INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
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Contents Unit 1 Communication Communication, Meaning, Need, Types
Unit 2 Models of Communication Communication SMCR, Shanon & Weaver Model, SMRC Model, Laswell Model, Osgood Model, Dance Model, Schramm Model, Gerbner’s Model, New Combe’s Model, Convergent Model, Gate Keeping Model
Unit 3 Theories of Communication Hypodermic needle, Two-step & Multi step, Commercial, Play theory, Uses & Gratification, Selective exposure, Perception & Retention theory, Individual difference theory
Unit 4 Elements & Process of Communication
Unit 5 History of Communication
Unit 6 Barriers of Communication
Unit 7 Tools of Communication
Unit 8 Elective Communication Principles P rinciples 2
UNIT 1-COMMUNICATION •
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Objectives To understand the meaning of communication To discuss the process of communication To study the importance of communication To study the features and scope of communication To study the various types of communication
Introduction
What is communication? It is an interesting exercise to ask members of a group to write, in a short paragraph, their meanings for the term. Two things become apparent: most most indi indivi vidu dual alss have have diffi difficu cult lty y writ writin ing g out out thei theirr actu actual al mean meanin ing g for for the the term term communication, and there is a great variation in meanings. Communication is not just an act. It is a process. The process of communication includ includes es transm transmiss ission ion if informa informatio tion, n, ideas, ideas, emotio emotions, ns, skills skills,, knowle knowledge dge by using using symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs or illustrations. The act of communication is referred to as ‘transmission’. It is the process of transmission that is generally termed as communication. Communication regulates and shapes all human behavior. Therefore, it is important to have a clear understanding of the concepts of communication what is communication. Why is it important to us? How does it work? What are the elements in the process of communication? What are the different types of communication that we are engaged in? These questions come to our mind m ind when we study this subject. Meaning of Communication Communication
The English word ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin noun ‘communis’ and the Latin verb ‘communicare’ that means ‘to make common’. Communication is a muchhyped word in the contemporary world. It encompasses a multitude of experiences, acti action onss and and even events ts,, as well well as a whol wholee varie variety ty of happ happen enin ings gs and and mean meanin ings gs,, and and tech techno nolo logi gies es too. too. Meet Meetin ings gs,, conf confer eren ence ces, s, or even even a proc proces essi sion on thus thus can can be a communication event. Newspapers, radio, video, and television are all ‘communication
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media’ and journalists, newsreaders; advertisers, public relation persons, and even camera crew are ‘communication professionals’. "Com "Commu muni nica cati tion onss is the the mech mechan anis ism m thro throug ugh h whic which h huma human n rela relati tion onss exis existt and and develop." This broad definition, found in a book written by a sociologist, takes in about everything. In contrast, some people limit their definitions of communication rather narrowly, saying, "Communication is the process whereby one person tells another something throug through h the written written or spoken spoken word." word." This This defini definitio tion, n, from from a book book writte written n by a journalist, seems reasonable for those in that field. Some definitions fall in between these two extremes. Carl Hovland, a well-known psychologist of a few years ago, said communication is "the process by which an individual (the communicator) transmits stimuli (usually verbal symbols) to modify the behavior of the other individuals (communicates)." This definition describes what many extension workers hope to achieve. You'll be trying to change behavior. Some object to this definition. Their objections center on the phrase "modify the behavior." They say there are numerous occasions when they communicate, in their family family and social social lives lives for exampl example, e, with with no intent intention ion of attemp attemptin ting g to modify modify behavior. However, we most likely do modify others' behavior even though that may not be our intention. We could find many other definitions of communication. However, "meanings are in people and not words" and it is not likely that we could get a group of any size to agre agreee exac exactl tly y on one one mean meanin ing. g. Besi Beside des, s, an exac exactt defin definit itio ion n of the the word word is not not necessary. My goal is to illustrate that it is difficult for many to formulate their own definition and that there is a wide range r ange in meanings. The communication process
To communicate effectively, we need to be familiar with the factors involved in the communication process. If we are aware of them, these factors will help us plan, analyze situations, solve problems, and in general do better in our work no matter what our job might be. This leads to a discussion of the communication process. Let us look at it part by part as viewed by several communication theorists. Communication is a concern to many
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people. Therefore, a lot of thought, work, and discussion have gone into different communication situations. Today, such people as psychologists, educators, medical doctors, sociologists, engineers and journalists represent only a few of the professional groups whose members have developed ways of looking at and talking about the communication process in their specialized fields. Severa Severall theori theorists sts have have discus discussed sed the commun communica icatio tion n proces processs in ways ways that that have have important implications for those involved in informal education programs such as extension work. Each of the "models" that we review has a point of vital interest. Communication models come in a variety of forms, ranging from catchy summations to diagrams to mathematical formulas. One model of the communication process reviewed is also one of the oldest. Communication in its simplest sense involve two or more persons who come together to share, to dialogue and to commune, or just to be together for a festival or family gathering. Dreaming, talking with someone, arguing in a discussion, speaking in public, reading a newspaper, watching TV etc. are all different kinds of communication that we are engaged in every day. Communication is thus not so much an act or even a process but rather social and cultural ‘togetherness’. Communication can be with oneself, god, and nature and with the people in our environment. Interaction, interchange, transaction, dialogue, dialogue, sharing, sharing, communion, communion, and commonness commonness are ideas that crop up in any attempt attempt to define the term communication. Acco Accord rdin ing g to Deni Deniss McQu McQuai ail, l, comm commun unic icat atio ion n is a proc proces ess, s, whic which h incr increa ease ses, s, commo commona nali lity ty-b -but ut also also requ require iress elem elemen ents ts of commo commona nali lity ty for it to occu occurr at all. all. A common language, for instance, does not necessarily bring people together. There are other factors too at play such as a shared culture and a common interest, which bring about a sense of commonality and more significantly, a sense of community. Deni Deniss McQu McQuai aill sees sees ‘huma ‘human n commu communi nica cati tion on’’ in line linear ar terms terms as the the send sendin ing g of meaningful messages from one person to another. These messages could be oral or written, visual or olfactory. He also takes such things as laws, customs, practices, ways of dress ressiing, ng, gest esture ures, buil uildin dings, gs, gard garden ens, s, mili milita tary ry para arades des, and fla flags to be communication. Thus, ‘communication’ can be defined as ‘the interchange of thoughts or ideas’. Again ‘com ‘commu muni nica cati tion on’’ is view viewed ed as a tran transm smis issi sion on of info inform rmat atio ion, n, cons consis isti ting ng of discriminative stimuli, from a source to recipient’. In everyday life, the communication
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is a system through which the messages are sent, and feedback received. It is therefore, the proces processs of transf transferr erring ing partic particula ularr inform informati ation on or messag messagee from from an inform informati ation on source to desired, definite or a particular destination. One of the main elements of communication messages is perception. The effectiveness of communication is limited by the receiver’s range of perception. In addition, people perceive only what they expect and understand. Lastly, communication makes a demand on the recipient, in terms terms of his emotio emotional nal preferen preference ce or reject rejection ion.. Thus, Thus, commun communica icatio tion n is not to be confus confused ed with with informa informatio tion. n. While While inform informati ation on is logica logical, l, formal formal,, and impers impersona onal, l, communication is perception. Communication is more than mere transferring or transmission of ideas or thoughts. It is not a static act as some of the earlier definitions suggest but it is a dynamic process of acti action on and and inte interac racti tion on towa towards rds a desi desire red d goal goal,, as sugg sugges este ted d by late laterr defin definit itio ions ns.. Communication is, therefore, a process of sharing or exchange of ideas, information, knowledge, attitude, or feeling among two or more persons through certain signs and symbols. What do we find in the above definition? It says that two or more persons are involved in the the act, act, the the one one who who give givess info informa rmati tion on (send (sender er)) and and the the one one who who rece receiv ives es it (receiver). What is being shared? An idea or information, or an attitude (message) is being being shared shared.. And throug through h what what means? means? The inform informati ation on is shared shared or exchan exchanged ged through certain signs or symbols; it could be language, oral or written. While sharing and exchan exchangin ging g ideas ideas or inform informati ation on with with others others,, we are actual actually ly intera interacti ction on with with people and establishing a kind of relationship that helps us to achieve the task set before us. Some other functional definitions of communication are: •
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‘The transfer or conveying of meaning’ (Oxford Dictionary) ‘One mind affecting another’ (Claude Shannon) ‘Transmission of stimuli’ (Colin Cherry) ‘One system influences another’ (Charles E. Osgood) ‘The ‘The mechan mechanism ism throug through h which which human human relati relations ons exist exist and develo develop’ p’ (Wilbu (Wilbur r Schramm) Communication is the process of transmitting feelings, attitudes, facts, beliefs and ideas between living beings. (Birvenu) Commun Communica icatio tion n is the exchan exchange ge of meanin meanings gs betwee between n indivi individua duals ls throug through h a common system of symbols. (I.A.Richards) (I .A.Richards) Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It involves 6
a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening, and understanding. (Louis Allen) Importance of Communication
Communication is important both for an individual and also for the society. A person’s need for communication is as strong and as basic as the need to eat, sleep, and love. Communication is the requirement of social existence and a resource in order to engage in the sharing of experiences, through ‘symbol mediated interaction’. Isolation is in fact the severest punishment for human being. GrownGrown-ups ups,, childr children, en, and old people people all need need to commun communica icate. te. Societ Society y punish punishes es criminals by locking them up in solitary cells, thus starving them of the basic need, and indeed the fundamental right to communicate. Communication thus involves active interaction with our environments -physical, biological and social. Deprived of this interaction we would not be aware of whether we are safe or in danger, whether hated or loved, or satisfied or hungry. However, most of us take this interaction and this relati relations onship hip for grante granted, d, unless unless we experi experienc encee some some depriv deprivati ation on of it. When When that that happens we adapt ourselves to the environment so that we do not lose touch, in both the literal and figurative senses. For, to lose touch is to suffer isolation. The basic human need for communication can perhaps be traced to the process of mankind’s evolution from lower species. Animals, for instance, have to be in sensory communication with their physical and biological surroundings to find food, protect themselves and reproduce their species. A loss of sensation-the inability to hear a predator for instance can mean loss of life. Thus, it is said that the biology of human beings and other living organisms is such that they have to depend upon each other. This dependence give rise to a situation where it is the biologica biologicall necessity necessity for the human beings to live in groups. groups. Society Society is therefore, therefore, the outcome of the evolution of the human race and man is a social animal not by option but by compulsion. Essentially, the primary function of communication is to inform, educate, entertain and persuade people. Following are the basic functions of communication: •
Education and Instruction- This function of education starts early in life, at home and in school and continues throughout life. Communication provides knowledge, expertise, and skills for smooth functioning by people in the
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•
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society. It creates awareness and gives opportunity to people to actively participate in public life. Information- quality of our life will be poor without information. The more inform informed ed we are the more more powerf powerful ul we become become.. Commun Communica icatio tion n provid provides es information about our surroundings. Information regarding wars, danger, crisis, famine, etc. are important for the safety and well being of our life. Entertainment- To break the routine life and divert our attention from the stressful life we lead today, entertainment is an essential part of everybody’s life. Communication provide endless entertainment to people through films, television, radio, drama, music, literature, comedy, games, etc. Discussion - debates and discussions clarify different viewpoints on issues of interest to the people. Through communication, we find out reasons for varying viewpoints and impart new ideas to others. Persuasion - it helps in reaching for a decision on public policy so that it is helpful to govern the people. Though it is possible, that one can resort to persuasion for a bad motive. Thus, the receiver must be careful about the source of persuasion. Cultural promotion- communication provides an opportunity for the promotion and preser preservat vation ion of cultur culturee and tradit tradition ions. s. It makes makes the people people fulfil fulfilll their their creative urges. Integration-it is through communication that a large number of people across countr countries ies come come to know know about about each each other’s other’s tradit tradition ionss and apprec appreciat iatee each each other’s ways of life. It develops integration and tolerance towards each other.
Features and scope of communication
Communication of message takes place through spoken or written words, pictures and in many other forms. In oral communication, the transmitter is the ‘voice box’ of the speaker. The receiver of the message may be the human ear, which converts sound waves into a comprehensible form, which can be recognized by the human brain; a tele televi visi sion on rece receiv iver er deco decode dess the the elec electr trom omag agne neti ticc wave wavess into into recog recogni niza zabl blee visu visual al representation. In the same manner, the reader, who can recognize and understand that particular language, can understand the printed message. The process of communication involves a procedure consisting of only a few steps. The information source decide decidess to commun communica icate te and encode encodess a message , tran transm smit itss it through a channel to the receiver, which is then decoded and acted upon. There are etween een the the whole hole pro proces cess. The The main main func functi tion onss of noises or distortions in betw commu communi nica cati tion on are are info informa rmati tion on,, educ educat atio ion, n, ente entert rtai ainm nmen ent, t, enli enligh ghte tenm nmen entt and and persuasion. Therefore, the communication process should be designed as such so as to
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gain the attention of the receiver, use the signals, symbols, or codes that are easily understood by the receiver and it must arouse needs in the receiver and suggest some ways out to satisfy these needs. Only then it can create the desired response. However, communication should not be confused with mass communication, while communication is the activity of sharing, giving, imparting, receiving information, mass communication ‘is a process in which professional communicators use communication media to disseminate messages widely, rapidly, simultaneously and continuously to arouse intended meanings in large and diverse audience s in an attempt to influence them in a variety of ways’. Communication is a required skill at every level of organizational functioning. The effectivene effectiveness, ss, with which a person will be able to perform in almost any organization, organization, whether social, governmental, or commercial, will depend in large measure upon the ability to communicate effectively. Communication through Arbitrary Symbols
The civilization is reflected in three priceless possessions of mankind, the first is the human ability to think, the other is his innate capacity to communicate, and the third is his species’ specific competence to acquire and use the arbitrary symbols system of language. The gifts of civilization and all the branches of human knowledge have their origin from this ability to think in abstract and to communicate these thoughts through symbols of the language. Above all the other media of communication, language is the most significant because the human knowledge and relationships are gathered, stored and imparted through it. The The proc proces esss of commu communi nica cati tion on permi permits ts us to use use and and reuse reuse the the expe experi rien ence cess and and knowledge from the past into the present and make it ready for use in future with the help of the symbols of communication, which stand for some abstract idea. Human Interactions through communication
Communication is the means by which people relate to one another. The society in general or an organization of any type cannot exist without the relations that are built and and stren strengt gthe hene ned d by comm commun unic icat atio ion. n. Thro Throug ugho hout ut our our live lives, s, we are are invo involv lved ed in commun communica icatio tion n situat situation ions. s. When When we talk talk and work work with with our our collea colleague gues, s, friend friends, s, subordinates, superiors, experts, teachers, students, family members m embers and with the people in all walks of life, when we read and /or write the books, pamphlets, periodicals, special journals, reports, letters, memos, newspaper, etc. when we listen to or deliver
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speeches, when we listen to the radio or watch the TV and films, when we buy or sell the products or services, when we manage our business and when we are involved in any other activity, we are invariably involved in communication situation. Communication Communication Technology and Media
Human Behavior is dominated by communication in all aspects of life to such an extent that we can aptly call him as a communicating creature. He has applied advanced science and technology of the tremendous development of communication system. With the the help help of dram dramat atic ic inve invent ntio ions ns like like prin printi ting ng pres press, s, tele teleph phon one, e, tele telegr grap aph, h, rada radar, r, tele teleph phot oto, o, radi radio, o, tele televi visi sion on and and many many othe otherr dece deceiv ive; e; we have have made made our our mode modern rn communicat communication ion instantane instantaneous ous and effective. effective. The advanced advanced technology technology of mass and telecommunication has attracted the attention of the experts and specialists in many fields fields.. The artist artists, s, poets, poets, writer writers, s, artisa artisans, ns, archit architect ects, s, etc. etc. are expose exposed d to differ different ent subjects of interest by this technology and it helps them to conceive new creative thou though ghts ts and and idea ideas. s. The The tech techno nolo logy gy,, skil skills ls of usin using g medi mediaa and and some some conc concep epts ts of communication are useful to psychologists in order to investigate certain problems of human behavior and therapy. The political as well as social traditions, myths, customs, styles of living, morals, etc. are passed from one generation to another or they are changed or destroyed with the help of communication media. The success of any commercial man depends upon his rece recept ptio ion n and and tran transm smis issi sion on of info inform rmat atio ion n rega regard rdin ing g the the mark market et,, prod produc ucti tion on,, government laws, banking, innovations in modern technology, etc. computers play a vital role in receiving, storing, translating, analyzing and imparting the information for the mathematicians, chemists, physicists, engineers, etc. Types of communication communication
One important aspect of communication is that it does not take place in isolation. Communication occurs when at least two elements of a system are present. We of ten think of communication as an interaction between two people. However, we participate in several communication contexts or levels of communication. The major forms of communication are: •
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Intrapersonal communication Interpersonal communication Group communication Mass communication Non-verbal communication 10
The number of persons involved in the process of communication distinguishes these levels. These different forms of communication also differ in the degree of proximity or closeness among the participants in the communication process -both at physical and emotional levels. Another differentiating feature is the nature of the feedback, which could be immediate of delayed. Intrapersonal Communication
This is the most basic of the communication contexts or levels. It occurs when an individual sends and receives messages internally. We spend most of our time thinking. And our thought process is nothing but intrapersonal communication where one person is sending messages and the same person receives them. Here we use the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) for generation, transmission, and receiving of messages. We react to both external and internal internal stimuli this way. In addition to our thought thought process, process, many times we also talk aloud with ourselves. Intrap Intrapers ersona onall commun communica icatio tion n involv involves es our intell intellect ect as well well as our our physic physical al and emotional sensations. The way we communicate with ourselves reflects the various aspects the self -physical, emotional, intellectual and social. It also reflects our habits, roles, attitudes, beliefs, and values. Intrapersonal communication is not just a level of communication; it is in fact the very basis of all communication. While participating in the higher levels of communication like interpersonal communication, group communication, and mass communication, we also indulge intrapersonal communication. And it takes place every moment that we are alive. To understand intrapersonal communication, we need to understand ourselves. At the physical or physiological level or what is called the ‘physical self’, we have our bodily parts, parts, the various systems that perform the bodily functions like digestion digestion,, breathing, breathing, circulation, elimination of bodily wastes, etc. also there are the five senses that help us receive external stimuli. Then there is processing of stimuli-both external and internal. Next there is the ‘emotional self’ which prompts our emotional responses-as in case of our responses to stimuli like fright, flight and fight, etc. our ‘intellectual self’ involves mental mental actions actions or behavior like word and sentence sentence formation, formation, use of comparison comparison,, use of logic and reasoning, problem solving, and decision making, etc.
