International HR Strategies

INTERNATIONAL HR STRATEGIES

CONTENTS

SR. NO

TOPICS

PAGE NO.

1.

INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL HRM

1

2.

FACTORS AFFECTING GLOBAL HRM

9

3.

HR MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES

20

4.

ETHICAL ISSUES

28

5.

INTERNATIONAL HR STRATEGIES USED

34

1. INTER INTERNA NATI TIONA ONAL L HRM Global Human Resource Management is a process concerned broadly with recruiting of persons, trai traini ning ng them them and putti putting ng them them to the the most most produ product ctiv ivee usag usage. e. It is also also conce concern rned ed with with maintaining of congenial international industrial relations. It is the essential prerequisite for the success of the international firm owning to its complexities. Broadly defined, international human resource management (IHRM) is the process of procuring, allocating, and effectively utilizing human resources in a multinational corporation. If the MNC is simply exporting its products, with only a few small offices in foreign locations, then the task  of the international HR manager is relatively simple. However, in global firms human resource managers must achieve two somewhat conflicting strategic objectives. First, they must integrate human resource policies policies and practices across a number of subsidiarie subsidiariess in different different countries countries so that overall corporate corporate objectives can be achieved. achieved. At the same time, the approach to HRM must   be suffic sufficien iently tly flexib flexible le to allow allow for signif significa icant nt differ differenc ences es in the type type of HR polici policies es and  practices that are most effective in different business and cultural settings. 1.1 Characteristics of International HR – 

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Internation International al Human Human Resour Resource ce Managemen Managementt (GHRM) (GHRM) -- the plannin planning, g, selecti selection, on, traini training, ng, employment, and evaluation of employees for global operations.

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GHR GHR mana manage gers rs serve serve in an advi adviso sory ry or supp suppor ortt role role to line line mana manage gers rs by prov provid idin ing g guidelines, searching, training, and evaluating employees.

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How a firm recruits, trains, and places skilled personnel in its worldwide value chains sets it apart from from competition. competition. The combined combined knowledge, skills, skills, and experiences experiences of  employe employees es are distin distincti ctive ve and provid providee myria myriad d advanta advantages ges to the firm’ firm’ss operati operations ons worldwide

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1.2 Regulatory Policies of International HR:

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Four our majo majorr task taskss of HRM HRM

 – Staffing policy.  – Management training and development.  – Performance appraisal. policy.  – Compensation policy. 1.2. 1.2.1 1

STAF ST AFFI FING NG POLI POLICY CY::

a. Selecting Selecting individua individuals ls with with requisit requisitee skills skills to do a particular particular job. job.  b. Tool for for developi developing ng and promoting promoting corporate corporate culture culture.. c. Types ypes of of S Sta taff ffin ing g Poli Policy cy •

Ethnocentric

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Polycentric

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Geocentric

1) Ethn Ethnoce ocent ntri ricc Policy Policy:: •

Key manag manageme ement nt posit position ionss filled filled by parent parent-co -count untry ry natio national nals. s.

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Best Best sui suite ted d to int inter erna nati tiona onall busi busines nesse ses. s.



Advantages:

 – Overcomes lack of qualified managers in host nation.  – Unified culture.  – Helps transfer core competencies. 

Disadvantages:

 – Produces resentment in host country.  – Can lead to cultural myopia.

2) Poly Polycen centr tric ic Pol Polic icy: y: •

Host-c Host-coun ountry try nation nationals als manage manage subsid subsidiar iaries ies..

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Parent Parent comp companie aniess nation nationals als hold hold key headquar headquarter ter posi positio tions. ns.

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Best Best sui suite ted d to mult multii-dom domes esti ticc busin busines esse ses. s.

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Advantages:

 – Alleviates cultural myopia.  – Inexpensive to implement.  – Helps transfer core competencies. 

Disadvantages:

 – Limits opportunity to gain experience of host country nationals outside their own country.

 – Can create gap between home and host country operations. 3) Geoce Geocent ntri ricc Pol Policy icy:: •

Seek Seek best best people, people, regard regardles lesss of nation nationali ality ty..

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Best Best suit suited ed to to global global and transtrans-nat nation ional al busi busines nesses ses..

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Advantages:

 – Enables the firm to make best use of its human resources.  – Equips executives to work in a number of cultures.  – Helps build strong unifying culture and informal management network. 

Disadvantages:

 –  National immigration policies may limit implementation.  – Expensive to implement due to training and relocation.  – Compensation structure can be a problem.

The aim of the Human Resources Strategy is to support staff. This it will do by developing and  promot  promoting ing good HR practi practice ce for the recrui recruitme tment nt and develo developme pment nt of high high quality quality staff, staff, by effec effectiv tively ely managi managing ng their their perfor performan mance ce and by provid providing ing appropr appropriat iatee reward rewardss and flexibl flexiblee opportunities that allow individuals to manage their own development.

Core Functions of International Human resources are:

A. Recr Recrui uitm tmen entt B. Sele Select ctio ion n Pro Proce cess ss C. Expa Expatr tria iate tess D. Perfor Performan mance ce Apprai Appraisal sal E. Train Training ing and Develop Developmen mentt F. Comp Compen ensa sattion ion Sources of Recruitment Sources of Recruitment

There are many different different types of interviews interviews.. Once you are selected for an interview interview,, you may experience one or more of the situations described below. When you schedule an interview, try to get as much information information about whom you will be meeting. It is rare to have only one interview  prior to a job offer. Most employers will bring back a candidate a number of times to be sure a  potential employee will fit into the company culture. MODE MODERN RN TE TECH CHNI NIQU QUES ES AND AND SO SOUR URCE CES S OF RECR RECRUIT UITME MENT NT FOR FOR GL GLOB OBAL AL COMPANIES -

1) Walk-In -: The busy global organizations and the rapid changing companies do not find time to perform various functions of recruitment. Therefore they advise the candidates to attend for an interview directly and without a prior application on a specified date, time and at a specified  place. 2) Consult-In -: The busy and dynamic global companies encourage the potential job seekers to approach them personally and consult them regarding the jobs. The international companies select the suitable candidates from among such candidates though the selection process. 3) Head-Hunting -: The global companies request request the profession professional al organizati organizations ons to search for  the best candidates particularly for the senior executive positions. The professional organizations search for the most suitable candidates and advice the global company regarding the filling up of  the positions. 4) Body-Shopping -: Professional organizations and the hi-tech training institutes develop the   pool of human resources for possible employment. The prospective employers contact these organizations to recruit the candidates. The body shoppers appoint people for their organization and provide the required/specific employees to various organizations on request. In fact, body shoppe shoppers rs collec collectt fee/co fee/commi mmiss ssion ion from from the organi organizati zations ons and pay the salary salary/ben /benefi efits ts to the employees. 5) Business Alliance -: It is like acquisitions, mergers, and takeovers help in getting human resources. In addition, the companies do also have alliances in sharing their human resources on ad-hoc basis.

6) Tele-Recruitment -: The technol technologi ogical cal revolu revolutio tions ns in teleco telecommu mmunic nicati ation on helped helped the organizations to use internet as source of recruitment. Organizations advertise the job vacancies though the World Wide Web internet. The job seekers send their application though e-mails or  internet websites.

STEPS IN THE SELECTION PROCESS Step 1: Preliminary Selection

Preliminary selection of applicants is often done by setting minimum standards for the job, and communicating these standards to the employees, and agencies who help them recruit. The fact that some potential applicants may not apply because of their inability to meet the minimum requirements serves as an initial screening device. Then, when reviewing resumes and application forms, firms are further able to screen out unacceptable job candidates. At this point, firms can also assign priorities to the resumes so that the most promising candidates may be seen first. Step 2: Employment Tests

One way to ensure that selection decisions are based on objective data, is to use employment tests. Employment tests provide firms with objective data for purposes of comparing applicants. Examples of such tests include; paper and pencil test, manual dexterity and strength tests, and simulation exercises. Employment Tests: Validation To be useful, employment test must be valid. Validity requires that the test scores relate to actual  job performance. Hence, the use of tests is not necessarily a simple process. Whereas a firm may  be inclined to use an "off-the"off-the-shelf shelf"" product, such a test may bear little little resemblance resemblance to the jobrelated tasks a successful applicant might be required to do. Before using a test, firms should ensure that they are, in fact, valid. Tests must be validated on those jobs to which tests are being applied and, tests must be validated for all groups to which tests are being applied. app lied.

