Irrigation System of Pakistan

Project and Report 1

Irrigation System of Pakistan

Project and Report 1 Submitted To

Prof. Dr. Allah Bakhash

Subject Title


Subject Code

AENG-601

Report Title


By Zia-ul-Hassan

2011-ag-2717

Pervez Akhtar

2011-ag-2778

Hafiz Ali Raza

2011-ag-2788

M. Waqas Sarwar

2011-ag-2793

Hamza Khalil

2011-ag-2902

Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology University of Agriculture Faisalabad

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Declaration We hereby declare that contents of this report ―Irrigation System of Pakistan‖ are the product of our own study and no part as been copied from any published source (Except the references, tables, figures etc.). We further declare that this work has not been submitted for award of any other diploma /degree.

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Dedicated To

Prof. Dr. Allah Bakhash Dean Faculty of Agricultural Engineering & Technology University of Agriculture Faisalabad. Our Guide Who inspired us for this Remarkable work.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All praise to ALLAH, lord of all the worlds, the most Affectionate, the most Merciful, who taught writing by pen, taught me what I knew not. After the Almighty Allah, all praise and thanks to the Holly Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). Who is forever a model of guidance and knowledge for humanity. If there were dreams to sell, marry and sad to tell and crier rings the bell, what would you buy? , we will say that ―University Charming Days‖. Actually it is impossible, but it shows my blind love to this institution which is homeland of knowledge, wisdom and intellectuality. We are proud of being the students of this university. The work presented in this manuscript was accomplished under the sympathetic attitude, fatherly behavior, animate direction, observant pursuit, scholarly criticism, cheering perspective and enlightened supervision of Prof. Dr. Allah Bakhash, Dean Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology UAF. His thorough analysis and rigorous critique improved not only improve the quality of this dissertation, but also our overall understanding in irrigation system of Pakistan. We are grateful to his ever inspiring guidance, keen interest, scholarly comments and constructive suggestions throughout the course of our studies. May Allah almighty infuse us with the energy to fulfill his noble inspiration and expectation and to further modify our competence. May Allah bless him with long happy and peaceful life (Aameen).

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Contents History of Irrigation....................................................................................... 12 1.1 What is Irrigation?................................................................................................................... 12 1.1.1 Objectives of Irrigation: ..................................................................................................... 12 1.1.2 Water Resources for Irrigation: .......................................................................................... 12 1.2 History of Irrigation in World:................................................................................................... 13 1.3 History of Irrigation in Sub-Continent: ...................................................................................... 14 1.4 Irrigation in Pakistan:............................................................................................................... 15 1.5 Irrigation System: .................................................................................................................... 15 1.5.1 Components of Irrigation System: ...................................................................................... 16

Indus Basin Irrigation System ....................................................................... 18 2.1 Introduction:........................................................................................................................... 18 2.2 Salient Features of IBIS: ........................................................................................................... 19 2.3 Salient Features of Main Rivers: ............................................................................................... 20 2.3.1 Sutlej River: ...................................................................................................................... 20 2.3.2 Ravi River: ........................................................................................................................ 21 2.3.3 Chenab River: ................................................................................................................... 22 2.3.4 Jehlum River: .................................................................................................................... 23 2.3.5 Indus River:....................................................................................................................... 24 2.4 Disputes on Indus River Water: ................................................................................................ 27 2.4.1 Controversy over Water Distribution of IRS Between Provinces: .......................................... 27 2.5 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................. 31

Departmental Structure of Irrigation System ................................................ 33 3.1 Introduction:........................................................................................................................... 33 3.2 Federal Level:.......................................................................................................................... 33 3.2.1 WAPDA: ........................................................................................................................... 33 3.2.2 IRSA: ................................................................................................................................ 33 3.3 Provisional Level:..................................................................................................................... 37 3.3.1 Provincial Irrigation and Power Department: ...................................................................... 37 Page 6 of 127



3.3.2 Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA): ................................................................ 37 3.3.3 Area Water Boards (AWB): ................................................................................................ 38 3.3.4 Farmer Organization: ........................................................................................................ 39 3.4 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................. 39

Dams and Barrages of Pakistan ..................................................................... 40 4.1 Introduction:........................................................................................................................... 40 4.2 Dams of Pakistan:.................................................................................................................... 40 4.2.1 Dams of Azad Kashmir:...................................................................................................... 40 4.2.2 Dams of Baluchistan:......................................................................................................... 40 4.2.3 Dams of FATA: .................................................................................................................. 43 4.2.4 Dams of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: .......................................................................................... 43 4.2.5 Dams of Punjab:................................................................................................................ 44 4.2.6 Operational Small Dams in Punjab:..................................................................................... 45 4.2.7 Dams of Federally Administered Tribal Areas: ..................................................................... 46 4.3 Major Dams in Pakistan: .......................................................................................................... 47 4.3.1 Tarbela Dam: .................................................................................................................... 47 4.3.2 Mangla Dam: .................................................................................................................... 52 4.3.3 Chashma Reservoir:........................................................................................................... 57 4.3.4 Loss of Reservoir Capacities: .............................................................................................. 57 4.4 Barrages of Pakistan: ............................................................................................................... 58 4.4.1 Chashma Barrage: ............................................................................................................. 59 4.4.2 Taunsa Barrage: ................................................................................................................ 60 4.4.3 Jinnah Barrage: ................................................................................................................. 61 4.4.4 Guddu Barrage:................................................................................................................. 62 4.4.5 Sukkar Barrage:................................................................................................................. 63 4.4.6 Kotri Barrage: ................................................................................................................... 64 4.4.7 Rasul Barrage:................................................................................................................... 65 4.4.8 Marala Barrage: ................................................................................................................ 66 4.4.9 Khanki Barrage:................................................................................................................. 67 4.4.10 Qadirabad Barrage: ......................................................................................................... 68 4.4.11 Trimmu Barrage: ............................................................................................................. 69

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4.4.12 Panjnad Barrage:............................................................................................................. 70 4.4.13 Balloki Barrage:............................................................................................................... 71 4.4.14 Sidhnai Barrage:.............................................................................................................. 72 4.4.15 Sulemanki Barrage: ......................................................................................................... 73 4.4.16 Islam Barrage: ................................................................................................................. 74 4.5 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................. 75

Canal System of Pakistan............................................................................... 76 5.1 What is Canal? ........................................................................................................................ 76 5.2 Canal System of Pakistan: ........................................................................................................ 76 5.2.1 Types of canals in Pakistan:................................................................................................ 76 5.3 Link Canals:............................................................................................................................. 77 5.3.1 Chashma-Jehlum Link Canal:.............................................................................................. 77 5.3.2 Tauns-Punjnad Link Canal: ................................................................................................. 77 5.3.3 Marala-Ravi Link Canal: ..................................................................................................... 77 5.3.4 Upper-Chenab-Ravi Link Canal: .......................................................................................... 79 5.3.5 Rasul-Qadirabad Link Canal:............................................................................................... 79 5.3.6 Qadirabad-Balloki Link Canal:............................................................................................. 79 5.3.7 Balloki-Sulemanki Link Canal:............................................................................................. 79 5.3.8 Trimmu-Sidhnai Link Canal:................................................................................................ 79 5.3.9 Sidhnai-Mailsi Link Canal: .................................................................................................. 79 5.3.10 Mailsi-Bahawal Link Canal:............................................................................................... 79 5.3.11 Abasia Link Canal:............................................................................................................ 79 5.3.12 Bambanwala, Ravi & Bedian Link Canal:............................................................................ 79 5.4.1 Canals on Ravi River: ......................................................................................................... 80 5.4.2 Canals of River Sutlej:........................................................................................................ 81 5.4.3 Canals on Chenab River: .................................................................................................... 82 5.4.4 Canals on River Jehlum:..................................................................................................... 85 5.4.5 Canals on Indus River: ....................................................................................................... 86 5.5 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................. 91

Telemetry System........................................................................................... 93 6.1 Telemetry System:................................................................................................................... 93 Page 8 of 127



6.2 Applications of Telemetry System:............................................................................................ 93 6.2.1 Agriculture:....................................................................................................................... 94 6.2.2 Water Management:......................................................................................................... 94 6.3 Telemetry System and Pakistan: ............................................................................................... 94 6.3.1 Benefits:........................................................................................................................... 94 6.3.2 Current Status in Pakistan:................................................................................................. 95 6.3.3 Causes of Failure in Pakistan: ............................................................................................. 95 6.4 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................. 96

Problems of Irrigation System ....................................................................... 97 7.1 Introduction:........................................................................................................................... 97 7.2 Major Problems of the Existing System: .................................................................................... 97 7.2.1 Rigid System Design: ......................................................................................................... 97 7.2.2 Inadequate Drainage:........................................................................................................ 97 7.2.3 Low Delivery Efficiency and Inequitable Distribution: .......................................................... 98 7.2.4 Water-logging and Salinity:................................................................................................ 98 7.2.5 Over-exploitation of Groundwater in Fresh Water Areas: .................................................... 99 7.3 Problems Caused by Inadequate Planning:................................................................................ 99 7.3.1 Inadequate Operation and Maintenance (O&M): ................................................................ 99 7.3.2 Poor Investment Planning:................................................................................................. 99 7.4 Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................... 100

Rainwater Harvesting and Management ..................................................... 101 8.1 History:................................................................................................................................. 101 8.2 Rainwater Harvesting: ........................................................................................................... 101 8.3 Rainwater harvesting techniques ........................................................................................... 101 8.3.1 Land-Based:.................................................................................................................... 103 8.3.2 Roof-Based: .................................................................................................................... 103 8.4 Factors Affecting on Rainwater Harvesting:............................................................................. 104 8.4.1 Rainfall: .......................................................................................................................... 104 8.4.2 Land Cover: .................................................................................................................... 104 8.4.3 Topography and Terrain Profile:....................................................................................... 104 8.4.4 Soil Texture and Soil Depth:............................................................................................. 104 Page 9 of 127



8.4.5 Hydrology of Area: .......................................................................................................... 105 8.4.6 Social, Economic and Transportation Conditions: .............................................................. 105 8.4.7 Ecological and Environmental Affects: .............................................................................. 105 8.5 Rainwater Harvesting Advantages: ......................................................................................... 105 8.6 Rainwater Harvesting Disadvantages: ..................................................................................... 106 8.7 Rainwater Harvesting and Management in Pakistan: ............................................................... 106 8.8 Rainwater Harvesting and Management in Punjab: ................................................................. 107 8.8.1 Focused Area: ................................................................................................................. 107 8.9 Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................... 113

Ground Water and Its Quality..................................................................... 115 9.1 Importance of Groundwater .................................................................................................. 115 9.2 Groundwater Resources of Pakistan: ...................................................................................... 115 9.3 Historical Background:........................................................................................................... 116 9.3.1 Groundwater Potential in Pakistan Provinces:................................................................... 116 9.4 Challenges of Groundwater Management:.............................................................................. 118 9.5 Ground Water Exploitation: ................................................................................................... 118 9.6 Groundwater Depletion:........................................................................................................ 120 9.7 Deterioration of Groundwater Quality Due to Salinization and Pollution:.................................. 122 9.7.1 Soil Salinization:.............................................................................................................. 123 9.7.2 Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts: .................................................................... 123 9.8 SCARP Pilot Projects: ............................................................................................................. 124 9.8.1 Achievements and Shortcomings of Completed Projects: .................................................. 125 9.9 Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................... 126

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ABSTRACT Pakistan is an agricultural country and its irrigation system relies heavily on availability of fresh surface water. Pakistan has the world largest continuous irrigation system with three major storage reservoirs, 19 barrages, 12 link canals, 46 main canals and thousands of hydraulic structures. This was initiated in the last century and continuous to expand with more area coming under canal irrigation. This report takes stock of the present situation of water-resources, present needs and future requirements; the challenges imposed, and suggest short, medium, and long-term strategies to cope with the situation. The suggested short-term strategies include starting a mass-awareness campaign, propagation of high-efficiency irrigation systems, changes in cropping-patterns, identification of feasible surface-water storage sites and dams, and activation of water-user organizations. The medium-term strategies suggest giving priority to lining of distributaries, minors and watercourses in saline groundwater areas, construction of small dams and installation of tube wells in technically feasible areas, improving flood and drought- forecasting methods, and a much wider application of conjunctive water-use approach and propagation of highefficiency irrigation systems. Institutional reforms for better co-ordination and a wider formulation of a national water-policy are other priority areas under the medium-term strategic plan. Long term strategies include formulation of a regulatory framework on groundwater abstraction, construction of large storage dams, better flood and drought-forecasting mechanisms and resolving water-distribution problems between provinces. It is recommended that a National Commission on Water, supported by an expert‘s panel, be created to steer the formulation of the strategies and ensure the implementation of the strategies proposed.

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Chapter No. 01

History of Irrigation 1.1 What is Irrigation? Artificial application of water to the soil through manually or mechanically managed system for the purpose to;     

Supply moisture essential for plant growth. Encourage plant root development. Cool the soil and atmosphere. Create favorable condition for plant growth. Transport nutrients from soil to plant.

It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscape and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which include protecting plants against frost, suppressing weed growth in grain fields and preventing soil consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dry land farming.

1.1.1 Objectives of Irrigation: Following are some objectives of irrigation;      

To To To To To To

Supply Water Partially or Totally for Crop Need. Cool both the Soil and the Plant. Leach Excess Salts. improve Groundwater storage. Facilitate continuous cropping. Enhance Fertilizer Application- Fertigation.

1.1.2 Water Resources for Irrigation: Following are the water resources for irrigation; 1. Surface Water. 2. Rainfall/Precipitation. 3. Groundwater. Surface water is diverted to the fields by the use of rivers, canals, channels etc. Rainfall/Precipitation may directly fall into the fields; groundwater is abstracted from soil and diverted to the fields. Page 12 of 127



1.2 History of Irrigation in World: History of irrigation in the world is very old. Archaeological investigation has identified evidence of irrigation where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support crops. Perennial irrigation was practiced in the Mesopotamian plain whereby crops were regularly watered throughout the growing season by coaxing water through a matrix of small channels formed in the field. Ancient Egyptians practiced Basin irrigation using the flooding of the Nile to inundate land plots which had been surrounded by dykes. The flood water was held until the fertile sediment had settled before the surplus was returned to the watercourse. There is evidence of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhet III in the twelfth dynasty (about 1800 BCE) using the natural lake of the Faiyum Oasis as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons, the lake swelled annually from flooding of the Nile, (Wikipedia). The Ancient Nubians developed a form of irrigation by using a waterwheel-like device called a sakia. Irrigation began in Nubia sometime between the third and second millennium BCE. It largely depended upon the flood waters that would flow through the Nile River and other rivers in what is now the Sudan, (Wikipedia). In sub-Saharan Africa irrigation reached the Niger River region cultures and civilizations by the first or second millennium BCE and was based on wet season flooding and water harvesting, (Wikipedia). Terrace irrigation is evidenced in pre-Columbian America, early Syria, India, and China. In the Zana Valley of the Andes Mountains in Peru, archaeologists found remains of three irrigation canals radiocarbon dated from the 4th millennium BCE, the 3rd millennium BCE and the 9th century CE. These canals are the earliest record of irrigation in the New World. Traces of a canal possibly dating from the 5th millennium BCE were found under the 4th millennium canal. Sophisticated irrigation and storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization in present-day Pakistan and North India, including the reservoirs at Girnar in 3000 BCE and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE. Large scale agriculture was practiced and an extensive network of canals was used for the purpose of irrigation, (Wikipedia). Ancient Persia (modern day Iran) as far back as the 6th millennium BCE, where barley was grown in areas where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support such a crop. The Qanats, developed in ancient Persia in about 800 BCE, are among the oldest known irrigation methods still in use today. They are now found in Asia, the Middle East and North Africa. The system comprises a network of vertical wells and gently sloping tunnels driven into the sides of cliffs and steep hills to tap groundwater. The noria, a water wheel with clay pots around the rim powered by the flow of the stream (or by animals where the water source was

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still), was first brought into use at about this time, by Roman settlers in North Africa. By 150 BCE the pots were fitted with valves to allow smoother filling as they were forced into the water. The irrigation works of ancient Sri Lanka, the earliest dating from about 300 BCE, in the reign of King Pandukabhaya and under continuous development for the next thousand years, were one of the most complex irrigation systems of the ancient world. In addition to underground canals, the Sinhalese were the first to build completely artificial reservoirs to store water. Due to their engineering superiority in this sector, they were often called ―masters of irrigation‖. Most of these irrigation systems still exist undamaged up to now, in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, because of the advanced and precise engineering. The system was extensively restored and further extended during the reign of King Parakrama Bahu (1153–1186 CE), (Wikipedia). Following are some historical facts about irrigation;        

Joseph Canal (1900 B.C). Greatest system inherited by Ramses II. World‘s oldest Dam (3100 B.C). Alhazen (Aswin Dam). Community of Saba (Marib Dam). Kanates/Karez in Baluchistan. Irrigation in China (Tu-kiang Dam). Western Jamuna Canal systems.

1.3 History of Irrigation in Sub-Continent: In the recorded history of Sub-Continent, practices of irrigation can be found back to the 8 century when Muslim rulers differentiated between irrigated and un-irrigated land for the purpose of levying tax. There is evidence that irrigation has been practiced in the Sub-Continent along the Indus system of rivers from 3000 B.C. In the beginning, only the narrow strips of land along the river banks were irrigated, but with time, irrigation was extended to other nearby areas by breaching the banks or the natural levies of the rivers to bring water to the low lying fields. This was done only during high water periods. The first canal was constructed some five or six centuries ago and extended under the Mughal Emperors. The early canals were inundation channels and delivered water to the fields when rivers were in high flow during the summer. They tended to be unpredictable in operation and subjected both to frequent breaches and serious siltation problems. The next stage in the evaluation of the Irrigation System was construction of perennial canals having permanent headworks. These headworks either did not extend across the entire stream or allowed the floods to pass over their crests. The first evidence of perennial irrigation on any of the Indus rivers dates back to early seventeenth century when a 80 Km long canal was constructed by the Mughal Emperor Jahangir (reigned 1605-27) to bring water from the right bank of the Ravi to the pleasure gardens of Sheikhpura. The present elaborate system of the Western Jamuna canal is believed to have been based on a system initiated by Feroze Shah Tughlaq. Hasli canal leading off the Ravi which th

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forms the nucleus of Upper Bari Doab canal was constructed by Ali Mardan Khan, an engineer and governor of Punjab. Upper Bari Doab canal at Madhopur headwork was constructed in 1858 and started irrigation about one million acres of land between the Ravi and Bias Rivers with the water from Ravi‖ (Biswas, 1992pp.202). In the middle of the 19th century when British took control there were only a few inundation canals in Sub-Continent. By the end of 19th century a number of separate inundation systems were developed for each river. At the end of 19th century efforts were also made to construct a weir controlled irrigation system. The inundation systems were merged with various perennial irrigation schemes when they were completed.

Continent

Table 1.1 ―Continent wise Irrigated Areas‖ (Million Acres)* 1900 1940 1950 1960 1970 1985

2000

Europe

8.6

19.8

24.7

37.1

51.87

74.1

111.2

Asia

74.1

123.5

160.5

333.5

419.90

543.4

574.1

Africa North America

6.2 9.9

9.9 22.2

12.35 32.1

17.3 42.0

22.23 61.75

29.6 79.0

44.56 86.5

South America

1.2

3.7

7.4

12.0

17.29

24.7

37.1

2.5

3.95

5.4

7.4

Australia Oceania 0 0.7 1.24 *Figures rounded to one place of decimal.

Source: Irrigation and Hydraulic Structure by Dr. Iqbal Ali.

1.4 Irrigation in Pakistan: The irrigation system of Pakistan is the largest integrated irrigation network in the world serving approximately 18 million ha of cultivated land. There are 3 major storage reservoirs, 19 barrages, 12 inter-river link canals, 45 independent irrigation canal commands and over 140,000 watercourses. The water of the Indus River and its principal tributaries (the Kabul, the Swat, and Kunar from the West, and the Jehlum, the Chenab, from the East) feed the system. The concept of participation of a farming community in irrigated agriculture in Indo-Pak subcontinent is not new as it has been practiced since time immemorial (Gill 1998). The civil canals in the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan are an example of Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) and these have been constructed, operated and maintained by the stakeholders since long (1568-1800). Irrigation development in Pakistan started on a technical foundation in the latter part of 19 century with major objectives to reduce the risk of famine and maintain political and social stability (Stone 1984).

1.5 Irrigation System: The irrigation system was designed with an objective to optimize the production per unit of available water, ensuring equitable distribution between canals, branches and also among the off takes (outlets). The duty (area irrigated by unit discharge during the base period) was fixed Page 15 of 127



relatively high in order to irrigate more land with low cropping intensities. Another design objective was to keep the administrative and operational requirements and cost as low as possible and therefore the number of control structures in the canals was kept to a minimum. The irrigation intensity was also kept low at an average of 75 percent. This design practice is known as protective irrigation (Jurriens 1993, Jurriens et al. 1996).