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Though we think that we know everything about ourselves, but there is more to the self-concept. This is because we maintain separate private and public selves. These have been illustrated by the social scientists Joseph Luft and Harrington Ingham. They created a model called the Johari Window. This model compares various aspects of open (public) and closed (private) communication relationships. Known to self Known to others
Not known to others
Not known to self
OPEN
BLIND
HIDDEN
UNKNOWN
Diagram 3.2 The Johari Window
The ‘open’ section in the diagram represents self-knowledge that you are aware of and are willing to share with others. The ‘hidden’ section represents what you are aware of but is not willing to share. The ‘blind’ section represents information, which you do not know but others know. The ‘unknown’ section represents what is unknown both to you and to others. These sections vary according to our relationships with others. In a close relationship the open portion will be considerably larger than the hidden area. When we communicate with a casual acquaintance, our hidden area will be the largest area in the Johari Window. This model can be used effectively to increase our self-awareness. This self-awareness or self -concept is not inborn. It develops as we grow through our communication with others and from our environment. Specifically, it develops from three contributory factors: 1. Our Our past past exper experie ienc nces es 2. The reference reference groups groups we identify identify with with and and 3. The rol roles es we play play in our our lives lives.. Our interactions with these three factors have affected aff ected and continue to affect our selfconcept. Our past experience makes us what we are. It shapes the way we feel about
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ourselves and the way we react to others. A child who is neglected and criticized at home may develop a negative self-concept. Our experiences at home, family members, rela relati tive ves, s, frien friends ds,, scho school ol,, coll colleg ege, e, work work plac place, e, etc. etc. cont contrib ribut utee imme immens nsel ely y to the the development of our self-concept. Through our life cycle, from birth to death, we play a number of roles. These are ascribed (or allotted roles) and achieved roles. We do not have any control over our ascrib ascribed ed roles. roles. These These includ includee gender gender role role (that (that are biolo biologic gicall ally y determi determined ned –son, –son, daug daught hter er,, brot brothe her, r, sist sister er,, fath father er,, moth mother er,, etc) etc) and and soci social al role roless (that (that are are soci social ally ly determined and defined by our environment). Social roles include being friends, foes, teacher-taught, neighbors, etc. The achieved roles are earned through individual accomplishments. A person becomes a champion athlete or a leader or the president of a company by way of individual achievements. Both the ascribed and the allotted roles help shape our self-concept. The process of Intrapersonal Intrapersonal communication
Intrapersonal communication starts with a stimulus. Our intrapersonal communication is the reaction to certain actions or stimuli. These stimuli could be internal, originating from within us, or external, coming from an outside source. These stimuli are picked up by the sensory organs (PNS) and then sent to the brain. This process is called reception. The sense organs pick- up a stimulus and send it to the central nervous system through the peripheral nervous system. While we receive all stimuli directed to us, we pay attention to only a few. This is because we practice selective perception. Only high ‘intensity ‘intensity’’ stimuli stimuli like loud sounds, sounds, bright bright colors, colors, sharp smells, etc. are perceived perceived and the low intensity stimuli are over looked. The next step is processing of the stimuli. It occurs at three levels. These levels are cognitive, emotional, and physiological. Cognitive processing (thinking) is associated with the intellectual self and includes the storage, retrieval, sorting, and assimilation of information. Emotional processing (feeling) is associated with the emotional self. This does not have anything to do with logic or reasoning. All our emotions and our attitudes, beliefs, and opinions interact to determine our emotional response to any stimulus.
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Physiological processing occurs at the physiological level and is associated with our psychological self. This kind of response is reflected in our bodily behaviors like heart rate, brain activity, muscle tension, blood pressure, and body temperature. The next activity in intrapersonal communication is transmission . Here the sender (transmitter) and receiver being the same person, transmission occurs through nerve impulses. Intrapersonal communication also has feedback. Here it is called self-feedback. The next element of intrapersonal communication is interference or noise. A sudden sound disturbing our thought process is interference. Another form of interference occurs when we process some information at a wrong level. For example, we are supposed to process bad news rationally i.e. through cognitive processing. But we often react to such news through emotions. The opposite is also a case of interference. Interpersonal Communication
This is the universal form of communication that takes place between two individuals. Since it is person-to-person contact, it includes everyday exchange that may be formal or informal and can take place anywhere by means of words, sounds, facial expression, gestures and postures. In interpersonal communication there is face-to-face interaction between two persons, that that is, is, both both are are send sendin ing g and and rece receiv ivin ing g mess messag ages. es. This This is an idea ideall and and effe effect ctiv ivee communication situation because you can get immediate feedback. You can clarify and emphasize many points through your expressions, gestures, and voices. In interpersonal communication, therefore, it is possible to influence the other person and persuade him or her to accept your point of view. Since there is proximity between sender and receiv receiver, er, interp interpers ersona onall commun communica icatio tion n has emotio emotional nal appeal appeal too. too. It can motiva motivate, te, enco encour uraage, ge, and and coo coordi rdinat nate work more more effec ffecttive ively then any any oth other form form of communication. Also, in a crisis, through interpersonal channel, flow of information is tremendous e.g. news of violence, famine or disaster. Interpersonal messages consist of meanings derived from personal observations and experiences. The process of translating thoughts into verbal and nonverbal messages incr increa ease sess the the comm commun unic icat ator or’s ’s self self-c -con once cept pt.. In fact fact,, effe effect ctiv ivee inte interp rper erso sona nall communication helps both participants strengthen relationships through the sharing of meaning and emotions.
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Functions of interpersonal communication
We use use inte interp rper erso sona nall comm commun unic icat atio ion n for for a vari variet ety y of reas reason ons. s. For For exam exampl ple, e, inte interp rper erso sona nall commu communi nica cati tion on help helpss us unde unders rsta tand nd our our world world bett better. er. It help helpss us understand a situation in a better way. We also use interpersonal communication to think and evaluate more effectively. Often it is used to change behavior also. The three specific functions are: 1. 2. 3.
Linking fu function Mentation fu function and Regulatory function.
The linking function connects a person with his or her environment. The mentation function helps us conceptualize, remember, and plan. It is a mental or intellectual function. The regulatory function serves to regulate our own and other’s behavior. Thro Throug ugh h inte interp rpers erson onal al commu communi nica cati tion on we are are nurt nurtur ured ed as infa infant nts, s, phys physic ical ally ly,, emotionally and intellectually. Again through interpersonal communication we develop cult cultur ural al,, soci social al,, and and psyc psycho holo logi gica call link linkss with with the the worl world. d. In fact, fact, inte interp rpers erson onal al communication is the very basis of our survival and growth as it helps us to function more practically. Variables affecting interpersonal interpersonal relationships relationships
Many Many variab variables les affect affect the interp interpers ersona onall relati relations onship hips. s. These These are self-d self-disc isclos losure ure,, feedback, nonverbal behavior, and interpersonal attraction. Our success or failure in handling these variables, determine how satisfying our interpersonal relationships will be. Self-disclosure lets others know what we are thinking, how we are feeling and what we care care about. about. Self-d Self-disc isclos losure ure helps helps reduce reduce anxiet anxiety, y, increa increase se comfort comfort,, and intens intensify ify interpersonal attractions. Feed Feedba back ck is the the respo respons nsee of a rece receiv iver er that that reac reache hess back back the the send sender er.. It invo involv lves es agreei agreeing; ng; asking asking questi questions ons and respon respondin ding g throug through h feelin feeling g statem statement ents. s. Nonve Nonverba rball behavior plays an important role in interpersonal communication. A smile, a hug, a pat, a firm handshake, etc. can achieve much more than words in certain situations. Eye contact, gestures, posture, facial expressions, etc. are also important elements of our nonverbal behavior.
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Interpersonal attraction is the ability to draw others towards oneself. Some people are said said to have have magn magnet etic ic perso persona nali liti ties es.. Peop People le are are draw drawn n to them them.. It is this this spec specia iall chemistry that causes ‘love at first sight’. Development of Interpersonal Interpersonal relationships relationships
Research has proved that like individual personalities, interpersonal relationships also evolve evolve over time through through our experience experiences, s, acquired acquired knowledge knowledge,, and environmen environmental tal factors. The phases through which interpersonal relationships develops are: Initiating Experimenting Intensifying Integrating and Bonding •
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Initiating is the first phase during which we make conscious and unconscious judgments about others. In fact, sometimes it takes us as little as 15 seconds to judge a person. Then communication is started either verbally or nonverbally (through eye contact, being closer to the other person, etc.) The next phase is experimenting. Here, we start small -talks (talking about general things rather that about specific things), while attempting to find out common interests. During this stage we try to determine whether continuing the relationship is worthwhile. The third stage is intensifying. Here the awareness about each other is increased and both both the person personss start start partic participa ipatin ting g more in conver conversat sation ion.. Self-di Self-discl sclosu osure re by both both parti particip cipant antss result resultss in trust trust and creates creates a rappor rapport. t. Experi Experienc ences, es, assump assumptio tions, ns, and expectations are shared and we start becoming more informal. Also there is increased nonverbal behavior with more touching, nodding, etc. The next step is integrating. Here we try to meet the expectations of the person. We also start sharing interests, attitudes, etc. The final stage is bonding. Here serious commitments and sacrifices are made. One example of commitment is to decide to remain as friends. Another is marriage. All these phases can take a few seconds to develop (as in case of love at first sight) or may take days or weeks or more time.
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Group Communication
Group communication is an extension of interpersonal communication where more than two individuals are involved in exchange of ideas, skills, and interests. A group is a number of people with a common goal who interact with one another to accomplish their goals, recognize one another’s existence and see themselves as part of the group. Groups provide an opportunity for people to come together to discuss and exchange views of common interest. There could be many different groups for as many different reasons. For instance, casual casually ly formed formed groups groups with with friend friendss over over a drink, drink, coffee coffee break, break, games, games, dances dances or religious gatherings have a different purpose than that of groups attending a meeting or seminar to help fight AIDS or interacting with committee members to draft a proposal. Commun Communica icatio tion n in a group, group, small small or big, big, serves serves many many goals goals includ including ing collec collectiv tivee decision-making, self-expression, increasing one’s effect, elevating one’s status and relaxation. Group communication is considered effective as it provides an opportunity for direct interaction among the members of the group; it helps in bringing about changes in attitudes and beliefs. Group communication has limitations too, as group intera interacti ction on is time time consum consuming ing and often often ineffic inefficien ient, t, especi especiall ally y in an emerge emergency ncy.. Besides, imbalances in status, skills and goals, may distort the process and the outcome sharply. Groups have been classified as small groups and large groups. A small group comprises of three to seven members. Small groups are informal and less structured. Larger groups adopt formal rules to maintain order. There is more chance for individual participation in small groups. Also small groups are easy to manage and are more efficient in accomplishing tasks and making decisions. Most researchers define a small group as having at least three and no more mor e than twelve or fifteen members. A group needs to have at least three members; otherwise it would simply be a dyad. With three members, coalitions can be formed and some kind of organization is present. Too large of a group (more than twelve or fifteen members) inhibits the group members' ability to communicate with everyone else in the group. Members must be able to communicate freely and openly with all of the other members of the group. Groups will develop norms about discussion and group members will develop roles, which will affect the group's interaction. A group must have a common purpose or goal and they must work together to achieve that goal. The goal brings the group together and holds it together through conflict and tension.
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Types of small groups
There are two major types of small groups, primary and discussion groups . The primary group is more informal in nature. Members get together daily or very regularly. The primary group is less goal-oriented and often there is conversation on general topics and not discussion on specific topic. Primary groups are not bound by any rules and are highly flexible. Disc Discus ussi sion on grou groups ps are high highly ly forma formal. l. Thes Thesee are are char charac acte teriz rized ed by face face-t -too-fa face ce interactions where group members respond, react, and adapt to the communication of other participants. A discussion group has one or more leaders. Members of discussion groups have common characteristics-geographic location, social class, economic level, life style, education education level, etc. finally, members of a discussion discussion group have a common purpose or goal. The strength cohesiveness and longevity of the group depends upon the type of goal. One important type of discussion groups is the problem-solving group. Such groups are of four types depending upon the tasks they perform: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Fact Fact find findin ing g gro group up Eval Evalua uati tion on grou group p Policy Policy making making group group and Imple Impleme ment ntat atio ion n group group
This kind of division occurs only where the group is big and the problem is complicated. Participation in small groups
Participants in small group communication have certain responsibilities these are: Having an open mind towards the issue or topic being discussed and other members of the groups Having an objective mind and Showing sensitivity towards other’s sentiments and moods. •
• •
These responsibilities fall under two categories: 1. Commun Communica icatin ting g and listen listening ing and and 2. Fee Feedback Communication includes: Speaking or interacting with others with accuracy, clarity, and conciseness. Avoiding speaking when you have nothing to contribute •
•
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•
•
Addressing the group as a whole and Relating your ideas to what others have said.
These practices help make the interaction more fruitful. Listening and feedback are equally important as speaking. Some suggestions for effective listening include: Consciously concentrating Visibly responding to the speaker Creating an informal situation Listening to more than just words •
•
• •
Development of a small group
Indi Indivi vidu dual al memb members ers formi forming ng a group group are are diffe differen rentt from from each each othe otherr as they they have have different personalities. It takes time for the members to learn how to fit into the group and contribute in the best manner. In fact, researchers have identified the following stages of small group development. •
•
• •
Grouping or trying to find out how to work with others Grasping or understanding other members and the situation Grouping or getting together and development of bonding Group action or increased participation with each member playing constructive roles.
Mass communication
Outs utside ide the the rea realm of int interp erpers ersona onal commu ommuni niccatio ation n exi exists sts anot anoth her form form of communication, which involves communication with mass audiences and hence the name mas mass commun munication; and the channels throu rough which this kind of communication takes place are referred to as mass media. Both mass communication and mass media are generally considered synonymous for the sake of convenience. Mass Mass commun communica icatio tion n is unique unique and differe different nt from interp interpers ersona onall commun communica icatio tion n as evident from the following definition. Any mechanical device that multiplies messages and takes it to a large number of people people simultan simultaneous eously ly is called called mass communic communicatio ation. n. The media through which messag messages es are being being transm transmitt itted ed includ includee radio, radio, TV, newspa newspaper pers, s, magazi magazines nes,, films, films, records, tape recorders, video cassette recorders, etc and require large organizations and electronic devices to put across the message.
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It is clea clearr from from the the defi defini niti tion on that that mass mass comm commun unic icat atio ion n is a spec specia iall kind kind of communication in which the nature of the audience and the feedback is different from that of interpersonal communication. An examination of these components will help in understanding the nature of mass communication itself. Audience
Whosoever is the recipient of mass media content constitutes its audience. For instance, indivi individua duals ls readin reading g newspa newspaper pers, s, watchi watching ng a film film in a theatr theatre, e, listen listening ing to radio radio or watching television, are situations where audience is large, heterogeneous, anonymous in character and physically separated from the communicator both in terms of space and time. A large audience means that the receivers are masses of people not assembled at a single place. It may come in different sizes depending upon the media through which the message is sent. For TV network programmes, for example, there could be millions of viewers, but only a few thousand readers for a book or a journal. By anonymous, we mean that the receivers of the messages tend to be strangers to one another and to the source of those messages. So with respect to the communicator, the mess messag agee is addre address ssed ed ‘to whom whom it may may conc concern ern’. ’. Also Also,, the the audi audien ence ce tend tendss to be rather than homogeneou homogeneouss in the sense that messages are sent to people heterogeneous rather in all walks of life and person with unique characteristics. Feedback
As compared to interpersonal communication, feedback in mass media is slow and weak. It is not instantaneous or direct as in face-to-face exchange and is invariably delayed. Feedback in mass media is rather a cumulative response, which the source gets afte afterr a cons consid ider erab able le gap gap of time time.. It is ofte often n expre express ssed ed in quan quanti tita tati tive ve terms terms:: like like circulation figures of newspapers and magazines, the popularity of a movie at box office, success of a book on the basis of its sales, or the findings of public opinion polls and and on the the basi basiss of othe otherr feed feedba back ck devi device cess whic which h are used used to dete determ rmin inee what what is acceptable acceptable or unaccepta unacceptable ble to different audiences. audiences. In all such cases, cases, considerabl considerablee time and money are required to process the feedback received from the audience. Therefore, delayed and expensive feedback is ingrained in mass media. Gate keeping
This is again a characteristic unique to mass communication. The enormous scope of mass mass commun communica icatio tion n demand demandss some some contro controll over over the select selection ion and editin editing g of the messages that are constantly transmitted to the mass audience. Both individuals and organizations do gate keeping. Whether done by individuals or organizations, gate
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keeping involves setting certain standards and limitations that serve as guidelines for both content development and delivery of a mass communication message. Functions of Mass Communication Mass communication has three basic functions: To inform To educate To entertain and To persuade •
•
• •
Additionally it also educates and helps in transmission of culture. Non-Verbal Communication Communication Meaning and importance of Non-verbal Communication Communication
Verbal media can be used to communication almost any thought, feeling or idea, but the non-verbal media has comparatively very limited range. Especially, it communicates feelings of likings and disliking and reinforces the feelings expressed through verbal media. Occasionally, it contradicts those feelings, which are expressed verbally by the communicator. The following are the types of non-verbal communication: Facial behavior Kinesics or body movement Posture and gestures Personal appearance Clothing Proxemics Paralanguage •
•
• • • • •
Often we think that communication means only words. This is because mostly we use words while communicating. Written communication occurs through printed or written words. And oral communication occurs through words spoken ‘out loud’. But all communication does use words. Sounds unbelievable! Albert Mehrabian, expert on body language and author of books like silent messages, found out that the total impact of oral message is only about 7% verbal, 38% vocal and 55% non verbal.
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What constitutes nonverbal communication? communication?
