Human Anatomy

Human Anatomy

Contents 1

Huma Hu man n bo body dy

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1.1 St Struc ructur turee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.1.1 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1 .2 1.1.3 1.1. 1. 1.44 1.1.5 1.1 .5

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Composit Compos itio ionn . . . Human Hum an ana anato tomy my . . Human phy physio siolog logyy Syst Sy stem emss   . . . . . . Homeos Hom eostas tasis is . . .

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1 2 3 3 3

1.2 Society Society and cul culture ture . . . . . . 1.2.1 1.2 .1 De Depi pict ctio ionn . . . . . . . 1.2.2 1.2 .2 App Appea earan rance ce   . . . . . . 1.2.3 Hist History ory of anat anatomy omy   . . 1.2.4 Hist History ory of phy physio siolog logyy   .

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3 3 4 4 4

1.3 See 1.3 See al also so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Ref Refere erence ncess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Fur Furthe therr re readi ading ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 4 5

1.6 Ex Exte terna rnall lilinks nks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Anatomic Anato mical al termi terminolo nology gy

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2.1 Anatomic Anatomical al voc vocabu abulary lary 2.2 Rel Relati ative ve loc locati ation on   . . . . 2.2.1 2.2 .1 Sku Skullll and bra brain in 2.2. 2. 2.22 Ar Arm m  . . . . . .

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2.3 Plan 2.3 Planes es   . . . . . . . . 2.4 Func Functio tional nal sta state te . . . 2.55 Re 2. Regi gion onss . . . . . . . 2.5.1 2.5 .1 Lan Landma dmarks rks . 2.5.2 2.5 .2 Bod Bodyy ca cavi viti ties es 2.5. 2. 5.33 Ab Abdo dome menn   . . 2.5.4 2.5 .4 Mem Membra brane ness   .

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. 8 . 9 . 9 . 9 . 9 . 10 . 11

2.6 Move Moveme ment nt   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.1 Gene General ral mov moveme ements nts   . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.2 2.6 .2 Gen Genera erall mot motio ionn   . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.3 Spec Special ial moti motions ons of the the hands hands and and feet feet .

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7 7 8 8

11 11 11 12

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CONTENTS 

2.6.4 Oth Other er spec special ial moti motions ons   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.6. 2. 6.55

Musc Mu scle less   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.6. 2. 6.66

Join Jo ints ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.7 Anat Anatomic omical al vari variati ation on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.88 Hi 2. Hist stor oryy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.9 Ad Addit ditiona ionall imag images es   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.11 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3

Human Hum an sk skel eleto eton n

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3.1 Di Divis visio ions ns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.1.1 Axia Axiall sk skel eleton eton   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.1.2 Appe Appendic ndicular ular sk skele eleton ton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.2 Fun Funct ctio ions ns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.2. 3. 2.11

Supp Su ppor ortt   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3.2.2 3.2 .2

Move Mo veme ment nt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3.2.3 3.2 .3

Prote Pr otect ctio ionn   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.2.4 Blood cel celll prod producti uction on   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.2. 3. 2.55

Stor St orag agee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.2.6 Endoc Endocrine rine reg regulat ulation ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.3 Sex diff differe erence ncess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.3. 3. 3.11

Skul Sk ulll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.3.2 3.3 .2

Denti De ntiti tion on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.3.3 3.3 .3

Longg bon Lon bones es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.3. 3. 3.44

Pellvi Pe viss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.4 Di Disor sorde ders rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3.4.1 3.4 .1

Arthri Art hritis tis   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.4.2 3.4 .2

Osteop Ost eopor orosi osiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.5 Ref Refere erence ncess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4

Table Tab le of of muscle muscless of the the human human body/End body/End

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4.11 No 4. Note tess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 4.2 Gen General eral ref refere erence ncess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 4.3 Ex Exte terna rnall lilinks nks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 5

List of muscl muscles es of of the huma human n body body

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5.11 He 5. Heaad   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 5.1.1 5.1 .1

Scalp Sca lp/Ey /Eyel elid id . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5.1.2 Extr Extraocu aocular lar musc muscles les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 5.1.3 5.1 .3

Intrao Int raocu cular lar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5.1. 5. 1.44

Earr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Ea

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CONTENTS 

5.1.55 5.1. 5.1. 5. 1.66 5.1.7 5.1 .7 5.1. 5. 1.88 5.1.9 5.1 .9

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20 20 20 20 20

5.1.10 5.1.10 5.1.111 5.1.1 5.2 Ne 5.2 Necck . 5.2. 5. 2.11 5.2.2 5.2 .2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2 .4

Pharynx   . . . . . Pharynx Larynxx . . . . . Laryn . . . . . . . . . . Cerv Ce rvic ical al   . . . . . Suprah Sup rahyo yoid id . . . Infrah Inf rahyoi yoid/S d/Strap trap . Verte Ve rtebra brate te   . . . .

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20 20 20 20 20 20 20

5.33 Tor 5. orso so 5.3. 5. 3.11 5.3. 5. 3.22 5.3. 5. 3.33 5.3. 5. 3.44

. . . . . . . Bacck . . . . Ba Ches Ch estt . . . Abdo Ab dome menn   . Pellvi Pe viss . . .

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20 21 21 21 21

5.3.5 Pe 5.3.5 Perin rineu eum m . . . . . 5.4 Up Upper per lilimb mbss   . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Ve Verteb rtebral ral col column umn   . 5.4.2 5.4 .2 Tho Thorac racic ic wa wallllss . . . 5.4. 5. 4.33 Sh Shou ould lder er . . . . . . 5.4. 5. 4.44 Ar Arm m  . . . . . . . . 5.4. 5. 4.55 Fo Fore rear arm m  . . . . . .

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21 21 21 21 21 21 21

5.4.66 Ha 5.4. Hand nd . . . . Lowe Lo werr lilimb mb . . . . . 5.5.1 5.5 .1 Ili Iliac ac re regi gion on . 5.5. 5. 5.22 Gl Glut utea eall . . . 5.5. 5. 5.33 Th Thiigh . . . . 5.5. 5. 5.44 Leg . . . . . 5.5. 5. 5.55 Foo oott   . . . . . Innerva Inne rvatio tionn ov overvi erview ew Seee al Se also so . . . . . . . Note No tess . . . . . . . . Refere Ref erence ncess   . . . . . . External links . . . .

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21 21 21 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 23 23

5.5

5.6 5.77 5. 5.88 5. 5.9 5.10 6

Nose . . . Nose Mout Mo uthh   . . . Masti Mas tica cati tion on Tong To ngue ue . . Softt pal Sof palat atee .

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List of muscl muscles es of of the huma human n body body

6.11 Hea 6. Head   . 6.1.1 6.1 .1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1 .3

. . . . . . . . . . . . Scalp Sca lp/Ey /Eyel elid id . . . . . Extraocu Extr aocular lar musc muscles les . Intrao Int raocu cular lar . . . . .

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24 24 24 24

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6.1.44 6.1. 6.1. 6. 1.55 6.1. 6. 1.66 6.1.7 6.1 .7 6.1. 6. 1.88

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24 24 24 24 24

6.1.9 6.1.9 6.1.100 6.1.1 6.1.111 6.1.1 6.2 Ne 6.2 Necck . 6.2. 6. 2.11 6.2.2 6.2 .2 6.2.3

Soft pal Soft palat atee . . . . Pharynx Phary nx   . . . . . Larynxx . . . . . Laryn . . . . . . . . . . Cerv Ce rvic ical al   . . . . . Suprah Sup rahyo yoid id . . . Infrah Inf rahyoi yoid/S d/Strap trap .

