UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE
Definitions of Architecture Origin of Architecture Architecture as a discipline Context for architecture as satisfying human needs: functional, aesthetic and psychological Outline of components and aspects of architectural form -site, structure, skin, materials, services, use, circulation, expression, character, and experience Introduction to the formal vocabulary of architecture Gestalt ideas of visual perception
DEFINITIONS OF ARCHITECTURE Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and construction. 'Architecture' can mean:
Buildings and other physical structures. The style of buildings and other physical structures. The method of constructing buildings and other physical structures. The practice of the architect.
Architecture as ‘the practice of the architect’ refers to planning, designing and constructing form, space and ambience. It extends from urban design and masterplanning to building design, the design of individual spaces and even fixtures and fittings. It also includes the pragmatic aspects of realising buildings and structures, including programming, procurement and contract administration. The term „architecture‟ is also commonly used to describe the process of designing any kind of system, and is commonly used in describing information technology.
ORIGIN OF ARCHITECTURE Buildings first evolved from a need to satisfy the human needs of shelter, security, worship, and so on. The way these needs were satisfied using the available materials, space and skills gave rise to a wide range of building techniques and styles.
The origins of human-made shelters can be traced back over 40,000 years to the ice age and the Siberian Steppe, where remains have been found of simple shelters constructed from animal skins draped between sticks. It is likely that structures of this type were the first dwellings constructed by humans. These „tented‟ structures thrived in regions where materials were scarce, or where survival required mobility; both conditions which tended to be brought about by low rainfall. Changing climates brought about a slow transition from nomadic tents to permanent huts and vice versa, and it was from the resultant process of intermediate modification that an enormous range of composite dwellings evolved. Some of these basic generic forms of structure are still used in remarkably un-changed forms throughout the world today, for example; the black tent, the mud brick hut and the yurt (a composite structure still in common use in Mongolia). It was through the maintenance and personalisation of these early structures, that decoration was introduced, and they became more than purely functional shelters. As cultures developed and knowledge was formalised, the process of building became a craft and vernacular “Architecture” emerged.
ARCHITECTURE AS A DISCIPLINE The term 'architect' has been in existence for many centuries, however the architect as its own recognised profession is a relatively modern concept dating back to the mid 16th century, from the French architecte and Italian architetto (originating from the Greek arkhitektōn, where arkhi means 'chief' and tektōn 'builder'). The term and what it represents has evolved through history to its current form in which architects are seen as highly qualified and educated professionals. It is often assumed that architecture as a profession dates back to the ancient Greeks, the Egyptians or the Romans, and although the origins of the word date back to these times, it wasn‟t until much later that the Architect became a recognised profession in its own right. Vitruvius Pollio (born c. 80–70 BC, died after c. 15 BC), is often considered as the first recognisable 'architect', known as a great Roman writer, engineer and builder. However Vitruvius wasn‟t strictly an architect and did not conform to our perception of architects today. After Vitruvius, the term architect fades into history, overshadowed by religious or political figures.
'Architects' first began to develop as a distinct discipline in Italy during the renaissance period. Until this time, the practice of architecture, as we understand it today, was not a recognised profession, and unlike the painter or sculptor, the designer of buildings did not have a clearly defined place within the trades. There was no standard training for those wishing to engage in architecture, there was no guild devoted specifically to the professional interests of architects, and the men who made the plans for churches and palaces were ranked alongside humble artisans. Arguably the first architect practicing in the way that we view the profession today was Palladio who worked almost entirely in what was the Venetian Republic in Italy. Palladio is regarded as the greatest and most prominent architect of the 16th century. His reputation was established by his numerous villa designs and by his palace projects. What also makes Palladio comparable to the architect of modern times is his experimentation and use of a range of materials to suit individual client‟s needs. His place in history as an architect is not only based on the beauty of his work but also for the variety of his clients, the varying scale of his buildings and their harmony with the culture of the time.