1.5.1 Components of Irrigation System: Following are the      

components of an irrigation system, Watershed River Dam Barrage Canals (Link, Main, Branch, Major and Minor) Watercourse

Fig 1.1: ―Components of Irrigation System‖ Watershed receive rainfall and contributes to the formation of river, dams and barrages are storage structures and rise the head of water, link canals deliver water from one river to another river, main canal takes its supply from river and water of main canal is used for irrigation through branch, major, minor and watercourse. In next pages we will discuss these components of an irrigation system one by one.

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References:  Dr. Nazir Ahmad, ―Water Resources of Pakistan‖, Miraj uddin Press, Lahore September 1993.  Planning Commission, Govt of Pakistan (Sep 2001), ―Ten Year Perspective Development Plan 2001-11& Three Year Development Programme 2001-04‖.  Planning Commission, Govt of Pakistan (Sep 2001), ―Ten Year Perspective Development Plan 2001-11& Three Year Development Programme 2001-04‖.  http://www.tbl.com.pk/indus-basin-irrigation-system-of-pakistan/  Dillehay TD, Eling HH Jr, Rossen J (2005). "Preceramic irrigation canals in the Peruvian Andes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102 (47): 17241 4.doi:10.1073/pnas.0508583102. PMC 1288011.PMID 16284247  Snyder, R. L.; Melo-Abreu, J. P. (2005). "Frost protection: fundamentals, practice, and economics" (PDF). Volume 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISSN 1684-8241  Siebert, S.; J. Hoogeveen, P. Döll, J-M. Faurès, S. Feick, and K. Frenken (2006-1110). "Tropentag 2006 – Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development" (PDF). Bonn, Germany. Retrieved 2007-03-14.  Provenzano, Giuseppe (2007). "Using HYDRUS-2D Simulation Model to Evaluate Wetted Soil Volume in Subsurface Drip Irrigation Systems". J. Irrig. Drain Eng. 133 (4): 342–350.doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(2007)133:4(342)

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Chapter No. 02

Indus Basin Irrigation System 2.1 Introduction: Pakistan‘s Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) is the strong heart of the country‘s economy. Its creation is a tribute to the British irrigation engineers who created the original system (1847-1947) that Pakistan inherited in 1947 and to the Pakistani irrigation engineers and institutions (particularly the Water and Power Development Authority [WAPDA] and the provincial irrigation departments) who have spent the last 60 years adding new dams and barrages, building new link and branch canals, and modernizing and maintaining the world‘s most complex and extensive irrigation system. From the 1950s onward, the IBIS has also been the product of the generosity and intellectual input of a host of international experts and international institutions, particularly the World Bank (Shahid, 2009). The Indus River rises in the Tibetan plateau in the vicinity of Lake Mansarovar. It flows in Tibet for about 200 miles before it enters Ladakh, (part of Kashmir under Indian control) and then flows on towards Gilgit in Pakistan. Flowing through the North in a southerly direction along the entire length of Pakistan, it falls into the Arabian Sea near Pakistan‘s port city of Karachi. With a total length of 3,200 km (1,988 miles), the river‘s estimated annual flow is approximately 207 billion m3 . The Indus River feeds ecosystems of temperate forests, plains and arid countryside. Its five major tributaries are the Jehlum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej (also having origin in Tibetan plateau). Another two tributaries of the Indus, the Kabul and the Kurram, rise in Afghanistan. Most of the Indus basin lies in Pakistan and India, with about 13 per cent of the total catchment area of the basin situated in Tibet and Afghanistan. The Indus drainage basin area is shared by Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and China. Table 2.1 ―Co-riparian States in Indus River Basin‖ Basin Name Total Area of Country Name Area of 2 Basin in Km Country in Basin in Km2 Indus

1,138,800

Per cent area of country in basin (%)

Pakistan India China

597,700 381,600 76,200

52.48 33.51 6.69

Afghanistan

72,100

6.33

Chinese control claimed by India

9,600

0.84

Indian control claimed by China

1,600

0.14

Nepal

10

0.00

Source: ASIA: International River Basin registers.

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The Indus River system is the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world with a command area of 20 million hectares and an annual irrigation capacity of over 12 million hectares. Irrigation in the Indus River basin dates back centuries; by the late 1940s the irrigation works along the river were the most extensive in the world. These irrigation projects had been developed over the years under one political authority that of British India, and any water conflict could be resolved by executive order. The Government of India Act of 1935, however, put water under provincial jurisdiction, and some disputes did begin to crop up at the sites of the more extensive works, notably between the provinces of Punjab and Sindh.

2.2 Salient Features of IBIS: Pakistan, with a Geographical area of 796,095 square kilometers, possesses large rivers, like Indus which, along with its 5 tributaries, namely Chenab, Jehlum, Ravi, Kabul and Sutlej, forms one of the mightiest River-Systems of the world. The River-System comprises 2 storage reservoirs, 19 large rivers Headworks, 45 Canal Systems measuring 58,000 kilometers, some 1.6 million kilometers of water-courses and field Irrigation Channels. Pakistan has big rivers like Indus, Chenab, Ravi, Jehlum and Sutlej, where discharges in summer season vary from 100 thousand Cusecs to 1,200 thousand Cusecs (3 thousand to 34 thousand comics) and can cause tremendous loss to human lives, crops and property. Due to limited capacity of storage at Tarbela and Mangla Dams on river Indus and Jehlum, with virtually no control on Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej, devastating problems are faced between July and October in the event of excessive rainfall in the catchments. The Irrigation system of Pakistan is the largest integrated irrigation network in the world, serving almost 18 million ha of contiguous cultivated land. The system is fed by the waters of the Indus River and its tributaries. The salient features of the system are three major storage reservoirs, namely, Tarbela and Chashma on River Indus, and Mangla on River Jehlum, with a present live-storage of about 15.4 BM3 (12.5 MAF), 19 barrages; 12 inter-river link canals and 45 independent irrigation canal commands. The total length of main canals alone is 58,500 Km. Water courses comprise another 1,621,000 Kms. Indus Basin Irrigation System is the largest irrigation network of the world. Salient Features of the system are given below;  Pakistan‘s Indus River Basin System comprises five main rivers, namely the Indus, Jehlum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej.  IBIS is also aided by a number of smaller rivers (Kabul, Swat, Haro, Kunhar, Chitral, Tochi, Shah Alam, Naguman, Adezai, Soan etc.) and streams/Nullahs, these five rivers supply water to the entire Indus Basin Irrigation System.  These rivers have their origin in the higher altitudes and derive their flows mainly from snow-melt and monsoon rains.  Catchment area of Indus is most unique in the sense that it contains seven (7) of the world‘s highest peaks after Mount Everest. Among these include the K2 (28,253 ft.), Nanga Parbat (26,600 ft.), Rakaposhi (25,552 ft.) etc.  Further to above, seven (7) glaciers situated in the Indus catchment are among the largest in the world, namely, Siachin, Hispar, Biafo, Baltura, Baltoro, Barpu and Hopper

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Fig 2.1: ―Rivers of Pakistan.‖

2.3 Salient Features of Main Rivers: Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab, Jehlum and Indus are the main rivers of Pakistan. Following are the main features of these rivers;

2.3.1 Sutlej River: Origin Length Catchment Area Pakistan portion Tributary Rivers Largest Tributary Dams on the River Barrages on River

Western Tibet in the Kailas Mountain range and near the source of Rivers Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra. 960 miles/1536 Km 47,100 Sq. miles/75,369 Sq.km (70% in India) Flows into Pakistan (Punjab) near Ferozepur and eventually joins Chenab 3 miles u/s Punjnad Barrage Eight major tributaries (all except Rohi Nallah join Sutlej in India) River Beas (290 miles/464km), catchment area (6,200 Sq. miles/9,920 Sq.km) Bhakra, Nangal, Pong, Pandoh (all in India), Rupar Barrage, Harike Barrage, Ferozepur Barrage (India), Sulemanki & Islam in Pakistan Page 20 of 127



Fig 2.2: ―Schematic Diagram of Sutlej River Basin‖

2.3.2 Ravi River: Origin Originates from the lesser Himalayas Range in India Length 550 miles/880 Km Length of River Ravi 422 miles in Pakistan Catchment Area 15,600 Sq. miles/24,960Sq.km Pakistan portion Tributary Rivers Largest Tributary Barrages on River Annual Average Flow

Runs almost along the Indo-Pak Border -15km d/s Madhopur to 20 miles u/s of Shahdara (58 miles) Five major tributaries (Ujh, Bein, Basantar, Deg, Hudiara nullahs – upper catchments lie in India) Deg Nullah (160 miles/256km), catchment area (456 Sq. miles/730 Sq.km) Madhopur Headwork (India), Balloki & Sidhnai (Pakistan) 1.47 MAF (0.93 kharif and 0.54 rabi)

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Fig 2.3: ―Schematic Diagram of Ravi River Basin‖

2.3.3 Chenab River: Origin

Length Catchment Area Pakistan portion

Tributary Rivers

Largest Tributary Dams on the River Barrages on River

Forms at the confluence of streams Bhaga & Chandra which join at a place called Tandi in Occupied Jammu & Kashmir state. -Upper most part is snow covered and forms the North East part of Himachal Pradesh -From Tandi to Akhnur the river traverses through high mountains 770 miles/1,232 Km 26,100 Sq. miles/41,760 Sq.km The river enters Pakistan a little over Head Marala with very sharp changes in slope (130 ft./mile above Tandi reduced to 2 ft./mile close to Trimmu) Twelve major tributaries (6 each in occupied Jammu & Kashmir and Pakistan). Doara, Dowara, Halsi, Bhimber, Palku and Budhi join close to Marala Palku Nullah (75 miles/120km), catchment area (793 Sq. miles/1,269 Sq.km) Salal, Baglihar (India), Marala, Khanki, Qadirabad, Trimmu, Punjnad (Pakistan)

Page 22 of 127



Fig 2.4: ―Schematic Diagram of Chenab River Basin‖

2.3.4 Jehlum River: Origin

Originates in the Kashmir Valley about 34 miles (54 km) east of Anant Nag.

Length

510 miles/816 Km

Catchment Area

24,500 Sq. miles/ 39,200Sq.km

Pakistan portion

-From Mangla to Jehlum city it moves southwards and then turns westwards up to Khushab; -Beyond this it moves south up to its confluence with River Chenab and Trimmu; -Slope up to Muzaffarabad is 35 ft./mile, 60 ft./mile up to Kohala, 10 ft./mile up to Mangla

Tributary Rivers

Ten major tributaries (including Neelum/Kishan Ganga, Kunhar, Poonch, Kanshi) Kishan Ganga/Neelumh (165 miles/264km), catchment area (2,480 Sq. miles/3,968 Sq.km)

Largest Tributary Barrages on River

Mangla Dam, Rasul Barrage

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Fig 2.5: ―Schematic Diagram of Jehlum River Basin‖

2.3.5 Indus River: Origin

Length

-One of the largest rivers of the world and the main river of the Indus valley; -Originates near lake Mansarovar on north of Himalayas range in the mountain of Kailash Parbat in Tibet at an elevation of 18,000 ft.; 925 miles/1,489 Km above Tarbela

Catchment Area

1,80,000 Sq. miles/2,88,000 Sq.km

Tributary Rivers

Twenty seven (27) major tributaries above Guddu Barrage

Largest Tributary

Shyoke river (400 miles/20,160 Sq.km)

Dams on the River Barrages on River

Tarbela Kalabagh, Chashma, Taunsa, Guddu, Sukkar, Kotri, Jinnah

miles/640km),

catchment

area

(12,600

Sq.

Page 24 of 127



Fig 2.6: ―Schematic Diagram of Indus River Basin‖

Fig 2.7: ―Structures on Indus River System‖

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Fig 2.8: ―Schematic Diagram of Indus Basin Irrigation System‖ Page 26 of 127



2.4 Disputes on Indus River Water: There was no question over water sharing in Sub-Continent till early 20th century. However, the situation changed after World War-I. There were several new projects like Thal, Haveli, Bhakra Dam and Sutlej Valley canals in Punjab and Sukkar Barrage in Sindh were proposed. It was first time in the history that some regions particularly Sindh as lower riparian, felt that their river rights were threatened (Malik, 2011).The dispute of Indus Waters sharing began long before the partition of India and Pakistan in the form of interstate differences between the Punjab, Sindh, Bahawalpur, and Bikaner(Michal,1967). Government of India acted as neutral third party and facilitated through negotiations. Independent commissions were appointed to arbitrate in case of negotiation failure. ―The situation was serious when Upper Bari Doab Canal was completed in 1858 and started irrigation about one million acres of land between the Ravi and Bias Rivers with the water from Ravi‖ (Biswas, 1992pp.202). 2.4.1 Controversy over Water Distribution of IRS Between Provinces: The dispute over water distribution of Indus River System (IRS) between provinces was started in 1921 when British rulers started developing irrigation system with construction of new barrages, canals and dams. Government of India appointed various committees to resolve the water issue between provinces. Following committees & commissions were set up for distribution of the Waters of the IRS between provinces:          

Tripartite Agreement (1921) Indus Discharge Committee (1921) SVP Inquiry Committee (1932) Anderson Committee (1937) Rao Commission (1945) Indus Water Treaty (1960) Akhtar Hussain Committee (1968) Fazle-e-Akbar Committee (1970) Chief Justices Commission (1977) Haleem Commission (1983)

a) The Tripartite Agreement (1921): The first contract between Punjab province, Bahawalpur and Bikaner States was signed in 1921. It was for distribution of waters of the Sutlej and Beas rivers. Bahawalpur State protested against the provision of water supplies to the non-riparian Bikaner State on the ground that the water was insufficient to meet the needs of the two riparian Punjab and Bahawalpur State. The Government of India convinced the Punjab, Bahawalpur and Bikaner States to sign the tripartite agreement. The agreement was based on three widely recognized water-right principles as below: A. Priority of existing use B. Recognition of claims of riparian owners, and C. Equitable apportionment regardless of history of use or of geographical location. Page 27 of 127



b) The Indus Discharge Committee (1921): Government of Bombay (Sindh was also part of Bombay presidency till 1935) objected to Punjab‘s proposals for new projects. States of Bahawalpur and Bikaner were also demanding for more water provisions. Different claims from Punjab and Sindh were referred to the Secretary of State London. He sanctioned construction of Sutlej Valley Project (SVP) and Sukkar Barrage with seven canals. Decision on the other projects was postponed till after more reliable river flow data was available (Federal Planning cell, 1990). In response to petitions and counter claims by Sindh and Punjab, Government of India appointed the ―Indus Discharge Committee‖ in 1921. The committee scheduled to observe daily discharge at several sites on the rivers and canals in Indus Plains. To improve the availability of hydrological data for these and other concerned projects, Government of India suggested to the provincial government a comprehensive network of gauge and discharge observation sites at all important sites along Indus and its tributaries. Arrangements were also made between Sindh and Punjab to cooperate in discharge observations and in procedures of keeping their record. Sindh was also allowed to appoint resident engineers to observer river and canal discharge in Punjab. The committee recommended project of Haveli Canal and pointed out that future projects proposed by Punjab should be considered by taking into account the possible effect on Sindh water rights. A two member ‗Nicholson Trench Committee‘ was appointed to study the feasibility of Bhakra dam. In 1930, the committee in its report cleared Bhakra for construction. c) SVP Inquiry Committee (1932): Actual operations of SVP canals exposed that there was storage of supplies, especially in early Kharif because actual river flows fell short of requirements. A committee was chosen in 1932 to look into the problem. It recommended exclusion of some areas in Bahawalpur State, construction of new feeder canals and adjustment in the command areas of certain canals (Federal Planning cell, 1990). d) Anderson Committee (1937): By the 1932, all the 11 SVP canals with four barrages and Sukkar Barrage project were completed. A number of problems arose with the operation of these canals network. Bahawalpur and Khairpur States wanted extra supplies. Punjab also asked for extra water for Haveli project. In 1935, Government of India formed ―Committee of the Central Board of Irrigation on Distribution of Waters of the Indus and Tributaries‖, known as the ―Anderson Committee‖. It comprised representatives of K.PK, Bikaner, Khairpur and Government of India. It had eight authorities to look into the matter and find a solution. Committee submitted its report in 1937. It increased irrigation water supplies for Haveli and Thal projects. As regards Bhakra Dam, a contract had already been reached between the governments of Bombay and Punjab in 1934. The report cleared Haveli canal project which was started in 1934 and finished in 1939. Construction of Kalabagh Barrage and Thal canal was started in 1939. But due to outbreak of World War II, it was not commissioned till January, 1947. e) Rao Commission (1945): After the implementation of Government of India Act 1935, the development of river waters became a provincial matter. Provinces were allowed to plan and start any work for advancement of river waters passing through its territory. The Governor-General could interfere only on receiving complaint by one province in contradiction of the other. Page 28 of 127



On receipt of complaint by Government of Sindh against Punjab‘s proposal for increased extractions of water from the rivers passing through its region, Government of India appointed a Commission named ―Rao Commission‖ in September 1941. The commission had two chief engineers namely ―P.B Hickey‖ and ―E.H Chave‖ as its members. Terms of reference of the commission were to ―examine effects of water withdrawals on lowering of water levels in Sindh to result from storing water in Bhakra Reservoir and from withdrawals allowed for Haveli, Thal and Sutlej Valley Canals‖ (Malik,2011 pp. 70). Rao Commission submitted report in July 1942. The commission established priority for the water allocation for Paharpur canal and also confirmed allocations for the Thal and Sukkar schemes as recommended by Anderson Committee. The commission found that upstream extractions of water would harmfully affect operation of inundation canals in Sindh, especially during September. The best way to counteract this effect was to build barrages at Guddu and Kotri. The Commission also suggested that ―compensation should be paid to the Sindh from Punjab province for damages likely to result from upstream withdrawals‖ (Malik, 2011, pp.70). Its findings and recommendations were neither accepted by Punjab nor by Sindh. At this stage negotiation were opened between the two chief engineers of Sindh and Punjab to find a solution and reach on an agreement. After prolonged negotiations between Sindh and Punjab, a draft agreement was drawn in September 1945. It was matter to settlement of the financial phase of the dispute with respect to sharing of waters of the Indus and Punjab rivers. f) Indus Water Treaty (1960): On 14 August 1947, when Sub-Continent was divided into two independent countries, there existed one of the most highly established irrigation systems in the world. The boundary line between two countries was drawn without any consideration of irrigation work. Just after the creation of Pakistan, India stopped water on April 1, 1948, in Pakistan Canals off-taking from rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, who‘s Headwork, were situated in India (Ali, 1973). This gave rise to a serious first water dispute with India, which was ultimately resolved through the good offices of the World Bank and Indus Water Treaty (IWT) was signed with India in 1960. The Treaty gave exclusive water rights of the three eastern rivers namely Ravi, Beas and Sutlej to India, while the water rights of the three western rivers namely; Indus, Jehlum and Chenab were allotted to Pakistan except for some specified uses in the occupied State of Jammu & Kashmir. Pakistan was required to meet the needs of eastern river canals from the western rivers by constructing the suitable replacement works comprising storage dams and inter-river transfer links. These works were to be completed by Pakistan in a period of ten years i.e., from 1960 to 1970, then after that period, India was given right to stop water flowing to Pakistan in the three eastern rivers (Ghani, 2009). Briefly, the Indus Water treaty, having discarded the joint development plan for developing the Indus Basin as suggested by some international bodies, allotted the three western rivers of the Indus basin- the Indus, the Chenab and the Jehlum to Pakistan and the three eastern rivers Sutlej, Beas and Ravi to India. The Treaty in its Annexures acknowledged certain rights and privileges for agricultural use of Pakistan drawing water from eastern rivers and similarly India drawing water for similar reasons from the three western rivers. The treaty permitted India to draw water from the western rivers for irrigation up to 642,000 acres that is in addition to another entitlement to irrigate 701,000 acres. India has so far not made full use of its rights to draw this quantity of water from the western rivers. These allocations were made based on the water flows and usage as existed on April 1960. While India Page 29 of 127



is not permitted to build dams for water storage purposes (for consumptive uses) on the western rivers passing through India, it is allowed to make limited use of waters including run of the river hydroelectric power projects. g) Akhtar Hussain Committee (1968): A Water Allocation and Rates Committee were constituted by the Government of West Pakistan (one unit) in May 1968. It was called ―Akhtar Hussain Committee‖ after the name of its chairman (Government of the Punjab, 2002). Its terms of reference included:  Review barrage water allocations.  Reservoir release patterns.  Drawdown levels and use of ground water in relation to surface water deliveries. However the committee submitted report on 30 June, 1970. One Unit was dissolved splitting West Pakistan into four provinces. And this report could not attain any attention. h) Justice Fazle Akbar Committee (1970-71): Government of Pakistan set up a committee on October 15, 1970, chaired by former justice Fazle Akbar of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. The Committee was to recommend allotment of water allocations of groundwater and its coordinate use with flow supplies and sensible water requirements of the provinces for agriculture, industrial and other uses. The committee submitted report to the government in 1971. No decision was taken on the report. In the meanwhile ad hoc distribution of waters stored by Chashma Barrage and later Tarbela Reservoir was ordered among provinces. Seasonal ad hoc distribution of waters stored by two reservoirs continued till coming into effect of Water Apportionment Accord in 1991 as noted presently. i) Chief Justices’ Commission (1977): Government of Pakistan in 1977 established a commission to observe the issue of water apportionment. The commission contained all chief justices of the four provincial High Courts and was chaired by the chief Justice of Supreme Court of Pakistan. Its report however remained pending with the government till the Water Apportionment Accord came into effect in 1991. j) Haleem Commission (1983): This commission conducted the hearing of the case within limited framework and submitted report to the president of Pakistan in the end of the April 1983 (Siddique, 2003). The issue of water distribution could not be resolved and provinces received irrigation supplies through ad hoc distribution of Indus waters notified by Federal Government for each period/season of the year. k) Water Apportionment Accord (1991): The government of Pakistan appreciating the urgency of the matter approved ―Water Apportionment Accord‖ on March 16, 1991. It was approved by the Council of Common Interest on March 21, 1991. According to the Water Apportionment Accord, share of each province, both for Kharif and Rabi and allocation of balance supplies was allocated in MAF as given in Table 1. The main clauses of Water apportionment Accord (1991) are given as follow:

Page 30 of 127



 It supersedes all previous sharing arrangements and agreements arrived at in this regard.  It protects the existing uses of canal water in each province.  It apportions the balance river supplies including flood surpluses and future storage amongst the provinces.  It recognizes the need for constructing new storages wherever feasible on the Indus and other rivers for planned future agriculture development.  It also recognizes the need for certain minimum escapee to sea below Kotri to check sea intrusion for which further studies are to be undertaken.  It lays down the procedures for sharing shortage and surpluses on all Pakistan bases.  The need to establish an Indus River System Authority for implementation of the Accord was recognized and accepted. It would have representation from all the four Provinces.  The balance river supplies including flood supplies and future storages are allocated as: 37% for Punjab, 37% for Sindh, 14% for K.PK and 12% for Baluchistan. Table 2.2 ―Water shares of provinces according to water accord 1991‖ Water Shares Balance Supply Province Total Shares (%) * Kharif Rabi Punjab Sindh K.PK Civil Canals ** Baluchistan Total

37.07 33.94 3.48 1.80 2.85 77.34

18.87 14.82 2.30 1.20 1.02 37.01

55.94 48.76 5.78 3.00 3.87 114.35

37 37 14 12 100

Source: Save Water Save Pakistan by B.A Malik. *Including flood flows & future storage ** Ungagged civil canals in K.PK

2.5 Conclusion: In short we can say that Indus river system is the largest system of irrigation. It includes five main rivers with their tributaries. It is the strong heart of the Pakistan‗s economy. Its creation is a tribute to the British irrigation engineers who created the original system (18471947) that Pakistan inherited in 1947 and to the Pakistani irrigation engineers and institutions who maintained the system. There were no disputes on the shearing of I.R.S water till 20 th century, however the situation changed after the World War-I. In-order to resolve these disputes several commissions and committees were made as we discussed in previous pages. In next pages we will discuss about departmental structure of Pakistan irrigation system.