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24 24 24 24 24 24 24

6.2.4 6.2.4 6.3 Tor 6.3 orso so 6.3. 6. 3.11 6.3. 6. 3.22 6.3. 6. 3.33

Vertebra Verte brate te   . . . . . . . . Bacck . . . . Ba Ches Ch estt . . . Abdo Ab dome menn   .

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24 24 25 25 25

6.3.44 Pe 6.3. Pellvi viss . . . . . . . 6.3.5 6.3 .5 Pe Perin rineu eum m . . . . . 6.4 Up Upper per lilimb mbss   . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Ve Verteb rtebral ral col column umn   . 6.4.2 6.4 .2 Tho Thorac racic ic wa wallllss . . . 6.4. 6. 4.33 Sh Shou ould lder er . . . . . . 6.4. 6. 4.44 Ar Arm m  . . . . . . . .

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25 25 25 25 25 25 25

6.4.55 Fo 6.4. Fore rear arm m  . . . 6.4. 6. 4.66 Ha Hand nd . . . . Lowe Lo werr lilimb mb . . . . . 6.5.1 6.5 .1 Ili Iliac ac re regi gion on . 6.5. 6. 5.22 Gl Glut utea eall . . . 6.5. 6. 5.33 Th Thiigh . . . . 6.5. 6. 5.44 Leg . . . . . 6.5. 6. 5.55 Foo oott   . . . . . Innerva Inne rvatio tionn ov overvi erview ew Seee al Se also so . . . . . . . Note No tess . . . . . . . . Refere Ref erence ncess   . . . . . . External links . . . .

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25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 26 26 26 27 27

6.5

6.6 6.77 6. 6.88 6. 6.9 6.10 7

Ear . . . . Ear Nose No se . . . Mout Mo uthh   . . . Masti Mas tica cati tion on Tong To ngue ue . .

Axial Axi al sk skel eleto eton n

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CONTENTS 

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28

7.1 Struc Structur turee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 7.1. 7. 1.11 Ri Ribb ca cage ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 7.1. 7. 1.22 Sk Skul ulll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

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CONTENTS 

7.1.3 Ve Verteb rtebral ral col column umn   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 7.22 Hi 7. Hist stor oryy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 7.3 Addit Additiona ionall imag images es   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 7.44 Se 7. Seee also also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 7.5 Ref Refere erence ncess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 7.6 Ex Exte terna rnall lilinks nks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 8

Superio Supe riorr thora thoracic cic aper aperture ture

30

8.1 St Struc ructur turee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 8.1.1 8.1 .1

Rela Re lati tions ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

8.2 Func 8.2 Functi tion on   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 8.3 Ad Addit ditiona ionall imag images es   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 8.4 Refere Reference ncess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 8.5 Ex Exte terna rnall lilinks nks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 9

List of muscl muscles es of of the huma human n body body

32

9.11 He 9. Heaad   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 9.1.1 9.1 .1

Scalp Sca lp/Ey /Eyel elid id . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

9.1.2 Extraocu Extraocular lar musc muscles les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 9.1.3 9.1 .3 Int Intrao raocu cular lar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 9.1. 9. 1.44

Earr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Ea

9.1. 9. 1.55

Nose No se . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

9.1. 9. 1.66

Mout Mo uthh   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

9.1.7 9.1 .7

Masti Mas tica cati tion on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

9.1.88 9.1. 9.1.9 9.1 .9

Tongue Tong ue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Softt pal Sof palat atee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

9.1.100 Phary 9.1.1 Pharynx nx   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 9.1.11 Larynx 9.1.11 Larynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 9.22 Ne 9. Necck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 9.2.11 9.2. 9.2.2 9.2 .2

Cervic Cerv ical al   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Suprah Sup rahyo yoid id . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

9.2.3 Infrah Infrahyoi yoid/S d/Strap trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 9.2.4 9.2 .4 Ve Verte rtebra brate te   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 9.33 Tor 9. orso so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 9.3. 9. 3.11 Ba Bacck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 9.3.22 9.3. 9.3. 9. 3.33

Chestt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Ches Abdo Ab dome menn   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

9.3.44 9.3. 9.3.5 9.3 .5

Pelvi Pel viss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Perin Pe rineu eum m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

9.4 Upper Upper lilimb mbss   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 9.4.1 Ve Verteb rtebral ral col column umn   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 9.4.2 9.4 .2

Thorac Tho racic ic wa wallllss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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9.4.33 9.4. 9.4. 9. 4.44

Should Shou lder er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Arm Ar m   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

9.4.55 9.4. 9.4. 9. 4.66

Forear Fore arm m   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Hand Ha nd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

9.5 Lo Lowe werr lilimb mb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 9.5.1 9.5 .1

Iliac Ili ac re regi gion on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

9.5. 9. 5.22

Glut Gl utea eall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

9.5. 9. 5.33

Thiigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Th

9.5. 9. 5.44

Leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

9.5.55 Foo 9.5. oott   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 9.6 Inne Innerva rvatio tionn ov overvi erview ew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 9.77 Se 9. Seee al also so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 9.88 No 9. Note tess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 9.9 Ref Refere erence ncess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 9.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 10 Scalene muscle muscless

36

10.1 Origin and insertion insertion   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 10.2 Func Functio tionn   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 10.3 Relations Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 10.4 Clinical relevance relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 10.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 10.6 Addi Additional tional images   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 10.7 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 11 List of muscles muscles of the human body

38

11.1 Head  Head   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.1.1 Scalp/Eyelid Scalp/Eyelid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.1.2 Extraocul Extraocular ar muscle muscless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.1.3 Intraocul 11.1.3 Intraocular ar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.1.4 11. 1.4 Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.1.5 Nose 11.1.5 Nose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.1.6 11. 1.6 Mou Mouth th   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.1.7 Mastication Mastication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.1.88 Ton 11.1. Tongue gue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.1.9 Sof 11.1.9 Softt pala palate te . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.1.10 11.1. 10 Phary Pharynx nx   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.1.11 Laryn 11.1.11 Larynxx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.2 Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.2.1 Cervica 11.2.1 Cervicall   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.2.22 Supra 11.2. Suprahy hyoid oid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.2.3 Infrah Infrahyoid/S yoid/Strap trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

CONTENTS 

vii

11.2.4 Verte Vertebrate brate   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.3 Tor Torso so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 11.3.11 Bac 11.3. Backk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.3.22 Ches 11.3. Chestt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.3.33 Abd 11.3. Abdome omenn   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.3.44 Pe 11.3. Pelvi lviss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.3.55 Pe 11.3. Perine rineum um . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.4 Upper limbs limbs   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.4.1 Verte Vertebral bral column   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.4.2 Thoracic walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.4.33 Shou 11.4. Shoulde lderr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.4.4 11. 4.4 Arm Arm   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.4.55 For 11.4. Forearm earm   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.4.6 11. 4.6 Han Handd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.5 Lowe Lowerr limb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.5.11 Ilia 11.5. Iliacc regi region on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.5.22 Glut 11.5. Gluteal eal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.5.33 Thi 11.5. Thigh gh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.5.4 11. 5.4 Le Legg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.5.5 11. 5.5 Fo Foot ot   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 11.6 Innerva Innervation tion overvie overview w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 11.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 11.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 11.9 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 11.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 12 Hip flexo flexors rs

