Existential Analysis 20.2: July 2009
Life is for Living Claiming Past, Present and Future Emmy van Deurzen Any idiot can face a crisis It is day to day living that wears you out. Anton Chekhov
Abstract Existential therapy distinguishes itself by addressing the whole of human existence and by considering an individual's experience from a philosophical perspective. It calls each of us to a more deliberate way of life and invites us to a considered reflection on our own existence. It is easy to get out of touch with these fundamental givens of the existential approach as we struggle to define our methods and techniques in a world that sets great store by qualifications, standards and evidence based practice. It is important to remember the most elemental aspects of what we do, so that we can build on them for the future. This paper takes stock of what really matters and what we often forget. It reengages with the radical project of making sense of our lives, asking how space and time figure in our lives and what values we want to live by. How shall we approach the pressures and strains of a demanding yet fragile world and how shall we respond to an ever growing sense that there must be more to life than this? What old or new philosophy can save us from the tedium or chaos of our lives? When you look back upon what you have accomplished in the days that are given you, what will remain as the guiding light?
Introduction Our lives are for living. This is a self evident tautology. We know that we were bom and that we will die and that during the time in between there is nothing else for us to do but to live our lives, as best we can. There can be no doubt that to learn to live life to the full is better than to suffer through our lives or pretend it is not happening. Though we may be practised at facing otir death anxiefy it is often our fear of life rather than of death that gets the better of us. Living is not as easy as it seems. We have to learn to stand up and be counted, to ek-sist and stand out of ourselves in past, present and future. If we do not feel able to face the anxiefy of this effort to truly be ourselves, we may disappear into the unseen, unknown, unspoken mediocrify of a life that never comes into its own. Marcus Aurelius said 226
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that it is not death that a man should fear, but he should fear never beginning to live. How often do we not find ourselves deadened or fiattened by life or catch ourselves hiding away in the hope there will be a better day tomorrow? The paradox is that the less we face up to our troubles and labours, the more we are exposed to them. The reverse is also true. The realities of life that are death, failure, labour, hardship, pain, anxiety, guilt and sorrow, once faced, become the source of learning and of a depth of life that we did not previously knew existed. As we sink our roots into this fertile soil we may also discover and savour their counterparts of vitality, success, ease, comfort, pleasure, confidence, pride and joy. But none of these things come easily and it may feel almost impossible to absorb, let alone thrive on our troubles.
Human sorrow When I speak to Rita, who is grieving for her husband and small son who have perished in a car accident, the words that I say to her at first hardly reach her. She is in a place of relative safety deep inside of herself, in a state of suspended animation behind the façade that she turns to the world. She barely engages with people at all. At first it is not my words that make the link to her world, but the steady presence I can offer in being attentive and carefiil not to hurt her any further or push her too hard. I spend nearly half an hour in relative silence with Rita, at times formulating her fear on her behalf, gently, tentatively, checking for verification by noting her response. Mostly the work consists of letting myself be touched by her suffering and learning to tolerate her pain with her, so that I can offer reactions and words that soothe and move her forward to a place where she can begin to absorb what has happened to her so shockingly out of the blue. In this process she guides me and exposes more and more of her nightmarish universe as she begins to perceive me as capable of venturing fiirther into it with her and therefore can face it herself, almost. At first I am safe in my personal assumptions of a reliable world. Gradually I let myself open up more to the strange and horrific experience of seeing all of one's points of reference, all that one loves and is devoted to, destroyed in one day. It has profound and suddenly disturbingly live resonances inside of me and I have to summon all my courage to hold my head high and keep breathing, slowly, deeply. I know I have to be willing to let her experiences affect me strongly and sharply, let myself be shaken by them, as much as I can stand, if I am going to offer her true sanctuary. I trust myself to find a way to let her crumbled world become part of me without fioundering and without fear, shaken, but undaunted and intrepid, like a traveller to a new and unexplored land. What she needs from me right now is safety, no more and no less. For there is no safety left in her world and she has come to me.
