Literary Theory Power Point

PRESTWICK HOUSE, INC.

INTRODUCTION TO

Literary Theory

Table of Contents

Introduction to

Literary Theory 3 .................................................. Introduction 22 ........................................... Feminist Theory 64 ............................................. Marxist Theory 105 ................ Psychoanalytic or Freudian Theory 153 ................ Mythological or Archetypal Theory 248 .......................................... New Historicism 295 .................................................. Formalism 2

Introduction

Introduction

3

Introduction

What is literary or critical theory? What do you mean by “critical perspective”?

4

Introduction

What is literary or critical theory? What do you mean by “critical perspective”? The terms “literary theory” and “critical theory” refer to essentially the same fields of study. They both address ways of looking at literature beyond the typical plot-themecharacter-setting studies.

5

Introduction

Just as a PERSPECTIVE is a way of looking at something, a CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE is a way of criticizing or analyzing literature. Your CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE is the view you bring to the literature you read.

6

Introduction

How and why did literary theories develop?

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Introduction

How and why did literary theories develop? We all know that different people will experience the same event differently. It follows, then, that different people will approach the same literary text differently.

8

Introduction

One person may be offended by a character’s actions, while another finds them comic. One reader is energized by a story’s political implications, while another is awed by the same story’s philosophical bent.

9

Introduction

Literary theories emerged as ways to explain different people’s views and responses to literature. Rather than insisting that one view is the best or correct view, literary theory attempts to find value in all views that are based on a careful study of the literature.

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Introduction

What are the benefits of studying a work from more than one critical perspective?

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Introduction

What are the benefits of studying a work from more than one critical perspective? There are several benefits: • One of the views is likely to affirm your perspective and speak to what you see in the literature you are studying.

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Introduction

What are the benefits of studying a work from more than one critical perspective? There are several benefits: • One of the views is likely to affirm your perspective and speak to what you see in the literature you are studying. • Studying a view different from yours—not to disagree with it, but to understand it—helps you understand those who hold that view.

13

Introduction

What are the benefits of studying a work from more than one critical perspective? There are several benefits: • One of the views is likely to affirm your perspective and speak to what you see in the literature you are studying. • Studying a view different from yours—not to disagree with it, but to understand it—helps you understand those who hold that view. • Studying a work from more than one view gives you a deeper understanding of the author’s work and a better appreciation for the richness of it. 14

Introduction

What does studying a work from multiple critical perspectives involve?

15

Introduction

What does studying a work from multiple critical perspectives involve? Essentially, all you have to do to study a work from more than one critical perspective is to put your own view on hold and entertain the other view. Although you may be a staunch green-thinker, you now ask yourself, “What would a yellow-thinker see in this work?”

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Introduction

What does studying a work from multiple critical perspectives not involve?

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Introduction

What does studying a work from multiple critical perspectives not involve? First and foremost, studying a work from multiple critical perspectives does not require that you agree with any of the perspectives you study. You are not being asked to become a yellow-thinker, only to consider—without criticism and judgment—what a yellow-thinker would see in the text.

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Introduction

What does studying a work from multiple critical perspectives not involve? Second, studying a work from multiple critical perspectives does not require that you blend or merge two or more perspectives into a single interpretation. Some of the points of some of the theories are actually mutually exclusive and cannot be reconciled. While examining a work from the feminist perspective, you do not need to take into account what a Marxist would find. You would examine each perspective independently.

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Introduction

What are the most common or popular critical theories?

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Introduction

What are the most common or popular critical theories? This presentation will introduce you to the following critical theories: • Feminist • Marxist • Psychoanalytic or Freudian • Archetypal or Mythological • New Historicism • Formalism

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Feminist Theory

Feminist Theory

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Feminist Theory

The basis of the feminist movements, both in literature and politics, is that Western culture is fundamentally patriarchal (i.e., created by men, controlled by men, viewed through the eyes of men, and evaluated by men).

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Feminist Theory

The 1960s saw the rise of a new, feminist approach to literary criticism. Before the emergence of Feminist Theory, the works of female writers (or works about females) were examined by the same standards as those by male writers (and about men).

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Feminist Theory

With the development of Feminist Theory, old texts are reexamined, and the portrayal of women in literature is reevaluated. New writers create works that more accurately reflect the developing concept of the “modern woman.”

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Feminist Theory

The feminist approach is only partly based on finding and exposing suggestions of misogyny (negative attitudes toward women) in literature. Feminists are interested in exposing the ways women in literature—both authors and characters—are undervalued.

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Feminist Theory

Some feminist scholars have even dissected individual words in Western languages, suggesting that the languages themselves reflect a patriarchal worldview.

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Feminist Theory

Arguing that the past millennia in the West have been dominated by men— whether politicians in power or the historians recording it—feminist critics believe that Western literature reflects a masculine bias.

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Feminist Theory

As a result, Western literature presents an inaccurate and potentially harmful portrayal of women. In order to repair the potential harm done and achieve balance, feminist critics insist that works by and about women be added to the literary canon and read from a feminist perspective.

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Feminist Theory

Three main areas of study and points of criticism exist in the Feminist Theory: 1. differences between men and women

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Feminist Theory

Three main areas of study and points of criticism exist in the Feminist Theory: 1. differences between men and women 2. women in positions of power and power dynamics between men and women

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Feminist Theory

Three main areas of study and points of criticism exist in the Feminist Theory: 1. differences between men and women 2. women in positions of power and power dynamics between men and women 3. the female experience

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Feminist Theory

Differences between men and women • One basic assumption of the feminist perspective is that gender determines everything, including values and the ways language is used.

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Feminist Theory

Differences between men and women • One basic assumption of the feminist perspective is that gender determines everything, including values and the ways language is used. • The canon of literature printed, marketed, and taught in schools must be expanded to include the study of genres in which women “traditionally” write: journals, diaries, and personal letters.

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Feminist Theory

Differences between men and women • The differences in the topics or issues about which men and women write and the differing viewpoints from which men and women write must be noted. All views must be respected as equally valid.

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Feminist Theory

Women in positions of power and power dynamics between men and women • Any evidence of the social, economic, and political exploitation of women must be noted and confronted. The feminist critic checks the work to see whether female characters have power and of what type of power it might be.

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Feminist Theory

Women in positions of power and power dynamics between men and women • Any evidence of the social, economic, and political exploitation of women must be noted and confronted. The feminist critic checks the work to see whether female characters have power and of what type of power it might be. • A feminist critic views literature as a means by which inequities can be identified, protested, and possibly rectified.

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Feminist Theory

Women in positions of power and power dynamics between men and women • A feminist critic will note the division of labor and economics between men and women in the work being studied.

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Feminist Theory

Women in positions of power and power dynamics between men and women • A feminist critic will note the division of labor and economics between men and women in the work being studied. • A feminist critic will note how male and female characters in the work interact with one another in a variety of contexts. Does the woman act subservient? Does the man treat the woman like an adult? Are males and females politically and economically equal?

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Feminist Theory

The Female Experience • On the most basic levels, a woman’s experience of life is different from a man’s. Reading or viewing from a feminist perspective includes examining what aspects of feminine life are included in the work. Is the narrative point of view male or female? How does the narrator—male or female—treat plot events and other characters?

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Feminist Theory

The Female Experience • On the most basic levels, a woman’s experience of life is different from a man’s. Reading or viewing from a feminist perspective includes examining what aspects of feminine life are included in the work. Is the narrative point of view male or female? How does the narrator—male or female—treat plot events and other characters? • The feminist critic rejects any application of male standards to the female personality. The female personality must be judged independently from the male personality and vice versa. 41

Feminist Theory

The Female Experience • Feminist critics examine and celebrate all portrayals of the creative, life-giving role of femininity. Women have traditionally been portrayed as dependent on men, but feminists point out that men are dependent on women for humanity’s most basic need—birthing children. All evidence of feminine nurture, healing, life giving and restoring are examined.