42

12.1 Flex Flexors ors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 12.1.11 Uppe 12.1. Upperr lim limbb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 12.1.22 Low 12.1. Lower er lim limbb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 12.1.33 Oth 12.1. Other er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 12.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 12.3 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 12.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 13 Ves Vesico-uterin ico-uterinee pouch

44

13.1 Addi Additional tional images   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 13.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 13.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 14 List of bones of the human human skeleton skeleton

45

14.1 Introduct Introduction ion   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

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14.2 Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 14.2.1 Verte Vertebral bral column   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 14.2.22 Ches 14.2. Chestt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 14.2.3 14. 2.3 Hea Headd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 14.2.4 14. 2.4 Arm Arm   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 14.2.5 14. 2.5 Le Legg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 14.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 14.4 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 15 List of homologues homologues of the human reproductive reproductive system

47

15.1 Counterparts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 15.2 Diagram of internal internal differenti differentiation ation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 15.3 Diagram of external external differenti differentiation ation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 15.4 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 16 List of human anatomical anatomical features features

49

16.1 Syndes Syndesmology mology   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 16.2 Angi Angiolo ology gy   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 16.3 Anatomic Anatomical al landmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 16.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 17 List of human anatomical anatomical parts named after after people

51

17.1 Alphabe Alphabetical tical list   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 17.1 17 .1.1 .1 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 17.1 17 .1.2 .2 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 17.1 17 .1.3 .3 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 17.1 17 .1.4 .4 D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 17.1 17 .1.5 .5 E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 17.1 17 .1.6 .6 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 17.1 17 .1.7 .7 G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 17.1 17 .1.8 .8 H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 17.1 17 .1.9 .9 K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 17.1.1 17. 1.100 L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 17.1.1 17. 1.111 M   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 17.1.1 17. 1.122 N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 17.1.1 17. 1.133 O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 17.1.1 17. 1.144 P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 17.1.1 17. 1.155 R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 17.1.1 17. 1.166 S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 17.1.1 17. 1.177 T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 17.1.1 17. 1.188 V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 17.1.1 17. 1.199 W   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

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17.1.200 Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 17.1.2 17.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 17.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 18 List of muscles muscles of the human body

56

18.1 Head Head   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 18.1.1 Scalp/Ey Scalp/Eyelid elid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 18.1.2 Extraocul Extraocular ar muscle muscless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 18.1.3 Intraocul 18.1.3 Intraocular ar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 18.1.4 18. 1.4 Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 18.1.5 18. 1.5 Nos Nosee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 18.1.6 Mou 18.1.6 Mouth th   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 18.1.7 Mastica Mastication tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 18.1.8 Ton 18.1.8 Tongue gue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 18.1.99 Sof 18.1. Softt pala palate te . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 18.1.10 18.1. 10 Phary Pharynx nx   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 18.1.11 Laryn 18.1.11 Larynxx . . . . . 18.2 Neck . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2.11 Cerv 18.2. Cervica icall   . . . . . 18.2.22 Supra 18.2. Suprahy hyoid oid . . . 18.2.3 Infrah Infrahyoid/S yoid/Strap trap .

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56 56 56 56 56

18.2.4 18.3 Tor Torso so 18.3.11 18.3. 18.3.22 18.3. 18.3.33 18.3. 18.3.44 18.3. 18.3.55 18.3.

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56 56 57 57 57 57 57

18.4 Upper limbs limbs   . . . . . . . . 18.4.1 Verte Vertebral bral column   . 18.4.2 Thoracic walls . . . 18.4.33 Shou 18.4. Shoulde lderr . . . . . . 18.4.4 18. 4.4 Arm Arm   . . . . . . . . 18.4.55 For 18.4. Forearm earm   . . . . . . 18.4.6 18. 4.6 Han Handd . . . . . . . 18.5 Lowe Lowerr limb . . . . . . . . 18.5.11 Ilia 18.5. Iliacc regi region on . . . . 18.5.22 Glut 18.5. Gluteal eal . . . . . . 18.5.33 Thi 18.5. Thigh gh . . . . . . . 18.5.4 18. 5.4 Le Legg . . . . . . . . 18.5.5 18. 5.5 Fo Foot ot   . . . . . . . . 18.6 Innerva Innervation tion overvie overview w . . .

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57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 57 58

Vertebrate   . Vertebrate . . . . . . . Backk . . . . Bac Chestt . . . Ches Abdome Abd omenn   . Pelvi Pe lviss . . . Perine Pe rineum um .

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x

 

18.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.9 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.11Text and image sources, contributors, and licens licenses es

CONTENTS 

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58 58 59 59 60

18.11.1 Te 18.11.1 Text xt   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 18.11.2 18.11 .2 Imag Images es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 18.11.3 Content licen license se . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Chapter 1

Human body “Phys “Physio iolo logi gies” es” redirec redirects ts here. here. Physiology.. Physiology

For For other other uses, uses, see and does not alter much over over a lifetime. lifetime. General body General body shape (and shape  (and female  female body shape) shape) is influenced by the distribution of muscle of muscle and  and fat  fat tissue and tissue and is also affected by various  hormones.. The average height average  height of  of an adult male The human body  is the entire structure of a human a  human be- various hormones countries) is about 1.7–1.8 m (5'7” ing and ing  and comprises a head a  head,,  neck  neck,,  trunk  trunk (which  (which includes human (in developed countries) and the adult female female is about 1.6–1.7 m (5'2” to the thorax the thorax and  and abdomen  abdomen), ), arms  arms and  and hands  hands,, legs  legs and  and feet  feet.. to 5'11”) [3] Height is largely determined by genes 5'7”) . by  genes and  and diet. Every part of the body is composed of various types of Bodyy typ Bod typee and composition are influen influence cedd by factor actorss such such cell..[1] cell as genetics as genetics,, diet  diet,, and exercise and exercise.. At maturity, the estimated average number of cells in the several  body cavities  the largest body is given as 37.2 trillion 37.2  trillion.. This number number is stated stated to The human body has several body the   abdominopelvic cavity. cavity. These These cavit cavities ies be of partial data and to be used as a starting point for of which is the  further further calculations. calculations. The number given given is arrived at by house the various body organs including the spinal cord totalling the cell numbers of all the organs the  organs of  of the body which also accommodates the production and flow of fluid in the ventricular the ventricular system of system  of the brain the brain.. and cell types. [2] The composition The  composition of the human body cerebrospinal fluid in is made up of a number of certain elements certain  elements   including Many other smaller cavities exist throughout the body carbon,, calcium carbon  calcium and  and phosphorus  phosphorus.. called sinuses called  sinuses,, which have varied functions.   Sinuses  in the  paranasal sinuses which sinuses which are inThe study of the human body involves   anatomy and general usage refers to the paranasal volvedin in the conditi condition on sinusitis . The paranasal paranasalsin sinuses usesare are physiology.. The human body can show anatomical non- volved physiology the  cranial bones. bones. These patholo pathologic gical al anomalie anomaliess known known as variati variations ons which which needto need to four pairs of vital air-cavities in the cranial spaces  are paired between the eyes, above the be able to be recognised. recognised. Physiology Physiology focuses focuses on the sys- air-filled spaces are eyes, deeper behind the eyes and around the nasal the  nasal cavity. cavity. tems and their organs of the human body and their funcfunctions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis maintain homeostasis.. 1.1.1 1.1.1 Compos Composit itio ion n