Everything from the simple shrug of the shoulder, the V-sign, the OK ring, the thumbs up gesture, eye movements, facial expressions, body postures, gestures, gait, clothing to the tone of voice, the accent. Nonverbal components of communication also involve the use of space, of touch and smell and paralanguage. Types of non-verbal communication communication
We use our body and its different parts to communicate a lot of things. This communication through our body and its various parts is called ‘body language’. Oft Often peopl eoplee cons consid ider er body body lang anguag uage to be the only only form form of nonv onverb erbal communication. However, non-verbal communication includes body language and much more. These include include the way we dress up for different occasions occasions,, the way we greet people, the way we use our hands while talking, the way we use space etc. Facial expressions
Faces, it is said, is the mirror of the mind. It is the most obvious vehicle for nonver nonverbal bal commun communica icatio tion. n. It is a consta constant nt source source of informa informatio tion n to the people people around us. Our faces reveal how we are feeling inside while we might be trying to present a different emotion. For example, while telling a lie, a child tries to cover his or her mouth with both the hands. A teenager tries to cover her mouth with one hand. These gestures are called the ‘mouth guard’ gestures. Also, the colors of one’s face, the wrinkles, presence or absence of facial hair, etc. revea reveall a lot lot abou aboutt a pers person on’s ’s pers person onal alit ity. y. For For exam exampl ple, e, peop people le with with dark dark tans tans supposedly spend a lot of time outdoors. Hairstyles and make up provide insight into one’s economic status, interest in fashion, etc. Eye behavior
Eyes and their effect on human behavior are as important to poets and painters as to the students of nonverbal communication. This is because one can communicate a lot just with the help of the eyes. From winking, seeing, glaring, staring eyes can perform many functions. The size of the eye, particularly the size of the pupil, is indicative of a person’s mood when one is happy, the pupil dilates or grows larger. When we are angry, our pupils constrict or grow smaller.
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Eye contact is another important facet of eye behavior. When one maintains eye contact with the audience, he or she is perceived as sincere, friendly, and relaxed. Those who don’t maintain eye contact while talking to others are perceived as nervous. In fact, effective orators and communicators use periodic eye checks to find out if the audience members are being attentive or not. Another important function of eyes is expressing intimacy. Eyes help us create ‘connections’ with others. In fact, eyes have been described as ‘windows to the soul’. We communicate important information and feelings through the eyes in addition to oral communication. Eyes also help us encourage or discourage others. For example, a simple glare may stop students from talking, while a warm glance and an encouraging smile often win many friends. Kinesics and body movement
Ray Birdwhistell, an expert in the field of nonverbal communication, coined the term ‘kinesics’ for the different body expressions. ‘Kinesics’ means study of body movements. Five categories of specific body expressions are: Emblems Illustrators Regulators Affect displays and Body manipulators •
•
• • •
Emblems are commonly recognized signs that are used very frequently. These include the OK ring, touching the temple, putting a finger to the lips (asking for silence), the Vsign, the thumbs up sign, etc. Illustrators are signs that are directly related to the verbal messages. For example, spreading spreading the palms often illustrates illustrates the size or length while we talk about something. something. Illustrators help emphasize the verbal message. Regulators include signs like gazes, nods ods, rais raised ed eyeb yebrow rows, etc. etc. thes thesee sig signs help elp us reg regula ulate or cont ontrol rol verb erbal communication. Facial expression like angry stares, wide eyes (fear), trembling hard or knocking knees, indicate one’s internal emotional states. These are called affect aff ect displays. Posture and Gait
The way we stand or sit and the way we walk (gait) are strong indicators of our physical and emotional states. When we are aggressive we sit or stand straight and in an alert 23
manner. When we are defensive we usually sink into our chair or stand with our head, shoulders hanging. When confident we walk with our chin raised, chest puffed, and arms swinging freely. Our legs are often little stiff and our walk has a ‘bounce’ when we are confident. A standing posture with ‘hands on hips’ indicates an aggressive frame of mind. Personal appearance
Physical appearance is one of the most important factors f actors that influence the effectiveness of our interpersonal and group communication. In fact, one’s personal appearance is very very crucia cruciall as it makes makes the all- import important ant ‘first impres impressio sion’. n’. This This is partic particula ularly rly important as advertisements shape our minds day in and day out through all those bea beaut utifu ifull peop people le who who endo endorse rse every everyth thin ing g from from hair hairpi pins ns to aero aero plan planes es.. So we manipulate our personal appearance to look good. We try to accentuate or highlight our best features while hiding and underplaying the others. Clothing
Our clothes provide the visual clue to our personality. Clothes also indicate about one’s age, interests, and attitudes. Information about one’s status can be judged from the clothes’ age, condition, and fashion. Clothes are used as means of keeping up with the late latest st soci social al chan change ges. s. Also Also clot clothe hess are are mean meanss of deco decora rati tion on and and selfself-ex expr pres essi sion on.. Clothing also indicates about a person’s confidence, character, and sociability. These are the reasons why it’s said that ‘clothes make a person’. Touching
It is the most common form of physical contact between human and animals. In fact animals use touching much more frequently and to great effects. Human beings use touchi touching ng to emphas emphasize ize a point, point, interru interrupt, pt, as a calmin calming g gestur gesture, e, to reassu reassure. re. Also, Also, touching is very important to healthy development of children. Proxemics
This is an addition way of communicating by use of ‘space’. Often we place ourselves in certain special relationships with other people and objects. The study of these special factors is called ‘proxemics’. Intimate distance ranges from actual contact to about 18 inches. We allow only intimate persons within this range. Of course, there is forced closeness as in the case of a crowded lift. Social distance is maintained with people with whom we are meeting for the first time. This distance ranges from 4feet to 12 feet.
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Para language
Oral Oral commu communi nica cati tion on does does not not just just occu occurr thro throug ugh h words words utte uttere red. d. The The word wordss are supplemented by a lot of other factors, particularly related to the voice. The pitch, tempo, range, resonance, and quality of voice add a lot of flesh and blood to the words. These These vocal vocal charac character terist istics ics and vocal vocal sounds sounds consti constitut tutee ‘paral ‘paralang anguag uage’. e’. Speaki Speaking ng without pitch variation makes the speech monotonous. ‘Pitch’ is the raising or lowering of our voice. ‘Resonance’ on the other hand is the variation of volume from a quite and thin voice to loud, booming voice. Speaking too fast or too slow is a variation of ‘tempo’. Para language gives us clues about age, sex, emotional states, personality, etc. Smell and taste
We receive a lot of information about our environment through the sense of smell. Like a particular fragrance announces the arrival of a particular person. Body odors also provide clues about a person’s hygienic state. We also send out a lot of information through smell. We use deodorants, body sprays, hanky sprays, etc. To hide smell of onion or garlic we brush our teeth and gargle with mouthwash. Like smell, taste is also a silent sense that receives and sends messages. Environmental factors
Architectural arrangement of objects, interior decoration, colors, time, music, etc are the environmental factors that provide a lot of nonverbal cues and clues. Dim lighting, quite atmo atmosp sphe here re,, and and soft soft musi musicc lead leadss to grea greate terr inti intima macy cy and and has has a soot soothi hing ng affe affect ct.. Similarly, colors also have wide-ranging associations. For example, one turns pink when embarrassed and one sees red r ed when angry. Functions of Nonverbal communication Non- verbal communication plays an important role in any communication situation. If often plays a supplementary role to the verbal content delivered orally. Some other times, nonverbal symbols communicate on their own. More specifically, nonverbal communication serves the following functions: •
•
• • •
Repeating verbal messages Substituting verbal messages Complementing verbal messages Regulating or accenting verbal message and Deception. 25
UNIT 2-MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
•
• • •
Objectives To understand the need for models m odels of communication To discuss the various models of communication To understand these models through diagrams and representations r epresentations
Models of communication communication
To communicate effectively, knowledge of the dynamics underlying the communication process is essential. One way to analyze communication is to present it in the form of a ‘model’. A model is nothing but the mechanistic perspective of human communication that effectively tells at a glance how it works. Severa Severall theori theorists sts have have discus discussed sed the commun communica icatio tion n proces processs in ways ways that that have have important implications for those involved in informal education programs such as extension work. Each of the "models" that we review has a point of vital interest. Communication models come in a variety of forms, ranging from catchy summations to diagrams to mathematical formulas. A model is an abstracted representation of a reality. A good model comes as close to reality as possible and it discusses and explains the reality as clearly as possible. But bei being ng an abst abstra ract ctio ion, n, a mode modell is not not a real realit ity; y; it only only repr repres esen ents ts the the reali reality ty of communication for better understanding of the communication process. For example, an architectural model of a house is only a representation of the house giving a fair idea of the number of rooms, layout, etc. but it is not the house ‘per se’. Thus a model is a pictorial presentation to show the structure of communication process in which various component elements are linked. Arrows are used to depict the transmission of messages from communicators to receiver. Mode Models ls are are base based d on assu assump mpti tion on that that theo theori rist stss make make as to how how commu communi nica cati tion on functions and what affect it has upon individual and society. A variety of models exists all of which strive to explain the different components of communication and the role each plays in the total process.
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Shannon & Weaver Model
Shannon, an acclaimed mathematician, developed this communication model in 1947. Later with Warren Weaver, he perfected it. Thus, this model came to be known as Shannon-Weaver Model. They were the first to develop an engineering model of human communication based on telephone communication. These two researchers were of the opinion that ‘ the ingredients in communication include: (1) a source, (2) a transmitter, (3) a signal, (4) a receiver, and (5) destination. All All huma human n commu communi nica cati tion on has has some some source (informati Shannon's n's information on source source in Shanno terminology), some person, or group of persons with a given purpose, a reason for engaging in communication. Shannon and Weaver’s model is important as it introduces the concept of ‘Noise’. Noise in this model refers to disturbances in the channel that may interfere with the signals transmitted and produce different signals. When you communicate, you have a particular purpose in mind: m ind: •
• • •
You want to show that you're a friendly f riendly person You want to give them some information You want to get them to do something You want to persuade them of your point of view
And so on. You, as the source, have to express your purpose in the form of a message. That message has to be formulated in some kind of code. How do the source's purposes get translated into a code? This requires an encoder. The communication encoder is responsible for taking the ideas of the source and putting them in code, expressing the source's purpose in the form of a message. It's fairly easy to think in terms of source and encoder when you are talking on the phone (transmitter in Shannon's terminology). You are the source of the message and the 'phone is the encoder which does the job of turning your sounds into electrical impu impuls lses es.. The The dist distin inct ctio ion n is not not quit quitee so obvi obviou ouss when when you you thin think k of your yourse self lf communicating face-to-face. In person-to -person communication, the encoding process is performed by the motor skills skills of the source - vocal vocal mechanisms mechanisms (lip and tongue tongue movements, movements, the vocal cords, the lungs, face muscles etc.), muscles in the hand and so on. Some people's encoding systems are not as efficient as others'. So, for example, a disabled person might not be able to control movement of their limbs and so find it difficult to encode the intended non-verbal messages or they may communicate unintended messages. A person who 27
has suffered throat cancer may have had their vocal cords removed. They can encode their messages verbally using an artificial aid, but much of the non-verbal messages most of us send via pitch, intonation, volume, and so on cannot be encoded. Just as a source needs an encoder to translate her purposes into a message, so the receiver needs a decoder to retranslate. For communication to occur, there must be somebody at the other end of the channel. This person or persons can be called the receiver. To put it in Shannon's terms, information transmitters and receivers must be similar systems. If they are not, communication cannot occur. (Actually Shannon used the term destination, reserving the term receiver for what we have called decoder ). ). Feedback is a vital part of communication. When we are talking to someone over the phone, if they don't give us the occasional 'mmmm', 'mmm m', 'aaah', 'yes, I see' and so on, it can be very disconcerting. This lack of feedback explains why most of us don't like telephones telephones.. In face-to-face face-to-face communicatio communication, n, we get feedback in the visual channel as well - head nods, smiles, frowns, changes in posture and orientation, gaze and so on. Advertisers need feedback, which they get in the form of market research. Here, the source is a speaker, the signal is speech, and the destination is the receiver and the transmitter is used to send the message from the source to the receiver. This model is believed to have been derived from a mathematical interpretation of communication for sending or transmitting the message with the help of a technology or manually by human beings.
Source
Transmitter
Signal
Receiver
Destination
Noise
Shannon & Weaver Model In this model, the important objective is transmitting the message. For this process three stages stages have have been been identi identified fied:: techni technical cal,, semant semantic ic and the messag messagee recept reception ion (of the source or the sender). This model has not studied the other concerned or allied areas of
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impact, or effect on the receiver, i.e. destination or his reactions to the message. As a result, the SMCR Model was suggested in its place.
SMCR Model
The basic process of communication, needs a sender and a message that he or she transmits or conveys through some means, say a channel to a receiver who responds, according to his or her understanding of the message, the sender (feedback). This model was advocated by David Berlo, and is also known as the Source-MessageChanne Channell- Receiv Receiver er Model Model of Commun Communica icatio tion. n. This This model model is signifi significan cantt becaus becausee it emphasizes the importance of ‘thorough understanding of human behavior as a prerequis requisite ite to commun communica icatio tion n analys analysis’ is’.. It underl underline iness the role role of the source source and the receiver. The background of the source depends on several variables. The receiver interprets the message depending upon the background -knowledge, skill, attitude, culture, etc. If both the source and receiver were matched in their standing, the communication would be fruitful. Otherwise, there would be gaps.
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Laswell’s Model
When hen Haro arold D. Lasw Laswel ell, l, an Amer Americ ican an poli politi tica call scie scien ntist tist,, aske asked d a basic asic communication question, Who says What in Which channel to Whom with What effect, he propounded a new model of communication. This has since then been known as Laswell’s communication model. It can be represented as under: WHO (Communicator) Says WHAT (Message) In WHICH CHANNEL (Medium) To WHOM (Receiver) With WHAT EFFECT (Effect)
Laswell’s Communication Model Laswell’s simple representation has revolutionized the communication model scene. Lasw Laswel elll hims himsel elff is bel believ ieved to have ave use used it to poin pointt out out disti istin nct type typess of communications research. In fact, he further explained its significance by attaching a particular type of analysis as shown below:
WHO
SAYS WHAT
Source Content studies analysis
IN WHICH CHANNEL
TO WHOM
Media analysis
Audience analysis
WITH WHAT EFFECT Effect analysis
Osgood Model
This model is ‘highly circular’ model. The important characteristic of Osgood’s model is that the message receiver is also a message sender . Thus the message moves in cycles. And the sender and the receiver interact with one another establishing a kind of ‘interactive relationship’ between the source and the receiver where one person may be source one moment and a receiver the next and again a source the following moment. This process mostly takes place in interpersonal communication.
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Message
Decoder
Encoder
Interpreter
Interpreter
Encoder
Decoder Message
Charles E. Osgood’s Model
Dance Model
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This This model model is believ believed ed to be an improv improveme ement nt on the Schram Schramm-Os m-Osgoo good d Circul Circular ar model. According to E.X. Dance, the propounder of this model, communication is activated in a circular manner. It states that once communication process starts it comes back full circle to exactly the same point from which it started. It will influence the receiver more if and when it comes back. For, by that time social processes and other environmental factors would have affected it. This model is more close to interp interpers ersona onall commun communica icatio tion n proces process, s, but fails fails to reflec reflectt or explai explain n all areas areas of communication effectively. Schramm Model
Wilbur Schramm has contributed immensely in mass communication research. He has analyzed and presented communication in new light and explained communication in various ways. One of these is communication with ourselves, communication with one perso person, n, or a group group of person persons, s, commun communica icatio tion n with with mass mass audien audience ce runnin running g into into hundreds of thousands of millions of people. Schramm used Shannon and Weaver’s model to further elaborate and clarify his various concepts of communication. One important conception of his further explains the communication process such as encoder, decoder, redundancy, feedback, and noise, which he included in his model. While the other elements were known earlier, ‘feedback’ ‘ feedback’ and ‘noise’ were new factors and added new dimension to the understanding communication study and research. By feedback we mean ‘response that a receiver makes to the source’s communication. This model has been illustrated as follows:
FEEDBACK A
NOISE
M
FEEDBACK
SCHRAMM’S MODEL
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B
When When A and and B are exch exchan angi ging ng the the mess messag agee (M), (M), feedb feedbac ack k is cons consta tant ntly ly bein being g exchanges. Anyone who is receiving the message attentively would also be reacting instan instantly tly.. He would would be able able to provid providee feedbac feedback k instan instantly tly while face face to face face or interp interpers ersona onall commun communica icatio tion n is in progre progress. ss. Howeve However, r, often often there there are proble problems, ms, difficulties or gaps in understanding and comprehending or following the message. This is caused by ‘noise’ which can make the message ‘ineffective’. Just as while tuning on an electronic gadget, ‘noise’ is caused, similar is the situation in this model too. In many cases, the message suffers detoriation, loss of content or information. The content of the message is determined by the receiver in a manner depending on his personal background, social status, economic position, etc. Gerbner’s Model
In above figure, E stands for event, M for man or machines; S stands for shape (form) while the second E is content. This model suggests that the human communication process maybe regarded as subjective, selective, variable, and unpredictable and that human variables are unpredictable and that human communication systems are open. Though this is a comprehensive model, but it is quite complicated. This model also does not adequately explain the implications of the message for the receiver.
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George Gerbner tried to explain the communication process as an act or technique of communicating a message. His model stresses the necessity of ‘creative, interactive natu nature re of perc percep eptu tual al proc proces esss and and the the impo import rtan ance ce of cont contex extu tual al mean meanin ing g and and comprehensive dealing of human communication’. The author of this model believes that its shape can change depending upon the nature or content of communication. This model is given a verbal and graphic version by the following formula: SOMEONE PERCEIVES ON EVENTS AND REACTS IN A SITUATION THROUGH SOME MEANS TO MAKE AVAILABLE MATERIALS IN SOME FORM AND CONTEXT CONVEYING CONTENT WITH SOME CONSEQUENCES
GERBNER’S MODEL
New Combe’s Model This model takes the shape of a triangle to explain the communication process. It atte attemp mpts ts at eluc elucid idat atin ing g the the role role of comm commun unic icat atio ion n play playss in soci societ ety y on soci social al relationships. The main thrust of this model is that it maintains equilibrium within the social system. It is represented as follows: X
B
A
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Communicators A and B are both senders and receivers. They could be individuals, managements, unions, institutions or anyone. X is a representation of their social environment. Therefore, ABX is a system. This model shows they are all independent systems and their relationships change on interaction. Their closeness depend upon X which which is a place place or social social enviro environme nment. nt. This This model model also also indica indicates tes the increa increased sed relevance of communication as the individuals need more and more information in the new age and fast changing social environment. The model can help in perceiving each other’s problems and sharing them.
