DISSERTATION Influence of Le Corbusier in modern architecture Author:Jose Angel Monteagudo Consultant: Erik Toft May 2!" #th Se$ester Ar%hite%tural Te%hnology and Constru%tion Manage$ent
&e Cor'usier TITLE PAGE
DISSERTATION TITLE : Influen%e of &e Cor'usier in $odern ar%hite%ture CONSULTANT : Erik Toft
AUTOR: Jose Angel Monteagudo
DATE!SIGNATURE: !2th May 2!"
STUDENT IDENTIT" NU#$ER : !()2()
NU#$ER O% COPIES: 2
NU#$ER O% PAGES: *
All rights reser+ed , no -art of this -u'li%ation $ay 'e re-rodu%ed .ithout the -rior -er$ission of the author/ NOTE: This dissertation .as %o$-leted as -art of a 0a%helor of
Ar%hite%tural Te%hnology and Constru%tion Manage$ent degree %ourse , no res&onsibilit' is ta(en for an' ad)ice* instruction or conclusion +i)en ,ithin1
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&e Cor'usier TITLE PAGE
DISSERTATION TITLE : Influen%e of &e Cor'usier in $odern ar%hite%ture CONSULTANT : Erik Toft
AUTOR: Jose Angel Monteagudo
DATE!SIGNATURE: !2th May 2!"
STUDENT IDENTIT" NU#$ER : !()2()
NU#$ER O% COPIES: 2
NU#$ER O% PAGES: *
All rights reser+ed , no -art of this -u'li%ation $ay 'e re-rodu%ed .ithout the -rior -er$ission of the author/ NOTE: This dissertation .as %o$-leted as -art of a 0a%helor of
Ar%hite%tural Te%hnology and Constru%tion Manage$ent degree %ourse , no res&onsibilit' is ta(en for an' ad)ice* instruction or conclusion +i)en ,ithin1
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&e Cor'usier
PRE%ACE
ou %ould say that not only 'uilt .ork .hi%h affe%ts and influen%es us3 'ut one that .as in%o$-lete3 a tender for a -ro4e%t3 or a si$-le idea/ A'out &e Cor'usier3 there are fe. .orks that ha+e 'een 'uilt/ 5or these reason3 not only those -ro4e%ts .e .ill %ount on to 'e 'uilt3 'ut .ith those that .ere de+elo-ed .ithout li$itations or o'sta%les/ 5or these ideas3 it .as gi+en a uto-ia3 that .ould 'e ne%essary for later/ To take this 'ig ste- in ar%hite%tural and ur'anis$ ter$s3 or si$-ly3 e+ol+e/ A ne.ly re-ertoire of ideas/ 6ainting e+en/ 7e .as so -rolifi% $an like hi$3 .ho in+estigated3 and .as %riti%i8ed 'y so$e ar%hite%ts of the .orld/ Interest on the no li$its/ 6ro'a'ly I $issed on the %uriosity of details3 $asters3 -eo-le .ho listened3 learned and %riti%i8ed3 'ut it has 'een an endless sour%e of kno.ledge/ My greetings3 $y thanks to Erik Toft 'y tea%h $e the .ay to find f ind a -oint of +ie. to .at%h all the .orks of this e9traordinary $an/ 0est Regards
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&e Cor'usier
A$STRACT The thesis is stru%tured around fi+e uestions on ;and *?@/ A$ong the -ossi'le su'4e%ts to dis%uss3 the thesis de+elo-s those influen%es and kno.ledge that he a%uired3 fro$ a histori%al and learning %onte9t3 features of &e Cor'usier
“Modern life demands, and is waiting for, a new kind of plan, both for the house and the city”
ers une ar%hite%ture =!>2"@
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&e Cor'usier
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------------------------５ PRO$LE# STATE#ENT -------------------------------- ６ What was the main ideas in the architectural society when Le Corbusier start his education?________________________________ ６ Chronolo+' -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ６
What was the the main ideas ideas he was influen influenced ced on? __________ ______________ ____ １６ How did he use these these ideas and developed developed? ? __________ _______________ ________ ___ ２３ Citroan E)olution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------./ers une architecture0---------architecture0 ----------------------------------------------------------------------%our houses form -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------/ille Contem&oraine ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CONGRES AND E1POSITIONS ----------------------------------------------------------------------Unit2 d3abitation in #arseilles ------------------------------------------------------------------NOTRE DA#E DA#E DU RONCA#P --------------------------------------------------------------------Chandi+arh* the cit' &lanned -----------------------------------------------------------------------
２３ ２４ ２４ ２９ ３０ ３２ ３２ ３５
What were the main ideas ideas from Le Corbusier? Corbusier? __________ _______________ ______ _ ３８ DO#4INO S"STE# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ３８ Curutchet ouse ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ４０ #ODULOR ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ４１
Where can we we find these these ideas and and developments developments nowadays? nowadays? ___ ４４ ４４ Oscar Nieme'er -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%I/E ARCITECTS -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Louis Isadore 5ahn ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6alden 7 ! Ricardo $ofill-----------$ofill -------------------------------------------------------------------
４４ ４５ ４７ ５０
CONCLUSION-------------------------------------- ５１ RE%ERENCES RE%ERENCES ----------------------------------------------------------------------５３ Text References References __________ _______________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ ______ _ ５３ Imae References________________________________________ ５４
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&e Cor'usier
INTRODUCTION &e Cor'usier 'e%a$e3 in the !>2s3 one of the -ro-hets of the ne. ar%hite%ture/ In !>223 he designed the -lan of a %onte$-orary %ity3 a %ity of " $illion -eo-le3 .ith a %entral %ru%ifor$ skys%ra-ers3 surrounding 'uildings and +ast green s-a%es3 -ro+iding an interesting 8oning 'y a%ti+ities/ In the /illa Sa)o'e3 !>2>3 su$s u- his 5 points for a new architecture : su--orts on -iles at a regular distan%e3 flat roofs that %an 'e used as a garden3 %ontinuous .indo.s along the fa%ade that -ro+ide lighting inside3 free stru%ture of the fa%ade3 o-en floor eli$inating su--ort .alls/ The -ure3 elegant geo$etry of &e Cor'usier)?3 a%hie+ed his drea$ .as $ateriali8ed/ Build a collective housing as a compact building / It is a large re%tangular -ris$3 .hi%h se-arates fro$ the ground thanks to huge -illars of reinfor%ed %on%rete3 the ar%hite%t fa+orite $aterial fro$ these $o$ents3 lea+ing the e9-osed %on%rete and ti$'er for$.ork sho.ing/ Thanks to the %on%rete %ould let your fertile i$agination and .ork as a s%ul-ture3 as seen in the %ha-el of Notre4Dame4du4aut at Roncham&3 'uilt 'et.een !>? and !>??/ It is an irregular floor 'uilding3 .hi%h stands on a hill/ 6resents three -rotrusions at the %orners3 as if it .ere to.ers/ The roof rese$'les the keel of a 'oat3 in%luding a %an+as lifted/ The %olor .hite do$inates the set3 illu$inating the interior through attra%ti+e %olored glass .indo.s/ The synthesis of his %areer has 'een in the %ity of Chandi+arh3 the %a-ital of the Indian state of 6un4a'/ This is a ne. to.n3 .hi%h highlights the -arlia$ent3 a s-e%ta%ular 'uilding .hi%h is -re%eded 'y a %on%rete -or%h that is finished .ith a stru%ture in the for$ of a trun%ated %one3 thus re-la%ing the traditional do$e of %lassi%al ar%hite%ture /
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&e Cor'usier
PRO$LE# STATE#ENT
What was the main ideas in the architectural society when Le Corbusier start his education? At start3 It is dis-layed the histori%al3 artisti% and ar%hite%tural %onte9t in that &e Cor'usier $o+ed around during his edu%ation and he .ould find later/ e .ill refer dire%tly this %onte9t to de+elo- the follo.ing ans.ers3 'ut 'efore all3 I sho. on a %hronology to u'i%ate this tu$ultuous and e+entful -eriod of the history/
Chronolo+' 89:;s
arl Mar9 -u'lishes the Communist Manifest John Ruskin -u'lishes The Se+en &a$-s of Ar%hite%ture
!()( !()>
89<;s
Jose-h 6a9ton 'uilds the Crystal 6ala%e Charles Dar.in -u'lishes Origin of S-e%ies 0eginning of the Arts and Crafts Mo+e$ent
!(?! !(?> !(?>
89=;s
5irst ar%hite%tural s%hool in the B/S/ esta'lished at M/I/T Eugene;E$anuel iollet ,le;Du% -u'lishes Entretiens sur lFar%hite%ture
!(*! !(*" , #2
897;s
reat 5ire of Chi%ago The light bulb is in+ented Ale9ander raha$ 0ell in+ents the tele-hone/ &ouis Sulli+an 4oins Dank$ar Adler
!(#! !(#? !(#* !(#> !(#>
899;s
0eginning of Art No+eau In+ention of the fire-roof $etal fra$e for tall 'uildings John D/ Ro%kefellerFs e$-ire %ontrols >? -er%ent
%a/!(( !((s
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&e Cor'usier of B/S/ oil refining/ Tsar Aleander !! is assassinated 5irst ele%tri%al -o.er -lant and grid in odal$ing3 0ritain In A--leton3 is%onsin3 a hydroele%tri% -o.er -lant 'egins o-eration/ Mark T.ain -u'lishes "he Adventures of #uckleberry $inn / audG is gi+en the %o$$ission for the %agrada $am&lia The Berlin Conference/ Euro-ean nations agree to 'an trade in sla+es/ &e 0aron Jenney 'uilds the first $etal;fra$e skys%ra-er3 the #ome !nsurance Building usta+ Eiffel 'uilds the 'iffel "ower As-irin -atented
!(( !((! !((! !((2 !((2 !(() !(() , (? !((? !((> !((>
89>;s
5rank &loyd right de+elo-s the (rairie #ouse in%ent an ogh %o$$its sui%ide Death of Hueen i%toria Sig$und 5reud for$ulates his theory and $ethod of -sy%hoanalysis orldFs Colu$'ian E9-osition in Chi%ago &ouis Sulli+an -u'lishes "he "all Building Artistically Considererd Oly$-i% a$es re+i+ed in Athens/ 7enri 0e%uerel dis%o+ers radioa%ti+ity J/ J/ Tho$son identifies the ele%tron 5or$ation of the iennese Se%ession 7/ / ells -u'lishes The ar of the orlds
!(>s !(> !(>! !(>2 , >? !(>" !(>* !(>* !(>* !(>* !(>( !(>(
8>;;s
Death of Hueen i%toria In Russia the 0olshe+iks and the Menshe+iks for$ fro$ the 'reaku- of the Russian So%ial De$o%rati% &a'or 6arty 5ord Motor Co$-any Entente %ordiale signed 'et.een 0ritain and 5ran%e Al'ert Einstein -u'lishes )erenal and %pecial "heories of *elativity Earthuakes in San 5ran%is%o3 California 5irst %o$$er%ial radio trans$issions/ AE Tur'ine 5a%tory of 6eter 0ehrens The $ord Motor Company in+ents the asse$'ly line 6a'lo 6i%asso and eorge 0raue %reate Cubismo
5ili--o Marinetti -u'lishes the $uturist Manifiesto &ouis 0leriot 'e%o$es the first -erson to %ross
!>!