1.1 1.1

Main article: Composition article:  Composition of the human body The average adult body contains between 5 and 5½ litres

Struc tructu ture re

Further information:   Anatomy, Anatomy,  Body proportions and Anatomical terminology Skeletal structure frames structure  frames the overall shape of the body

The main main elemen elements ts that that compos composee thehuman body body are are shown shown from most abundant to least abundant.

of blood and approximately 10 litres of interstitial of interstitial fluid. fluid. The composition of the human body can be referred to in terms of its water content, elements content, tissue types

Cavities of human body

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CHAPTER CHAPTER 1. HU HUMAN MAN BODY  BODY 

or material material types. The adult adult human body contains contains approximately 60% water 60%  water,, and so makes up a significant proportion of the body, both in terms of weight and volume. Water content can vary from a high 75% in a newborn infant to a lower 45% in an obese an  obese per  person. son. (These (These figures are necessarily statistical necessarily statistical averages). averages). The vast majority of cells in the human body are not human at all; rather they are of bacteria of  bacteria,,  archaea  archaea,, and methanogens such methanogens  such as  Methanobrevibacter smithii . The largest proportion of these form the gut the gut flora. flora. The whole population population of microbiota microbiota include microorganisms microorganisms of the skin and other body parts and this altogether is termed as the human the human microbiome. microbiome. The proportions of the elements of the body can be referred to in terms of the main elements, minor ones and trace and trace elements. elements. Material Material type may also be referred referred to as including water,   protein, protein,  connective tissue, tissue,   fats, fats, carbohydrates and carbohydrates  and bone  bone.. 1.1.2 1.1.2

topographical anatomy, regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by the naked eye.[4] Microscopic anatomy involves the use of microscopes of microscopes to  to study minute anatomical structures, and is the field of histology which studies the organization ganization of tissues at all levels, levels, from cell from cell biology (prebiology  (previously called cytology), to organs. [4] Anatomy Anatomy,,  human physiology (the physiology  (the study of function), and biochemistry and biochemistry (the  (the study of the chemistry of living structures) are complementary basic medical sciences sciences that are generally taught together together (or in tandem) to students studying studying medicine  medicine..

Human Human anato anatom my

Further information: information: Head  Head and neck anatomy and anatomy  and Nail  Nail (anatomy) Human anatom anatomyy (gr. ἀνατομία, ἀνατομία, “dissectio “dissection”, n”, from

Front view of  viscera  viscera

In some of its facets human anatomy is closely related to embryology,, comparative anatomy and embryology anatomy and comparative  comparative em[4] bryology,, through common roots in evolution bryology in evolution;; for example, much of the human body maintains the ancient segmental pattern segmental  pattern that is present in all  vertebrates  vertebrates with  with basic units being repeated, which is particularly particularly obvious in the vertebral column and in the ribcage, and which can be traced from the somitogenesis the  somitogenesis stage  stage in very early embryos. Generally, physicians Generally,  physicians,,  dentists  dentists,,  physiotherapists  physiotherapists,,  nurses  nurses,, paramedics,,   radiographers, paramedics radiographers, and and stud studen ents ts of cert certai ainn Anatomical study by Leonardo da Vinci  biological sciences, sciences, learn gross anatomy and microscopic ἀνά, “up”, and τέμνειν, “cut”) is primarily the scien- anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, tific study of the   morphology   of the human body.[4] diagrams, photographs, photographs, lectures, and tutorials. The study Anatomy is Anatomy  is subdivided into gross into  gross anatomy and anatomy  and micro- of microscopic anatomy (or histology (or histology)) can be aided by [4] scopic anatomy (histology (histology)) Gross anatomy (also called practical experience in examining histological prepara-

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1.2. SOCIETY SOCIETY AND CULT CULTURE  URE 

tions (or slides) under a  a   microscope; microscope; and in addition, medical and dental students generally also learn anatomy with practical experience of dissection of  dissection and  and inspection of cadavers cadavers (corpses). A thorough thorough working knowledge knowledge of anatomy is required for all medical all  medical doctors, doctors, especially surgeons,, and doctors working in some diagnostic spesurgeons cialities, such as histopathology as  histopathology and  and radiology  radiology.. Human anatomy, physiology anatomy, physiology,, and biochemistry and biochemistry are  are basic medical sciences, generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically;[4] that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, chest, or studying studying by specific specific system systems, s, such such as the nervous nervous or respira respiratory tory systems. systems. The major major anatomy anatomy textbook, textbook, Gray’s Anatomy, has recently been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching.[5][6]

1.1. 1.1.4 4

Syst System emss

See also: List also:  List of syste systems ms of the human body The human body consists of many interacting systems. Eachsys Each system tem contribu contributes tes to the mainten maintenance ance of homeost homeostaasis, of itself, itself, other other systems systems,, and and the entire entire body. body. A system system consists of two or more organs more organs,, which are functional collections of tissue. Systems do not work in isolation, and the well-being of the person depends upon the well-being of all the interacting body systems. Some combining systems are referred to by their joint names such as the nervous system and the endocrine system known together as the neuroendocrine the neuroendocrine system. system. •

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Anatomical variations

Further information: List information: List of anatomical variations In human human anatomy anatomy,, the the term term anatomic anatomical al variatio variation n refers to a non-pathologic anatomic structure that is different from the norm. The possible anatomic variations in each organ and its arterial and venous supply must be known by physicians, such as surgeons as  surgeons or  or radiologists  radiologists,, in order to identify them. Unlike congenital Unlike congenital anomalies, anomalies, anatomic variations are typically inconsequential and do not constitute a disorder. Accessory disorder.  Accessory muscles are muscles are rare anatomical dupli duplica cate tess of muscl musclee that that can occu occurr and only only requi require re treattreatment where where function function is impaired. The accessory The accessory soleus muscle in muscle  in the ankle is one such variation and one which does not need to be rectified.[7][8] Another more common variation found in around ten per cent of the population is the accessory the accessory spleen. spleen.[9] 1.1.3

Human physi physiolo ology gy

Main article: Physiology article:  Physiology the science of the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical physical, bioelectrical,, and biochemical and biochemical functions  functions of humans in good health good health,, their organs their organs,, and the cells the cells of  of which they are composed. Physiology composed.  Physiology focuses  focuses principally at the leve levell of orga organs ns and systems systems.. Mostas Most aspec pects ts of human human physphysiology are closely homologous closely  homologous to  to corresponding aspects of animal of  animal physiology,  physiology, and  animal experimentation has provided much of the foundation of physiological knowledge.   Anatomy and Anatomy  and physiology are closely related fields of study: anatomy, the study of form, and physiology, the study of function, are intrinsically related and are studied in tandem as part of a medical a medical curriculum.  curriculum. The study of how physiology is altered in disease is pathophysiology .