Page 31 of 127



References:  ―World Water Assessment Programme,‖ The United Nations World Water Development Report 3: Water in a Changing World, (Paris: UNESCO, and London ―Earthscan, 2009), p.29.  M. Zeitoun and N. Mirumachi, "Trans boundary Water Interaction I: Reconsidering Conflict and Cooperation", International Environmental Agreements, 8: 4, 2008, p. 298.  Pacific Institute initiated a project in the late 1980s to track and categorize events related to water and conflict which have been continuously updated ever since. See, Dr. Peter H. Gleick, ―Water Conflict Chronology,‖ Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security, 2009, at .

 Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2009-10, op.cit. (ref.21), p.13.  Ahmer Bilal Soofi, Dawn (Islamabad), February 20, 2010, http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-contentlibrary/dawn/the newspaper/editorial/water-war-with- india-020  Ali, C. M. (1973). Emergence of Pakistan. Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan, University of the Punjab, Lahore.  Biswas, Asif, K. (1992) Indus Water Treaty: the Negotiating process, water international.P.202.  Government of the Punjab Effects of water Regulation, irrigation and power department, 2002. P.4  Haider.Ghulam, Dr.(2002).Water Resources Development, Conservation and Management, The Environ Monitor,(vol.11, No.6).  Malik, B. A. (2005). Indus water treaty in retrospect. Brite Publishers, Lahore.  Malik, B. A. (2011). Save Water Save Pakistan (First Ed.). Islamabad-Lahore-Karachi (Pakistan): Ferozsons  Rajput, Muhammad Idris (2007) Water problems: perspective from Sindh. Problems and politics water sharing and management in Pakistan. Edited by Parvez Iqbal Cheema, Rashid Ahmad Khan, And Ahmad Rashid Malik, Islamabad Policy Research Institute.

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Chapter No. 03

Departmental Structure of Irrigation System 3.1 Introduction: Irrigation system of Pakistan is the world largest system. Different departments are made to manage this system. Success of this system totally depends upon the performance of these departments. There are two levels of these departments;  Federal Level  Provisional Level The irrigation system of Pakistan is primarily managed and operated by the Provisional Government. At Federal level, a separate ministry of water and power exists for management, planning and development of irrigation system. Now we will discuss about these departments in details.

3.2 Federal Level: At federal level following are the two departments;  WAPDA  IRSA

3.2.1 WAPDA: Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) was established in 1958. Following are the responsibilities of WAPDA.

 The responsibility of large scale construction and water resources facilities such as storage dams, barrages, and link canals lies within WAPDA.  It is responsible for planning and execution of ground water development and management schemes such as pipe drainage, tube well drainage and reclamation projects.  After the completion of these projects, transfer to the provisional Irrigation departments for operation and maintenance.

3.2.2 IRSA: IRSA is the abbreviation of Indus River System Authority. a) When and why it was formed? 21st March, 1991, will go down in the history of Pakistan as a pivotal breakthrough in its leap towards the 21st century and turning point in its march towards national consolidation. On

Page 33 of 127



that day was unraveled a dispute that had been festering in this part of the subcontinent for the past seventy years. As a follow-up to the meeting of the Chief Ministers at Lahore on March 3, 1991, a meeting of the representatives of the four provinces was held at Lahore on March 04, 1991. Another meeting was held at Karachi on March 16, 1991. The list of participants is attached.

The participants agreed on the following points:  There was an agreement that the issue relating to Apportionment of the Waters of the Indus River System should be settled as quickly as possible,  In the light of the accepted water distributional principles the following apportionment was agreed to;

Table 3.1: ―Distribution of Water among Provinces‖ PROVINCE

PUNJAB SINDH N.W.F.P. (a) CIVIL CANALS** BALOCHISTAN TOTAL

KHARIF (maf)

RABI(maf)

37.07 33.94 3.48 1.80 2.85 77.34 + 1.80

18.87 14.82 2.30 1.20 1.02 37.01 +1.20

TOTAL(maf)

55.94 48.76 5.78 3.00 3.87 114.35 +3.00

b) Aims and Objectives: Water release from dams and barrages to the main irrigation system is assessed and controlled by Indus river system Authority (IRSA) and received by the provincial irrigation departments for further operation& maintenance.  To resolve disputes among the provinces pertaining to their share of water  To monitor , regulate and distribute the available water resources of the country among the provinces  The monitoring of water resources withdrawn by each canal system is done through telemetry system. The data collected through telemetry system is transferred to central unit of IRSA for analysis  Each province prepared its indents for release and sends it to IRSA .The statements of withdrawals are also prepared and verified by the provinces.

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c) Current Situations: Following are the current situations of IRSA including discharge from different dams and barrages. Table 3.2: ―Current Situation of major reservoirs‖ Sr# Dams/Barrage Mean Inflow(Cs)

Mean outflow(Cs)

1

INDUS @ TARBEL

20300

35000

2

CHASHMA

37193

30000

3

JEHLUM @ MANGLA:

10334

42000

Table 3.3: ―Current Situation of Different Barrages‖ Headwork /Barrage U/S Discharge (Cs)

D/S Discharge (Cs)

KALABAGH

5878

51285

TAUNSA

29376

29376

GUDDU

40698

34411

SUKKAR

32590

4790

KOTRI

6087

0

CHENAB @ MARALA:

7058

3000

PANJNAD

Total Rim Station inflow = 45762Cs Total Rim Station Outflow= 95748Cs

d) Water Allocation to the Provinces:

Punjab Sindh Baluchistan KPK

= 57,900cs = 3,500cs = 4,800cs =3,100cs

Reference (http://www.pakirsa.gov.pk/)

Page 35 of 127



Fig 3.1: ―Organizational Chart of IRSA‖ Page 36 of 127



3.3 Provisional Level: Following departments are worked on provisional level;

3.3.1 Provincial Irrigation and Power Department: The Provincial Irrigation Departments exercise their management over the irrigation system below dams, comprising Barrages, Headwork‘s, main canals, and distributaries, minor and main watercourses. The On Farm Irrigation System below canal outlet comprising main watercourses is managed by the provisional Irrigation Department of Irrigation (PIPD) but constructed and maintained by the cultivators or shareholders of the command. The field watercourses or Farmer Branches are constructed and maintained by the farmer themselves PIPD also administers water Distribution and resolution of conflicts among water users. Water distribution among the shareholders is implemented through Warabandi schedule issued by the PIPD that predefined the location and time of each user‘s turn.

3.3.2 Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA): a) When and why it was established? On cognizant of the problems in irrigated agriculture and water management in the province, Government of the Punjab decided to adopt the institutional reforms in irrigation sector. Hence, during june-1997, the Punjab provincial assembly passed the ―Punjab Irrigation & Drainage Authority act‖. The Government of the Punjab established PIDA as autonomous body under act 1997 to take over the functions of the irrigation and Power department pertaining to irrigation, drainage and flood control. Under this act PIDA has been vested with control over;      

Rivers Canals Drainage Streams Hill torrents Springs

b) Responsibilities:  Perform all the duties and functions of the irrigation wing of irrigation and power department.  Plan, design, construct, operate and maintain the irrigation, drainage and flood control infrastructure located within the territorial jurisdiction of PIDA.  Introduce the concept of participatory management through the pilot AWB and FO‘s and to adopt and implement policies aimed at promoting growth and development of FO‘s monitoring of their performance planning.  It will also be responsible for its own finances including the collection charges from the clients (Government of the Punjab for flood control and other public services corporation and district councils) and from AWBs and for negotiating transfer payments and subsidies from the Government of the Punjab. Page 37 of 127



c) Current Situations: Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA) is pursuing the implementation of Institutional Reforms in irrigation sector of Punjab. After the transfer of Irrigation Management to 85 Farmer Organizations in pilot areas; Lower Chenab Canal (East) Circle Faisalabad, 67 FOs in Lower Chenab Canal (West) Circle, 30 FOs in Chashma Right Bank Canal Circle, 10 FOs in Lower Jehlum Canal Circle and 3 FOs in Bahawalnagar Canal Circle, PIDA has also initiated the reforms implementation process in Lower Bari Doab Canal Circle and Dera Ghazi Khan Circle.

3.3.3 Area Water Boards (AWB): a) When and why it was formed? The first AWB was set up on the lower Chenab canal (east) circle Faisalabad that commands for 1.6 million acre. The second Area Water Boards has been established at lower Bari Doab Canal (LBDC) circle Sahiwal that commands about 0.07 million acres of land. The Area Water Boards was formed to assume the responsibilities of managing and progressively financing the operation and maintenance cost of irrigation and drainage network within its jurisdiction Preliminary the Area Water Boards was responsible for management of the canal command and its branch system from Barrage to district heads drainage and flood control infrastructure. Under the act 1997, the Area Water Boards are expected to perform the following functions      

Approve and monitor the operation and maintenance work plan of FOs. Recommend the development Schemes for annual development programs. Approve rotational program of the water distribution Checking water thefts and other offences Monitor expenditures and budget allocations. Assist the authority and Govt. in the formation, promotion and development of FOs and Monitor their work.

b) Current Situations of AWBs: PIDA Authority shall appoint a registrar for an Area Water Board and a registrar at its Head Office who shall perform all functions relating to the registration of the farmer organizations     

Lower Chenab Canal (East) Lower Chenab Canal (West) Bahawalnagar Canal Dera Jaat Canal Lower Bari Doab Canal

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3.3.4 Farmer Organization: It was formed for the management of system at the minor distributary level which are owned and controlled by the farmers. The Farmer Organization is responsible for managing the minor distributaries that fall into branch drains. It is also responsible for manage fresh ground water tube wells, on farm tile drains& off farm sub drains. Functions: To manage, operate and maintain the irrigation infrastructure including any hydraulic structure located on it, for which it has been established.  To obtain irrigation and water supplies from the authority or relevant area water board & its head regulator and consequently pay the agreed amount to the AWB concerned or between Farmer Organization concerned & the authority  To supply the irrigation water equitably to the farmers and other water users within the area.  To assess the water rates and other irrigation charges to be collected from the water users.

3.4 Conclusion: This was all about different departmental structures of irrigation system of Pakistan. Every province has its own irrigation and drainage authority to manage its irrigation system. Success of our irrigation system is totally depends upon the performance of these departments. In next pages we will discuss about different barrages of Pakistan in details.

References:  ―Irrigation & Drainage Practices for Agriculture‖ by Dr. Muhammad Rafique Chaudhary  (http://www.pakirsa.gov.pk/)

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Chapter No. 04

Dams and Barrages of Pakistan 4.1 Introduction: Pakistan is an agriculture country so, agriculture is the backbone of Pakistan‗s economy and more than 50% population depends upon agriculture. As Pakistan is an agriculture country so irrigation is necessary for agriculture. The irrigation system of Pakistan comprises of 2 major storage reservoirs, 19 large rivers Headworks and a number of small dams. In this chapter we will discuss in details about these dams and barrages of Pakistan.

4.2 Dams of Pakistan: There are many smaller and larger scale dams are in Pakistan. Following is a list of different dams in Pakistan with their storage capacity and location.

4.2.1 Dams of Azad Kashmir: Table 4.1: ―Dams in Azad Kashmir‖ Name

Location/Nearest city

Impounds

Kakra Dam

Mirpur District, Kakra Mirpur District

Saddle Dam

Mangla Dam Shukian Mirpur District Dam Jari Kas Dam Mirpur District Jari Rim Mirpur District Works

Height (ft.) 138

Storage Capacity (Acre ft.) n/a

Year of Completion 1967

Jehlum River

453

5,879,139

1967

Saddle Dam

144

n/a

1967

Saddle Dam Saddle Dam

276 138

n/a n/a

1967 1967

4.2.2 Dams of Baluchistan: Table 4.2: ―Dams in Baluchistan‖ Name


Impounds

Akra Kaur Dam

Gwadar

Amach Dam

Mastung

Akra Kaur River Amach River

Height (ft.) 69

Storage Capacity (Acre ft.) 17,025


50

1,358

1987 Page 40 of 127

Project and Report 1 Baghak Dam Band-e-Chaman Dam Bisialla Dam Bostan Darra Dam Brewery Dam Kuchnai Darra Dam Duz Durg Dam Galangoor Dam Ganj Dara Dam Ghargi Dam Ghat Amoon Dam Ghunza Dam Ghuti Shela Dam Giwari Dam Gogi Dam Gokar Dam Gur Dam Haero Dam Hingi Dam Hub Dam Khad Koocha Dam Khajeer Dam Khori Dam Kohar Dam Nari Kach Dam Kullan Dam Lalai Dam Machka Manda Dam Mana Storage Dam Mangi Dam Mirani Dam Morinko Dam Murghai Check Dam Murghai Kotal Dam


Turbet

Band-e-Chaman River

49

2,000

1994

Quetta

Darra Manda River

66

170

1987

Quetta

2008

Mastung

Duz Dur River

50

40

1984

Pishin

n/a

50

100

1986

Pishin

n/a

50

178

1984

Ziarat

Gogi River

54

400

1981

Kalat

n/a

50

404

1982

Quetta Malir Mastung

Hingi Hub River Kad Koocha River Khajeer River

49 157 50

163 856,924 95

1995-96 1979 1984

49

250

1991

Ziarat

Mana River

62

1,480

1961

Ziarat

Boin Viala River Dashat River

59

105

1982

128

302,396

2007

Qila Saifullah Loralai

Makran

Page 41 of 127

Project and Report 1 Nail Mirdadzai Storage Dam Nishpa Dam Nousahr Dam Nundra Kapper Dam Palian Dam Pinakai Dam Rindak Storage Dam Sabakzai Dam Sasnak Mana Storage Dam Sassi Punnu Dam Shadak Dam Sgadi Kaur Storage Dam Shagai Dam Sherran Manda Dam Shiker Dam Spin Dam Spinkarez Dam Tabai Dam Takhtani Dam Tang Storage Dam Tanga Dam Tangi Dababari Dam Tangi Dam Thamarak Dam Tooth Dam Torkehezi Dam Trikh Tangi Dam Under Base Dam Walitangai Dam


Mastung

Nishpa River

49

93

1994

Qila Saifullah

Pinakari River

50

39

1994

Zhob Ziarat

Zhob River Sasnak River

114 62

32,700 220

2007 1993

Pishin

Shadak River

50

70

1983

Quetta

n/a

50

309

1993

Pishin

Shiker River

62

49

1988

Quetta

95

5,513

1995

Quetta

Nar River & Murdar River Tabai River

49

142

1994

Qila Saifullah Pishin Kalat

Tangi River n/a Tooth River

50 50 52

61 195 397

1997 1986 1991

Qila Saifullah

Under Base River Walitangai

50

70

1985

79

413

1961

Quetta

Some purposed or under construction dams are also present in Baluchistan i.e. Garuk Dam, Pelar Dam, Winder Dam, Hingol Dam, Sukleji Dam, Naulong Dam and Darawat Dam. Page 42 of 127



4.2.3 Dams of FATA: Table 4.3: ―Dams in FATA‖ Name


Dandy Dam Dargai Pal Dam Gomal Zam Dam

Miranshah Wana Wana

Impounds

Gomal River

Height (ft.) 82 98 436

Storage Capacity (Acre ft.) 4,820 4,780 1,134,998

Year of Completion 2011 2008 2012

4.2.4 Dams of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: Table 4.4: ―Dams in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa‖ Name


Impounds

Allai Khwar Dam Auxiliary Kandar Dam Aza Khel Dam Baran Dam Chaatri Dam

Battagram

167

2012

75

2004

75 79 85

2004 1962 1971

Chanda Fateh Khan Dam Changhoz Dam

Kohat

Allai Khwar River Dargai Algada River n/a Barran River Nain Sukh River n/a

82

2004

Karak

141

2007

Darwazai Dam

Kohat

49

1976

Gandially Dam

Kohat

72

2002

Kahal Dam Kandar Dam

Hazara Kohat

72 89

1971 1970

Khal Dam

Haripur

75

1971

Khan Khwar Dam Khanpur Dam Mang Dam Naryab Dam Warsak Dam

Besham, Shangla

Changhoz River Sodal Algada River Taru Algada River Kahal River Dargai Algada River Khal Kass River Khan Khwar River Haro River Haro River Naryab River Kabul River

151

2012

167 52 105 220

1985 1970 2006 1960

Kohat Peshawar Bannu Haripur

Haripur Haripur Hangu Peshawar

Height (ft.)

Storage Capacity (Acre ft.)

62,013

Year of Completion

Page 43 of 127



Zaibi Dam

Karak

82

1997

Kohat Ghazi

Zaibi Algad River Kohat River Indus River

Tanda Dam Tarbela Auxiliary -1 Dam Tarbela Auxiliary -2 Dam Tarbela Dam Sharki Dam Duber Khwar

115 344

1967 1974

Ghazi

Indus River

220

1974

Haripur Karak Pattan, Kohistan

Indus River Tem River Khan Khwar River

470 130 320.1

11,098,664

1974 2006 2013

Some purposed or under construction dams are also present in Baluchistan i.e. Munda Dam and Kalam Dam.

4.2.5 Dams of Punjab: Table 4.5: ―Dams in Punjab‖ Name

Ghazi Barotha Dam Gurab Dam Haji Shah Dam Jabbi Dam Jamal Dam Jammargal Dam Jawa Dam Jurash Dam Kahuta Dam Kanjoor Dam Khasala Dam Lehri Dam Mailsi Dam Mirwal Dam Misriot Dam Namal Dam


Impounds

Height (ft.)

Storage Capacity (Acre ft.)

Indus River

Attock Jehlum District Gujar Khan Jehlum District

Sil River


72

1,459

2013-14

82

1,571

1994

Jehlum River

Rawalpindi District

Jawa Stream

Kahuta Attock District Rawalpindi District Jehlum District Mailsi Attock Rawalpindi District Mianwali District

Ling River

Page 44 of 127

Project and Report 1 Nirali Dam Qibla Bandi Dam Rati Kassi Dam Rawal Dam Salial Dam Shahpur Dam Shakardara Dam Tain Pura Dam Simly Dam Dhok Sandy Mar Dam Dhok Tahlian Dam Dungi Dam Bhugtal Dam Channi Bor Dam Chabla Bano Dam Chichali Dam

Irrigation System of Pakistan Rawalpindi District Attock

Islamabad Capital Territory

Korang River

102

Attock Attock

Nandana River

85

14,285

1986

Islamabad Capital Territory Chakwal District

Soan River

262

28,750

1983

Chakwal District Gujar Khan 1990

Some purposed or under construction dams are also present in Punjab i.e. Akhori Dam and Kalabagh Dam.

