2013/2014 Literatura hispanoamericana. Del descubrimiento a la Independencia
Profesora: Paloma Jiménez del Campo
Elena Rodríguez Murillo Universidad Complutense de Madrid
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Contenido Nociones previas sobre Hispanoamérica ............................................................... .............................. .................................................................. .................................... ...5 Tema 1. El descubrimiento, la conquista y la colonización .................................................................... ................................................ .................... 6 1.1. Factores determinantes ................................................................. ................................. ................................................................ ..................................................... ..................... 7 1.2. Expedición de Cortés ............................................................... .............................. .................................................................. .......................................................... ......................... 8 1.2. Expedición de Pizarro ............................................................... .............................. .................................................................. .......................................................... ......................... 9 1.4. Justificación de las conquistas ........................................................................................................ 10 1.5. Organización ...................................................................................................................................... 10 1.6. Transformaciones sociales y económicas tras la conquista .................................................... .............................. ...................... 11 La conquista, ¿genocidio o hazaña cultural? ............................................................. ............................ ....................................................... ...................... 11 Economía.............................................................. .............................. ................................................................. ................................................................. ................................................. ................. 11 Tema 2. Crónicas de indias .................................................................. ................................. .................................................................. ....................................................... ...................... 12 2.1. Cristóbal Colón ............................................................... ................................ ................................................................ ................................................................. .................................. 17 Naturaleza............................................................ ............................ ................................................................. ................................................................. ................................................. ................. 17 Indios ....................................................................................................................................................... 18 El principio de la carta......................................................................................................................... 18 Importancia de esta carta ................................................................. ................................. ................................................................ .................................................. .................. 19 2.2. Bernal Díaz del Castillo ................................................................................................................... 19 Díaz del Castillo como narrador ............................................................... ............................... ................................................................. ....................................... ...... 21 Lengua y americanismos .............................................................. ............................. .................................................................. ....................................................... ...................... 22 Historia textual .............................................................. .............................. ................................................................ ................................................................. ....................................... ...... 22 2.3. Alvar Núñez N úñez Cabeza de Vaca............................................................. ............................ .................................................................. ............................................ ........... 23 2.4. Fray Bartolomé de las Casas .............................................................. ............................. .................................................................. ............................................ ........... 26 Su obra .................................................................................................................................................... 27 2.5. Inca Garcilaso de la Vega ............................................................... .............................. ................................................................. ................................................. ................. 29 Comentarios reales ................................................................................................................................. 29
2.6. La conquista de México M éxico y su verdadera historia: Bernal Díaz del Castillo ......................... 31 2.7. Las fascinantes desventuras de Álvar Cabeza de Vaca ............................................................. ................................. ............................ 33 2.8. Bartolomé de las Casas, el defensor de los indios. (1484- 1566) ......................................... .............................. ........... 36 2.9. Guamán Poma de Ayala................................................................................................................... 37 Dibujo — Texto Texto ................................................................................................................................... 39 2.10. Sor Juana ........................................................................................................................................... 40 Poemas filosóficos
................................. 40
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Villancicos............................................................. ............................. ................................................................. ................................................................. ................................................. ................. 41 Tema 3. Teatro .............................................................................................................................................. 41 3.1. Manifestaciones teatrales indígenas ............................................................. ............................ .................................................................. ................................. 41 Rabinal Achí ........................................................................................................................................... 42 Reelaboraciones folklóricas .............................................................. ............................. ................................................................. ................................................. ................. 42 3.2. Teatro misionero .............................................................................................................................. 43 Conservación ........................................................................................................................................ 44 Obras ...................................................................................................................................................... 44 3.3. Fin del teatro: teatro colegial jesuítico .................................................................. ................................. ....................................................... ...................... 44 3.4. Teatro criollo .............................................................. .............................. ................................................................ ................................................................. ....................................... ...... 44 Fernán González de Eslava................................................................ ............................... ................................................................. ................................................. ................. 45 Tema 4. Épica: La Araucana ......................................................................................................................... 45 4.1. El autor: Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga ...................................................... ....................................... ................................. ...... 45 4.2. Innovaciones................................................................ ................................ ................................................................ ................................................................ ....................................... ....... 46 4.3. Aspectos preceptivos del género ................................................................................................. 49 4.5. Éxito e influencia ............................................................. ............................ .................................................................. .................................................................. ................................. 49 La Araucana Araucana como poema nacional chileno.................................................................................... 49 Tema 5. El Barroco ....................................................................................................................................... 50 5.1. Bernardo de Balbuena ..................................................................................................................... 53 5.2. Juan del Valle y Caviedes................................................................ ............................... ................................................................. ................................................. ................. 55 5.3. Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz ............................................................... .............................. ................................................................. ................................................. ................. 56 Su obra .................................................................................................................................................... 57 Sor Juana Inés, Primero sueño ............................................................................................................. 59 Tema 6. Siglo XVIII. La Ilustración ............................................................................................................ 61 6.1. La novela ............................................................................................................................................. 62 Tema 7. La Independencia ............................................................... .............................. ................................................................. ............................................................ ............................ 65 7.1. Panorama general: Fases de la Independencia................................................................ ................................ ............................................ ............ 65 Primera Fase (1810-1825) ................................................................ ................................ ................................................................ .................................................. .................. 65 7.2. Segunda Fase (1814) .................................................................. ................................. .................................................................. ....................................................... ...................... 66 Virreinato de México .......................................................................................................................... 66 Virreinato de Nueva Granada ............................................................... .............................. .................................................................. ............................................ ........... 67 Virreinato de Perú ............................................................................................................................... 67 Virreinato del Río de la Plata............................................................................................................. 67
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“Carta de Jamaica” ............................................................................................................................... 68
7.4. Poesía ................................................................................................................................................... 70 José Joaquín de Olmedo .............................................................. ............................. .................................................................. ....................................................... ...................... 71 Andrés bello .......................................................................................................................................... 72
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Apuntes Nociones previas sobre Hispanoaméri Hispanoamérica ca Hispanoamérica consta de 19 países y un estado libre asociado a Estados Unidos (Puerto Rico). Existen discrepancias respecto a lo que se considera literatura propiamente hispanoamericana:
Escrita en Hispanoamérica Escrita por Hispanoamericanos Trata sobre Hispanoamérica.
Existe un gran conflicto en este continente: tras la independencia no hay borrón y cuenta nueva en todos los países por igual, ni todos tienen raíces a las que acudir. A finales del XIX y principios del XX hay una reconciliación con España a la que habían rechazado tras las independencias cual si se tratas de una malvada madrastra (un rechazo acentuado por el retraso educacional y cultural que tenía respecto a Europa); aunque fijan su mirada en modelos con Francia, Inglaterra y Estados Unidos (especialmente este último por su modelo económico). Sin embargo, tras conquistar su territorio de este a oeste, los Estados Unidos comenzaron a inmiscuirse en Hispanoamérica (imperialismo yanqui en México y Cuba). Nace entonces un movimiento hispanista con identidad frente al mundo anglosajón y, sobre todo, en los años cuarenta del siglo XX, comienza a estudiarse la literatura y a considerar el periodo virreinal como pasado cultural. En los años sesenta, el boom hispanoamericano de Cortázar y Márquez que deslumbra al mundo con su narrativa, así que se impulsan los estudios de literatura hispanoamericana al margen de la l a española. Estos mismos literatos reivindican la importancia de os primeros cronistas y su increíble proeza literaria de expresar en palabras un nuevo mundo inconcebible hasta la fecha, con animales extraños, vegetación exuberante, inmensas montañas y ríos como mares. Tras la independencia se configuran varias regiones con una suerte de identidad común:
Región caribeña. Inmigración. Influencias culturales (piratas, ingleses, holandeses). Presencia negra. Región andina (Perú, Bolivia, Ecuador). Trasvases culturales (Quechua, Inca, Aimara). Región rioplatense. Región mexicana. Región centroamericana. Mezcla entre México y la región caribeña. Chile. Mezcla entre las regiones rioplatense y andina. Colombia y Venezuela. Mezcla entre las regiones rioplatense y andina.