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Feminist Theory

The Female Experience • Feminist theory is not fundamentally chauvinistic. Feminist critics explore literature for portrayals of the concept that men and women are each incomplete without the other. They do, however, reject suggestions of studying only feminine “incompleteness.”

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Feminist Theory

Essential questions for a feminist reading: ๏ What

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stereotypes of women are depicted in the text?

Feminist Theory

Essential questions for a feminist reading: ๏ What ๏ Are


female characters oversimplified? Weak? Foolish? Excessively naive?

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Feminist Theory



๏ Are


๏ Do

the female characters play major or minor roles in the action of the work?

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Feminist Theory



๏ Are


๏ Do


๏ Are

they supportive or independent? Powerless or strong? Subservient or in control?

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Feminist Theory



๏ Are


๏ Do


๏ Are

they supportive or independent? Powerless or strong? Subservient or in control?

๏ If

the female characters have any power, what kind is it? Political? Economic? Social? Psychological?

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Feminist Theory

Essential questions for a feminist reading: ๏ Are

the female characters and situations in which they are placed oversimplified or presented fully and in detail?

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Feminist Theory



๏ How

do the male characters talk about the female characters?

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Feminist Theory



๏ How


๏ How

do the male characters treat the female characters?

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Feminist Theory



๏ How


๏ How


๏ How

do the female characters act toward the male characters?

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Feminist Theory



๏ How


๏ How


๏ How

do the female characters act toward the male characters?

๏ How 53

do the female characters act toward each other?

Feminist Theory

Essential questions for a feminist reading: ๏ Is

the work, in general, sympathetic to female characters? Too sympathetic?

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Feminist Theory



๏ Do

any of the work’s themes touch upon any idea that could be seen as a feminist issue? Is the theme supportive or disparaging of women?

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Feminist Theory



๏ Do

any of the work’s themes touch upon any idea that could be seen as a feminist issue? Is the theme supportive or disparaging of women?

๏ Overall,

do you think that the female characters are believable? For that matter, do you think that the male characters are believable?

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Feminist Theory

Examining “Cinderella” from a Feminist Perspective • Consider the potentially misogynist theme of abused-girl-waiting-to-be-rescued-by-prince.

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Feminist Theory

Examining “Cinderella” from a Feminist Perspective • Consider the potentially misogynist theme of abused-girl-waiting-to-be-rescued-by-prince. • Consider the values conveyed in the portrayal of the “good girl” as physically beautiful and the “wicked girls” as physically ugly.

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Feminist Theory

Examine the potentially misogynist theme of the courtship ritual of the prince’s ball: • By what standard (other than physical beauty) will he choose whom to marry?

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Feminist Theory

Examine the potentially misogynist theme of the courtship ritual of the prince’s ball: • By what standard (other than physical beauty) will he choose whom to marry? • Will the chosen woman have a choice in whether or not to marry the prince?

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Feminist Theory

Examine the potentially misogynist theme of the courtship ritual of the prince’s ball: • By what standard (other than physical beauty) will he choose whom to marry? • Will the chosen woman have a choice in whether or not to marry the prince? • What is the basis of the prince’s “love at first sight” with Cinderella?

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Feminist Theory

Consider the feminist implication of • the fact that the “good girl” is passive, weak, and submissive and can do nothing (and does do nothing) to improve her own condition;

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Feminist Theory

Consider the feminist implication of • the fact that the “good girl” is passive, weak, and submissive and can do nothing (and does do nothing) to improve her own condition; • the fact that the powerful woman is portrayed as wicked (and probably ugly).

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Marxist Theory

Marxist Theory

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Marxist Theory

The Marxist approach to literature is based on the philosophy of Karl Marx, a German philosopher and economist. His major argument was that whoever controlled the means of production (the factories) in a society controlled the society.

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Marxist Theory

Marx noted a disparity in the economic and political power enjoyed by the factory owners and that allowed to the factory laborers.

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Marxist Theory

He believed that the means of production (i.e., the basis of power in society) should be placed in the hands those who actually operated them. He wrote that economic and political revolutions around the world would eventually place power in the hands of the masses, the laborers.

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Marxist Theory

To read a work from a Marxist perspective, one must understand that Marxism asserts that literature is a reflection of culture, and that culture can be influenced by literature. Marxists believe literature can instigate revolution.

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Marxist Theory

Four main areas of study: • economic power

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Marxist Theory

Four main areas of study: • economic power • materialism versus spirituality

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Marxist Theory

Four main areas of study: • economic power • materialism versus spirituality • class conflict

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Marxist Theory

Four main areas of study: • economic power • materialism versus spirituality • class conflict • art, literature, and ideologies

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Marxist Theory

Economic Power • A society is shaped by its forces of production. Those who own the means of production dictate what type of society it is.

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Marxist Theory

Economic Power • A society is shaped by its forces of production. Those who own the means of production dictate what type of society it is. • The two main classes of society are the bourgeoisie (who control the means of production and wealth) and the proletariat (who operate the means of production and are controlled by the bourgeoisie).

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Marxist Theory

Economic Power • Since the bourgeoisie own the means of production—and, therefore, control the money— they can manipulate politics, government, education, art, and media.

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Marxist Theory

Economic Power • Since the bourgeoisie own the means of production—and, therefore, control the money— they can manipulate politics, government, education, art, and media. • Capitalism is flawed in that it creates commodification (a desire for possessions, not for their innate usefulness, but for their social value). Display of material objects is the most common way of showing off one’s wealth.

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Marxist Theory

Economic Power • Commodification is one way the bourgeoisie keep the proletariat oppressed. Whenever the proletariat manages to acquire some sort of status symbol, the bourgeoisie concocts a new one; thus, the proletariat continues to struggle, never able to “catch up.”

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Marxist Theory

Materialism versus Spirituality • Regardless of what some might claim, social values reflect material goals, not abstract ideals.

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Marxist Theory

Materialism versus Spirituality • Regardless of what some might claim, social values reflect material goals, not abstract ideals. • The material world is the only non-subjective element in a society. Money and material possessions are the same by every measure within a society, whereas spirituality is completely subjective.

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Marxist Theory

Materialism versus Spirituality • Regardless of what some might claim, social values reflect material goals, not abstract ideals. • The material world is the only non-subjective element in a society. Money and material possessions are the same by every measure within a society, whereas spirituality is completely subjective. • The quality of a person’s life is not destroyed by spiritual failure but by material failure.

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Marxist Theory

Class Conflict • A Capitalist society will inevitability experience conflict between its social classes.

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Marxist Theory

Class Conflict • A Capitalist society will inevitability experience conflict between its social classes. • The owners and the workers will have different ideas about the division of the wealth generated, and the owners will ultimately make the decision.

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Marxist Theory

Class Conflict • A Capitalist society will inevitability experience conflict between its social classes. • The owners and the workers will have different ideas about the division of the wealth generated, and the owners will ultimately make the decision. • This constant conflict, or dialectical materialism, is what instigates change.

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Marxist Theory

Class Conflict • The bourgeoisie present their political, economic, and social structures as the only reasonable ones. The proletariat, indoctrinated from birth to have pride in their station, are prevented from wanting to overthrow their oppressors (ironically, the smaller and actually less-powerful group).

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Marxist Theory

Class Conflict • The bourgeoisie present their political, economic, and social structures as the only reasonable ones. The proletariat, indoctrinated from birth to have pride in their station, are prevented from wanting to overthrow their oppressors (ironically, the smaller and actually less-powerful group). • The only real social division is class. Divisions of race, ethnicity, gender, and religion are artificial, devised by the bourgeoisie to distract the proletariat from realizing their unity and rebelling against their oppressors. 85

Marxist Theory

Class Conflict • Marx called on the proletariat to reject the social structure of the bourgeoisie, the rules that would keep them subservient forever, and form their own values. Such a course would be the only way to escape the oppression, for the proletariat could never defeat the bourgeoisie on its own terms. For the workers to win, they must establish new terms.