4.2.6 Operational Small Dams in Punjab: Following is a list of operational small dams in different districts of Punjab. a) Attock District: Following is a list of operational small dams in Attock district;      

Basal Dam Thatti Syedan Dam Sawal Dam Talikna Dam Jabba Dam Jalwal Dam

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b) Chakwal District: There are 12 small dams in Chakwal District having storage capacity of 26,411 in acres feet irrigating 11,089 acres of area.            

Khokher Zer Dam Surlah Dam Dhoke Talian Dam Kot Raja Dam Dhoke Qutab Din Dam Nikka Dam Walana Dam Khai Gurabh Dam Pira Fatehal Dam Bhagtal Dam Dhurnal Dam Mial Dam

        

Tain Pura Dam Jammergal Dam Garat Dam Salial Dam Domeli Dam Shah Habib Dam Gurha Utam Singh Dam Fatehpur Dam Lehri Dam

c) Jehlum District:

d) Dams of Sindh: In Sindh there are two dams Karoonjhar Dam and Chotiari Dam, Also there are two under construction dams in Sindh, Darawat Dam in Jamshoro District and Nai Gaj Dam in Dadu District

e) Dams of Gilgit Baltistan: Diamer Bhasha Dam, Bunji Dam and Dasu Dam are under construction in Gilgit Baltistan. Satpara Dam is completed in 2013 in Gilgit Baltistan.

4.2.7 Dams of Federally Administered Tribal Areas: Kurram Tangi Dam is proposed in Federally Administered Tribal Areas.

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4.3 Major Dams in Pakistan: The major reservoirs/dams of the Indus River System are given below;  Tarbela dam  Mangla dam  Chashma reservoir

4.3.1 Tarbela Dam: Tarbela dam is world's biggest earth and rock fill dam and was completed in 1974-75 and is located on the Indus River. The dam is 485 feet high and 9000 feet long. A 100 sq. mile lake is capable of conserving gross quantity of 11.7 MAF of water. Installed power generation capacity is 3500 MW. It has two spillways), four tunnels for power generation on the right bank and one for irrigation on the left. The gross capacity has now reduced to 9.745 MAF from its original capacity 11.7 MAF (WAPDA and NEAC, 2004). Elevation – capacity curves of the reservoir are one of the important input parameters in reservoir simulation. a) Objectives of Tarbela Dam: The main objectives of the Tarbela dam are given below;  To augment and regulate the supply of Indus River water to irrigate the land of Indus Basin System.  Hydropower generation.  Incidental Flood Regulation. Based on the irrigation demands, reservoir operation studies were conducted by WAPDA to develop operating rule curves for the dam operation (Tippetts-Abbett McCarthey-Stratton consulting engineers, 1984). b) WAPDA Operation Rule:  Tarbela reservoir should be lowered to reservoir elevation (El.) 1300 feet by 20 May of each year.  The reservoir should be held at El. 1300 feet until 20 June unless inflows exceed low level outlet capacity and after that allowed to fill El.1505 feet.  Above El.1505 feet, the reservoir should be filled at a rate of 1 foot per day in so far as permitted by inflows and irrigation demands. Minimum maximum rule curve is shown in Figure 4.4.  Drawdown of the reservoir should be in accordance with the irrigation demands balanced against the amount of water available from inflows plus storage.

Page 47 of 127



Figure 4.1: ―Tarbela Dam Auxiliary Spillways‖

Figure 4.2: ―Tarbela reservoir‖ Page 48 of 127



Figure 4.3: ―Elevation-Capacity Curves for Tarbela (WAPDA, 2004)‖

Figure 4.4: ―Minimum Maximum Rule Curve at Tarbela (WAPDA, 2004)‖

Page 49 of 127



c) Reservoir Levels:  The minimum reservoir level is 1300 feet. This level will assure the required minimum net head of 179 feet on the turbines with a margin of safety open and the tailwater level is at El. 1115 feet or lower.  The maximum operating reservoir level is El. 1550 feet (normal full pool level). The maximum water level for spillway design flood is El. 1552.2 feet which allow adequate free board.  After satisfying irrigation requirement, the reservoir may be kept as high as possible to maximize power production.  The rate of filling should not exceed 10 feet per day. The allowable rate of rise should be determined according to operation experience. The normal releases for irrigation should be made through the turbines whenever possible so that power can be generated. Each turbine can produce 175,000 KW (or 239,000 Horse-power) when the wicket gates are 95% open and the net head on the turbine is 378 feet. Under these conditions discharge from each turbine is 6,450 cfs making a total of 25,000 cfs for the four.  The irrigation tunnel will be used when the irrigation demand is higher than the turbine discharge.  The irrigation tunnels should not be used with water level above El1505 when the spillway provides sufficient release. Minimum discharge is 50000 cfs for the service spillway and 70,000 cfs for the auxiliary spillway.  The sill level of irrigation tunnel is El.1160, 65 lower than the power intakes. Thus until the delta encompasses the intakes, most of the heavier suspended sediment would go through this tunnel and not through the power waterways.  Rapid variations in the downstream flow should be avoided.  Every year the reservoir should be drawn down to El.1300, (minimum pool level) to effect sediment flushing. d) Previous Benefits from the Reservoir: The project has been instrumental in achieving self-sufficiency in food through timely water releases for irrigation. Billions of units of electrical energy generated at Tarbela dam saved the country's foreign exchange required otherwise for thermal power generation. The total project cost was Rs.18.5 billion. During the past 18 years of its operation, the dam contributed over 68.332 billion in terms of direct benefits from water releases and power generation. The total cost has been repaid three times and over. e) Benefits from Water: From 1975 to 1993 about 154.65 MAF of water has been released from the dam for the development. The benefits obtained from these releases were Rs.31, 561 million. About 6.31 MAF of water was released from the storage during 1992-93 which is worth Rs.1893 million calculated at a rate of Rs.300 per acre feet.

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f) Flood Mitigation Benefits: Additional benefits were achieved from the project with incidental flood control. Most of the floods occur during the summer monsoon season. The flood discharge is composed of snowmelt flood (base flow) plus storm flood. It has been estimated 1,773,000 cfs (a constant snowmelt flood, 6000 cfs + PMF, 1,173,000 cfs). Assuming discharge through the turbines and one irrigation tunnel, the probable maximum flood, when routed through the reservoir, showed surcharge of 2 feet above full reservoir level of 1550 feet AMSL. The maximum discharge over the spillway is 1,495,000 cfs. The maximum and minimum design curves ensure to take care of incidental floods. On the basis of flood predictions, the reservoir can be lowered to a pre-determined elevation considerably below the normal pool level. Drawdown to El.1505 for example, would provide storage of about 2.4 MAF of flood water, equivalent to a flow of 400,000 cfs for a period of 3 days. Since immediate refilling is assured, this lowering of reservoir water level would not result in loss of water to irrigation and power. Table 4.6: ―Water Benefits from Tarbela Dam (WAPDA, 1993, 2001, 2004)‖ Year (Jun-July) 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99

Storage (MAF) 3.33 9.07 10 8.71 9.91 10.63 11.33 9.12 9.18 9.24 9.76 9.98 7.52 11.12 7.32 6.19 5.93 6.31 9.41 5.39 8.17 9.15 8.06 9.04

Benefits (Rs. Million) 666 1814 2000 1724 1982 2126 2266 1824 1836 1848 1952 1996 1504 2224 1464 1238 1186 1893 2823 1617 2451 8235 7254 8136 Page 51 of 127

Project and Report 1 1999-2000 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 Total

Irrigation System of Pakistan 8.708 2.689 8.3 9.1 8.7 247.4

7837 7820 7470 8190 7830 101224

4.3.2 Mangla Dam: Mangla dam on river Jehlum which is a 12th largest earth fill dam in the world has been completed in 1967. Jehlum River at Mangla has a catchment area of about 12,870 sq. miles. Dam height is 380 feet. The original gross storage capacity of the reservoir was 5.35 MAF in 1967. Live storage capacity was 4.81 MAF which was about 90 percent of gross capacity whereas dead storage capacity was 0.54 MAF. Capacity of main spillway is 1,100,000 cusecs while of emergency spillway is 2,300,000 cusecs. The lake area of reservoir at maximum pool level (1202 feet. above sea level) is estimated to be 100 sq. miles. Reservoir of Mangla dam is shown in Figure 4.10. The main objectives of the dam are (i) water storage for supplementing irrigation supplies (ii) hydropower Generation (WAPDA, 1989). Before 1991 hydropower capacity of Mangla dam was 800 MW with 8 units. In 1991, hydropower capacity of the dam was increased to 1000 MW with 10 units. Figure 4.11 shows power house and Bong canal at Mangla dam. The primary objectives from the reservoir are assured water releases for agriculture and hydropower generation therefore, no space is particularly reserved for flood control. However storage between reservoir levels 1202 feet and 1228 feet (1.5 MAF) is reserved to achieve incidental flood benefits. Recreation and fish production are additional benefits from the reservoir. Reservoir capacity is depleted due to sediment inflows which were averaged 73 MST (million short ton) per year from 1967 to 2002 (WAPDA and MJV, 2003). Elevation capacity curves showing depletion in storage due to sediments are shown in Figure 4.7. a) WAPDA Operation Rule:  Mangla reservoir should be lowered to reservoir elevation (El.) 1050 feet by 10 May of each year.  The reservoir should be held at El.1050 to El 1040 feet until 31 March unless inflows exceed low level outlet capacity and after that allowed to fill El.1202 feet.  Mangla reservoir should be filled upto its maximum conservation level 1202 feet before 1 September if permitted by inflows and irrigation demands. Minimum maximum rule curve is shown in Figure 4.8.  Drawdown of the reservoir should be in accordance with the irrigation demands balanced against the amount of water available from inflows plus storage.

Page 52 of 127



Figure 4.5: ―Mangla Reservoir at 1040 ft. AMSL‖

Figure 4.6: ―Mangla Dam Power House and Bong Canal‖ Page 53 of 127



Figure 4.7: ―Elevation-Capacity Curves for Mangla (WAPDA and MJV, 2003)‖

Figure 4.8: ―Minimum Maximum Rule Curves at Mangla (WAPDA, 2004)‖

Page 54 of 127



b) Benefits from Water: The Mangla reservoir has been impounded in 1967. According to an estimate on water releases for agriculture, industrial or domestic use from the reservoir, total benefits have been computed about Rs.24,179 million from 1967 to 1993 (WAPDA 1993). Therefore, average annual benefits from water, estimated from 26 year operation (1967-1993) comes to be about Rs.930 million whereas the benefits during (1991-92) and (1992-93) have been estimated to be Rs.936 million and Rs.969 million respectively. These estimates, as reported, were carried out on the basis of a unit return of Rs.200.00 per acre foot volume of water. Table 4.7: ―Water Benefits from Mangla Dam (WAPDA, 1993, 2001, 2004)‖ Year (Jun-July) 1967-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98

Storage (MAF) 58.32 4.15 5.30 4.82 5.35 5.39 4.56 4.84 4.88 4.97 5.03 3.76 4.68 3.23 5.37 5.10 3.94 4.98 4.36

Benefits (Rs. Million) 17046.3 1458.8 1881.5 2210.8 2587.8 2961.6 2821.8 3083.4 3220.5 3821.8 3952.5 3343.0 4232.9 3490.7 5939.8 6282.9 5684.9 7888.7 7805.9

c) Flood Mitigation Benefits: Incidental flood control is an additional benefit which was achieved from the project. Most of the floods occur during the summer monsoon season. Their duration is short but their rate of rise and fall can be extremely rapid. The maximum and minimum design curves (Figure 4.13) ensures to take care of incidental floods. Available storage (1.5 MAF) between reservoir level 1202 feet and 1228 feet is reserved to achieve incidental flood benefits. The project was designed on a Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) of 2,600,000 cusecs. Total benefits from water and power activities from Mangla dam comes to Rs.55,101.89 million since 1967 whereas total benefits in financial years 1991-92 and 1992-93 from water and power has been estimated to be Rs.2719.21and Rs.2703.03 million respectively.

Page 55 of 127



Although these benefits are quite high, recovering the total cost of the project several times over, but it is however, a limited source. The country has been facing the major problem of rapidly increasing population and food requirements. These problems seriously affected the existing policies and it is essentially needed to design a policy which may overcome these issues by expanding irrigated agriculture and increasing power generation. d) Mangla Raising Project: At the time of construction of Mangla Dam, Government of Pakistan requested the World Bank that a provision should be made in the design and construction of the Mangla Dam to facilitate its raising at a later stage by another 30-40 ft. The Government of Pakistan agreed that the incremental cost of the provision for rising would not be charged to the Indus Basin Development Fund. The World Bank accepted this proposal and hence, all the impounding structures of the Mangla Dam Project were designed and constructed in 1967 for raising it by another 30 ft. In year 2003, work on Mangla rising was started. It was proposed to raise the Mangla dam by 30 feet. (WAPDA and Mangla Joint Venture, 2003). This will raise the present maximum reservoir conservation level of 1202 ft. to 1242 ft. The work on Mangla rising is in progress as shown in Figure 4.14. About 70% construction work has been completed on Mangla rising till May 2008. The project is expected to be completed in year 2009. This would increase the average annual water availability by 2.9 MAF. Power generation from the existing power plant would also increase by about 11%. Elevation capacity curves after Mangla raising showing depletion in storage due to sediments for the period 2007 to 2082 are shown in Figure 4.15 (WAPDA and MJV 2003).

Figure 4.9: ―Elevation-Capacity Curves for Mangla Raising (WAPDA and MJV, 2003)‖ Page 56 of 127



4.3.3 Chashma Reservoir: Located on the Indus River downstream of Tarbela dam, this reservoir acts as a buffer reservoir to re-regulate the releases from Tarbela. It was constructed in 1971 as barrage cum reservoir providing diversion facilities for Chashma Jehlum link Canal on its left side and Chashma right bank canal on the right side. The reservoir acts as a re-regulatory storage for the releases from Tarbela which enable the reservoir to store 2.59 MAF of water and releases 2.52 MAF during 1992-93. According to 1986-87 hydrographic survey by WAPDA, the gross storage capacity of Chashma reservoir has been reduced from 0.87 MAF (originally in 1971) to 0.497 MAF. Upto 1993, about 100.44 MAF of irrigation water was received in the reservoir. About 94.97 MAF was released downstream of Chashma barrage and 3.794 MAF in Chashma Jehlum Link Canal (CJ Link) and 1.607 MAF in Chashma right bank canal (CRBC) The benefits obtained from the reservoir are listed in Table 4.8; Table 4.8: ―Water benefits from Chashma Reservoir‖ Year (Jun-July) Upto 1967-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93

Storage (MAF)

Benefits (Rs. Million)

8.41 0.74 0.70 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.45 0.28 0.46 2.72 2.52

1682 148 140 98 98 98 98 98 98 90 56 92 540 756

4.3.4 Loss of Reservoir Capacities: One of the important factors for future water scarcity in Pakistan is due to loss of existing reservoir capacities by sediment inflows. It is a natural process and every reservoir has its useful life. The solution is to make new dams to overcome water crisis. Hydrographic surveys were carried out time to time by WAPDA to determine the loss of reservoir capacities. Following table shows the depletion in gross capacities in Tarbela, Mangla and Chashma.

Page 57 of 127



Table 4.9: ―Loss of Reservoir Capacities in MAF (WAPDA, 2004)‖ Reservoir

Gross Storage Capacity Original 11.62 (1974) 5.88 (1967) 0.87 (1971) 18.37

Tarbela Mangla Chashma Total

Year 2014 8.36 72% 4.64 78% 0.48 55% 13.48 73%

Gross Storage Loss Year 2004 3.28 -28% 1.24 -22% 0.39 -45% 4.89 -27%

2012 4.17 -36% 1.72 -29% 0.48 -55% 6.37 -35%

2025 5.51 -47% 1.97 -34% 0.5 -57% 7.98 -43%

4.4 Barrages of Pakistan: Irrigation system of Pakistan consists of 19 barrages. Following is the list of these barrages.                   

Chashma Barrage Taunsa Barrage Jinnah Barrage Guddu Barrage Sukkar Barrage Kotri Barrage Rasul Barrage Marala Barrage Khanki Barrage Qadirabad Barrage Trimmu Barrage Panjnad Barrage Balloki Barrage Sidhnai Barrage Sulemanki Barrage Islam Barrage Mailsi Barrage Ghazi Brotha Barrage Munda Barrage

Page 58 of 127



4.4.1 Chashma Barrage: Chashma barrage is a barrage on Indus River in Mianwali District, Punjab, 304km NW of Lahore and 56km downstream of Jinnah barrage. The Contract for Chashma Barrage works was awarded on 10 February 1967 to French Consortium Society Dumez and Society Borie and was successfully completed by 25 March 1971. The total cost of Chashma Barrage works was Rs.399 million but power generation started later in 2001. The installed capacity of power Station is 184 MW, from eight Kaplan type bulb turbine units each with a 23 MW capacity. The bulb turbines have been installed for the first time in Pakistan. The first unit was commissioned in January 2001, while final commissioning of all units was completed in July 2001. The 8 Kaplan type turbines and synchronous generator units were made by Fuji, Japan. Chashma Barrage is used for irrigation, flood control and power generation.

Figure 4.9: ―Chashma Barrage‖ Salient Features: Length between abutments: Total Bays: Standard Bays: Undersluce Bays: Normal Pond Level: Maximum Storage Level: Maximum Flood Discharge: Maximum Intensity of Discharge: Width of Carriage Way: Length of Navigation Lock: Width of Navigation Lock: Area of Reservoir: Initial Capacity: Date Commencement: Date of Completion:

3556 ft. 52 41 11 642 feet 649 ft. 950000 Cusecs 300Cs. Per ft. 24 ft. 155 ft. 30 ft. 139 Sq.m 0.87 MAF 10 February 1967 25 March 1971

Page 59 of 127



4.4.2 Taunsa Barrage: Taunsa barrage is a barrage on Indus River in Muzaffargarh district, Punjab. It is situated 20 kilometres (12 mi) southeast of Taunsa Sharif and 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from Kot Addu. This barrage controls water flow in the Indus River for irrigation and flood control purposes. This barrage serves 2.351 million acres (951,400 hectares) besides diverting flows from Indus River to the Chenab River through Taunsa-Panjnad (TP) Link Canal. The barrage also serves as an arterial road bridge, a railway bridge, and crossing for gas and oil pipelines, telephone line and extra high voltage (EHV) transmission lines. Salient Features: Table 4.10: ―Silent Feature of Taunsa Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cusecs) No. of Bays Max. Flood level from floor (ft.) Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cusecs)

Taunsa 1959 750,000 53 26 36501

Figure 4.10: ―Taunsa Barrage‖

Page 60 of 127



4.4.3 Jinnah Barrage: The Jinnah Barrage is a barrage on the Indus River near Kalabagh, Pakistan. It is part of the Thal Project which helps irrigate 770,000 ha (1,900,000 acres) in the Sindh Sagar Doab east of the Indus. Planning for the project dates back to the nineteenth century but final plans for the barrage were made in 1919 and it was constructed between 1939 and 1946. The barrage diverts an average of 283 m3 /s (10,000 cu ft./s) of water into the 51.5 km (32.0 mi) long Thal Canal where it serves areas in Bhakkar, Khushab, Layyah, Mianwali and Muzaffargarh Districts with 3,362 km (2,089 mi) of additional canal branches and distributors. It has a maximum flood height of 8.5 m (28 ft.) and it spans 1,152 m (3,780 ft.) over the river. The barrage can discharge upto 950,000 m3 /s (34,000,000 cu ft/s) downstream with 42 spillway gates which are each 18.2 m (60 ft) wide. Between 2006 and 2012, a 96 MW hydroelectric power station with four 12 MW pit turbine-generators was added on the right bank. In June 2012 a major rehabilitation project for the barrage began. The project includes the construction of a weir 244 m (801 ft) downstream to help dissipate energy from the spillway upstream of it. New guide banks will be built and existing ones repaired. The railway bridge upstream will be rehabilitated as well. The project is expected to be complete in June 2016. Salient Features: Table 4.11: ―Silent Feature of Jinnah Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cusecs) No. of Bays Max. Flood level from floor (ft.) Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cusecs)