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diferenciarse de ambos. ambos. Hay por tanto argumentos argumentos en favor favor y en contra de la literatura hispanoamericana.
Tema 1. El descubrimien descubrimiento, to, la conquista y la colonización ¿Qué supuso la realidad de la existencia de A mérica?
Desafió la concepción del mundo
Esfericidad del mundo Lo intuían en los círculos cultos desde Grecia. o La mayor aparte de la gente abogaba por una tierra Plana. o Los marineros de Colón suponían que se desplomarían en el Abismo del Fin del Mundo. Colón se las tuvo que ingeniar para evitar un amotinamiento a bordo de sus carabelas. La interpretación del mundo es teológica y bíblica. o San Isidoro de Sevilla (s. VII). Inventó los mapas OT (orbis terrarum ): El mundo es un círculo perfecto. Rodeado de mar. Organizado por una gran T que representa a los mares interiores y, además a Cristo. Los tres continentes representan a la Santísima Trinidad. Cada continente está habitado por uno de los hijos de Noé (Sem, Iafeth y Chan). El mundo está concebido a imagen y semejanza de Dios. La aparición de un cuarto continente rompe todos los esquemas.
Casi todos los cronistas de la época se ven obligados a encajar la realidad con lo que dijeron Aristóteles, Platón, los Padres de la Iglesia y las Sagradas Escrituras. Por ello, comienzan explicando la esfericidad de la Tierra, la inhabitabilidad de la parte tórrida (al sur del Ecuador) y la existencia de la Antípodas (cuyos habitantes vivían cabeza abajo); a pesar de que había quedado demostrado que no era cierto. Al llegar a América, se la encontraron habitada, lo que desató todo tipo de preguntas: ¿Son hombres? ¿Son hijos de Adán y Eva? ¿Cómo han podido llegar hasta allá a través del Gran Océano? ¿Tienen alma? Fue enorme la dificultad para asimilar a los otros debido a los juicios (y prejuicios) sobre el hombre y el mundo. En el mundo medieval de lo posible existían una serie de monstruos que esperaban encontrarse en las tierras de más allá del mundo conocido:
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se habla de gigantes patagónicos. La misma palabra caníbal proviene de una mezcla entre el Can (un cinocéfalo), el gran Khan Khan de la China y los caribes, unos guerreros antropófagos. antropófagos. En las crónicas todo se deforma hasta la exageración. Las cifras son astronómicas, en buena parte motivadas porque en América las distancias son impresionantes, sobre todo desde el punto de vista de la concepción europea medieval (el Amazonas tiene más de 6.000 km de longitud y 400km de anchura). En la desembocadura del río Orinoco, Colón situó el Paraíso Terrenal, pues era la única explicación que se le ocurría para semejante exuberancia al borde de lo que él creía que era el mar. La conquista y colonización/civilización de América por los españoles es una de las hazañas físicas e intelectuales mayores de la historia. En cincuenta años recorrieron el continente, creando ciudades y europeizando a los nativos a pesar de sus limitaciones tanto intelectuales como de recursos.
1.1. Factores determinantes Avances en la navegación (se pasó de una navegación de cabotaje a una de alta mar).
Desarrollo de la cartografía Nuevos instrumentos: brújula, sextante Nuevas embarcaciones.
En 1453 cae Constantinopla (Estambul) en manos de los turcos.
Merma de la ruta de las Especias. Búsqueda de rutas alternativas por Castilla y Portugal Reparto del mundo (Tratado de Alcaçovas, 1469; Tratado de Tordesillas) o Guerra Santa.
Viajes de Colón 12 de octubre de 1492 — Febrero Febrero de 1493 1º 3 de agosto — 12 a. Llegan a La Española. Dejan a los hombres del barco roto allí. b. Vuelven gracias a las corrientes, por pura suerte. 2º 1493
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Durante el reinado de los Reyes Católicos se descubren las Antillas (islas del Caribe) y un trozo de la fachada atlántica [en verde en el mapa]. Con Carlos I se expanden estos descubrimientos y tiene lugar la verdadera conquista. Los españoles no se adaptaban bien al clima tropical, los cultivos españoles no fructificaban; por lo que se veían obligados a llevar todos los alimentos de España. Debido a la dificultad que esto entrañaba, abandonaron las islas en busca de un clima más agradable. Fueron dos las expediciones que en 1519 partieron con este propósito:
Hernán Cortés. Se adentró en el continente hacia México. Magallanes y El Cano. Rodearon el continente y completaron la primera circunnavegación del planeta.
1.2. Expedición de Cortés De Cuba se envían hasta la península del Yucatán tres expediciones, donde se
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Al llegar al continente, funda Veracruz y envía a Carlos I una embajada con innumerables tesoros sin tener en cuenta a Velázquez. Esto provocó las iras del gobernador de Cuba que envió a unos hombre en su contra. Mientras tanto, Cortés había llegado a Tenochtitlán gracias a las alianzas que forjó con los pueblos sometidos por los aztecas hasta llegar a entrevistarse con el emperador Moctezuma. Sin embargo, las noticias de los hombres de Velázquez en Veracruz lo obligan a regresar para enfrentarse a Pánfilo, dejando a algunos de sus hombres en la ciudad azteca. A su regreso, la muerte del emperador y los abusos de sus soldados desembocaron en los sucesos de la Noche Tirste, con la matanza de cientos de indígenas. Los colonizadores se vieron obligados a abandonar la ciudad, pero forjaron nuevas alianzas y, finalmente, la conquistaron. Todo esto sucedió en apenas tres años. Esta ciudad era la más grande jamás vista, con el añadico semi-fantástico de que “flotaba” sobre una laguna.
1.2. Expedición de Pizarro El éxito de Cortés animó a otros. A oídos de Pizarro llegaron noticias de otro imperio existente al sur de Castilla del Oro (Panamá): el incaico1.
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llenas de oro y plata, el mayor rescate pagado en toda la historia de la humanidad. Sin embargo, los españoles no cumplieron con su parte del trato y finalmente, lo ajusticiaron.
1.4. Justificación de las conquistas Estas inverosímiles conquistas de los dos grandes imperios americanos por un puñado de soldados españoles se han explicado por varios motivos fundamentales, aunque el miedo fue el principal: 1) Uso de armas desconocidas para los indios para crear el terror (no tenían suficientes como para emplearlas en la guerra) de forma teatral. 2) Uso de perros de presa (aterrorizaban a los indios porque sus perros eran muy pequeños chihuahuas — — chihuahuas — ) 3) Uso de caballos. Avanzaban mucho más rápido y aterraba a los indios la figura del centauro que era capaz de separarse en hombre y caballo. 4) Habilidad diplomática para aprovechar los conflictos. 5) Mentalidad fatalista de los indios. Se entregaban a los designios divinos que coincidieron con la llegada de los españoles a) Aztecas; Zapokal Zapokal regresaría regresaría con el quinto sol, como Cortés. b) Incas: Biracocha Biracocha regresaría regresaría por mar, como Pizarro.
1.5. Organización España traslada todo al territorio: lengua, política y cultura. Las Indias no fueron consideradas como territorios coloniales, sino que desde el primero momento se constituyeron como reino en igualdad jurídica con el resto del territorio. El virreinato ya existía como forma de gobierno (Nápoles) y se traslata a América, creándose así los dos primeros, el de Nueva España (1535) y el de Perú (1542). En el XVIII bajo el reinado de los borbones, se separa el de Perú en dos por su gran extensión, el de Nueva Granada (Venezuela, Colombia y Ecuador) y el de Río de la Plata (Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia y Chile); todo ello subdividido en gobiernos, de los cuales solo nos interesan las capitanías generales, los municipios, los caciques y las encomiendas.