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of all people in the world, to discover whether there is a way of finding some. At first I can only hesitantly approach her experience. I say, softly and enquiringly: 'you are keeping the pain at bay by hiding inside of it'. This is a description of what I see in fi-ont of me, it is an observation; a modest approximation of what I surmise is going on in her. I have no certainty about what I observe for she is far away from me, though she is sitting right there in that chair, across fi'om me by the fire, and so I constantly verify my observations. But at the same time I know this, deep in my bones, because I recognize her deep concentration, her total absorption in something unnamed and unnameable that holds her entirely. I am aware of the necessity of not assuming too much and of the risk of infecting her with my own visceral knowledge of pain, so I let myself rest and lean into my hard eamed capacity for remaining entire and I tune back into life and tmst it will rally round. My heart beats strongly but calmly and I know I will be able to sit, walk and stand beside her patiently and without promising too much but also without tiring till we have gone through her hell of darkness and re-emerge into the light. I know I cannot quench her unquenchable thirst for lost love and that I cannot provide relief or repair. She needs endless space and limitless time to drench her despair with tears before she can ultimately douse it. But I also know that is just exactly what she has: for time slows down and stands still when you are grief stricken and in the midst of catastrophe and disaster you find etemity.
Discussion This is an extract of the initial moments of hard work we did together for a bit over two years, in the process of which I helped her reengage with life (Deurzen, 2009). She often wanted to give up and die. Death seemed safe to her, attractive, welcoming. It was a space of oblivion and release of the tensions she found almost impossible to bear. She relished the idea of going into that good night, letting go of the harsh light of life that she had come to hate. Not for her the sense that thinking of death is like staring at the sun. On the contrary, it was life that seemed overly bright and scorching to her. Life was hard and loud and busy, chaotic and demanding and there was too much of it, she often said. She wasn't at all sure why she should bother. The attraction of letting herself become effaced entirely was great. Diving into the great ocean of nothingness seemed wonderful; letting go and giving up and drifting away towards nowhere seemed just the job. She was, in actual fact, quite passionate about it. She did not prize the life that others eked out for themselves by the sweat of their brow and all too often with large doses of pills or alcohol, just to pretend they were having fun.
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There was no way she would have gone back to living like that ever again. There was no doubt that if she were going to reengage with life it had to be a new and different life, one where she felt that she knew what suffering was for and in which all her experiences would find their rightful place so that everj^hing would make sense once more. But that was not easily achieved and required many months of hard work, even just trying to understand what had happened and beginning to express how her guilt was crushing her. Only very gradually she began to see that perhaps here was a chance for her to make a new start with a very different kind of life, a life led in awareness and with people she could love, not in a needy way or a desperate way, but wholeheartedly. She really had to let go of the past, whilst mining it for the gems it held and releaming to live, almost fi'om scratch, rethinking human existence, not in a cerebral way but in a deeply felt, practical and pragmatic way, starting from the primeval level of human suffering and fi-om there slowly tackling the iieights of human consciousness and transformation.
Existential therapy And this is what existential therapy does. It works with the whole of human existence, directly and at the sharp edge, yet with the benefit of the clarity of philosophical perspective. But this does not mean that we just theorize and live in the abstractions of lofty universalism. On the contrary it means to follow the yellow brick road of a person's life, towards the deeply personal heart of their experience. It also means that we have to pay attention to the psychological, biological and socio-political angles of their existence as well as encompassing the concrete existential and aspirational spiritual dimensions. We work with the context of a person's lived world, as well as with their ideals, beliefs, values and projects. We almost always start from where it hurts most, for pain is the source of human engagement with life and it is the sine qua non of deepening understanding and overcoming. Existential therapy (ET for short), calls each of us to a more deliberate way of life and invites us to a considered refiection on our daily existence. It addresses fundamental, ontological issues but always starts from pragmatic ontic problems, difficulties and confiicts and always returns to them in order to re-establish the connections and fiuidity of our existence. Starting from Husserl's point zero of a person's life world, we aim to broaden her horizon and replace previous assumptions with a wider grasp of truth. Existential therapy continuously keeps the universal and the particular in juxtaposition. It is in the tension between these two that we enable a person to reappraise the way they live their life and help them understand the sheer power of the paradox that underpins it. But it never imposes rules for living. It enables people to uncover the rules that work 229
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for them, helping them to get back on track and become inspired once more when they were previously forlorn and desperate.
