "buried"
help when searchin g for the desired radial to get out of the city. Thus, the Harvard Universit y towers, Somerville's City Hall. the Bunker Hill Monument in Charlestown, the airport and the harbor, the hill of South Boston, and the Missio n Hill Church in Roxbury are buil t up as important landmarks. The characteris tics
external
of each leg of the road
should be consid ered separately, since much traffic will probably use only one of the legs at a time, Each stretch of the road has also been designed twice. a sequence for the travelers movinq in each direction, although these experiences have been related.' "The lanes have been split at certain points, but only in the vertical dimension. Split ting horizontally was considered. but the restricte d nature of the areas being passed through, with their relatively small scale. seemed to suggest that this would only cause more confusion,
Space-Motion and View Diagrams 83,84 Figures 83 and 84 are diagrams of the sense of motion and space produced by the road, as it would be experienced when travellin g in the two opposing directions, From these diagra ms the different aspects of the three legs can be seen the Riverway with its kink, the Centerway with its bulqe. and the Crossing with its close confinement This space-motio n combin ation tends to direct the eye, and when the intended views are linked up to the objects seen, a more complete idea of the experie nce is given. Views are seldom seen at specif ic points, but can be seen over a certain stretch of road. At what part of the stretc h the object will be seen cannot necessarily be predicted. For this reason a series of sight lines issues from the road along the stretc h within which a parti cular object will probably be seen. Furthermore, when the view to be seen is a panoramic one-the harbor, for example, rather than a specif ic landmark-the view lines radiate over th e whole area.
southern edge
of the peninsula were more sharply demarcated by means of open land or the control of building bulk. Two of the large intersectio ns have been locate d in the railr oad yards, where there will be no dis rupti on of the street and block system. The third intersection is also freed from the street pattern by being placed over the river, Wherever possib le, the legs run with the "grain" of the local structure. The detail ed bearin gs of the road have been chosen to direct the travele r's eye to certain aspects of the central area. For example, it is arranged so that he can separate and identify different groups of landmarks, since he sees each one separately at a certain point on his trip. In this way, a more analytical approach is made to the city, while the relati on between parts is maintain ed by general views and overlapping
At the same time, views are directed to the more important landmarks outside the central area, so that the motorist can locate himself with regard to the exterior, which will be a
shots. Greatest reliance must
be put on relativ ely stable features:
major
83.84 The two diagrams of clockwise and counterclockwise movement emphasiz e the separateness of the two experiences, The same objects may be seen but will be seen from other directio ns, and therefore they will look different and rela te differentl y to other landmarks. The two main groups of landmarks-on the one hand, the to wers of the financial district and of the Government Center (which also mark the Washington Street shopping areal. and on the other, the Prudential-John Hancock towers which mark Copley Square and the Boylston Street shoppin g-are drawn in distin ctive colors, If this route is foll owed with the sketches and commentary, the pattern of experience should become clear. This drawing in particular explains the alternate focusing on "insid e" and "outside," the separatio n and refatin g of these main clusters of landmarks, and most of all the relati onship between space, motion, and view.
, The Riverway
The Riverway has been consciously
The Crossing
related to
the Charles River. At the West Intersection,
6
6
I
6 66
•
,6
6
~
6
6
•
ment of the Roxbury resid enti al area. A view
Cottage
of the Prudential Cente r and John Hancock
Farm Bridge. and comes out of the
intersection behind M.LT. at rooftop level. This first part lies parallel to the river. allowing general views of Cambridge, the John Hancock Building, and the Prudential Center Passing around M.I.T., it then goes briefly into the confi nement of Ihe East Cambridge industrial area before turnin g down the old canal House. the Government longfello w
along the river's edge, then up and over the MTA bridge, past the Museum of Science and the Charles River Dam, restoring conti nuit y to the river by linking up the views of the water. The North Intersection
is situated in the rail-
road yards The road turns around in front of Charlesto wn. Monument,
with views of the Bunker Hill the Mysti c River Bridge, and the
harbor in that order. and on the inside with a rotatin g
view of downtown.
The road turns
slowly to the right. into line wit h the financial district. Follo wing this same leg in the opposite direction, the traveler starts high at the North Intersection,
with views out to Somervill e
and
East Cambridge
across the railroad yards.