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Marxist Theory

Art, Literature, and Ideologies • Art and literature are among the vehicles by which the bourgeoisie impose their value system on the proletariat. The arts can make the current system seem attractive and logical, thus lulling the workers into an acceptance of it.

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Marxist Theory

Art, Literature, and Ideologies • Art and literature are among the vehicles by which the bourgeoisie impose their value system on the proletariat. The arts can make the current system seem attractive and logical, thus lulling the workers into an acceptance of it. • Works of art and literature are enjoyable, so the audience is unaware of being manipulated.

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Marxist Theory

Art, Literature, and Ideologies • The bourgeoisie control most artistic output because, whether through patronage or sponsorship, they are the entity that funds the arts and entertainment. Since the bourgeoisie materially support the writers and the painters— owning the means of production as well as serving as primary consumers—the artist must be careful not to offend bourgeois values. Anything offensive or challenging to the bourgeoisie will simply not be published or sold.

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Marxist Theory

Art, Literature, and Ideologies • The bourgeoisie control most artistic output because, whether through patronage or sponsorship, they are the entity that funds the arts and entertainment. Since the bourgeoisie materially support the writers and the painters— owning the means of production as well as serving as primary consumers—the artist must be careful not to offend bourgeois values. Anything offensive or challenging to the bourgeoisie will simply not be published or sold. • Any artist who wishes to criticize the bourgeoisie must do so in a subtle way (satire, irony, etc.). 90

Marxist Theory

Essential questions for a Marxist reading: ๏ Who

are the powerful people in the text? Who are the powerless? Who receives the most attention?

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Marxist Theory



๏ Why

do the powerful have the power? Why are the powerless without power?

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Marxist Theory



๏ Why


๏ Is

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there class conflict and struggle?

Marxist Theory



๏ Why


๏ Is ๏ Is


there alienation and/or fragmentation evident in any of the characters? If so, in whom? The powerful? The powerless?

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Marxist Theory



๏ Why


๏ Is


๏ Is

there alienation and/or fragmentation evident in any of the characters? If so, in whom? The powerful? The powerless?

๏ Do

the powerful in the text suppress the powerless? How? News? Media? Religion? Literature?

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Marxist Theory

Essential questions for a Marxist reading: ๏ What

can you infer from the setting about the distribution of wealth?

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Marxist Theory



๏ What

does the society value? Are possessions acquired for their usefulness or their social value?

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Marxist Theory



๏ What


๏ Is

the text itself a product of the society in which it was created? How do you know?

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Marxist Theory



๏ What


๏ Is


๏ Is

the work consistent in its ideologies, or is there an inner conflict?

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Marxist Theory



๏ What


๏ Is


๏ Is

the work consistent in its ideologies, or is there an inner conflict?

๏ After

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reading this text, do you notice any system of oppression that you have accepted? If so, what system, and how do you think you came to accept it?

Marxist Theory

Examining “Cinderella” from a Marxist Perspective Consider Cinderella as a representative of the proletariat:

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Marxist Theory

Examining “Cinderella” from a Marxist Perspective Consider Cinderella as a representative of the proletariat: • oppressed by her bourgeoisie stepmother and stepsisters, who have stolen her rightful inheritance and turned her into a servant in her own home;

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Marxist Theory

Examining “Cinderella” from a Marxist Perspective Consider Cinderella as a representative of the proletariat: • oppressed by her bourgeoisie stepmother and stepsisters, who have stolen her rightful inheritance and turned her into a servant in her own home; • desiring to join the ranks of the bourgeoisie by marrying the prince.

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Marxist Theory

Examining “Cinderella” from a Marxist Perspective Consider the ball gown, glass slippers, and golden coach as evidence of commodification; without these possessions, Cinderella cannot hope to rise out of the proletariat and join the bourgeoisie.

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Psychoanalytic or Freudian Theory


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The Psychoanalytic or Freudian Theory encompasses two almost contradictory critical theories. The first focuses on the text itself, with no regard to outside influences; the second focuses on the author of the text.

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According to the first view, reading and interpretation are limited to the work itself. One will understand the work by examining conflicts, characters, dream sequences, and symbols.

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One will further understand that a character’s outward behavior might conflict with inner desires or might reflect as-yet-undiscovered inner desires.

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Main areas of study/points of criticism of the first view are: There are strong Oedipal connotations in Freudian theory: • the son’s desire for his mother

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Main areas of study/points of criticism of the first view are: There are strong Oedipal connotations in Freudian theory: • the son’s desire for his mother • the father’s envy of the son and rivalry for the mother’s attention

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Main areas of study/points of criticism of the first view are: There are strong Oedipal connotations in Freudian theory: • the son’s desire for his mother • the father’s envy of the son and rivalry for the mother’s attention • the daughter’s desire for her father

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Main areas of study/points of criticism of the first view are: There are strong Oedipal connotations in Freudian theory: • the son’s desire for his mother • the father’s envy of the son and rivalry for the mother’s attention • the daughter’s desire for her father • the mother’s envy of the daughter and rivalry for the father’s attention.

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Main areas of study/points of criticism of the first view are: There are strong Oedipal connotations in Freudian theory: • the son’s desire for his mother • the father’s envy of the son and rivalry for the mother’s attention • the daughter’s desire for her father • the mother’s envy of the daughter and rivalry for the father’s attention. Of course, these all operate on a subconscious level to avoid violating serious social mores. 113


Main areas of study/points of criticism of the first view are: There is an emphasis on the meaning of dreams. • It is in dreams that a person’s subconscious desires are revealed.

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Main areas of study/points of criticism of the first view are: There is an emphasis on the meaning of dreams. • It is in dreams that a person’s subconscious desires are revealed. • What a person cannot express or do because of social rules will be expressed and accomplished in dreams, where there are no social rules.

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Main areas of study/points of criticism of the first view are: There is an emphasis on the meaning of dreams. • It is in dreams that a person’s subconscious desires are revealed. • What a person cannot express or do because of social rules will be expressed and accomplished in dreams, where there are no social rules. • Most of the time, people are not even aware what they secretly desire until their subconscious goes unchecked in sleep. 116


According to psychoanalytic theory, there are three parts to the subconscious, which is the largest part of the human personality: The id—the basic desire. • The id has no sense of conscience, thus making it everyone’s “inner child.” Children, before they are taught social skills, operate entirely through the id. They cry in public, perform bodily functions with no sense of shame, and demand immediate gratification of their needs and desires.

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According to psychoanalytic theory, there are three parts to the subconscious, which is the largest part of the human personality: The superego—the opposite of the id. • The superego is the repository of all socially imposed behavior and sense of guilt. While the id is innate, the superego is learned. Humans develop a superego by having parents scold them and other members of society teach them.

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According to psychoanalytic theory, there are three parts to the subconscious, which is the largest part of the human personality: The superego—the opposite of the id. • How one is socialized—by punishment and shame—will have a lifelong impact on the functioning of his or her subconscious.

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According to psychoanalytic theory, there are three parts to the subconscious, which is the largest part of the human personality: The ego—reality. • The ego struggles to achieve a balance between the id and the superego. The ego takes the desires of the id, filters them through the superego, and devises an action that satisfies both. The ego realizes that the id must be satisfied but that there are certain socially acceptable ways to achieve satisfaction. 120


According to psychoanalytic theory, there are three parts to the subconscious, which is the largest part of the human personality: The ego—reality. • Freudian theory asserts that psychological problems are all the result of imbalances between the id, superego, and ego.