The wider picture Merleau Ponty in his book the ' Visible and the Invisible ' said: Things are structures - frameworks- the stars of our life: they gravitate around us. Yet there is a secret bond between us and them through perception we enter into the essence ofthefiesh. (Merleau Ponty, 1962:220) It is indeed through the concrete things and events in our lives that we wake up to the fact of otir existence. We are never in isolation and we cannot come to ourselves without things happening to us. The events, connections and relationships of our lives are the most elemental aspects of our passage on earth and unless we allow ourselves to savour them we cannot experience the intensity and realness that are so easily lost in our efforts to cope. To live is to insert ourselves in a space time continuum and somehow grasp our own existence as we experience it and leam to live it. Heidegger, in 'Basic Problems of Phenomenology' said: The Dasein exists in the manner of being-in-the-world and as such it is for the sake of its own self. It is not the case that this being just simply is; instead, so far as it is, it is occupied with its own capacity to be. (Heidegger 1982:170) Our capacity for being and our ovm preoccupation with it, is what makes life our own. It is only when we begin to reflect on our life that we begin to get an inkling of what is at stake. We can never just be what we actually are, for we must constantly explore, lose what we were and move forwards towards the future. We are conduits for the passage of time, we are constant change and we are projected towards a future. This also means that we are, more than any-thing, our capacity for the realization of our ownmost possibility. Higher than actuality (Wirklichkeit) stands possibility (Möglichkeit). (Heidegger, 1927:38) Perhaps this is the ultimate secret of being human: the fact that we are not essence but existence and that we can only ever be at all true to ourselves if we are willing to be in the flow of time as well as actively engaged with our own dynamic movement towards the realization of our possibilities. To be ourselves is to be in time and not be anything specific at all. It is precisely this that makes us anxious: the not knowing, the 230
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uncertainfy, the possibilify of failure as well as of success, the discomfort and unease of never being settled {Unheimlichkeit). In his lecture on 'Schelling's Treatise on the Essence of Human Freedom' (1971:9) Heidegger put it even more compellingly that for Schelling freedom was not the property (Eigenschaft) of man but man the property (Eigentum) of freedom. In other words human beings are owned by freedom and this means that they are committed to determining the future rather than being purely determined by the past. But neither do we entirely choose our lives, as the early Sartre (1943) suggested. Our lives rather evolve out of the understanding we gather from what happens to us. It is otir task to learn from living. And here is the rub. For we tend to close our eyes and go through life blind to the possibilities beyond our ken. As Nietzsche put it, we are always limited by our own horizon, by the limit of the range of our own vision. But at the same time that limit is transparent and transportable: for as I move forwards or sideways so my horizon shifts and I can see more than before. We do such shifting rarely, usually only when we are nudged. Mostly we are caught up in a certain way of seeing the world and have a particular perspective, an angle of vision, which creates our take on the world. This vista is perfectly valid, as long as we do not take it for the whole truth, but only for a perspective. It is important to know our own minds before we try to expand them. For if we try to jump on other people's bandwagons, such shortcuts to a wider or better perspective may simply lead us up blind alleys. We have to do our own explorations and piece the puzzle of life together bit by bit. Nietzsche's quip in his book 'Daybreak' is not far off the mark. The supposed 'shorter ways' have always put mankind into great danger; at the glad tidings that such a shorter way has been found, they always desert their way - and lose their way. (Nietzsche, 1982:55) We simply cannot understand about life, imless we are willing to explore its many paths for ourselves. It is only to the extent that we are willing to go the long way and keep learning and living for real that life comes right. In taking shortcuts we often come to grief and discover that we squandered our time. We can only learn how to live, by actually looking life straight in the eye, collecting what we can from the past for the future and valuing the present, no matter what. And as we know, if we do not learn from the past we will almost invariably get to repeat it until our learning is complete. And if we are not to lose our way we have to be prepared to go over old ground often, so as to familiarize ourselves completely with the terrain and draw up our own inner map of existence. We can only claim full authorify when we have started owning life by working things out the hard way, for 231