Jinnah 1946 950,000 42 28 7500

Figure 4.11: ―Jinnah Barrage‖ Page 61 of 127



4.4.4 Guddu Barrage: Guddu Barrage is a barrage on Indus River near Kashmoor in Sindh. President Iskander Mirza laid the foundation-stone of Guddu Barrage on 2 February 1957. The barrage was completed in 1962 at a cost of 474.8 million rupees and inaugurated by Field Marshal Ayub Khan. Guddu Barrage is used to control water flow in the River Indus for irrigation and flood control purposes. It has a discharge capacity of 1.2 million cubic feet per second (34,000 m³/s). It is a gate-controlled weir type barrage with a navigation lock. The barrage has 64 bays, each 60 feet (18 m) wide. The maximum flood level height of Guddu Barrage is 26 feet (8 m). It controls irrigation Supplies to 2.9 million acres (12,000 km2 ) of agricultural land in the Jacobabad and Larkana districts of Sindh and Naseerabad district of Baluchistan province. It feeds Ghotki Feeder, Begari Feeder, Desert and Pat Feeder canals. Salient Features: Table 4.12: ―Silent Feature of Guddu Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cusec) No. of Bays Length of Barrage Off taking canals

Guddu 1962 1200000 64 3840 ft. 5

Figure 4.12: ―Guddu Barrage‖

Page 62 of 127



4.4.5 Sukkar Barrage: Sukkar Barrage is a barrage on the River Indus near Sukkar city, Sindh. The Barrage was built during the British Raj from 1923 to 1932 and named Lloyd Barrage. It was constructed under the overall direction of Sir Charlton Harrison, CIE. On its completion it was opened by the Viceroy of India, Lord Willingdon. The scheme had been launched by the Governor of Bombay, Sir George Ambrose Lloyd (later known as Lord Lloyd) and it was named against his name. Sukkar Barrage is used to control water flow in the River Indus for the purposes of irrigation and flood control. The barrage enables water to flow through what was originally a network of canals 6,166 miles (9,923 km) long, feeding the largest irrigation system in the world, with more than 5 million acres (20,000 km²) of irrigated land. The retaining wall has 66 spans each 60 feet (18 m) wide. Each span has a gate weighing 50 tons. Salient Features: Table 4.13: ―Silent Feature of Sukkar Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cusec) No. of Bays Length of Barrage Off taking canals

Sukkar 1932 1500000 54 4490 ft. 7

Figure 4.13: ―Sukkar Barrage‖ Page 63 of 127



4.4.6 Kotri Barrage: Kotri Barrage is a barrage on the Indus River near Hyderabad, Sindh. The barrage was completed in 1955. Kotri Barrage is used to control water flow in the River Indus for irrigation and flood control purposes. It has a discharge capacity of 875,000 cusecs. It is a gate-controlled weir type barrage with a navigation lock. The barrage has 44 bays, each 60 feet (18 m) wide. The maximum flood level height of Kotri Barrage is 43.1 feet. It feeds Fulleli, Pinyari, Linned and Kolari Canals. Salient Features: Table 4.14: ―Silent Feature of Kotri Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cusecs) No. of Bays Max. Flood level from floor (ft.) Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cusecs)

Kotri 1955 875,000 44 43.1 -

Figure 4.14: ―Kotri Barrage‖

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4.4.7 Rasul Barrage: Rasul Barrage is a Barrage on the River Jehlum between Jehlum District and Mandi Bahauddin District, Punjab. It is situated 72 km downstream of Mangla Dam. Rasul Barrage is used to control water flow in the River Jehlum for irrigation and flood control purposes. Rasul Barrage was constructed in 1968 and has a discharge capacity of 24070 cubic meters per second. Water is diverted from this point to Chenab River at Qadirabad through Rasul-Qadirabad link canal and then ultimately transferred to Sulemanki Barrage on the Sutlej River. Rasul-Qadirabad link canal has the second largest water discharge capacity after Chashma-Jehlum link canal. It has 538-m³/s discharge capacity while Chashma-Jehlum link canal has 615-m³/s capacity. Salient Features: Table 4.15: ―Silent Feature of Rasul Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cusec) No. of Bays Length of Barrage Off taking canals

Rasul 1968 876000 42 3209 ft. 2

Figure 4.15: ―Rasul Barrage‖

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4.4.8 Marala Barrage: Marala headworks is headworks situated on the River Chenab near the city Gujrat and Sialkot in Punjab. Marala Headwork‘s is a large hydro engineering project and is used to control water flow and flood control in the River Chenab. After cutting across the Pir Panjal Range, Chenab River enters the Sialkot District. Here the Marala Barrage was built across the river in 1968 with a maximum discharge of 1.1 million ft³/s (31,000 m³/s). Two major water channels originate at the Marala headworks—the Marala-Ravi Link Canal and the Upper Chenab Canal. Proposals are under consideration to build Mangla Marala Link Canal to overcome any shortage of water in future. Salient Features: Table 4.16: ―Silent Feature of Marala Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cumec) No. of Bays Max. Flood level from floor (ft.) Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cumec)

Marala 1968 31,000 66 31 31000

Figure 4.16: ―Marala Barrage‖

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4.4.9 Khanki Barrage: Khanki Headworks is a headwork situated on the River Chenab in Gujranwala District, Punjab. It was constructed in 1889 and is considered to be the oldest headworks in Pakistan. Khanki Headworks is used for irrigation and flood control. It is also used to provide water to tributaries such as the Lower Chenab Canal, which originates from Khanki Headworks. Khanki controls water distribution over 3 million acres (12,000 km²) of agricultural lands by one main distributary, the Lower Chenab Canal, and 59 minor distributaries. Salient Features: Table 4.17: ―Silent Feature of Marala Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cusec) No. of Bays Length of Barrage Off taking canals

Khanki 1889 750000 48 4000 ft. 1

Figure 4.17: ―Khanki Barrage‖

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4.4.10 Qadirabad Barrage: Qadirabad Headworks is headworks on the River Chenab in Hafiz Abad District, Punjab Qadirabad Headworks is used to control water flow in the River Chenab for irrigation and flood control purposes. Salient Features: Table 4.18: ―Silent Feature of Marala Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cusec) No. of Bays Length of Barrage Off taking canals

Qadirabad 1967 900000 50 3375 ft. 1

Figure 4.18: ―Qadirabad Barrage‖

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4.4.11 Trimmu Barrage: Trimmu Barrage is a barrage on the Chenab River in the Jhang District, Punjab. It is situated downstream of the confluence of the River Jehlum and River Chenab. It is situated some 25 km from the city of Jhang near the village of Atharan Hazari where the River Jehlum flows into the River Chenab. Trimmu Barrage is used to control water flow into the River Chenab for irrigation and flood control purposes. Trimmu Barrage was constructed between 1937 and 1939 by English engineer. Its name was changed later, primarily as a flood control mechanism to protect the city Jhang from floods. Salient Features: Table 4.19: ―Silent Feature of Trimmu Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cumec) No. of Bays Length of Barrage Off taking canals

Trimmu 1939 645,000 37 3025 3

Figure 4.19: ―Trimmu Barrage‖

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4.4.12 Panjnad Barrage: The Panjnad barrage is the last barrage constructed on River Chenab at downstream confluence point of River Sutlej. The barrage was constructed in 1925-1929 with design discharge of 450,000 cusec and upstream HFL RL 341.5 to irrigate 1.8325 million acres of Bahawalpur and Rahim yar Khan Districts by diverting 11882 cusecs. Salient Features: Table 4.20: ―Silent Feature of Panjnad Barrage‖ Maximum designed capacity Maximum recorded flood in 1973 Total width between abutments Clear water way Minimum U/S flood level R.L. 341.5 Minimum D/S flood level Pond level – normal Off-Taking Canals

700,000 cusec 802,516 cusec 3,400 ft. 2,820 ft. (47 bays of 60 ft. each) R.L. 341.50 ft. R.L. 340.30 ft. R.L. 337.50 ft. 3

Figure 4.20: ―Panjnad Barrage‖

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4.4.13 Balloki Barrage: Balloki Headwork‘s is a headwork‘s on the Ravi River in the Punjab. Balloki Headworks is used for irrigation and flood control.

Salient Features: Table 4.21: ―Silent Feature of Balloki Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cusec) No. of Bays Length of Barrage Off taking canals

Balloki 1889 750000 48 4000 ft. 1

Figure 4.21: ―Balloki Barrage‖

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4.4.14 Sidhnai Barrage: The meaning of the word SIDHNAI is Straight River. A stretch of eight miles of River Ravi at Sidhnai is nearly straight and does not meander. It is thought that is could be an artificial channel excavated in the distant past to prevent flooding in the Multan area. Before construction of the new Barrage, an old weir existed about six miles D/S of the Barrage. The weir known as Sidhnai Weir could only pass some 100,000 Cs of water as its maximum capacity. A new Barrage was designed to pass a maximum peak discharge of 150,000 Cs located about 31000 Ft U/S of the old weir. D/S straight reach was excavated and widened to increase the capacity from 100,000 Cs to 150,000 Cs. The existing road bridge on Multan Shorkot road and Railway Bridge were re-constructed and the existing weir was dismantled. The object of new Sidhnai Barrage is to receive water from Chenab and Jehlum Rivers from Trimmu for feeding Sidhnai and SidhnaiMailsi-Bahawal Canals. Salient Features: Table 4.22: ―Silent Feature of Sidhnai Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cusec) No. of Bays Length of Barrage Off taking canals

Sidhnai 1965 167000 15 712 ft. 2

Figure 4.22: ―Sidhnai Barrage‖ Page 72 of 127



4.4.15 Sulemanki Barrage: Sulemanki Headworks is Headworks on the River Sutlej in the Punjab. Sulemanki Headworks is used for irrigation and flood control.

Salient Features: Table 4.23: ―Silent Feature of Sulemanki Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cusec) No. of Bays Length of Barrage Off taking canals

Sulemanki 1927 309000 24 2200 ft. 3

Figure 4.23: ―Sulemanki Barrage‖

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4.4.16 Islam Barrage: Islam Barrage, located about six miles north-west of Hasilpur town, was constructed across River Sutlej during 1922-1927 as a component of Sutlej Valley Project for feeding Bahawal Canal (5,400 cusecs) and Qaim Canal (558 cusecs) on the left bank and Mailsi Canal (4,883 cusecs) on the right bank. It was designed for a maximum discharge of 300,000 cusecs. After the implementation of Indus Water Treaty, the head regulator of Mailsi Canal at Islam Barrage was abandoned and the canal started receiving supplies from the new Sidhnai-Mailsi Link Canal constructed in 1965. Similarly the capacity of Bahawal Canal was reduced to 1,000 cusecs by shifting lower areas of the canal on to the new Mailsi-Bahawal link. Salient Features: Table 4.24: ―Silent Feature of Islam Barrage‖ Barrage Year of Completion Max. Design Discharge (cusec) No. of Bays Length of Barrage Off taking canals

Islam 1927 300000 29 1650 ft. 2

Figure 4.24: ―Islam Barrage‖

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Mailsi barrage and syphon is constructed on Sutlej river to control water for flood and irrigation purposes. Ghazi Brotha Barrage is on Indus River and is used for irrigation and flood control purposes. Munda Headworks is situated on River Sawat in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa approximately 5 km downstream of the under construction Munda Dam and 35 km of Peshawar. It is used for irrigation and flood control purposes in River Sawat.

4.5 Conclusion: Above all information was about the dams and barrages of Pakistan, some of them was constructed after Indus Water Treaty in 1960 to overcome the shortage of water in eastern rivers by constructing link canals from western rivers, in next pages we will discuss about different canals off-taking from these barrages, their location and discharge etc.

References:  Economic Survey of Pakistan - P&D Division, Islamabad  South Asia - Water Vision 2025 - A Document Framed by Global Water Partnership (2000)  Engr. Dr Izhar ul Haq, ―Barrages and Dams in Pakistan‖ for Pakistan Engineering Congress, 1990.  Pakistan Water & Power Development Authority, ―Annual Report 1999- 2000‖, 2001.  Asim R. Khan, M. Kaleem Ullah, Saim Muhammad, ―Water Availability and Some Macro Level Issues Related to Water Resources Planning and Management in the Indus Basin Irrigation System in Pakistan‖, 2002  Planning Commission, Govt of Pakistan (Sep 2001), ―Ten Year Perspective Development Plan 2001-11& Three Year Development Programme 2001-04‖.  Dr. Nazir Ahmad, ―Water Resources of Pakistan‖, Miraj uddin Press, Lahore September 1993.  www.scribid.com  Sridhar seema(2008), Kashmir and Water: conflict and cooperation, In shahid imtiaz Advanced Contemporary Affairs(Ed),Lahore: Advanced Publishers, pp 263-269.  Partial data acquired from Indus River System Authority for flows of rivers in Pakistan.  www.wikipedia.com

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Chapter No. 05

Canal System of Pakistan 5.1 What is Canal? Canal may be regarded as a man-made water way that serves the function of drainage or irrigation. Canal takes the water from river and transports it to the field area where utilization is made. The canals come out from river dams and barrages. A canal may be lined or unlined depending upon its material of formation. If a canal is made up of natural material then it is unlined, if the material is other than natural material then canal is lined.

5.2 Canal System of Pakistan: The irrigation and canal system of Pakistan is regarded as best among others worldwide. It is also the largest. About three fourth of the agricultural land of Pakistan comes under this canal system. At present Pakistan have three large dams and many small dams in this system. These dams are controlled by 19 barrages. A total of 58 canals are included in this system. Among these 12 are linked and other 46 are normal canals. To utilize ground water 0.7 million tube wells have been installed. In Pakistan canals are the most popular means of irrigation as they supply plenty of water at very cheap rates.

5.2.1 Types of canals in Pakistan: Canal System of Pakistan consists of three main important types of canals;  Perennial Canals  Non-Perennial Canals  Inundation Canals a) Perennial Canals: These are crucial in canal system of Pakistan. Perennial canals ensure regular supply of water all the year round. These canals supply water to farmer‘s field. Perennial canals sprout from barrages or dams. Punjab has many of these canals. These include Lower and upper Bari Doab, Lower & Upper Chenab canal and Sidhnai. Apart from these Upper Jehlum and river Sutlej‘s Canals are also important. Trimmu Headworks is the starting point of Jehlum canals. Sutlej River originates from it at Islam, Panjnad, Ferozpur and Sulaimanki Headworks. b) Non-Perennial Canals: Non-perennial canals only run in Monsoon and summer. They get their water from rains. This category also has many canals. These include Sutlej, Sidhnai (from Ravi) and haveli (from Chenab) canals. They also constitute an important part in canal system of Pakistan.

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c) Inundation Canals: Rainy weather and season is the only time when these canals run. It actually happens due to raised level of water in rivers. Uncertain water quantity is supplied by them. Their source of water is also river but there is a difference. They carry extra flood water. That is why these are also called flood canals. Some canals of Chenab and Indus River are the examples.

5.3 Link Canals: Link canals are used are used to divert water from one river to other river. There are 12 link canals are in Pakistan. Following are the link canals of Pakistan. These link canals were constructed after Indus Water Treaty during the period of 1960 to 1970s.

           

Chashma-Jehlum Taunsa-Punjnad Marla-Ravi Upper Chenab-Ravi Rasul-Qadirabad Qadirabad-Balloki Balloki-Sulemanki Trimmu-Sidhnai Sidhnai-Mailsi Mailsi-Bahawal Abasia Link Canal BRBD

The link canals have a total length of about 800 Km with a total capacity of about 100,000 cusecs. These canals transport water from the three western rivers to the three eastern rivers which run short of water as their water has been allotted to India. Now we will discuss the features of these link canals.

5.3.1 Chashma-Jehlum Link Canal: It joins the Jehlum and Indus River. It off takes from Chashma Barrage on its left bank and conveys water to River Jehlum to meet the requirement of the canals off-taking on trimmu headwork‘s on river Jehlum near Jhang. The link is an unlined earthen channel with a design capacity of 21,200 cusecs, bottom width 380ft, and a full supply depth of 14ft.The work on the canal was started in 1967 and completed in 1970.its length is 94km. Greater Thal canal also off takes from C-J link canal. Discharge of Greater Thal canal is 8500 cusec.

5.3.2 Tauns-Punjnad Link Canal: Its discharge capacity is 1200 cusecs. It takes –off from Taunsa on the Indus and transfers water from the Indus to the Chenab to feed the Punjnad Canals Its length is 58 kms.

5.3.3 Marala-Ravi Link Canal: This canal was designed for a capacity of 22,000 cfs with a velocity of 4.28 feet per second, a depth of 14.6 feet. It links are Chenab & Ravi. Its length is 100kms. Page 77 of 127



Fig 5.1: ―Different Canals off taking from Different Barrages‖

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5.3.4 Upper-Chenab-Ravi Link Canal: It originates from Marala barrage on river Chenab. It links Chenab with Ravi. Its Head discharge is 16850 cusecs and tail discharge is 11373 cusecs. Its length is 26.659 miles. It passes from district Sheikhpura and reaches to the River Ravi.

5.3.5 Rasul-Qadirabad Link Canal: Its discharge capacity is 19000cusecs and it is the 2 nd largest link canal after ChashmaJehlum link canal. It transports water to the Chenab River Upstream of the Qadirabad Barrage. It is the link between Jehlum and Chenab. Its length is 40km.

5.3.6 Qadirabad-Balloki Link Canal: It originates from Qadirabad Barrage on River Chenab. Its discharge capacity is 18,600 cusecs. It transfers water from Chenab to Ravi at Balloki Barrage. Its length is 125kms.

5.3.7 Balloki-Sulemanki Link Canal: It originates from Ravi River at Balloki barrage. Its discharge capacity is 15, 400 cusecs. It connects the Ravi with Sutlej. Its length is 84kms. The Balloki Sulemanki (BS) Link Canal was constructed in 1967 under Indus Basin Treaty off-taking from Balloki Barrage.

5.3.8 Trimmu-Sidhnai Link Canal: Its discharge capacity is 11000 cusecs. It transfers water from Chenab via Trimmu Barrage to the Ravi. Its length is 66kms.

5.3.9 Sidhnai-Mailsi Link Canal: It originates from Ravi River at Sidhnai barrage and joins Sutlej River at Mailsi. Its discharge capacity is 10,100 cumec. Its length is 198kms.

5.3.10 Mailsi-Bahawal Link Canal: Its discharge capacity is 310 cumec. It originates from Mailsi –Siphon, and supplies water to Bahawal canal.

5.3.11 Abasia Link Canal: It originates from river Chenab at Panjnad barrage.

5.3.12 Bambanwala, Ravi & Bedian Link Canal: The Link Canals have discharge capacities ranging from 2200 cusecs to 4200 cusecs. Three rivers are linked. Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. Its length is 158kms.

5.4 Irrigation Canals: Irrigation canal is one whose water is used for irrigation purposes. Irrigation canals consist of main canals, Branch canal, Major and minor distributaries. There are about 46 main

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canals in Pakistan. Here we will discuss the main canals off-taking from the barrages discuss in previous chapter.

5.4.1 Canals on Ravi River: Following irrigation canals are off-take from river Ravi;

a) Balloki Barrage: Following irrigation canal off takes from Balloki barrage; Lower Bari Doab Canal (LBDC): Lower Bari Doab Canal (LBDC) off-takes from Balloki Barrage which is located southwest of Lahore at a distance of about 65 km. The Balloki Barrage was constructed during 1911-13 and LBDC was commissioned in 1914. The LBDC serves a cultivable command area of about 1.7 million acres in Districts Kasur, Okara, Sahiwal and Khanewal. Approximately 275,000 farm families in the LBDC command derive their livelihoods directly from crops grown over the command area including wheat, rice, maize, cotton, sugarcane, fodder, flowers, vegetables, and citrus and other orchard crops. LBDC is an important and progressive agriculture area in Punjab and offers significant potential for increased productivity. Salient Features of LBDC: Designed Capacity at Head

9,841 cusecs

Canal Command Area

1,700,000 acres

Present Carrying Capacity (Kharif)

8,600 cusecs

Water Allowance

3.33 cusecs/1000 acres

Length of Main Canal

125 miles

Length of Branch Canal

33.5 miles

Length of Distributaries and Minors

1,500 miles

Fall Structure

20

Head Regulators

55

Bridges

17

Outlets

3,927 No's

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b) Sidhnai Barrage: From Sidhnai Barrage Sidhnai canal with discharge capacity of 127 cusec, Sidhnai-Mailsi and Mailsi- Bahawal link canals are off take.

5.4.2 Canals of River Sutlej: Following irrigation canals off take from River Sutlej;

a) Sulemanki Barrage: Following irrigation canals off take from Sulemanki Barrage; 1) Pakpatan Canal: Location: Multan Design Discharge: Head discharge is 5508 cusecs and tail discharge is 24 cusecs. Length of Canal: 113.47 miles Area to Be Irrigated. Gross area is 1046326 and culturable area is 961158. 2) Eastern Sadqiya Canal: Location: Multan. Design Discharge: Head discharge is 6820 cusecs and tail discharge is 5106 cusecs. Length of Canal: 49 miles Area to Be Irrigated. Gross area is 616035 and culturable area is 547472. 3) Fordwah Canal: Location: Multan. Design Discharge: Head discharge is 3447 cusecs and tail discharge is 2993 cusecs. Length of Canal: 8.97 miles. Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 465024 and culturable area is 430112.

b) Islam Barrage: Following irrigation canals off take from Islam Barrage; 1) Qaim Canal: Location: Multan. Design Discharge: Head discharge is 483.00 cusecs and tail discharge is 61 cusecs. Page 81 of 127



Length of Canal: 7.43 miles Area to Be Irrigated. Gross area is 55804 and culturable area is 52797. 2) Bahawal Canal: Location: Multan. Design Discharge: Head discharge is 500 cusecs and tail discharge is 386 cusecs. Length of Canal: 2.40 miles. Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 57469and culturable area is 52023.