Employment Tests: Reliability  Not only must employment test be valid, they must also be reliable. That is, employment tests should yield consistent results. An employment test should give a similar score each time the  person takes the test (tests that rely on luck are not reliable). Very often, paper and pencil tests are used to test knowledge. k nowledge. A firm could use a paper and pencil knowledge test to ascertain an applicant's knowledge of computer programming skills or to test whethe whetherr or not an applic applicant ant underst understands ands governm government ent regula regulatio tions ns govern governing ing an indust industry ry.. Generally, knowledge tests have good reliability, but their validity must be tested before they are used. A keyboarding test, testing an applicant's keyboarding speed and accuracy, is an example of a manual manual dexteri dexterity ty or perfor performan mance ce test. test. Perfor Performanc mancee tests tests measur measuree the applica applicant' nt'ss abilit ability y to  perform some part of the job for which applicants are to be hired. Often, there is an assumption of validity insofar as the test includes a representative sample of the work the applicant may be required to do. Firms must be cautious not to use tests that might discriminate against any minority group. An in-basket exercise, in which administrative activities are simulated and an applicant's abilities to deal with these activities is evaluated, is one example of a simulation exercise. Step 3: Selection Interview

Sele Select ctin ing g the the best best candi candida date te for for the the job job is the the #1 prio priori rity ty of the the sele select ctio ion n proc proces ess. s. The The empl employ oyme ment nt inte interv rvie iew w is condu conducte cted d to lear learn n more more about about the the suit suitabi abili lity ty of peopl peoplee under  under  consideration for a particular job and is one further obstacle for the applicant to overcome. The interview interview is one further means of reducing the number of people who might be eligible eligible for  the job. The selection interview proceeds in a series of stages. Initially, the interviewer needs to  be prepared. Part of this preparation includes deciding where to hold the interviews and which type of interview to conduct. Preparation also includes carefully reading through and making notes on the applicants' application forms and resumes. At this stage, interviewers should make frequent reference to the job (job description) to compare the applicant's background with the

  job's job's requir requireme ements nts.. The prepar preparato atory ry stage stage also also includ includes es develo developin ping g a series series of job-re job-relat lated ed questions. During the interview, the interviewer should have an outline of questions, on which to take notes. During the interview process itself, initially, the interviewer(s) should ensure the creation of  rapport between interviewer(s) and the interviewee. Next, the two parties can engage in the exchange of information. Once the interview has been terminated, the interviewer(s) must set aside some time to evaluate the notes they have taken during the process. Step 4: Verification of References Personal References •

Usually provided b y friends or family.

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Objectivity and candor are questionable.

Employment References •

Differ from personal references.

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Discuss the applicant's work history. history.

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Questionable usefulness o

 former employers are unlikely to be candid 

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Useful primarily as confirmation of prior employment.

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Frequently omitted entirely from the selection process.

Employment References: the Telephone Inquiry •

Fast.

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Cheap.

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Voice inflections or hesitations to blunt questions may be very informative.

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Less than 22% seek negative information.

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Approx. 48% used to verify application information.

Step 5: Medical Evaluation •

Generally a health checklist o

health information

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accident information

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Occasionally the checklist is supplemented by a ph ysical examination

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Rationale: o

employer may be entitled to lower health or life insurance rates for company-paid insurance

o

may be required by provincial or local loca l health officials

o

may be used to determine whether the applicant can handle physical or mental stress

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Caution: o

a congenital health health condition condition may be considered a disability disability failure failure to hire an applicant due to a disability may be seen as discrimination against a qualified applicant

Step 6: Supervisory Interview Since the immediate supervisor is ultimately responsible for new workers, he or she should have input into the hiring decision. The supervisor is better able to evaluate the applicant's technical capabilities and is in a better position to answer the interviewee's job-related questions. Further, the supervisor's personal commitment to the success of the new employee is higher if the supervisor has played a role in the hiring decision. Step 7: Realistic Job Preview The realistic job preview involves showing the applicant(s) the job site in order to acquaint them with the work setting, commonly used equipment, and prospective co-workers. The realistic job  preview is intended to prevent initial job dissatisfaction with a job by presenting a realistic view of the job. Research shows that job turnover is lower when realistic job previews are used.

Step 8: Hiring Decision The actual hiring of an applicant constitutes the end of the selection process. At this stage, successful (as well as unsuccessful) applicants must be notified of the firm's decision. Since money and effort has been spent on all applicants, the HR department may wish to consider even the unsuccessful applicants for other openings in the organization. The applic applicati ations ons of unsucce unsuccessf ssful ul applica applicants nts are often often kept on file file and the applica applicatio tions ns of  successful applicants will be retained in the employees' personnel files.  No matter what the form of the job offer, the principle is generally the same: do not make  promises or statements that you cannot or do not intend to keep. Such statements can lead to expensive litigation if it is later decided to terminate the employee. When a job offer is made, it should include the following information: •

Position offered.

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Location of the job.

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Salary (although sometimes salary must be negotiated before the applicant will ac cept).

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Benefits.

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Starting date.

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Any papers or information that should be brought b rought on the first day of work.

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A date (or time) by which the applicant must respond to your job offer, so you can move on to the next candidate c andidate if your first choice doesn't accept.

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Benefits.

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Starting date.

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Any papers or information that should be brought b rought on the first day of work.

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A date (or time) by which the applicant must respond to your job offer, so you can move on to the next candidate c andidate if your first choice doesn't accept.

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The interviewing process.

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Did employment tests support or help the hiring decision? If not, maybe the firm will have not the kinds of test it administering. Further the evaluation process should help the firm decide if the time and cost involved in the testing is worth it.

EXPATRIATES

Global companies, after selecting the candidates place them on the jobs in various countries, including the home country of the employee. But, the employees of the global companies are also placed in foreign countries. Even those employees who are placed initially in their home countries are sometimes transferred to various foreign countries. Thus the employees of global companies mostly work and live in foreign countries and their family members also live in foreign countries. 1.2.2 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT: DEVELOPMENT:

Training is an act of increasing the knowledge and skill of an employee for doing a particular   job. Importance of Training and Development - It leads to •

Improved job knowledge and skills at all levels of the organization

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Improved morale of the human resource

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Improved profitability and more positive p ositive attitudes towards profit-orientation

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Improved relation between boss and subordinated

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Improved understanding of culture of various cou ntries

Need for Training and Development for Global Jobs •

To match employee specifications with the job requirement a nd organizational needs

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To achieve organizational o rganizational viability and the transformation process

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To meet the challenges of technological advancement

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To understand the organizational complexity

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To make the employee and his family members familiar with the language, customs, traditions etc of the foreign country

1.2.3 PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL:

It is a method method of evaluat evaluating ing employ employee ee behavio behaviorr relati relating ng to expecte expected d work work and behavior behavior.. Appr Apprai aisi sing ng the the empl employ oyee ee perfo perform rman ance ce on fore foreig ign n jobs jobs is a highl highly y compl complic icat ated ed task task as expectations of global company are multifarious. Objectives - The objectives of performance appraisal are to create and maintain a satisfactory

level of performance, to contribute to the employee growth and development through training and to guide the job changes with the help of continuous ranking. Appraisers - The appraisers may be any person who has a thorough knowledge about the job

content, content to appraised, standards of content and the one who observes the employee while  performing a job. Typical Appraisers Appraisers are: •

Supervisors

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Peers

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Subordinates

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Consultants

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Customers

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Users of Services

1.2.4 COMPENSATION: COMPENSATION:

It is the amount of remuneration paid to the employees.

Expatriate pay - It is mostly based on the balance sheet approach. Under the balance sheet

approach, the compensation package enables the expatriate employees in various countries to maintain the same standard of living. Gratuity - Expatriate employees are paid gratuity at a fixed rate for every year of completion of 

services in the foreign country Allowances - Expatriate employees are paid various allowances like car allowances, resettlement

allowances, housing allowances etc Taxable - Some countries pay tax-free salary. Most of the countries pay taxable salary and

gratuity Profit Sharing & ESOP -

The Multinational corporations in order to motivate the employees for higher performance introduced a scheme of Profit Sharing. The Employee Stock Option allows the employees to  purchase the share of the company at a fixed and reduced rate The advantages of stock ownership includes •

The plan enables the MNCs to retain efficient employees with them.

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It encourages the employees to improve performance. p erformance.

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This scheme establishes significance of team effort among employees.

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It increases employee involvement and Participation.

2. FACTORS ACTORS AFFECTIN AFFECTING G GLOBAL GLOBAL HRM Managing human resources in different cultures, economies, and legal systems presents some challenges. challenges. However, However, when well done, HR management management pays dividends. dividends. A seven-year seven-year study in Britain of over 100 foreign companies showed that good HR management, as well as other  factors, accounted for more of the variance in profitability and productivity than did technology, or research and development.