1.1.5 1.1.5

Homeo Homeost stasi asiss

The term  homeostasis  refers   refers to a system that regulates its internal environment and maintains a stable, relatively constant condition; such as maintaining an equal temperature, or acid balance pH balance  pH.. This is required for the body to function function properly. Without a relativel relativelyy constant pH, temperature, temperature, blood flow, and position, position, survival would be impossible. Many interacting systems and mechanisms act to maintain the human’s internal environment. environment. The nervous system recei receive vess informa information tionfr from om the bodyand body and transmits transmitsthis this to the brain via  via   neurotransmitters. neurotransmitters. The  endocrine system may tem  may release hormones to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Cell metabolism Cell  metabolism may  may help to maintain the blood’s pH.

1.2

Socie Society ty and cultu culture re

Further information:   History of anatomy, anatomy,   History of medicine and medicine  and History  History of physiology

Human physiology physiology  is

1.2.1 1.2.1

Depi Depict ctio ion n

Anatomy has become become a key part of the visual arts. Basic concepts of how muscles and bones function and change with movement are vital in drawing, painting or animating mating a human human figure. figure. Many Many books (such (such as “Human “Human Anatomy for Artists: The Elements of Form”) have been written as guides to drawing the human body anatomically correctly.[14] Leonardo da Vinci sought Vinci sought to improve his art throu through gh a bette betterr unders understan tandin dingg of human human anatom anatomy. y. In the process he advanced both human anatomy and its representation in art.

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CHAPTER CHAPTER 1. HU HUMAN MAN BODY  BODY 

Image of two facing pages of text with woodcuts of naked male and female figures. figures. “Epitom “Epitome” e” by Andreas Vesalius  , fol. 10b and  11a. HMD Collection, WZ 240 V575dhZ 1543.

Because the structure of living organisms is complex, anatomy is organized by levels, from the smallest components of cells to the largest organs and their relationship to others. 1.2.2 1.2.2

Appe Appeara aranc ncee

Main article: Human article:  Human physical appearance

1.2.3 1.2.3

Histo Hi story ry of anato anatomy my

Greece, while Greece, while Claudi Claudius us Galenus Galenus (c. 126–19 126–1999 A.D.), A.D.), known as Galen as Galen,, was the first to use experiments to probe the the functi unction on of the the body. body. Gale Galenn was was the the founde ounderr of exper exper-[17] imentalphys imental physiology. iology. The The medic medical al worl worldd move movedd on from rom Galenism only Galenism  only with the appearance of Andreas of  Andreas Vesalius [18] and William and William Harvey. Harvey. Foll Follow owing ing from the the Middl Middlee Ages, Ages, the   Renaissance brought brought an increas increasee of physio physiologi logical cal researc researchh in the Western Wes tern world   that that trigg trigger ered ed the the moder modernn stud studyy of anatomy and physiology. Andreas physiology.  Andreas Vesalius was Vesalius was an author of one of the most influential books on human on human anatomy, anatomy, [19] Vesalius is often reDe human humanii corp corporis oris fabri abrica ca. ferred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. [20] Anatomist William Harvey described Harvey described the circulatory the circulatory sys[21] tem in tem  in the 17th century, demonstrating the fruitful combination of close observations and careful experiments to learn about the functions of the body, which was fundamental to the development of experimental physiology.   Herman Boerhaave is Boerhaave  is sometimes referred to as a father of physiology due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and textbook  Institutiones medicae  (1708). In the 18th century, important works in this field were done done by Pie Pierre rre Caban Cabanis is,, a French French doctor doctor and physio physiologi logist. st. In the 19th century, century, physi physiolog ologica icall knowle knowledge dge began began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular with the 1838 appearance of the Cell the  Cell theory of theory  of  Matthias Schleiden and Schleiden  and Theodor Schwann. Schwann. It radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells.  Claude Bernard's Bernard's (1813– 1878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of  (internal environment), which would later milieu interieur  (internal be taken up and championed as "homeostasis "homeostasis"" by American physiologist Walter physiologist Walter Cannon (1871–1945). Cannon (1871–1945). In the 20th century, biologists also became interested in how organisms other than human beings function, function, eventually spawning the fields of comparative of  comparative physiology and physiology and [22] ecophysiology.. Major figures in these fields include ecophysiology Knut Schmidt-Ni Schmidt-Nielsen elsen and  and George  George Bartholomew. Bartholomew. Most recently, evolutionary recently,  evolutionary physiology has physiology  has become a distinct subdiscipline. [23] The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration tion ref refers ers to the the over overlap lap of many many func functi tion onss of the the syste systems ms of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.

The history The  history of anatomy has anatomy  has been characterized, over a long period of time, by an ongoing, developing understanding of the functions of   organs  and structures in the human body. Methods have have advanced dramatically, dramatically, from from the simple simple examin examinati ation on by dissect dissection ion of animals and cadavers (corps (corpses es), ), to the deve develo lopm pmen entt and use of the the microscope, to the far more technological advances of the electr electron on microsc microscope ope and other other complex complex techniq techniques ues deve develloped since the beginning of the 20th century. During the 19th and early 20th centuries it was the most prominent biological field of scientific study.   [15] In terms of the human body, the endocrine and nervous system systemss play play major major roles roles in the receptio receptionn and transmiss transmission ion of signals that integrate function. Homeostasis is a major 1.2.4 His History tory of physi physiolo ology gy aspect with regard to the interactions in the body. Main article: History article:  History of physiology

1.3 1.3

See also also

The study of human physiology dates back to at least 420 B.C. and the time of   Hippocrates, Hippocrates, the father the  father of west[16] Referen erence cess ern medicine. medicine. The critical thinking of Aristotle of  Aristotle and  and 1.4 Ref his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient in Ancient [1] Cell Movements and the Shaping of the Vertebrate Body

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1.5. FURT FURTHER HER READIN READING  G 

in Chapter 21 of  Molecular Biology of the Cell  fourth  fourth edi- [19]  “Page through a virtual copy of Vesalius’s  De Humanis  tion, tion, edited edited by Bruce Bruce Albert Albertss (2002) (2002) publi publish shed ed by Garlan Garlandd Corporis Fabrica". Archive.nlm.nih.gov. Archive.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2010Science. 08-29. The Alberts text discusses how the “cellular building (1514–1567)". Ingentacon Ingentaconnect. nect.com. com. blocks” blocks” move move to shape shape develo developing pingembryos embryos.. Itisalsocom- [20]  “Andreas Vesalius (1514–1567)". 1999-05-01. Retrieved 2010-08-29. mon to describe small molecules such as amino as  amino acids as acids  as "molecular building blocks". blocks". [21]  Zimmer, Carl (2004). Carl  (2004). “Soul Made Flesh: The Discovery [2] Bianconi, E. Piovesin, Piovesin, A. et al. Annals of Human Biology Biology of the Brain – and How It Changed the World”.   J Clin 2013 Nov–Dec;40(6) 463-71 PMID 463-71 PMID 23829164 Invest  114  (5): 604–604. doi 604–604.  doi::10.1172/JCI22882 10.1172/JCI22882.. [3]   http://www.human-body.org/ (dead http://www.human-body.org/ (dead link)