5.4.3 Canals on Chenab River: Following canals are off-take from Chenab River;

a) Marala Barrage: Following irrigation canals off take from Marala Barrage; 1) Upper Chenab Canal: Location: Lahore Zone Design Discharge: Head discharge is 16850 cusecs and tail discharge is 11373 cusecs Length of Canal: 26.659 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 19600 and culturable area is 12449 2) Marala Ravi Link Canal: Location: Lahore Zone Design Discharge: Head discharge is 22000 cusecs and tail discharge is 20000 cusecs Length of Canal: 63.463 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 165598 and culturable area is 154987

b) Khanki Barrage: Only one canal off-takes from Khanki barrage which is Lower Chenab Canal.

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Lower Chenab Canal: It was dug in 1892. Following distributaries are coming out of L.C.C;    

Rakh Branch Canal Jhang Branch Canal (Upper) Jhang Branch Canal (Lower) Gogera Branch canal etc.

These canals irrigate 1.2 million acres of cultivable lands in Hafiz Abad, Nankana Sahib, Faisalabad, Jhang, Toba Tek Singh and Chiniot districts through a network of 67 distributaries. The land of LCC (W) Area Water Board is very famous all over the world for the production of rice, cotton, sugarcane, maize, wheat, oil seed and fodder. The Lower Chenab Canal (East) is about 300 km in length and 60 km in width. It covers a gross area of about 2.12 million acres with CCA of 1.84 Million acres in the districts of Gujranwala, Hafiz Abad, Sheikhupura, Faisalabad, Nankana Sahib and Toba Tek Singh. Salient Features of L.C.C: Table 5.1: ―Salient Features of LCC‖ Year of completion Design discharge Length Off-taking location Area to be irrigated Location of area i.

1892 11727 cusec 155.9 (canal mile) Left bank canal(Khanki head works) 3054000 acres 1.24 mHa Gujranwala, Sheikhupura, Faisalabad Distt

Rakh Branch Canal:

The Rakh Branch originates from canal Lower Chenab. The canal was dug in 1892 during colonial rule. Many famous towns are situated at near the Rakh Branch such as Safdarabad, Sangla Hill, Salarwala, Chak Jhumra, Gutwala, Abdullahpur and Faisalabad. The canal ends at Samundri. Rakh Branch Canal has a length of 31.86 kilometres. The upstream and downstream discharge of Rakh Branch Canal in Hafiz Abad Division is given in the following table as;

Table 5.2: ―U/S and D/S discharge of Rakh Branch Canal‖ Sr no. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Discharge U/S Discharge D/S (cusec) (cusec) 1099 1066 1055 938 938 878 878 755 755 640 640 576

U/S level (FSL) ft 666.90 657.45 651.49 646.44 636.73 628.88

D/S level (FSL) ft 664.59 654.73 649.29 640.44 631.18 626.41

Drop Ft 2.31 2.72 2.20 6.00 5.58 2.47 Page 83 of 127



Fig 5.2: ―Line Diagram of LCC‖ ii.

Gogera Branch Canal:

Gogera branch canal also called as upper Gogera branch off-takes from LCC, with a design discharge of 6000 cusec and length of canal is about 77.51 miles. Barala branch and lower Gogera branch canals are off take from upper Gogera branch. iii.

Jhang Branch Canal:

The Jhang Branch is a canal that originates from the Lower Chenab canal. It is the longest canal of Sandal Bar. It supplies water to lands in three districts, Faisalabad, Jhang and Toba Tek Singh. Hence, the canal's major area of distribution is Rachna Doab.

c) Trimmu Barrage: From Trimmu barrage Haveli canal, Rangpur canal and T-S link canals off take. Both canals run parallel and ultimately fall in river Ravi at Sidhnai. T-S link canal is a link canal while Haveli canal is an irrigation canal.

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Haveli Canal: Location: Multan Design Discharge: Head discharge is 12500cusecs and tail discharge is 10000 cusecs Length of Canal: 44 miles

d) Panjnad Barrage: Following canals off take from Panjnad Barrage; 1) Panjnad Canal: Location: Bahawalpur Design Discharge. Head discharge is 10484 cusecs and tail discharge is 4274 cusecs. Length of Canal: 38 miles. Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 1293941 and culturable area is 1186537 2) Abbasia Canal: Location: Bahawalpur Design Discharge. Head discharge is 1394 cusecs and tail discharge is 587 cusecs. Length of Canal: 44.915 miles. Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 117663 and culturable area is 111333.

5.4.4 Canals on River Jehlum: Following irrigation canals are off-take from river Jehlum;

a) Mangla Dam: Upper Jehlum link canal off takes from Mangla dam. Upper Jehlum Canal: Year of Completion: 1915 Length of Canal: 55 miles

Discharge : 1200 cusec Page 85 of 127



b) Rasool Barrage: Lower Jehlum and R-Q link canals off take from Rasool Barrage. R-Q link canal is the link canal and Lower Jehlum canal is an irrigation canal. Lower Jehlum Canal: Year of Completion: 1901 Location: It is a main canal located in Rasul Division. Design Discharge: Its authorized head discharge is 5500 cusec. Its authorized tail discharge is 3705 cusec. Length of Canal: 39.366 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross command area is 1728349.00 Acre. Its Culturable command area is 1485776.00 Acre.

5.4.5 Canals on Indus River: Following canals are off-take from different barrages of Indus River;

a) Jinnah Barrage: Thal canals off-takes Jinnah Barrage; Thal Canal: The amount of water that it carries is 2.534 MAF. It is divided into 2 different divisions.

i.

Thal canal main line lower

Location: It is a main canal located in bhakkar. Year of Completion:

1947

Design Discharge:

4100 cusec

Length of Canal:

100.50 miles

Gross Area:

3534 acres

Culturable Command Area:

2966 acres

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Project and Report 1 ii.


Thal canal main line upper

Location: It is a main canal located in kalabagh. It is categorized in the zone of Sargodha. Year of Completion:

1947

Design Discharge:

9000 cusec

Length of Canal:

100.50 miles

Gross Area:

2460861 acres

Culturable Command Area:

2115931 acres

b) Chashma Barrage: Chashma Right Bank and C-J link canals are off-take from Chashma Barrage. Chashma Right Bank Canal (CRBC): Design Discharge:

2500 cusecs

Length of Canal:

71 miles

c) Taunsa Barrage: Following canals are off-take from Taunsa Barrage; 1) Kachi Canal (Under Construction): It will irrigate Muzaffargarh, D.G.Khan, Rajanpur districts of Punjab and Dera Bugti, Naseerabad, Bolan, Jhal Magsi Districts of Baluchistan. Length: 500Km (300Km Lined in Punjab 200Km Unlined in Baluchistan) Capacity:

6000 Cusecs

Distributaries & Minors

2000KM, 713000 Acres

Command Area: PHASE-I: PHASE-II: PHASE-III:

102,000 CCA 267,000 CCA 344,000 CCA

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2) Dera Ghazi Khan Canal (DGK Canal): Location: It is a main canal located in D.G Khan. Design Discharge: Head discharge is 8900 and tail discharge is 5514. Length of Canal: 69.046 miles Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 947874 acres and CCA is 901984 acres. 3) Muzaffargarh Canal: Location: Muzaffargarh Zone. Design Discharge: Head discharge is 8901 and tail discharge is 2776. Length of Canal: 74.14 miles. Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 906490 and cultural command area is 838380.

d) Canals of Guddu Barrage: Following canals are off-take from Guddu Barrage; 1) Ghotki Feeder/Canal:      

Year of Completion Design Discharge Length Off-taking location Area to be irrigated Location of area

1962 8490 cusecs Left bank canal (Guddu Barrage) 855231acres 0.35mHa Sukkar, Mirpur, Rohri, Kalat Distt.

2) PAT Feeder/Canal: Location: Nasirabad and Jafarabad districts of Balochistan     

Year of Completion Design Discharge Length Off-taking location Area to be irrigated

1962 3176 cusecs 106CM Left bank canal (Guddu Barrage) 380827acres 0.15mHa

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3) Desert Feeder/Canal:    

Year of Completion Design Discharge Off-taking location Location of area

1962 12945 cusecs Right bank canal (Guddu Barrage) Sukkar, Mirpur,Rohri,Kalat Distt

4) Begari Sindh Feeder:      


1962 15494 cusecs Right bank canal (Guddu Barrage) 958857acres 0.39mHa Sukkar, Mirpur, Rohri, Kalat Distt.

e) Canals of Sukkar Barrage: Following canals are off-take from Sukkar Barrage; 1) East NARA Canal: NARA canal is the longest canal of Pakistan, carrying discharge almost equal to that of Thames River at London and its bed width which is 346 ft. is 1 ½ (one and half) times as big as of Suez Canal.      


1932 13649cusecs 226CM Left bank canal (Sukkar Barrage) 2240186acres 0.91mHa Hyderabad, Sanghar Distt.

2) Rohri Canal: Rohri Canal is the 2nd largest canal of Pakistan which through slightly shorter in length than Nara Canal is yet taking discharge much more than the former.     

Year of Completion Design Discharge Off-taking location Area to be irrigated Location of area

1932 10883cusecs Left bank canal (Sukkar Barrage) 26001213acres 1.1mHa Hyderabad, Sanghar Distt.

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3) East Khairpur Canal:     

Year of Completion Design Discharge Length Off-taking location Area to be irrigated  Location of area


4) West Khairpur Canal:      



5) North West Canal:     

Year of Completion Design Discharge Length Off-taking location Area to be irrigated  Location of area

1932 5152cusecs 36CM Right bank canal (Sukkar Barrage) 940014acres 0.38mHa Hyderabad, Sanghar Distt.

6) Rice Canal:      


1932 10658cusecs 81CM Right bank canal (Sukkar Barrage) 519660acres 0.21mHa Hyderabad, Sanghar Distt.


1932 3150cusecs 131.1CM Right bank canal (Sukkar Barrage) 550963acres 0.22mHa Hyderabad, Sanghar Distt.

7) Dadu Canal:      

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f) Canals of Kotri Barrage: Following canals are off-take from Kotri Barrage; 1) Abdul Wah Canal (Feeder):     


1955 4100cusecs Left bank canal (Kotri Barrage) 487347acres 0.20mHa Hyderabad, Sanghar, Nawabshah, Badin, Mirpur

2) Fulleli Canal (Feeder):     


1955 14350cusecs Left bank canal (Kotri Barrage) 929358acres 0.38mHa Hyderabad, Sanghar, Nawabshah, Badin,Mirpur

3) Pinyari Canal (Feeder):     


1955 13000 cusecs Left bank canal (Kotri Barrage) 786353acres 0.32mHa Hyderabad, Sanghar, Nawabshah, Badin,Mirpur

3) Kalari Baghar Canal (Feeder):      


1955 9075 cusecs 5761m Right bank canal (Kotri Barrage) 603741acres 0.24mHa Hyderabad, Sanghar, Nawabshah, Badin,Mirpur

5.5 Conclusion: Some irrigation canals are also off take from link canals. Upper and Lower Sawat canals are off take from Munda Barrage. Left and Right Warsak canals are off take from Warsak dam on Kabul River and only one canal also off takes from Ghazi brotha project. This was all about the canal system of Pakistan. In next chapter we will discuss about telemetry system installed by Government of Pakistan to observe withdrawal of water in different canals at different places of Pakistan.

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References:  Safdar, M. (2007) Indus basin irrigation system of Pakistan. U.E.T.  Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering, Lahore, ―Proceedings - Water for the 21st Century: Demand, Supply, Development and Socio- Environmental Issues‖, June 1997.  Dr. Nazir Ahmad, ―Water Resources of Pakistan‖, Miraj uddin Press, Lahore September 1993.  www.scribid.com  Kirmani, S. (1959). Sediment problems in the Indus Basin, part I: Sedimentation in reservoirs, Proceedings of the West Pakistan Engineering Congress, 43. Lahore, West Pakistan Engineering Congress, Paper No. 336.  Salman, M.A.S. and K. Uprety (2002). Conflict and Cooperation on South Asia’s International Rivers—A Legal Perspective. (Part II: India-Pakistan Relations). Law, Justice and Development Series, Washington, DC: World Bank.  Zawahri, N.A. (2007). India, Pakistan, and Cooperation along the Indus River System, Water Policy (Accepted for Publication).  Gulhati, N.D. (1973). Indus Waters Treaty: An Exercise in International Mediation. New York: Allied Publishers.  Farhan Sami, ―Water Quality Monitoring of Hudiara Drain‖, an independent consultancy for data analysis and water quality management plan, November 2001.  Dr. Nazir Ahmad, ―Water Resources of Pakistan‖, Miraj uddin Press, Lahore September 1993.

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Chapter No. 06

Telemetry System 6.1 Telemetry System: Telemetry is a highly computerized communications method by which measurements are made and other data collected at remote or unreachable points and transmitted to receiving equipment for monitoring. The word is derived from Greek origins: tele = remote and metron = measure. The term commonly refers to wireless data transfer mechanisms (e.g. using radio, ultrasonic, or infrared systems). A telemeter is a device used to remotely measure any quantity. It contains a sensor, a transmission path, and a display, recording, or control device. Telemeters are the physical devices used in telemetry. Electronic devices are widely used in telemetry and can be wireless or hard-wired, analog or digital, other technologies are also possible, such as mechanical, hydraulic and optical.

6.2 Applications of Telemetry System: Telemetry system has a wide range of applications some of them are given below;               

Agriculture. Water management. Meteorology. Oil and gas industry. Space science. Swimming Pools. Defense, space and resource exploration. Rocketry. Flight testing. Military intelligence. Energy monitoring. Resource distribution. Medicine/Healthcare. Fishery and wildlife research and management. Communications. Etc.

Here we will discuss only its applications in agriculture and water management.

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6.2.1 Agriculture: Many activities related to healthy crops and good yields depend upon well-timed availability of weather and soil data. Therefore, wireless weather stations play a key role in disease prevention and precision irrigation. These stations transmit parameters essential for decision-making to a base station: air temperature and relative humidity, precipitation and leaf fitness for disease prediction models), solar radiation and wind speed (to calculate evapotranspiration), water deficit stress (WDS) leaf sensors and soil moisture (crucial to irrigation decisions). Because local micro-climates can vary significantly, such data needs to come from within the crop, so telemetry system is used for this purpose.

6.2.2 Water Management: Telemetry is important in water management, including water quality and stream gauging functions. Main applications include AMR (automatic meter reading) groundwater monitoring, leak detection in distribution pipelines and equipment surveillance. It can also be used on canal heads to monitor the flow rate.

6.3 Telemetry System and Pakistan: Telemetry System has been designed to observe discharge with the help of gate openings and water levels. Since sensors are used to observe these parameters, therefore, it helps in obtaining accurate measurements. The telemetry system is linked to the entire network and can be facilitated at any other place through telephone/radio system, thus information is spread out to every corner simultaneously. Thus it helps enormously the managers in proper regulation and distribution of water while the farmers know about the quantum of water received by them. The Telemetry system worth Rs 330 million, installed by the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) at around 23 points at various rivers for satellite monitoring of water withdrawal from the rivers to help in resolving the issues relating to water distribution and theft disputes between Punjab, Sindh and Baluchistan.

6.3.1 Benefits:    

Improved operating and stakeholder/ customer service capability. Opportunities to standardize operating procedures and to better utilize staff. Reduced costs and risks through standardization of technology. Reduced incident risks through the reduction in the number and severity of operational incidents and improved capability to respond once an incident has occurred (remote monitoring, remote control, and ability to control groups of assets).  More knowledgeable and capable staff, learning through the power of the technology.  Better ability to negotiate with water managers and stakeholders.  IPD staff and Stakeholders receive information about distribution of water in their offices etc.

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6.3.2 Current Status in Pakistan: In Pakistan telemetry system has been failed to provide correct data it has been providing faulty data. In some cases there was a difference of almost 25 %, while in some places the telemetry system even failed to provide data. Earlier, the Indus River System Authority (IRSA) had refused to take over the charge of the defective telemetry system, but the Water and Power Ministry ordered the regulatory body to run the telemetry system, saying Siemens, a company which installed the system, would continue to work with IRSA until the calibration becomes correct. "Siemens, a German-based company, was monitoring the withdrawal of water at several points of the Indus water distribution system through satellite and trying to confirm the distribution of water among the provinces." There was an agreement between the government and Siemens for operating the telemetry system for 6 months for which the company was being paid Rs 8.8 million as operational charges. Half of the time of the agreement was expired, but so far, at many points, the telemetry system was failed to provide correct reading. Here are some examples of the faulty data of telemetry system providing on January 6 2005;  Telemetry system did not show any figures about the work of the spillways or tunnel of the Tarbela dam, but in the manual reading considerable data has been received. However, some data of the powerhouse was available there.  Similarly, regarding River Kabul flows at Nowshera the telemetry system reading has shown mean discharge of about 19,743 cusecs, while in manual data it was 14,300 cusecs.  In Chashma, no data was available at the telemetry system; while in the manual reading complete data was provided.  Regarding the water flows at Sukkur the telemetry system has shown 4,919 cusecs, which is 5,682 cusecs according to the manual data.

6.3.3 Causes of Failure in Pakistan: Following are some causes of the failure of telemetry system in Pakistan; 1. 2. 3. 4.

Improper maintenance, Lack of technical persons to operate telemetry system. Sensor failure of the system. No proper care. Etc.

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6.4 Conclusion: In short telemetry system has many advantages. It reduces labor cost and save time. It provides timely and exact data. But in Pakistan due to previous mentioned problems it is failed to provide correct data. Therefore it is need of time to manage our telemetry system to avoid from problems. In next chapter we will discuss different other problems faced by irrigation system of Pakistan.

References:  David Hope, ―Justification for Large SCADA / Telemetry Systems‖, Perth, Western Australia, November, 1998.  E.C. Mellinger, K.E. Prada, R.L. Koehler, K.W. Doherty, "Instrument Bus, An Electronic System Architecture for Oceanographic Instrumentation", WHOI-86-30, August 1986.  H. Berteaux, S. McDowel, J. Bullister1 Carl Aibro, and A.J. Fougere, "Conceptual Design: An Integrated Sea Water Sampler for the Ocean Sciences", National Science Foundation, June 1989.  IEEE Serial Ascii Communication Protocol, IEEE- 997 Standard, 1985.  www.pakisan.com

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Chapter No. 07

Problems of Irrigation System 7.1 Introduction: The future of Pakistan‘s agriculture depends on the future of its irrigation and drainage system, which currently faces major problems. Increasing water logging and salinity, overexploitation of fresh groundwater, low efficiency in delivering and use, inequitable distribution, unreliable delivery, and insufficient cost recovery are some of these problems. These problems, however, are only symptoms of a deeper problem the treatment by the government of irrigation water as a public good. Such a treatment has caused inefficient pricing of water, misallocation of resources and widespread rent-seeking behavior. In this chapter we will discuss about different major problems faced by irrigation system of Pakistan.

7.2 Major Problems of the Existing System: Rigid system design and inadequate drainage, low delivery efficiency and inequitable distribution of water, waterlogging and salinity, and over exploitation of groundwater in fresh areas represent major problems in Pakistan‘s irrigation system.

7.2.1 Rigid System Design: Although the development of barrages, reservoirs, and link canals has provided more control over distribution, the irrigation system is operated on historic canal diversion patterns that in many cases no longer correspond to water requirements. Inefficient reservoir capacity combined with the highly seasonal pattern of river flows which provide roughly 85 percent of water during the summer result in inadequate water availability at the beginning and end of the summer and during the winter. This mismatch between water supplies and water requirements constrains agricultural production. Each watercourse is a miniature irrigation system, with channels up to 10 miles long. Watercourse commands range from 200 to 700 acres, with discharges of 1 to 3 cusecs. Each command is divided into 25-acre squares, each of which has access to the public watercourse at a single point and includes a network of farm channels. Because the average farm is much smaller than 25 acres and parts of the farm are not cropped each season, channels can take up as much as 8 percent of the square‘s area. A better organized square would allow for more cropping area and less water loss. Improved layouts of farm land with shorter and fewer farm channels could also improve on-farm delivery efficiency. Redesign of farm layout would require land consolidation or integration, however, which is difficult in Pakistan because of poor land records. More efficient designs could easily be adopted in new areas, however.