The most common obstacles to effective HR management are cross-cultural adaptation, different organizational/workforce values, differences in management style, and management turnover. Doing business globally requires that adaptations be made to reflect these factors. It is crucial that such concerns be seen as interrelated by managers and professionals as they do business and establish operations globally. globally. Figure 2.1 depicts the general considerations for HR managers manag ers with global responsibilities. Each of those factors will be examined exa mined briefly. briefly.

POLITICA

ECONOMI

LEGAL

CULTURA

Fig.2.1

2.1 Legal and Political Factors -

The nature and stability of political systems vary from country to country. U.S. firms are accustomed to a relatively stable political system, and the same is true in many of the other  develop developed ed countr countries ies in Europe. Europe. Althou Although gh presid president ents, s, prime prime minist ministers ers,, premier premiers, s, governo governors, rs, senators, and representatives may change, the legal systems are well-established, and global firms can depend on continuity and consistency. consistency.

However, in many other nations, the legal and political systems are turbulent. Some governments regularly are overthrown by military coups. Others are ruled by dictators and despots who use their power to require international firms to buy goods and services from host-country firms owned or controlled by the rulers or the rulers’ families. In some parts of the world, one-party rule has led to pervasive corruption, while in others there are so many parties those governments changes constantly. constantly. Also, legal systems vary in character character and stability stability,, with business contracts contracts sometimes becoming unenforceable because of internal political factors.

International firms may have to decide strategically when to comply with certain laws and regulations regulations and when to ignore them because of operational or political political reasons. reasons. Another issue involv involves es ethics. ethics. Becaus Becausee of restri restricti ctions ons impose imposed d on U.S.-b U.S.-base ased d firms firms through through the Foreig Foreign n Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA), a fine line exists between paying “agent fees,” which is legal, and  bribery,  bribery, which is illegal.

HR regula regulatio tions ns and laws laws vary among countr countries ies in charact character er and detail detail.. In many West Western ern European countries, laws on labor unions and employment make it difficult to reduce the number  of workers because required payments to former employees can be very high.

Equal employment legislation exists to varying degrees. In some countries, laws address issues such as employment discrimination and sexual harassment. In others, because of religious or  ethical differences, employment discrimination may be an accepted practice. All of these factors reveal that it is crucial for HR professionals to conduct a comprehensive review of the political environment and employment-related laws before beginning operations in a country. The role and nature of labor unions should be a part of that review.

 HR Perspective – The Legal and Political Environment of Unemployment in Europe Europe cannot seem to shake its chronic unemployment. The unemployment rate has ranged from almost 20% in Spain to over 10% in France—but it averages about 12%. Joblessness is much higher in Europe than in the United States or Japan. Forecasts are that even with an improvement in the economy and employment, unemployment at over 10% will continue in European Union (EU) countries. Why?

Economists disagree about many matters, but not about unemployment. Generally they agree that labor markets need to be flexible, but in European countries they are relatively rigid. Very generous unemployment benefits, high minimum wages, strong unions, and unique (by U.S. standards) laws dissuade employers from hiring more employees. For example, in Spain, a  permanent employee who is fired can get 45 days’ pay times the number of years he has been with the company. It is a large liability, so few firms create more permanent jobs. Similar  legislation in other countries tends to keep those who have jobs at work, but the effect of the  protective legislation keeps employers from creating more jobs. Economists tell us that in the long run, without such laws, firms that cut costs and become more productive create more jobs  because productive industries tend to expand.

The pressure of world competition that is forcing painful reform is not popular in Europe. Many Europeans are crying “enough,” and questioning how quickly the European economies can tran transf sfor orm m thems themsel elve vess into into the the Angl Angloo-Sa Saxon xon model model of capi capita tali lism sm.. That That form formul ulaa - high high  productivity, low jobless rates, and a minimal social safety net – is not typical in most Western European countries. For example, a recent French poll found that two-thirds of the French people  prefer their rich benefits and high unemployment to America’s approach of lower unemployment and limited social welfare benefits. Of course, elected politicians tend to follow the wishes of  their constituents, bringing political and legal factors together—in this case, resulting in an average of 12% unemployment. Europe cannot seem to shake its chronic unemployment. The unemployment rate has ranged from almost 20% in Spain to over 10% in France—but it averages about 12%. Joblessness is much higher in Europe than in the United States or Japan.

2.2 Economic Factors -

Economic factors affect the other three factors. Different countries have different economic systems. Some even still operate with a modified version of communism, which has essentially failed failed.. For example, example, in China China commun communism ism is the officia officiall economi economicc approach approach.. But as the government attempts to move to a more mixed model, it is using unemployment and layoffs to reduce government enterprises bloated with too many workers.

Many lesser-developed nations are receptive to foreign investment in order to create jobs for  their growing populations. Global firms often obtain significantly cheaper labor rates in these countries than they do in Western Europe, Japan, and the United States. However, whether firms can realize significant profits in developing nations may be determined by currency fluctuations and restrictions on transfer of earnings. Also, political instability can lead to situations in which the assets of foreign firms are seized. In addition, nations with weak economies may not be able to invest in maintaining and upgrading the necessary elements of their infrastructures, such as roads, electric power, schools, and telecommunications. The absence of good infrastructures may make it more difficult to convince managers from the United States or Japan to take assignments overseas. Economic conditions vary greatly. Cost of living is a major economic consideration for  global corporations.

In many developed countries, especially in Europe, unemployment has grown, but employment restrictions and wage levels remain high. Consequently, many European firms are transferring   jobs to lower-wage countries, as Mercedes-Benz did at its Alabama plant. In addition, both  personal and corporate tax rates are quite high. These factors all must be evaluated as part of the  process of deciding whether to begin or purchase operations in foreign countries.

2.3. Cultural Factors -

Cultural forces represent another important concern affecting international HR management. Culture is composed of the societal forces affecting the values, beliefs, and actions of a distinct group of people. Cultural differences certainly exist between nations, but significant cultural differences exist within countries also. One only has to look at the conflicts caused by religion or  ethnicity in Central Europe and other parts of the world to see the importance of culture on internation international al organizati organizations. ons. Getting Getting individuals individuals from different different ethnic or tribal tribal backgrounds backgrounds working together may be difficult in some parts of the world. Culture can lead to ethical differences among countries.

One widely used way to classify and compare cultures has been developed by Geert Hofstede, a Dutch scholar and researcher. Hofstede conducted research on over 100,000 IBM employees in

53 countries, and he identified five dimensions useful in identifying and comparing culture. A review of each of those dimensions d imensions follows.

POWER DISTANCE - The dimension dimension of power power distan distance ce refers refers to the inequalit inequality y among among the

 people of a nation. In countries such as Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States, there is a smaller power distance—which means there is less inequality—than in such countries as France, Indonesia, Russia, and China.

As power distance increases, there are greater status and authority differences between superiors and subordinates. One way in which differences on this dimension affect HR activities is that the reacti reactions ons to managem management ent author authority ity differ differ among among cultur cultures. es. A more more autocr autocrati aticc approach approach to managing is more common in most other countries, while in the United States there is a bit more use of participatory management.

INDIVIDUALISM - Another Another dimens dimension ion of culture culture identi identifie fied d by Hofste Hofstede de is indivi individua dualis lism, m,

which is the extent to which people in a country prefer to act as individuals instead of members of groups. On this dimension, people in Asian countries tend to be less individualistic and more groupgroup-ori orient ented, ed, wherea whereass those those in the United United States States score score the highes highestt in indivi individua dualis lism. m. An implication of these differences is that more collective action and less individual competition is likely in those countries that deemphasize individualism.

MASCULINITY/FEMININITY - The cultural cultural dimension dimension masculinity masculinity/femin /femininity inity refers to the

degree to which “masculine” values prevail over “feminine” values. Masculine values identified  by Hofstede were assertiveness, performance orientation, success, and competitiveness, whereas feminine values included quality of life, close personal relationships, and caring. Respondents from Japan had the highest masculinity scores, while those from the Netherlands had more femininity-oriented values. Differences on this dimension may be tied to the role of women in the culture. Considering the different roles of women and what is “acceptable” for women in the United States, Saudi Arabia, Japan, and Mexico suggests how this dimension might affect the assignment of women expatriates to managerial jobs in the various countries.

The dime dimens nsio ion n of unce uncert rtai aint nty y avoi avoida danc ncee refe refers rs to the the UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE - The  preference of people in a country for structured rather than unstructured situations. A structured situation is one in which rules can be established and there are clear guides on how people are expected expected to act. Nations high on this factor, factor, such as Japan, France, and Russia, tend to be more resistant resistant to change and more rigid. In contrast, contrast, people in places such as Hong Kong, the United States, and Indonesia tend to have more “business energy” and to be more flexible.