[22] Feder, Feder, Martin E. (1987). New direction directionss in ecological  ecological  . New York: Y ork: Cambrid Camb ridge ge Univ. Uni v. Press. Pres s.   ISBN  physiology [4]   “Introduc “Introduction tion page, “Anat “Anatomy omy of the Human Body” Body”.. 978-0-521-34938-3.. 978-0-521-34938-3 Henry Gray Gray.. 20th edition edition.. 1918” 1918”.. Retrieve Retrievedd 27 March 2007. [23] Ga Garl rlan and, d, Jr Jr,, Th Theo eodo dore re;; Carter, P. A. (1994). “Evolu “Ev olutio tionar naryy ph phys ysiol iology ogy””. Annual Re Re[5] “Publisher “Publisher’s ’s page for Gray’s Gray’s Anatomy. 39th edition (UK). ( 5 6 ) : 5 7 9 – 6 2 1. 56 vie vi e w o f P h y siol si olog ogy y 2004. ISBN 0-443-07168-3”. 0-443-07168-3”. Archived from the from the original doi::10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051 doi 10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051..   PMID on 20 February 2007. Retrieved 27 March 2007. 8010752.. 8010752 [6] “Publisher “Publisher’s ’s page for Gray’s Gray’s Anatomy. 39th edition (US). 2004. ISBN 0-443-07168-3”. 0-443-07168-3”. Archived from the from the original on 9 February 2007. Retrieved 27 March 2007. [7]  “accessory muscle”. muscle”. Farlex. Retrieved June 6, 2013. [8]

Anatomy Anato my of and Abno Abnormali rmalities ties Asso Associate ciated d with Kag Kager’s er’s Fat  Pad , American Journal of Roentgenology

[9] Moore, Moore, Kei Keith th L. (1992). Clinicall Clinically y Oriented Oriented Anatomy Anatomy (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. p. 187.  ISBN 0683-06133-X.. 683-06133-X [10] Moore, Keith L., Dalley, Arthur F., Agur Anne M. R. (2010).  Moore’s Clinically Oriented Anatomy . Phildadelphia: phia: Lippinco Lippincott tt William Williamss & Wilkins. Wilkins. pp. 2–3.   ISBN 978-1-60547-652-0.. 978-1-60547-652-0 [11]   “Cardiovascular System”. System”. U.S. National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2008-09-16.

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[12]   Human Biology and Health . Upper Upper Saddl Saddlee River, River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. 1993. ISBN 1993.  ISBN 0-13-981176-1. 0-13-981176-1. [13] “The Card Cardiov iovascu ascular lar Syste System” m”.. SUNY Downstate Downstate Medical Medical Center. 2008-03-08. Retrieved 2008-09-16. [14]   Goldfinger, Goldfinger, Eliot (1991). Human Anatomy Anatomy for Artists:  The Elements of Form . Oxford Univers University ity Press.  Press.   ISBN 0-19-505206-4.. 0-19-505206-4 [15]  Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman. Rahman.  Tarikh llm Tashrih  [An extensive Book in Urdu in  Urdu on  on History of anatomy] (1967), Tibbi Academy, Academy,   Delhi, Delhi, Second Second revis revised ed editio editionn 2009 2009 (ISBN 978-81-906070-), Ibn 978-81-906070-),  Ibn Sina Academ Academyy of Medieva Medievall Medicine and Sciences, Sciences, Aligarh

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[18]   “Galen”. “Galen”. Discove Discoverie riesinm sinmedic edicine.c ine.com. om. Retriev Retrieved ed 201008-29.

 Raincoast  RaincoastBook Bookss (2004). (2004). Enc Encyclop yclopedic edic Atl Atlas as Huma Human n Books. ISBN  ISBN 978-1-55192-747-3. 978-1-55192-747-3. Body. Raincoast Books.  Daniel D. Chiras (1 June 2012).  Human Body SysJones tems: Structure, Function, Function, and Environment  Environment . Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN Publishers.  ISBN 978-1-4496-4793-3. 978-1-4496-4793-3. Adolf Faller; Michael Schünke; Gabriele Schünke; Schünke; Ethan Eth an Taub Taub,, M.D. M.D. (2004) (2004)..  The Hum Human an Bod Body: y: An Introduction to Structure and Function. Thieme. ISBN Thieme.  ISBN 978-1-58890-122-4.. 978-1-58890-122-4  Richard Walker (30 March 2009).   Human Dk Pub. ISBN Pub.  ISBN 978-0-7566-4545-8. 978-0-7566-4545-8.

Body.

Human an Bod Body:  DK Publishing (18 June 2012). Hum 978-1-4654-0143-4. Visual Encycloped Encyclopedia ia.  ISBN 978-1-4654-0143-4.

A

  DK Publishing (30 August 2010).

  The Complete Human Huma n Bod Body: y: The Definitiv Definitivee Visu Visual al Guid Guidee .   ISBN

978-0-7566-7509-7.. 978-0-7566-7509-7 •

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[16]  “Physiology – History of physiology, Branches of physiology”.. www.Scienceclarified.com. Retrieved 2010-08ology” 29. [17] Fell, Fell, C.; C.; Griffith Griffith Pearson, Pearson, F. (Novembe (Novemberr 2007). 2007). “Thoracic Surgery Surg ery Clinics: Clinics: Hist Historic orical al Per Perspec spectiv tives es of Thor Thoracic acic Anatomy”.. Thorac Anatomy” Thorac Surg Surg Clin Clin 17 (4): (4): 443– 443–8, 8, v. doi::10.1016/j.thorsurg.2006.12.001 doi 10.1016/j.thorsurg.2006.12.001..

Furth Further er read readin ing g

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 Saddleback (1 January 2008).   Human Body. Saddlebac dlebackk Educati Educational onal Publ. Publ. ISBN 978-1 978-1-5990 -59905-234 5-234-2.  Babsky, Evgeni; Boris Evgeni; Boris Khodorov, Khodorov, Grigory Kositsky, Kositsky, Anatoly Zubkov (1989). Zubkov  (1989).  Evgeni Babsky, Babsky, ed. HuTranslated by Ludmila man Physiology, in 2 vols . Translated Aksenov Aksenova; a; transla translatio tionn edited edited by H. C. Creig Creighton hton (M.A., Oxon (M.A., Oxon). ).   Moscow: Moscow:  Mir Publishers. Publishers.  ISBN 503-000776-8.. 03-000776-8  Sherwood,  Sherwood, Laurale Lauraleee (2010). (2010). Human Physiology Physiology  from  from cells to systems  (Hardcover)   (Hardcover) (7 ed.).   Pacific Grove, CA: CA: Brooks/cole  Brooks/cole..  ISBN 978-0-495-391845.

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CHAPTER CHAPTER 1. HU HUMAN MAN BODY  BODY 

1.6

Exte Extern rnal al link linkss

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 Media related to Human to  Human body at body at Wikimedia Commons

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 The dictionary definition of body of  body at  at Wiktionary

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 Human Physiology at Physiology at Wikibooks

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 Human Physiology textbook at Wikibooks

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 (from the early 18th century)  The Book of Humans  (from

Chapter 2

Anatomical terminology Anatomists and health care providers use   anatomical 2.2 Relati Relative ve locati location on terminology and   medical terminol terminology ogy   intermittently. These  languages  can   can be bewildering to the uninitiated, Main article: Anatomical article:  Anatomical terms of location however the purpose of this language is not to confuse, Anatomical terminology is often chosen to highlight the but rather to increase precision and reduce medical errors. For example, is a scar “above the wrist” located on the forearm two or three inches away from the hand? Or isitatthebaseofthehand? Isitonthepalm-sideorbackside? By using precise anatomical terminology, terminology, ambiguity is eliminated. eliminated. Anatomical Anatomical terms derive derive from Ancient from Ancient Greek and Greek  and Latin  Latin words,  words, and because these languages are no longer used in everyday everyday conversation, conversation, the meaning of their words does not change.[1] The current international standard is the  Terminologia Anatomica.. Anatomica

2.1

Anatom Anatomic ical al vocab vocabula ulary ry The anatomical The  anatomical position , position , with terms of relative location noted.