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Main areas of study/points of criticism of the second view: • An essential relationship exists between the author of the work and the work itself. In order to understand a work, one must fully understand the author’s life and values.

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Main areas of study/points of criticism of the second view: • An essential relationship exists between the author of the work and the work itself. In order to understand a work, one must fully understand the author’s life and values. • Although a work might not be blatantly autobiographical, psychoanalysts argue that there is always something of the author in the work, whether it be a character, character trait, theme, or motif. 123


Main areas of study/points of criticism of the second view: • Often, authors will satirize characters they dislike or will be overtly sympathetic to those they do like.

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Main areas of study/points of criticism of the second view: • Often, authors will satirize characters they dislike or will be overtly sympathetic to those they do like. • This author’s bias often has an effect on the reader, which is exactly what the author wants. When reading, people are extremely vulnerable to the author’s chosen point of view (the only way they hear the story is through the author’s narrator).

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This type of psychoanalytic reading includes the following: • Reference to what is known or surmised about the author’s personality is used to explain and interpret a literary work. For example, Charles Dickens grew up poor and later wrote books sympathetic to boys growing up poor.

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This type of psychoanalytic reading includes the following: • Reference to what is known or surmised about the author’s personality is used to explain and interpret a literary work. For example, Charles Dickens grew up poor and later wrote books sympathetic to boys growing up poor. • Reference to a literary work is made in order to establish an understanding of the mind of the author. For example, judging by Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird, one might reasonably conclude that Harper Lee herself was sympathetic to the plight of black Americans. 127


This type of psychoanalytic reading includes the following: • Studying the literary work of an author is a means of knowing the author as a person. The more novels by Charles Dickens one reads, the more one can infer about the author’s beliefs, values, hopes, fears, etc.

128


This type of psychoanalytic reading includes the following: • An artist may put his or her repressed desires on the page in the form of actions performed by characters. For example, an author who consistently writes stories in which his female characters are weak, dependent, or unintelligent might be expressing latent misogynist tendencies. Likewise, a female author might express her latent misandry through weak, blatantly evil, or thoroughly inconsequential male characters. 129


Essential questions for a psychoanalytic reading are: ๏ What

130

are the traits of the main character?


Essential questions for a psychoanalytic reading are: ๏ What ๏ How

131


does the author reveal those traits?





๏ What

do you learn about the character through the narrator?

132





๏ What


๏ What

do you learn about the character from the way other characters relate to him or her?

133





๏ What


๏ What

do you learn about the character from the way other characters relate to him or her?

๏ What

do you infer about the character from his or her thoughts, actions, and speech?

134



discrepancies exist between the author’s portrayal of the character and how other characters react to him or her?

135




๏ What

discrepancies exist between the author’s portrayal of the character and the reader’s inferences?

136




๏ What


๏ Is

the main character a dynamic character (does he or she change throughout the course of the story)? If so, how and why?

137




๏ What


๏ Is

the main character a dynamic character (does he or she change throughout the course of the story)? If so, how and why?

๏ How 138

does the character view him or herself?



discrepancies exist between a character’s view of him or herself and other characters’ reactions, the author’s portrayal, and/or reader inference?

139




๏ How

140

do the characters view one another?




๏ How ๏ Is


there any discrepancy between a character’s personal opinion of him or herself and how others think about him or her?

141




๏ How


๏ Is

there any discrepancy between a character’s personal opinion of him or herself and how others think about him or her?

๏ What

142

types of relationships exist in the work?



types of images are used in conjunction with the character? What do they symbolize?

143




๏ What

symbols are used in the course of the story? What do they symbolize?

144




๏ What

symbols are used in the course of the story? What do they symbolize?

๏ Do

any characters have dreams or inner monologues? What is revealed about a character through dreams that would not otherwise be revealed?

145


Essential questions for a psychoanalytic reading are: ๏ Are

there any inner conflicts within the character? How are these conflicts revealed? How are they dealt with? Are they ever resolved? How?

146


Essential questions for a psychoanalytic reading are: ๏ Are

there any inner conflicts within the character? How are these conflicts revealed? How are they dealt with? Are they ever resolved? How?

๏ Do

any characters perform uncharacteristic actions? If so, what? What could these actions mean?

147


Examining “Cinderella” from a Psychoanalytic Perspective • Consider Cinderella as a representative of the id— expressing desire.

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Examining “Cinderella” from a Psychoanalytic Perspective • Consider Cinderella as a representative of the id— expressing desire. • Consider the stepmother and stepsisters as representatives of the superego—preventing the id from fulfilling its desire.

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Examining “Cinderella” from a Psychoanalytic Perspective • Consider Cinderella as a representative of the id —expressing desire. • Consider the stepmother and stepsisters as representatives of the superego—preventing the id from fulfilling its desire. • Consider the fairy godmother and the prince as representatives of the ego—negotiating between the id and the superego and allowing the desires of the id to be fulfilled in a socially acceptable manner. 150


Examining “Cinderella” from a Psychoanalytic Perspective • Examine the discrepancy between the narrator’s depiction of the stepmother and stepsisters and their views of themselves.

151


Examining “Cinderella” from a Psychoanalytic Perspective • Examine the discrepancy between the narrator’s depiction of the stepmother and stepsisters and their views of themselves. • Examine the text for evidence of latent misogyny or misandry on the part of Charles Perrault (or the Grimm brothers).

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Mythological or Archetypal Theory

Archetypal or Mythological Theory

153


Mythological, archetypal, and psychological criticism are all closely related. This is because Freud based many of his theories on the idea of the social archetype. His pupil, Carl Jung, refined Freud’s theories and expanded them into a more cross-cultural philosophy.

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Critics who examine texts from a mythological/archetypal standpoint are looking for symbols. Jung defined an archetype as “a figure...that repeats itself in the course of history wherever creative fantasy is fully manifested.”

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Jung theorized that human beings were born with an innate knowledge of certain archetypes. The evidence of this, Jung claimed, lay in the fact that some myths are repeated throughout history in cultures and eras that could not possibly have had any contact with one another.

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Every culture has a creation story, a-lifeafter-death belief, and a reason for human failings, and these stories— when studied comparatively—are far more similar than different.

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When looking for archetypes, critics take note of general themes, characters, and situations that recur in literature across writers, genres, periods, and societies.

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Traditional literary and mythological archetypes can be successfully translated to other genres and time periods. Because they draw on feelings, situations, concerns, and issues that have been a part of the human condition in every generation, the plays of William Shakespeare, the novels of Jane Austen, the episodes of Homer can be, and have been, updated and reformatted time and time again.

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Three main points of study: 1. archetypal characters

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Three main points of study: 1. archetypal characters 2. archetypal images

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Three main points of study: 1. archetypal characters 2. archetypal images 3. archetypal situations

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Archetypal Characters the HERO: • a figure, often larger than life, whose search for identity and/or fulfillment results in his or her destruction (often accompanied by the destruction of society in general).

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Archetypal Characters the HERO: • a figure, often larger than life, whose search for identity and/or fulfillment results in his or her destruction (often accompanied by the destruction of society in general). • The aftermath of the death of the hero, however, results in progress toward some ideal.

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Archetypal Characters the HERO: • While this applies to modern superheroes such as Superman (Clark Kent, searching for the balance between his super self and his mortal identity), it also applies to the central figures in many religions.

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Archetypal Characters the HERO: • Christianity’s Jesus, who must come to terms with his destiny as the Messiah, Judaism’s Moses, reluctant to fulfill his assigned destiny as the leader of the Israelites, and thousands of other literary and religious figures throughout history are examples of the archetype.

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Archetypal Characters the HERO: • Christianity’s Jesus, who must come to terms with his destiny as the Messiah, Judaism’s Moses, reluctant to fulfill his assigned destiny as the leader of the Israelites, and thousands of other literary and religious figures throughout history are examples of the archetype.