Gate Keeping Model This This mode modell was was desi design gned ed by Bruc Brucee We West stle ley y and and Malc Malcol olm m MacL MacLea ean n and and is an extension of Newcombe’s Model. This model is quite frequently used in mass media. It is based on the assumption that messages in mass communication pass through diffe differe rent nt chec checkp kpoi oint ntss call called ed ‘gate ‘gateke keep eper’ er’ befo before re they they are are actu actual ally ly rece receiv ived ed by audience. The ‘gatekeeper’ concept is essentially a term applied to in mass media and is often associated with the news. Gate keeping means that the information has to flow along certain channels, which contain gatekeepers who will permit the information to flow or stop. The process of decision-ma decision-making king depends upon the policies, policies, likes, and dislikes dislikes of the organization. It decides whether the information will be allowed to enter and continue in the channel. The audience, therefore, receives the reporter’s and editor’s version of the day’s event and not necessarily what may be the reality. Thus, interposed between the sender and the audience are the editors whether in print journalism, TV or radio who as gatekeepers, determine what the public reads, listens to or watches. Therefore, the audience’s exposure to an event’s reality is in the gatekeeper’s hands. This model is quite realistic in the modern media scenario, particularly the news media. The only drawback being that it applies only on the mass media and fails to take take accoun accountt of the the relati relations onship hip betwee between n the mass media media and the other other system systemss through which we fit into society like family, work, friendships, school, church, trade unions and all other formal and informal networks of relationship. Normally, one is not as dependent upon the media as this model implies.
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X1 X1 X2
X2
A
C
B
X3 X 3m X3
X 3c X4
Gate keeping Model
A here, is sender who receives messages from many sources X1, X2, X3, X4,…X and according to his perception of event writes a report and sends it to gatekeeper C who performs the editorial-communicating function; that is the process of deciding what and how to commun communicat icate. e. C, ther theref efor ore, e, keep keepin ing g the the spec specifi ificc audi audien ence ce in mind mind,, may may emphasize or deemphasize a certain point in the message to strike a balance and then sends it to the audience B.
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UNIT 3-THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION •
• • •
Objectives To understand the theories of communication To discuss the various theories of communication To understand each theory through diagrams and representations
Mass communication means sharing of information or a message with a large number of people at one place or at several places in one country or many countries. As an American communication scholar Edwin Emery says, “communication is a part of human behaviour”. We ‘communicate with one another by directing a message to one or more of the senses-sight, sound, touch, taste or smell.’many social scientists studied the effect of mass communication within the society. This has resulted in a number of theories which essentially trace the relationship between mass communication and society. However, not a single theory has been universally accepted. Early theories were based on assumptions that mass media have enormous and direct influence upon society. But later researchers provide evidence against any direct cause and effect relationship between mass communication and society. Instead, they underline the importance of indivi individua duall differe difference nce and person personal al influ influenc ences es on transm transmiss ission ion,, accept acceptanc ancee and retention of message. These theories portray mass media as an outcome of changes in society.
Hypodermic needle The "hypodermic needle theory" implied mass media had a direct, immediate, and powerful effect on its audiences. The mass media in the 1940s and 1950s were perceived as a powerful influence on behavior change. As the name ‘Bullet’ theory suggests, the messages were thought to be like magic bullets that were shot directly into the receiver. Several factors contributed to this "strong effects" theory of communication, including: The fast rise and popularization of radio and television The emergence of the persuasion industries, such as advertising and propaganda Focus on the impact of motion pictures, and -
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- Hitler's monopolization of the mass media m edia during WWII to unify the German public behind the Nazi party. The theory suggests that the mass media could influence a very large group of people directly and uniformly by ‘shooting’ or ‘injecting’ them with appropriate messages designed to trigger a desired response. Both images used to express this theory (a bullet and a needle) suggest a powerful and direc directt flow flow of info informa rmati tion on from from the the send sender er to the the rece receiv iver er.. The The bull bullet et theo theory ry graphicall graphically y suggests suggests that the message message is a bullet, fired from the "media gun" into the viewer viewer's 's "head. "head.”” With With simila similarly rly emotiv emotivee imager imagery y the hypode hypodermic rmic needle needle model model suggests suggests that media messages messages are injected straight into a passive passive audience, audience, which is, immediately influenced by the message. They express the view that the media is a dangerous means of communicating an idea because the receiver or audience is powerless to resist the impact of the message. There is no escape from the effect of the message in these models. The population is seen as a sitting duck. People are seen as passive and are seen as having a lot media material "shot" at them. People end up thinking what they are told because there is no other source of information. New assessments assessments that the ‘hypodermic ‘hypodermic needle theory’ or ‘Magic ‘Magic Bullet Bullet Theory’ Theory’ was not accurate came out of election studies in "The People's Choice," (Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet, 1944/1968). The project was conducted during the election of Frankli Franklin n D. Roosev Roosevelt elt in 1940 1940 to determ determine ine votin voting g patter patterns ns and the relati relations onship hip between the media and political behavior. The majority of people remained untouched by the propaganda; interpersonal outlets brought more influence than the media. The effects of the campaign were not all- powerful to where they persuaded helpless audiences uniformly and directly, which is the very definition of what the magic m agic bullet theory does. As focus group testing, questionnaires, and other methods of marketing effectiveness testing came into widespread use; and as more interactive forms of media (e.g.: internet, radio call-in shows, etc.) became available, the magic bullet theory was replaced by a variety of other, more instrumental models, like the two step of flow theory and diffusion of innovations theory.
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Conceptual Model MASS MEDIA
-Isolated individual constituting a mass Magic bullet theory model
Example
The classic example of the application of the Magic Bullet Theory was illustrated on October 30, 1938 when Orson Welles and the newly formed Mercury Theater group broadcasted their radio edition of H.G. Wells' "War of the Worlds." On the eve of Halloween, radio programming was interrupted with a "news bulletin" for the first time. What the audience heard was that Martians had begun an invasion of Earth in a place called Grover's Mill, New Jersey. It became known as the "Panic broadcast" and changed broadcast history, social psych psycholo ology, gy, and civil civil defens defensee and set a standa standard rd for provoc provocati ative ve enterta entertainm inment ent.. Approximat Approximately ely 12 million million people people in the United States heard the broadcast and about one million of those actually believed that a serious alien invasion was underway. A wave of mass hysteria disrupted households, interrupted religious services, caused traffic jams and clogged communication systems. People fled their city homes to seek shelter in more rural areas, raided grocery stores, and began to ration food. The nation was in a state of chaos, and this broadcast was the cause of it. Media theorists have classified the "War of the Worlds" broadcast as the archetypal example of the Magic Bullet Theory. This is exactly how the theory worked, by injecting the message directly into the "bloodstream" of the public, attempting to create a uniform thinking. The effects of the broadcast suggested that the media could manipulate a passive and gullible public, leading theorists to believe this was one of the primary ways media authors shaped audience perception.
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Two step Theory
The above-mentioned study of presidential elections revealed that many voters had limited exposure to the mass media. Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet in The People’s Choice, a 1944 study focused on the process of decisionmaking during a Presidential election campaign, first introduced the two-step flow of communication hypothesis. These researchers expected to find empirical support for the direct influence of media messages on voting intentions. They were surprised to disc discov over er,, howe howeve ver, r, that that infor informa mal, l, perso persona nall cont contac acts ts were were ment mentio ione ned d far far more more frequently than exposure to radio or newspaper as sources of influence on voting behavior. Armed with this data, Katz and Lazarsfeld developed the two-step flow theory of mass communication. The information they received was mostly through other people, called ‘opinion leaders’. This theory asserts that information from the media moves in two distinct stages. First, individuals (opinion leaders) who pay close attention to the mass media and its messages receive the information. Opinion leaders pass on their own interpretations in addition to the actual media content. The term ‘personal influence’ was coined to refer to the process intervening between the media’s direct message and the audience’s ultimate reaction to that message. Opinion leaders are quite influential in getting people to change their attitudes and behaviors and are quite similar to those they influence. The two- step flow theory has improved our understanding of how the mass media influence decision-making. The theory refined the ability to predict the influence of media media messag messages es on audien audience ce behavi behavior, or, and it helped helped explai explain n why certai certain n media media campaigns may have failed to alter audience attitudes and behavior. The two-step flow theory gave way to the multi-step flow theory of mass communication or diffusion of innovation theory. Like other theories, two- step flow has its shortcomings too; first, it diminishes the original, direct influence of mass media; secondly its effects are evident only in polit politica icall studie studiess that that were were conduc conducted ted decade decadess ago when when there there was no televi televisio sion n influence and therefore, may not be as applicable to the contemporary political scene.
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Conceptual Model
Multistep Theory
Further studies on opinion leaders led to the modification and re conceptualization of the two-st two-step ep flow flow concep conceptt into into multimulti-ste step p flow-b flow-beca ecause use of the multi multi -direc -directio tional nal influence of opinion leaders, not necessarily only downwards, when they interpreted the media messages for the audiences. The influence was seen to be ‘upwards’ or back towa toward rdss the the medi mediaa sour source ces, s, when when they they soug sought ht to tell tell gate gateke keep eper erss (edi (edito tors rs of newspapers, news editors of radio and TV news, producers, etc) how to do their job. In addition, the influence was ‘sideways’ when they shared insights with other opinion leaders. Moreover, the multi -step flow concept was seen as having many relay-points, i.e. information reaching a member of the audience directly or reaching him secondhand, third hand or fourth and, and sometimes in a form considerably different from the original. The multi -step flow involves interpersonal communication and later through mass media-the sequential flow of message is very effective. Multi-step messages have various media and networks go a long way in affecting the individuals. The variables,
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which contribute in these steps are: the source, quality, exposure or availability of mass media, extent of audience exposure to communicating agencies, nature and content of the message and finally the importance of the message to the receivers or audiences. Commercial Theory
Commercial theory is also known as the laissez Faire theory. This Theory says that the states should not intervene in economic affairs, except to break up a monopoly. The phrase originated with the Physiocrats, 18th- century French economists whose maxim was laissez faire et laissez passer (literally, ‘let go and let pass’ – that is, leave the indivi individua duall alone alone and let commod commoditi ities es circula circulate te freely freely). ). The degree degree to which which intervention should take place is still one of the chief problems of economics. The Scottish economist Adam Smith justified the theory in The Wealth of Nations (1776). Before the 17th century, control by guilds, local authorities, or the state, of wages, prices, employment, and the training of workers, was taken for granted. As capitalist enterprises developed in the 16th and 17th centuries, entrepreneurs shook off the control of the guilds and local authorities. By the 18th century this process was complete. The reaction against laissez faire began in the mid -19th century and found expression in the factory acts and elsewhere. This reaction was inspired partly by huma humani nita tari rian an prot protes ests ts agai agains nstt the the soci social al cond condit itio ions ns crea create ted d by the the Indu Indust stria riall Revolution and partly by the wish to counter popular unrest of the 1830s and 1840s by removing some of its causes. Mass Mass medi mediaa toda today y plan plan,, prod produc ucee and and diss dissem emin inat atee thei theirr mess messag ages es taki taking ng nto nto cons consid ider erat atio ion n the the comme commerc rcia iall aspe aspect ctss also also.. This This theo theory ry,, ther therefo efore, re, cons consid iders ers consumers as primary targets and avers that mass media produce programmes keeping in view the tastes, needs, wishes and status of the audiences. Mass media are operated by big business houses, monopolies and multinational corporations. These lead to intense competition among programme producers and mass media exercis tremendous manipulative powers. Also there comes about a large variety and diversity of information, opinion and viewpoints reducing the chances of manipulation and lowering professional standards. With the advent of multi- channel programming on television in India since 1990, the laissez-faire environment is amply visible.
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Play theory
Media impacts have been interpreted in a variety of theories and models. Generally, media media are believ believed ed to be exerci exercisin sing g corrup corruptin ting g or danger dangerous ous effects effects on masses masses.. Several communication scholars have highlighted media’s harmful interferences on the audiences. Yet another view is that media provide audiences only with a ‘play experience’. A communication researcher, William Stephenson, has said that media are there to provide pleasure. Newspapers are not read for news or information, but for pleas pleasure ure and entert entertain ainmen ment. t. Stephe Stephenso nson n thus thus conclu concludes des that that entert entertain ainmen mentt is the primary function of mass media. He branded media as ‘ buffer against conditions which would otherwise be anxiety producing producing’. ’. He interprets interprets the impact in these these terms because he feels that mass media protect people from worries by deliberately focusing on the higher aspects of life. He feel feelss that that this this will will ligh lighte ten n the the burde burden n of the the audi audien ence ce.. He beli believ eves es that that soci social al responsibility and several other obligations of people diminish pleasure of life for them. Therefore, the function of the mass media should be to help reduce the stress and pressures on the people and provide such communication as to enhance their pleasure. This theory generally applies to the field of broadcast media. Uses & Gratification
The uses and Gratifications Theory arose out of the studies, which shifted their focus from what the media do to the people to what people do with the media. The ‘uses’ approach assumes that audiences are active and willingly expose themselves to media. The uses of mass media are dependent on the perception, selectivity, and previously held beliefs, values, and interests of the people. The term ‘gratification’ refers to the rewards and satisfaction experienced by audiences after the use of media; it helps to explain motivations behind media use and habits of media use. Three distinct groups of uses and gratifications studies can be distinguished. The first of these groups conducts inquiries into the range of satisfaction derived from mass media material. The second group looks at the social and environment circumstances that are responsible for people turning to the media in the first place. The third looks at the needs audience members are attempting to satisfy. Uses and gratifications theory attempts to explain the uses and functions of the media for for indi indivi vidu dual als, s, grou groups ps,, and and soci societ ety y in gene genera ral. l. Ther Theree are are three three obje object ctiv ives es in developing uses and gratifications theory:
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1. To explain how individuals use mass communication to gratify their needs. “What do people do with the media”? 2.To discover underlying motives for individuals’ media use. 3.To identify the positive and the negative consequences of individual media use as at the core of uses and gratifications theory lays the assumption that audience members actively seek out the mass media to satisfy individual needs. McQuail (2000) summarised uses and gratifications theory into four areas. 1.The first is information, where we use the media to educate us in certain areas, such as learning more about the world, seeking advice on practical matters, or fulfilling our curiosity. 2.The second factor is personal identity, where we may watch television to associate an actor character with our own. For example in the comedy Friends all the actors have different personalities, we as the audience imagines or desires that we were them or resembling them. 3.The third usage of media is integration and social interaction, and refers to gaining insight into the situations of other people, in order to achieve a sense of belonging. For example, when watching a movie, we may get very emotional because we experience a sense of connection to the movie, and experience symptoms like crying, or covering our eyes. Television also facilitates us in our personal relationship with friends as we are able to relate and discuss details of media texts that we like in common with our friends. 4.The fourth usage of the media identified by McQuail is entertainment, that is, using media for purposes of obtaining pleasure and enjoyment, or escapism. For example when we watch TV shows or movies we end up going into a new world of fantasy, diverting our attention from our problems, wasting time when we are free and even sometimes acquiring emotional arousal. As opposed to the play theory, the uses and gratification theory says that ‘media serve a vari variet ety y of need needss stem stemmi ming ng from from the the pers person onal al and and soci social al situ situat atio ions ns of the the individuals’. Generally, the audience use mass media in two ways:compensatory and supplementary. While compensatory use refers using media for education deficiency, need of social social success success or raising raising one’s status. status. Media also helps in extending extending existing existing knowledge parameters. The motives of uses and gratification theory can be subdivided into four main categories:
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1. 2. 3. 4.
Dive Divers rsio ion n Persona Personall relati relations onship hipss Persona Personall identi identity, ty, and Surv Survei eill llan ance ce
All these are based on audiences’ preferences to seek gratification for relief in times of worry, worry, tensio tension n conflic conflict, t, and reinfo reinforce rcemen mentt to meet meet tough tough situat situation ion in social social and personal life. Selective exposure, Perception & Retention theory
Selective exposure occurs when people tend to expose themselves selectively only to communications which are in general accordance with their established convictions and avoid communication which seem to challenge their beliefs. This theory relates to media exposure of the audiences. Selective perception means that the news that is regarded favorably is more likely to be be reca recall lled ed by a read reader er,, view viewer er,, or list listen ener er than than the the item itemss that that are are rega regard rded ed unfavorable. Also, the viewer will shape his or her interpretation of a news event according to one’s attitude. Selective perception also implies the tendencies of media audience members to misperceive and misinterpret persuasive messages in accordance with their own predispositions. Two areas similar to selective perception are: selective exposure and selective retention. Some persons habitually watch Doordarshan news rather than Star news or Zee news, or read Outlook and not read Today. Researchers find that selective retention plays a role in the effectiveness of efforts to change attitu attitudes des throug through h inform informati ationa onall campai campaigns gns.. People People rememb remember er what what they they want want to remember. There is a thin line of difference between selective perception and selective retention. Selection retention, according to Joseph Klapper, occurs when a person who has been expo expose sed d to a commu communi nica cati tion on of a few minu minute tess befo before re,, prese present ntss a dist distort orted ed or incomplete report of its contents, it is difficult to determine whether the content of (media exposure) was selectively perceived in the first place, whether it was correctly perceived but not retained, or whether the two processes complemented one another. The difficulty of making such distinctions is obviously far greater, the period between exposure and report is a matter of days or weeks. Selective retention of pictorial material has greater possibilities. Therefore, as Joseph Klapper points out, selective exposure, selective perception and selective retention do not occur among all people in all communication situations. One or more of these
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processes occur among a stipulated percentage of audience. Researchers have found that about one-third of a group does not practice selective exposure, one-fifth are exposed to more communication opposing their interests. But it has been proved that selective processes do occur most frequently. f requently. Individual difference theory
The psycho psycholog logica icall approa approach ch to unders understan tandin ding g commun communica icatio tion n effect effectss gave gave rise to many theories among which an important one is the individual difference theory. As a differe different nt person personali ality ty reacti reaction on to stimul stimulii is differe different, nt, thus thus indivi individua duals ls will will react react differe differentl ntly y to a partic particula ularr media. media. Melvin gave the the Melvin Defluer Defluer and Everette Everette Denis Denis gave indivi individua duall differ differenc encee theory theory.. Such Such reacti reactions ons are based based on the indivi individua dual’s l’s own own characteristics. Besides, when information flows to individuals, each human being ‘brings a unique pattern of predispositions to mass communication.’ An individual’s needs, attitudes, prior belief, and other cognitive and emotional states play an important part in screening and selecting media exposure and interpretation. This means that certain audiences are selective to what they read, listen to, or watch. Beside Besides, s, as Klapper says says,, it also also mean meanss that that the the patt patter ern n of unde underst rstan andi ding ng and and interpretation of one person may be different from that of another who is attending to identical media content. Thus, recognition of individual differences was an important factor leading to differences in the impact of media output on different individuals. Besides, it also recognizes the existence of different social categories of audiences and with different effects of the media output. The theory also recognizes the existence of different impact on sub cultural groups.