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ourselves. You don't know a country until you have not just travelled through it but lived in it and worked out its customs and learnt to solve its problems by yourself And so it is with life as well. So, if we are to be like Kierkegaard's Knight of Faith and live our lives for real, what will be our path through the world and how shall we keep ourselves safe? How to make our tracks through the jungle of existence? How to brave the waves and the weather of the ocean of our emotions, circumnavigating potential dangers and finding a safe course back to the harbour when we are tossed about and lost? How can we be brave, yet relatively safe, instead of cowardly? How to avoid getting disoriented and confused? What will be our map and compass? How will we be clear minded enough to find our bearings and set a clear course? How will we know where to go? While we should never confuse the map for the territory, nor the theory for reality, in each case the one helps us deal with the other. It is easier to become cognizant of our global positioning in the world if we can trace some of the parameters of our lives. For each of us has to deal with the complexities and intricacies of existence in the physical, social, personal and spiritual spheres of oiir lives, as these intersect with the fourfold.
Different dimensions of the four spheres of existence Umwelt
Mitwelt
Eigenwelt
Uberwelt
Physical survival
Nature
Objects
Body
Cosmos
Social affiliation
Public
Others
Ego
Humanity
Personal identity
Private
Me
Self
Individual
Spiritual meaning
Sacred
God
Soul
Transcendence
Each of these sixteen categories of life is a world in itself which throws up multiple challenges and tensions. Nature alone includes the entire complexity of minerals, plants, earth, animals etc, each of which has 232
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generated an entire scientific discipline of its own, which we carmot all master. But we can get a general sense of how we approach nature in its various guises and whether we are at ease with the sort of challenges it poses and resources it provides. So it is with the other fifteen categories. They are a rough framework to help us recognize the orientation of our life-worlds and the extent to which we are fiexibly aware of the different tasks, tensions and opportunities of each. Mostly as we leam to live we acquire some facility in each of these areas, but sometimes the now gets blocked or cut off entirely in a particular sphere of our existence. In Rita's situation her life world was blocked at almost all of these levels, as she had lost faith in each. Nature had become a danger, objects only figured in her life as obstacles or reminders of the past. Her body was an enemy that made too many demands on her. The cosmos was a frightening empty space, a kind of black hole into which living things were occasionally sucked, to die. The public space was too challenging and belonged to others, who seemed weirdly blind and willing to live without any sense of tragedy or understanding of the fragility of life. Her ego was the cause of many of her troubles and she had tried to eliminate it and punish herself for her previous hubris in taking love for granted. Humanity wasn't worth committing yourself to. Her private world was her only sanctuary and it was merged with the sacred, thus creating a world of mouming and secret rituals to honour her loved ones. But she had no respect for the 'me' she encountered in that world, for she despised herself. Her self was therefore weak and unable to have desires or longings. Besides the sacred space of mourning she did not allow for a god, for no god would have allowed the tragedy that had stmck her. She did hope that souls might survive, if they were pure and she hoped that one day she would be lifted above her miserable plight and be redeemed when reunited with the souls of her deceased loved ones. She lived almost entirely in this reduced world in which everything she had lost and yeamed for had become cramped into this personal sacred space that she hid within. The therapeutic task was to enable her to reach out from behind that blockade and reconnect slowly, not only to others, but to herself and her possibilities and gradually infuse all other aspects of living with new life.