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• Variations of the HERO figure include the “orphaned” prince or the lost chieftain’s son raised ignorant of his heritage until he is rediscovered (King Arthur, Theseus).


Archetypal Characters the SCAPEGOAT: • an innocent character on whom a situation is blamed—or who assumes the blame for a situation—and is punished in place of the truly guilty party, thus removing the guilt from the culprit and from society.

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Archetypal Characters the LONER or OUTCAST: • a character who is separated from (or separates him or herself from) society due to either an impairment or an advantage that sets this character apart from others. Often, the Hero is an outcast at some point in his or her story.

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Archetypal Characters the LONER or OUTCAST: • a character who is separated from (or separates him or herself from) society due to either an impairment or an advantage that sets this character apart from others. Often, the Hero is an outcast at some point in his or her story. • Jesus goes into the desert to discern his destiny.

170


Archetypal Characters the LONER or OUTCAST: • a character who is separated from (or separates him or herself from) society due to either an impairment or an advantage that sets this character apart from others. Often, the Hero is an outcast at some point in his or her story. • Jesus goes into the desert to discern his destiny. • Buddha leaves society to attain Nirvana. 171


Archetypal Characters the LONER or OUTCAST: • Victor Frankenstein travels to remote locales to avoid people when he realizes that he has created a monster.

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Archetypal Characters Two common variations of the LONER are • the UNDERDOG, the smaller, weaker, lessworldly-wise character, who usually emerges victorious at the end of the story;

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Archetypal Characters Two common variations of the LONER are • the UNDERDOG, the smaller, weaker, lessworldly wise character, who usually emerges victorious at the end of the story; • the guilt-ridden figure in search of redemption.

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Archetypal Characters the VILLAIN: • the male or female personification of evil.

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Archetypal Characters the VILLAIN: • the male or female personification of evil. • While nearly all works of literature include an antagonist to provide conflict with the protagonist, not all antagonists are villains.

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Archetypal Characters the VILLAIN: • Villains personify evil. Their malice is often apparently unmotivated, or is motivated by a single grievance from the past. The villain’s malice is often limitless, and rarely is the villain reformed within the context of the story. Examples of archetypal villains are Satan and Loki, from Norse mythology.

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Archetypal Characters Some variations of the VILLAIN figure include: • the “mad scientist”

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Archetypal Characters Some variations of the VILLAIN figure include: • the “mad scientist” • the bully

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Archetypal Characters the TEMPTRESS: • the female who possesses what the male desires and uses his desire (either intentionally or unintentionally) as a means to his ultimate destruction. Examples are Eve, Juliet, Lady Macbeth.

180


Archetypal Characters the EARTH MOTHER/GODDESS: • Mother Nature, Mother Earth—the nurturing, life-giving aspect of femininity.

181


Archetypal Characters the SPIRIT or INTELLECT: • the often-unidentified feminine inspiration for works of art and literature. Examples would be Dante’s Beatrice, Shakespeare’s Dark Lady, etc.

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Archetypal Characters the SAGE: • largely of Eastern origin, the sage is the elderly wise man, the teacher or mentor. Examples from Western literature would be Merlin and Tiresias.

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Archetypal Characters the SAGE: • largely of Eastern origin, the sage is the elderly wise man, the teacher or mentor. Examples from Western literature would be Merlin and Tiresias. • Yoda from Star Wars and Gandalf from The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings are contemporary derivations.

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Archetypal Characters Some variations of the SAGE include: • the wise woman, the crone, or witch.

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Archetypal Characters Some variations of the SAGE include: • the wise woman, the crone, or witch. Note that, while the male SAGE’s wisdom is usually spiritual or philosophical (often with political or military applications), the wise woman’s wisdom tends to concern the workings of nature—hence, the connection of the wise woman with witchcraft and the associated superstitions.

186


Archetypal Characters Some variations of the SAGE include: • the stern, but loving authority figure.

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Archetypal Characters Some variations of the SAGE include: • the stern, but loving authority figure. • the oracle: male or female prophet, fortuneteller, soothsayer.

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Archetypal Images COLORS: • red as blood, anger, passion, violence;

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Archetypal Images COLORS: • red as blood, anger, passion, violence; • gold as greatness, value, wealth;

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Archetypal Images COLORS: • red as blood, anger, passion, violence; • gold as greatness, value, wealth; • green as fertility, luxury, growth;

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Archetypal Images COLORS: • red as blood, anger, passion, violence; • gold as greatness, value, wealth; • green as fertility, luxury, growth; • blue (the color of the sky) as peace, serenity;

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Archetypal Images COLORS: • red as blood, anger, passion, violence; • gold as greatness, value, wealth; • green as fertility, luxury, growth; • blue (the color of the sky) as peace, serenity; • white as purity, goodness, God-like holiness, etc.

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Archetypal Images NUMBERS: • three for the Christian Trinity, stability (a stand with three legs can stand steadily on most surfaces);

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Archetypal Images NUMBERS: • three for the Christian Trinity, stability (a stand with three legs can stand steadily on most surfaces); • four for the four seasons, the four ancient elements (earth, water, fire, air);

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Archetypal Images NUMBERS: • three for the Christian Trinity, stability (a stand with three legs can stand steadily on most surfaces); • four for the four seasons, the four ancient elements (earth, water, fire, air); • twelve for the months of the year, the tribes of ancient Israel, the apostles of Jesus.

196


Archetypal Images WATER: • the source of life and sustenance; cleansing or purification; baptism.

197


Archetypal Images FIRE: • ambiguously both protective and destructive;

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Archetypal Images FIRE: • ambiguously both protective and destructive; • on an archetypal level, fire often symbolizes human knowledge and industry (Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to humankind when there were no other gifts left to give.)

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Archetypal Images The FOUR ANCIENT ELEMENTS: • fire

200


Archetypal Images The FOUR ANCIENT ELEMENTS: • fire • water

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Archetypal Images The FOUR ANCIENT ELEMENTS: • fire • water • air

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Archetypal Images The FOUR ANCIENT ELEMENTS: • fire • water • air • earth.

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Archetypal Images GARDENS: • natural abundance;

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Archetypal Images GARDENS: • natural abundance; • easy, beautiful life;

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Archetypal Images GARDENS: • natural abundance; • easy, beautiful life; • new birth, hope;

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Archetypal Images GARDENS: • natural abundance; • easy, beautiful life; • new birth, hope; • Eden, the original Paradise from which humankind was expelled.

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Archetypal Images GEOMETRIC SHAPES: • a triangle for the Trinity

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Archetypal Images GEOMETRIC SHAPES: • a triangle for the Trinity • a circle for perfection and eternity, wholeness, union.

209


Archetypal Images CELESTIAL BODIES: • the sun (masculine) is both the giver and destroyer of life.

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Archetypal Images CELESTIAL BODIES: • the sun (masculine) is both the giver and destroyer of life • the moon (feminine) marks the passage of time and controls the course of human events. Planting, harvesting, etc., are all determined more by the phases of the moon than the progress of the sun.

211


Archetypal Images MASCULINE IMAGES/SYMBOLS: • columns

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Archetypal Images MASCULINE IMAGES/SYMBOLS: • columns • towers

213


Archetypal Images MASCULINE IMAGES/SYMBOLS: • columns • towers • boats

214


Archetypal Images MASCULINE IMAGES/SYMBOLS: • columns • towers • boats • trees

215


Archetypal Images MASCULINE IMAGES/SYMBOLS: • columns • towers • boats • trees • etc.

216


Archetypal Images FEMININE IMAGES/SYMBOLS: • bodies of water

217


Archetypal Images FEMININE IMAGES/SYMBOLS: • bodies of water • caves

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Archetypal Images FEMININE IMAGES/SYMBOLS: • bodies of water • caves • doorways

219


Archetypal Images FEMININE IMAGES/SYMBOLS: • bodies of water • caves • doorways • windows.