A logical use of differences on this factor is to anticipate how people in different countries will react to changes instituted in organizations. In more flexible cultures, what is less certain may be more intriguing and challenging, which may lead to greater entrepreneurship and risk taking than in the more “rigid” countries.

LONG-TERM ORIENTA ORIENTATION - The dimens dimension ion of long-t long-term erm orient orientati ation on refers refers to values values

 people hold that emphasize the future, as opposed to short-term values, which focus on the  present and the past. Long-term values include thrift and persistence, while short-term values include respecting tradition and fulfilling social obligations. People scoring the highest on longterm orientation were China and Hong Kong, while people in Russia, the United States, and France tended to have more short-term orientation.

Differences in many other facets of culture could be discussed. But it is enough to recognize that international HR managers and professionals must recognize that cultural dimensions differ from country to country and even within countries. Therefore, the HR activities appropriate in one culture or country may have to be altered to fit appropriately into another culture or country.

WORK CULTURE OF MAJOR ECONOMIES 1) Major Japanese Japanese national national cultural cultural characteristic characteristicss and manageme management nt practicespracticesNational Culture •

Collectivism: group-orientation, a strong sense of community, community, loyalty to group

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Masculine: competitive, ambitious

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Endurance: the way of warrior, acceptance of hardship without complain

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Indebtedness: a strong sense of duty and obligation

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Absence of horizontal social grouping: vertical stratification by institution or group

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Observance of social status: deference to seniors, status clearly signaled in social interaction

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Harmony: preference for consensus over conflict

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Avoidance of loss of face

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High uncertainty avoidance

HRM and other employee related values and practices •

Enterp Enterpris rise-b e-base ased d trade trade unions unions,, coopera cooperativ tivee relati relations onship hip betwee between n employe employees es and company, avoidance of open conflict

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Emotional and dependent relation between company and employees

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Ringi method: collective decision making

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Quality circles

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Implicit discreet performance appraisal

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Teamwork: multi-skill work teams, team appraisal and reward

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 Nenko: life-time (or long term) employment for regular core employees

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Seniority-based pay and promotion

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Process-oriented

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A strong strong sense of obligation to colleagues c olleagues and supervisors

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Discrimination against women

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Employee-oriented leadership style

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Job-rotation, job-flexibility

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Employee loyalty and long-term commitment to company

2) Major American American national national cultural characteristics characteristics and and management management practices practices National Culture •

Highly individualistic: self-focused, preference to act as individual rather than as members of group, yet can be collectivist in face of a common threat

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Small power distance: egalitarian, tend not to treat people differently even when there are great differences in age or social standing

•

Masculine: ambitious, competitive, goal-oriented, achievers

•

Low uncertainty avoidance, risk-takers, entrepreneurial

•

Low context: directness, expressive in communication, do not talk around things, tend to say exactly what they mean

•

Open: friendly, friendly, informal

•

Ethnocentric: believe their culture and value are superior to all others

•

Future-oriented: strong belief that present ways of doing things in evidently are to be replaced by even better ways

•

Readiness to change: try new things, a predisposition to believe that new is good

•

‘can-do’ attitude

HRM and other employee related values and practices •

Prefer participative leadership style

•

Superiors are approachable

•

Subordinates are willing to question authority

•

Status based on how well people perform their functions

•

Performance-oriented

•

Promotion and reward based on merits as opposed to status, hierarchy, or gender 

•

Live more easily with uncertain, skeptical about rules and regulations

•

Value punctuality and keep appointments and calendars

•

Much more concerned with their own careers and personal success than about the welfare of the organisation or the group

•

Value success and profit

•

Acceptance conflict

•

System-driven: conviction that all problems can be solved, system and energy will overcome any obstacles

•

Proactive take initiative, aim high, ‘go for it’

•

Result-oriented

•

Professional educated and well trained

•

Strong devotion to managerial prerogative

•

Hire and fir policies

•

Communications skill, informal, direct, explicit, often aggressive

•

Emphasis on entrepreneurship and innovation

•

Legalist approach to contracts

•

Informality yet a preference for written rules and procedures

•

Dislike of trade unions

3) Major Indian national cultural character characteristics istics and and management management practices National Culture •

Collect Collectivi ivism, sm, clanni clannish, sh, commun community ity consci conscious ous,, large large in-gro in-group up includ includes es extend extended ed family, family, clan, and friends

•

Low concern for privacy

•

Large power distance, obedience to seniors and respect for people in position of   power, all wisdom comes from elders

•

Resourcefulness, hard work, tenacity, ability to cope with diversity

•

Risk aversion, low tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty

•

Emotional dependence

•

Rigid social stratification, caste system

•

Acceptance of status quo, preference for conformity

•

Disciplined, self-resistant, yet emotional and display their emotions in public

•

Honest, trustworthy, trustworthy, yet considerable corruption in public sector 

•

Law-abiding but prepared to bend the rules for friends and relatives

•

Ambitious and materialistic

•

High rate of illiteracy, especially among lower caste people and in rural areas

HRM and other employee related values and practices •

Entrepreneurial

•

Preference for paternalistic and authoritative leadership

•

Prefer to work under supervision

•

Contractual relations with the workplace, in-group does not include the workplace, low level of commitment

•

Manual workers are unskilled and uneducated

•

Well educated and highly skilled managers and high-ranking staff 

•

 National and plant based trade unions, confrontational industrial relations

•

Pro-workers labour legislation

•

Strong sense of responsibility

•

Centralised decision making, little or no job autonomy for middle and low ranking staff and shop floor 

•

Low level of formulisation formulisation and use of written written instructions instructions and rules and regulations regulations especially at the shop floor mainly because of workers illiteracy

•

Differentiated reward systems and control strategies for white collar and manual workers.

4) Major British national cultural characte characteristics ristics and and management management practises practises

National Culture •

Individualism: antimony, antimony, liberty, love of privacy p rivacy,, yet caring for community co mmunity

•

Small power distance, yet deference and acceptance of inequality, class conscious

•

Aggressive, yet caring and friendly

•

Reserve: shy, self-control, self-discipline

•

High ideals of conduct both for themselves and for others

•

Conservatism: dislike of change and uncertainty, aversion to risk, lack of ambition

•

Tenacity: resilience, resourcefulness

•

Pragmatic: social-political realism, compromise, flexible unwritten constitution, common law, law, prepared to bend the law when it does not suit them

•

Chauvinism: dislike of foreigners, xenophobia

•

Honesty, trustworthy, and trusting

•

Past Past-o -ori rient entat atio ion: n: love love of ageage-ol old d trad tradit itio ions ns,, the the pres present ent is a culmi culminat natio ion n of past past developments, ambivalence towards new technology

•

Dislike of open conflict

HRM and other employee related values and practices •

Preference to have freedom to choose their own approach, using individual skills and abilities

•

Job satisfaction derived from personal sense of achievement and superiors recognition of  individual contributions

•

Leadership style: persuasive

•

Expectation from subordinate: commitment, co mmitment, initiative, ownership, responsibility, responsibility, honesty

•

Deference to authority

•

Comfortable with minimal amount of rules and procedure

•

Flexibility yet a preference to work according to the rules

•

Well educated, skilled and , in certain circumstances, adaptable workforces

•

Compliance with legislation

•

Short-term perspective: low expenditure on training and low employee productivity rates compared to many leading economies

•

Some evidence of discrimina discrimination tion among employees and job applicants on the ground of  age, gender or ethnicity, ethnicity, ‘glass ceiling’

•

Formal in communication and interpersonal relationships at work 

•

Ethnocentric attitudes towards foreign counterparty

•

Conservative approach towards new technology

•

Contractual, non-emotional relationship with the workplace

•

Strong trade union tradition

•

Pragmatic trade unions: fight for better pay and working conditions not ideologically  based class struggle against managers, absence of serious trade union challenges to managements prerogative and right to manage

•

Class distinctions reflection within the workplace in form of hostile them-and-us-attitude

•

Expectation of governmental involvement in employment relationships

 HR Perspective – Cultural and Ethical Differences

Why do negotiators from some countries get loud, angry, emotional, and gesture wildly in  business negotiations, while others sit quietly, smile, and make sure they get what they want? It is, in many cases, differences in culture. Culture is in one sense a shared set of meanings, values, and common views on relations with other people, right and wrong, etc. These differences differences lead to different ideas as to what constitutes ethical business behavior behav ior.. For example:

In one Eastern European country, obtaining a new telephone line in less than three months requires making a cash payment, referred to as an “expediting charge” (a bribe in most places), to the local manager of the telephone office. All parties to the deal know that the manager will retain the cash, but a telephone is essential for doing business internationally. internationally.