7.2.2 Inadequate Drainage: Flat topography and lack of well-defined natural drainage in the Indus Plain create a surface drainage problem, which has been compounded by the construction of roads, railways, Page 97 of 127



flood embankments, and irrigation systems that obstruct natural drainage flows. Since the 1960s efforts have been made to provide drainage in the irrigated areas and several large drainage programs are ongoing. Out of the gross canal commanded area of 16.7 million hectare acres about 6.5 million hectare acres requires drainage, of which about 1.86 million hectare acres are covered under ongoing projects. Providing drainage to such a vast area is a large undertaking. An area of about 2.38 million hectare acres is estimated to have a water table of less than 5 feet. The government considers such areas disaster areas give them high priority for drainage. On-going projects cover only 0.85 million hectare acres of designated disaster areas. Provision of drainage is essential for maintaining the agriculture sector resource base: disposal of drainage effluent in the rivers, canals, and evaporation ponds will not be feasible in the long run. An outlet to the sea with link drains from the rest of the basin will be required to carry highly saline effluent to the sea. Drainage investments are highly viable, with rates of return close to 20 percent. The absence of natural drainage and the continuous nature of the Indus Plain groundwater system require that all drainage infrastructures be developed in an integrated manner. Independently developed local schemes may be in danger of being overwhelmed by neighboring undrained areas with high water tables and becoming ineffective. Because of the large scope of the investments and cross linkages, balanced development in the drainage sector requires integration of local area drainage needs and such infrastructural developments as outfall drains for the conveyance of drainage effluent from larger tracts.

7.2.3 Low Delivery Efficiency and Inequitable Distribution: As a result of age, overuse, and poor maintenance, canal delivery is extremely inefficient. Average delivery efficiency is 35–40 percent from the canal head to the root zone, with most losses occurring in watercourses. The loss of such a large proportion of surface water reduces water available for crops and contributes to waterlogging and salinity. In many irrigation systems with drainage, excess water and water lost in irrigation return to the river, to be used again downstream. The loss in efficiency to the river basin is thus lower than the loss to any single scheme. Inequitable distribution represents another serious problem. Because of poor efficiency water does not reach users at the tail end of the system — at least not at the rate intended in the system‘s design. Illegal pumping from canals exacerbates the inequitable distribution of water.

7.2.4 Water-logging and Salinity: Soil salinity may be robbing Pakistan of about 25 percent of its potential production of major crops [World Bank (1992)]. In an environment like the Indus Basin (flat topography, poor natural drainage, porous soils and semi-arid climate with high evaporation) irrigation without adequate drainage will inevitably lead to rising water tables and salinity. The increase in the diversion of river flows for irrigation and seepage from canals, watercourses, and irrigated areas has meant a gradual rise in the groundwater table. By the 1960s a series of SCARPs were initiated. Despite these efforts, however, about 30 percent of the gross commanded area is waterlogged, of which about 13 percent is considered highly waterlogged. About 8 percent of the gross commanded area is estimated to be severely affected by salt; another 6 percent is believed to be moderately affected.

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7.2.5 Over-exploitation of Groundwater in Fresh Water Areas: Groundwater use has contributed to increased agricultural production since the late 1970s. Groundwater tube wells not only supply additional water but provide flexibility to match surface water supplies with crop water requirements. The explosive growth in groundwater use by the private sector (6 percent annual growth in number 2 private tube well) may cause saline water to contaminate freshwater aquifers by excessive lowering of water tables in fresh groundwater areas. Furthermore, in many canal commanded areas, where canal water is not sufficient because of inequitable distribution, farmers depend on tube wells and tend to overexploit groundwater. In the absence of adequate leaching and effective conjunctive use of surface and groundwater, excessive pumpage introduces salinity in the root zone.

7.3 Problems Caused by Inadequate Planning: Following problems are faced by irrigation system of Pakistan due to inadequate planning by government of Pakistan.

7.3.1 Inadequate Operation and Maintenance (O&M): Pakistan‘s irrigation and drainage system has been deteriorating because of deferred maintenance and utilization beyond design capacities. Under Bank Projects Provinces agreed to maintain the 1988 levels of expenditure on surface irrigation and subsurface saline drainage facilities in real terms. Actual expenditure fell far short of 1988 levels in all provinces except the North West Frontier Province (NWFP): overall the gap is more than 24 percent, with gaps as high as 37 percent in some regions (Sindh). Privatization of groundwater tube wells has proceeded more slowly than planned and in Punjab and Sindh, where most of these tube wells are located, O&M requirements are twice as high as estimated. Had O&M requirements of publicly owned tube wells been included the financing gap would thus have been even larger.

7.3.2 Poor Investment Planning: Investment planning for irrigation and drainage is conducted at three levels in Pakistan. Sectorial plans establish a medium- to long-term framework for sectorial development, five-year plans are used for short-term planning, and yearly allocations are made by the Annual Development Programme (ADP). In the past much effort has gone into sectorial planning. Plans such as the Revised Action Programme (RAP) and Water Sector Investment Planning Study (WSIPS), prepared with foreign assistance, take a comprehensive look at sectorial requirements and objectives. These plans are rarely incorporated wholly into either five-year plans or the ADP, however and institutional and policy recommendations are often ignored. Instead, the tendency is to invest in poorly planned civil works packages.

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7.4 Conclusion: There are so many other problems faced by irrigation system of Pakistan, including influence of Indian dams on western rivers, water tempering by cultivators, conveyance losses etc. so there is a need to mitigate these problems for efficient working of irrigation system of Pakistan. Government of Pakistan is continuously trying to mitigate these problems and to improve infrastructure of irrigation system.

References:  Bandaragoda D. J., and G. R. Firdousi (1992) Institutional Factors Affecting Irrigation Performance in Pakistan. International Irrigation Management Institute Country Paper Pakistan. 4: 30–32.  Pakistan, Government of (1988) Report of the National Commission on Agriculture. Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Islamabad.  Mase, Toru (1990) Study of Water User‘s Associations for Irrigation in Asia. Journal of Irrigation Engineering and Rural Planning (Japan) 18: 5–16.  Scott, William E., and David A. Redding (1988) Agricultural Credit in Pakistan. Islamabad: U.S. Agency for International Development. March.  World Bank (1992) Islamic Republic of Pakistan: Changes in Trade and Domestic Taxation for Reform of the Incentives System and Fiscal Adjustment. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

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Chapter No. 08

Rainwater Harvesting and Management 8.1 History: Around the third century BC, the farming communities in Baluchistan (in presentday Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran), and Kutch (in present-day India) used rainwater harvesting for irrigation. The north Punjab areas Rawalpindi, Attock, Jhelum and Chakwal natives rely on water sources from rainfall and ground water. Pakistan is known as an arid country having subtropical climate and it may be divided into two regions.  Indus plain  Highlands Dry climate is dominant in most of the country parts except northern highlands. On an average about 750 mm of rain fall occurs annually in northern areas. Baluchistan receives about 250 mm of rainfall annually (MINFAL, 2010).

8.2 Rainwater Harvesting: Collection and concentration of rainwater and runoff and its productive use for the irrigation of annual crops, pastures and trees domestic and livestock consumption and groundwater recharge. OR it may be defined as a usual technique applied to accumulate, transmit and store rainfall from comparatively clean surfaces for further use in future in the same area at a later time where the rainwater falls such as a mountainous catchment, bare surface or rooftop surfaces (Mbiliny et al., 2005).The quality of rainwater is always high because of absence of any obstacle such as mountains and soil where there is no mixing of different minerals and dissolvable salts, during the rainfall period (Che-Ani et al., 2009). In distant areas of a country, rainwater harvesting is an important source of water for developing the agriculture. Tsubo et al. (2000) categorized rainwater harvesting according to the nature of catchment surface used and the extent of activity.

8.3 Rainwater harvesting techniques The development of rainwater harvesting technique has been practiced in various world including Pakistan and in India (Glendenning and Vervoort, 2011). important features about which a considerable knowledge and understanding rainwater harvesting. There may be two rainwater harvesting techniques for the rainwater that may be used for different purposes.

countries of the There are the is required for accumulation of

 Land-based.  Roof-based.

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Water Harvesting methods

Microcatchments

Roof-top systems

Macrocatchments

On-farm systems

Long-slope systems

Flood-water systems

Contour bench terraces

Contour bunds

Hillside conduit

Water spreading

Eyebrow terraces

Meskat

Large bunds

Wadi-bed cultivation

Inter-row systems

Negarim

Liman and tabias

Jessour

Semi-circular bunds

Runoff strips

Hafair and tanks

Vallerani WH basins

Small pits

Cisterns

Fig 8.1: ―Typical Layout of Water Harvesting Methods‖

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Roof catchment systems

Domestic consumption


Rock catchment systems

Ground catchment systems

Check and sand dams, hafirs

Small scale irrigation, nurseries, livestock consumption

Fig 8.2: ―Categories of Rainwater Harvesting on the Basis of its Use‖

8.3.1 Land-Based: When the infiltration requirements of the soil have been fulfilled and excess amount of rainwater flow as overland flow and then become the runoff and this runoff accumulated in reservoirs for agriculture growth purposes, in ponds for recharging purposes and in tanks for household, this type of rainwater harvesting technique is called land-base.

8.3.2 Roof-Based: The rainwater that falls on the top of the roof is harvested for a domestic purpose, small scale agriculture purposes and is also sometimes used for drinking water because this water is usually collected from clean surfaces. This type of water harvesting is called roof-based water harvesting. Further there are three basic components of a typical roof top rain water harvesting system. a) Rooftop Catchment: Rooftop catchment of a RWH system is the surface, which receives the rain water directly. This can be the roofs in a rooftop system and hill, slopes and watershed or any other surface in a runoff system. b) Gutters and Down Pipes: These are the pipelines and drains that carry rain water from the catchments to the rain water harvesting. Gutters can be of PVC/PE or Galvanized Iron sheets. c) Filter unit: If intended to use rainwater as drinking source. d) Storage Tank: Among the above elements the storage tank is the most key item especially its capacity that determines the cost of the system and its reliability for sustainable water inflow.

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8.4 Factors Affecting on Rainwater Harvesting: Following factors should be considered for the identification of most suitable sites for rainwater harvesting (Prinz and Anupam 2002).

8.4.1 Rainfall: For designing a rainwater harvesting system, the information about the rainfall intensity, distribution and other characteristics is the most basic requirement. The distribution of rainfall is very important. In several rainfall-runoff models, a threshold value of 5mm/event is usually used for estimation of runoff generation (Prinz and Anupam 2002). Practical rainfall factors intended for rainwater harvesting system comprise.  Number of days when the rainfall increases the threshold rainfall of the catchment on weekly and monthly basis.  In years, for the mean monthly possibility and incidence of rainfall.  Possibility as well as reoccurrence for maximum and minimum monthly rainfall.  Frequency distribution for rainstorm of various definite intensities.  Intensity of rainfall.

8.4.2 Land Cover: Surface runoff generated by the rainfall is also affected by the land cover or vegetation. Increase in the density of vegetation consequences in a subsequent increase in the interception losses, retention and infiltration rates which consequently decrease the volume of runoff. Density of vegetation may be characterized with the dimension of area covered under vegetation.

8.4.3 Topography and Terrain Profile: The terrain structure with slope grade and relief intensity is other factor in determining the nature of rainwater harvesting. The analysis of terrain can be applied in order to determine the slope length which is a parameter considered extremely important used for the appropriateness of area for rainwater harvesting. With the increase in slope, the volume of runoff along the slope length increases. The slope length can be used to estimate the appropriateness for large-scale, small scale or varied rainwater harvesting system (Prinz et al., 1998).

8.4.4 Soil Texture and Soil Depth: The rainwater harvesting in the vicinity of either cropping or catchment strongly depends on the characteristics of soil such as the structure of the surface which affects the process of runoff generation from the rainfall, rate of percolation as well as infiltration, texture and depth of the soil which will be useful in determining the volume of rainwater accumulated in the soil.

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8.4.5 Hydrology of Area: The processes of hydrology related to rainwater harvesting techniques are concerned for the generation, movement in addition to accumulation of runoff by rainfall surrounded by a particular area. The rainwater that falls on an area may be valuable in the form of direct runoff otherwise useless (evaporation, infiltration and deep percolation). The amount of rainfall that falls on a particular area which generates a considerable volume of runoff is an indicator of rainwater harvesting site suitability.

8.4.6 Social, Economic and Transportation Conditions: The social and economic situations of an area being considered in support of rainwater harvesting system are much significant for development, designing along with implementation. The probability for achievements is much better if resource consumer as well as group of people is taking part since early planning phase. The critical issues of the community should be considered for the development of rainwater harvesting such as farming system, famers financial potential, acceptance of farmer for advanced farming and irrigation techniques, possession and rights of land use.

8.4.7 Ecological and Environmental Affects: Generally delicate and restricted capacities to adjust the environmental variation have been observed in ecosystem of dry and hilly areas (prinz et al. 1988). If the rainwater harvesting techniques are used in such areas then the results of environmental variation will be high. Latest rainwater harvesting systems may possibly capture runoff at upstream element of catchment, therefore decreasing the potential of runoff at downstream consumer of their share of resources. Rainwater harvesting technique must be considered as constituent of the local rainwater improvement and management system.

8.5 Rainwater Harvesting Advantages: In dry and hilly areas the main advantage of rain water harvesting is supplying water for irrigation and domestic purposes. It also plays an important role to increase the moisture contents of the soil, recharging the groundwater. The main advantages of rainwater harvesting are given below;         

This is free and comparatively clean source of water. Rainwater is collected at that point where it is required. The owner of the site operates and manages the rainwater harvesting structure. Socially up to standard along with environmentally responsible. It conserves soil and water resources. Rainwater is friendly to landscape plants and gardens. It can control heavy runoff. It uses uncomplicated, flexible technology that is simple to maintain. High costs saving particularly with increasing water costs. Page 105 of 127

Project and Report 1    


Supply safe water for human use after suitable treatment. It has minimum operating expenses. Construction, operation in addition to maintenance is not labor- intensive. It can be used for groundwater recharging.

8.6 Rainwater Harvesting Disadvantages: Following are some disadvantages of rainwater harvesting;  The uncertainties of the rainfall and limited supplies of water are the major disadvantages of rainwater harvesting.  For longer dry period it is not a reliable source of water.  Less storage capacity limits, on the other hand the increased storage capacities will require more operating as well as construction expenses.  The animal wastes and other wastes may contaminate the rainwater making the rainwater risky for human uses.  Cistern leakage may be caused for deterioration of slopes load-bearing.  Storage sites may be dangerous for children if suitable entrance safety is not available.

8.7 Rainwater Harvesting and Management in Pakistan: Pakistan is the sixth largest country in the world with a population of 2.48% of the world's total population (UN, 2009). The total population increased from 34 million in 1951 to 170 million by the year 2010. The proportion of urban population increased from 17% in 1951 to 36% by 2010 with urban population of 58 million and population density of more than 209 persons per square kilometer. Hasty urbanization and high population growth rate have directly impacted the water demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors. In Pakistan, about 96 percent of its available water is being used for agriculture, 2 percent for industrial and the remaining 2 percent is used for the domestic purposes. The year 2025 when the projected population of the Country will reach up to 267 million, to avoid draught like situation the adaptation measures are essential to be taken before the time (Ministry of Environment, 2012). Rainwater harvesting is one of the alternate solutions to conserve and manage the water resources. There is need to initiate rainwater harvesting not only in urban areas but in rural areas also to deal with the emerging situation. The need is to be realized by the government as well as the community. This is a high time to preserve rainwater at any cost and with an immediate effect. In this regard, the pilot rainwater project has been started by the Capital Development Authority (CDA) in Islamabad at the compound of Faisal Mosque with the partnership of UNDP and Pakistan Council of Research for Water Resources (PCRWR). After achieving the results, Islamabad will be the first among the major cities of Pakistan to have a rainwater harvesting facility to re-charge the underground water table. CDA has planned to establish 20 more rainwater-harvesting projects in other locations of the Islamabad city (PCRWR, 2004). Rooftop and Landscape Runoff RWH techniques have also been practiced by Earthquake Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Authority (ERRA) in many of the earthquake affected areas of Azad Jammu Page 106 of 127



& Kashmir and Khabarpakhtun Khwah (Bagh, Rawalakot, Muzaffarabad, and Abbottabad) which required technical improvement (Gardezi, n.d). The Sukaar Foundation and Water Aid Pakistan have been striving to promote initiatives of rainwater harvesting in villages of Thar to cope with the issue of water scarcity. People in Thar Desert have been harvesting 0.06 % of total annual rainfall, enough to meet one fourth of their yearly drinking water needs. The use of 0.25 % of total annual rainfall can increase current rainwater harvesting capacity by three times and enable people to meet their drinking water needs. By using further 0.28 % of total annual rainfall, the 23 % of total cultivable land of Tharparker can be cultivated to produce low delta Rabi crops enough to meet food needs of the people and help cope with frequent drought periods in the area (Suthar, 2012). Importance of rainwater harvesting in Pakistan due to water scarcity especially the drinking water should be realized. Due to unplanned urbanization, exploitation of ground water usage has increased manifold and it is very hard to manage the water supply by the WASAs of the country. The water conservation through rainwater harvesting in urban areas can be a contribution to Sustainable Water Strategy for Pakistan. The marking out of potential rainwater harvesting with the help of annual precipitation along with water demand in the present investigation will of course help to conserve and manage water more efficiently and effectively (Bhatti and Nasu, 2010). In urban areas, scarcity and accelerating demand of water is a major concern as in case of Pakistan and it can be reduced by rainwater harvesting, using various existing structures like rooftops, parking lots, playgrounds, parks, ponds, flood plains, etc.

8.8 Rainwater Harvesting and Management in Punjab: Pakistan Council of Research for Water Resources (PCRWR) has been conducting research studies on rainwater harvesting since 1989 in the Cholistan desert by developing catchments through various techniques and constructing ponds with different storage capacities ranging between 3000 m and 15000 m. These ponds have been designed to collect maximum rainwater within the shortest possible time and to minimize seepage and evaporation losses. As a result of successful field research on rainwater harvesting system, PCRWR has developed 92 rainwater harvesting systems on pilot scale in Cholistan desert (Kahlon, n.d). The increasing groundwater extraction in urban areas especially the large cities like Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan and other cities is posing increasing recharge requirements of the ground water. The annual rainfall is reasonable and regular enough with respect to quantity for its harvesting but the Punjab government and the concerned departments have no such planning or policy to take any initiative. However, a considerable part of rainfall can be harvested through different techniques if the Punjab government amend and implement the building byelaws. Resultantly, we can reduce the observed groundwater declining trends in the city (Basharat and Rizvi, 2011).

8.8.1 Focused Area: Although there is dire need to address the water shortage issues across the country but the current study area comprises of six (6) major cities of Pakistan in Punjab i.e. Murree, Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan, Rawalpindi and Chakwal. The selection of cities was also based on the availability of the rainfall data. However, the capitals of all the provinces have been given due importance in the study. The mean monthly and average annual rainfall data of these major cities are given below. Page 107 of 127



Lahore(1931-2011) Month Rain fall(mm)

JAN 27

FEB 26

MAR APR 30 17

MAY JUN 17 48

JUL 165

AUG 154

SEP 69

OCT NOV DEC 12 6 11

Mean monthly rainfall data of Lahore 180 160 140 120 100 80

Rain fall(mm)

60 40 20 0

Faisalabad(1951-2004) Month Rain fall(mm)

JAN 13

FEB 17

MAR APR 22 20

MAY JUN 14 35

JUL 100

AUG 85

SEP 38

OCT NOV DEC 6 3 8

Mean monthly rainfall data of Faisalabad 120 100 80 60

40

Rain fall(mm)

20 0

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Multan(1950-2001) Month Rain fall(mm)

JAN 8

FEB 10

MAR APR 18 13

MAY JUN 12 13

JUL 58

AUG 35

SEP 22

OCT NOV DEC 4 3 7

Mean monthly rainfall data of Multan 70 60 50

40

Rain fall(mm)

30

20 10 0

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Chakwal(1981-2005) Month Rain fall(mm)

JAN 22

FEB 30

MAR APR 40 42

MAY JUN 10 10

JUL 61

AUG 90

SEP 50

OCT NOV DEC 20 5 12

Mean monthly rainfall data of Chakwal 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Rain fall(mm)

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Rawalpindi(1981-2005) Month Rain fall(mm)

JAN 50

FEB 80

MAR APR 82 50

MAY JUN 30 55

JUL 250

AUG 300

SEP 100

OCT NOV DEC 25 10 20

Mean monthly rainfall data of Rawalpindi 350 300 250 200

150

Rain fall(mm)

100 50 0

Murree(1981-2005) Month Rain fall(mm)

JAN 25

FEB 35

MAR APR 130 125

MAY JUN 70 100

JUL 290

AUG 250

SEP 125

OCT NOV DEC 75 30 20

Mean monthly rainfall data of Murree 350 300 250

200 150

Rain fall(mm)

100 50 0

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Chakwal Year Rain fall(mm)

1978 700

1981 550

1984 400

1987 530

1990 400

1993 550

1996 250

1999 330

2002 280

2005 400

Average annual rainfall data of Chakwal 800 700 600 500 400

Rain fall(mm)

300

200 100 0

1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005

Lahore Year Rain fall(mm)

1966 550

1971 390

1976 1130

1981 830

1986 615

1991 520

1996 1185

2001 550

2006 750

2011 650

Average annual rainfall data of Lahore 1400

1200 1000 800

Rain fall(mm)

600 400

200 0

1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011

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Faisalabad Year Rain fall(mm)

1975 430

1978 620

1981 650

1984 350

1987 360

1990 420

1993 270

1996 350

1999 290

2002 350

Average annual rainfall data of Faisalabad 700

600 500 400

Rain fall(mm)

300 200

100 0

1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002

Murree Year Rain fall(mm)

1960 1275

1961 1900

1962 1280

1965 1720

1970 1710

1975 1600

1980 1700

1995 1250

2000 450

2005 750

Average annual rainfall data of Murree 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000

Rain fall(mm)

800 600 400 200 0

1960 1961 1962 1965 1970 1975 1980 1995 2000 2005

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Multan Year Rain fall(mm)

1982 215

1984 105

1986 220

1988 120

1990 160

1992 520

1994 300

1996 210

1998 130

2000 80

Average annual rainfall data of Multan 600 500 400 300

Rain fall(mm)

200 100 0

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Karachi is the provincial capital of Sindh Province and is the largest city where Lahore in the capital of Punjab, the second largest city of Pakistan. Karachi is relies on the surface water for domestic use. The Rawalpindi city is the fourth largest city of Pakistan and mainly relies on groundwater. The Faisalabad and Multan are certainly located in the flat alluvial plain of Punjab province whereas Peshawar and Rawalpindi are located in hilly areas.