!>" !>" !>) !>? !>* !>( !>(,> !>( !>( , !2 !>>
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&e Cor'usier the 'nglish Channel 'y air-lane/ 5rank &loyd right %o$-letes the Ro'ie 7ouse
!>> !>>
8>8; 4 8>8:
eorge 'e%o$es ing of the Bnited ingdo$ Roald A$undsen first rea%hes the %outh (ole/ Ernest Rutherford identifies the atomic nucleus Niels 0ohr for$ulates the first %ohesi+e $odel of the ato$i% nu%leus3 and .ay to uantu$ $e%hani%s 5ord Motor Co$-any de+elo-s the $ord Model " 0eginning of federal in%o$e ta9 in the Bnited States The Archduke $ran+ $erdinand is assassined in Sara4e+o triggering orld ar I (anama Canal o-ens 7enry 5ord fully $e%hani8es $ass -rodu%tion of auto$o'ile 8>8< 4 8>8> ada art movement *olshevik *evolution ends the Russian E$-ire 0eginning of *ussian Civil -ar Theo +an Does'urg 'egins the 4ournal e %ti.l
End of orld ar I er$an Re+olution 'egins Murder of "sar /icholas !! and his fa$ily "reaty of 0ersailles redra.s Euro-ean 'orders Mussolini founds the $ascist (arty in Italy alter ro-ius founds the Bauhaus in ei$ar
!>! !>!! !>!! !>!" !>!" !>!" , !* !>!) !>!) !>!) %a/ !>!? !>!# !>!# !>!# !>!( !>!( !>!> !>!> !>!>
8>?;s
o$en granted the right to +ote in the Bnited States &e Cor'usier -u'lishes 0ers une architecture =To.ard an Ar%hite%ture@3 a su$$ary of his ideas 0auhaus at Dessau designed 'y alter ro-ius &e Cor'uiser arti%ulates his $ive points of architecture K Jose-h Stalin assu$es -o.er in the So+iet Bnion Ne. ork Sto%k Market %rashes3 0eginning the )reat epression 0ar%elona 6a+ilion designed 'y &ud.ig Mies +an der Rohe
!>2 !>2" !>2? !>2* !>2* !>2> !>2>
8>@;s
Adolf &oos de+elo- the *aumplan The E$-ire State 0uilding3 designed 'y Shre+e3 &a$' and 7ar$on In+ention of air conditioning The Intenation Style: Ar%hite%ture Sin%e !>22 e9hi'ition o-ens at Ne. ork CityFs Museu$ of Modern Art Se%ond orld ar
!>" !>"! !>"2 !>"2 !>"> , )?
8>:;s
&e Cor'usier offers his ser+i%es to the 0ichy regi$e i%hy re4e%ts &e Cor'usier
!>)! !>)2 ８
&e Cor'usier 5rank &loyd right designs Johnson a9 7eaduarters &e Cor'usier dra.s u- -lans for 1a *ochelle21a (allice Al+ar Aalto 'uilds the Baker #ouse at the Massa%husett
!>)) !>)* !>)#
8><;s
Mies +an der Rohe
!>?! !>?2 !>??
!>?# !>?( !>?>
Inde-enden%e gradual Euro-ean %olonies in A$eri%a3 Asia and O%eania3 so$e en%ouraged 'y the Bnited States3 a nation e+er $ore -o.erful and .ith a ra-id e+olution and gro.th/ Nationalist senti$ent e+er $ore great in nations/ They esta'lish anthe$s3 flags and sy$'ols to reinfor%e a 'ond 'et.een -eo-le/ This %auses an unifi%ation/ Bnifi%ation in large states or nations in Euro-e/ The Bnifi%ation of er$any3 a -ro%ess that took -la%e in the se%ond half of the nineteenth %entury and %ul$inated in the %reation of the er$an E$-ire on January !(3 !(#!/ 0efore the for$ation of a unified national state3 the territory of er$any .as -oliti%ally di+ided into a $osai% %o$-osed of Austria and 6russia3 as $ost i$-ortant/
Bnifi%ation of the s$all states that then .ill for$ er$any
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&e Cor'usier Moreo+er3 in Italy3 his unifi%ation3 Il Risorgi$ento in Italian3 also along throughout the nineteenth %entury led to the union of the +arious states in .hi%h the Italian -eninsula .as di+ided3 largely linked to dynasties %onsidered non;Italian as the 7a's'urgs or 0our'ons/
Unification of Italy between 1860 and 1870.
It should 'e understood in the %ultural %onte9t of Ro$anti%is$ and the a--li%ation of nationalist ideology3 as the identifi%ation of nation and state3 'oth these nations3 and Euro-e/ Su--orting for the nationalis$ and reunifi%ation of the $ain nations of Euro-e3 er$any3 England3 5ran%e or Italy flourished a Neo%lassi%is$/ One .ay to %onsolidate -o.er through serious ar%hite%ture and re%o+ering the old %lassi%al for$s/ Ar%hite%ts as a arl 5riedri%h S%hin%kel in ger$any Neo Classicism En+landB /ICTORIAN S"TLE: i%torian styles in%lude othi% Re+i+al3 Italianate3 Sti%k3
Eastlake3 Hueen Anne3 Ro$anesue and Se%ond E$-ire/ !() to !> It is kno.n as one of 'uilding styles that e$erged in the $id;nineteenth %entury3 during -art of the reign of i%toria I of England and gained $o$entu$ and s-read $ainly in the Bnited ingdo$3 its %olonies and the Bnited States /
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&e Cor'usier This style is %hara%teri8ed 'y designs take English othi% ar%hite%ture and other ar%hite%tures used in his ti$e/ &a%k of reno+ation
%ranceB The oti%h Re+i+al $eau Arts Architecture
!(>? to !>2? /Also kno.n as 0eau9 Arts Classi%is$3 A%ade$i% Classi%is$3 or Classi%al Re+i+al3 0eau9 Arts ar%hite%ture is %hara%teri8ed 'y order3 sy$$etry3 for$al design3 grandiosity3 and ela'orate orna$entation/ &a%k of reno+ation /iollet4Le4Duc
5ro$ 5ren%h rationalist s%hool3 .hi%h re4e%ted the tea%hing of the S%hool of 5ine Arts3 re-la%ing it .ith -ra%ti%e and tra+el through 5ran%e and Italy/ More i$-ortant is its theoreti%al %ontri'ution3 in .hi%h he defended the use of a rational $ethodology in the study of the styles of the -ast3 as o--osed to ro$anti% histori%is$/ Arts and Crafts #o)ement
In this .ay3 in Euro-e3 es-e%ially in the se%ond half of3 it is esta'lished and de+elo-ed Arts and Crafts #o)ement 3 an international $o+e$ent of that flourished in the -eriod 'et.een !(* and !>!3 and its influen%e %ontinuing until the !>"s/ The artist and .riter illia$ Morris led during the !(*s3 and .as ins-ired 'y the .ritings of John Ruskin and Augustus 6ugin/ At first3 It de+elo-ed and .ith $ore intesity in the 0ritish Isles3 'ut then3 e9tend to Euro-e and North A$eri%a/ It .as $ainly a rea%tion against the denigrated state of the de%orati+e arts at the ti$e in the $anner as they .ere -rodu%ed and %reated/ It .as a delayed rea%tion against the for%es of industriali8ation3 the de$and for traditional %rafts$anshi- .ith si$-le sha-es and styles often a--lied to $edie+al3 ro$anti% or folk of de%oration/ It argued for e%ono$i% and so%ial refor$ and3 as has 'een said3 essentially anti;industrial/
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&e Cor'usier
Red 7ouse3 surrounding of &ondon3 designed 'y 6hili- e'' in !(?>3 as a ho$e for illia$ Morris = founder of the $o+e$ent@ Red;tiled roof3 'ased on $edie+al $odels3 and its e$-hasis on natural $aterials3 the house 'e%a$e a $a4or influen%e in 0ritain and a'road/
/iennese Secession! Art No)eau
Deri+ated of Arts and Crafts Mo+e$ent3 the /ienna Secession =also kno.n as the Bnion of Austrian Artists@ The ar%hite%ts of this era .ere in %harge of 'oth the $ini$u$ housing and the 'ig %ity or $etro-olis3 fro$ the sha-e of the ar%hite%ture to its %o$$it$ent to the art and is $ore3 there are ar%hite%ts .ho also de+oted to the -rodu%tion of other arts as -ainting3 s%ul-ture or e+en3 lithogra-hy3 all inherited the s-irit of Art Nou+eau -ro%lai$ing the 'irth of a %o$-lete artist/ no.n as the Ne. Style3 Art Nou+eau .as first e9-ressed in fa'ri%s and gra-hi% design/ The style s-read to ar%hite%ture and furniture in the !(>s/ Art Nou+eau 'uildings often ha+e asy$$etri%al sha-es3 ar%hes and de%orati+e surfa%es .ith %ur+ed3 -lant;like designs/ its $ain feature is the sinuous line %hara%teristi% -lant ty-e any o'4e%t: orna$ents3 glasses and e+en the outer -rofiles of the houses/ Another feature is the use of %ast iron and %era$i%/ Also the stru%ture of the 'uilding .as identified .ith the de%or/ As an artist total This enlarged fro$ The Industrial Re)olution initiated in the eighteenth %entury in England is s-reading to Euro-e and the Bnited States of A$eri%a/ Industriali8ation %reated the need to 'uild a ne. ty-e 'uildings =fa%tories3 rail.ay stations3 housing3 et%//@