Foreign firms wishing to do business in one Asian Pacific country must hire a “business representative” in order to obtain appropriate licenses and operating permits. In this country, it is well known that the two best representatives are relatives of the head of the country. It also is common to give the representative 10%—20% ownership in the business as a “gift” for promptly completing the licensing process.

A U.S.-based firm engaged in such practices could be violating the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA), which prohibits U.S. firms from engaging in bribery and other practices in foreign countries that would be illegal in the United States. Competing firms from other c ountries are not  bound by similar restrictions. However, the law reflects the U.S. culture’s view on the ethics of   bribery.

Specifically relating to HR management, another major concern is the use of child labor and  prison labor. According to one estimate, over 80 million children under age 18 are working in factories and fields for international companies. In some countries, people convicted of “political crimes” are forced to work in factories that manufacture goods to be sold to U.S. and European firms. In those countries, prison labor also competes with other labor sources at lower wage rates.

When When storie storiess of these these situati situations ons have have been publicize publicized, d, custom customer er boycott boycottss and news news media media coverag coveragee have have focuse focused d unfavor unfavorable able attent attention ion on the compani companies es involv involved. ed. To counte counterr such such concerns, firms such as Levi Strauss and Starbuck’s Coffee, among others, have established minimum standards that must be met by all operations of their subcontractors and suppliers. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, other firms have not been as a s aggressive.

3. HR MANA MANAGEM GEMENT ENT CHALLE CHALLENG NGES ES The environment environment faced by HR management management is a challenging one; changes are occurring rapidly across a wide range of issues. A study by the Hudson Institute, entitled Workforce 2020, has highlighted some of the most important workforce issues. From that and other sources, it appears that the most prevalent challenges facing HR management are as follows: •

Economic and technological change

•

Workforce availability and quality concerns

•

Demographics and diversity issues

•

Organizational restructuring

3.1 OCCUPATIONAL SHIFTS -

Projections of the growth and the decline in jobs, illustrates the economic and employment shifts curren currently tly occurri occurring. ng. It is intere interesti sting ng to note note that that most most of the fastes fastest-g t-grow rowing ing occupat occupation ionss  percentagewise in 2002-03 were related to information technology or health care. The increase in the technology jobs was due to the rapid increase in the use of information technology, such as databases, system design and analysis, and desktop publishing. HRM in the new economy ought to be human centric with a strong technology focus. We need to leverage on emerging technologies to better satisfy the wants and needs of the knowledge workers, and in the process, build a competitive advantage that lasts. Attraction and retention of talent have become the main external influence on Nokia’s human resources strategies, as other companies also strive to be the employer of choice.

3.2 GLOBAL COMPETITION -

One major factor affecting these shifts is the globalization of economic forces. As seen the past few years, the collapse of Asian economies had significant effects on many organizations. E.g. nokia was in pressure because of thriving of and stiff competition by other companies like Siemens, Samsung and sony-ericsson. And as a result of it their market share collapsed from 34% to 31% in US and Europe. But nokia still made it to profits because of Indian and Asian markets. This now made outbreak of a war between companies i.e. competitors will approach high profile employees in other’s organization and may get that employee. Thus, causing the later company lose a valuable asset. This is particularly true with more highly skilled, technical jobs in technology-driven industries. As a resu result lt,, thes thesee expor exportt-dr driv iven en jobs jobs pay wages wages avera averagi ging ng 25% 25% high higher er than than most most othe other  r  manufacturing jobs. On the other hand, the less-skilled manufacturing assembly jobs have been shifting from the higher-wage, developed economies in the United States and Western Europe to developing countries in Eastern Europe, China, Thailand, Mexico, India and the Philippines. Due to the the incr increa ease se in info inform rmat atio ion n tech technol nology ogy,, globa globall link linkage agess are are now more more exten extensi sive ve and  production and transportation can be coordinated worldwide. 3.3 WORKFORCE AVAILABILITY AND QUALITY

In many parts of the world today, significant workforce shortages exist due to an inadequate supply of workers with the skills needed to perform the jobs being added. In the last several years news reports have regularly described tight labor markets with unemployment. Also, contin continuous uously ly there there are report reportss by indust industrie riess and compani companies es facing facing shorta shortages ges of qualifi qualified, ed, experi experience enced d worker workers. s. Jobs Jobs with with extrem extremee supply supply shorta shortages ges for severa severall years years have includ included ed specialized specialized informatio information n systems systems technicians, technicians, physical physical therapists therapists,, plumbers, plumbers, air conditioning conditioning repair repair techni technicia cians, ns, and many others others.. Conseq Consequent uently ly,, HR profes professio sional nalss have have faced faced greater  greater   pressures to recruit and train workers. Many occupational groups and industries will require more educated workers in the coming years. The number of jobs requiring advanced knowledge is expected to grow at a much more

rapid rate than the number of other jobs. This growth means that people without high school diplom diplomas as or appropr appropriat iatee colleg collegee degrees degrees increa increasin singly gly will will be at a disadva disadvanta ntage, ge, as their  their  employment opportunities are confined to the lowest-paying service jobs. In short, there is a growing gap between the knowledge and skills required by many jobs and those possessed by employees and applicants. Several different studies and projections all point to the likelihood that employers in many industries will have difficulties obtaining sufficiently educated and trained workers. Unless major efforts are made to improve educational systems, employers will be unable to find enough qualified workers for the growing number nu mber of “knowledge jobs.” A number of employers are addressing the deficiencies that many employees have in basic literacy and mathematical skills by administering basic skills assessments to employees. Then they conduct basic basic mathema mathematic ticss and English English skills skills traini training ng classe classess at workpl workplace ace sites sites for  employees with deficiencies. Some employers also sponsor programs for employees and their  family members to aid them in obtaining general equivalency diplomas. To address the skills deficiencies, HR management must do the following: •

Assess more accurately the knowledge and skills of existing employees, as well as the knowledge and skills needed for specific jobs.

•

Make training for future jobs and skills available for employees at all levels, not just managers and professionals.

•

Increase the usage of new training methods, such as interactive videos, individualized computer training, and via the Internet.

•

Become active partners with public school systems to aid in upgrading the knowledge and skills of high school graduates.

Case - NCR Ltd. In Scotland:

Around 1980 NCR manufacturer manufacturer and exporter exporter of “self-serv “self-service ice systems” looked into future future and found that half of the present employees will be present in company after 20 years that is in 21st century. century. The company also found that the requirement requirement of skills skills to achieve jobs was increasing. increasing. Also, the unskilled had disappeared completely and semi-skilled were diminishing real fast. Also, the technological advancements needed capable men to handle work to achieve efficiency and effectiveness. So, NCR Ltd. challenged employees to gain degree education through any institution, in any language language and in from stream. And And that company would pay for them and would also give leave for that period period.. The only conditio condition n was they should should serve serve company company after completio completion n and education should be taken only in the field which company deals in. Effect of this was that, a) There was was increas increasee in knowledge knowledge and skills skills of employe employees. es.  b) Programme Programme helped helped in building building employees’ employees’ trust and loyalty loyalty.. 3.4 GROWTH IN CONTINGENT WORKFORCE -

In the past, temporary workers were used for vacation relief, maternity leave, or workload peaks. Today “contingent workers” (temporary workers, independent contractors, leased employees, and part-timers) represent over 20% of the workforce. Many employers operate with a core group of regular employees with critical skills and then expand and contract the workforce through the use of contingent workers. This practice requires determining staffing needs and deciding in advance which employees or   positions should form the “core” and which should be more fluid. Instead of hiring regular  workers when work piles up and then firing them when the work is finished, the company relies more on temporary workers and independent contractors. Productivity is measured in output per  hour. Thus, if employees are paid only when they are working, overall productivity increases. Another reason for the growth in contingent workers is the reduced legal liability faced by employers. As more and more employment-related lawsuits have been filed, some employers

have become more wary about adding employees. Instead, by using contract workers supplied by others, they face fewer employment legal issues regarding selection, discrimination, benefits, discipline, and termination.