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UNIT 4-ELEMENTS & PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION •
• • •
Objectives To identify and discuss the essential elements of communication To discuss the process of communication To study the role each element plays in communication process
The various elements of the communication process are: •
•
•
•
•
•
•
Input . The sender has an intention to communicate with another person. This intention makes up the content of the message. Sender . The sender encodes the message, e.g. the idea of "piece of furniture to sit on" Thus he gives expression to the content. Channel . The message is sent via a channel, which can be made of a variety of mate materi rial alss. In acou coustic stic commu ommuni niccatio ation n it con consist sistss of air, air, in writt ritten en communication of paper or other writing materials. Noise. The channel is subjected to various sources of noise. One example is telephone communication, where numerous secondary sounds are audible. Even a solid channel such as paper can be crushed or stained. Such phenomena are also noise in the communicative sense. The rece receiv iver er decodes the incomi incoming ng messag message, e, or expres expressio sion. n. He Receiver . The "translates" it and thus receives the Output . This is the content decoded by the receiver. Code. In the process, the relevance of a code becomes obvious: The codes of the sender and receiver must have at least a certain set in common in order to make communication work.
Communication is a dynamic process involving a series of actions and reactions with a view to achieving a goal. How does it work? Think that you ar e in conversation with your your frien friend. d. You You are are a send sender er or commu communi nica cato tor, r, formu formula late te (enc (encod ode) e) an idea idea or message as best as you can, and pass on the message to your friend, who to the best of his ability receives or acts on the message (decode). He responds by formulating his own message and communicates to you (feedback) . If you think your message is understood or well received by your friend, then you go ahead with the next idea that you have in mind and the conversation goes on and on.
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Communication is, therefore, a two way process, that is, the ability to receive is as important as the ability to send. For successful communication, feedback is crucial because it tells how your message is being interpreted. It can make or break the communication process.
Encoder Sender
Decoder Message
Channel
Decoder
Receiver Encoder
Noise
Feedback
Diagram 2.0 Act of Communication In the above diagram, the communicator is the encoder, the message is symbol (verbal or non-verbal), the channel is one of the transmission medium, the receiver is the decoder, feedback is the response to the message, and noise is any interruption that breaks down the communication. Thes These, e, in fact fact,, are the the esse essent ntia iall elem elemen ents ts or ingr ingred edie ient nts, s, whic which h facil facilit itat atee the the commu communi nica cati tion on proc proces ess. s. Each Each elem elemen entt play playss an impo import rtan antt role role in maki making ng the the communication effective: 2.1 Communicator (sender or encoder) is the one who initiates the communication process. He may be an editor, a reporter, a filmmaker, a teacher, a writer, a speaker, a leader, or anybody who takes the initiative to start a dialogue. Before one speaks or writ writes es,, the the mess messag agee is conc concep eptu tual aliz ized ed firs firstt and and then then enco encode ded. d. An effe effect ctiv ivee communication depends on the communication skill, knowledge level, and attitude of the communicator and how he desires to affect his receiver. An ability to think, to organize thoughts quickly, and express himself effectively are some of the attributes of a good communicator.
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Somebody who uses appropriate words, sentences, tone, etc. may be called a good communicator. He does not fumble, does not look for words and all that he says is accompanied by appropriate gestures and delivered at an acceptable pace. Another element, which is mentioned here, is knowledge level. We must m ust be able to find out the knowledge level of the persons on a particular topic before we start the dialogue. Also, a person must never look down upon the people with whom he communicates. He must never think that the receivers are inferior to him. The attitudes of a person should be mature and the minimum respect due to the other person must be extended to him. Encoding is the formulation of messages in the communicator’s mind, that is, the communicat communicator or not only translates translates his purpose purpose (ideas, (ideas, thoughts thoughts or information information)) into a message but also decides on the medium to communicate his planned message. He must choose the media (speaking, writing, signaling or gesturing) that the receiver can comprehend comprehend well. For instance, instance, an illiterate illiterate receiver receiver will fail to understand understand a written written message, but can understand it well if told orally. A message is what a communicator actually produces for transmission using spoken or written words, photographs, photographs, paintings, paintings, films, posters, etc. a great deal of skill and effo effort rt is requ requir ired ed to form formul ulat atee a mess messag age, e, the the mean meanin ing g of whic which h shou should ld be understandable to the receiver. Actually the purpose of communication is to influence the receiver and get favorable responses so that appropriate decisions can be taken. The success of communication, therefore, depends on what we say and how we say it. A messag messagee can enhanc enhancee or distor distortt effecti effective ve commun communica icatio tion. n. For instan instance, ce, in an interview your intention is to impress interviewer, but if you give answers whose meaning is not clear, the interviewer may perceive that you are incompetent for the job. A channel is the vehicle through which a message is carried from the communicator to the receiver. The channels of communication are many-written, spoken, verbal, nonnon-ve verb rbal al,, mass mass medi mediaa like like TV, TV, radi radio, o, news newspa pape pers rs,, book books, s, etc. etc. choo choosi sing ng the the appropriate channel, one most suitable for the message as well as the receiver, is a complicated task.
Success and failure of communication depends on the selection of the right channel. For example, if you have prepared a campaign on ‘National Integration’ what media would you choose to reach the intended audience? And even after selecting the media you have to decide if it is feasible cost wise, taking into account the number of people and the kind of people who will be exposed to your message, and certain other factors. Actually your intention or desire would be to reach out to the maximum number of people but for efficient communication your attempt should be to minimize time and cost in the total information exchange effort. 50
The receiver, at the other end of the communication, is the recipient of the message and must possess the same orientation as the communicator. If the receiver does not have the ability to listen, to read, to think, he will not be able to receive and decode the the mess messaages ges in the the mann manneer the the comm commun uniicato catorr want want him to. to. For For effe effect ctiv ivee communication, the receiver is the most important link in the communication process. Decoding is the interpretation of the message by the receiver. Actually, the receiver looks for the meaning in the message, which is common to both the receiver and the communicator. Feedback is the response or acknowledgement of receiver to the communicator’s messag message. e. The exchan exchange ge is possib possible le only only if the receiv receiver er respon responds. ds. Even Even throug through h fluttering eyelids, raising an eyebrow, making a face, organizing a point and asking for explanation, the message is shaped and reshaped by the communicator and the rece receiv iver er unti untill the the mean meanin ing g beco become mess clea clear. r. In this this way way both both part partic icip ipan ants ts in comm commu unica nicati tio on inte nterac ract and and con constan stantl tly y exch xchange ange rol roles. es. In fac face-t e-to -fac -facee commun communica icatio tion n the receiv receiver er respon responds ds natura naturally lly,, direct directly ly and immedi immediate ately. ly. This This provides the communicator an opportunity to improve and make his communication effective. Feedback, thus, provides an opportunity to evaluate what is right or wrong about a particular communication. It helps to regulate the conversation among two or more individuals and also stimulates and reinforces an idea that is desired to be communicated. Noise is an interruption that can creep in at any point of the communication process and make it ineffective. Environment is one major cause that interferes with message reception: like noises from the roadside, constant chattering of individuals outside the communication act, blaring loudspeaker, faulty transmission, etc. noise can occur in other forms also; poor handwriting, heavy accent or soft speech, communication in a poorly lit room, etc. in fact, these are barriers to effective communication. For smooth and effective communication, it is necessary to eliminate or reduce noise as far as possible.
Shannon breaks the process of communication down into eight discrete components: 1. An information source. Presumably a person who creates a message. 2. The message , which is both sent by the information source and received by the
destination. 3. A transmitter . For Shannon's immediate purpose a telephone instrument that captures an audio signal, converts it into an electronic signal, and amplifies it for for tran transmi smiss ssio ion n throu through gh the the tele teleph phon onee netw networ ork. k. Tran Transm smis issi sion on is read readil ily y generalized within Shannon's information theory to encompass a wide range of 51
transmitters. The simplest transmission system that associated with face-to-face communication has at least two layers of transmission. The first, the mouth (sound) and body (gesture), create and modulate a signal. The second layer, which might also be described as a channel, is built of the air (sound) and light (gestu (gesture) re) that that enable enable the transmiss transmission ion of those those signal signalss from one perso person n to another. A television broadcast would obviously include many more layers, with the addition of cameras and microphones, editing and filtering systems, a national signal distribution network (often satellite), and a local radio wave broadcast antenna. which flows through through a channel. channel. There may be multiple parallel parallel 4. The signal, which signal signals, s, as is the case case in face-to face-to-fa -face ce inter interact action ion where where sound sound and gestur gesturee involve different signal systems that depend on different channels and modes of transmission. There may be multiple serial signals, with sound and/or gesture turned into electronic signals, radio waves, or words and pictures in a book. 5. A carrier or channel, which is represented by the small-unlabeled box in the middle of the model. The most commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves, paper, and postal systems. Note that there may be multip multiple le channe channels ls associ associate ated d with with the multip multiple le layers layers of transm transmiss ission ion,, as described above. 6. Noise , in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carri carried ed.. Give Given n Shan Shanno non' n'ss focu focuss on tele teleph phon onee tran transm smis issi sion on,, carri carrier ers, s, and and recept reception ion,, it should should not be surpri surprisin sing g that that noise noise is restric restricted ted to noise noise that that obscures or obliterates some portion of the signal within the channel. This is a fair fairly ly rest restri rict ctiv ivee noti notion on of nois noise, e, by curre current nt stan standa dards rds,, and and a some somewh what at misleading one. Today we have at least some media, which are so noise free that compressed signals, are constructed with an absolutely minimal amount inform informati ation on and little little likeli likelihoo hood d of signal signal loss. loss. In the proces process, s, Shanno Shannon's n's solu soluti tion on to nois noise, e, redun redunda danc ncy, y, has has been been larg largel ely y repl replac aced ed by a minim minimal ally ly redundant solution: error detection and correction. Today we use noise more as a metaphor for problems associated with effective listening. 7. A receiver. In Shannon's conception, the receiving telephone instrument. In face face-t -too-fa face ce commu communi nica cati tion on a set set of ears ears (soun (sound) d) and and eyes eyes (ges (gestu ture re). ). In television, several layers of receiver, including an antenna and a television set. Presuma mabl bly y a perso person n who who cons consum umes es and and proce process sses es the the 8. A destination. Presu message.
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UNIT 5-HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION •
Objectives
To trace the history of human communication To discuss the each phase involved in this history of human communication • •
Evolution of the brain differentiated humans from animals, as among other things it allowed humans to master a very efficient form of communication. Today, we have developed impressive technologies and machines to keep in communication with each other. other. The techno technolog logies ies like like printi printing ng press, press, teleph telephone one,, films, films, radio, radio, televi televisio sion, n, computers, etc have become very common. The discovery and advancements of these technologies have been truly amazing and extraordinary. The Beginning
Fossils record show that the first development in the evolution of Homo Sapiens (human beings) took place about 70 million years back. Then humans were like rats that lived during the period of dinosaurs. Millions of years passed before the first primates or mammals with flexible hands and feet evolved. Then about five to one millions millions years ago evolved evolved an ape like creature called the Australopithecus Africans. As the name suggests, this creature lived in Africa. It walked upright, lived in caves and and shel shelte ters rs with with the the famil family. y. Then Then appe appear ared ed one one of our our earl early y ance ancest stor orss ( Homo Habilis). They were more advanced and the first one to discover fire. They lived in bigger groups and started the civilization process. Then came the Homo erectus who developed tools like the two-edged hand axes and other cutting tools. Also they had a higher brain volume. The final development occurred when the Cro-Magnon ( Homo sapiens- sapiens) appeared. They lived in caves and other such shelters and used complex tools. Also they were successful hunters and had an elaborate social organization. They learned to preserve food and make make clothe clothes. s. The CroCro- Magnon Magnon also also starte started d carvin carvings gs and cave-pa cave-paint inting ings. s. They They domesticated the animals and began the use of metals. They also started agriculture and were identical to contemporary human beings in appearance and brain capacity. The human evolut evolution ionary ary proces processs became became much much faster faster toward towardss the end. end. Also Also the process of civilization became faster. This was possible because of their greater ability to commu communi nica cate te.. This This abil abilit ity y help helped ed the the earl early y huma human n bein beings gs to inve invent nt,, borro borrow w solutions from others and most importantly to accumulate knowledge. Scientists from 53
various fields have developed the following chronology of development of human communication: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
The age of Signs Signs and Signal Signalss The age age of of Speech Speech and Langua Language ge The The age age of Wr Writ itin ing g The The age age of Prin Print, t, and and The age age of of Mass Mass commu communic nicati ation on
The age of Signs and Signals
The earliest human beings communicated like animals. They used noises and body movements for communication. Certain constituted and mutually understood signals and people living together in a small group used signs. These noises included the growls, grunts, and shrieks. They couldn’t speak then because of their underdeveloped voice box or larynx. They could only make sounds and not utter words. The limited range of sounds and signals made communication difficult. Both encoding and decoding were complex. Using these signs and signals; our ancestors could only communicate about simple concepts and ideas. These simple signs and symbols of our ancestors have now evolved into a well-developed system called ‘kinesics’ or the science of body language. However, in those early days, these signs, signals, and body movements formed a very slow and difficult system and did not allowed lengthy communication. So the communication was slow and simple. Our ancestors also used smoke signals and fire as modes of communication during this period The Age of Speech and Languages
Cro-Magnon man made beautifully crafted stone tools. Also for the first time they started to carve and paint, thus introducing art to the civilization process. They carved representations of animals and human beings from stone, ivory, bone, etc. they also painted cave walls. Many such paintings have been found in Spain and France. The people of this period also made clothes from leather. They had also developed the art of hard harden enin ing g clay clay by the the use use of fire fire.. Abov Abovee all all thes these, e, thei theirr most most impo import rtan antt achievement was the cave paintings. The Cro-Magnon man had a skull structure, tongue, and voice box (larynx) just like today’s man. And with these they could speak. Speech and language seems to have originated about 35,000 to 40,000 ago. Fossil records of Cro-Magnon man show that they live in Neanderthals. Their ancestors also lived in the same place and were physically well developed and much stronger. They were capable hunters as they had 54
developed effective tools. Though the ancestors were well equipped, they became extinct while the much weaker Cro-Magnon survived. The reason being in their ability to communicate. This ability enabled them to pool their mental resources and plan things. Thus, they could overcome the hardships of life and survive. The Cro-Magnons used their ability to communicate to grow towards civilization. They domesticated animals. Also about 10,000 years ago, they developed farming. Instead of wandering from place to place, they settled near riverbanks and grew their food in form of cultivation. While all this was happening, language continued to be developed and polished further. People moving from place to place-learned new languages and spread them. They developed words, numbers, and rules of language, which made the use of language much easier. Most importantly, language development helped in a big way in the change over of human beings from hunting and wandering way of life to the development of great civilizations. While language was not the sole reason for all these, such changes would not have been possible without language. Cave paintings
The cave paintings of Lascaux, the most advanced communication tool of the Stone Age. The oldest known symbols created with the purpose of communication through time are the cave paintings, a form of rock art, dating to the Upper Paleolithic. Just as the small child first learns to draw before it masters more complex forms of communication, so homo sapiens' first attempts at passing information through time took the form of paintings. The oldest known cave painting is that of the Chauvet Cave, dating to around 30,000 BC. Though not well standardized, those paintings contained increasing amounts of information: Cro-Magnon people may have created the first calendar as far back as 15,000 years ago.The connection between drawing and writing is further shown by linguistics: in the Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece the concepts and words of drawing and writing were one and the same.
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The Age of Writing
It took thousands of years for human beings to develop speech and language. After that, it just took few hundred years for writing to be developed. This comparative shorter time span shows that with communication ability, development become much faster. The history of the development of writing includes development from pictorial or pictographic representations to phonetic systems. Pictography represented ideas with the pictures or drawings. The phonetic system uses simple symbols to imply specific sounds. Pictography
Pict Pictur ures es are are repre represe sent ntat atio ions ns of obje object cts, s, scen scenes es,, etc. etc. Thes Thesee do not not help help much much in communication if they are not properly understood. Even today we use captions to supplement photos in newspapers and magazines. So in early period, communication with with the help help of pictor pictorial ial depict depiction ionss was diffic difficult ult as there there was no standa standardi rdized zed encodi encoding ng and decodi decoding ng proces process. s. So the first first step step is the standard standardiza izatio tion n of these these pictu pictures res.. Standa Standardi rdizat zation ion meant meant that that all the receiv receivers ers unders understoo tood d these these pictur picturesessymbols in the same way. This made communication easier. Many such inscriptions of pictures are found in ancient valleys of Mesopotamia and Egypt. These were crudely drawn pictures painted on walls of buildings. These included the sunrise (beginning of a day), bow and arrow (for hunting), a wavy line (a river). The Egyptians simplified this system and also developed a more elaborate system. They developed what are now called ‘glyphs’ or symbolic characters. In the beginning this Egyptians carved these glyphs on stone and later these were drawn or painted. This Egyptian system of picture writing is also called ‘hieroglyph’ which is somewhat similar to today’s Chinese script.
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Hieroglyphs
Hieroglyphs from Häljesta, Scandinavia. Bronze Age. It took about 20,000 years for homo sapiens to move from the first cave paintings to the first Hieroglyphs, which are dated to around 10,000 BC.It is possible that the humans of that time used some other forms of communication likespecially arranged stones, symbols carved in wood or earth, quipu-like ropes, tattoos, but little other than the most durable carved stones has survived to modern times and we can only speculate about their existence based on the observation of primitive cultures such as those of Africa or Oceania.
Phonetic Writing
North to the Persian Gulf, lived another tribe, the Sumerians. They acquired the Egyptian hieroglyphic symbols but found it to be difficult. So they developed their own system of symbols. Instead of using ‘pictures in realistic details, they developed a system of small, simple and stylizes symbols. They used sharpened sticks to draw these pictures on tablets of soft clay. These symbols are now called ‘cuneiform’ writing. Most of these symbols have survived as the clay tablets were baked hard. The most important aspect of the Sumerian system was letting each little stylized symbol stand for a particular sound rather r ather than an object or idea. The The adva advant ntag agee of this this syst system em was was enor enormo mous us.. Inst Instea ead d of thou thousa sand ndss of diffe differen rentt symbols, each representing an object or idea was used. Each symbol was assigned a particular sound and these symbols were combined to form words. This was called the phonetic system. Our present system of alphabetical writing, in which each consonant and vowel has its own sound and character, is a much simplified version of the Egyptian system. The Sumerian system now had only about a hundred symbols instead of the thousands of symbols of the earlier systems. This made literacy easier to acquire as one had to remember only about hundred or so symbols to be able to write.