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&e Cor'usier De$and that they should 'e %hea- and fast to 'uild3 at the sa$e ti$e -ro+ides te%hni%al solutions to ne. needs/ 5or this reason3 sin%e the nineteenth %entury3 ar%hite%ture and ur'anis$ are ine9tri%a'ly linked to industriali8ation 7o.e+er3 .e %an not s-eak of unifor$ styles and ar%hite%tural and ur'an solutions3 4ust like so$e %onstants or si$ilar relationshi-s/
Industrial Re+olution3 ini%iated in reat 0ritain3 final of I %entury3 and arri+ed still Assembly 1ine3 de+elo-ed 'y 7enry 5ord in !>!" in assa$'le of auto$o'iles
Moderni8ation of solutions3 use of ne. $aterials su%h as %ast iron3 glass3 %e$ent;it; %entury later and fun%ionalis$ trend/ 0eside these data that refle%t the -ush of $odernity3 .e $ust re$e$'er that the ne. reality is not a%%e-t for e+eryone and3 %o$-ared to the triu$-h of $e%hani8ation and te%hnology3 rise the +oi%es %alling for a return to order a'o+e/ In ar%hite%ture these %lai$s .ill 'e s-e%ified in the style re+i+al Chica+o School/
The style is also kno.n as Co$$er%ial style/In the history of ar%hite%ture3 the Chi%ago S%hool .as a s%hool of ar%hite%ts a%ti+e in Chi%ago at the turn of the 2th %entury/ They .ere a$ong the first to -ro$ote the ne. te%hnologies of steel;fra$e %onstru%tion in %o$$er%ial 'uildings3 and de+elo-ed a s-atial aestheti% .hi%h %o; e+ol+ed .ith3 and then %a$e to influen%e3 -arallel de+elo-$ents in Euro-ean Modernis$/ illia$ &e 0aron Jenney =!("2 ; !>#@3 The father of the Chi%ago S%hool 7o$e Insuran%e Co$-any 0uilding designed in !(() is %onsidered the first 'uilding %onstru%ted .ith steel skeleton
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&e Cor'usier The idea that a steel stru%ture fire -rote%tion allo.ed s-e%ulators to 'uild solar o-ti$al height3 the ele+ator dou'led the height of the 'uildings and steel stru%ture dou'led again
7o$e Insuran%e Co$-any 0uilding3 Chi%ago3 !(()
&ouis 7enry Sulli+an =!(?* ; !>2)@ fue un aruite%to estadounidense de la Es%uela de Chi%ago =!(#;!(>"@/ 5or$ so%iedad %on Dank$ar Adler y %o$en8 una %orriente ue serP 'ase de la aruite%tura $oderna A)ant Gardes
The ar%hite%ts3 and authors and artists in general3 this -eriod took se+eral .ays3 and $any of the$ -arti%i-ated in se+eral ar%hite%tural trends in short s-a%e of ti$e3 they .ould %o$e to %riti%i8e the authors3 .orks3 and trends that they had -arti%i-ated 3 that of kno.n and .e ui%kly refle%ts that these $o+e$ents a--eared and e9-ired/ In this -art so e9tre$ely +aried artists note.orthy that these authors 'e%ause they .ere +ery .ealthy influen%es of ea%h of the $o+e$ents3 ada-ting to their .ork they %onsidered the different features of interest and a--lying the$ in the .ay they thought 'est for their goals/ The Deuts%her erk'und =D0@ .as a $i9ed asso%iation of ar%hite%ts3 artists and industrialists3 founded in !># in Muni%h3 'y 7er$ann Muthesius/ It .as an i$-ortant organi8ation in the history of $odern ar%hite%ture3 $odern design and a -re%ursor to the 0auhaus/ The erk'und $ore than an art $o+e$ent .as an a%tion funded 'y the state to integrate traditional %rafts .ith the te%hniues of $ass -rodu%tion industry to -ut er$any in a %o$-etiti+e -osition .ith other -o.ers su%h as 0ritain or the Bnited States/
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&e Cor'usier .as looking for a ne. artisti% e9-ression in the age of the $a%hine3 .ith a $a4or %o$-onent of theory3 like all $o+e$ents of the early t.entieth %entury/ %uncionalism
Modernist $o+e$ent .as lead in ar%hite%ture .hi%h .as an atte$-t to %reate a nonhistori%al ar%hite%ture of 5un%tionalis$ in .hi%h a ne. sense of s-a%e .ould 'e %reated .ith the hel- of $odern $aterials/It is an ado-tion of the $a%hine aestheti% .hereas a re4e%tion of orna$ent .hi%h $eans a si$-lifi%ation of for$ and eli$ination of unne%essary detail/ Thus3a'out !>23 so$e ar%hite%ts de+elo-ed in si$-le %u'i%al for$s/ =0efore 5rist orld ar@ 6eter 0ehrens en Ale$ania3 Adolf &oos y Josef 7off$ann en Austria o Auguste 6erret en 5ran%ia The sear%h for large areas of geo$etri% design3 the use of reinfor%ed %on%rete3 the flight of the de%orati+e ele$ents or the tenden%y to si$-lifi%ation of the for$s are %hara%teristi% of this grou- of ar%hite%ts .ho ne+er .orked as su%h/ !e "ti#l * in Dut%h The Style3 also kno.n as neoplasticism
Neo Dut%h artisti% $o+e$ent started in !>!# 'y 6iet Mondrian/ It has also 'een %alled %onstru%ti+is$ Dut%h3 'y its -arallelis$ .ith So+iet Constru%ti+is$/ It is linked to the 'irth of a'stra%t art and other a+ant;garde =es-e%ially %u'is$ and futuris$@/ 7e had a $a4or i$-a%t3 and 6ure for$s Ele$entary3 -ri$ary %olors3 'la%k and .hite3 interrelationshi- 'et.een interior and e9terior s-a%e/ 7is $ost -ro$inent .ork .as the +illa of Riet+erdl S%hrQder3 s$ooth .alls3 flat +olu$es3 asy$$etri%al arti%ulation3 use of %olor as an ele$ent that highlights so$e of the %onstru%tion /// .as one of the key sour%es of $odern ar%hite%ture/
Riet+eld S%hrQder 7ouse3 !>2) A %lear e9a$-le of ar%hite%ture is S%hrQder 7ouse neo-lasti%ista Dut%h ar%hite%t errit Riet+eld in %olla'oration .ith Mrs/ Truus S%hrQder;S%hrader3 .ho %o$$issioned the -ro4e%t to .hat .as his ho$e3 and their three %hildren3 until his death in !>(?/ The -rin%i-al reuire$ent .as -refera'ly designed .ithout .alls/ In this .ork .e %an see at a glan%e the aestheti% ele$ents that %hara%teri8e this art/
１５
&e Cor'usier
What was the main ideas he was influenced on? 7is artist% talent .as re%ogni8ed early 'y his tea%hers3 .ho en%ouraged hi$ to take ad+antage of it and %onsider $ore a$'otious goals than a e$-loy$ent in the industry of .at%hes/ %ole des 0eau9;Arts 7e re%ei+ed a 0eau9;Arts influen%ed ar%hite%tural edu%ation in his %ity 3 .here he a%uired the %on%e-t of ser+ed and ser+ant s-a%es3 that .ould affe%t nearly all his early 'uidlings/ As .ell as illa Sa+oye and illa Stein3 for e9a$-le3 ha+e t.o %learly differentiated areas 'et.een o.ners and ser+ant or attendants/ E+en a diferents -aths to a%%ess to these inde-endent roo$s or halls 7is ar%hite%tural edu%ation %a$e fro$ e9-erien%e %reated in the offi%e of Auguste 6erret during t.o years and 6eter 0ehrens one year $ore3 sand.i%hed 'et.een the$3 se+eral tri-s troughtout the Mediterranean3 .here .e should in%lude the reek islands/ 7e return to &a Chau9;de;5onds in !>!23 .here he taught in the art s%hool3 and deisgned a fe. of his early houses/ In !>!(3&e Cor'usier $et the -ainter A$LdLe O8enfant3 and .ithin a year they for$ulated and -u'lished a 'ook Apr7s le Cubisme =!>!( After Cu'is$K@/ De+elo-ing a +ariant of Cu'is$3 .hi%h they %onsidered a de%orati+e trend .ith a %reation of ar'itrary and fantasti% for$s/ In this essay3 they returned to get %lear3 ordered3 -re%ise for$s3 e9-ressi+e of the $odern $a%hine %i+ili8ation/ It .as a aestheti% a--roa%h they %alled Purism/ E$-hasi8ing the -rin%i-les of order3 rationality3 and fun%ionalis$/ During the se%ond de%ade of the t.entieth %entury3 &e Cor'usier .as forging his idea housing in series3 idea that 'egins to $old in !>!) .hen de+elo-ed .ith the assistan%e of Ma9 Du'ois3 the standardi8ed stru%tural syste$ do$;ino3 states in his su'seuent tri- to er$any3 .here it %onta%ts the a%ti+ity of large industries3 and is -ro$oted .hen in !>!>3 already installed in 6aris3 Andr4 Citro8n rides his fa%tory to -rodu%e %ars in series/ Sin%e then3 i$agine a ho$e -rodu%ed as a %ar3 .hi%h alludes in the na$e of the house in a %le+er -lay on .ords The Organi% and ani$al side .ill %o$e3 'ut after t.o ar Mundial/
１６
&e Cor'usier Re+i+ed an interest in handi%rafts and A sear%h .ith a s-iritual %onne%tion .ith the SBRROBNDIN en+iron$ent3 natural and artifi%ial
Nature3 the natural sha-es of ani$als3 -lants or $ushroo$s =re$ain art no)eau@3 deri+ed in his latest 'uinding and designs/