3.5 DEMOGRAPHICS AND DIVERSITY

The workforce has been changing dramatically. It is more diverse racially, women are in the labor force in much greater numbers than ever before, and the average age of the workforce is now considerably older than before. As a result of these demographic shifts, HR management in organizations has had to adapt to a more varied labor force both externally and internally. The three three most most promin prominent ent dimens dimension ionss of the demogr demographi aphicc shifts shifts affect affecting ing organi organizat zation ionss are highlighted next. 3.6 RACIAL/ETHNIC/RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY

The Asian and Hispanic labor forces are expected to increase faster than the African-American labor force. The importance of all these shifts is that HR professionals must ensure that diverse groups are managed and treated equitably in organizations. Also, HR professionals will have to develop diversity-oriented training so that all employees, regardless of background and heritage, can succeed in workplaces workplaces free from discriminati discrimination on and inappropriate inappropriate behaviors. behaviors. It also means that more attention will have to be given to recruiting, staffing, and promoting individuals without regard to their racial/ethnic heritage, so that equ al employment results for all. 3.7 AGING OF THE WORKFORCE

Most of the developed countries are experiencing an aging of their populations—including Australia, Japan, most European countries, and the United States. In these countries, the median age will continue to increase. The aging of the population also is reflected in the occupational shifts noted previously. The growth in medically related jobs will be due primarily to providing care to older persons who will live longer and need greater medical care. Taken together, this

aging issue means that HR professionals will continue to face significant staffing difficulties. Efforts to attract older workers through the use of part-time and flexible staffing will increase. HR will face significant challenges in replacing them with workers having the capabilities and work ethic that characterize many older workers. For HR management, elder care will grow as a major HR issue. More workers will have primary care responsibilities for aging.

3.8 BALANCING WORK AND FAMILY

For many workers, balancing the demands of family and work is a significant challenge. While this balancing has always been a concern, the growth in the number of working women and dualcareer couples has resulted in greater tensions for many workers, families and households today can be described as follows: The decline of the traditional family and the increasing numbers of dual career couples and working single parents place more stress on employees to balance family and work. For instance, many employees are less willing than in the past to accept relocations and transfers if it means sacrificing family or leisure time. Organizations that do get employees to relocate often must offe offerr empl employ oyme ment nt assi assist stanc ancee for for spou spouse ses. s. Such Such assi assist stan ance ce can can incl includ udee conta contact ctin ing g other  other  employers, providing counseling and assistance in resume development, and hiring employment search firms to assist the relocated spouse. Additionally, balancing work and family concerns has  particular career implications for women, because women more than men tend to interrupt careers for child rearing. To respond respond to these these concer concerns ns employ employers ers are facing facing growin growing g pressu pressures res to provid providee “famil “familyyfriendly” policies and benefits. The assistance given by employers ranges from maintaining references on child-care providers to establishing onsite child-care and elder-care facilities. 3.9 ORGANIZATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL RESTRUCTURING

Many organizations have restructured in the past few years in order to become more competitive. Also, mergers and acquisitions of firms in the same industries have been made to ensure global

competi competitiv tivenes eness. s. The “mega“mega-mer merger gers” s” in the banking banking,, petrol petroleum eum,, and telecom telecommun municat ication ionss industries have been very visible, but mergers and acquisitions of firms in many other industries have increased in recent years. As part of the organizational organizational changes, many organizations organizations have “right sized” either by •

Elim Elimin inat atin ing g lay layers ers of man manag ager ers, s,

•

Closing faci facillities, es,

•

Merg Mergin ing g wit with h othe otherr org organ aniz izat atio ions ns,, or 

•

Out pl placi acing wo workers.

One of the challenges that HR management faces with organizational restructuring is dealing with the human consequences of change. Where many large firms have cut jobs by reducing their  workforces, many smaller firms have continued to create jobs. This is particularly true in high tech technol nology ogy indus industr trie ies, s, such such as soft softwa ware re deve develo lopm pment ent and and serv servic ices es indus industr trie ies. s. Thes Thesee entrepreneurial firms are faced with growth, while trying to attract sufficient workers with flexible capabilities and to conserve financial resources. 3.10 DECISION MAKING ON MERGERS, ACQUISITIONS, AND DOWNSIZING

In many industries today, organizations are merging with or acquiring other firms. The merger of  Chrysler and Daimler-Benz has had significant implications for the automobile industry. Many other examples could be cited as well. In all of these mergers and acquisitions there are numerous HR issues associated with combined organizational cultures and operations. If they are viewed as strategic contributors, HR professionals will participate in the discussions prior to top management making final decisions. For example, in a firm with 1,000 employees, the VicePresident of Human Resources spends one week in any firm that is proposed for merger or  acquisition to determine if the “corporate cultures” of the two entities are compatible. Two  potential acquisitions that were viable financially were not made because he determined that the organizations would not mesh well and that some talented employees in both organizations  probably would quit. 3.11 ATTRACTING AND RETAINING HUMAN RESOURCES

As strategic business contributors, HR professionals must ensure an adequate supply of people with the capabilities needed to fill organizational jobs. Various experts on human capital have   predic predicted ted a skills skills shorta shortage. ge. Organi Organizat zation ionss would would hurt hurt their their competi competitiv tivee edge unless unless more more investment is made in human capital. If that trend spreads as predicted, being able to attract  people to the organization with the requisite capabilities currently requires more planning and creative implementation than in the past. For instance, at a computer software firm, growth is  being limited by shortages of programmers and systems analysts. The company plans to open a new facility in another state so that a different labor market can be tapped, and the HR director  heads up the site-selection team. To meet meet the staff staffing ing challen challenges ges,, HR profes professio sional nalss are using using a greater greater number of option options. s. Traditionally, work was done by people who were employees. Increasingly today, work is done   by indepen independent dent contra contract ct worker workers, s, consult consultant ants, s, tempor temporary ary worker workers, s, and others others who are not employees of organizations. Developing policies, negotiating contracts, evaluating staffing suppliers, and monitoring work    per perfo form rman ance ce of thes thesee nonnon-em empl ploy oyee eess requ requir ires es a broad broader er role role than than when when all all work worker erss are are employees. But recruiting and selecting new employees is only part of the challenge. The HR  activities in organizations must be revised in order to retain employees. For every employee who does not leave the organization for a new job elsewhere, that is one less employee who has to be recruited from outside. Therefore, significant emphasis is being placed on keeping existing employees and providing growth opportunities for them.

4. ET ETHI HICA CAL L ISSU ISSUES ES Ethics, social responsibility of business and corporate governance have become hot issues in the wake of a series of scandals reported from all over the world. It needs special attention because multinationals operate in a large number of countries with varying standards of moral behaviors and multicultural perceptions about what is right and what is wrong. Their workforce also consists of high diversity with individuals having different values and beliefs. Their actions and activ activit itie iess are are also also comm comment ented ed upon upon and atten attenti tion on from from the the media media as well well as nati nationa onall governments. As the issues faced by HR managers have increased in number and complexity, so have the  pressures and challenges of acting ethically. Ethical issues pose fundamental questions about fairness, justice, truthfulness, and social responsibility. Concerns have been raised about the ethical standards used by managers and employees, particularly those in business organizations. It appears that the concerns are well-founded, if the results of one study of 1,300 employees and managers in multiple industries are an indication. About 48% of those surveyed admit engaging in unethical behavior at work. Some of the most frequently mentioned items were cheating on expense accounts, paying or accepting bribes and kickbacks, forging signatures, and lying about sick leave. 4.1 What is Ethics?

Ethics is the discipline that examines the moral standards by an individual or a corporate or a society. Its explicit purpose is to determine whether the actions or activities of an individual or  corporate are within the framework of moral standards or value systems embedded in a particular  society. Different societies have a different moral standards and value systems according to their  own culture. Ethics is a function of one’s consciousness. It is, therefore, beyond the boundaries of law. Some activities may be legal but may not be ethical, although law represents the moral code or  standards practiced by a society or country to resolve conflicts and allow freedom to individuals and groups to achieve their uniqueness, pursue their goals and live in peace. Ethics exists at the

individual individual level, organizati organizational onal level, and at the societal societal level. It represents the practiced practiced value system. If ethics at the societal level is not strong, it affects the performance and ethical climate of organizations, which in turn influences individual actions and approach to work and life. In this context, context, the role of multination multinationals als becomes interesting interesting as different different ethical climates climates may exist in their various subsidiaries operating in different societies. This may create problems for  the parent company as actions of any one subsidiary may tarnish its image across the globe. However, there are international norms and conventions from which their actions can also be  judged. 4.2 ETHICAL ISSUES & CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Ethics and corporate social responsibility are differently interpreted, complex and controversial subjects in the context of organizations which are operating internationally in diverse social, economic, political, cultural and legal environments. Ethical issues and considerations arise in  particular when the business practices in the host country differ markedly from those in the home country. country. Three types of “ethical responses“ have been identified: Ethical relativism (the ethical standards in the host country should be followed), Ethical absolutism (the ethical standards of the home country should be followed), and Ethical universalism (this presumes that there is a universal ethical standard of right and wrong

which which transc transcend end cultur cultural al boundar boundaries ies and that that these these must must be follow followed ed by the organi organizat zation ion (distinction between morally wrong and culturally different. Corporate Corporate Social Social Responsibil Responsibility ity is basically basically about an organizati organization on promoting promoting non-economic non-economic objectives, i.e., instead of just focusing on maximizing value for shareholders, organization (specifically business corporations) attempt to play the role of “good citizens“, balancing the interests of shareholders with those of society at large. Corporate Social Responsibility can be a complex issue at the domestic level, but at the international level it takes on a much larger  significance. Areas where organizations operating internationally can demonstrate their social responsibility include, for example, observance of basic human rights, adoption of adequate

workplace working conditions and health and hygiene standards, payment of adequate wages and salaries, salaries, equal employment employment opportunitie opportunities, s, avoidance avoidance of child labor, labor, adequate adequate education education and training, allowing unionization and protection of the environment. 4.3 ETHICAL ISSUES FACING MULTINATIONALS – 

The most common unethical practices business resort to include: Manipulation of stock markets : In India, manipulation of stock market is not uncommon.