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Pictograms
.
Pictograph from 1510 telling a story of coming of missionaries to Hispaniola A pictogram (pictograph) is a symbol representing a concept, object, activity, place or event by illustration. Pictography is a form of proto- writing whereby ideas are transmitted through drawing. Pictorgaphs were the next step in the evolution evolution of communicati communication: on: the most important important difference difference between hieroglyphs hieroglyphs and pictograms is that hieroglyphs are simply showing an event, but pictograms are telling a story about the event, thus they can for example be ordered in chronological order. Pictograms were used by various ancient cultures all over the world since around 9000 BC, when tokens marked with simple pictures began to be used to label basic farm produce, and become increasingly popular around 6000-5000 BC.
Alphabetical writing
The next development was Alphabetical writing. This came about 1000years after phonetic writing was developed. People were not satisfied with even the hundred odd symbols so they reduced the symbols to about two dozens. Other development was the simp simpli lifi fica cati tion on of thes thesee symb symbol ols. s. Many Many vari variat atio ions ns of alph alphab abet etic ical al writ writin ing g were were developed around the world. The Greeks by around 500 BC developed the most simplified and standardized form of alphabetical writing. The Greeks also added ‘five’ vowels to the alphabets. These Greek alphabets were passed on to Rome. The Romans modified and improved it even further. They developed the capital and small letters.
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Alphabet
Writing
26th century BC Sumerian cuneiform script in Sumerian language. One of the earliest examples of human writing. A Specimen of typeset fonts and languages, by William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728 Cyclopaedia.
Development of portable media
The pictographic symbols were carved on stone or painted on wall. Same was the case with the Egyptian hieroglyphs. The Sumerian cuneiform writing was ‘written’ on clay tabl tablet etss or ston stonee slab slabs. s. The The bigg bigges estt adva advant ntag agee with with thes thesee was was that that they they were were ‘permanent’ to a great extent and could not be easily destroyed. The biggest problem, however, was that of ‘portability’. These writings, whether done on walls, stone slabs or clay tablets, could not be transported easily. To overcome this problem, the Egyptian developed a kind of durable paper from ‘papyrus’ plants about 2,500 BC. Papyrus was light as compared to stone or clay. Also writing on papyrus was easy using brush and ink. The earlier process of chiseling on stone was laborious and time consuming. Papermaking was first started on the Nile Delta where papyrus plants were found in plenty. Fresh green stems of papyrus were cut, laid crisscross on each other, and
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pounded till they formed one single mass. This mass was then pressed and dried to form paper. The Mayan people, who were among the most advanced spiritually and intellectually found, that the inner bard of ficus trees was light in color and much softer. This bark could be pulled out in big sizes-up to six to eight inches wide and 20 feet long. They cut these sheets of bark, beat them to uniform thickness, dried, and prepared paper. The Mayans were so sophisticated in preparing paper and writing that they had been able to develop complete libraries full of books. Some other civilizations also started making their versions of lighter, easy to write and easily transportable writing material. In India, palm leaves were used for a long time for writing. All this led to easier production of written material, which could be read easily. Religious doctrines and scriptures could be easily recorded. Observations of nature and natural calamities, successful treatment of diseases and many such important things could be recorded. Human mind was now freed from the burdensome task of having to remember entire cult cultur ures es and and repr reprod oduc ucee them them thro throug ugh h memo memory ry.. The The huma human n mind mind coul could d now now concentrate on more productive ventures. The age of Print
Prin Printting ing was one of the grea reatest test huma human n acco accomp mpli lish shme men nts in the fiel field d of communication after the development of language and writing. The earliest attempt at printing involved preparing printing plates by carving wooden blocks, stone tablets, or metal plates. The text matter and other matter to be printed were transformed into a raised and reverse format. This was done to facilitate transfer of ink from the raised surface. Later it became known as ‘relief printing’. All these activities including engraving, inking, and transforming the images on to paper paper were done by hand. hand. This manual practice was time-consum time-consuming, ing, laborious, laborious, and prone to errors. Also the end result was not of good quality. More number of copies could not be printed. Also not much works could be done by this method. By the fifteenth century, many parts of the world had developed technology for producing paper and ink along with a technique for printing manually. The biggest change came in the middle part of the fifteenth century and Johann Guttenberg; a goldsmith from Germany was the moving force behind this revolution. He is credited with the two important developments, movable types, and mechanical printing press .
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Guttenberg experimented for years before he came up with square shaped metal castings bearing individual alphabets on them. These alphabets were raised and in reverse. This way originated readymade movable types and all was needed as to arrange the ready-made types in the required r equired sequence. The other invention of Guttenberg was the mechanical printing press. He was inspired by the juice-making machine, which was being operated by his wife. He developed a machine that had two platforms, a mobile one for the plate of type or image plate and one stationary one for the paper. Other Other modifi modificat cation ionss includ included ed a proces processs for inking inking and finall finally y a mechan mechanism ism for bri bring ngin ing g the the two two surf surfac aces es toge togeth ther er for for the the tran transf sfer er of imag images es.. Usin Using g his his two two inventions, Guttenberg printed an elaborated decorated book, ’42-line Bible’. It is one of the finest examples of the printer’s art ever produced. Sadly, he never got anything out of his 20 years long passionate mission and died in poverty some ten years after inventing what was perhaps the biggest inventions after the wheel. Spread of literacy
The beginning of the sixteenth century saw thousands of books being published in great numbers. From religious books to educational books, printing finally led to newspapers. And by the eighteenth century, newspaper had become a powerful tool of communication. The greatest effect of printing were: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Expression Expression of knowle knowledge dge covering covering a broad broad range range of ideas and and feelings feelings Perma Permane nenc ncee of rec recor ords ds Swif Swiftn tnes ess, s, and and Diffusion Diffusion of of informatio information n to all all classes classes of people people
The age of Mass Communication
Printing started a new era of communication as people around the world got to know about developments in other parts of the world. This led to new inventions and discoveries. By mid-nineteenth century, telegraphy was invented. Though it was not a means of mass communication, it was indeed a great initiation, which resulted in the development of radio and television broadcasting technologies. Motion pictures made th th their way in the end of the 19 century. The 20 century began with cinema becoming accepted as a medium of entertainment. Radio broadcasting began in 1920 and two decades later, in 1940, came the television.
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While radio and television were spreading all over the world, new media were being invent invented. ed. Cable Cable TV, VCR, VCR, etc. etc. follow followed ed soon. soon. Satell Satellite ite techno technolog logy, y, which which was developed much earlier, was used for weather forecast, etc, was now being used for broadcasting. This gave birth to the concept of satellite radio and satellite television. Next came the computers, which were initially used for calculating and computing. Soon satellites and computers were brought together to form a network connecting people all over the world. The international network or Internet with its world wide web (WWW) has finally turned the world into a global village.
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UNIT 6-BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION •
• •
Objectives To study the language and semantic barriers To discuss organizational, physical, and socio-psychological barriers
Introduction
Plan Planni ning ng,, prep prepar arat atio ion n and and pract ractic icee of comm commun unic icat atio ion n will will be inco incomp mple lete te and and unsucc unsuccess essful ful unless unless one identi identifie fiess and unders understan tands ds the barrie barriers rs of commun communica icatio tion. n. These barriers are physical, sociological, and psychological obstacles that interfere with the planning, organization, transmission, and understanding of the message. There are a number number of such obstacles obstacles that can occur in the process process of communication. communication. The natural result of such obstacles or interfering factors is the misunderstanding of the message. These factors interfere with the self-confidence, self-disclosure, and self-consciousness of the communication senders and receivers. The barriers of communication are dangers to any organization if they are not removed on time. When the communicator transmits the idea in an unchanged and undistorted form to the receiver and the receiver responds to it, then, the process of the communication is supposed to have been perfect. But this process of ‘perfect’ communication can never exist due to the number of factors, which stand in its way as the barriers. The communicator has to identify and understand the reasons for poor communication in order to communicate effectively. Understanding the process of communication is the first step towards improving the abilities and skills of communication, but understanding the factors that prevent us in transmitting the exact meaning is very essential for effective communication. Language Barrier Lack of common language
Lang Langua uage ge uses uses oral oral or writ writte ten n symb symbol olss to tran transm smit it mean meanin ings gs from from one one pers person on to anot anothe her. r. Ever Every y human human lang langua uage ge has has its its own own voca vocall symb symbol ol syst system em and and its its own own gramma grammatic tical al struct structure ures. s. If the commun communica icator tor and the receiv receiver er belong belong to differ different ent language groups, their ignorance of each other’s language or the lack of common language will be a barrier to communication between them. It is not possible for them to communicate with each other unless they know some common language, which is properly, understood by both of them. An English speaking boy and a Tamil speaking
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boy boy will will not not be able able to commu communi nica cate te with withou outt a good good know knowle ledg dgee of each each othe other’s r’s language. If both of them know a common language, says Hindi their knowledge of Hindi word, phrases, clauses, and sentence-structure should be adequate to express their thoughts and feelings. Semantic Barrier
Words are said to have no meaning but they represent arbitrary meaning associated with it. A word may have a variety of meanings and the meaning attributed to a word by the communicator may not be the same as that of the receiver’s attributed meanings of that word. A word can have different meaning to different people at different occasions. It is found by the experts that people attributes 14,000 different meanings to 500 commonly used English words. Therefore, the sender and receiver are many a time likely to attribute different meaning to the same word. Sometimes, they may use different words to communicate the same meaning. There are many words in English such as light, cheap, etc. which can be used with favorable as well as unfavorable connotations. A word word can stand stand for its positi positive ve or negati negative ve connot connotati ations ons.. Someti Sometimes mes,, the receiv receiver er wrongly enters the intended meaning of the sender’s word by attributing negative meaning to it. Poor vocabulary
Poor vocabulary makes our message more difficult and less effective. Our pen falters and tongue fumbles when we probe into our brain for a suitable word or phrase. The words have different connotative and denotative meanings. The communicator needs to know them clearly in order to use them with clarity and precision. Words stand not only for their meanings but they are also charged with action and emotions. When the communicator and the receiver understand these word-associations, they are capable of using them as living entities. Poor vocabulary does not allow the communicator to write or speak effectively. If does not allow the receiver to understand the message clearly. If the the rece receiv iver er does does not not unde unders rsta tand nd the the word words, s, he cann cannot ot prop proper erly ly comp compre rehe hend nd the the sentences. Poor grammar and punctuation
Poor knowledge of grammar and punctuation is a barrier to verbal communication. A good vocabulary is useless unless the communicator acquires the knowledge of how to use it in a sentence. More than ever before, the people involved in written and oral communicat communication ion today must have superior superior grammar grammar skills skills because because an understand understanding ing of grammatical structures provide excellent basis for effective writing, speaking, listening
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and reading skills. If the communicator is not able to choose the correct verb form that agrees with a given noun or pronoun, if he is not able to select exact adjective or adverb, or to join the words properly, he will not be able to communicate his ideas, thoughts and feelings fully and correctly. In addition to a good grammar, knowledge of punctuati punctuation on is essential essential for effective effective communication communication.. Many of us do not pay adequate adequate attention to it. But it must be remembered that the faulty and improper punctuation can change change the intend intended ed meanin meaning g of the sentence sentence.. The absenc absencee or mispla misplacem cement ent of a ‘comma’ can prove to be misleading to the reader. Roundabout Verbiage
Roundabout Verbiage consists of the usage of overworked, troublesome, and exhausted words and phrases, which usually cause a considerable amount of misunderstanding and confusion. It is a long-winded way of saying the meaningless padding. By avoiding such roundabout verbiage, we can add a good deal of liveliness and simplicity of expression to our written as well as our oral communication. For example, instead of saying ‘in the majority of cases’ or ‘ in a number of instances’, we can say ‘some’ or ‘ usually’ instead of saying ‘ commence’ we can use ‘start’ or ‘ begin’. By omitting such words and phrases, we can save the message from hollow pomposity. Physical Barriers Noise
It interferes with the transmission of the signals. It also refers to the ‘unwanted’ signals of messages, which interferes and disturb the reception of the wanted signals. This disturbance is usually in the form of sounds, but it need not be always the sounds. It can be in visual, audio-visual, written, physical or psychological form also. There are many people who communicate with a little signal and much noise. In fact, they communicate extraneous matters, which may diminish the interest in the receivers or may even annoy them them.. Anyw Anyway ay,, they they tell tell the the rece receiv iver er some someth thin ing g more more than than they they are are requ require ired d to communicate. Their extraneous distracting signal can be the result of their wandering minds-it can be because they try to communicate something more about themselves. Technical or physical noise refers to loud noise of the machines or blaring noise of the stereo and such other noises, which makes it difficult for any listener to receive the ‘wanted’ message. Visual noise can be experienced when a committee member arrives late at the meeting hall and all the committee members are distracted by his arrival. Poor telephone connection which interrupt conversations, smudged typescripts and bad handwriting are some examples of the technical noise.
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Time
The frequency of communication encounters affects the human relationships and the intensity of human relations is affected by the amount of time that passes between these encounters. If the employee does not communicate with their superiors for a long time, or if husband and wife stay away from each other for a ling time, it may create a communication gap between them, which may affect their relationship. Time can act as a barrier to communication in some other ways also. A guest who arrives at midnight will not be able to communicate well with the host who might feel embarrassed or disturbed in his sleep. Time will not allow two communicators to talk to each other if they work in different shifts. A phone call at midnight can irritate or embarrass the receiver. A husband who keeps his wife waiting for a long time will not find it easy to communicate with her.
Distance
The distance between the communicator and the receiver can be a strong barrier to communication, if the technical devices of communication such as telephone, telefax, etc are not available available to link them. Faulty sitting sitting arrangement arrangement in the office can create a kind kind of commu communi nica cati tion on gap, gap, whic which h can can be elim elimin inat ated ed by adju adjust stin ing g the the dist distan ance ce.. Dist Distan ance ce betw betwee een n the the work workbe benc nche hess in the the offi office cess or in the the mode modern rn prod produc ucti tion on departments and half partitions between them are the distance barriers, which severely limit the communication among the employees. By minimizing the physical distance down to the personal distance that ranges from 1.5 to 4 feet. The boss can minimize the status difference between himself and his employees. A friend or a colleague who ceases to maintain the personal distance, i.e. 1.5 to 4feet, and keeps himself always beyond the distances of 12 to 25 feet f eet is a friend who keeps communication gap. Age
The age, maturity, educational background, and the eras in which a person grows up make a generation generation,, which inevitably inevitably comes in the way of human communicat communication. ion. The generation gap becomes obvious in their use of vocabulary and style of speeches and the values of life to which they stick or adhere. Considering his age and maturity, we tend to apply different standards of judgment to judge the statements of the speaker. For example, in an organization older workers gradually form their social group, which often remains apart from the younger workers. Their likings and interests are different and they take less interest in sports, cocktail parties, and movies. Gradually, the older
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workers feel socially isolated and insecure because of the widening gap of communication between the older workers and the younger workers. Sex
Men and women communicate with one another according to their sex. When they work together in a group, men tend to be more assertive, acquisitive, self-confidence and aggressive than the women. This may be because a five year boy is encouraged to ‘hit back’ by his father, but the boy’s sister is told that girls ‘don’t fight’. Thus, sex stands as a barrier to a direct, honest, and appropriate expression of a female’s thoughts, opinions, and beliefs. On the other hand, man is more assertive of his thoughts and opinions. It is found that women are more likely than men to express their emotions and feelings about a situation. But, it must be remembered that these are general tendencies of sex-typed communication behavior and not the rules. The girls tend to be less aggressive because they receive negative results such as rejection, criticism for such behavior. They are brought up with the feeling that aggressiveness is unfeminine. A girl, who is brought up with such feminine conceptions about her, may try to avoid a frank eye contact with the interviewer and may even speak in a voice that is almost inaudible. Social-psychological Social-psychological Barriers Status barrier
Statue is a position or social rank of a person in a group. It depends on the person’s abilities, amount of pay, job-skills, seniority, type of work assigned, age, etc. statue reflects the degree of power, authority, importance and responsibility placed on an individual by the other people in the society. The people at the lower status are usually afraid of communication unpleasant and unfavorable information to the high-status people. They get scared of entering into the air-conditioned cabins with runs on the floor and a number of telephones on the table. They become conspicuous of their own status in relationship with the status of their superiors. This status consciousness consciousness is harmful harmful in the process of upward upward communica communication. tion. People fear fear that that the unplea unpleasan santt facts facts commun communica icated ted to their their superi superior or might might bring bring advers adversee effects on them, if the information displeases the superiors. They are reluctant to communicate their problems, shortcomings, mistakes and other unfavorable information to the the high higher er-u -ups ps beca becaus usee of thei theirr fear fear that that the the supe superi rior or migh mightt cons consid ider er them them incompetent and unworthy to do their jobs. They do not show courage of offering suggestions and plans of improving the organization and its procedures f or the fear of
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being called arrogant by their superiors. The high -ups too are strongly conscious of their status. In order to safeguard the dignity of their status, they avoid accepting suggestions fro m the subordinates and presume that their higher status stands for better knowledge and competence than any of their subordinates. These assumptions prove serious barriers to communication between them. Attitudes and values
The attitudes serve the personal needs of the people. They provide need satisfaction to the individuals. When the message is unfavorable to the receiver, he cannot be easily persuaded by it. The people in terms of their attitudes and values interpret the message. Their attitudes and values are different not merely because they are physically different but also because they have different backgrounds. They deal with the individuals and events according to their attitudes and assumptions. Their personal attitudes, values, and opinions are the barriers to an effective communication. The most agreeable information for anybody of us is the one, which is favorable and palat palatabl ablee to our our opinio opinions, ns, values values,, norms, norms, and attitu attitudes des.. The messag message, e, which which runs runs contrary to our views and beliefs, is not easily acceptable to us even when it is factual and true. We promptly promptly accept the government government policy policy if it is favorable to our business, business, but we express our strong resentment towards it if it adversely affect our business. Even the process of interpreting the message is consistent with the existing attitudes and values. It is due to the fact that our thinking is colored and characterized by our attitudes and values. Sometimes, these attitudes and values can have emotional basis. Such attitudes are extremely difficult to change. Different perception of reality
Francis Bacon has said, ‘ Man prefers to believe what he prefers to be true’. The indivi individua duall experi experienc ences es and their their interp interpreta retatio tions ns are never never identi identical cal becaus becausee their their perceptions are different. If two friends see a movie together, their interpretation, of the events and the characters in it will certainly be different. The communication barrier arises as a result of different selective perceptions of the same object or idea by two or more people. Our physical senses like hearing, sight, taste, touch and smell are our contacts with the physical world. Some people have limited range and power of their senses, whereas some people have very acute and strong senses. These physical differences are also responsible for different perceptions of the existing things. Human needs are strong motivating factors, which can very easily alter his perceptions. Poor children tend to estimate a coin of 50 paise to be physically
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larger than the children coming from the rich families. We create our own reality through selective perception, which hides certain things that are there and see certain more things than which are present there. Inference
Our everyday life is full of various activities based on inference. When we get up from bed at 8.00 a.m. we infer that mummy might have already started her housework. When we sit down at a table to write, we infer that the chair will support our weight and ink will flow from the pen. Thus, the statements, which are based on the facts and go beyond the facts, are inferences. We may have good reason to expect that our inferences will be correct, but they may prove incorrect due to some unpredicted probability. As inferences go beyond the facts in making certain statements, they can give wrong signals too. We are to interpret symbols on the basis of assumptions, which usually prove correct, but we must be aware of the probability that they may sometimes prove incorrect. When we travel in the state transport bus, we infer that we may reach safely at our destination, but this inference may not prove correct if the bus is caught in some accident. The inferences drawn by the specialist are many a time reliable because they are based on verified facts, but the inferences of the non -experts should be accepted after receiving more feedback from the concerned people. Abstracting
We use use lang langua uage ge to commu communi nica cate te our our expe experie rienc nces es and and feel feelin ings gs,, but but we cann cannot ot communicate every detail of it. We cannot communicate every detail of our experience to others. Also, we focus our attention on some details and do not bother about the rest. We prepare a business report on our observations of the various events in the market. While preparing it, we abstract the reality and report only the valuable characteristics of the market. We observe partially and communicate partially because our experience of the event is also partial. When we try to convert our experiences and observations into words, we further abstract it by using selected words, which involve leaving out the details. If we try to completely describe a simple object like a ‘shoe’ we would require several volumes for it, which would still be insufficient to describe the object. Closed-Mindedness
A person may close his mind to communicate receptions, if he considers himself to be a person who knows ‘all’ about a particular subject. It is very difficult to communicate
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with a man who has deeply rooted prejudiced mind. Such a man is not prepared to receive any message on a subject about which he assumes to know everything. His mind is closed to new ideas, facts, and suggestions. If an employee approaches his closes-minded boss with some suggestions to improve the work of a business unit, the boss would retort the employee by saying that he knows better than the latter regarding what should be done for the betterment of the organization. Perhaps, he may further warn warn the the empl employ oyee ee that that the the latt latter er shou should ld neve neverr try try to teac teach h him him agai again. n. Thus Thus,, he completely rejects the information and recommendations of the communicator even before before he knows knows the real facts. The reason behind his closed-mindedn closed-mindedness ess is his deeply rooted prejudices. Distortion, filtering and editing
When a message is transmitted through translations, interpretations, explanations, and simplifications, some part of it gets distorted or lost. The accuracy of the message is lost and the transmission becomes imperfect as the message goes through the filters of translations and simplifications. The upward communication also tends to be distorted and filtered. The negative effects of the informal channel like grapevine are due to distortions and filtering. The message in grapevine receives fresh additions with every repeti repetitio tion n until until it gets gets worst. worst. Thus, Thus, often often the origin original al inform informati ation on commun communica icated ted through formal and informal channels gets lost or distorted to a large extent and very little of it is retained. r etained. Bad listening
Bad listening is one of the major communication problems. Misunderstanding and conflicts can be reduced if people would listen the message with enough attention. Most peopl peoplee do not listen listen very very well well due to variou variouss distra distracti ctions ons,, emotio emotions, ns, excite excitemen ment, t, indifference, aggressiveness, and wandering attention. One of the major reasons for bad listening is an individual’s continual thinking about his own problems and worries. The poor listeners always feel that the thought in his mind is more interesting than what the speaker is saying. A college student involves himself in thinking about his girl friend rather than listening to the lecture of his professor. Bad listening can also be due to some strong reason for worrying. An employee may get engrossed in worrying about the sickness of his daughter rather than listening to the instructions given by his manager. Some listeners mentally argue with the speaker before comprehending the complete message. This usually leads to misunderstanding and conflict. Their impatience to talk out their thoughts and their lack of interest in the message contents are strong barriers to communication.