220


Archetypal Images CAVES: • ambiguously can represent the womb (the source of life) and the grave.

221


Archetypal Images CAVES: • ambiguously can represent the womb (the source of life) and the grave • often represent the entrance to the underworld (related to the grave), as well as to the unexplored regions of the human mind and soul.

222


Archetypal Images YIN AND YANG: • any scheme that suggests that each of a pair of opposites partakes of the other’s nature, complements the other, and essentially completes the other; the idea that without a balance of opposing forces, the world would erupt into chaos.

223


Archetypal Situations the QUEST: • the hero’s endeavor to establish his or her identity or fulfill his or her destiny.

224


Archetypal Situations Variations on the QUEST can include: • the Faustian bargain: the selling of one’s soul to the devil (metaphorically representing the notion that one would “give anything” in order to…) in exchange for unlimited power, knowledge, wealth, etc. Examples include King Midas.

225


Archetypal Situations Variations on the QUEST can include: • the Faustian bargain: the selling of one’s soul to the devil (metaphorically representing the notion that one would “give anything” in order to…) in exchange for unlimited power, knowledge, wealth, etc. Examples include King Midas. • the pursuit of revenge for a real or perceived wrong, as exemplified by Captain Ahab’s quest in Moby Dick. 226


Archetypal Situations Variations on the QUEST can include: • the descent into the underworld. (Note that this is usually one part of the quest rather than the entire quest itself.)

227


Archetypal Situations the RENEWAL OF LIFE: • death and rebirth, resurrection as seen in the cycle of the seasons, the phases of the day, sleeping and waking. Examples are “Sleeping Beauty,” “The Secret Garden,” etc.

228


Archetypal Situations INITIATION: • coming of age, rites of passage. Some examples include the first hunt, weddings, teenage angst films.

229


Archetypal Situations THE FALL: • any event that marks a loss of innocence; a devolution from a paradisiacal life or viewpoint to a tainted one.

230


Archetypal Situations REDEMPTIVE SACRIFICE: • any voluntary loss, especially a loss of life, that results in another’s gaining or regaining a desired state.

231


Archetypal Situations the CATALOG OF DIFFICULT TASKS: • (labors of Hercules, Cinderella’s treatment by her stepmother and stepsisters, etc.).

232


Archetypal Situations the END OF THE WORLD: • usually apocalyptic, involving warfare, a huge battle, a metaphoric final battle between good and evil.

233


Archetypal Situations Variations on the end of the world include • Armageddon: the final battle between good and evil according to the Christian New Testament (book of Revelation), in which evil is finally vanquished, evildoers receive their eternal punishment, and God reigns over a newly created Heaven and Earth;

234


Archetypal Situations Variations on the end of the world include • Ragnarok: the final battle between two feuding segments of the Norse pantheon. Both sides are largely decimated, as is the human race. Two humans survive to repopulate the human world and worship a new pantheon formed of the gods who survive the battle.

235


Archetypal Situations Variations on the end of the world include • the Great Flood: found in the JudeoChristian worldview and other belief systems from around the world, the story of a great deluge that covered the earth with water, killing an entire generation of life forms on earth. A handful survived, repopulating the earth. According to these several accounts, the flood was a punishment for human wrongdoing.

236


Archetypal Situations the TABOO: • the commission of a culturally forbidden act, such as incest or patricide, often unknowingly or inevitably. Any act or attitude that can be seen as “unnatural,” a crime against the ways Nature is supposed to operate.

237


Archetypal Situations the BANQUET: • fellowship; nourishment of the body and soul; display of wealth; often used as a symbol for salvation, Heaven.

238


Essential questions for a mythological/ archetypal reading: ๏ Examine

all of the characters—major and minor— and their situations. What archetypes seem to be present?

239




๏ How

do any of the characters change over time? What events or people make them change?

240




๏ How

do any of the characters change over time? What events or people make them change?

๏ What

is suggested in the setting (time of day, season of year, location—garden, body of water, etc.) that might suggest an archetypal reading?

241


Essential questions for a mythological/ archetypal reading: ๏ What

types of symbols are used? What do they represent?

242




๏ How

are the symbols in this work different from the traditional uses of those symbols? What is significant about this difference?

243




๏ How

are the symbols in this work different from the traditional uses of those symbols? What is significant about this difference?

๏ What

myths are at work in different parts of this work? What features of the story are reminiscent of other stories you know?

244


Examining “Cinderella” from an Archetypal Perspective • Consider Cinderella’s attendance at the ball as symbolic of her attaining salvation. (The tasks assigned to her by her stepmother and stepsisters—the tempters—distract her from focusing on her own salvation. Through the agency of a supernatural entity—the fairy godmother—she receives the unearned love of the prince.)

245


Examining “Cinderella” from an Archetypal Perspective • Examine the stepmother and stepsisters as archetypal villains.

246


Examining “Cinderella” from an Archetypal Perspective • Examine the stepmother and stepsisters as archetypal villains. • Examine the chores Cinderella must complete (especially involving the beans in the fireplace in Grimm version) as the archetypal catalogue of difficult tasks.

247

New Historicism

New Historicism

248

New Historicism

A common tendency in the study of literature written in, and/or set in, a past or foreign culture is to assume a direct comparison between the culture as presented in the text and as it really was. New Historicism asserts that such a comparison is impossible for two essential reasons.

249

New Historicism

First, the “truth” of a foreign or past culture can never be known as established and unchangeable. • Any understanding of the “truth” is, at best, a matter of interpretation on the parts of both the writer and the reader. • This is most blatantly evident in the fact that the “losers” of history are hardly ever heard. The culture that is dominated by another is often lost to history because it is the powerful who have the resources to record history. 250

New Historicism

First, the “truth” of a foreign or past culture can never be known as established and unchangeable. • Even in recent past events, who really knows both sides of the story? Who really knows the whole of theArab-Israeli story? Or the Iraqi story? • New Historicists argue that these unknown histories are just as significant as the histories of the culture of power and should be included in any world-view.

251

New Historicism

First, the “truth” of a foreign or past culture can never be known as established and unchangeable. • Since these unrepresented or underrepresented histories often contradict “traditional” understandings, there is no way to know the absolute historical truth.

252

New Historicism

Second, while the text under consideration does indeed reflect the culture in which it was written (and to some degree in which it is set), it also participates in the culture in which it is written. • The very existence of that text in its culture changes the culture it “reflects.” • While works like To Kill a Mockingbird and A Raisin in the Sun certainly reflected the culture of the mid-20th century United States, both also raised awareness of prejudice and injustice and helped to bring about change. 253

New Historicism

Main areas of study/points of criticism: Traditional history is, by its nature, a subjective narrative, usually told from the point of view of the powerful.

254

New Historicism

Main areas of study/points of criticism: Traditional history is, by its nature, a subjective narrative, usually told from the point of view of the powerful. • The losers of history do not have the means to write their stories, nor is there usually an audience interested in hearing them. Most cultures, once dominated by another, are forced to forget their past.

255

New Historicism

Main areas of study/points of criticism: Traditional history is, by its nature, a subjective narrative, usually told from the point of view of the powerful. • The losers of history do not have the means to write their stories, nor is there usually an audience interested in hearing them. Most cultures, once dominated by another, are forced to forget their past. • To maintain its sovereignty, the culture of power simply does not allow the defeated culture to be remembered. 256

New Historicism

Main areas of study/points of criticism: Traditional history is not only subjectively written, it is also read and discussed subjectively.

257

New Historicism

Main areas of study/points of criticism: Traditional history is not only subjectively written, it is also read and discussed subjectively. • Although modern readers say they take history at face value, no one can help but compare the past to the present as a means of understanding it, which makes it subjective.