The first straig ht
stretch down to and along
the river gives Prudenti al
and John Hancock
a good exposure, with back glances at downtown and the State House, before the road sinks to water level near the Longfello w
83 Space-Motion and View Diagram, Clockwise Travel
Bridge, The bridge is seen in profile this time,
84Space-Motion andViewD;ag"m~w;
before the road curves up through an indus-
seTravel
trial area to give a second view of Cambridge:
Avenue
and cuts into the mass of housin q one or two blocks west of the avenue. Here the alignment
Intersection
and then, crossin g the river at
into downtown,
swooping towards
the Post Offic e Build ing and descending
to
slightly below ground level. It passes the Government
Cente r and City Hall very closely
on the right and goes through
Dock Square
and the food markets, smotherin g
itself in the
city, and passing through a publi c amphitheater, Then it swerves left. up and out over the harbor, gaining a vie w out to the sea and the airport before turnin g around and back toward the towers of the financia l distr ict. At this point the road would look directly down the Prudenti al-John descended
Hancock axis, as it
into the tunnel. The tunnel would
serve as the second downtown
climax point
(the food market being the ti-stl , and some underworld
envir onment
connected
with the
city's night life would light up the tunnel. It might also be possible to expose some of the "insides" of a city: the subway track. the masonry "roots "
of buil dings, or the system
of great conduits , Out in the open air again, the road rises to the third-story
level, moving
freely in the open space ot the railr oad yards, winding
in rela tion to the tracks just as it did
in rela tion to the river, and then turning out towards the sea and Dorcheste r
on both
up and down over the old
roads that travel up the penin sula , with both
some height, plunges through the river-edge build ings
is a straig ht line, confined
sides but swinging
The Centerway
Bay before
entering the big South Intersection,
lanes rising and fallin g independently emphasize
to
the obstacles being crossed. At
the crossing of Massachusetts Hunti ngto n
Avenue and
Avenue lies th e main off-ramp for
the Prudentia l-John Hancock cente r, and after this the road curves left with the changed direction
of the street pattern
and
enters the Fenway, curvinq right and left. low among the trees, The curves here, besides echoing the natural forms, allow the user to take in views up and down the Fenway for reference, indic ates
Going north, the dome of M.I.T.
that the river is near again. and
after anoth er curve between the Boston University stadium with its high electr ic lamps and Kenmore Square with its advertis ing signs, the road runs paralle l to the river and Commonwealth Avenue and soon begins to rise towards the high and narrow West Intersection Traveling to the south while coming down from the West Intersection,
one gets a pan-
oramic view of the area to be traversed.
in-
clUding the Parker Hill Hospital and the Mission Hill Church, The road comes in line with the Prudential- John Hancock group, before descendin g between Kenmore Square and the sta dium, Through the Fenway the twin spires ofthe
Mission Hill Church are
the City Hall. Central Square, and the towers
seen again as a check reference. Then the
of Harvard
road passes the Prudentia l
Universit y.
M.I T. is without
The stretch alongside
strong incid ent.
the local interest ofthe
Insti tute
except for build ings.
This section simply follo ws the river at a dis tance of a fe w hundred yards and allows time for panoramic
views of Cambridge
of the Crossing.
and parts
It is not necessary to follow
along the very banks to maintain conta ct with a river. The different
•
Building is taken in, and the road, swerving between a gas tank and a railroad roundhouse, glances up Massachusetts
The road takes a wide curve at the North
Cente r, and the
8 rid ge. one of the historic entrie s
into the city. The third stretch travels right
~~
a turn to the
north is made before entering the confin e-
about 80 feet in the air over the existing
line towards the State House. the Court
•
From the South Intersection.
the road crosses the river at right angles.
a feeli ng of relation-
The approach to downtown begins as a long, winding
from the south passage through
open space, with the John Hancock Build ing and Prudential
Cente r comin g closer on the
left. South Boston on the right. and ahead the shapeless mass of towers which is th e financial distr ict.
The State House may be
seen at one point if the road is high enough, This would be an important
view to increase
ships that the road has with the river along
the connectio n
this leg will tell much more about the nature
penin sula . The tunnel and the curve out to the
of the river than would a road that merely parallels it
between
the two sides of th e
harbor is simila r to the southbound
experi-
or broadsid e principally
viewing
of important
landmarks,
that of the State House, which
acts as the climax for the eastward-moving
ment Center. It descends into the market area, and as it runs out to the north intersecti on, it picks up views of Bunker Hill and the Mystic River Bridge.
traveler. The whole road is tipped towards downtown,
as the outer lane is raised above
the inner lane at the intersections
and curves.
The Centerway downtown
is dominated
climaxes:
market and underworld
(day and night) . with the bulge out towards
and hold together
the harbor and airport as central relief The approaches
diffe r, one being open and the
other confi ned,
but the type of movement
similar enough forthem symmetrical.
is
to be considered
The scale of this leg is much
larger than the other two, with its views of harbor. ocean, airport, shipping.
the Mystic
River Bridge, and South Bosto n industry,
as
well as the central focus of the downtown secti on itself. All of these give it a heighte ned quali ty not found on the other legs. It lies more or less paralle l to the sea, as its end views of harbor and Dorchester emphasize.