Organi% sha-es/ that de+elo- another .ay to o'ser+e3 o--osite to 'asi% for$s: right angle3 %ir%le3 suare and re%tangle/ Bsing aleatory for$s of nature to -lay .ith the -lain and grey %on%rete -ilars/
School of Chica+o
6rodu%e stru%tures and radi%al si$-lifi%ations3 ani$ated 'y a lo+e of detail3 Sulli+an rea%hed the goal of inherent ar%hite%tural 'eauty/ illia$ &e 0aron Jenney/ 7o$e Insuran%e 0uilding3 Chi%ago3 !((?/ The re%onstru%tion of the %ity after the fire of !(#! design freely allo.ed 'uildings like this: a )2 $eter high stru%ture through the use of steel3 is the -re%edent of skys%ra-ers3 although he .as only ten floors/ The in%rease in the si8e of offi%e 'uildings or ho$es ha+e 'een %o$-letely useless .ithout si$ultaneous inno+ations of the age of ele%tri%ity that ena'led ra-id $ass $o+e$ents that %hara%teri8e %onte$-orary ur'an life: +erti%al =lift@ and hori8ontal =$etro3 tra$ and other -u'li% trans-ort@/ 0eginnings of fun%tionalis$ &oos said the art ar%hite%ture differs 'e%ause it has -ra%ti%al -ur-oses/ 6erret is the ai$ of uality %onstru%tion/ ranier a'out 'ringing the ur'an ar%hite%ture/ 0ehrens is i$-le$enting industrial 'uilding/ 0oth of these 'elo. ar%hite%ts .ere tea%hers of &e Cor'usier in his youth3 for a short -eriod of ti$e3 .hi%h .as enough to 'uy the ne. +alues in Euro-e/ Au+uste Perret !>( , >
In !>!"3 Auguste 6erret designed ThLtre des Cha$-s;ElysLes that s%andali8ed the 6arisian so%iety ; this 'eautifully -ro-ortioned 'uilding .as a %lear $anifest against orna$entation and other attri'utes of Art Nou+eau/ １７
&e Cor'usier The -rodu%tion did not see and the 'eauty of isolated e9a$-les3 'ut is -resented as an a%t that takes into a%%ount other things/ 0y $at%hing .ith the s-read of reinfor%ed %on%rete3 uses the -ossi'ilities of the $aterials for its si$-lifi%ation -rogra$ and $a9i$u$ e%ono$y/ Peter $ehrens3 !>! ger$an ar%hite%t3 t.enty years older than &e Cor'usier3 .as also
a designer/ 7e .as a i$-ortant -art for the $odernist $o+e$ent3 influen%ing to the $o+e$ent
AEG Turbine %ACTOR"
Si$-li%ity of the a--roa%h and the effe%ti+eness of their diseUo/Construida in %ast %on%rete3 steel and large .indo.s seen flat glass 0ehrens thought not only to the industrial needs of the %o$-any/ Also tried to %ater to the %o$fort of those .ho ha+e to .ork in their fa%ilities/ This e9-lains the use of the gla8ing of the side .alls3 fa%ilitating also the aeration inside/ E+en to 'ring $ore light there3 the entire roof is resol+ed 'ased on large steel trusses3 ar%hes as a dia-hrag$3 .hi%h dis%harge dire%tly to the outside and hold a .ide glass and iron o+er'urden/ Only in the %orners of the 'uilding the ar%hite%t turned to the use of reinfor%ed %on%rete3 .ith no de%oration 'ut the lines that $ark the %ourses of the for$.ork3 $aterial also used in the u--er ga'les to %o$-ose a kind of singular -edi$ent .hi%h %ontains the logo %o$-any/ On one side is the offi%e s-a%e/ And there is nothing $ore3 and nothing less: the .arehouse $odel in its -erfe%t state/ 5or the sa$e er$an %o$-any also 'uilt the ho$es of fa%tory .orkers/ And not %ontent .ith this3 he designed se+eral -ie%es of furniture3 fro$ .at%hes to %offee $a%hines3 la$-s or ashtrays/ Huite a %o$-rehensi+e %on%e-tion of the %or-orate i$age/ Marks an e+olution in the %onte$-orary ar%hite%ture of this se%tor ty-ologi%al and re-resents the -aradig$ of all industrial 'uildings rationalist -eriod that 'egins .ith the 5agus.erk of alter ro-ius/ Only in the %orners of the 'uilding the ar%hite%t turned to the use of reinfor%ed %on%rete3 .ith no de%oration 'ut the lines that $ark the %ourses of the for$.ork3 $aterial also used in the u--er ga'les to %o$-ose a kind of singular -edi$ent .hi%h %ontains the logo %o$-any/ On one side is the offi%e s-a%e/ And there is nothing $ore3 and nothing less: the .arehouse $odel in its -erfe%t state/ 5or the sa$e er$an %o$-any also 'uilt the ho$es of fa%tory .orkers/ And not %ontent .ith this3 he designed se+eral -ie%es of furniture3 fro$ .at%hes to %offee $a%hines3 la$-s or ashtrays/ Huite a %o$-rehensi+e %on%e-tion of the %or-orate i$age/
１８
&e Cor'usier
Te$-le of 7era =also %alled of Ne-tune@3 6aestu$3 Si%ilia/ $id;si9th %entury3 0C
Marks an e+olution in the %onte$-orary ar%hite%ture of this se%tor ty-ologi%al and re-resents the -aradig$ of all industrial 'uildings rationalist -eriod that 'egins .ith the 5agus.erk of alter ro-ius/
A') "urbine $actory, !>(,!>>/ 6eter 0ehrens/
１９
&e Cor'usier
Walter Gropius & Adolph Meyer - Fagus Factory at Aifred-an-der-Leine, 1910-1925
Ton' Garnier forerunner of 2th %entury 5ren%h ar%hite%ture/ .as3 together .ith
Auguste 6erret3 the ar%hite%t $ost re-resentati+e and inno+ati+e ne. 5ren%h %lassi%is$ .hi%h a--eared in 6aris in the early t.entieth %entury/
Bne CitL Industrielle design of an uto-ian %ity
ose&h Paton CRSTA& 6A&ACE
２０
&e Cor'usier
The stru%ture =greenhouse design 'uilder Jose-h 6a9ton@ >23 suare $eters3 "" $eters in height and ?*) $eters in length3 'uilt 'y fi+e thousand skilled .orkers to house the reat E9hi'ition in &ondon in !(?!/ It is the first 'uilding of su%h di$ensions that uses ne. $aterials that the Industrial Re+olution -ro+ides an effe%ti+e .ay: steel =-re+iously used in 'ridges and other engineering .orks@ and glass =%o+ering an area of ()3 $V o-enings@/ voyae d$%rient
outh Tra+els INDIA/ 6ri$iti+e and an%ient %ultures/ An%ient ree%e
２１
&e Cor'usier Russian Construccti)ism
reat unkno.n for a long ti$e3 today 3 there are so$e 'uildings of this ty-e e+en in the Bnited States/ It .as the desire to do so$ething useful3 all the Russian a+ant;garde had to do .ith ar%hite%ture3 there is an identifi%ation 'et.een art and -oliti%s3 -lanning and housing/ /ladimir Tatlin899<48><@
0esides %onstru%ti+ist3 .as a -ainter and s%ul-tor3 doo$ed in $any fa%ets of the 'ran%hes of art3 .as the founder $o+e$ent 'eing the $ain 'astion3 -ut ne. $aterials and ne. sy$'ology/3 7e $ade a $odel of the $onu$ent of the third international for%e -ro4e%t %ondu%ted in early !>2/ The $onu$ent of ) feet;high in iron and steel s-iral in%lined fro$ the a9is3 %ontain glass stru%ture inside/ Model of the $onu$ent of the third international for%e/ =!>2@ ladi$ir Tatlin
%ome of these trends 9 vanguards had many features in common, others were totally divergent unlike, for that matter, and in the case of architecture can not deduce a movement capable of being formulated with the term of style, there would be only one language that could encompass all these trends and is the :!nternational %tyle: broad term that covers a wide typology of architectural creations, techni;ues and authors, who personally conducted his works
２２
&e Cor'usier
How did he use these ideas and developed? &e Cor'usier said: I a$ only kno.n as an ar%hite%t3 -eo-le .ill not re%ogni8e $e as a -ainter3 and yet it is 'y .ay of -ainting that I %a$e to ar%hite%tureK 7e figured out his ideas 'y -ainting and s%ul-ture/ Jean;&ouis Cohen3 one of the 'est kno.ers of hi$3 said: &e Cor'usier3 edu%ated as a -lasti% artist3 +isited his studio e+ery $orning to .ork on his %an+ases3 'efore 'efore heading to his studio e+ery afternoon to study ho. to a--ly the$ in the ar%hite%tural %o$-ositions3 on ar%hite%tural $annerK3 $anner that I .ill sho. and %o$-are after of this Citroan E)olution
After this tra+els to Italy and India3 and the kno.ledge that he learned in er$any 'y 6erret and 7is %o$-endiu$ of influen%es is i$-le$ented fro$ the first -rototy-e of the house Citrohan de+elo-ed in !>23 .here first a--lies a resour%e design that .ill 'e%o$e a %onstant in +irtually all housing -ro4e%ts
Sket%h of Citrohan house -ro4e%t André Citroën rides his factory to produce cars in series. Since then, imagine a ho me produced as a car, which alludes in the name of the house in a clever play on words.