There are several investigations and a few brokerage firms and individuals have been prosecuted. MNC’s MNC’s generally avoid manipulation of capital markets. Lobbying : Lobbying is the practice of influencing decisions made by government for the benefit

of its citizens (in groups or individually). It includes all attempts to influence legislators and officials, whether by other legislators, constituents, or organized groups. A lobbyist is a person who tries to influence legislation on behalf of a special interest or a member of a lobby. Governments often define and regulate organized group lobbying. This is a tool of public relations. Japanese spend millions of dollars in the US every year to bend rules in award of  contracts or to get sensitive information or restricted equipment more than other countries. Fudging of accounts and balance sheet : It is very common in developing countries like India

and Indonesia to manipulate accounts to avoid taxes or manipulate share price before public issues. However it was shocking when American corporate heavyweights Enron and World.com were found manipulating accounts and balance sheets. Product Product Piracy: Lax enforcement of intellectual property rights has resulted in large-scale

 piracy of music and picture videos, software, fake drugs and other intellectual property capital in China, India, Latin America and Eastern Europe. It is estimated that 30,000 shops in Shanghai alone sell pirated videos. In a raid in Thailand, 44,000 bootleg tapes were recovered from one shop alone. Here lax societal moral standards cause great loss to multinationals.

Surrogate and deceptive advertising : There are many ethical issues in advertising, including

violation of cultural norms and nudity, apart from false information ot customers. Many MNC’s are not sensitive to these issues though they spend most on advertisement and promotion. Discrim Discriminat ination ion in selectio selection, n, compen compensati sation on and promoti promotion: on: In spit spitee of equal equalit ity y laws laws in

differ different ent countri countries, es, compani companies es still still practi practice ce some some bias bias in select selection ion and other other managem management ent   processes on the basis of gender, color, race and show ethnocentrism. Sexual harassment at workplace is growing trend. 4.4 STEPS FOR ORGANIZATION TO BUILD ETHICAL BEHAVIOR – 

Ethical issues and corporate social responsibility are closely related to the human resource function in organizations which are operating internationally and in diverse contexts: 

Minimize the exposure of employees to corrupt conduct by assisting in the development,  publication, and implementation of appropriate codes of conduct.



Ensure training programmes cover areas which are of ethical concern (e.g. bribery, human rights, justice, and the common good).



Align performance appraisal and compensation systems so that they support the ethical stance taken.



Be conv conver ersa sant nt with with the the type type of requ reques ests ts that that may may be made made of staf stafff oper operat atin ing g internationally, and provide them the necessary training so that they have the requisite negotiating skills to handle possible problem situations.



Ensure that employees understand the difference between corrupt payments, gifts and  permissible facilitation payments.

It is not easy to build an ethical climate and accompany and it requires the top management’s  best effort.

4.5 CASE STUDY ON NESTLE: UNFAIR LABOR PRACTICES

 Nestle was one of the biggest purchasers of cocoa from the Ivory Coast, a country in West Africa. Most of the world’s cocoa production came from farms and plantations located in Ivory Coast. Studies conducted by some of the major welfare organizations in the world like the International Labor Organization, UNICEF and other independent agencies revealed that the workers on these plantations lived and worked in poor conditions. They were paid minimal wages and exploited by the land-owners. Most of the workers had been trafficked i.e. bought and sold, making them practically practically slave labor. labor. Nestle Nestle purchased purchased cocoa from these farms despite despite its awareness of the conditions of the laborers, thus be coming it a party to their exploitation. Child labor was also employed on the plantations. UNICEF studies revealed that over 200,000 children were shipped to Ivory Coast and other cocoa producing countries in Western Africa from neighboring countries like Mali and Burkina Faso, to work on the plantations, especially during the harvesting of cocoa or coffee beans. The children were sometimes as young as nine years and could not escape from the plantations to return to their homes. A report released by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) (IITA) also confirmed that child labor was used extensively on plantations in Africa, from where Nestle sourced most of its cocoa. The report – which surveyed 1,500 farms in Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, and Cameroon  – found that more than 200,000 children worked in hazardous conditions using machetes and spraying pesticides and insecticides without the necessary protective equipment. The labor was usually supplied to the plantations by labor broker, totally unrelated to the laborer. The workers actually received only a very small proportion of the price paid for the Nestle  product by the final consumer. Nestle was aware of the exploitative labor practices used by its suppliers and was also in a position to pressurize them to change, as it was a major buyer.

Besides the report of several credible organizations, public interest groups also sent several  petitions and representations to Nestle to stop buying bonded labor-tainted cocoa. However, the company chose to ignore these petitions, and continued its purchases of cocoa from these suppliers.  Nestle was also involved in union busting in some countries. For instance, when a group of 13 workers, working in a sub-contracting facility of Nestle in Thailand, organized themselves to form a union, Nestle immediately cut the number of orders to that company and asked the company to put the unionized workers on indefinite leave with half pay. The workers were forced to quit, because of their lowered pay. In doing so, Nestle had clearly denied there workers their right to organize themselves to better their interests. Companies like Nestle made a public show of their support to social causes, in order to divert attention from their irresponsible behavior elsewhere. Nestle set up the ‘Nestle Trust’ to support social issues relating the children and aged. However, some people believed the company was using these social causes for pure promotional purposes. Nestle has well laid out charters to govern their social responsibility and behavior, but more often than not, these are only on paper.

5. INTERNA INTERNATION TIONAL AL HR HR STRATEGI STRATEGIES ES USED Strategic Management refers to the process of Formulating, implementation and evaluating   busin business ess strate strategies gies to achieve achieve organi organizat zation ional al objecti objectives ves.. At the core core strate strategic gic managem management ent  process is a team comprising the CEO aided by top executives. For example, the core team that formulated and executed the recent strategic takeover of Corus by Tata Steel considered of Ratan Tata, the CEO, and Muthuraman, MD. Tata Steel, Arunkumar Gandhi, Head of the M&A cell if  the Tata Group and Koushik Kou shik Chatterjee, VP Finance, Tata Steel Inte Intern rnat atio iona nall Huma Human n Reso Resour urce ce Stra Strate tegy gy refe refers rs to the the proc proces esss of devel develop opin ing g pract practic ices es,,  programmes and policies that help achieve organizational objectives. What is essential is that these programmes, programmes, policies policies and practices practices need to be aligned with organizational organizational strategies. strategies. Elaborating further, strategic human resource management considers the implications of business strategy for all hr systems within the firm by translating company objectives into specific people management systems. The specific approach and process utilized will vary from organization to organization, but the key concept is consistent, that is, essentially all HR programmes and  policies are integrated within a larger framework helping achieve the firm’s firm’s objectives. HR role in strategic management seems to be merely latitudinal but little in practice. Rarely in HR executi executive ve consul consulted ted in vital vital decisio decisions, ns, such such as mergers mergers or acquisi acquisitio tions. ns. This popular  popular   perception, invites your attention towards a reality check  It is not that the HR manager himself/Herself formulates strategies. strategies. He or she will be the member  of a core team which formulates company strategies and ensures their implementation. To be full-fledg full-fledged ed strategic strategic partners with senior management, management, HR executives executives should impel and guide serious discussion of how the company should be organized to carry out its strategy. Four roles of HR executives are relevant in this context. First, HR should define an organization’s architecture. In other words, it should identify the underlying model of the company’s way of doing business. More specifically, the architecture is a judicious mix of structure, systems, rewards, processes, people, styles, skills and shared values.