Capitanías generales. Instituciones militares que se instalan en los distritos fronterizos en guerra con piratas (Cuba, Guatemala y Venezuela) o con indios insumisos (Chile — — ). araucanos — ). Municipios (ayuntamientos). Autogobierno. Donde ejercen el poder los criollos.
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25/02/14
1.6. Transformaciones sociales y económicas tras la conquista La conquista, ¿genocidio o hazaña cultural? cultural? Tras la conquista, la población aborigen descendió en número de manera alarmante, aunque las cifras finales y las causas suscitan numerosas discrepancias. Las bajas por encuentros bélicos fueron escasas en comparación con las causas biológicas (epidemias), causas de orden anímico (difícil adaptación al nuevo orden español, crisis de valores — no no entienden por qué los obligan a trabajar — , lo que los lleva a suicidios masivos de poblaciones enteras) y el mestizaje (desciende el número de indios porque ahora son mestizos). El mayor descenso se dio en las Antillas, primer lugar de colonización. Según Colón, los indígenas de las Antillas vivían «como Adán Adán y Eva en el Paraíso», Paraíso», por causas fundamentalmente fundamentalmente epidémicas. Debido a esta despoblación, la falta de mano de obra llevó a importar mano de obra esclava negra (de tradición y bien vista en Europa) que no estaba mal considerada como la esclavitud de los indios (la reina Isabel, el cardenal Cisneros y los Dominicos, entre otros, se empeñaron especialmente en ello); lo que provocó un conflicto con Colón, que había estado muchos años en Portugal, país que sí que permitía esclavizar a los indios. Una vez terminado el oro de los ríos de La Española, se planteó vender a los indios como esclavos pero debido a la consideración de las Américas como reino español y no como colonia, sus habitantes no eran infieles, sino que no habían tenido la oportunidad de convertirse, por lo que no había que esclavizarlos, sino evangelizarlos. La coexistencia de las tres razas, europeos, indios y negros, nació la nueva América mestiza y transcultural. Es difícil hablar de una “sociedad” americana, porque las mezclas no son homogéneas. Los españoles van a ocupar la punta de la pirámide social, serán quienes dominen la administración, el comercio y los centros mineros. Sin embargo, en un principio la emigración de españoles a América al principio fue escasa y poco a poco fue creciendo. Al principio, los españoles no tenían demasiados escrúpulos con el color racial a nivel biológico: los indios y los negros se “blanqueaban” y no estaba mal visto; los hijos que tienen
con las indias son reconocidos con sus padres, hay mestizos ilustres como el Inca Garcilaso, se respetaba los privilegios de los caciques… Pero los indios y los negros estaban en un estadio inferior en el conjunto de la sociedad y, entre ellos, no se establecen lazos de solidaridad, sino
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circunstancia, el único capital de los colonos es la mano de obra indígena para explotar las minas; lo que revirtió en la exportación de metales preciosos e importación de todo lo demás. Se estableció el servicio de mita (como militar pero minero) debido a lo extenuante de este trabajo. Poco a poco se va diversificando la economía de América, al llegar a las zonas templadas se puede aclimatar la agricultura europea al nuevo continente, los españoles aprenden técnicas de cultivo indígena… Tras la llegada de los españoles, la economía rural americana sufre un cambio radical (nuevas plantas y animales), el descenso de la población indígena… La economía
indígena era de subsistencia, mientras que la española estaba fundamentalmente dirigida a la exportación. Economía urbana
Demográficamente, hay una descompensación enorme entre la capital y los alrededores. El mundo americano es fundamentalmente urbano. Los conquistadores fundaron las ciudades construyéndolas desde cero, en torno a una plaza cuadrada donde se sitúan los poderes (Iglesia, ayuntamiento). A su alrededor, los solares más cercanos son para las familias importantes y todo el plano de la ciudad se organiza en forma de tablero (de ahí la palabra cuadra para referirse a la manzana). Territorios misionales
Los misioneros (jesuitas y franciscanos en su mayor parte) se adentraron en los territorios más inhóspitos (selvas y desiertos), donde habitaban pueblos guerreros que no se querían integrar, para fundar pequeños estados ideales. Los jesuitas ocuparon el norte de Argentina, Paraguay y Brasil, en las cataratas Iguazú, en el territorio de los indios guaraníes. Enseñaron a los indígenas la religión, el cultivo…
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Uno de sus principales problemas es esta hibridación entre lo histórico y lo literario. Engloba una multitud de textos con distintos géneros (cartas, diarios, y otros). (Complétese con Walter Mignolo) Parte Walter de precisar la noción de texto. La cuestión que se plantea con las crónicas es si lo literario es una particularidad del texto o implica una dimensión cultural. Un texto aquí sería un acto verbal conservado en la memoria colectiva y de alta significación en la organización de una cultura. Como acto verbal, implica necesariamente una lengua. Esta coletilla de “alta significación...” significación...”
nos permite distinguir entre un documento y un texto. Una cultura no solo conserva los textos sino que los conserva como textos de cierta clase. El problema que la crónica plantea es de orden tipológico. ¿De qué genero estamos tratando? Tiene que ver con dos aspectos: uno de formación textual/discursiva y otro con los tipos discursivos (géneros y subgéneros). Estos tipos discursivos normalmente están asociados a unas formas. El rollo es que una cultura puede considerar significativo no solo los textos escritos en su propia lengua, sino en otra también. Así, las cartas de Américo Vespucio forman parte de nuestra literatura no por la lengua sino por su relación con la estructura de poder y con su relación para con nuestra cultura. Lo que definiría, para Walter, esas crónicas de Indias, es el referente: descubrimiento y
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recepción, muestran estas propiedades, aunque éstas no sean características de la producción de esos discursos. Las cartas de relaciones tienen una producción más detallada, más pura, más dura. En las relaciones hay tres momentos. El primero iría desde el inicio hasta 1574, donde es obligatorio pero no oficial esto de escribirlas y enviarlas. (No oficial porque no hay un modelo normalizado). A partir de 1574 sí que lo hay. Respecto a la carta, tipo de texto no no asociado a un tipo discursivo discursivo en particular, pero sí una tradición (todas tienen un saludo, se dirigen a un tú, en fin, tienen formas y modelo). Las relaciones, por su parte, se presentan como un modelo creado ad hoc, para las circunstancias o la realidad americana. Es un modelo que brota por las necesidades que se desean obtener, y se distinguirían porque sus autores son gente fina y notable. Lo que ven, además, está condicionado por lo que los reyes quieren saber: no transcriben su observación libre sino que responden a pedidos oficiales. Un tercer momento de las crónicas se toma el modelo anterior; cualquier que vaya a historiar las Indias toma, tiene en cuenta ese modelo aunque no sea una relación de encargo.
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Dos tipos: una narración tipo gesta (hechos) y una tipo vitae, de la biografía. Y estas narraciones, que a veces se mezclan, este es el sentido en que, digamos, eh, se emplean las crónicas de Indias. Se convertirán en sinónimos. La obra de Díaz del Castillo es, strictu sensu, una crónica.