Further information: information: International  International scientific vocabulary relati relative ve locatio locationn of body structur structures. es. For instance instance,, an and Medical and Medical terminology anatomist might describe one band of tissue as “inferior to” another or a physician might describe a tumor as “suAnatomical terms are made up of roots of  roots,,  prefixes  prefixes,, and perficial to” a deeper body structure. Terms are used to suffixes.. The suffixes The root of a term term often often ref refers ers to an organ an organ,, define the relative location of body structures in a body tissue,, or   condition, tissue condition, wher wherea eass the the prefi prefixx or suffix suffix of- that is positioned in the anatomical the  anatomical position, position, which is ten describ describes es the root. root. For exampl example, e, in the disorde disorderr standing, feet apace, with palms forward and thumbs fachypertension,, the prefix “hyper-” means “high” or “over,” ing outwards.[1] hypertension andthe and theroo roott word word “tens “tensio ion” n” ref refersto ers to press pressure ure,, so the the word word “hypertension” refers to abnormally high blood pressure. To further increase precision, anatomists standardize the The roots, prefixes and suffixes are often derived from way in which they view the body. Just as maps are norGreek or  or   Latin, Latin, and often quite dissimilar from their mally oriented with north at the top, the standard body “map,” or anatomical position, is that of the body standEnglish-language variants.[1] ing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, Latin Latin names names of struc structur tures es such such as musc musculu uluss bic biceps eps brac brachii hii toes forward. forward. The upper limbs are held out to each side, can be split up and refer to,  musculus  for   for muscle,  biceps  and the palms of the hands face forward. Using the  stanfor “two-headed”, brachii  as  as in the brachial region of the dard anatomical position  reduce  reducess confusi confusion. on. It does arm. not matter how the body being described is oriented, the The first word tells us what we are speaking about, the terms are used as if it is in anatomical position. For exsecond describes describes it, and the third points to location. location. ample, a scar in the “anterior (front) carpal (wrist) re7

8

CHAPTER 2. ANATOMICAL ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY  TERMINOLOGY 

gion” would be present on the palm side of the wrist. The term term “ant “anter erio ior” r” woul wouldd be used used even ven if the the hand hand were were palm palm down on a table.[1] When anatomists refer to the right and left of the body, it is in reference to the right and left of the subject, not the right and left left of the observer. When observing a body in the anatomical position, the left of the body is on the observer’s right, and vice versa. These standardized terms avoid avoid confusion. confusion. Examples Examples of [2]:4 [2] :4 terms include: •

 and  posterior , which describe structures at   Anterior  and the front (anteri (anterior) or) and back back (posterio (posterior) r) of the body. body. For example, the toes are anterior to the heel, and the popliteus is posterior to the patella.

•

•

•

and   inferior , which which describe describe a positio positionn above (superior) (superior) or below below (inferior) another part of the body. For example, the orbits are superior to the oris, and the pelvis is inferior to the abdomen.

  Superior 

The skull uses different terminology, due to its  embryonic  its  embryonic  origin   origin of  neuraxis    neuraxis .

which desc describ ribee a posit positio ionn that that is   Proximal  and distal , which

2.2.2 2 Arm closer (proximal) or further (distal) from the trunk 2.2. of the body. For example, example, the shoulder is proximal When speaking of the arm different terminology is ofto the arm, and the foot is distal to the knee. ten used, to account for for the supination action action of the arm.  and  deep, which describe structures structures that Therefore the terms ventral for anterior and dorsal for   Superficial  and are closer to (superficial) or further from (deep) the posterior are used preferenti preferentially. ally. Aside from from this addisurface surface of the body. For example example,, the skin is su- tional terms are employed: perficial to the bones, and the brain is deep to the skull. skull. Sometime Sometimess   profound  is used synonymously   Radial  referring  referring to the radius the radius bone,  bone, seen laterally in with  deep. the anatomical position.  and lateral , which describe a position that is   Medial  and referring ng to the ulna bone, medially medially positioned positioned   Ulnar  referri closer to (medial) or further further from (lateral) the midwhen in the anatomical position. line of the body. For example, the nose is medial to the the eyes, eyes, and the the thumb thumb is latera laterall to the the other other fingers fingers.. •

•

•

•

•

•

2.3 Plane anes which describe structures de- 2.3 rived from the front (ventral) and back (dorsal) of the embryo the embryo,, before limb rotation. Main article: Anatomical article:  Anatomical plane  and caudal , which describe structures close Anatomy is often described in  planes , referring to two  Cranial  and of the the body body.. A  section  is a twoto the top of the skull (cranial), and towards the bot- dimensional  sections   of dimensional surface of a three-dimensional structure that tom of the body (caudal). has been cut. A plane is an imaginary two-dimension two-dimensional al surface that passes through through the body. Three planes are   Occasionally, sinister  for  for left, left, and dexter  for  for righ rightt are surface [2] :4  :4 commonly referred to in anatomy and medicine:[2] used.   Ventral  and  Dorsal ,

•

2.2.1 2.2.1

Skull Skull and brain brain

Different terms are used when it comes to the skull in compliance compliance with its embryonic its embryonic origin  origin and its tilted position compared to in other animals. •

  Rostral   ref refers

to proxim proximit ityy to the the front ront of the the nose, and is particularly used when describing the [2]:4 :4 skull..[2] skull

•

The sagittal plane  is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides. If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of the body, it is called the  midsagittal  or  or median plane. If it divides the body into unequal right and left sides, it is called a  parasagittal plane, or less commonly a longitudinal section. The frontal plane  is the plane that divides the body or an orga organn into into an anteri anterior or (fron (front) t) porti portion on anda and a posposterior (rear) portion. The frontal frontal plane is often re-

9

2.5. REGIO REGIONS  NS 

2.5 2.5

Regi Regio ons

Main article: List article:  List of human anatomical regions A body that is lying down is described as either  prone or   supine. Prone Prone describe describess a face-dow ace-downn orientati orientation, on, and supine describes a face up orientation. These terms are sometimes used in describing the position of the body during specific physical examinations or surgical procedures. [1]

The three anatomical planes of the body: the sagital, transverse (or horizontal), frontal planes.

ferred to as a coronal plane, following Latin following Latin   corona, which means “crown”. •

The   transverse plane  is the plane that divides the body body or orga organn horiz horizon ontal tally ly into into upper upper and lowe lowerr porportions. Transverse planes produce images referred to as cross sections.

The human body is shown in anatomical position in an anterior  view and a posterior view. The regions of the body are labeled  in boldface.