8.9 Conclusion: Rainwater harvesting is a best technique in rain fed areas for agriculture purposes. In Pakistan there are so many potential sites for rainwater harvesting. It is used to overcome the shortage of irrigation water. In this technique rainwater is stored in this way risk of flood is also minimized. There is a need to adopt this technique to conserve our water resources.

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References:  Ahmad, I. (2013) College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Punjab: Lahore.  AHMED, A., U. MUSTAFA AND M.KHALID.2011. Impact of roof top rain water harvesting technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.  Ashfaq, A. and Ashraf, M. (2014) Spatial and Temporal Assessment of Groundwater Behaviour in the Soan Basin of Pakistan. Islamabad: Pakistan.  Pakistan Meteorological Department: Lahore

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Chapter No. 09

Ground Water and Its Quality 9.1 Importance of Groundwater Groundwater is a reliable resource, which can be utilized any time. Groundwater is used for agriculture, drinking water supply and industry all over the world, including Pakistan. Thirty five percent of agricultural water requirements in Pakistan are met from groundwater. Most of the drinking water supplies are also drawn from groundwater. If cost of one tube well is taken as Rs. 50,000, the total investment for groundwater development in Pakistan will be Rs. 30 billion. Groundwater development is a significant factor in alleviating poverty, especially in rural areas where groundwater access secures the agricultural output. Groundwater usage contributes US$ 1.3 billion to the national economy per year. Studies have shown that due to use of groundwater, yields of crops have increased 150-200 percent and cropping intensities have increased from 70 to 150 percent (Qureshi, 2004).

9.2 Groundwater Resources of Pakistan: Total Groundwater potential = 67 MAF. The Indus plains constitute about 34 million hectares (over 85 million acres) of cultivable land, which is under-lain predominantly by sand alluvium to a considerable depth. Annual recharge to ground water system of this Indus plain is estimated around 55 MAF, out of which about 48 MAF is within the commands of Indus basin irrigation system (IBIS). Presently, 39 MAF is being extracted annually. Ground water is also found in some rain-fed (Barani) lands, and intermountain valleys at depths varying from 100 to 200 ft. During 1950s, large area in the Indus basin became waterlogged and soil salinity increased adversely affecting the agricultural productivity. It was the time when government got involved and took initiatives in the ground water development. The efforts began to control the twin menaces of waterlogging and salinity by the way of providing drainage facilities. Government embarked on a series of SCARPs in the late 1950s aimed at lowering the ground water table by providing "vertical drainage" through large capacity deep tube wells. Because of better economic returns, priority was given to locating SCARPs in the areas with ground water quality suitable for supplemental irrigation, making the drainage a byproduct in effect. During past four decades, about 15000 SCARP tube wells have been installed by the Government in 57 projects covering a gross area of about 7.7 million hectares affected land for putting it back into production. Almost 75% of all SCARP tube wells were installed in the Punjab. About 81% of total tube wells installed in Punjab province are located in fresh ground water areas, whereas, remaining 19% tube wells have been installed in saline ground water areas. The tube wells Page 115 of 127



installed in the fresh ground water areas have been pumping water directly into watercourses; thus, they are being used for irrigation in addition to canal water. However, the tube wells installed in the areas with saline ground water, discharge saline water directly into drains, from where it is being disposed of.

9.3 Historical Background: Before the introduction of widespread irrigation, the groundwater table in the Indus Basin varied from about 40 feet in depth in Sindh and Bahawalpur areas to about 100 feet in Rechna Doab (the area between Ravi and Chenab Rivers).After the introduction of weir-controlled irrigation, the groundwater table started rising due to poor irrigation management, lack of drainage facilities and the resulting additional recharge from the canals, distributaries, minors, water courses and irrigation fields. At some locations, the water table rose to the ground surface or very close to the surface causing waterlogging and soil salinity, reducing productivity. In the late 1950s, the Government embarked upon a programme of Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPS) wherein large deep tube wells were installed to control the groundwater table. Over a period of about 30 years, some 13,500 tube wells were installed by the Government to lower the groundwater table. Of these, about 9,800 tube wells were in the Punjab. The projects initially proved to be quite effective in lowering the water table but with time, the performance of the SCARP tube wells deteriorated. The development of deep public tube wells under the SCARPS was soon followed by private investment in shallow tube wells. Particularly in the eighties, the development of private tube wells received a boost, when locally manufactured inexpensive diesel engines became available. Most of these shallow tube wells were individually owned. Now more than 500,000 tube wells supply about 41.6 MAF of supplemental irrigation water every year, mostly in periods of low surface water availability. These tube wells compensated the loss of pumping capacity of the SCARP tube wells and helped in lowering the water table.

9.3.1 Groundwater Potential in Pakistan Provinces: Indus Basin is spread over four provinces of Pakistan – Punjab, Sindh, North West Frontier and Baluchistan. The groundwater potential for each of these is discussed in the following sections. a) Groundwater Potential in Punjab: The main source of groundwater in the Punjab lies in the four hydrogeological zones, namely Potohar plateau & salt range, Piedmont areas, alluvial plains and Cholistan desert. Indus River and its tributaries drain the province. In Punjab a lot of work has been carried out on seepage from the irrigation system and the resulting recharge to the groundwater (PPSGWP, Page 116 of 127



1998). The groundwater potential is based on rainfall recharge, groundwater recharge and recharge from irrigation system. The rainfall recharge of 9.90 MAF (15% from 380 mm/year) in different SCARP areas was worked out during the period 1987-97 (PPSGWP, 1998). The recharge from return flow, irrigation application, and sub-surface inflows was assessed 7.08 MAF (22.5% of 31.5 MAF). Canal seepage varies from 2 to 8 cfs/msf depending on the size of canal and drainage characteristics. A delivery of 24 large canals for the irrigation year 1990-91 was with an average of 54 MAF. The recharge from these canals was estimated 21.70 MAF (40% of 54 MAF). The recharge from rivers was 3.5 MAF and return flows from domestic and industrial use were assessed as 0.57 MAF (22.5% of 2.52 MAF). The total available groundwater resource of the Punjab Province was estimated 42.75 MAF. b) Groundwater Potential in Sindh: The most important feature is the Indus River, the sole source of surface water for the Province. The groundwater lies in the three hydrogeological zones namely Eastern (Thar) desert, Western mountain and Indus valleys. Useable groundwater in the Province is mainly found in the Indus Plain, which is recharged from the meandering river and from the irrigation network that has been developed in the area. The other source of recharge - rainfall, is quite scanty and its contribution to the resource is limited. Rainfall recharge was 1.96 MAF (2% of 265 mm per year) as worked out by ACE and Halcrow (2001). The recharge from return flows (22.5% of 38.2 MAF), irrigation returns (22.5% of 3.5 MAF) was assessed 8.58 MAF and 0.79 MAF respectively. In the Sindh, canal water losses have been taken as 15 % of the total average canal supply of 45 MAF for the period 1988-2000. The recharges from these canals was estimated 6.76 MAF. The recharge from the rivers was assessed 0.3 MAF. The total available resource of the Sindh Province was assessed to be 18 MAF. c) Groundwater Potential in K.PK: K.Pk lies in the four broad geological units namely, metamorphic and igneous rocks of the northern mountains, Mesozoic rocks of the southeastern part, Tertiary rocks of the southeastern part and upper Tertiary. The main groundwater resources in the Province are the alluvial plains and many valleys, which are intermountain basins of tectonic origin. The rainfall recharge was estimated 0.7 MAF (7% of rainfall over a sub-catchment). The average flows for the period 1988-2000 was 6.68 MAF (ACE and Halcrow, 2001). In this Province, recharges from the canal system were worked out 1.0 MAF (15% of 6.7 MAF). The groundwater recharges include returns from irrigation application, other return flows, sub-surface inflows and recharge from rivers. The recharge from the return irrigation flows was assessed 1 MAF (15% of 6.5 MAF) and other return flows (15% of 0.88 MAF) were worked out to be 0.13 MAF. The total groundwater resource of the NWFP was assessed as 3.11 MAF.

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d) Groundwater Potential in Baluchistan: The regions of the Province, which are underlain by unconsolidated sediments formed by the deposition of mountainous outwash from the surrounding highlands, have been divided into 12 distinct Basins, flood plains and valleys fills. The Province lies in the five hydrological zones namely, Mountain ranges, Piedmont plains, Valley floor, plains and rolling sand plains. The groundwater, in substantial quantities, occurs in unconsolidated aquifers in almost all basins and sub-basins. The groundwater resources in six basins of the province namely Hamune, Lora, Kachhi Plain, Nari, Pishin and Zhob have been assessed. The effective rainfall coefficient of 20% to the annual rainfall for the mountain areas is used to estimate rainfall of 1.21 MAF. In Baluchistan canal supplies are small in total and restricted to the east of the Province, adjacent to Sindh Province. For the period 1988-2000 the average canal flow was 1.94 MAF and recharge from these canals was assessed as 0.29 MAF (15% of 1.94 MAF). Most of irrigated area of this Province lies in a saline groundwater zone. Other components of groundwater recharge include return flows from irrigation application, other return flows, sub-surface inflows and recharge from rivers. The recharge from return flows of irrigation application was estimated 0.37 (22.5% of 1.62 MAF) and other return flow was 0.08 MAF (20% of 0.45 MAF). The total groundwater resource of Baluchistan Province was assessed as 2.13 MAF, mg/l, for drinking purposes, as there are no alternatives. In Mastung Valley, the groundwater has been found to have high fluoride content. The Makran coast and Kharan have also been reported to have high fluoride groundwater.

9.4 Challenges of Groundwater Management: Groundwater management is facing the following challenges;  Depletion due to overdraft;  Pollution due to agricultural, industrial and human activities  Water logging and secondary salinization due to poor water management and drainage and unregulated conjunctive use; and  Poor groundwater governance.

9.5 Ground Water Exploitation: Total water withdrawal in 2008 was an estimated 183.4 km3 , of which surface water withdrawal accounts for 121.8 km3 (66.4 percent) and groundwater withdrawal accounts for 61.6 km3 (33.6 percent). This mainly refers to the IBIS, the withdrawal outside the IBIS being extremely small (GoP, 2008a). Page 118 of 127



In 2008, agriculture withdrew an estimated 172.4, or 94 percent of the total water withdrawal. Municipal and industrial water withdrawal was an estimated 9.7 km3 and 1.4 km3 , respectively (Figure 2) (GoP, 2008a; Zakria, 2000).

Fig 9.1: “Groundwater Withdrawal by Source (Total 183.421 km3 in 2008)‖

Fig 9.2: ―Groundwater Withdrawal by Sector‖

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Groundwater is pumped using electricity and diesel fuels. There are currently one million tube wells, of which 87 percent are operated by diesel. Power failures, extended load shedding and poor electricity supply are the main reasons for the slow growth of electric tube wells compared to diesel-operated tube wells (Ahmad, 2008b).

Table 9.1: ―No Tube wells per years in Pakistan‖ Year 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-2000 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

Total 506,824 531,259 563,226 609,775 659,278 707,273 768,962 950,144 984,294 999,569 931,306 921,121 921,229

Baluchistan 21,059 22,048 22,456 21,115 21,115 29,914 31,794 34,126 34,492 34,492 32,222 34,054 34,054

K.Pk 9,726 11,956 11,956 11,956 12,842 12,747 12,758 12,739 12,753 12,773 14,382 14,412 14,553

Punjab 452,431 473,667 500,631 543,243 588,130 610,750 656,898 824,879 845,573 857,774 884,228 872,444 872,444

Sindh 23,588 23,588 28,581 33,661 37,191 53,862 67,512 78,400 91,472 94,530 474 211 178

9.6 Groundwater Depletion: There is no mechanism for regulating groundwater use in Pakistan. Groundwater rights are not protected under legislation. Anybody having land and sufficient financial resources can install a tube well on his or her land and abstract any amount of water at any given time without consideration of safe yields. Groundwater abstraction from 1965 to 2002 has increased from 10 BCM to 68 BCM. Over 80 percent of groundwater is exploited by the private tube well owners/farmers. Unplanned pumpage is creating severe management and equity problems. Due to continuous lowering of water table, groundwater is becoming inaccessible to small farmers, which is threatening the sustainability of irrigated agriculture. Already 5 percent of the tube wells in Punjab and 15 percent in Baluchistan are beyond the reach of poor farmers. This situation is likely to increase to 15 and 20 percent in the two provinces, respectively (Mohtadullah, 2004).

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Table 9.2: ―Ground Water Depletion in Pakistan‖

Fig 9.3: ―Groundwater Recharge and Discharge Components‖

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9.7 Deterioration of Groundwater Quality Due to Salinization and Pollution: Groundwater salinity in various provinces is shown in Figure 9.4. About 17 percent area of Punjab and 75 percent in Sindh is underlain by saline groundwater (TDS>3000 ppm). About 70 percent of tube wells pump saline water for irrigation, which is escalating secondary salinization. Problems are not only due to salinity but also sodicity. Leaching from municipal and industrial effluents, fertilizers, pesticides, solid wastes, and disposal of saline drainage effluent and seawater intrusion causes pollution and contamination of groundwater. Untreated sewage and sullage in urban areas are disposed of into rivers and other surface water bodies through a mixed system of open drains and sewage pipes in the major metropolitan centers and primarily through open drains in the other urban centers. It is estimated that in the province of Punjab, 112 comics of municipal and sewerage effluent is being disposed of into the river bodies. The major part, i.e. 83 comics, of municipal and sewerage effluent of Lahore city is disposed of into the river Ravi. Leakage of effluents from septic tanks and sewerage drains endanger the aquatic and human life. A large number of industrial units are scattered throughout Pakistan in rural and urban areas. These units dispose their wastewater into the nearby drainage.

Fig 9.4: ―Groundwater Quality vs. Tube well Percentage for Different Provinces‖

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Table 9.3: ―Ground Water Quality in Faisalabad‖

9.7.1 Soil Salinization: The salt-affected soils associated with the use of poor quality groundwater for irrigation have become an important ecological entity of the Indus basin, yet according to the latest estimates, the extent of salt-affected lands has decreased to about 4.5 million hectares from about 6 million hectares in 1980s (WAPDA 2007). Due to differences in annual rainfall and geomorphological conditions, the problem of salinity is much more severe in the lower part of the Indus basin (Sindh province) where about 56% of the total irrigated land is affected with salinity. This is mainly because of the presence of marine salts, poor natural drainage conditions and the use Of poor quality ground water for irrigation because surface waters supplies in the Sindh province are not enough to meet the actual crop water and leaching requirements. Furthermore, leaching opportunities are also very limited due to highly saline soils at shallow depths and highly saline groundwater at deeper depths (Bhutta and Smedema 2007). These problems have brought into question the sustainability of the system and the capacity of Pakistan to feed its growing population.

9.7.2 Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts: Declining groundwater tables and land degradation as a result of poor quality groundwater use for irrigation has seriously affected the social fabric of Pakistani society. Drying of karez systems in Baluchistan have increased the livelihoods burden on women due to out migration of spouses for income supplementation. On average, a woman must carry more than 200 l of water every day, which creates an enormous burden on her time and physical capacities. Similar conditions also exist in the Cholistan areas of Punjab where women have to walk miles to bring fresh drinking water from natural streams as groundwater is very deep and hazardous to Page 123 of 127



health a it contains heavy metals. Soil salinity remains a hazard for the Indus basin and threatens the livelihood of farmers, especially the small-scale ones. Land degradation is reducing the production potential of major crops by 25%, valued at an estimated loss of US$ 250 million per year (Haider et al. 1999). Groundwater overdraft has also led to sea water intrusion in the coastal areas of the Indus basin which is threatening ecology of wetlands. Important aquatic resources, mangrove forests and coastal areas need to be protected. Mangrove forests cover 130,000 ha and are an important source of firewood and provide the natural breeding ground for shrimps.

9.8 SCARP Pilot Projects: The problem of salinity is all the more serious because the groundwater in the Indus basin is saline except where the fresh water of the Indus and its tributaries has refreshed it over the millennia. Furthermore, the irrigated area is extremely flat and, without proper drainage, prone to waterlogging. The problem of adding irrigation water to ground water is accentuated when the irrigation water supply must be increased to leach salts or when farmers over-irrigate to compensate for an unreliable system (or in response to artificially cheap irrigation water).

Fig 9.5: ―Scarp Projects Location in Pakistan‖

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Attacking the twin menace is a massive undertaking, and the IDA's assistance is only a small part of the effort. The IDA has made 27 irrigation loans or credits to Pakistan for a total of US$1,305 million. Nine of these, or US$457 million, were principally for drainage to control salinization and waterlogging. Nevertheless, the problem is far from solved, and Pakistan continues to lose almost as much irrigated land each year as it gains from investments . The SCARP Transition Pilot Project was supported by an IDA credit for SDR 8.7 million (US$1O million). Although the vertical SCARP tube wells had been highly successful at lowering the water table and reducing soil salinity, they were an unsustainable burden on the government's budget. The costs of operating and maintaining the wells were substantial, and the government did not recoup these expenditures from the farmers. Service grew progressively worse as the tube wells began to deteriorate and power supplies grew less and less reliable. The transition pilot was designed to resolve these problems by eliminating public tube wells in areas with plentiful fresh groundwater and enabling farmers to construct their own tube wells.

9.8.1 Achievements and Shortcomings of Completed Projects: By June 1985 WAPDA had completed 32 reclamation projects covering a gross area of 8.77 million acres. This included the construction of 12819 tube wells and 2131 miles of surface drains at a total cost of Rs. 4955.00 million. Table 9.4: ―Percent Change in Water Quality‖

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The projects in execution include 15 reclamation projects covering a gross area of 6.99 million acres, involving construction of 3841 tube wells and 8979 miles of drains of which 4669 miles of tile drains. The total estimated cost of these schemes is Rs. 10215.00 million. There can be no doubt that the SCARP-projects have provided some relief to the affected lands but it is also generally agreed that the objectives were only partially achieved. The SCARPs also had a great impact through their demonstrative effect. This is evidenced by the construction of private tube wells which number increased from a few thousands at the start of the programme to over 200000 by June 1985. The small capacity private tube wells in SCARP areas greatly helped in reducing the waterlogging and salinity conditions. Cropping intensities also increased but there are many other factors involved and the exclusive contribution of the SCARPs has not yet been evaluated. After 30 years of struggle and with billions of Rupees invested, Pakistan is still far away from solving the problem. The percentage change in water quality due to different SCARP projects is given in table 9.4.

9.9 Conclusion: This was all about groundwater and its quality. In some areas of Pakistan groundwater is fit for agriculture and in some areas its quality is not good. Similarly due to continuous pumping of water groundwater table declining day by day, water logging is also another problem of groundwater. SCARP projects also have greater contribution in changing the groundwater quality. The small capacity private tube wells in SCARP areas greatly helped in reducing the waterlogging and salinity conditions. It is our bad luck so that after 30 years of struggle and with billions of Rupees invested, Pakistan is still far away from solving the problems of groundwater.

Reference:  Richard Greenburg (2005). The Ocean Moon: Search for an Alien Biosphere. Springer Praxis Books.  Ground Water Rule (GWR) | Ground Water Rule | US EPA. Water.epa.gov. Retrieved on 2011-06-09.  http://www.epa.gov/superfund/students/wastsite/grndwatr.htm  http://www.pakissan.com/english/watercrisis/water.resource.potential.of.pakistan.shtml  ACE and Halcrow, (2001) Technical Report No.30, Exploitation and regulations of fresh groundwater, February 2001.  Ahmad, Nazir, (1974) Water logging and salinity problems in Pakistan, Irrigation Drainage and Floo Control Research Council of Pakistan, Lahore.  Hafiz, A., (2002). Groundwater resources of Pakistan, International Waterlogging and Salinity Research Institute (IWASRI), WAPDA, Lahore.  NDP, (200). Sector Planning Studies Interim Report, 1 Part B, National Drainage Program, Lahore.

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Irrigation System of Pakistan

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