258

New Historicism

Main areas of study/points of criticism: The powerless also have “historical stories” to relate that are not to be found in official documents, mostly because they played no hand in creating those documents.

259

New Historicism

Main areas of study/points of criticism: The powerless also have “historical stories” to relate that are not to be found in official documents, mostly because they played no hand in creating those documents. No reader can claim to have the “truth” of a text or event; or even that an understanding of the “truth” is possible. At best, one can acknowledge the validity of a particular point of view.

260

New Historicism

When examining a text, the questions to ask are not: • Are the characters based on real people?

261

New Historicism

When examining a text, the questions to ask are not: • Are the characters based on real people? • Are any characters or events in the text drawn from the author’s life and experiences?

262

New Historicism

When examining a text, the questions to ask are not: • Are the characters based on real people? • Are any characters or events in the text drawn from the author’s life and experiences? • Is the text an accurate portrayal of the time period in which it is set?

263

New Historicism

Instead, ask: • What view or understanding of the relevant culture does this text offer?

264

New Historicism

Instead, ask: • What view or understanding of the relevant culture does this text offer? • How does this text contribute to or shape an understanding of the culture it represents?

265

New Historicism

The text, rather than being a static artifact of a definable culture, is a participant in a dynamic, changeable culture.

266

New Historicism

The text, rather than being a static artifact of a definable culture, is a participant in a dynamic, changeable culture. Every reader brings to the text a unique set of experiences and points of view that alter the meaning of the text.

267

New Historicism

Essential questions for a New Historicist reading: ๏ What

events occurred in the writer’s life that made the author who he or she is? What has affected his or her view of life?

268

New Historicism



๏ Who

influenced the writer? What people in his or her life may have helped form this world-view?

269

New Historicism



๏ Who


๏ What

did the writer read that affected his or her philosophy?

270

New Historicism



๏ Who


๏ What

did the writer read that affected his or her philosophy?

๏ What

were the writer’s political views? Was he or she liberal? Conservative? Moderate?

271

New Historicism

Essential questions for a New Historicist reading: ๏ In

what level in the social order was the writer raised? How did his economic and social situation affect him or her?

272

New Historicism



๏ To

what level in the social order did the writer aspire?

273

New Historicism



๏ To


๏ From

what level in the social order did the writer’s friends come? How were they employed?

274

New Historicism



๏ To


๏ From


๏ How

275

powerful or influential was the writer socially?

New Historicism



๏ To


๏ From


๏ How

powerful or influential was the writer socially?

๏ What

were the writer’s social concerns? What did he or she do about them?

276

New Historicism


type of person was the writer in his or her society?

277

New Historicism



๏ What

was happening in the world at the time the book was written? What was occurring during the time in which it is set?

278

New Historicism



๏ What


๏ What

were some major controversies at the time the book was written? The time in which it is set?

279

New Historicism



๏ What


๏ What

were some major controversies at the time the book was written? The time in which it is set?

๏ Who

was on either side of the controversy? Who were the powerful? Who were the powerless?

280

New Historicism

Essential questions for a New Historicist reading: ๏ Why

were the powerful in their positions of power? What qualities did they have? What events transpired to get them to their positions?

281

New Historicism



๏ What

is similar about the perspective of this book and other books written in or about the same era? What is different?

282

New Historicism



๏ What

is similar about the perspective of this book and other books written in or about the same era? What is different?

๏ How

did the public receive the work when it was first published? What factors helped shape this reception?

283

New Historicism

Essential questions for a New Historicist reading: ๏ How

did the critics receive the work when it was first published? What factors helped shape this reception?

284

New Historicism



๏ Did

this work have any impact on its society or culture? What was the nature of this impact?

285

New Historicism



๏ Did


๏ What

different or untraditional perspectives of history does this text represent?

286

New Historicism



๏ Did


๏ What


๏ How

does this text adhere to the conventions of literature in the era in which it was written?

287

New Historicism



๏ Did


๏ What


๏ How

does this text adhere to the conventions of literature in the era in which it was written?

๏ How

does this text violate or depart from those conventions?

288

New Historicism

Examining “Cinderella” from a New Historicist Perspective • What can we infer about the society in which this story—considering, especially, the violence and vengeance in the Grimm version—would evolve and be told to young children?

289

New Historicism

Examining “Cinderella” from a New Historicist Perspective • What can we infer about the society in which this story—considering, especially, the violence and vengeance in the Grimm version—would evolve and be told to young children? • What can we infer about property and inheritance laws in the society in which “Cinderella” evolved? What can we infer about the society’s view of royalty and monarchic power?

290

New Historicism

Examining “Cinderella” from a New Historicist Perspective What societal and cultural values can we infer about • family relationships?

291

New Historicism

Examining “Cinderella” from a New Historicist Perspective What societal and cultural values can we infer about • family relationships? • the nature of “goodness”?

292

New Historicism

Examining “Cinderella” from a New Historicist Perspective What societal and cultural values can we infer about • family relationships? • the nature of “goodness”? • rewards for “goodness”?

293

New Historicism

Examining “Cinderella” from a New Historicist Perspective What societal and cultural values can we infer about • family relationships? • the nature of “goodness”? • rewards for “goodness”? • the status of women?

294

Formalism

Formalism

295

Formalism

The formalist approach to literature was developed at the beginning of the 20th century and remained the primary approach to literary study until the 1970s, when other literary theories began to gain popularity.

296

Formalism

As the name suggests, formalism is concerned primarily with form. Rather than INTERPRETING what a text means, the formalist ANALYZES how that that meaning is communicated.

297

Formalism

Beyond identifying tone, mood, and so on, the formalist examines how the author has created that tone and mood. If the text is suspenseful, how does the author create that suspense? If funny, what are the sources of that humor?

298

Formalism

Formalists assert that each work is a separate entity—not dependent upon the author’s life, the culture in which it was created, or any other category to which it belongs. No paraphrase is used in a formalist examination, and no reader reaction is discussed.

299

Formalism

Formalists study recurrences, repetitions, and motifs in a work in order to understand it. They view even the tiniest details of a work as parts of the whole. In the formalist approach, even a lack of form indicates something. Absurdity is in itself a form—one used to convey a specific meaning (even if that meaning is a lack of meaning).

300

Formalism

Three main areas of study: 1. form and unity

301

Formalism

Three main areas of study: 1. form and unity 2. diction

302

Formalism

Three main areas of study: 1. form and unity 2. diction 3. incongruities or inconsistencies

303

Formalism

Form and Unity Cadence—how the words, phrases, and sentences sound. When a character or a narrator is speaking, the sound of what is being said, or how it is being said, can give clues as to who the character is and why he or she is in the work.

304

Formalism

Form and Unity Cadence also includes an examination of the formal and informal language patterns used by the author: • rhythm or meter,

305

Formalism

Form and Unity Cadence also includes an examination of the formal and informal language patterns used by the author: • rhythm or meter, • rhyme,

306

Formalism

Form and Unity Cadence also includes an examination of the formal and informal language patterns used by the author: • rhythm or meter, • rhyme, • sound devices like alliteration, onomatopoeia, etc.

307

Formalism

Form and Unity Repetition and recurrences—The author’s using the same word, phrase, or concept repeatedly is always a clue to its importance, as are instances of the same event happening more than once in a story. Formalists also note how the context of the motif or recurring event changes with each repetition, or how the motif or event itself changes.

308

Formalism

Form and Unity Structures—the story arc and character arcs are of great interest to formalists: • how and when is the conflict introduced?

309

Formalism

Form and Unity Structures—the story arc and character arcs are of great interest to formalists: • how and when is the conflict introduced? • what events constitute the “rising action”?

310

Formalism

Form and Unity Structures—the story arc and character arcs are of great interest to formalists: • how and when is the conflict introduced? • what events constitute the “rising action”? • how does one plot event lead to the next?