Intended to 'e 'uilt in any %ountry3 the -rototy-e Citrohan is a re+ie. of the %on%e-ts of the Do$;Ino ho$es su'seuent to the e9-erien%es in his -i%torial a%ti+ity .ith O8enfant and the engineer assistan%e of Ma9 Du'ois/ In this -ro4e%t ger$inal3 &e Cor'usier -uts into effe%t a %atalog of ideas 'ased on the influen%es %olle%ted during his for$ati+e years: ; The ado-tion of si$-le sha-es that do sur+i+e aestheti% +alues o+er ti$e/ ２３
&e Cor'usier ; The %on%e-ts e9-ressed in the $anifesto of -uris$ in fa+or of -re%ision and $athe$ati%al order/ ; The ado-tion of unadorned for$s -ro$ulgated years earlier 'y Adolf &oos/ ; The housing %u'i% for$s of the Mediterranean %oast/ ; The flat roofs of the Cite IndustrielleK of Tony arnier/ ; The large glass 'uildings of the early %entury 6arisians/ ; The idea of the $odel %ell in the E$a Monastery +isited in !>#3 %arrying &e Cor'usier to say3 I a--ly ad$ira'ly to the .orkers housesK ./ers une architecture0
Es fa$oso el di%ho de Cor'usier la %asa es la $Puina en uL +i+irK en su libro 0ers une architecture -u'li%ado en !>2"/ Este li'ro fue3 y toda+Ga lo es3 $uy influyente3 y los -ri$eros tra'a4os ue hi8o3 %o$o la illa Sa+oyeK en 6oissy3 5ran%ia son tenidos %o$o -rototi-os de fun%ionalis$o/K Ar;uitectura o *evoluci2"3 .hi%h the ne9t +illas .ill follo./The +illas .ere set in isolated s-a%e and surrounded 'y gardens/ These +illas are %hara%teri8ed 'y o-en s-a%es for$ed through the +arious le+els and terra%es/ A$ong the$3 %orridors3 not as si$-le aisles3 'ut si$'ologi%al -aths/ %our houses form
The .alk through these +illages3 -lays an i$-ortant role in linking these t.o -rogra$s into one3 and their hierar%hy is a the$e ins-ired 'y &e Cor'usier
２４
&e Cor'usier Cu'i%al sha-es against o+al ones3 ins-ired 'y the %hi$neys of the 'ig transatlanti% shi-s =futuris$ and $odernity@/ 6atterns of the fa%ade .ere dire%tly relationed .ith -ro-ortions of 6alladio/ =Renaissan%e3 %lassi% an%ient ideas@ /illa Roche
!>2"
Sket%hes of 5our houses for$ of Oeu+re Co$-lete3 !>"?
/illa Stein 4 de #onFie
!>2*;!>2(
illa Stein;de Mon8ie3 fa%ade a'o+e3 "D $odel 'elo./ !>2*;!>2(
２５
&e Cor'usier
illa 5os%ari is a -atri%ian +illa in Mira3 near eni%e3 northern Italy3 designed Andrea 6alladio =!??(;*@ The $a4esti% t.in ra$-s i$-osed a kind of %ere$onial route to arri+ing guests +isiting/
Monu$ental 'uildings %on%ei+a'ly due to 6alladioFs si$-lified use of geo$etry in -lan3 the Xnine2s;uare grid= 5ro$ funda$ental $athe$ati%al -rin%i-les3 .ritings su%h as Colin Ro.eFs The Mathe$ati%s of the Ideal illa3 -u'lished in !>)# un+eiled hidden si$ilarities that e9isted 'et.een &e Cor'usierFs .ork =i/e/ illa Stein@ and that of 6alladioFs =i/e/ illa 5os%ari@ in the use of -ro-ortion3 $athe$ati%s and geo$etry/
２６
&e Cor'usier
Sy$$etry 'et.een Renaissan%e +illas of 6alladio and Modern illas of &e Cor'usier
The sy$$etry -ro-ortional in 6alladioFs illa 5os%ari is re-la%ed .ith frag$entation in &e Cor'usierFs illa Stein hiding the use of -ro-ortions in the for$ation of the o'4e%t/
/illa Sa)o'e
!>2>
Sket%hes of 5our houses for$ of Oeu+re Co$-lete3 !>"?
On one hand3 illa Sa+oye is a %learly &e Cor'usier
２７
&e Cor'usier
1e chemin4e3 &e Cor'usier !>!(/
One of his first -aintings/ 7e figured out the idea through %an+as and 'rushes 'efore ar%hite%tual dra.ings/ Artist .ay as .ell as ar%hite%tual and %onstru%tor to design/
illa Sa+oye3 !>2>3 6aris/ In 5ran%h lenguage $a%hine Y ha'iterK
２８
&e Cor'usier
Te$-le of 7era =also %alled of Ne-tune@3 6aestu$3 Si%ilia/ $id;si9th %entury3 0C
&e Cor'usier3 like other aruite%ts fro$ his $o$ent3 had fe. $a4or %o$$issions during the !>2s3 due the 5irst orld ar 'ut he %ontinually ad+an%ed his ideas and his re-utation through his .ritings and through his +isionary ur'an;-lanning -ro4e%ts/ These large;s%ale housing -ro4e%ts3 a res-onse to the gro.ing ur'an -o-ulations and housing shortages of -ost.ar 5ran%e3 .ere ne+er a%tually 'uilt/ /ille Contem&oraine
In !>22 he dre. u- a -lan for a %onte$-orary %ity of three $illion inha'itants = ille Conte$-oraineK@ Contemporary City. It .as an unrealised -ro4e%t3 designed .ith ordered ro.s of glea$ing glass skys%ra-ers -la%ed on stilts to allo. for -edestrian -assage/ They .ere %onne%ted 'y +ast high.ays and set in the $idst of -arks/
/ille Radieuse =Radiant City@ .as an unrealised -ro4e%t designed 'y the 5ren%h;S.iss
ar%hite%t &e Cor'usier in !>2)/ It tried to e9-lain and de+elo-ed a 'asi% -oints ; 6ro+ide effe%ti+e $eans for %o$$uni%ations/ ; 6ro+ide a lot of green/ ; 6ro+ide 'etter a%%ess to the sun/ ; Redu%e traffi%/
２９
&e Cor'usier Plan /oison
In his !>2?3 &e Cor'usier %on%ei+ed an enor$ous ur'an;rene.al -ro4e%t that .ould ha+e re-la%ed the histori% 'uildings north of the Seine .ith a %o$-le9 of high;rise 'uildings/ &ike the ile Conte$-oraine3 this radiant $odern %ity .as the ar%hite%t
6lan oisin3 6aris3 5ran%e3 !>2?/ Re-la%ing the edifi%ation of the right 'ank of the Seine/
CONGRES AND E1POSITIONS
The Stuttgart eissenhofsiedlung .as an e9hi'ition of $odern ar%hite%ture %o$$issioned 'y the Deuts%her erk'und3 .hi%h under the dire%tion of Mies +an der Rohe3 -ro$oted the %reation of uniue -erfor$an%es thirty ='asi%ally houses3 'ut also 'lo%ks and se$i;deta%hed houses or ro. @ in an area of the then outskirts of Stuttgart in !>2#/ The estate .as 'uilt for the Deuts%her erk'und e9hi'ition of !>2#3 The eissenhof Estate =or eissenhof Settle$ent in er$an eiZenhofsiedlung@ is a housing estate 'uilt for e9hi'ition in Stuttgart in !>2#/ It .as an international sho.%ase of .hat later 'e%a$e kno.n as the International style of $odern ar%hite%ture Double ouse in 6eissenhofsiedlun+
３０
&e Cor'usier
Sket%hes of 5our houses for$ of Oeu+re Co$-lete3 !>"?