After After the archit architectu ecture re is defined defined it needs needs to be articu articulat lated ed explic explicitl itly y. Without ithout such such clarit clarity y, managers tend to become more myopic about how the company runs Second, HR needs to be accountable for conducting an organizational audit. Audit helps identify which components of the architecture should be changed in order o rder to facilitate strategy execution The third role of HR as a strategic partner is to identify methods for renovating the parts of the organizational architecture that need it. In other words, HR manager should be assignees to take the lead in proposing, creating, and a nd debating best practice that can help implementing strategies. Fourth and finally, HR must take stock of its own work and set clear priorities. At any given time, the HR staff might have several initiatives in its sights, such as pay-for-performance, global team work, and action-learning development experiences. But to be truly to business outcomes, HR needs to join forces with line managers to continuously assess the impact and importance of  each one of these initiatives. 5.1 STRATEGIC HRM VERSUS CONVENTIONAL HRM -

Responsibility of HRM

Traditional HRM Staff specialists

Focus

Employee relations

Role of HR  Initiatives Time horizon

Short term

Job Design Key Investment Accountability

external customers

Transactional, change follower, and respondent Slow Slow,, rea react ctiive, ve, frag fragme ment nted ed

Control

Strategic HRM Line managers Partnerships with internal and

Fast, st, proa proact ctiive, ve, inte integr grat ated ed Short, medium, long (as

Bureaucratic-roles, policies,

necessary) Organic-flexible, whatever is

 procedures Tight division of labor,

necessary to succeed Broad, flexible, whatever is

independence, specialization Capital, products Cost center

necessary to succeed People, knowledge Investment center  

5.2 BARRIERS TO STRATEGIC STRATEGIC HRM

Though strategic HRM looks convincing and essential, several barriers operate in the way of  organizations taking to strategic orientation of their HR functions. The first barrier is that most organizations adopt a short-term mentality and focus on current performance. This is no surprise since stakeholders, stakeholders, particularly particularly shareholder shareholders, s, expect quick rewards rewards and executives executives need to live up to these expectations. Employees expect quick rewards based on their performance. The second barrier relates to the inability of HR exe cutives to think strategically. strategically. They are unable to go beyond their area of operation. Their knowledge about general business functioning, their  awareness about technological advancements and their ability to convince colleagues in other  department is limited. The third barrier is that most senior managers lack appreciation for the value of HR and its ability to contribute to the organization from strategic perspective. Many understand only the conventional HR and fail to realize the contribution HR can make as a strategic partner  A fourth barrier is that some functional managers as well and is concerned more with technical aspects of their areas of responsibility than the human aspects. As stated earlier, every line manager is an HR manager too. But in reality, finance controller for example, fails to see beyond cash inflows and outflows, so also the operations executive who is obsessed with inputs, outputs and the conversation process. A fifth barrier to strategic HR is the problem of quantifying many of the outcomes and benefits if  HR programs. It is believed that many of the outcomes of HR function are abstract – felt but not seen. In an environment where firms operate under pressure, what attracts every ones attention is an activity that contributes to the bottom line. Anything else is shelved Yet another barrier to strategic HR is the fact that human assets are not owned by organizations and, therefore, are perceived perceived as higher risk investment investment than capital asset, particularly particularly in highly competi competitiv tivee environ environmen mentt where where key execut executive ivess are poached poached from from competi competitor tors, s, there there is a tendency to invest less in employees than in technology and information, which are more  propriety. This mindset and approach prevents organization from realizing the fact that it is the

 people who invest technology and it is human brains behind revolution in informatics, and it is a competitive advantage to invest in people. How can such firms adopt strategic approach to human resources? Finally, strategic HR may be resisted because of the incentives for change that might arise. Taking a strategic approach to HR may mean making drastic changes in the firm’s architecture.  Not many executives are prepared to accept such drastic changes.

Short- term mentality/focus on current performance Inability of HR to think strategically Lack of appreciation of what HR can contribute Failure to understand general manager’s role as an HR manager Difficulty in quantifying many HR outcome Perception of human assets as higher risk investments Incentives for change that might arise Barrier to Strategic HR 

5.3 CASE STUDY I -

What is the role of HR executive in strategy formulation? He or she should evolve h is or her own strategies strategies which must be aligned aligned with corporate, corporate, unit and functional functional strategies. strategies. Motorola’s Motorola’s is a

vivid case. The American American based MNC has been riding a roller roller caster for two years. Though the 1980s, the company’s market share was commanding. Profitability was excellent. But in the early 1990s, the world of consumer electronics changed dramatically, as people began spending more and more time out of the office-working from homes, in planes and in hotel rooms. They demanded fasters, smaller, more integrated and energy-efficient electronics. At the same time, competition for their business grew more and more intense. Major competitors sprang up in Europe Europe and Asia that produce produced d more more attrac attractiv tivee and easy affor affordab dable le produc products. ts. Competi Competitio tion n resulted in price cuts and heavy pressure on the bottom line of Motorola. It was under these conditions that the Motorola HR leadership came out o ut with a powerful strategy. Their goals: •

Link HR practices to customer and shareholder requirement

•

Help drive business unit strategy while promoting coordination strong enough to have a multiple effect on Motorola’s overall revenue

•

Position Motorola as a more effective competitor 

•

Make Motorola’s cultural capabilities consistent with its desired market place brand identity.

•

Engage the enthusiasm and support of management and employees

Working closely with line management, the HR professionals identified the culture that the increasingly competitive environment demanded. The HR team provided a powerful agenda for  integr integrati ating ng staff staffing ing,, perfor performan mance ce managem management ent,, traini training ng and develop developmen ment, t, struct structure ure,, and communications with common business focus and direction. This allowed HR to maximize its impact on performance

5.4 CASE STUDY II -

The Coca-Cola Company is the most successful MNC. With operations in as many as 200 countries and nearly 80 percent of its revenue coming from foreign operations, Coca-Cola is typically perceived as the quintessential global corporation. The US based believes in “thinking global but acting locally” and this strategy guides the cola giant’s management cross-border  operations. It grants national business the freedom to conduct operations in a manner appropriate to the market. At the same time, the company tries to establish a common mindset that all its employees share. The corporate HRM function is charged with providing the glue that binds all the divisions (there are 25 operating divisions) into Coca-Cola family. The corporate HRM achieves this in two main strategies: (i) by propagating a common human resource philosophy within the company, and (ii)   by develop developing ing a group group of intern internati ational onally ly minded minded mid-le mid-level vel executi executives ves for future future senior  senior  management responsibility. responsibility. The corpor corporate ate HRM group percei perceives ves its mission mission as one of develop developing ing and providing providing the underly underlying ing philos philosophy ophy around around which which local local busine businesse ssess can develop develop their their human human resour resource ce  practices. For example, rather than having a standard salary policy for all its subsidiaries, Cocacola has a common salary philosophy the compensation package should be competitive with the  best companies in the local market. Twice a year the corporate HRM group also conducted a two-week HRM orientation session fir the HR staff from each of its 25 operating divisions. These sessions give an overview of the company’s HRM philosophy and talk about how local  business can translate that philosophy into HR policies. Coca-Cola has found that information sharing is one of the great benefits if bringing HRM professionals together. Fir example, tools that have been developed in Brazil to deal with specific HRM problem might also be useful in Australia. The sessions provide a medium through which HRM professionals can communicate and learn from each other, which facilitates the rapid transfer of innovation and valuable HRM tools from region to region

5.5 CASE STUDY III -

Colgate-Pamolive is a successful company specializing in personal care products. In early 1980s, the company realized that if it was to be successful in emerging competitive environment around the world, it would have to develop a more transnational’s orientation. Its rivals such as P&G, Uniliver and Kao were trying to become transnational companies and Colgate needed to follow suit. Being a transnational requires developing an international cadre of executives who are as compatible working in one culture as in another, and who have the ability to rise above their  ethnic perspectives. As a first step towards building such a team, Colgate began recruiting college graduates in 1987 and putting them through intensive international Training programmes. The typical recruit holds an MBA from a US university, speaks at least one foreign language, has lived outside the US, and has strong computer skills and business experience. Over one quarter of the participants are foreign nationals. Unlike most US companies. Colgate does not send foreign-born trainees to their native countries for their initial jobs. Instead, it is more likely that a French national will remain in the US, a US national will be send to Germany and British national will go to Spain. The foreigners receive the same generous expatriate compensation packages as the American do, even if they are assigned to their Home countries In addition to the management training programme, Colgate has taken a number of other steps to develop its international cadre of managers. In Europe, for example, the company is developing “Euro-managers” managers who have experience of working in several European countries. This departure from the established practice of having managers spends most of their working careers in their home h ome country.