CONTEXT FOR ARCHITECTURE AS SATISFYING HUMAN NEEDS: FUNCTIONAL, AESTHETIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL Man has certain primary physical needs without which he cannot survive. Some of them, like air and water, are available in the natural environment in a ready form, and their utilization does not require any modification to their natural composition. Other primary needs, like food, shelter and clothing are, with minor exceptions, not available in a readily consumable form in nature and they have to be deliberately derived from the environment. The environment in this case provides what we may call the raw materials, which, by modification and transformation, have to be converted into consumable and utilizable objects. Food has to be cooked, a shelter constructed and clothing manufactured. These latter primary needs, therefore, fall into a different category from the former, as they require a conscious productive effort for their satisfaction. When we speak of primary needs below, we shall be meaning needs of this latter category only. Primitive Man, physically weak and unadapted to a hostile environment, was almost exclusively concerned with satisfying his primary needs and all his energies were absorbed in the process. With gradual increase in knowledge and social organization, Man was able to increasingly control his environment, to transform it from something hostile into something subservient, and it became increasingly easy to satisfy primary
needs. Human energy, hitherto completely absorbed in purely survival activities, became surplus, and began to flow into more civilizing-activities. Whether this change occurred consciously or instinctively, or whether merely due to curiosity and playfulness, cannot be established. The fact remains that human energy ceased to expend itself only on the bare necessities of life and began instead to initiate new transformations which had quite different aims. Man began to refine his food, shelter and clothing in such a way that they came to provide not only physical satisfaction, but aesthetic pleasure as well. Food ceased to be merely food, it had to be distinguished by variety in selection and preparation, clothing was no longer simply material wrapped around the body, it had to be embroidered and patterned to become personal adornment; the shelter was given conscious form and complexity so as to make it decorative. Objects which had previously only utilitarian value now became sources of emotional value as well. The habit of deriving aesthetic pleasure from objects of use gradually stabilized itself into a secondary psycho-logical need which we may refer to as the need for beauty. Both needs, physical and psychological, found satisfaction in the same object. An article of clothing, a weapon, a vessel or a dwelling, became simultaneously both useful and beautiful. It is important to note that at this stage of human development the secondary need, i.e. the need for beauty had no independent existence: it was subsidiary to, and fused with, the primary need. There was as yet no conception of beauty for its own sake. In early societies this fusion of utility and beauty was a universal phenomenon, and every individual was, in one way or another, personally involved in the creation or enjoyment of objects having both utility and beauty.
GESTALT IDEAS OF VISUAL PERCEPTION Gestalt is a psychology term which means "unified whole". It refers to theories of visual perception developed by German psychologists in the 1920s. These theories attempt to describe how people tend to organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes when certain principles are applied. These principles are:
Similarity Continuation Closure Proximity Figure & ground
Similarity Similarity occurs when objects look similar to one another. People often perceive them as a group or pattern.
The example above (containing 11 distinct objects) appears as a single unit because all of the shapes have similarity. Unity occurs because the triangular shapes at the bottom of the eagle symbol look similar to the shapes that form the sunburst.
When similarity occurs, an object can be emphasised if it is dissimilar to the others. This is called anomaly.
The figure on the far right becomes a focal point because it is dissimilar to the other shapes.
Continuation Continuation occurs when the eye is compelled to move through one object and continue to another object.
Continuation occurs in the example above, because the viewer's eye will naturally follow a line or curve. The smooth flowing crossbar of the "H" leads the eye directly to the maple leaf.
Closure Closure occurs when an object is incomplete or a space is not completely enclosed. If enough of the shape is indicated, people perceive the whole by filling in the missing information.
Although the panda above is not complete, enough is present for the eye to complete the shape. When the viewer's perception completes a shape, closure occurs. Examples
Proximity Proximity occurs when elements are placed close together. They tend to be perceived as a group.
The nine squares above are placed without proximity. They are perceived as separate shapes.
When the squares are given close proximity, unity occurs. While they continue to be separate shapes, they are now perceived as one group.
The fifteen figures above form a unified whole (the shape of a tree) because of their proximity.
Figure and Ground The eye differentiates an object form its surrounding area. A form, silhouette, or shape is naturally perceived as figure (object), while the surrounding area is perceived as ground (background). Balancing figure and ground can make the perceived image clearer. Using unusual figure/ground relationships can add interest and subtlety to an image.
Figure The word above is clearly perceived as figure with the surrounding white space ground.
In this image, the figure and ground relationships change as the eye perceives the form of a shade or the silhouette of a face.
This image uses complex figure/ground relationships which change upon perceiving leaves, water and tree trunk.
REFERENCES: 1. Francis D.K. Ching, “Architecture-Form, Space and Order”, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 2007. 2. Simon Unwin, “Analysing Architecture”, Rouledge, London, 2003. 3. Pramar V.S., “Design Fundamentals in Architecture”, Somaiya Publications Private Ltd., New Delhi, 1973. 4. Yatin Pandya,”Elements of Space making”, Mapin 2007. 5. Leland M.Roth, “Understanding Architecture: Its Experience History and Meaning”, Craftsman house, 1994. 6. Peter von Meiss, “Elements of architecture – from form to place”, Spon Press 1977. 7. Rudolf Arnheim, “The dynamics of architectural form”, University of California Press, 1977. 8. Neils Prak, “The language of Architecture”, Mounton & Co., 1968. 9. Paul Alan Johnson, “The Theory of Architecture – Concepts and themes”, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1994. 10. Helen Marie Evans and Carla David Dunneshil, “An invitation to design”, Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., New York, 1982.