Possibility instead of actuality Although our phenomenological observations about the state of play in the person's world is always concemed with the actuality of that person's current life, it is possibility that guides the process, but such possibility is inexorably set against the background of the givens, limits and actual facts and limitations of this particular person's life. As long as there is life there is possibility, for life is the very possibility of possibility. Death is when we come to the end of our possibility; it marks the impossibility of 233
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possibility. Someone who is bereft is literally encotintering the end of many of the possibilities in their life. Loss takes us back to the original emptiness and no-thingness of our lives and our consciousness. When we become pure project again, because we have been divested of the things that fill our lives and that give it weight and meaning, we are discormected from the world, isolated and streamless. It is our intentionality that reconnects us, but pure intentionality and pure freedom are initially purely confusing. Projects only make sense when we commit to them and we become filled with a sense of worth and meaning because we exist in our commitments. Even the Buddhist detachment or the existentialist engagement with freedom is still a commitment to a value, which fills us with a sense of rightness or even righteousness. The nihilism of loss feels like nothingness and meaninglessness. It is only when we reengage that we recommit to life. But as we commit we also restrict and constrict ourselves, becoming absorbed by the things we pledge ourselves to. We anchor ourselves to these, but this means that we might stagnate and get caught up in the sediment at the bottom of our existence. We become identified with the choices we have made and the things we are engaged with. We may become alienated from our capacity for consciousness and freedom. We avoid risk and contradiction. We forget that we are consciousness that can transcend and move along. We forget that we are pure project, a projection in time towards a future and a potential. Husserl in this context spoke of our genetic constitution, to indicate that our consciousness is always dynamic rather than static. It is on the move, in the throw of its project. How easy it is to forget this and to reify our existence. Sartre similarly spoke of truth as the totalization of all that we know at any one point. It is not something that we can capture, encapsulate and hold on to once and for all. Truth is to be constantly added to and altered as we find out more about all there is to know. In 'Search for a Method'., Sartre redefined truth in this way: For us truth is something which becomes, it has and will have become. It is a totalization which is forever being totalized. (Sartre, 1960: 30). Life is constantly changing and in movement and as it changes we learn its lessons and totalize what we know. And though we can and have to learn the lessons from the past, we need to do so whilst having real presence in the present and with preparedness to be altered again in the future. Because ofthat we cannot set anything in stone, not even the basics of morality, for all is in fiow. There is no abstract ethics. There is only an ethics in a situation and therefore it is concrete. An abstract ethics is that of the good 234
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conscience. It assumes that one can be ethical in a fundamentally unethical situation. (Sartre, 1983:17) For Sartre then, this is what people do: they leam to engage with the situation, leam from it and change it as much as is possible, in line with the projects they believe in and are committed to. Man is characterized above all by his going beyond a situation and by what he succeeds in making of what he has been made. This is what we call the project. (Sartre, 1960 :91) This same idea is present in Beauvoir's 'Ethics of Ambiguity' (1948), which is similariy grounded in an ongoing active and reflective existence and which can never be captured once and for all. It is also present in Ricoeur's idea of narrative tmth which he argues is arrived at through dialogue (1990), so that tmth is not just a living tmth but is a tmth arrived at in communication. If we want to live in tmth we have to be prepared to not live with certainty and to be light enough on our feet to be ready for constant change. All of this is of course profotindly relevant to psychotherapy, since we aim to help people to find tmth about their lives and to reorientate themselves to the world in a way that allows them to fulfil their potential. Hans Cohn contended that therapy was about: The restoration of an unlived dimension of life, whether described as forgotten, denied, repressed or abandoned. (Cohn, 2005: 384)
this is
In this sense therapy is a search for one's life in an attempt at recreating it in a more complete manner. It is a kind of project of totalization in which we make as many connections as possible in order to understand our lives. I would add it is also to discover new possibilities, we never even knew existed and were ignorant of