Finalidad: para qué se escribe. No hay obligación de escribir una crónica como había una relación. El que escribe una crónica lo hace aceptando el fin que caracteriza y distingue a la historia. Desde Aristóteles la H. se diferencia de la poesía entre que la primera se encarga de verdades particulares y la poesía de generalidades verosímiles. La finalidad, el fin, el objetivo de un historiador que cuenta una verdad particular lo hace por la utilidad comunitaria. Podemos, con todo, añadir unos propósitos particulares de cada autor. Es particularmente interesante en los casos de los cronistas de Indias. Algunas movidas comunes son los deseos de fama y gloria, servir y lisonjear a los príncipes, rescatar los hechos acaecidos del olvido, y, en el caso de los cronistas de Indias, escriben compelidos por la necesidad de contar lo que de sus propios ojos vieron. Todas las formaciones discursivas regulan de alguna forma las condiciones que deben cumplir quienes las acometen. La escritura de la historia había de dejarse en manos d ellos letrados, o de cualquiera. AH! La historiografía indiana es una excepción; dadas las
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Finalidad, historiador. Historias universales VS Historias particulares. 26/02/14 Este corpus tan rico de textos ha sido objeto de diferentes clasificaciones en función de diferentes criterios según: 1) Tipo de texto (~forma): Diario, carta, crónica… 2) Límites temporales (crónicas del Descubrimiento, crónicas de la Conquista, crónicas de la Colonización) y geográficos (generales de las Indias o particulares de un territorio). 3) Autor: a) Origen y/o raza del autor. Crónicas de españoles y otros europeos (visión eurocéntrica), crónicas mestizas, crónicas indígenas. b) Participación en la conquista. Crónicas de vista (estuvo y participó) y crónicas de oídas (escribe desde España a través de otras crónicas o relatos, como Gomara). c) Formación. Crónicas populares (visión personal y espontánea de lo sucedido) y crónicas eruditas (sujetas a las normas de la retórica). d) Contenido. Historias naturales, crónicas de la evangelización, con ideología política… Aunque tengan intención histórica, las crónicas son sobre todo un relato personal y es esta visión particular del autor la que las acerca a la literatura. Por tanto, la veracidad no es fundamental (como sucede en la historia), sino que prima la verosimilitud, con lo que lo verdadero y lo falso se relativizan. Verbalizar las maravillas del continente americano supone un gran reto para los cronistas, que tratan de contar la verdad pero haciéndola verosímil para los europeos que jamás han puesto un pie allá.
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mero recurso. Para nombrar y expresar lo nunca visto y oído, los cronistas recurren a figuras retóricas (comparaciones, metáforas…) que no tienen el objeto de embellecer el
texto, sino que se convierten en un elemento cognoscitivo necesario para describir la realidad.
2.1. Cristóbal Colón Carta a Luis de Santángel
Naturaleza Colón da una visión paradisíaca, inmensa y abundante de América. Es una hipérbole constante: 1) 2) 3) 4)
Paraíso de gran tamaño Naturaleza pura (sin civilización). Eterna primavera (asociado al Paraíso). Abundancia de oro y plata en los ríos.
Los textos de Colón son la primera expresión por escrito de América. Escribió el diario de abordo (se conserva una copia de Fray Bartolomé de las Casas 4 que empleó para escribir su
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América se convierte en la suma de todos los mitos y leyendas de la época. En lugar de descubrir América, Colón nos la deforma, la encubre y la inventa porque, por el afán de identificar las nuevas tierras con los modelos previos y el objetivo inicial. El contacto posterior con el nuevo mundo debería haber disipado aquellos errores, iniciándose un proceso de conocimiento. Sin embargo, no se canceló el modelo previo, sino que se deformó y ficcionalizó la nueva realidad. Hace un inventario de cada isla: tierra fértil, gente desnuda, grado de civilización, indicios de materiales preciosos. Todas las tierras que no coinciden con este modelo previo, las obvia. La naturaleza queda reducida a una serie de motivos fijos calificados por una serie de adjetivos constantes, cuya función no es descriptiva sino que tratan de fijarlos a los modelos literarios previos: a) b) c) d) e)
Tierra: Fértil, ausencia o presencia de montañas6. Agua: ríos buenos y grandes que trae oro. Fauna (poco). Ruiseñor (sería un colibrí, periquito o guacamayo) Vegetación : Variedad, abundancia de frutos. Especias. Metales preciosos
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En este primer párrafo, da cuenta de la Ceremonia de la Toma de Posesión del territorio, un rito para apoderarse de las tierras recién descubiertas que consistía en colocar la bandera para reclamar el territorio. Generalmente hablaban a los indios del rey español del que debían hacerse súbditos y les decían que debían abandonar sus creencias paganas y abrazar el cristianismo. Así, justificaban su derecho a hacer la guerra si los nativos se negaban a aceptar estas condiciones. En el segundo párrafo, relata cómo fueron poniendo nombre a los lugares y las cosas. Es un hecho revelador de la estructura mental de la época, ya que primero estaba dios (San Salvador), después la Virgen (Santa María de Concepción), el rey (Fernandina), la reina (Isabelina), sus hijos (isla Juana)… Además, señala que a la isla de San Salvador los mismos
indios llamaban Guanahaní; por otra parte, aparece registrado el que es el primer americanismo léxico: canoa. Todorov dice que los españoles eran el pueblo más preparado para asimilar al otro, por su experiencia de la conquista-Reconquista, siete siglos de guerra, negociación y convivencia con otros pueblos, vivencias y costumbres. De este modo, mostraron cierta apertura a la diferencia y cierta permeabilidad a las costumbres americanas. Colón deja ver cuál era el punto de vista de los indios, que huían despavoridos ante ellos y sus navíos; acepta vocabulario
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los ídolos (Colón decía que no adoraban a ningún dios). Por primera vez se llevan indios para que trabajen como intérpretes. Tomaron dos lenguas (Melchor y Julián tras bautizarlos). Le llamó la atención que los mayas practicaban una deformación del cráneo (cabezas ahuevadas) así como ponerles una borla en la frente que les provocaba bizquera.
En la conquista de México. En 1526, Cortés cae en desgracia y, como consecuencia, Bernal Díaz del Castillo es despojado de su encomienda, convirtiendo su vida en una demanda constante, probanzas de méritos y peticiones para que le fuera reconocido su estatus de viejo conquistador y las recompensas que le correspondían. En 1540 viaja a España para reclamar lo que le corresponde. Le otorgan unas encomiendas de territorios mexicanos (Chapas) que ya estaban ocupados por otros conquistadores, por lo que reclama. Finalmente, en 1541 por fin consigue sus encomiendas en Guatemala. Sin embargo, en 1542 se promulgan las leyes Nuevas7 que prohibían las encomiendas. En 1545 nombra a Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, obispo de Chapas (territorio limítrofe con Guatemala). El cabildo determinó enviar a España a un procurador que lo represente para cambiar la situación. Para ello escogió a Bernal Díaz del Castillo por su fama de pleiteador. Llega a España para reclamar
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no es lo que en verdad sucedió. Así, confunde deliberadamente el estilo elevado con la deformación de la realidad, dando valor a los testigos visuales frente a los cronistas de oídas. Contrapone la figura de Gómara, capellán de Cortés, con la suya propia, de soldado. Parece ser que, aunque le habían restituido poder a Cortés, su figura estuvo siempre en entredicho. A pesar de que hubiera escrito sus cartas de relación tal y como hizo Colón, al relatar su historia, Gómara la pasa por el filtro de su concepción de la historia culta: la historia la hacen los grandes hombres. Los soldados anónimos no tienen mayor relevancia. Por el contrario, Bernal, escribe en nombre de todos los soldados (escribe en 1ª del plural, nosotros). Es más, si no hubiera escrito su propia historia, no habríamos sabido de su existencia del mismo modo que no conocemos la de tantos otros. La misma llaneza, es una retórica. La sencillez es un valor reconocido en el mercado literario de la época. Los humanistas renacentistas la defendían como norma estilística, rechazando la afectación. Sin embargo, no hay apenas referencias populares (refranes o dichos) y sí referencias clásicas, equiparando a los personajes con Ulises, Julio César 8, Amadís… Esto podría ser indicio de una formación clásica, aunque no parece probable. Cuando enseña su relación a los cultos y eruditos, les dice que no cambien nada (pues lo que escribe es verdad) y ellos le dicen que la retórica llana se tiene por más agradable. Sin
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Hay un gran equilibrio entre la vivencia personal y las tácticas de guerra, entre el dinamismo de la acción (frases cortas) y las descripciones pictóricas lo más destacable son las descripciones de esta ciudad azteca que se ve por primera vez. Usa el plural por incluir a los soldados y también al lector. Tiene escasas drigresiones.