Bay
to the South Intersectio n.
with a
view of the sea, of South Bosto n, and to the left. of downtown The Prudential
off-ramp
and the Symphony
Hall node act as the central climax on this leg, the south part of which is rigid ly straig ht. confined,
and residentia l.
movin g only up and
down. The north part is more free-tlowmq, passing horizontally
through the Fenway and and
Kenmore Square with its giant advertising signs facin g in all directio ns. The whole character of this stretch is generall y of a small scale. and tightly confined,
without
conta ct
with water or with large open spaces. The only long views are at the beginning.
the
glimpses out of the Fenway in the middle, and
by the two
The confin ed cente r secti on serves to contrast the two outer stretches.
alignment
around circular objects like the stadium
ence, but the road turns back to give the traveler a view of the City Hall and Govern-
The central kink in this leg enables sideways
off-ramp, bends.
and travels south over the rolling verti cal
the brief rooftop stretch.
views on the south ern
1
.,. 50
et Interpretative
Drawings
OUf illu strative design is conceiv ed as one
CONCRETE WUl
WEST INTERSECTION
complete, sequential
experience of motion.
space. light. texture.
and orie ntation,
In de"
veloping and analyzing the design, we have
BOSTON UNIVERSITY
found it necessary
to represent this total sub-
jective experience
in some abstract. short-
hand way. This problem has been discussed at some length in Chapter 2, but it arises here
KENMORE SOUARE
again as soon as one wishes to communicate the character of a design, or to weig h it
fENWAY PARK STADIUM
,
critically against other alternatives. Therefore we made a number of drawings SYMPHONY
HML
to interpret selected aspects of the sub jective experience of driving the new ring road. Film s might present this material in the sharpest way. but a graphic technique, reproducib le
on paper, is needed for speed,
economy,
and communic atio n
audie nce.
However, the presentation
sequentia l
experience
to a large of a
on a single page
requir es special effort from the reader, who should have before him only what can be
GAS TANK
seen at one poin t. remembering RR TURNtA BLE
what has
gone before, and not yet aware of what is to come.
STRIP LIGHTING
Road Environment
Our drawings are drawn to a time scale SOUTH INTERSECTION
(minutes at an average speed of 45 miles per hour). and are laid out in linear sequences, as the events are experienced.
Since it is
diffi cult to imagine what such a journey is lik e from a circular plan, the route has been straighte ned intersections
CITY INCINERATOR
out by breaking it at the corner so that it can be read as a
continuous sequence. This causes some distortio n
and confu sion,
but it is a special
proble m that would rarely arise, since most routes extend roughly in one direction. Now the environment
begin s to relate to the
road rather than the road to the envir onment as in the first drawings. and the character
We see the spaces
of the confi ning
walls , the
relation of the road to rivers, hills , and the open railroad yards. and the kinds of activities 85,86 and areas which are passed. Figure 85 shows
-,'
the sense of motion and space, drawn according to the conventions
CUSTOM HOUSE TOWER
of Chapter 2. To the
right is added a diagram of the resulting tempo of atte ntio n,
PARKING GARAGES
the basic rhythm of the
recurrent intersections,
CITV HAll
each follo wed
double climax of visual intensity.
•
eral orientati on
-"-' ~,""""""--
illustrates
and the road intersectio ns desti nati ons
SCIENCE MUSEuM
LONGfEllOW
1
BRI[}GE
"n
KRESGe AUDITORIUM
o
gen-
and
again st the major
in the city core. Both figures
85 and 86 are drawn only for the clockwise trip.
UGI'TING
BRIDGE
ADVERTlSiOMENTS
to his surroundings,
the successive approach to various
goals , showing the play of external landmarks NORTH INTERSECTION
STRiP
by a
Similarly,
figure 86 overpage gives the observer's
WEST INTERSECTION
,
- --
sa
j
J
Some Comparisons with the Official Route If we now turn aside for a brief critique of some visual features of the official. or 81 Maguir e plan, we can clarif y some of our own reasoning still further. In the Maguire plan the route crosses the Charle s River at the Cottage Farm Bridge as in our scheme. but then the road cuts across Cambridgeport near Central Square, and goes on to meet Route 2 in the constric ted railroad yards on the Somervil le border. before turning right to return to the river through the North Station yards. Thus it runs far out from the center, enclosing East Cambridge. which is an area of little importance compared with downtown Boston, The route loses all contact with the river and with the downto wn area until the last moment. when without preparation it plunges past North Station. There is not so much as a glimpse of the famous State House: this would indeed be a blank and mysterious journey,
WEST INTERSECnON
"
KENMORE SQUARE ~
~ E NM OR E S QU A RE
STADIUM Fi'NWAV
e
•
4 ~
S YM PH ON Y H Al l
.W ----
MISSION HILL CHURCH
S QU AR E
~" ""
CHRIST'AN SCIENCE CHURCH
JOHN HANCOCK BUILDING