311

Formalism

Form and Unity Structures—the story arc and character arcs are of great interest to formalists: • how and when is the conflict introduced? • what events constitute the “rising action”? • how does one plot event lead to the next? • how do various character arcs interact with one another and with the main plot?

312

Formalism

Form and Unity Relationships—By looking carefully at the connections among the people in the story, and among the various plotlines, one can understand the meaning of a work. The author puts each character into the story for a reason. The reader’s job is to find that reason. Likewise, every plotline has a purpose.

313

Formalism

Diction Denotation—Establishing the literal, dictionary definitions of the words used by the author is vital to understanding a text. If a reader does not know what the words mean, he or she can have no idea what the text is saying.

314

Formalism

Diction Formalists will often consult a dictionary for the definitions even of words they think they know. They are especially careful to consult the dictionary —including the Oxford English Dictionary—to learn what a word meant at the time and in the place the author used it.

315

Formalism

Diction Etymology—the study of a word’s origin and the evolution of its meaning and use are especially helpful when one is studying an old text in which the words might mean something quite different from what they mean today. A close study of words also helps a reader understand why the author uses a particular word rather than a synonym.

316

Formalism

Diction Connotation—The formalist will also pay close attention to how the context of the piece may alter the meaning of a particular word or phrase.

317

Formalism

Diction Ambiguity—Just as the formalist asserts that a lack of form is a form, an author’s intent might be to keep the meaning of a text obscure or to suggest multiple interpretations.

318

Formalism

Diction Ambiguity—Just as the formalist asserts that a lack of form is a form, an author’s intent might be to keep the meaning of a text obscure or to suggest multiple interpretations. The formalist will not simply note the fact of the ambiguity, however; the formalist will examine why the author may have chosen to be ambiguous and how he or she achieved the ambiguity.

319

Formalism

Diction Symbols—Again, the formalist will not be as concerned with the fact that the author is using symbolism, or even what the symbols mean. The formalist will be most concerned with how the symbol works and what it contributes to the overall effect and meaning of the work.

320

Formalism

Diction Allusions—Although, strictly speaking, the formalist restricts his or her study to an examination of the text alone, the author’s intentional reference to works, persons, or events beyond the text is an important technique the formalist must take into account.

321

Formalism

Diction Allusions—Although, strictly speaking, the formalist restricts his or her study to an examination of the text alone, the author’s intentional reference to works, persons, or events beyond the text is an important technique the formalist must take into account. • There is a reason the author is leading his or her reader outside of the text. Studying the allusion is the only way to reveal that reason. 322

Formalism

Incongruities or Inconsistencies Irony and paradox—Formalist critics do not look for perfect unity. Instead, they look for tension and conflict. Irony and paradox are very important—irony being the use of a word or a statement that is the opposite of what is intended or expected, and paradox being the existence of two contradictory truths. This tension is what drives the work.

323

Formalism

Incongruities or Inconsistencies Violation of convention—While the formalist will not be overly concerned with the classification of a work, he or she will pay attention when an author intentionally violates a work’s classification: • obviously satiric elements in a self-professed tragedy

324

Formalism

Incongruities or Inconsistencies Violation of convention—While the formalist will not be overly concerned with the classification of a work, he or she will pay attention when an author intentionally violates a work’s classification: • obviously satiric elements in a self-professed tragedy • ironic or cynical observations in a Romance

325

Formalism

Incongruities or Inconsistencies Violation of convention—While the formalist will not be overly concerned with the classification of a work, he or she will pay attention when an author intentionally violates a work’s classification: • obviously satiric elements in a self-professed tragedy • ironic or cynical observations in a Romance • etc.

326

Formalism

Incongruities or Inconsistencies As modern and post-modern writers experiment with form and rebel against “traditional” conventions, forms, and even media, formalist examinations of how these conventions are “violated” will increase.

327

Formalism

Incongruities or Inconsistencies Internal violations and variations—The formalist will pay close attention to instances of an author’s departing from his or her own established structures or forms: • anachronisms

328

Formalism

Incongruities or Inconsistencies Internal violations and variations—The formalist will pay close attention to instances of an author’s departing from his or her own established structures or forms: • anachronisms • disruptions to the internal chronology of the work

329

Formalism

Incongruities or Inconsistencies Internal violations and variations—The formalist will pay close attention to instances of an author’s departing from his or her own established structures or forms: • anachronisms • disruptions to the internal chronology of the work • shifts in narrative voice, point of view, etc.

330

Formalism

Incongruities or Inconsistencies Internal violations and variations—The formalist will pay close attention to instances of an author’s departing from his or her own established structures or forms: • anachronisms • disruptions to the internal chronology of the work • shifts in narrative voice, point of view, etc. • atypical actions by one or more characters

331

Formalism

Incongruities or Inconsistencies Internal violations and variations—The formalist will pay close attention to instances of an author’s departing from his or her own established structures or forms: • anachronisms • disruptions to the internal chronology of the work • shifts in narrative voice, point of view, etc. • atypical actions by one or more characters • etc. 332

Formalism

Essential questions for a formalist reading: ๏ Does

the work exhibit the characteristics of a particular form, or does it have a unique form?

333

Formalism



๏ In

what manner is this story told? Chronologically? Via flashbacks?

334

Formalism



๏ In


๏ Is

there closure in the narrative? Is the reader left guessing?

335

Formalism



๏ In


๏ Is


๏ What

is the point of view of the narrator? How does this point of view affect the story being told?

336

Formalism



๏ In


๏ Is


๏ What

is the point of view of the narrator? How does this point of view affect the story being told?

๏ Is

the author using any specific meter? What effect is achieved?

337

Formalism

Essential questions for a formalist reading: ๏ Is

there any sound that keeps recurring throughout the work? What is it? What does it mean? How does it affect the work?

338

Formalism



๏ How

339

does any rhythm in the words affect the work?

Formalism



๏ How


๏ Where

340

are examples of foreshadowing?

Formalism



๏ How


๏ Where ๏ Are


there any visual patterns in the work? What do they do for it?

341

Formalism



๏ How


๏ Where


๏ Are

there any visual patterns in the work? What do they do for it?

๏ What

details of the setting seem to indicate meaning? (Time of day, season, physical location, weather?)

342

Formalism

Essential questions for a formalist reading: ๏ What

343

would a diagram of the plot look like?

Formalism

Essential questions for a formalist reading: ๏ What ๏ Are

344


there any unfamiliar words? Look them up.

Formalism

Essential questions for a formalist reading: ๏ What ๏ Are ๏ Are


there any unfamiliar words? Look them up.

there any paradoxes in the work? Any ironies? What are they? What effect do they have on the tone or plot of the work?

345

Formalism

Examining “Cinderella” from a Formalist Perspective • Look for symbolic, or some other, significance for the specific items and animals chosen (for the coach and staff) and/or the numbers of each chosen.

346

Formalism

Examining “Cinderella” from a Formalist Perspective • Look for symbolic, or some other, significance for the specific items and animals chosen (for the coach and staff) and/or the numbers of each chosen. • Compare the speech patterns of Cinderella and the stepmother and stepsisters. Are there noticeable differences in cadence? Do any use more (or less) figurative or poetic language than the others? Do any speak noticeably more (or less) than the others? 347

Introduction to

Literary Theory WRITTEN AND EDITED BY

Douglas Grudzina LAYOUT & DESIGN BY

Maria J. Mendoza Jeremy Clark

PRESTWICK HOUSE, INC. Visit us at www.prestwickhouse.com for a complete list of Multiple Critical Perspectives titles.

© 2010 Prestwick House, Inc. Permission to use this Presentation for classroom use is extended to purchaser for his or her personal use. This material, in whole or part, may not be copied for resale.

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