Lengua y americanismo americanismoss Su ideal lingüístico es un hablar llano, sin adornos, pero incorpora muchas voces indígenas. Está más inmerso en la realidad americana y también se muestra más receptivo a las lenguas.
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Cuando esa edición llega a Guatemala se comprueba que hay muchas diferencias con el manuscrito Guatemala. Este se considera más auténtico, llegando a considerarse como autógrafo. Además, en este manuscrito hay correcciones finales. Hay un tercer manuscrito, el manuscrito Alegría (descubierto en España a principios del XX), seguramente de 1584. Tras la muerte de fray Remón, la viuda de Bernal Díaz del Castillo le encarga a un pariente que agilice los trámites. Al no encontrar la copia de España, se hace una nueva copia a partir del manuscrito Guatemala, supervisada por el hijo de Bernal (también lo modifica por los intereses criollos y suprime partes que pondrían en entredicho a su padre). Toda la familia vio la obra como algo importante de lo que esperaban tener beneficio.
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va a ser la misma que cuando comienzan el viaje, y es el primer testimonio del mestizaje de culturas que sufrió Hispanoamérica desde la Conquista. También se entiende como el primer testimonio objetivo de los habitantes del nuevo mundo. Objetivo porque no nos presenta a los indios idealizados como Colón (‘el buen salvaje’) ni tampoco lo hace demonizándolos (bárbaros inhumanos); sino que los indios no son ni mejores ni peores que los españoles, son distintos con sus virtudes y defectos propios. Algunos críticos creen que su visión está libre de prejuicios e, incluso, que presenta a los indios como más humanos que los conquistadores: se cuentan dos casos de canibalismo practicados por españoles (por su hambre y desesperación) que para más inri, espantan a los indios.
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Yo he puesto todo mi empeño en servir a su majestad, pero muchas veces el resultado depende de la fortuna (naufragio). Si Dios ha favorecido a las grandes empresas que volvieron con grandes tesoros, también habrá sido su designio que la mía fracase. Le quita importancia a los hechos en favor de las palabras, puesto que en los Naufragios, hechos heroicos no hay. Pone especial énfasis en todas las penurias que sufrieron en el viaje y en lo extraño y exótico del mundo.
2.4. Fray Bartolomé de las Casas Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias (1552)
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teorías, teniendo algunos logros parciales o concretos: la reducción pacífica de Enriquillo
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Apologética historia
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2.5. Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
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contenidos, fuentes, influencias y propósitos totalmente diferentes; lo que ha hecho que se
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de las armas del conquistador, empleándola para su favor (permite facilitar la transmisión de
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Rafael Landívar (jesuita) escribió un poema Rusticatio mexicana , en latín, algo así como un canto catálogo de la naturaleza mexico-guatemalteca. También está presente el elogio de la patria y el poema resulta un homenaje a su tierra, antecedente de la poesía descriptiva de la naturaleza que será posteriormente una seña de la poesía hispanoamericana. 30/04/14 Juan Pablo Viscardo, en su Carta a los españoles americanos introduce el término americano pero que aún no está deslindado de lo español. Es la primera vez que se pide la independencia con argumentos ilustrados (como el de autoderterminación), de los cuales el más importante es el económico, ya que señalan como causa principal de la opresión americana el dominio colonial de la metrópoli que les impide progresar. ***** El interés por las ciencias exactas y naturales lleva a sumergirse en la realidad natural americana porque, a pesar de los dos siglos de dominio, aún es una tierra ignota. Los borbones abrieron los territorios americanos a la exploración directa de otras potencias extranjeras. La primera de ellas fue una expedición francesa con dos españoles, Jorge Juan y Antonio Ulloa, quienes a su vuelta escriben noticias americanas físico-históricas y noticias secretas de América. Dentro de las expediciones expediciones españolas, la más importante fue la de Malaespina; pero el científico más célebre fue sin duda Alexander Von Humbolt. En 1799 y durante 5 años recorre los trópicos y otras zonas del continente, dando a conocer sus hallazgos y el asombro ante el paisaje americano en Viaje por los parajes equinocciales . Los datos recopilados por estas expediciones, van a tener un peso fundamental en el rumbo que América tomará más adelante, porque pusieron de manifiesto, y en ocasiones con auténtica emoción, la grandeza americana como un continente singular y esencialmente distinta de la europea. Es por eso que la naturaleza se convierte en un emblema perenne de la identidad americana. Se defiende una lengua clara y sencilla en el polo opuesto de la complicación formal barroca; que facilite la enseñanza y la comunicación, porque la literatura se abre a un público menos erudito. De este modo, el periodismo (diarios y revistas) se convierte en el instrumento ideal para la difusión de la información, donde los escritores dan a conocer sus ideas. i deas.
La prosa del XVIII tiene dos vertientes: científica y sociopolítica; a las que podría añadirse una incipiente prosa novelesca. Respecto a la poesía, los poetas neoclásicos van a ser los de la Independencia, hombres con formación y moldes neoclásicos pero a los que la urgencia de la historia y el sentimiento patriótico adulteran su poesía, neoclásica en la forma, pero romántica en el sentimiento.
6.1. La novela Se acepta el hecho de que no hubo novela durante la colonia, Esto se debe a toda una serie de cédulas reales que prohibieron en las Indias la lectura, impresión y difusión de novela, debido a
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marítimos hay numerosas novelas que sí llegaron, lo que queda reforzado porque las leyes se reiteran a lo largo del tiempo (no se cumplen, así que insisten en ellas). Por otra parte, su falta de importancia parece también deberse a su menor cantidad en comparación con la literatura evangélica. La imprenta americana estaba en poder de la iglesia, lo que provocó que la prohibición de imprimir novela sí que se cumpliera. Solo se imprimían catecismos, diccionarios y gramáticas de lenguas indígenas…
El público lector americano veía la fantasía y la ficción como complemento de una obra histórica o moralizante, no como algo independiente. Por ello no hay novela, pero sí actitud narrativa, porque los elementos fantásticos y de aventura estaban ya en las crónicas, con lo que no necesitaban crear una novela.