El Con+rs International dHArchitecture #oderne =Also kno.n as CIAM or International Congress of Modern Ar%hite%ture@3 founded in !>2( and dissol+ed in !>?>3 .as the store of ideas of $odernis$ =or International Style@ in ar%hite%ture/ It %onsisted of an organi8ation and a series of %onferen%es and $eetings
Sarra8 Castle in S.it8erland3 'y a grou- of 2( Euro-ean ar%hite%ts organi8ed 'y &e Cor'usier3 7Ll[ne de Mandrot =o.ner of the %astle@3 and Sigfried iedion =the first general se%retary@/
In the t.entieth %entury $anifestos a'ound in .hi%h the ter$ ar%hite%ture as a so%ial art is re-eated/ A$ong the $any issues to our attention are the %on%e-ts and 'uildings asso%iated .ith CIAM ar%hite%ts3 founded in June !>2(/ ATENS CARTER
!>""3 a do%u$ent .hose great rhetori% and idealis$ -raised the +irtues of %ities and residential areas .ith giant to.ers3 gi+en a long shado. on ur'an -lanning in the years after orld ar II/ The -rin%i-les of the /ille Radieuse .ere also in%or-orated into his later -u'li%ation
３１
&e Cor'usier 7is uto-ian ideal for$ed the 'asis of a nu$'er of ur'an -lans during the !>"s and !>)s %ul$inating in the design and %onstru%tion of the first Unit2 d3abitation in #arseilles in !>?2/
BnitL dF7a'itation in Marseilles in 8>
The housing unit is a good e9a$-le of this3 .ith ar%hite%tural details su%h as handrails and 'alustrades ergono$i% 3 'en%hes strategi%ally -la%ed to rest3 or integrated furniture in the a-art$ents .ith -lanned fun%tions su%h as su--orting a glass .hile .at%hing the +ie. of the +alley/ On the to- floor3 &e Cor'usier -la%ed a s%hool to fa%ilitate the li+es of the inha'itants3 .hile in the roof sits a theater under the stars and a -ool suita'le for %hildren/ 5ood sho-3 'akehouse3 -ost offi%e/ These ele$ents3 all of the$ designed to -la%e $an at the %enter of the ar%hite%ture3 a -rogressi+e +ision that -er$eated the %areer of &e Cor'uiser
The -ure3 elegant geo$etry of &e Cor'usier
!>?;??3 Ron%ha$-3 5ran%ia &e Cor'usier .as out of its -rin%i-les of standardi8ation and aestheti% $a%hine3 resulting in a site;s-e%ifi% res-onse/ 0y &e Cor'usier
&e Cor'usier -ro+ided the lo%i reuired for the res-onse3 the hori8on +isi'le on all four sides of the hill and its histori%al lega%y as a -la%e of .orshi-/ &e Cor'usier also sensed a sa%red relationshi- of the hill .ith its surroundings3 the Jura $ountains in the distan%e and the hill itself3 do$inating the lands%a-e/ 0ut in%luse o+erhere3 the nature of the site resulted in an ense$'le that has $any si$ilarities .ith the A%ro-olis3 fro$ the as%ent at the 'otto$ of the hill to the ar%hite%tural and lands%a-e e+ents along the .ay3 you %an see the 'uilding until it is rea%hes al$ost entirely the hillto-/
&eft3 $irrored -lan of Notre Da$e du Ron%ha$Right3 I%\neK3 of &e Cor'usier3 !>*!/ Relation 'et.een us3 as the $anner or hi$/
And .hen designing Ron%ha$-3 &e Cor'usier generates a .hite;.alled organi% +olu$e3 a--roa%hing the ethereal look of $odern ar%hite%ture/ ith the entry of light3 s$all %olored .indo.s3 %hange i$$ediately inside the s-a%e3 gi+ing it life and sy$'olis$/ The organi% enlightened fun%tionalis$ is totally -resent
The high .alls3 a%t as a%ousti% a$-lifiers3 they -ro4e%t the sound to the .hole -la%e/ One of the $ost striking as-e%ts of the Chur%h3 is the %o+er/ The roof a--ears to float a'o+e the 'uilding3 su--orted 'y %olu$ns e$'edded in the .alls3 %reating a ga- of ! %$ 'et.een the %eiling and .alls/
３３
&e Cor'usier
The roof is -erha-s the only sign of any influen%e of $e%hani%al -rogress3 %ur+es si$ulating an air%raft .ing/ Aerodyna$i%s in the design3 all huge and hea+y ualities a--ear .eightless/
３４
&e Cor'usier
The a%ti+ity of &e Cor'usier in the field of ur'anis$ has 'een one of the greatest %ontri'utions that he has $ade .ithin the ar%hite%ture/ 7e -ro-osed and %arried out further ur'an %onstru%tion -lans in %ities su%h as Mos%o.3 6aris3 Algiers3 a'ul =in 6akistan@3 0rasilia3 a$ong others/ Chandi+arh* the cit' &lanned
The %ity has -ro4e%ts designed 'y &e Cor'usier and 6ierre Jeanneret3 Jane Dre. and Ma9.ell 5ry/
It .as the Indian lands%a-e That ins-ired the %onstru%tion of the final 'uilt uto-ian %ity Chandigarh3 the %a-ital of 6un4a'/ The design .as 'ased on the %on%e-tuali8ation of &a ille Radieuse =The Radiant City@3 .hi%h in turn .as an u-date of the ideas for the ille Conte$-oraine/ The %entral idea of &e Cor'usier .as to esta'lish in the heart of the %ity a nu$'er of skys%ra-ers3 not ne9t to ea%h other3 'ut all of the$ se-arated 'y s-a%ious gardens and nu$erous s-a%es3 roads and -arking s-a%es for $otorists/
３５
&e Cor'usier The sha-e of the %ity -lan .as $odified fro$ one .ith a %ur+ing road net.ork to re%tangular sha-e .ith a grid iron -attern for the fast traffi% roads3 redu%ing 'esides its area for reason of e%ono$y/ The %ity -lan .as %on%ei+ed as -ost .ar <arden City<3 .here in u-right and high rise 'uildings .ere ruled out3 kee-ing in +ie. the so%io;e%ono$i% %onditions and li+ing ha'its of the -eo-le/
The skys%ra-ers of the sa$e si8e and the sa$e height3 .ould 'e 'athed in the sun and the air e+ery.here/ The green areas at the foot of the sa$e .ould 'e gardens and -laygrounds/ In the distan%e .e e9tend the garden %ities3 on the outskirts of the 'usiness distri%t3 in .hi%h reside the inha'itants of the %ity/ Distri'ution of the %ity 'y 'ounded areas =residential and industrial area3 leisure area3 .ork area3 et%/ //@ And organi8e -edestrian %ir%ulation and +ehi%les in se+en different ty-es of roads for %ir%ulation s-eeds/ Not only Art No+eau or Arts and Crafts $o+e$ent3 analysis and o'ser+ation on his o.n3 'e%ause3 It .ould see$ that3 also his -ersonal %olle%tion of $arine %rusta%eans3 .hose $ysterious %a+ities and their sha-es ins-ired the design of his ideas/ De+elo-ed in its latest 'uildings3 as a -araleloide hy-er'oli% roof of the 7ouse of Asse$'ly in Chandigarh or the roof of the Cha-el of Notre Da$e du 7aut3 Ron%ha$-/
３６
&e Cor'usier
Shell of a 7orseshoe Cra'3 1imulus (olyphemus3 one ani$al .hose fossils ha+e 'een found in )? $illion years old/3 %ould 'e %o$-rared .ith the roof of the Cha-el in Ro%ha$- or roof of the 7ouse of Asse$'ly in Chandigarh/
Sha-es of %ur+es and loo-s are o--osite to 'asi% for$s3 .hi%h do not kee- any relation .ith %ir%les3 'ut .ith eli-se3 hy-er'ole or -ara'ole/ Set of %ur+es/
３７
&e Cor'usier
What were the main ideas from Le Corbusier? 5ro$ a ne. -oeti%s of ar%hite%ture3 $id.ay 'et.een %lassi%al har$ony and fun%tionality reuiring $odern ti$es3 &e Cor'usier $ade for$ of his ideas and re-resent the$ on 'uildings3 essays and -aintings// Trends as fun%tionalis$ of Adolf &oos3 futuris$3 ger$an and fren%h $asters and ne. $aterials ga+e to &e Cor'usier an industrial %on%e-tion/ As .ell as an ado-tion of si$-le sha-es that do sur+i+e aestheti% +alues o+er ti$e or unadorned for$s3 %on%e-ts e9-ressed in the $anifesto of -uris$ in fa+or of -re%ision and $athe$ati%al order DO#4INO S"STE#
Es%tru%tural Syste$ %reated 'y &e Cor'usier in !>!)3 .ith the hel- of engineer Ma9 Du 0ois/ Stru%ture $ade of standard ele$ents that %ould 'e %o$'ined freely3 allo.ing di+ersity in housing design/ Syste$ .ould 'e -erfe%ted as housing %ould 'e 'uilt in series like $a%hinery/ It3 der+i+aria Citrohan 7ouse and its $any i$-ro+ed +ersions
Do$;ino syste$ and e+olution of it/ 7ouse CitrQhan/ Dra.ing/ !>!) and "D $odel ith this syste$3 &e Cor'usier se-arated stru%ture for$ en%losure/ The results .ere the free -lan3 .ith its fle9i'le disrti'ution of .alls3 and the free fa%ade3 .hi%h %ould take on any desired %onfiguration/
The ? -oints of ar%hite%ture .ere the $ain theoreti%al foundation to de+elo- his o.n ar%hite%tural language/ This theory did not %o$e out of no.here3 'ut ed through an e+olution of ideas using ne. $aterials and te%hnology3 and 'y !>2*3 the S.iss ar%hite%t had arti%ulated his %i)e Points To,ard a Ne, Architecture: ３８
&e Cor'usier !/ The su--orts =-ilotis@ are -re%isely %al%ulated3 s-a%ed regularly3 and used to ele+ate the first floor off the da$- ground/ 2/ The flat roof or roof garden is used for de$seti% -ur-oses su%h as gardening3 -lay and rela9tion;there'y re%o+ering all the 'uild;u-on ground for outdoor a%ti+ities/ "/ The interior .alls3 inde-endent of the su--ort syste$3 %an 'e arranged in a free -lan/ )/The hori8ontal .indo.s $ade -ossi'le 'y the su--ort syste$3 assure e+en illu$ination fro$ .all to .all and ad$it eight ti$es as $u%h light as +erti%ally -la%ed .indo. of eual area/ ?/The fa%ade3 also inde-endent of the stru%tural su--orts3 %an 'e freely designed/
5i+e 6oints To.ard a Ne. Ar%hite%ture e9-lained fro$ the four +illas/
３９
&e Cor'usier The attitude to.ards the front of the S.iss ar%hite%t %hanged .hen he reali8ed the o+erheating of ho$es in su$$er and the e9%essi+e ther$al loss in .inter/ The solution %a$e after a series of in+estigations %ondu%ted 'et.een thirtieth and si9tieth years that led to the de+elo-$ent of -er$anent a sun;shading stru%tures3 $ade of -atterned %on%rete .alls3 $rise Soleil3 .hi%h fun%tions as a filter3 .hi%h surrounds the 'uilding3 allo.ing s-atial -enetration and softens the for$al i$-a%t -ilotis/
0rise;Soleil/ BnitL dFha'itationK=Marsella3 !>)?@K/
Curutchet ouse3
&e Cor'usier still $aintains an %hara%ter of ti$elessness/ Des-ite fulfilling all its %on%e-ts and -rin%i-les of his fi+e -oints for a ne. ar%hite%ture3 t.o +olu$es are organi8ed around the %entral %ourtyard and the a%%ess ra$- that a%t as a single +irtual +olu$e/ 6lay .ith ra$-s and -ro%essional -ath again3 'ut the -ro4e%t is 'ased on a %onstant %ontradi%tion 'et.een the rationality of regular stru%tural .eft orthogonal3 and organi% sha-es and free use ado-ting the .alls 'y not ha+ing to %arry loads/ These thoughts sho. us the organi% influen%es/