On the eastern leg, or Centerway, the Maguir e route has now been built. and its character can be assessed directly from driving experience. It has many good qualities. for it comes in high from the north and curves around the financial district before descending into the Summer Street Tunnel. But skirting the center at rooftop level is also unsatisfactory. for there is no sense of arrival: the road seems to veer off from the heart of things. Furthermore. although it is at points less than a block from the harbor. the ocean is never seen Fringe build ings as well as the balustrade and cant of the road block the view: and the road is never directed at the water On the other end beyond the tunnel, the official route runs close to the side of the peninsula. too close under the building wall for the inbound travelers from the south to gel a good view of downtown,
•
SOUTH INlERSECT'ON
SQUIH BOSTON SOUTH BOSTON PRUDENTIAL CENTER
'-
JOHN HANCOCK
Although both ends of the proposed Crossing (the South and West Intersections) fall in the same place as those on the official route. the Maguir e line travels further out through Roxbury: past the hospita l area and over a stretc h of the Fenwav It will be depressed. and it is difficult to see what pleasure there will be in driving it. Except for the Fenwav, the route will travel through residential areas as mysterious and dull as those of Cambridgeport. The Fenway itself will be culverted and made to disappear,
CUSTOM HOUSE lOWER
AND FINANCIAL DIS1~1(' ~
AIRPORT BEACON Hill. STATE ~OUS' AND GUV~"NM[NT(,NIH
, \
•
POINTS OF DECISION AREAS OF CONfUSION
\
NOATH 'NTER SECIION FINANCIAL
REVOLUTION OF FIELD
M
DISTRICT BUNKERHill
A
NODES
MAJOR LANDMARKS
"
MINOR
~
MAJOR GOALS
JOHN HANCOCK
SECONDARY MINOR
~
PATHS
-If-H-iH- PRUDENTIAL CENHR HARVARD UNIVERSITY
.n ANO CENTRAL CAMBRIDGE
PRUDENTIAlSOUA
RAILROAD ROAD
I
EO
EDGES
.JOHN HANCOGl
!WI'/(
1NL
It will seem to be a most devious way of going downtown. the goal toward which most motorists will be directed. The change of direction will be confusing and disruptive. since the road curves slowly through a gridiron street pattern As the motoris t rides in his confin ed channel and cuts the old blocks at different angles, the change in direction will be incomprehensible to him
INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTIONAL
111111/1"
RESIDENTIAL
DISTRICTS PARK T R AN SP O RT AT I ON
Reference to our own proposal will clarify the way in which we intend to overcome these difficulties,
CONCReH VIEW DiRECTOR
,'.:
NEW OPEN'NG TO KENMORE SQUARE
ARCHING TREES
eRIC~ SIDE WAllS
Road Detail Once the general location is settled. awhole set of road details can be used to emphasize and direct the motorist's view. The traveler may be oriented. in a direct visual way. through detail and choice of materials without complete reliance on road signs. The North and South Intersections have been built up as strong forms which can fill the vacuum of their surroundings, They are 81 designed as three-level 'r-tntersecnons. 50 or 60 feet high, and might be diagrammed as follows. RADIAL RADIAL
87 Diagram of Intersection
Huge lamps are proposed. so that those curves will be lit up at night. In all cases the lanes of the ring road run side by side. with the outer one at a higher level, while the radials are in two levels, At the West Intersection the roads pass almost over the present Cottage Farm Bridge and will arrive at the highest point on the whole route. consistent with the most important view. Eachleg of the route would be surfaced in a different color or texture. symbolized on 88 the drawing (Figure 88l. sothat a driver will instantly know which leg he is on. Inour proposal. the Riverway would be white. the Centerway red.and the Crossing black. At intersections each radial would have its code color: and colored stripes would direct the motorist onto his chosen route.
The downtown climax is built up by advertising signs in selected places. controlled as to size and other characteristics, and finally by parking towers. These advertising signs would be mounted on cylinders. cubes, and pyramids. revolving slowlv as their messages change. They would be lit. at night. from the inside. The approach along the Riverway would include advertising signs for hotels and events taking place in Boston. would pass signs for local products in the industrial area, and would finally go by advertisements for downtown enterta inment. On the way out again. signs for travel outsid e Boston and for nationwide industr ies would predominate. At the market area. the road descends to a lower level than surrounding streets. and wide steps are built out and up to Dock Square. As in an amphitheater. people could sit and stand on these steps lookin g at the cars. and the driver could reciprocate. On ceremonial days this would be a public grandstand. assuming that many parades and arrivals of the future will occur on the main highways. In the Summer Street Tunnel. on the other side of the seaward bulge, an underground restaurant is proposed. with lights and colored windows looking out and down onto the road. This sectio n could be grottolike and would act as a nighttime comple ment to the market climax. The modern freeway has become an abstract world where people are scarcely seen.The sight of people would be an important characteristic of these special centers. On the bulge between these two points, the financial district forms the solid internal wall. while the external view of the harbor is framed by high parkin g towers.