Living a human life: what does it mean? So the question is whether it is an accumulation of projects and commitments that makes us most fulfilled and also whether this is the objective of life: to be fulfilled and happy? In my recent book on happiness (Deurzen 2009) I have argued that this is far from the tmth. The objective of life is not to get to some destination, some utopia where all will be well forever after. Happiness is not the objective, but only an occasional port. The idea of happiness as a state to achieve or as a value to judge one's life by is suspect and limited, whereas happiness, as an emotion is to be set 235
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amongst the other emotions as one colour is to be set amongst the other colours of the spectrum. It is not whether we are having or have had a happy life that matters, but whether we have lived it right and well. I stand with the Athenian concept of Eudaimonia on this point. It is right living that is where it is at. It is not about well-being, but about being well. And being well has a lot to do with how deeply we allow ourselves to be in space and time. Madison (2009) has described that depth of our experience as being in touch with the evocative. The atmospheres and moods that hint at the actualify and intensify of experience are what is most precious in the world, though we often seem to do everything we can to avoid them. We access this evocative aspect of life by the way in which our senses are touched by the world. We embody the evocation and are seduced into a new atmosphere, memory or depth of feeling through smells, by music, by movement, as in dance or by images that subliminally draw us into new strata of realify. Weather and landscape can also affect us in this way as can atmospheres in a room full of people, or a line from a letter or poem. We are caught into a new sphere, inveigled into a new wave of emotion or rumbled by darkness or bursts of joy and light when touched by the richness of texture and colour, of sound and fragrance that tell a new story about ourselves or the iiniverse. We live our time-space in very different ways at different moments.
Time/Space Heidegger introduced the idea of time/space in his later work as a kind of backdrop to Dasein's existence in-the-world. While he described human beings as connected closely to a world from the start, it was only in his later work that he emphasized the human abilify to release itself into Being rather than merely affirm its own existence resolutely. In his 'Contributions to Philosophy' he described the fourfold of human beings as situated in an in-between the Between [between men and gods] first grounds the time-space for the relation [between men and gods] (Heidegger, 1989: 312) Heidegger's Zeit-raum, his time-space, is not the same as the space-time of physicists. Time-space is the point where space and time come together before the big-bang and they have their origin in a common root. The big bang in which Being explodes into EARTH, world, men and gods, also creates the time-space in which the fragments are related to each other (idem: 485). 236
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Only when we open up to this complex time-space do we acquire the kind of elbow room that allows us to own our existence in a playñil manner that lets us explore what being is about. To live in time, I once said (Deurzen, 2002), is not to favour past, present or fiiture. It is to have the courage to keep exploring all three and to keep learning and transcending our self narrative. Human beings have consciousness and this allows us to leam from experience, understand and transform it. We can choose to increase our capacity for feeling and being or decrease it. If we increase it we will also suffer more. But the price for less suffering is to care less and protect ourselves more. It means to be less sensitive - less open - less entire - less alive. We can control the process of our existence by having less of it, but we may find ourselves frozen or paralysed. You decide: do you want to live for real and to the full, or hide in pseudo-comfort and fear? The choice is yours. Your life belongs to you. When we discover that the tension we feel in our lives is no more than the energy that drives us forward and that it is the electric current between positive and negative poles that produces power, then perhaps we will stop trying to smooth everything out. We need this dynamic differential, for it is what life is made of Without the differential and the opposing there would not be the possibility of dialectics and transformation, no movement forward, no overcoming, no transcendence. So, we might as well allow ourselves to be the lenses, the prisms, through which the energy is transformed. We may as well polish our lenses and leam to be a better conduit to refract or reflect the light and the life. We always transform what we receive, but we have a choice to reflect it, absorb it, stop it, ward it off or pass it on in tact. But we can also magnify and illuminate it fiirther, refi-acting all facets and making life shine stronger than when it first touched us. To elucidate life we need first to clear the lens and let life shine through us. We need to clear our minds and our daily existence and know when to be open and when to be closed. We need to leam to be prepared to process that which opposes us and not be put off by the fire of life. Tuning into to the tmth we know, we make ourselves draw breath in the passionate depth of life, with as much joy as sorrow and with a readiness for what time and destiny holds in store.