４０
&e Cor'usier
Curut%het 7ouse3 &a 6lata3 0uenos Aires3 Argentina =!>)>;??@
#ODULOR
The design -hiloso-hy of &e Cor'usier dra.s hea+ily u-on $athe$ati%al %on%e-ts used 'y &eonard da in%i3 as the golden ratio and the 5i'ona%%i series3 .hi%h used as a 'asis for ar%hite%tural -ro-ortions/ It .as this +ision fo%used on the $an3 the hu$an 'eing3 -la%ing the $an in the %enter of the needs3 .hi%h led hi$ to %reate a %anon of $easure$ents3 su%h as -attern di$ensioning $easures and needs for su%h -eo-le/ As .e ha+e said3 &e Cor'usier .as a Renaissan%e $an3 a return to those ti$es and those ideals/ 0uild 'y and for the -eo-le/ The hu$anist idea de+elo-$ent sin%e his -aintings/ That %anon that .as de+elo-ed3 .as the Modulor
The -oe$ of the Right Angle -lates< =!>??@3 &e Cor'usier/
４１
&e Cor'usier 7u$an %onstanted $easures3 as "he )olden *atio that fas%inated estern intelle%tuals of di+erse interests for at least 23) years/ Suares3 re%tangles3 $ollus%s s-irals/ 7u$an $easures deri+e of the hu$an 'eing and his needs/ Modulor $easures
#ONASTERIO DE LA TOURETTE
=!>?#;!>*@ &e Cor'usier %reated a 'uilding of austere 'eauty/ The hardness and the <'rutality< of the design re+eal an e$-athy .ith the life of the $onks/
The 'uilding does not ha+e the lightness and ethereal uality of the early .ork of &e Cor'usier3 unlike ho. grid is a regular re-etition .ith a strong hori8ontal e$-hasis e9-osed %on%rete3 deli'erately $aking it strong and se+ere for$/
４２
&e Cor'usier
The -rogra$ needs to %o$'ine -ri+ate roo$s for $onks .ith their needs s-a%es 'et.een Huele Cor'usier -ro-oses a roofto- garden/ These different a--li%ations .ere sta%ked one a'o+e the other3 -ri+ate roo$s in the t.o u--er floors3 under %o$$on s-a%es/ 5ro$ the ti$e the author lea+es the -urist rhetori% and as%eti% .hite -lanes that had %hara%teri8ed his earlier .ork to ado-t a $ode %hara%teri8ed 'y the introdu%tion of strong rough te9tures and gi+e it a strong $ateriality to their +olu$es/ The %on%rete laisse8 'rut hen%eforth 'e%o$es the $ain %hara%ter of the ar%hite%ture3 and also gi+es its na$e to the trend ='rut3 of 'Lton 'rut@
４３
&e Cor'usier
Where can we find these ideas and developments nowadays? &ater3 his .orks ha+e 'een the 'asis3 not only for ar%hite%ts3 'ut ar%hite%tural trends/
Taking as a $aster in ter$s of thesis3 ideas and designs3 as then they .ould de+elofreely3 si$ilar or not to the ideas of &e Cor'usier As mo)ements*
the se%ond half of the %entury .as -leanty of deri+ations and shunts3 .ith %hanges and astonishing di+ersity/ T.entieth %entury trends in%lude Art Moderne and the 0auhaus s%hool %oined 'y alter ro-ius a$ong others3 fro$ International Style and 5un%ionalis$ .hi%h the S.iss ar%hite%t su--orted De%onstru%ti+is$3 0rutalis$3 Rationalis$3 Stru%turalis$3 and 6ost$odernis$ $o+e$ents3 and $ost of the$ .ere influen%ed 'y the ideas of &e Cor'usier3 $ainly 0rutalis$ and Rationalis$3 de+elo-ed on its o.n along the half; %entury/ As .ell as Mies +an der Rohe and 5rank &loyd right %o$-let the %ir%le of the three $aster of the %entury/ A$ong they3 set the 'ases of these ne9t trends and trends of no.adays/ I .ill fo%us the influen%es that .ere a'sor'ed 'y ar%hite%ts or grou-s of the$3 not this $o+e$ents or trends3 due it .ill 'e too $u%h long//
Oscar Nieme'er
=!># ;2!2@ 5ollo.er and great -ro$oter of the ideas of &e Cor'usier3 is %onsidered one of the $ost influential international $odern ar%hite%ture/ 7e .as a -ioneer in the e9-loration of the %onstru%ti+e -ossi'ilities of reinfor%ed %on%rete and -lasti%/ A$ong its $ain ar%hite%tural -ro4e%ts in%lude the %onstru%tion of 0rasGlia as the ne. %a-ital of his %ountry during the !>*s/ Nie$eyer .as the $ain res-onsi'le for so$e i%oni% -u'li% 'uildings in the %ity3 in%luding the National Congress of 0ra8il3 the Cathedral of 0rasilia3 6lanalto 6ala%e and the 6alP%io da Al+orada/
４４
&e Cor'usier
0rasilian National Congress3 Nie$eyer3 !>?#;!>*) 7e designed the National Congress during the late !>?s and early !>*s .hile he ser+ed as %hief ar%hite%t for 0ra8il
The ur'anisti% side of &e Cor'usier .as one of the -rin%i-al 'asis -rin%i-les that he a'sor'ed3 and de+elo-ed on his o.n3 adding the %ur+e line3 the Organi% 5un%tionalis$ in his -ro4e%ts Os%ar Nie$eyer .ith &e Cor'usier also -arti%i-ated in the drafting of the $ain 'uilding of the Bnited Nations in Ne. ork in !>?2/
%I/E ARCITECTS
=also %alled Ne. ork 5i+e@ .as an A$eri%an ar%hite%tural grou- for$ed in Ne. ork and %o$-osed 'y 6eter Eisen$an3 Mi%hael ra+es3 Charles .ath$ey3 John 7e4duk and Ri%hard Meier/ 7is .ork .as first e9hi'ited at the Museu$ of Modern Art3 Ne. ork3 !>*#3 and related to the neo;rationalist $o+e$ent/ These fi+e had a %o$$on su--ort to the -ure for$s of $odern ar%hite%ture 3 re$aining the .ork of &e Cor'usier in the !>2s and !>"s3 although $e$'ers .ere al.ays faithfull on his ideas and on %loser e9a$ination their .ork .as far $ore indi+idual/ Their last designs sho. $ore refine$ent res-e%t to the initial ones/ 6hili- Johnson .as $entor of the$3 =!>* ;2?@ Their earliest ideas follo.ed a granting eual i$-ortan%e to the %larity of the lines3 har$ony on the$/ O-ening s-a%es and sear%hing the light/
４５
&e Cor'usier The organi8ation of the 'uildings .ere 'ased on geo$etri% $odels that o'ey %onditions of their surrounding3 and hel-ing in the treat$ent of indoor and outdoor s-a%es/ The +ast $a4ority of the early 5i+e Ar%hite%ts grou-
&i$ited his $odels of ar%hite%toni% design 4ust through %o$-uting de+i%es/ Models had no $anner -ossi'le to $ake the$ real .ith another tool/ 6rinting the te$-lates of the -ie%es 'y laser -rinting/ Deri+ing in De%onstru%tion $o+e$ent/
7ouse of Card and $odel de+elo-3 Eisen$an3 !>#2;!>#? Interse%tion of four -lanes3 su'seuently $ani-ulating the stru%tures again and again3 until %oherent s-a%es 'egan to e$erge/ In this .ay3 the frag$ented sla's and %olu$ns la%k a traditional -ur-ose3 or e+en a %on+entional $odernist one/ The en+elo-e and stru%ture of the 'uilding are 4ust a $anifestation of the %hanged ele$ents of the original four sla's3 .ith so$e li$ited $odifi%ations/
RICARD #EIER
=!>")@ A$eri%an ar%hite%t3 .orked .ith Mar%el 0reuer/ 7is ar%hite%ture o.es an dire%tly de't to &e Cor'uiserFs houses of the !>2Fs3 as in this use of %u'i%al rended relie+ed thought gentle %ur+es/ 7e .as3 and is3 $ore faithful than the other $e$'ers Sa+oye and the S.iss 6a+ilion .ere the &e Cor'usier
４６
&e Cor'usier
S$ith 7ouse3 Meier3 !>*?;*#3 left side3 and Douglas 7ouse right side/ Clarity of line3 har$ony3 o-en s-a%es and light/ Chi$neys3 gla8ing3 se$i%ir%les stair%ase3 using .hite as $ain %olor/ Dire%tly gathering as the S.iss ar%hite%t/
#ICAEL GRA/ES
At start3 his -arti%ularly house additions in 6rin%eton3 Ne. Joersey3 .ere Neo; Cor'usian3 'ut he soon 'egan to e9-lore ne. ground/ Deri+ing in 6ost$odern $o+e$ent CASA 7ANSE&MANN CARLES G6AT#E"
The -urity of his designs has 'een attenuated 'y the reality of large %or-orate and -u'li% %o$$issions/ ON EDU5
Louis Isadore 5ahn
=!>! , !>#)@ After .orking in se+eral studies in that %ity3 he founded his o.n in !>"?/ hile running his study .as also dedi%ated to %riti%is$ and tea%hing design at the S%hool of Ar%hite%ture at ale Bni+ersity fro$ !>)#;!>?#/ ahn
４７
&e Cor'usier
Salk Institute for 0iologi%al Studies3 San Diego3 &a Jolla3 California =!>*2@
ahnFs $onu$ental gate.ay to the 6a%ifi% -erha-s re%alls the 6ro-ylaea on the A%ro-olis in Athens3 'ut in an a'stra%t for$3 and it %a-tures the energies of the surroundings in its fra$e as &e Cor'usier did .ith his -ro%essional -aths of reeke te$-les and A%ro-olis/ Straight lines3 $ainly hori8ontal/ &ands%a-e and ground line/ E+en the use of the 0rise; Soleil3 %ontrolling the e9-osing to the sunlights/
0rise;Soleil in Salk Institute for 0iologi%al Studies
４８
&e Cor'usier James Stirling and his -artners3 Ja$es o.an and later Mi%hael ilford/
Influen%ed 'y the later .orks of &e Cor'usier3 Stirling and his -artner designed se+eral 'uildings that $arked a ne. style3 %o$'ining in the 'ri%k fa%ades .ith rended %on%rete/
ie. and -lan of 7istory 5a%ulty 0uilding3 Ca$'ridge Bni+ersity3 Ja$es Stirling Ar%hite%t Co$-leted !>*( 5or Stirling3 a 'uilding should refle%t the use to .hi%h it is dedi%ated3 it is -eo-le that .ill use of it/ The 'uilding $ust dis-lay a ri%hness and +ariety of ele$ents in its fa%ade and should not 'e in any .ay si$-le/ Thus3 for e9a$-le3 a 'uilding dedi%ated to in+estigate or sho. history3 $ust ha+e for$s and ele$ents that e+oke histori%al e+ents during different -eriods/ The .ay in .hi%h these ele$ents and sha-es are %o$'ined3 for Stirling3 is one of the $ain issues/ 7u$anisti% %onsiderations of the 'uilding .ithin its en+iron$ent3 do$inate e+erything %on%erning the stru%ture3 aestheti%s and e+en e%ono$i%s/
４９
&e Cor'usier
6alden 7 ! Ricardo $ofill
As a re-resentation of 7ousing Bnit3 $odern residential housing design follo.ing the -rin%i-les de+elo-ed 'y &e Cor'usier3 alden Se+en It .as ins-ired 'y the .ork of uto-ian s%ien%e fi%tion author 0/5/ Skinner3 alden T.o/ It %onsisted of the %onstru%tion of a self;$anaged housing .ealth to si$ulate a s$all +erti%al %ity .ith ho$es3 streets and sho-s/ 7alf of the floor area .ould 'e used for %o$$unity uses3 %ir%ulations and gardens/ Thus e+en .ith a relati+ely high density3 %ould %ountera%t the +erti%al s-a%e The $ost interesting as-e%t of the -ro4e%t is aty-i%al in that it addresses the housing 'lo%k/ Eighteen to.ers3 # %ourdyards3 a $odular grid 'ut not syste$ati%3 and e9tensi+e -u'li% s-a%e %reates a +erti%al $a8e .ithout re%urren%e or unifor$ity/
Facade of Walden 7, Bofill, 1975, The exterior has the appearance of a huge fortress completely painted red. Opens to the outside through large openings such as windows urban high.