RAILWAY TlJRNTAeLE
STRIP LIGHTING
OUT OF TOWN ADVERTISEMENTS
o
• " ~
" •
"
z
GROTTO RESTAURANTS IN DOVER STREET TUNNEL
w
U
WATER SPOUT
TERRACI~G WITH PEOPLE
DOWNTOWN AOVERTISEMENTS
STRIP LIGHTING
A giant water spout would be placed across the harbor, simila r to the one at Geneva. BOSTON INDUSTRIAL LAPPING WATER
Where the route is depressed through parts of the residential area. sculpture. painting. or signs might be used to depict some characteristics of the region being traversed. The Symphony Hall area would be opened up by pUllin g down some buildings to form an open plaza. Through the Fenway the road curves and drops in among the trees. Many other devices might as easily be developed to enhance the interest and clarity of the scene.
VIEW CUTS INTO M,IT. QUAORANGLES
>
~
" • , "
INTOWN ADVERT'SEMeNTS
¢
(HDTELS. RESTAURANTSI
i,)
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CONCRETE V'EW DIRECTDR
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56
The Night Scene At night
a new
Our lighting proposals
order
reigns in the city. The
chaotic skylin es. jagged spaces. erratic signs. forms.
and shapes disappear
princip le
into the
have followed
of th e existing
pattern.
Many of the lights shown
drawing
already
strips, and diffused light. The path system
reference
becomes
have a similarity
clearer.
Light is needed for circula-
and advertis ing
shop windows.
signs build up from the
of the city at night might be
but also confu sing.
landmarks,
of lights on the commercial
and John Hancock
more prominent
intersections
gain extra emphasis
The
or nodal points
with stop lights. direc-
tional signs. or drugstores: such as enterta inment
and certain areas.
distric ts
or shopping
centers that are open at night. become nocturnal landmarks. The daytime
landmarks
night. or mainta in
are ofte n lit up at
The higher
such as th e Prudenti al Buil din g,
the railroad airport
could be more clearly associa ted
with these methods
of transporta tion.
of water has already been
utilized
to some extent by the conti nuous
lightin g
down both sides of the Charles River
This would
contrast
with the gloomy
lamps shining
and the John Hancock
border the harbor. Massachusetts .
weather
carries
its
sign on the top, but others dis-
appear. Invariably
the lighting
changes
well lit and provid e
nature of the object. The John Hancock
dicators,
BUildin g,
a squat fat tower
could be brig htly
becomes
much less dominating
at nig ht because
ofth e
light, The blackness
in the daytime. and slimmer
vertical
districts
and of the parks is also a nocturnal
feature
lights are hung in
the trees, but more frequently
Avenues
they are
illuminated
central
distric t
at th e bend in th e
core could be lit up to be seen from
the outside
at night. This is a place where
searchlights
would emphasize
could be used. These
the bend which
time heart of the city, On festi ve the highways
a uniform
and unpleasant
traffic ---;?<;
themselves
are lit to
glare, emphasizing
at the expense of the surrounding
scene. The light has its source high upon slender
poles, which are a dominant
sion of the daytime interesting
rcadscape.
to experiment
in-
to pick out the
road from the Crossin g.
The ente rtainment
rotati ng
left dark. At present
are already
Hall Square
strips of
of residentia l
of the city. Sornetimes
Hunting-
good directio nal
The new Symphony
main in-town
yellow
on masts and tops of ships that
ton and Commonwealth the
have
yards and the blue ones of the
sign. The dome of the State House is floodlit. Buil ding
Center
would
beacon lights, The green and red lights of
The refl ectivity
some form of lighte d
daytim e
to the sunlit form, To change
softly lit resid ential streets to the clamor avenues.
on the
exist. The principal
points must be lit up and should
the patte rn exciti ng.
the
of th e entire design
and clarifi catio n
darkness. to be replaced by luminous dots.
tion. and so cars, street lights.
89 Night Diagram
general
89 emphasis
impres-
It would
be
with greater articu-
extra lighting Fenway,
is the nightoccasions
might be used. lanterns
fireworks
in the
on the Charles River.
58 59
A Running Commentary on a Clockwis e Trip To complete our picture of this imaginary expressway,
13 The road slopes down to the river, paralleling a small channel of wate r. but confi ned on both sides. Straight up ahead comes the fore-
let us pretend that we are driv-
shortened
ing around the loop in a clockwise direction. (This trip may be followed on the previous drawings. or on the sequence of diagrammatic perspectives, alongside
Figure 90. which appear
the text commentary
to the number of each perspecti ve, head at the side of the drawin g
i
14 After a glance back up the river to the right. we swoop down to the left of the bridge and
An arrow-
indic ates
arrive at water level, parallel again to the
an
15 river. The sense of water strikes us fo r a
The sequence of
moment. Then we are rising again, stowrv. up
perspecti ves has als o been repeate d on the lower corners of the pages throughout the book. so arranged that they can be seen as a moving sequence by riffling them in front of
-
on the lower left hand corner of page
2, and run forward
to page 64, Conti nue from
--_.--.--..... .-,a,~,~ ~----~ .... .