Conclusion My conclusion, inspired by Camus, is that the best way to live is to aim for being in harmony with your own life and to love it in all its manifestations: past, present and future. This means of course being in harmony with others as well as with your self, with nature as well as with ideas. It means not just to be in touch with the actuality of what is, but also with its 237
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dynamic and dialectical reality. It is in sum to love the potentiality of living as much as its actuality. This attitude goes beyond Nietzsche's Amor Fati, since it does not just love what is, but also what has been and what will or may be. Of course in this process challenges, difficulties, confiicts and even crises are not the enemy, nor are they necessarily to be avoided, feared or scomed. They are necessary moments of opposition and difficulty that deepen us and allow our roots to grow strongly into the most fertile earth: that of our moments of loss and sorrow. Once earthed in that most fundamental way we shall be able to reach out again and send new shoots up from that darkness, first small tendrils, then stronger branches, until we are able to blossom and fmit with renewed life. Emmy van Deurzen is a psychotherapist and author whose work is intemationally well known and translated into a dozen languages. She is one of the foremost authorities on existential therapy who has established, directed and developed both Regent's College School of Psychotherapy and Counselling and the New School of Psychotherapy and Counselling in London. She is Professor of Psychotherapy with Schiller Intemational University, Honorary Professor with the University of Sheffield, where she co-directs the Centre for the Study of Confiict and Reconciliation and Visiting Professor with Middlesex University, for whom she directs two doctoral programmes at NSPC. She founded the Society for Existential Analysis in 1988. Amongst her books are the bestseller Existential Psychotherapy and Counselling in Practice (2"^ edition Sage, 2002) as well as her most recent book: Psychotherapy and the Quest for Happiness (Sage, 2009). A co-edited book on Existential Supervision will be published later this year with Palgrave, as will the second edition of her textbook Everyday Mysteries.
References Beauvoir, S. de. (1948). The Ethics of Ambiguity. Trans. 1970 Frechtman, B. New York: Citadel Press. Cohn, H. (2005). Interpretation: Explanation or understanding. In Deurzen, E. and Amold-Baker, C, (eds) Existential Perspectives on Human Issues. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Deurzen, E. van. (2002). Existential Counselling and Psychotherapy in Practice. Revised Second Edition, London: Sage Publications. Deurzen, E. van. (2009) Psychotherapy and the Quest for Happiness, London: Sage. Deurzen, E. van. (2009b). Everyday Mysteries: A Handbook of Existential Psychotherapy. T^ edition, London: Routledge.
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Heidegger, M. (1927a). Being and Time. Trans. Macquarrie, J. and Robinson, E.S. London: Harper and Row 1962. Heidegger, M. (1927b). The Basic Problems of Phenomenology. Trans. Hofstadter, A. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1981. Heidegger, M. (1971) Schelling's Treatise on the Essence of Human Freedom. Trans. Stambaugh J. Athens Ohio: Ohio University Press 1985: 11/9. Heidegger, M. (1989). Contributions to Philosophy, Contributions to philosophy (from enowning) Trans. Emad, P. and Maly, K. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. Madison G. (2009). Evocative Supervision: a non-clinical approach. In Deurzen, E. van and Young, S. Existential Perspectives on Supervision: Widening the Horizon of Psychotherapy and Counselling, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Merleau Ponty, M. (1968). The Visible and the Invisible. Trans. Lingis, A. Evanston IL: Northwestern University Press. Nietzsche, F. (1881). Daybreak. Trans. Hollingdale, R.J. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1982. Ricoeur, P. (1990). Oneself as Another. (Soi-même comme un autre). Trans. Blamey, K. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992 Sartre, J.P. (1960). Search for a Method. Trans. Sheridan-Smith, A. New York: Random House 1968. Sartre, J.P. (1943). Being and Nothingness - An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology. Trans. Barnes, H. New York: Phil. Library 1956. Sartre, J.P. (1983). Notebooks for an Ethics. Trans. Pellaner, D. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press 1992. Sartre, J.P. (1989). Truth and Existence. Trans. Hoven A. van den, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
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