Courtyard of alden #3 0ofill3 !>#?3
As &e Cor'usierFs .ork3 the fa%ades are .ith intensi+e %olours/
５０
&e Cor'usier
CONCLUSION 7e .ill 'e re$e$'ered for his ar%hite%ural $astery of for$ and light/ Renaissan%e3 %lassi% an%ient ideas3 $odernity and iron;%on%rete ad+an%es3 e+en Indian and organi% influen%es3 in his lastest designs/ Not only fro$ a -osition of ar%hite%t3 &e Cor'usier de+elo-$ent -ro4e%ts3 'ut also fro$ the -oint of +ie. artisti%al3 ur'anisti%3 te%hni%al and histori%al/ It deri+es this a -rolifi% nu$'er of 'uildings3 designs3 $odels and treaties that .ere de+elo-ed e+en after his death/ Due 'oth of .ars and la%k of a--re%iation of their .ork3 &e Cor'usier designed and kee- de+elo-ed %ities as Chandigarh3 one;unit 'uilding as BnitL d<7a'itation3 one;unit to %olle%ti+e neigh'orhood 'uilding as CitrQhan house3 set $easures fro$ and to the hu$an 'eing as Modulor3 ne. tools to %onfort of inha'itants of his 'uildings as 0rise; Soleil and Aerateur/ &e Cor'usier2"@ and his 5i+e -oints of ar%hite%ture .ere translated into English and other languages in$ediately and has sin%e 'e%o$e a treaty no.adays/ These ideas .ere 'ased on the Bto-ian idea %o$$on a$ong the $odern -ioneers that3 ar$ed .ith the right %ity -lanning and the faith in te%hnology3 ar%hite%ture %ould re+olutioni8e $odels of li+ing and i$-ro+e the li+es of $odern %iti8ens on a -hysi%al3 e%ono$i%3 and e+en s-iritual le+el/ Therefore3 the -ost;industriali8ed and $odern so%iety .as $arked 'y his ne. %on%e-tion3 ga+e guidelines to follo.3 of design3 of ur'anis$3 a'out light3 a'out art3 a'out sha-es3 a'out %iti8ens and his needs and ho. get the$3 and in the fa%e of today
５１
&e Cor'usier The ado-tion of si$-le sha-es that do sur+i+e aestheti% +alues o+er ti$e or unadorned for$s3 %on%e-ts e9-ressed in fa+or of -re%ision and $athe$ati%al order3 .as used as one of the -rin%i-le to set ne. trends as 0rutalist ar%hite%ture3 !>?s to the $id;!>#s3 International Style3 De%onstru%tion or 6ost$odern $o+e$ent e+en/ 5or these a'o+e reasons3 years after.ards3 his influen%e re$ained on .ay of thinking3 to %onstru%t and %o$-lete a -ro4e%t/ Su%h kno.ledge for$ed the 'asis of the thought of great -art of ar%hite%ts .ho .ould %o$e later/ They used their kno.ledge to 'egin to 'e ar%hite%ts3 leading gradually on their o.n ideas or $aintaining a%uired As .ell as3 the 5i+e Ar%hite%t grou-3 Ja$es Stirling3 &ouis Isadore ahn or 6hiliJohnson a$ong others/ /
５２
&e Cor'usier
RE%ERENCES
Text References The Story of 6ost;Modernis$K3 Charles Jen%ks Modern orld Aruite%ture3 %lassi% 'uildings of our ti$eK3 Jonathan lan%ey A orld 7istory of Ar%hite%tureK3 Mi%hael 5a8io3 Marian Moffett3 &a.ren%e odehouse The $agi% of &e Cor'usierK htt-s:]].../youtu'e/%o$].at%h^+_?`St9#'aA Ti$e gi+es reason to &e Cor'usierK htt-:]]%ultura/el-ais/%o$]%ultura]2!"]!]2!]a%tualidad]!"?(#>>)!#("#*/ht$l 5oundation &e Cor'usier htt-:]].../fondationle%or'usier/fr]%or'u.e']$or-heus/as-9^sysId_!!bsys&anguage_en; enbsys6arentId_!!bsys6arentNa$e_ho$eb%learHuery_! 6alladioFs -atterns htt-:]]%argo%olle%ti+e/%o$]alifar8aneh]'iologyandfor$ ers une ar%hite%tureK &e Cor'usier=!>2"@ htt-:]].../diesel-unks/org] Asse$'ly line ; iki-edia3 the free en%y%lo-edia3 es/.iki-edia/org 0eau9;Arts ar%hite%ture 7enry 5ord Ti$eline of $odern history Chi%ago s%hool =ar%hite%ture@ 5ord Model T 7istory Ti$eline 'et.een !(* , !>) Chronology .../fs$itha/%o$ (urism3 art3 En%y%lo-aedia 0ritanni%a Am4d4e >+enfant 3 5ran%h -ainter En%y%lo-aedia 0ritanni%a
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&e Cor'usier Ima+e References De+elo-$ent of Modulor htt-:]]"/'-/'logs-ot/%o$]ke'JJ4RB]S>#h E#;TI]AAAAAAAAACo]d; 4!`'A]s!*]!>)?$odulor2/4-g &e Cor'usierFs sign htt-:]]-lanifi%a'log/files/.ord-ress/%o$]2!!] 2]")?-9;le%or'usiersignature;s+g/-ng &e Cor'usier Torso htt-:]]2/'-/'logs-ot/%o$]; 67g!*.O`M]Tgrf#!2aI]AAAAAAAAA0A] R(O4I-.+So]s!*]le;%or'usier/4-g Bnifi%ation of the s$all states that then .ill for$ er$any htt-:]].../''%/%o/uk]'itesi8e]higher]history]i $ages]ger$an%onfed/gif Bnifi%ation of Italy 'et.een !(* and !(#/ htt-:]].../$r'urnett/net]a-.orldhistory]$a -s]$editerranea)nunifi%ationitaly!(#/'$Asse$'ly &ine htt-:]]la's-a%e/o-en/a%/uk]file/-h-])##(]1+ia] ou%ontent]%ourse]!"2]asse$'lyline/4-g Red 7ouse of 6hili- e'' in !(?> htt-:]]una$auinale%torade%onte9to/files/.or d-ress/%o$]2!!]>].e'';the;red;house; !/4-g htt-:]]u-load/.iki$edia/org].iki-edia]%o$$o ns]a]ae]Red7ouseho$eofillia$Morris =)@/4-g Model of the $onu$ent of the third international for%e/ =!>2@ ladi$ir Tatlin htt-:]].../tienearte/%o$]h/arte]arte2ra%i onalista2%onstru%%ti+is$o/ht$
illa 5os%ari3 Andrea 6alladio =!??(;*@ htt-:]].../'ogle.ood/%o$]-alladio]$al%ont 2/4-g htt-:]]u-load/.iki$edia/org].iki-edia]%o$$o ns]*]**]illa5os%ari2##!;2/4-g 6alladioFs -ro-ortions htt-:]]-ayload((/%argo%olle%ti+e/%o$]!]*]2* )(*])#*)>>]lynn+illas(/4-g 6erforation detail3 'uilding in Chandigarh htt-:]].ikiaruite%tura/%o$]es]i$ages]e]e?]C handigarhdetalle-erfora%iones8onara$-as /J6 Colle%tion of Stones htt-:]]2/'-/'logs-ot/%o$]; Tungn%o62%]T?5nohu9I]AAAAAAAAAtI]u 2uO;s5(&A]s!*]ne.stones/4-g 1e chemin4e3 &e Cor'usier !>!(
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