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Emotions
Negative emotions are obstacles in the communication. Emotions are our feelings about the world around us. Usually, the positive emotions such as joy, love, or affection do not interfere with communication, but the negative emotions act as strong barriers to effective communication. Emotionally excited communicator is unable to organize his message properly. His excited or nervous state of mind does not allow him to think clearly. He expresses his blurred thoughts with gesticulations and keeps on repeating the same words. He cannot even grasp the message sent by the communicator in its true sens sense. e. This This is espe especi cial ally ly true true when when one’s one’s nega negati tive ve emot emotio ion n is unco uncont ntro roll lled ed and and misdirected. It makes him blind for reason. Almost anybody who comes across such an irritated person becomes a victim of his unfocused negative emotions. The perplexed, nervous, and excited state of mind never allows smooth flow of communication. Resistance to change
If we receive a message, which proposes a new idea, we tend to be inattentive to it. The new idea is rejected consciously or sometimes unconsciously if it conflicts with our beliefs, morals, values, attitudes and opinions of the receiver. The average adult human mind ignores the new idea, especially when he feels insecurity and uncertainty about its aftermath. He feels that the things go along just fine with him and he would be insecure if the changes are introduced. He is also suspicious about its success in future. Because of its uncertainty, he hastily concludes in his mind that the proposal would not be successful. He even further feels that the proposal would make things worst for him. The new idea is considered as a drastic proposal, which is not needed. Thus, the average human uman min mind, which hich resi resist stss cha change nge, does oes not not acce accep pt the the new new ide ideas fro from the communicator.
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UNIT 7-TOOLS OF COMMUNICATION Tools for Communication Communication
In Tools Tools for Commun Communica icatio tion n you will will be explo explorin ring g the compon component entss of effect effective ive commu communi nica cati tion on.. They They are refl reflec ecti tive ve list listen enin ing, g, iden identi tifyi fying ng nonv nonver erba ball cues cues,, and and responding with understanding and using effective problem solving techniques. Thus Thus,, thes thesee tech techni niqu ques es of commu communi nica cati tion on are are usefu usefull to incr increa ease se your your perso persona nall effectiveness at home, at work, in the community, in relationships, and with yourself. Opening up yourself to your feelings and the feelings f eelings of others requires practice. All forms of life upon the planet Earth were granted one great and wondrous gift: the gift of communication. Instead of being forced to exist in solitude, this gift allows interaction, a sharing of feelings. Humans are especially fortunate because they have developed many ways to use their gift. These include music, dance, art, theater, literature, gestures, the written word, and word of mouth. The creation of different ways to communicate does not mean we can sit back and take our gift for granted. When we were infants, all we needed to do was cry and our desire for food, a clean diaper, or love and nurturing companionship was met. Now that we are older, however, we can no longer count on others to interpret our cries. We must use our gift of communication effectively through clarification, patie patience nce,, unders understan tandin ding, g, sympat sympathy, hy, intell intellige igence nce,, compas compassio sion, n, and tact; tact; we must must exercise self- control so others can use the gift of communication by careful, effective listening. By sharing this gift of communication mankind is exalted. The following tool toolss of commu ommuni niccatio ation n shou should ld be shar sharp pened ened and pol polishe ished d for for effe effecctiv tive communication: DICTION The extent of vocabulary and choice of appropriate words
The use of words depends not only on the given subject but also on the occasion, media, the type of communication receivers, and the conditions under which a person communicates. The essential vocabulary for discussing a technical problem in an
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engineering industry will be different from that which is used for a similar purpose in an agricultural industry. A communicator can be found using different vocabulary for the the oral oral and and writ writte ten n medi media. a. Simi Simila larl rly, y, one one will will use use diffe differe rent nt voca vocabu bula lary ry whil whilee expr expres essi sing ng his his thou though ghts ts befo before re the the peop people le in diffe differen rentt walk walkss of life life.. In every every communication situation, the choice of appropriate words aims at adapting them to the understanding of the receivers. Technical Technical vocabulary vocabulary may be essential essential for discussion discussionss on technical problems problems among the group of professionals, but if such vocabulary is used before the general public or to a layman, it will not be properly understood. The jargons and technical words are intelligible only to the people working in a particular field and such words can sound strang strangee and mislea misleadin ding g to the common common man. man. The journa journalis lists, ts, good good writer writers, s, and speakers generally use standard vocabulary. It is appropriate for all occasions and for all the people. Colloquial and slag words
Colloquial words and expressions can be used in informal communications situations, especially in informal social groups, but it can be object able in formal speech and writing. Slang is a vocabulary, which consists of widely current and humor words. It also refers to violent and abusive use of words in a language. language. It is commonly commonly used in talk but it is unsuitable for good writing and speech at formal occasions. Efficacy of words
A succ succes essfu sfull commu communi nica cato torr care carefu full lly y sele select ctss the the words words,, whic which h have have posi positi tive ve connotations. He is keenly aware of the receiver’s potential reactions to his words. He anticipates the possible interpretations of the words by the audience or the reader who receive the message. He uses concrete words that carry specific and clear meaning instead of using abstract words that carry vague meaning. Avoid pompous words and use simple everyday words. Positive words used at the beginning of the message, or at the time of greeting someone face-to-face, can create warm, friendly, and comfortable atmosphere. Similarly, a lengthy message can have its negative effect on the receiver. Most people value their time so unnecessary words should be avoided and correct words selected to express thoughts and feelings. SENTENCE Along Along with with the words words select selected ed in a parti particul cular ar senten sentence, ce, correc correctne tness ss in grammar grammar,, spelling, and tone of a sentence, variety in sentence pattern, special emphasis on ideas, conciseness of expression, length of a sentence, phrases in a sentence, repetition and
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the style of speech and writing are some of the factors to study effectiveness in a sentence. Variety in sentence structure
Variety Variety in sentence sentence structure is required required for effective effective speech and writing. writing. In order order to avoid monotony, the successive sentences should be written in variety of sentence structure. Repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of every sentence results in monotony. Similarly if every sentence follows the same pattern, the message will be dull and monotonous. Use variety of sentence patterns, as it will stimulate the receiver’s interest in the message and thereby help him to read the message carefully and to understand it thoroughly. Repetition of words, phrases, and clauses
A series of sentences, each consisting co-ordinate clauses connected by ‘and’, ‘or’ and ‘but’ can result in a monotonous message. Careless repetition of the same sentence pat patte tern rn is ofte often n a resu result lt of comm commun unic icat ator or’s ’s limi limite ted d voca vocabu bula lary ry and and inad inadeq equa uate te knowledge of phrase and clause structure. It may also result from his unwillingness to make efforts for finding a substitute sentence pattern to express the same thought or feeling. In order to avoid the repetition of certain words belonging to a certain part of speech, the communicator has either to change the sentence pattern or has to substitute the word with a synonym. A word can have several shades of meanings, but the same word should not be used in two or more different senses in the same sentence. Giving special emphasis
A short sentence can be a means of effective expression if it is used properly. If a thought or an idea is to be given a stand or prominence, it can be conveniently placed in the pattern of a short simple sentence. But, the habitual use of short sentence usually results in a jerky style of speech or writing. In order to avoid the habitual use of short sentences, care must be taken to restrict the use of short sentences for the purpose of giving special emphasis on a particular thought or idea in the mind of the communicator. While emphasizing certain idea in a sentence orally, the communicator can make use of the variations in his voice and gestures, but, while emphasizing it in a written sentence, he can underline or capitalize certain words, phrases, or clauses. He can position the key word at the beginning of the sentence to draw attention of the reader to the key idea. The most prominent positions in a sentence are the beginning and the end, and such positions in a sentence are the key words. Thus by transporting a word
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from its normal normal position position to the beginning beginning of the sentence, sentence, the writer writer places places the word on the stage. Similarly, he can end a sentence with a worthwhile emphatic word or phrase. Conversational Conversational Tone
The The commu communi nica cato torr must must use use plea pleasa sant nt and and posi positi tive ve conv convers ersat atio iona nall words words in the the sentences constructed in active voice. The active voice sentences are more direct, more forceful and thereby more conversational than the sentences written in passive voice. A common fault in the effort of achieving conversational tone of a sentence occurs when the communicator uses pet words and phrases to describe people, places, actions, occasions, and objects. The unnecessary, overused, and superfluous words and phrases, like ‘you know’, ‘you see’, ‘do you get my point’, should be eliminated from the conversation. THE PARAGRAPH A paragraph is a group of related sentences that deal with a distinct unit of thought for a spec specif ific ic purp purpos osee of deve develo lopi ping ng the the subj subjec ectt of an arti articl cle. e. Each Each sent senten ence ce in a paragraph presents a smaller division of thought and each paragraph, as a part of an article as whole is concerned with a different unit of thought that contributes to the development of theme. Organization of thoughts and ideas
Every sentence in a paragraph has definite purpose of contributing a smaller division of thought to the developmen developmentt of the topic. The first sentence sentence of a paragraph paragraph usually usually open openss with with the the main main idea idea and and the the foll follow owin ing g sent senten ence cess are used used for for pres presen enti ting ng supporting material. Presenting the relevant facts at the beginning and announcing the main idea or final decision at the end is an indirect approach pattern. The end of the paragraph comes logically after the discussion of the main and supporting material of the paragraph. Sometimes it restates the topic statement sentence with which the paragraph begins. Third way of paragraph ending is to paraphrase the topic by giving an exact statement of the ideas covered in the paragraph. Coherence
There must be logical relation between any two successive paragraphs, which consists two different phases of thoughts. In the succeeding para the discussion in the previous paragraph is completed. The paragraphs, which are closely and logically related in
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thoughts, are grouped together. Using the transition devices between them indicates the logical sequence between such paragraphs. Length of paragraphs
The length of each paragraph in a letter, memo, or report can have its visual impact on the reader. Besides the cognitive effect of its thought content, the visual effect of the length of a paragraph can be a controlling factor of the reader’s reactions. The heavy blocks of long paragraphs certainly discourage the reader to continue his reading. The short paragraphs, on the other hand, break up the heavy look of the reading material. The visual impact of too many short paragraphs is as negative as that of the overly long paragraph. The thought in short paragraphs can be more readily grasped than that in the larger ones, but each paragraph in itself should have sufficient importance to be treated as a separate and properly developed paragraph. PUNCTUATIONS In oral communication we use pauses, intonations, gestures, volume and non-verbal body language language to help the receiver to see the ‘points ‘points of division’ division’ and the ‘relation ‘relation in thought’ between the words, phrases, clauses and sentences. But, these and many other tools of oral communication are not avoidable to us in written communication. In a written message, punctuation helps the reader to understand the points of division in the sentences. Punctuation marks allow us to tell the reader about the pauses and points of division that further indicate the relation in thought between those groups in the sentence. Punctuation bridges or breaks the thought content of the words or word groups in a sentence. If the appropriate punctuation marks are not used, the writer will not be able to impart clear message to the reader. When the punctuation marks are used in wrong manner, it shows false division and wrong relationship between the groups. It can ultimately lead to misunderstanding and confusion.
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UNIT 8-EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES The essentials of effective communication are: 1. Positi Positive ve and and pleasa pleasant nt appro approach ach 2. Appropriat Appropriatee tone, pitch, pitch, quality quality,, force and and intensity intensity of voice voice 3. Clarity Clarity of purpose purpose and and objecti objective ve of commun communicati ication on 4. Clarit Clarity y of though thoughtt and expr express ession ion 5. Adequa Adequate te knowle knowledge dge of the the subject subject 6. Adequate Adequate knowle knowledge dge of the communic communicatio ation n receiver receiver 7. Object Objective ive and and realist realistic ic appro approach ach 8. Self-c Self-conf onfide idence nce and and convic convictio tion n 9. Organi Organizat zation ion of messag messagee 10.Proper selection and use of the media 11.Proper selection and use of the channel 12.Appropriate formality 13.Patience in listening 14.Adaptability 15.Attentiveness 16.‘You’ attitude 17.Courtesy 18.Time consciousness 19.Conciseness and relevance 20.Correctness 21.Completeness Effective written communication communication
C’s of written communication Written communication occupies an important position in the communication sphere, so written communication has to pay adequate attention on certain principles of necessity. The essentials essentials of every written communicatio communication n are principles principles of unity, unity, coherence, coherence, and emphasis. These principles along with other essentials of effective communication, like language, planning, and organization make the written communication effective.
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The 7’s : Clarity: The writing should be correctly planned and expressed in a logical way, and the writer should make sure that the ideas flow smoothly from beginning to end. The message must be so clear that even the dullest man in the world should readily understand it. The communicator must be very clear about all the aspects of the idea in his mind and about the purpose for which it is to be communicated. Next to it, he must be clear about the selection, suitability, and usage of the medium. The signals of the encoded message must be carefully composed of and transmitted well. Clarity of written language is the first and foremost emphasis one should seek in writ writin ing. g. So clar clarit ity y of lang langua uage ge is a form form of cour courte tesy sy.. Clar Clarit ity, y, ther theref efor ore, e, can can be achieved in writing by taking pains by writing to serve the purpose rather than to impress readers. Understanding the subject bring about clarity in the writing. Don’t jump about from one part of the writing to another and then back to the first aspect. This is confusing for you and the reader. Deal with each aspect separately and clearly. Clear description description brings about the script alive, takes readers to where you have been and evokes atmosphere. It can bring flavor in the most arid and dry news story and make the difference between a report that satisfies and one that does not. Completeness: It is an essential factor for effective communication. A message must be organized appropriately in the sense that it must include all the important ideals and its details. The contents of the message must be checked in order to verify that there is no omission of the relevant details. An incomplete message can do little to convey the information and to persuade the receiver. All the aspects of the message must be grouped and brought together in logical sequence to prepare meaningful thought units. The communicator effort can be more fruitful and effective if the receiver easily reacts to the sender’s message. The incomplete messages may create doubts in the receiver’s mind. The receiver of the incomplete message feels angry, confused, and irritated by it.