,
the eyes. For the complete trip. start at the drawin g
Bridge. that old granite
leaping out of the dark
and which are
keyed to this text by reference in the margin
open view in that directio n
Longfello w
pile, its pepperpots
jumble of Beacon Hill rooftops with their dominating dome,
16 and over the Charles River Dam and the white domes of the Museum of Science, The down-
..
17 town towers come into vie w over the new apartment
,
structures
of the West End to our
right, and soon we see that Bunker Hill is 18 again straight
2
ahead of us, We are going in
the same direction as befo re. Still rising, and
the lower right hand corner on page 63, and
now two or three stories above the river, we
run back again to page '.)
cross the MT A lines, the road, and the railroad yards. as the huge North Intersection
We begin high up on the bridge, crossing the hour. The directio n
along the railroad tracks: Bunker Hill and the
stripes on the road have
just gone by, and the pavement is now almost
Mystic River Bridge indic ate the Northeast
,
white in contrast to the previo us dark surface 2 of the Crossing. The oncoming
Expressway:
L-~=-----L'_'-'----"'" ~
lane on our left
blocks most of the view to the left except for
the intersecti on,
curve under the high arc lamps which stand 20 like sentin els on the skyli ne, guiding our eyes
right, to one of the best views of Boston, At
around the curvin g road which turns slowly
this height the river widens out towards the
and grandly into the city
of Beacon Hill, with the golden
.
dome of the State House seen against the
~.'
The confu sion
of the towers of the fin ancial dis-
city, and behind it, poin ting
towards
below or on the left-hand
4
21 tion to it. We are high again, looking across the large expanse of the railroad yards and
There is hardly time for a glance across the
22 the river. The hill s of Boston rotate in front of
and low hills, the industry and
sporadic landmarks
of Cambridge
us, and as we turn, the outer lane lowers. and
and
we glimpse
Charlestown.
23 and cross the river at right angle s. There is a
rush to-
fleeting glimpse of the harbor and the Old
wards us on our right. we can tell how high we are. The view is momenta rily and we turn our eyes straight
confi ned,
za
ahead down the
the Cambridgeport
resid enti al
build ings
area
4 on the left and then the M.I.T. campus on the one another, the Aatro dormitory
Prudentia l
_',1
tower, can be seen through the
tion. chimneys,
Avenue and plunge a power sta-
and then a cluster of adver-
signs for downtown
7 other enterta inment.
hotels and
Straig ht ahead rises the
pinnacle of the Bunker Hill Monument.
and
the view begin s to open out again . A large gas 8 tank lies slightly to the right. but growin g 9 quickly in size, it comes across the line of 10 vision and veers to the left as we ourselves 11 turn right and begin to descend towards the river again . We pass another
pair of gas tanks
12 on the left and are now looking straig ht at the State House on Beacon Hill, the Court House to its left, the Longfell ow
Bridge below, and
behin d, again , the towers
of the financial
district.
"
s
past M.I.T. into dense industry, tisement
25 of us We are directed right at the Post Office
us, The river, and above it the
6 We cross Massachusetts
slope of the road allo ws
us a generous view of the area directly in front
unfolds, and
revolves across the turf
trees running parallel to us,
a wall of
into the heart of Bosto n.
The gentle downward
right. The M.I.T . domes move in rela tion to 5 Kresge Auditorium
North Church on our left, the railroad tracks are runnin g parallel on our right into North 24 Statio n. Now we plunge through
gentl y sloping road racin g at rooft op level.
towards
Bunker Hill through the intersec-
tion structure. We seem to bounce off the hill
3 As the upper stories of a warehouse
skim ming
of the inte r-
side, leaving clear
the view of the cente r city as we turn in rela-
down-
town, lies the old John Hancock Build ing. flatl ands
and excitement
secti on, with its signs and ramps, take place
trict. Further to the right the huge tower of Center domin ates the whole
traffi c into
and the road surface
changes from white to red We ourselves
to the river. The wall pushes our eyes to the
background
The signs read NORTH,t he direc-
tion strip es guide the northbound
glimpses down through the bridge structure
the Prudential
and the hill and churches signify
19 Charlestown
"
is higher than we are, creating a wall which
silhouett e
comes
into view, Route 93 snakes away to the left
Charles River at betw een 45 and 50 miles per
,--
Build ing in the cente r of the financial distr ict.
-, ...
Red brick warehouses
and advertisements
roll by on either side. The Custo m House tower slides in from the left, and the space 26 widens out into a large basin. The road descends now to ground level, and then into a widened cutting.
sr
27 The market is very close on the right and at the same level. The bustle of people and the crates of vegetables can almost be felt. Behind them rise the new office blocks of the Government Center. and we are under the 28 first bridge, past the off-ramp to Dock Square. Just beyond. people are sitting on the wide 29 steps to our right. which gently descend from Dock Square itself. There is a momentary 30 glimpse of Faneuil Hall before we are cornpletely dominated by the overbearing mass of the Custom House tower looming right up front. and almost over us.