Antecedentes de la novela moderna americana
Infortunios de Alonso Ramírez de Carlos Sigüenza y Góngora (XVII)
Sirve de ejemplo a la actitud narrativa de la crónica del XVII. Hay una gran polémica sobre si es una novela o una crónica. o o Sale en busca de fortuna, llega a México donde sirve a diversos amos. Se enrola después como marinero en dirección a Filipinas, pero en el camino es apresado por unos malvados piratas protestantes ingleses que los van a torturar. Alonso Ramírez y alguno de sus compañeros logran escapar y dan la vuelta al mundo (perdidos). Finalmente, llegan a México, son recibidos por el virrey, quien le manda a casa de Carlos Sigüenza y Góngora para que recoja su historia. Novela: o Tiene todos los elementos de una novela picaresca, bizantina y de aventuras. Es novela porque no estaría documentada su existencia, con lo que Alonso Ramírez sería inventado. Crónica: o La mayoría de los lugares son reales. Se publicó con las otras crónicas (dedicadas a México como cronista oficial del lugar). En definitiva, no hay forma de saber si hay crónica o novela, porque los o recursos literarios empleados en la ficción e historia en la época, son los mismos. El lazarillo de ciegos caminantes de Alonso Carrió de la Vandera (XVIII) No tiene nada que ver con el Lazarillo , sino que las guías de viajes o de o caminantes se llamaban así. Funcionario de la administración de correos colonial a quien se encargó o inspeccionar la ruta que unía Lima y Buenos Aires. Lo acompaña su secretario, Concolorcorvo19, bajo cuyo apodo se publicó la obra. o
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Comentan lo que ven a lo largo de la ruta, critican la situación y el estado de las cosas de los diversos lugares. Está en la línea de los diálogos del siglo XVIII que satirizaban para reformar las malas costumbres. El armazón narrativo es muy endeble, es una protonovela en la que la o narración es solo una excusa para que el autor exprese sus ideas. El Periquillo El Periquillo sarniento de José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi (1816) Primera novela, escrita, publicada y leída como novela. o Periodista, fundó El pensador mexicano . Tuvo muchos problemas debido a lo o convulso de la época (cerraron el periódico, lo reabrió, lo encerraron…). Al final, tanto lo persiguieron que decidió abandonar el periodismo y escribir novela picaresca (algo totalmente anacrónico, porque la picaresca es propia del XVI) porque permite digresiones. Es la historia de un pícaro, con estructura episódica (combinación de episodios o trágicos con humorísticos) o
Generalx se acepta que no hubo novela en la colonia, pero esta es una cuestión muy discutida. Se suele aceptar como causa una serie de cédulas reales que prohibieron la impresión y circulación y lectura de novelas en las
indias. La razón es que la conquista de América estaba en brazos de la evangelización. Las novelas era un material arriesgado sobre todo para los jóvenes, mujeres e indígenas. Podían dañar el respeto a la autoridad. No hubo ningún tipo de restricción en la metrópoli. Mientras en América estaba la prohibición de la novela, en España se daba su apogeo. Investigaciones posteriores estudiaron las licencias de embarque para saber si las novelas llegaron a América. Parece ser que sí que llegaron y se leyeron las obras de los SS.XVI y XVII. La prohibición vino de que no se respetaban las leyes. Círculos restringidos de criollos fueron los que accedieron a ellos. Se escribía sobre cómo ser caballero, etc…casi solo se leen por lo tanto libros religiosos. Las leyes de impresión fueron más estrictas y sí se
cumplieron. Catecismos, sermonarios de lenguas indígenas, textos religiosos que los misioneros empleaban en su misión catequizadora etc… La censura, la falta de un público estable y la l a falta de una estructura que apoyara su difusión causaron que la novela de la época colonial no tuviese continuidad como género.
Los lectores, quizás por costumbre, la fantasía y las aventuras se veían como un ingrediente de los textos históricos, esto es, de las crónicas, pero no como algo autónomo. Hay una serie de textos en el S.XVII que están a caballo entre la crónica y la novela. Ha habido una necesidad por parte de la crítica por encontrar antecedentes narrativos. narrativos.
La primera novela propiax dicha de la literatura americana es E l Per Per i quillo ui llo Sarni Sar nie ento, nto, de Lizardi (S.XIX): hay cierto consenso en considerar esta obra como la primera novela americana. Lizardi era de formación ilustrada. Tuvo una gran actividad periodística (publicaba en “El Pensador Mejicano”) que se vio truncada (fue perseguido), por lo que decidió escribir esta novela donde mostrar sus ideas. Es de carácter picaresco, el cual ya había quedado obsoleto, y muy dieciochesca ya que una de sus intenciones era conseguir la reforma de las costumbres. Lizardi representaba la clase media- baja, que hasta entonces
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muchas digresiones. La novela proyecta las diferentes clases a través de los diferentes personajes, así, los lectores se reconocían en la suerte de Periquillo.
Los infortunios de Alonso Ramírez , de Sigüenza y Góngora (S.XVII): tiene más principios propios de
una novela que de una crónica. Algunos críticos consideraron que S. Góngora aprovechó su fama y la financiación de un virrey y coló esta novela en la que se mezclaban elementos propios del género picaresco y de los libros de viajes. Es un muchacho de Puerto Rico que con 12 años va en busca de fortuna, va a Méjico donde sirve a diversos amos, y luego va a Filipinas. Está allí en un barco y este va a ser atacado por unos malvados piratas ingleses protestantes. Algunos logran escapar y dan la vuelta al mundo, no saben dónde están ni cuánto tiempo ha pasado. Llegan a Méjico y el virrey les dice que vayan a contarles su historia a Sigüenza para que lo escriba. Elementos escriba. Elementos picarescos primero y luego de novela bizantina. Algunos dicen que es novela porque Alonso Ramírez no existe. Otros dicen que eso no es relevante para su clasificación genérica. Se puede decir que es bastante novelesca, sobre todo el prólogo. Escribe para solicitar lástima. Podemos concluir que no hay forma de saber si es crónica o novela; los recursos literarios que se utilizan para escribir una cosa y otra son los mismos. Habría que fijarse en cómo se recibió: se recibió más como crónica.
E l L azari azarillo llo de de ciegos cam cami nante nantes, de Carrió de La Vandera (S.XVIII): es un libro de viajes (aunque
no se presenta como tal, sino como una especie de ficción novelesca), cuya autoría aparece con el pseudónimo de Con Color Corvo en el pie de imprenta. En este caso, Alonso Carrió era un funcionario colonial español al que le encargaron una función como administrador de correos: investigar la ruta LimaBuenos Aires. En gran parte del recorrido tiene un secretario indio que tiene el apodo Con Color Corvo y va apuntando todo lo que dice su jefe para luego narrarlo. Van comentando lo que ven, critican la lí nea de los diálogos del S.XVIII. Tiene una armazón narrativa situación de los lugares….está muy en la línea muy endeble. No tiene nada que ver con una novela picaresca.
Tema 7. La Independenc Independencia ia Revoluciones previas:
Estados Unidos, 1776 Francia, 1789 Haití, 180X. Colonia francesa, por lo que su revolución se produce como consecuencia de la Revolución Francesa. Es una revolución de esclavos contra sus amos por la libertad. Por tanto es una revolución política y étnica.
Libertad, independencia y revolución colman el ambiente de principios del XIX. El espíritu revolucionario no afecta de la misma manera a los sectores de la sociedad de América. Por un lado, las élites criollas, por otro, los sectores peninsulares, por otro los indios y mestizos y, por último, los negros esclavos. La influencia de estas ideas de libertad es desigual, porque entre las élites sí querían libertad (para ellos), pero temían las revoluciones, ya que tienen como consecuencia grandes matanzas. La de Haití conllevó la matanza de casi todos los amos blancos.
7.1. Panorama general: Fases de la Independencia
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Realmente comienza en 1807 con la invasión de España por parte de los ejércitos napoleónicos. Como consecuencia, Fernando VII abdica en José I de Bonaparte, provocando un vacío de poder en las instituciones que representan el poder real en América. Los criollos temen que la autoridad virreinal caiga en la órbita francesa porque temen los recientes sucesos de Haití. Para evitarlo, toman el poder para ejercerlo en nombre de Fernando VII, al que consideran rey legítimo20, creando Juntas de Gobierno (evolución de los cabildos) en cada ciudad. No siempre tienen un apoyo unánime de la población, con lo que hay enfrentamientos; se encuentran con una firme oposición y rechazo de los sectores peninsulares (llamados en los interior — grandes libros de historia notables del interior — grandes hacendados — dueños dueños de enormes extensiones de terreno feudalistas), que querían mantener su autonomía y preferían seguir dependiendo de la lejana metrópolis; y, en otras ocasiones, enfrentarse a revueltas populares que se oponían a que las élites criollas ocuparan el gobierno dejado por los peninsulares y mantuvieran todo igual. Buscaban reformas de verdad, entre las que se incluía la abolición de la esclavitud.