Effective writing communication implies a condition of being complete and clear. The principles of unity or completeness apply at three levels; one, the individual sentences must be unified. Two, individual paragraphs must be unified and three the totality of the script must be unified. The first principle states that each simple sentence must contain a single idea clearly expressed. All sentences relating to a particular matter constitute a unified individual paragraph. Each paragraph in a section forms a unit of thou though ght. t. All All unit unitss of thou though ghts ts stru struct ctur ural ally ly cons consti titu tute te the the mess messag agee of enti entire re communication or a unified message. Each unified individual sentence conveys only one central idea. It must be direct, simple, brief, clear, and vigorous. Too much m uch use of
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buts, ands, pomposity, and technical jargon must be avoided. Prompt and adequate attention of the reader is the essence of purposeful communication. Completeness in writing is achieved through orderly arrangement of ideas flowing into other ideas and progressing into conclusion. An incomplete writing leads to side tracking, misunderstanding, seeking clarifications and explanation etc. thus, the writer must consider the receiver’s capabilities to understand. Coherence: Coherency is equally essential for good written communication. Clear communication in simple sentences helps the reader to understand. Facts and figures must be stated plainly and in an intelligent manner. Relation and clarity are the two important aspects of coherence. Coherence means, tying together of several ideas, under one main topic in any paragraph. Smooth flow, lucidity and transition aspects shou should ld be give given n effe effect ct to and and ther theree shou should ld not not be any any scop scopee for for the the reade readerr to misint misinterp erpret ret,, mis-rea mis-read d or mis-sp mis-spell ell the messag message. e. Cohere Coherence nce is given given to a larger larger paragraph or section of a message and leads to purposeful communication where the writer is well received, read, understood and acted upon by the reader. Conciseness: Conciseness is an important factor in effective communication. It means saying all that needs to be said and no more. The aimless verbiage, unnecessary details, and heavy paragraphs make our communication ridiculous and ineffective. We must omit those words and sentences from our message, which are not likely to bring abou aboutt resu result lts. s. The The mess messag age, e, whic which h can can be expr expres esse sed d in fewer fewer words words,, is more more impressive and effective than the same message expressed in a number of words. The communicator must organize his message in such a way that every word in it is meaningful and of interest to the receiver. Even a single word or a sentence, which does does not contri contribut butee to accomp accomplis lish h the purpos purposee of the commun communica icatio tion, n, should should be carefully omitted.
Conciseness refers to thoughts expressed in the fewest words consistent with writing. It is achieved in writing in definite style and use of precise words. Unnecessary superlatives, exaggeration, and indirect beginning should be avoided. Care should be taken to use adjectives judiciously, avoiding irrelevant details, unnecessary expression and mumbling sentences. Avoid vague judgmental descriptions and be precise and clear. Credibility: A good writing is always forceful and direct and has the power and capaci capacity ty to produc producee a reactio reaction n or desire desired d effect. effect. Clarit Clarity y in writi writing ng brings brings about about credibility because it ensures that others understand the message easily and quickly. A clear and direct approach in writing makes it possible to achieve the principle of
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credibility in your writing. Other essentials of writing like correctness and completeness add to the strength of credibility in the writing. Correctness: Without correctness, readers may refuse your write up. Communication must be correct in tone and style of expression, spelling, grammar, format, contents, statis statistic tical al informa informatio tion, n, stress-u stress-unst nstres ressed sed,, etc. etc. there there should should not be any inaccu inaccurate rate stat statem emen ents ts in the the mess messag age. e. Effo Effort rtss must must be made made to avoi avoid d erro errors rs in spel spelli ling ngs, s, punctuations, etc. the incorrect written documents lower the readers’ confidence in the writer.
In the same same way, way, the incorre incorrect ct statem statement entss and other other miscel miscellan laneou eouss errors errors of the speaker lower the listeners’ confidence in him and it may tarnish his image and reliability too. When communication receiver finds one error he suspects that there can also be other other errors errors in the message. message. Therefo Therefore, re, he starts starts search searching ing for other other mistakes automatically. The subject matter of communication must be correct or accurate. The manner in which the message is transmitted must be absolutely correct. Accuracy in writing can be achieved by careful checking and editing. Correctness demands accurate figures, because decisions may go wrong if wrong figures are given. Over writings, erasures, strikeovers, wrong spellings, faulty grammar, poor sentence construction etc may distract distract the readers readers and lead to misunderst misunderstandin anding. g. Written Written communicati communication on clearly clearly means making others to understand. Ther Theref efor ore, e, it is esse essent ntia iall that that the the send sender er shou should ld veri verify fy the the corr correc ectn tnes esss of the the info inform rmat atio ion n befo before re tran transm smit itti ting ng it to the the rece receiv iver er.. And And befo before re acce accept ptin ing g the the information for important decision-making, the receiver should clarify his doubts regarding the accuracy and correctness of the message. Continuity: As far as possible the writer should avoid jargon. Jargon is a language that is special to science, commerce, technology, trade, and profession. In writing, the jargon should not be incorporated as this could make the writing confusing and unclear. Brevity or use of fewer words brings about continuity and grace in your writing. writing. The effect of good writing writing depends on its style and continuit continuity y of subject till the conclusion. If one takes care to be precise, correct, and clear in writing and if the continuity is maintained throughout writing, the desired effect from the reader is achieved.
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Effective verbal communication communication Pronunciation
All the language units must be pronounced properly and clearly. The message cannot be intelligible without proper articulation of sounds. Sometimes, it happens that a person who is able to articulate a sound properly is unable to pronounce the words correctly. The words in English language must be stressed on the exact syllables. Clarity, Conciseness and Completeness Completeness
It is essential that the message should be brief and concise, but complete in every aspect. The brevity should not be achieved at the cost of clarity and completeness. Too much talking may lead to misunderstanding and over communication, but too little talking can lead to partial understanding and under communication. Vocabulary
The communicator must have a good vocabulary. He should us choicest words to convey convey correc correctt meanin meaning. g. It the person person who commun communica icates tes orally orally has inadeq inadequat uatee vocabulary; the listener will receive incorrect and confused meaning. Self-confidence
If the communicator lacks self-confidence, it is likely that he will not be able to impress the message on the listener. He must have a sufficient knowledge of the subject on which he has to talk. Secondly, he must plan his message carefully before imparting it to the receiver. The logical sequence of various ideas in the message is an outcome of organizing and planning the message. Adequate planning, preparation, and organization of the message help the speaker to raise his morale and self-confidence. Pitch
There are three patterns 1) rising pitch, 2) falling pitch and 3) dividing pitch. It is essential to use the correct pitch of sound. The variations in the pitch sounds can help the speaker to create interest and hold the attention of the listeners. Tone and style
The message must make appeal not only to the intellect but also to the heart of the listener. The words impart the intended meaning when they arte spoken with the tone
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and style that suit the occasion. The tone of the voice gives the listener an idea about the feeling associated with the words. The art of Written communication communication
A person, person, who aspires aspires to get mastery mastery over the techniques techniques of written written communication, communication, must keep his writing tools in enough practice. The action-oriented people may have the ability to get the things done, but they may find it difficult to put their thoughts in written words, because they occupy themselves in their selected activates rather than in practicing writing skills. Such a person may have the ability to think logically and clea clearl rly y and and he may may expr expres esss his his thin thinki king ng throu through gh oral oral commu communi nica cati tion on.. He may may organize, analyze and evaluate the ideas of his own and those of others too, and he may really deserve to acquire the mastery of written media, but he would certainly require some of his devotion, time and practice to acquire writing skills. Everybody possesses the tools of the written media, but they have to learn to make effective use of their priceless possession. All the individuals in the field of business, industry, science, and education use the tools of written media. These tools of written media are as follows: •
•
• • •
•
•
Memory Imaginative power Power of observation and study Units of language like words, phrases, sentences, etc Ability of thinking Ability of collecting and analyzing information Ability of writing
A good writer is an artist who knows how to write a specific message effectively by making use of the above tools. He must keep his tools in good working order. It usually takes years of struggle and hard work to learn and master the art of writing. Besides reading, a good writer should try to find a world of information with an inquiring mind and discerning eye. He can learn a great deal by putting up question on the subject he wishes to write. The main purpose of written communication is to move, motivate, and mould the minds and behavior of the people. So it is necessity for the communicator to study the minds of people he wish to target through his writing. It must be remembered that the art art and ski skill of writ riting ing depe depen nds on the the comp compet eteence nce and and knowl nowled edg ge of the the communicator. Besides all this, the communicator should prevent his feelings from 82
dictating his thinking and should organize his thoughts, which are based on factual information. Effective listening skills Listening skills
What are three types of effective ef fective listening? 1. Paraphrasing To paraphrase, one simply rewords what another individual has said. For example, the speaker might say, ``She was foolish to quit her job.'' The listener might respond, ``I hear you saying that you believe she shouldn't have quit.'' What has occurred is paraphrasing where the listener has clarified what the speaker has said. 2. Open questions An open question explores a person's statement without requiring a simple ``yes'' or ``no'' answer. The basic difference between an open question and a closed question is what they provide the person being asked. When you are asked an open question it helps helps you think more about an issue. A closed closed question will not do that. It may force you to answer before you are ready, or require a ``yes'' or ``no'' answer that doesn't allow allow more more thinki thinking ng about about the issue. issue. Closed Closed questi questions ons close close the door door on furthe further r thought, while open questions open the door. For example, the speaker might say, ``I don't like my job.'' The listener might respond, ``What about your job don't you like?'' or, ``Tell me more about your feelings regarding your job.'' 3. Feeling Reflection. Feeling reflection is a response in which you express a feeling or emotion you have experienced in reference to a particular statement. For F or example, the speaker might say, ``I get sick of working so much overtime!'' The listener might respond, ``I hear you feelin feeling g angry angry and resentfu resentfull at being being asked asked to work work so much much overti overtime. me.'''' Feelin Feeling g reflections are perhaps the most difficult active listening responses to make. Not only do you actively listen to what is being said but also you actively listen for what is being felt. When you make a feeling reflection, you are reflecting back what you hear of another's feelings. It is similar to paraphrasing; however, you repeat what you heard them feeling instead of what you heard them saying. To understand what individuals are feeling, you must listen to their words, to their tone of voice, and watch their body signals. By observing all three you can begin to guess their feelings.
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How can listening skills be improved? Listen carefully so that you will be able to understand, comprehend, and evaluate. Careful listening will require a conscious effort on your part. You must be aware of the verbal and nonverbal messages (reading between the lines). •
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Be mentally and physically prepared to listen. Put other thoughts out of your mind. Your attention will be diverted from listening if you try to think of answers in advance. You can't hear if YOU do all the talking. Don't talk too much. Think about the topic in advance, if possible. Be prepared to listen. Listen with empathy. See the situation from the other's point of view. Try to put yourself in their shoes. Be court courteo eous us;; don' don'tt inte interr rrup upt. t. Take Take note notess if you you worry worry abou aboutt forg forget etti ting ng a particular point. Avoid stereotyping individuals by making assumptions about how you expect them to act. This will bias your listening. Listen to how something is said. Be alert for what is left unsaid. Make certain everyone involved gets an opportunity to voice their opinions. Don't let one person dominate the conversation. Face those you are talking with, lean slightly forward, and make eye contact. Use body to show your interest, concern.
The receiver should carefully listen to the message to feel the pulse of the sender, to understand the mood and reactions and to create a congenial atmosphere for listening, which allows freedom of expression the speaker. Lack of good listening can create the emba embarra rrass ssin ing g situ situat atio ions ns,, whic which h resu result lt in the the lack lack of co-o co-ordi rdina nati tion on and and mutu mutual al understanding. A manager, who listens to the employees, gives them an opportunity to vent vent out out thei theirr emot emotio ions ns.. Effe Effect ctiv ivee list listen enin ing g also also help helpss the the mana manage gers rs to get get the the constructive suggestions fro the employees. There is greater harmony and cohesion if the sender and the receiver listen to each other messages effectively. It can raise their morale and create togetherness. Some Do’s for the Listeners
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Keep quiet while listening. Focu Focuss on what what the the spea speake kerr says says rat rathe herr than than on his/ his/he herr look looks. s. Contr ontro ol an and scr scree een n out out the the di distra stract ctio ions ns.. Show interest in the speaker. Be fri frien endl dly y an and pat patiient ent tow towar ards ds the spea speak ker List Listen en firs firstt and and take ake note notess afte afterw rwar ard ds. 84
7. Look fo for th the ma main th theme an and ma main id ideas. 8. Let Let the the spea speake kerr finis finish h what whatev ever er he has has to to say say with withou outt inte interr rrup upti ting ng him. 9. Find Find an area area of inte intere rest st in in the the spee speech ch;; loo look k int inter eres este ted d in in the the spee speech ch and act interested in listening. 10.Try to repeat the key-ideas during the slow and long speeches. 11.Avoid pondering on a single point. 12.Keep your mind open to every subject and speaker. 13.Choose a quiet place to listen, if possible. 14.Arrive early at the place of a seminar, lecture, and meeting. 15.Empathize with the speaker and try to understand his opinions, views and values. 16.Try to probe the emotions and feelings of the speaker. 17.Seek out difficult speech presentations to challenge your listening skills. 18.Observe the non-verbal signals, the body movements, facial expressions and gestures. 19.Try to look into the eyes of the speaker. 20.Try to relate the speaker’s message m essage with your personal experience 21.Try to evaluate the speaker’s message objectively. 22.Try to enrich your vocabulary so that you may m ay understand the exact shade of meaning conveyed by the words of the speaker 23.Accept criticism without losing your temper. 24.Communicate feedback to the speaker. Ask questions which may encourage the speaker. 25.Remember that God has given you two ears and one tongue! Reading skills Strategies to activate your prior knowledge: Brainstorming: Examine the title of the selection you are read about to List the information that comes to mind about this title all Use these pieces of information to recall and understand the material Use this knowledge to reframe or reorder what you know, or to note what you disagree with, for further research Group discussions: Group discussions in and out of class will help you to discover what you bring to your reading, what your fellow students bring, as well as shared experiences. If you find they have new background information, ask for more information from them. 85
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Overviews: Discussing information about the selection or assignment prior to reading must take place. This may take the form of class discussions, printed previews, photographs, outlines, or films. Spend enough time before the students begin the assignment to insure understanding of it. Vocabulary Previews: Unfamiliar key words need to be taught to students before reading so that new words, background information, and comprehension can improve together. List all words in the assignment that may be important for students to understand. Arrange words to show the relationships to the learning task. Add words students probably already understand to connect relationships between what is known and the unknown. Share information with students. Verbally quiz them on the information before assigned reading begins. Structural Organizers:
Before Before readin reading g an assign assignmen ment, t, basic basic framewo frameworks rks,, which which are includ included ed in the text, text, should be pointed out such as cause-effect or problem-solution. It can be beneficial to call attention to specific plans of paragraph or text organization such as signal words, main main idea idea sent senten ence ces, s, high highli ligh ghte ted d phra phrase ses, s, head headin ings gs,, and and subt subtit itle les. s. A revie review w of skimming techniques might also be appropriate as these various areas are covered. A Purpose for Reading:
When students have a purpose for reading a selection, they find that purpose not only directs their reading towards a goal, but also helps to focus their attention. Purposes may come come from from teache teacherr direct directed ed questi questions ons,, questi questions ons from from class class discus discussio sions ns or brainstorming, or from the individual student. Along with the question, it is a good idea to pose predictions of the outcome and problems, which need to be solved. The student or the teacher may generate these, but the teacher should use these to guide students in the needed direction for the assigned selection. Author Consideration:
Depending upon the content area, a discussion of the author of the particular work can be helpful to the understanding of it. What is the author trying to say? What are his point of view and his reason for writing the particular work?
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Layered Reading
In addi additi tion on to usin using g your your subc subcon onsc scio ious us ment mental al radar radar,, you you can can read read book bookss more more selectively by using a layered reading approach. Here are four phases that commonly show up in layered reading strategies:
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Overview: Look over the entire book at the rate of 1 second per page to determine its organization, structure, and tone. Try to finish the overview in 5 minutes. Preview: Should you decide to read further, preview the first chapter at the rate of 4 seconds per page. Pay particular attention to beginnings and endings such as the introduction and conclusion, and the first sentences of paragraphs and sections. Mark key sections with Post-it tabs or a yellow marker. Read: If any part of the chapter warrants closer attention, go back and read it at whatever speed seems appropriate. Review: As discussed in the following section on memory, doing short reviews periodically after reading new ideas can significantly increase the amount of detailed information that makes it into long-term memory.
There are several advantages to having seen every page of a document. It partially eliminates the intimidation of the unknown. It is also much easier to comprehend material at rapid speeds when your eyes have already seen the material twice, even if only briefly. And lastly, your right brain is a lot happier about the whole situation because it has at least some idea of the context or overall picture in which the material is being presented. Saying that someone has one reading speed is like having a car that only goes one speed. Different material calls for different speeds. Layered reading is about being flexible in the strategy you use to extract useful ideas from written material. Here are some additional suggestions suggestions for reading more selectively:
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Focus Focus on key words and ignore ignore filler filler words. words. As discus discussed sed in the previo previous us chapter, most of the meaning in sentences is transferred by a few key words. Many times it is unnecessary to read all the "is's" and "the's.” Skip what you already already know. As you transfer transfer more and more knowledge knowledge from an area into long-term memory, the sections you can skip will become larger and thus accelerate your journey along the compound learning curve. Skip material that doesn't apply to you. Skip material that seems particularly confusing and come back to it if necessary after reading other sections. Books are linear while their subject matter is often 88
multi-dimensional. "Nothing we use or hear or touch can be expressed in words that equal what we are given by the senses." It may be far easier to unders understan tand d the materi material al in light light of informa informatio tion n that that follow follows. s. Giving Giving your your subconscious time to incubate the material might help as well. Purpose
Reading is purposeful. The way you read something will depend on your purpose. You read different texts in different ways. In everyday life, you usually know why you are reading, you have a question, and you read to find the answer. You usually know your way around your favorite newspaper, newspaper, so if you want to know the sports results, you go straight to the correct page, or if you want to know what is on television tonight, you go straight to the television page. You do not start on the first page. When you read a novel, it is different. You start at the beginning and slowly move towards the end. In academic reading, you need to be flexible when you read - you may need to read quickly to find relevant sections, then read carefully when you have found what you want. General efficient reading strategies such as scanning to find the book or chapter, skimming to get the gist and careful reading of important passages are necessary as well as learning about how texts are structured in your subject.
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