-.
•
31 The road. just in time. curves quickly to the left to avoid the obstacle, It rises suddenly. skirting the edge of the financial district. and 32 passes the first pair of downtown parking towers on the left. A high fountain of water tells us that the harbor is near: then the whole 33 view opens up and we look away across the 34 water to the airport. and beyond that to the ocean itself. 35 The road turns inland Into line with the axis of 36 the John Hancock and Prudential buildings, 37 seen in the distance. The second group of 38 parking towers pass by on the left. and we 39 drop underground beneath the towers of the financial district. The tunnel is brightly lit. then gradually dims until the sides and roof 40 turn into glass as we pass into an underworld restaurant colored lighting. people eating at 41 tables. jazz bands. perhaps an audible burst of music. At a lower level. a subway train is crossing our path
58
42 After a slight curve, daylight appears at the 43 end of the tunnel. We rise to the open air and 44 continue up to the sky. flattening out at the third-stcrv level. feeling free in the air, crossing the Fort Point Channel and the railroad 45 tracks. We reorie.ntourselves by two visible landmarks on the right. the Prudential and John Hancock t~wers. Downtown is directly behind us. and we are heading towards the three chimneys of the city incinerator.' 46 which we pass on the right.
~-.~~c5DDO --0(
The railroad tracks do not confine the eye; the road is high. and the views are wide. There is time to look around, To the left the hill of South Boston hides the sea.except in the left distance. where Dorchester Bay and some islands can be seen.Ahead the lamp stand47 aros of the South Intersection stake out a skyline: to the right twin church spires. hospitals, and the hills rise just above the Roxbury rooftops, Some out-of-town advertisements crop up. aswe approach the intersection itself. 48 The Southeast and Southwest Expressways can be seen winding into the distance, the direction stripes appear again. and the road surface changes from the red of the Center49 way to the black of the Crossing. As we turn 50 more than 90 degrees back toward the city. what was on the right is now on the left. 51 Mission Hill has shot over to that side. and we almost face the Prudential and John Hancock buildings. The south edge of the city stretches away on the right to downtown. and the road we have just been on reappears 52 We snake left and right through circular struc53 turas. a gas tank. and a railroad turntable. 54 After a glance down Massachusetts Avenue. 55 we are in the residential area of Roxbury, The 56 space is confined here as the road descends 57 under Washington Street and rises again over 58 Columbus Avenue, There is a strong sense of 59 the main cross streets. with brief vistas to60 wards the downtown section. but the alignment of the road does not deviate' it holds rigidly to the existing street pattern The closeness to residential buildings is nowhere so evident as along the Crossing.
'h. , . .
'The presenl location of the road "lac" t d' I' .. ~ cly,nclO~ra Or Irect, yon ax,s, Here is a case where too much
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62
61 Past Colu mbus
Avenue, the space opens out
across the rooftops.
there are a number offacets
62 proaeh the Symphony Hall node There is the off-ramp to the Prudential Center and the
to
area, A gla nce to the left
of the roadway and its lighting, both of which
and by a desire to find a visual
the view of the
University, the Museum of Fine Arts. and other buildings of
enon of conti nuous
we have also indicated the factors that will
more lightly over the problem
have to be dealt with, and the techniques could be used in dealing with them.
desig n of the termin us
that
motio n and have passed
re-enter a housing area.
The Fenway envelops the road, whic h drops
ea
entrance.
this transition in speed and scale is visually abrupt and brutal. For the most part, we have considered
ways as single linear sequences. We have not
Here the techniques
dealt with a network of highways.
of desig n and of analysis
the Fenway Park Stadium. lamps rotate s over-
properly, with a system of movement in a city. Studying separate sequences
Not only would we learn much of technical
ment. in all modes. considered
interest from a serious attempt
in a conti nuous
in this direc-
tion. but a road built for vision in motio n
complicated
lems of intra-system
highway experience
and relati ng the functio nal
more powerful
at the Hunti ngto n
number of paper proje cts,
68 fore we start to rise str aight
be-
up to the West
experiment.
It might be pos-
We take the off- ramp
conflict. of differentiating parts, of transfer
of branching
and intersecting
sequences, and of the possibilities of area or "soli d" sequences as distin guis hed from
if special resources for design
purely linear ones. To some extent. this monograph
An experimental
road would be the proof of
the puddin g. But there are other. more
for the
west, swooping down and under. heading up the river. We choose the Massachusetts us on n
in front of us. if
academic efforts that can be useful. The
ing is communicated
recording
greatest emphasis has been on orientation
technique
can be developed. We
reference to the meaning of motio n and of the
quence. wheth er
road itself. The meaning of the city landscape
from a study of the existin g
by a hovering vehic le. or by means
of three-dim ensional
models seen by moving
viewers or moti on-pictu re The fragmentary
cameras.
is a thorny subje ct. and there are many possibil itie s of analysis and desig n that remain to be brought out in regard to it
analy ses of the highway
ex-
In all these respects. this monograph
a foray into the subje ct. and its gain s must be consolidated
In particular.
it would be interestin g the
and exte nded
tematic operations.