7.2. Segunda Fase (1814) Regreso de Fernando VII, guerra colonial
Tras la derrota de los franceses por los españoles, Fernando VII regresó al trono con espíritu restaurador. Uno de sus primeros movimientos fue derogar la Constitución de 1812 en la que las Cortes de Cádiz habían admitido en calidad de miembros ultramarinos a los activistas de la revolución americana, decretando igualdad de derechos entre los nacidos en la Península y en América. Los sectores más fieles de América (aquellos que confiaban en el rey y la independencia por vía legal) quedaron desilusionados con el retroceso político, lo que, junto con la enorme represión, dejó la lucha armada como única vía para lograr la independencia. Los independentistas contaron con el apoyo de Gran Bretaña y Estados Unidos (que representan el liberalismo y la revolución industrial), ambos con gran interés 21 en comerciar con los países hispanoamericanos cuyo monopolio estaba en poder de España. Simón Bolívar (Nueva Granada-Venezuela) y José San Martín (Río de la Plata-Argentina) fueron las dor grandes figuras revolucionarias. En este momento, 1814, existen cuatro virreinatos: Perú, México, Nueva Granada y Río de la Plata; de donde saldrán diecinueve países. No es un proceso sencillo, las fronteras son dudosas, tanto políticas como físicas (Andes, Patagonia…), por lo que vamos a detallarlo por
virreinatos.
Virreinato de México Primer virreinato, con mucha tradición. El primer brote independentista tuvo lugar en 1810 y fue de carácter popular, algo insólito respecto al movimiento emancipador hispanoamericano en general. El primer grito de independencia no fue criollo, sino que lo emitió un religioso, el cura Hidalgo, que se apoya en la masa indígena aunando religión y lo popular, dando un carácter racial-social a la revolución.
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La independencia no llega hasta 1821, momento en el que todos los sectores se ponen de acuerdo de la mano de Agustín de Iturbide, que la proclama al firmar el Plan de Iguala o de las Tres Garantías: garantizaba la religión católica, la igualdad social y la monarquía constitucional (no se atreven a concebir otra forma de gobierno diferente). Llegan incluso a ofrecerle el trono a Fernando VII, pero ante su rechazo, se proclama (1823) emperador como Agustín I de México, otra particularidad del proceso mexicano porque es el único intento de organización monárquica en Latinoamérica, a excepción de Brasil 22. Un año después se instaura la república. En Centroamérica, como parte del antiguo virreinato de Nueva España, queda en un principio integrado en el imperio mexicano de Iturbide, pero después se separa para constituir una Federación de las Provincias Unidas del Centro de América hasta 1838, momento en el que se desintegra en los diferentes países.
Virreinato de Nueva Granada Simón Bolívar Consigue la independencia en 1819, formando la República del a Gran Colombia, que ocuparía todo el virreinato. En 1830 se disgrega en Colombia y Venezuela. Virreinato de Perú Bolívar y San Martín van a alentar la emancipación peruana. El Perú es el virreinato más fiel a España y la tradición española a lo largo del XIX va a tener más peso, en parte debido a su aislamiento y a la separación tan marcada entre el mundo indígena en los Andes y el criollo en la costa. En 1825 tiene lugar la batalla de Ayacucho que se considera que pone fin al dominio español en la América continental, aunque a lo largo del siglo XIX se siguen produciendo enfrentamientos aislados.
Virreinato del Río de la Plata San Martín consigue la independencia en 1816. Los territorios que fueron capital del virreinato, con mayor contacto con España y de tradición virreinal rica, les cuesta más independizarse culturalmente. Sin embargo, Argentina no tiene una tradición colonial fuerte, porque durante la época de la colonia, Buenos Aires estaba poco poblado, sin civilización indígena fuerte, sino que estaba constituido por pueblos nómadas , quedaba fuera de las rutas… Con lo que al no tener tradición fuerte., en el siglo XIX se encontraba abierta al desarrollo económico, político, cultural y literario, convirtiéndose en una ciudad en auge. En 1818 Chile se deslinda de Argentina, del mismo modo que lo hace Uruguay en 1825.
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Argentina: 1824 La lira argentina, antología poética. o 1824 Constitución Constituyente de Argentina. o
Podemos concluir la importancia de ambas escrituras: la antología por demostrar acervo cultural y la constitución por demostrar la independencia legal; ambas fundamentales para construir una identidad para el país. Toda fundación es discriminatoria, establece muros y consolidad una identidad en confrontación con amplios sectores que quedan excluidos del proyecto común. En el XIX solo los hombres libres tienen derechos, dejando fuera a gauchos, esclavos, indios, mujeres…
constituyéndose la patria al margen de ellos o incluso, contra ellos (enormes campañas de extermino de indios, que no dejan progresar a la civilización).
7.3. Bolívar en la literatura Bolívar lucha por los ciudadanos criollos, no por los indios. Es sobre todo un hombre de acción y de pensamiento político, por lo que ocupa un lugar ineludible y fundamental en la historia americana, pero además también entra en la literatura de la emancipación, donde podemos admitirlo por varias razones y de diferentes maneras:
Como objeto o tema de loa y celebración patriótica (Canto a Bolívar de de Olmedo) Como autor de discursos y proclamas y cartas (Epistolario — 11 11 volúmenes —, “Carta de Jamaica”) que suponen enunciados de mucho valor en el proceso emancipador. emancipador.
Como autor, artífice, de un mito relevante que aún sigue vigente: la América Unida.
Fue una figura tremendamente contradictoria, tanto en su praxis política como en su forma literaria. Fue un hombre formado en el neoclasicismo dieciochesco que tiende al equilibrio y en el imperialismo pero que, sin embargo, se convierte en un revolucionario. Todas sus contradicciones (razón contra pasiones, imperialismo cont ra revolución…) lo han convertido en objeto de culto de toda Hispanoamérica y de revisión permanente de su vida y su obra. “Carta de Jamaica”
La escribió Bolívar en un periodo dramático, 1815, porque se había retirado de la vida activa y de la guerra por disensiones con las fuerzas revolucionarias de la región de Cartagena de Indias (Colombia y Venezuela) que habían actuado en guerrillas con una óptica parcial de rebelión (liberar su territorio únicamente). Para evitar la guerra civil, renunciando a la jefatura y
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los Hermanos del Norte) y, en una penetrante aproximación sociológica, analiza la situación de América, su condiciona racial, social política y cultural, exponiendo las formas de gobierno adoptadas en cada país por las fuerzas independentistas y las que, a su juicio, convienen a estos países. Para terminar, da una visión prospectiva de la América liberada, señalando el rumbo posible. 07/05/14 Estilo
Es una carta cuyo destinatario queda en el anonimato, aunque pudiera ser el gobernador, otro personaje o bien, que sea un recurso estilístico. La indeterminación del destinatario proyectaría el texto a un potencial público mucho más amplio, todos los receptores que sentirían interpelados por Bolívar y comprometidos con su proyecto emancipador. La carta funde lo privado con lo público. En occidente se constituye como uno de los géneros más prestigiosos desde la Epístola a los Corintios de San Pablo hasta la Carta de las Naciones Unidas . Es un género destinado a transmitir un cuerpo doctrinal, un género del imperio que pretende negar o del que pretende desligarse.
Curioso: tenemos la carta del descubrimiento de Colón y el primer texto de la independencia es otra carta. La literatura hispanoamericana tiene cartas como primeros textos en los momentos importantes. La carta
Mi patria (toda América, posesivo).
Españoles como destructores de la patria americana. Nombrada a lo largo de todo el texto con el campo semántico de la destrucción y lo negativo. Caracteriza por vía negativa (por contraposición) lo que son los americanos. P.16. Es una indefinición: No son indios. No son europeos; son «un pequeño género humano, poseemos un mundo aparte» Son nuevos en un mundo nuevo. No existen modelos anteriores en los que los americanos puedan ver reflejada su situación. Negación del pasado, lo que provoca un vacío (sin pasado español, no son nada porque no existían). Emplea por primera vez el adjetivo americano ( política americana, proyectos de los
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(se ve mejor en el poema de Olmedo) por las guerras de conquista y el pasado colonial [más grande es el odio que nos inspira la península que el mar que nos separa ]. Apela a Dios, de quien dice que justifica su causa. Viniendo de un ilustrado, queda fuera de contexto. Emplea los mismos modelos literarios que los conquistadores (es lo que tiene que pasar porque Dios lo quiere así). Por otra parte, la religión siempre ha estado muy unida al mundo hispánico criollo. Las ideas de Kant subyacen: el estado americano ha estado privado de su autogobierno, han estado en una infancia mental con respecto al resto del mundo. Desea la unidad americana, pero es consciente de que no es posible; aunque no lo cancela, es algo a lo que aspirar; y sigue vigente hoy día. Las dos únicas opciones de gobierno son la república o la monarquía. La democracia es algo deseable pero sabe que aún no están preparados para eso.