But enough has been
man who makes up a major part of the publi c
developed
highway esthetic.
view is probably markedly different from the
these ideas in a real but experimental
groups studied to date,
Our highways are no mean achievements
It would be usefu l to extend the analytical techniques
to expose the possibilities
be remembered
to different kinds of movement:
other types of automobile
paths. such as
ordinary city streets. or to other kinds of carrie rs-subways.
railr oads. buses. even
boats, escalators. or airplanes.
If automated
highways become general. then the nature of 70
the highway audie nce will also change, The
"'"
problem of designing for vision in motion is everywhere fundamentally the same. but cha racteristi c solutions will be greatly affected by
l
......
.69
the speed and mode of movement.
The ex-
perie nce of a city is basically a movin g view. and this is the view we must understand
if we
wish to reform the look of our citi es There are a number of factors which this study has expressly avoid ed. One is the impact of the highway on the people who must look at it from the outside. We have neglecte d this aspect of the road partly because it is currently receiving
some attention,
and pa rtly
because our work required a sharper focus.
J
by more sys-
for whom the road is designed. and whose
The effect of a road on its surroundings extremely
important
outward
is an
aspect of its design. and
this inward view must be inte grate d view. Unfortunately .
with the
the two views
are radically different
by nature, How may
they be co-ordin ated,
or at least prevented
from conflic ting
with each other? When the
driver wants an ele vate d platf orm from which to view his surroundings.
while the statio nary
citiz en wishes the road to be out of sight. how do we arbitrate
the issue?
of a
We might now test some of
the history of technology,
~
is only
perie nce presented here can be pressed further.
to study the view of the dail y commuter.
es
to the driver. But our
and visual form, and on meaning primarily in
tions of the visual effect of a proposed selandscape
72 it is evening and we are lucky.
has dis -
cussed the issue of meaning in the visual landscape, and the way in whic h this mean-
need to increase our skill in making predic-
•
70 Turnpike. curve left. and are on the road. with 71 the river and Harvard towers follo wing
in many
and execution could be provided,
and the Charles River. heading
the right and the sun settin g
and succession,
Avenue. Bosto n
straight for the turn to the north and the 69 river-crossing,
and evocati ve than any
sible to layout such a road as a national
63
Still risin g. we find we are
parallel to Commonwealth
could be. an example far
of move-
as occurring
ways. Then one comes on prob-
would be a concrete example of what the
right. and the space opens out to the right as follo ws for a brief moment
is only prelude
network traversed
head. as we curve left again. The advertisin g
Avenue opening. Close
high-
or. more
to dealin g with the entir e experience
signs over Kenmore Square flash from left to
Universit y.
Most often
lems. and in evaluating the results obtained can be refined. and our grip on principles strengthened.
givin g a vie w of the
across the river. and then we are underneath
Intersection.
upon the
the parking lot. the
apply ing these ideas to actual desig n prob-
66 M I.T. dome. We go down the Fenway and
confi nement
of transition.
In particular. we have not touched
experience, The crucial test will come in
65 curve to the left, and see trees in front of us,
The circle of enormous
with the phenom-
driver when a road is bein g designed. Perhaps
These are speculations about highway design. first efforts toward analy zin g the highway
Boston's cultural center,
67 and alongside
have a major impact on the highway scene. We have dealt primarily
garage. or the buil ding
might take in Northeastern
and curves in response.
of movement.
ing a case for considerin g
Avenue crosses Massachusetts
63.64 We immedia tely
which have been
touched upon only very briefly, They inclu de the questio ns of vehicle desig n. or the details
means for pullin g together large urban areas,
show shops. traffic. and bustl e, where
the new downtown
by the promise of
the new world of vision inherent in our speed
We hope we have at least succeeded in mak-
high-price shoppin g district. The wall s of buildin gs open out on the right-hand side to
Avenue. with a long vista up Huntington
Even within the scope of this monograph.
This study was motiv ated
and advertisements
warn us again that a climax is near. We ap-
Huntington
63
5. In Conclusion
across the railroad tracks. There is a cross vista of John Hancock, the Prudentia l appears
desig n.
Will they also
as works of art?
in
64
e
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5 Ewing Galloway. 14 Pennsylvania
New York
Depart ment
of Highways
16 A Penrlsylv ania
Depart ment
01 HighwaY5
16 B Pennsvlv anta
Depart ment
of Highways
24 New Jersey Turnpike Authority 25 Pennsylvania Department of Highways photographer, 28 Cement and Concre te Association: S W. Newbery.
London.
England
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A. Devarley.
42 48 49 50
Hall Win slow.
New York
Pennsvrvama
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Dave Lawlor,
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Ew;ng
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Massachusetts
New York
.