Estructurado en 9 libros divididos en capítulos. 13/05/14 La victoria Junín es casi una versión en verso de la carta de Jamaica. El sustrato ideológico es común a ambas: unidad panamericana, visión de las guerras de independencia como venganza histórica por la conquista española.
7.4. Poesía Es de corte neoclásico, pero entra en el siglo XIX. Las circunstancias históricas de la Independencia modifican e imponen ciertos deberes al poeta, quien se consagra también a activar y fomentar el sentimiento de Independencia. Se disminuye la vida privada en favor de la pública, por lo que hay una ausencia casi total de la poesía intimista. En cambio, lo que nos encontramos es una poesía social de molde neoclásico. José Joaquín Olmedo y Andrés Bello fueron neoclásicos hispanoamericanos que también adelantaron elementos del naciente Romanticismo. El hombre de letras en esta época siente que es parte del conjunto de la sociedad y ha de cumplir con una misión en el seno de la misma. De ahí ese civismo con el que el periodo marca la producción poética: el poeta será testigo de la historia de la que es cantor y parte. Quedan vinculadas las figuras de los hombres de letras y políticos, los poetas se vuelven del referente (lo que importa es lo que cuentan y que sea real), más que poetas de la inspiración. En este momento, la poesía es un acto vital implicado en la vida y en el mundo, aunque se mantenga la forma sonora y hermosa de la
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todo ello acompañado de un intenso antiespañolismo. El resto de la producción de la época es homogénea, indistinta y un tanto insulsa.
José Joaquín de Olmedo Primer poeta cívico cuya poesía se somete a la causa independentista y cuya vida estuvo al servicio de Bolívar. Nació en Guayaquil (en el Ecuador), de una familia limeña, y pasa su infancia en Quito. Es relevante que se trate de un poema ligado al mundo andino que asiste a la separación de estos dos países, Ecuador y Perú, a los que pertenece por igual. Olmedo es un poeta erudito con una sólida formación clásica en latín, derecho romano, ciencias… Leyó a los clásicos, además de a los ingleses y españoles del momento como
Quintana y, sobre todo, Meléndez Valdés (que le encantaba). En un momento dado decide dedicarse a la vida pública y acude como diputado por Guayaquil a las Cortes de Cádiz, colaborando en la redacción de la Constitución de 1812, importante porque fue la primera en igualar los derechos de americanos y peninsulares. En 1820, derogada la constitución por Fernando VII, encontramos a Olmedo militando en las filas independentistas de Guayaquil. Cuando la ciudad quedó anexionada a la Gran Colombia, Olmedo se enemistó con Bolívar; aunque pronto se reconciliaron y obtuvo su apoyo para la lucha en Quito. Desde 1825 a 1828, fue ministro de Bolívar en Londres, donde entró en contacto con Andrés Bello, con el que colaboró. Dos de las cosas que hace en Londres por orden de Bolívar son enajenar las minas del Perú para venderlas a compañías europeas (lo que supone uno de los grandes problemas de Latinoamérica, que se vendió al extranjero) y buscar colegios en Inglaterra (también se buscaron en Francia y Estados Unidos) para educar a las élites criollas. La cercanía y el compromiso con Bolívar, hacen a Olmedo el gran poeta cívico de su época. Su celebra la victoria de Bolívar en el Perú, victoria con la que la Victoria de Junín o Canto a Bolívar celebra independencia quedaría asegurada. Este poema destaca en medio de una producción prescindible (“en la onda cursi neoclásica”). El fervor patrió tico de esta poesía libertadora
hace del texto una escritura que Menéndez Pelayo llegó a clasificar como épico-lírica. Principalmente es épica, pero el fervor le confiere cierto lirismo. El armazón es neoclásico atento a la preceptiva, pero el fervor de la lucha patriótica y libertaria hace que se atisben ciertos rasgos románticos. La oda tiene la virtud de escribirse para conmemorar un momento esencial y encarar el proyecto como una verdadera empresa (informándose, desarrollando un plan…), lo que sabemos gracias a la correspondencia que mantuvo con Bolívar. Es interesante porque este le hace objeciones, le indica reformas… de gusto neoclásico que cree en una
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14/05/14
Última estrofa del poema: recursos de despedida. Su “flauta conocida” hace referencia a la música andina (la quema, la flauta, f lauta, etc.). Canta sobre lo conocido y lo propio con instrumentos autóctonos. Le cuesta desgajarse del lenguaje neoclásico, pero introduce elementos propios (los posesivos por ejemplo). “Tiranos” antiespañolismo. Es una poesía ya centrada completamen co mpletamente te el tema americano (escrita para los americanos, por un americano y de asunto americano).
Andrés bello Sobresale por su labor como maestro. En estos tiempos centró su capacidad intelectual en centrar las bases de la independencia. Es autor de obras filológicas, filosóficas, históricas, etc. Fue un personaje cultísimo que ha tenido mucha relevancia. Para Bello, la poesía fue una actividad secundaria. Se encuadra en la línea neoclásica y nunca fue romántico (aunque a veces lo pueda parecer). Tuvo una vida muy larga que podemos dividir en etapas: 1. Etapa venezolana Etapa venezolana (1781-1810): (1781-1810): era natural de Venezuela. Fue a la universidad y adquirió una sólida formación formación clásica. Desempeñó Desempeñó cargos administrativos administrativos y trabajó en una revista, entre otras labores. Conoció a Alexander Humboldt, a quien acompañó en 1800 en unos viajes por el interior. Descubrió: a/ la importancia de la contemplación b/ la grandeza de la naturaleza americana. 2. Etapa inglesa (1810-1829): inglesa (1810-1829): llega a Londres acompañando a Bolívar y, por unos reveses, debe permanecer permanecer allí exiliado. En esta etapa, llevó a cabo una intensa i ntensa actividad literaria y periodística (elabora una edición del Cantar del Mío Cid , conoce a grandes personajes, etc.) y alcanza su cima en estos campos. Publica dos revistas:
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poesía (y a los poemas americanos) y le dice que deje de mirar hacia Europa.
“Culta Europa” vs. “rustiquez nativa”. Enumera todos los temas que han sido tradicionalmente tradicionalmente poéticos, que también están en América. Se refiere refiere a un modelo bucólico. Aunque el propone algo contrario a Europa, hace uso de lo tradicional. Después de la primera parte (la del programa), hay una enumeración casi enciclopédica de los elementos elementos propiamente americanos (frutos, plantas, animales...) El resto del poema es también una enumeración de todas las guerras y héroes de la independencia.
“Silva a la agricultura en las zonas tórridas” Describe la naturaleza americana y su poder balsámico sobre el orbe. La naturaleza tiene dos facetas: a/ como agricultura b/ como zona tórrida. Se desarrolla el tema de menosprecio de corte y alabanza de aldea. aldea. Salvación regreso a lo primitivo. Bello se ve en la obligación de alejar a los jóvenes de las intrigas del centro de poder. En la primera estrofa: lenguaje que no tiene nada de americano (es como un jardín neoclásico). Les dice a los jóvenes: “el campo es vuestra herencia”. El trabajo de la agricultura se nos presenta casi como una hazaña épica. Los dos poemas contribuyeron a crear una conciencia del continente americano y a sentar las bases de la independencia independencia cultural y literaria. literaria.