The human body’s numerous regions have specific specific terms to help help incre increas asee prec precis isio ion. n. Noti Notice ce that that the the term term 2.4 Functi Function onal al state state “brachium” or “arm” is reserved for the “upper arm” and “antebrachium” or “forearm” is used rather than “lower Anatomical terms may be used to describe the functional arm.” Similarly, “femur” or “thigh” is correct, and “leg” state of an organ: or “crus” is reserved for the portion of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle.[1] •

•

•

  refers to the connection between two   Anastomoses  refers structures previously branched out, such as blood 2.5.1 2.5.1 Landma Landmark rkss vessels or leaf veins. When describing the position of anatomical structures,   Patent , meaning a structure such as an  artery or landmarks may be used to describe location. These landthe  umbilicus or  or vein that vein  that abnormally remains open, such as a patent a patent marks may include structures, such as the umbilicus sternum,, or anatomical  lines , such as the   midclavicular  ductus arteriosus, arteriosus, referring to the  ductus arterio- sternum  from the centre centre of the clavic clavicle. le. The cephalon cephalon or sus whichnormall which normallyy becomesligame becomes ligamentum ntum arteriosum line  from cephalic cephalic region refers refers to the head. This area is further within three weeks of birth. differentiated into the cranium (skull), facies (face), frons (forehead), oculus (eye area), auris (ear), bucca (cheek), (cheek),   Visceral  and  and   parietal ' '  describe   describe structures that relate (forehead), to an organ an organ (visceral),  (visceral), or the wall of the cavity that nausus (nose), oris (mouth), and mentis (chin). The neck the organ is in (parietal). For example, the parietal the  parietal area is called the cervicis or cervical region. peritoneum surrounds peritoneum  surrounds the abdominal cavity. 2.5.2 2.5.2

•

Body Body cavi caviti ties es

  Paired , ref referring erringto to a struc structur turee that that is prese present nt on both both

side sidess of the the body. body. For examp example le,, the the hands hands are paired paired Main article: Body article:  Body cavity structures. Anatom Anatomic ical al struc structur tures es are ofte oftenn desc describ ribed ed in terms terms of the

10

CHAPTER 2. ANATOMICAL ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY  TERMINOLOGY 

thoracic cavities. •

Different body cavities (anterior ( anterior mediastinum not mediastinum  not visible)

cavity in which they reside. The body maintains its intercavity in nal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and other structures structures that separate separate compartments. compartments. The  dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest largest body compartments. These cavities cavities contain contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows for significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform perform their functions. functions. The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and contract without distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs. [1] The ventr ventral al cavi cavity ty incl include udess the the   thoracic and abdominopelvic  cavities  cavities and their subdivision subdivisions. s. The dorsal cavity includes the  cranial  and  spinal  cavities. This illustration illustration shows a lateral and anterior view of the body and highlights the body cavities with different colors. [1] •

•

•

The diaphragm divides the thoracic and the abdominal cavities. The abdominal cavity occupies the entire lower half of the trunk, anterior anterior to the spine. spine. Just under under the abdominal cavity, anterior to the buttocks, is the pelvic cavity. The pelvic cavity is funnel shaped and is located inferior inferior and anterior to the abdominal cavity. Together Together the abdominal and pelvic cavity can be referred to as the abdomino abdominopel pelvic viccav cavity ity while while the thoraci thoracic, c, abdomina abdominal,l, and pelvic cavities together can be referred to as the ventral body cavity.[1] Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities Cavities The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main subdivisions: subdivisions: the thoracic cavity cavity and the abdominopelvic abdominopelvic cavity. cavity. The thoracic cavity cavity is the more superior subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the heart, which is located in the mediastinum. The diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and separates it from the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity. The abdominopelvic abdominopelvic cavity cavity is the largest largest cavity in the body. Although Although no membrane membrane physically physically divides divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful to distinguish between the abdominal cavity, the division that houses the digestive organs, and the pelvic cavity, the division that houses the organs of reproduction.[1]

 The cranial cavity is a large, bean-shaped cavity filling most of the upper skull where the brain is lo- 2.5. 2.5.3 3 cated.

Abdom bdomen en

 The vertebral cavity is a very narrow, thread-like cavity cavity running from from the cranial cavity down the entire length of the spinal cord.

Together the cranial cavity and vertebral cavity can be referre referredd to as the dorsal body cavity. cavity. In the posterior posterior (dorsal) cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity (or vertebral vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make make up a continuous, uninterrupted structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also continuous. The brain and spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral column and by cerebrospinal fluid, a colorless fluid produced by the brain, which cushions the brain and spinal cord within the posterior (dorsal) cavity.[1] The thoracic cavity consists of three cavities that fill the interior area of the chest. •

 The pericardial cavity within the mediastinum is located at the center of the chest below the superior mediastinum. mediastinum. The pericardial pericardial cavity roughly roughly outlines the shape of the heart.

 The two pleural cavities are situated on both sides of the body, anterior to the spine and lateral to the breastbone.

Abdominal regions are used for example to localize pain.

Main article: Abdomen article:  Abdomen To promote clear communication, for instance about the location of a patient’s abdominal pain or a suspicious mass, health care providers typically divide up the cavity into either nine regions or four quadrants.[1] Quadrants

 The superior mediastinum is a wedge-shaped cav- The abdomen may be divided into four quadrants, more ity located between the superior regions of the two commonly used in medicine, subdivides the cavity with

11

2.6. MOVEME MOVEMENT  NT 

one horizontal and one vertical line that intersect at the patient’s patient’s umbilicus umbilicus (navel).. (navel).. The right upper upper quadrant (RUQ) includes the lower right  ribs  ribs,, right side of the liver,, and right side of the transverse liver the transverse colon. colon. The left upper quadrant (LUQ) includes the lower left ribs, stomach ribs,  stomach,, spleen,, and upper left area of the transverse spleen the  transverse colon. colon. The right lower quadrant (RLQ) includes the right half of the small intestines, intestines,  ascending colon, colon, right pelvic bone and upper right area of the bladder the  bladder.. The left lower quadrant (LLQ) contains the left half of the small intestine and left pelvic bone.[1]

and abdominal and abdominal cavities. cavities. The serous membranes have two layers;   parietal  and   visceral , surrounding a fluid filled space.[1] The visceral layer of the membrane covers the orga organn (the (the visce viscera) ra),, andth and thee parie parietal talla laye yerr lines lines the the walls wallsof of the body cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity cavity wall). Between Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very thin, fluid-filled serous space, or cavity.[1] An example of a serous cavities include the pericardium the pericardium,, which surrounds the heart. [1]

Regions

Main article: Anatomic Anatomical al terms of motion Joints,, especi Joints especiall allyy synov synovial ial joints allow allow the the body body a trem tremenen-

2.6 2.6

Mov Movemen ementt

The more detailed regional approach subdivides the cavity with one horizontal line immediately inferior to the ribs and one immediately immediately superior to the pelvis, and two vertical lines drawn as if dropped from the midpoint of each clavicle each clavicle,, resulting in nine regions. The upper right square is the right hypochondriac region and contains the base of the right ribs. The upper left left square is the left left hypochondriac region and contains the base of the left ribs. The epigastric region is the upper central square and contains the bottom edge of the liver as well as the upper areas of the stomach. The diaphragm curves like an upside down U over these three regions. The central right region is called the right lumbar region and contains the ascending colon and the right edge of the small small intestines. intestines. The central square contains the transverse colon and the upper regions of the small intestines. The left left lumbar region contains the left edge of the transverse colon and the left edge of the small intestine. The lower right square is the right iliac region and contains the right pelvic bones and the ascending ascending colon. colon. The lower lower left left square is the left iliac region and contains the left pelvic bone and the lower lower left regions of the small intestine. The lower central square contains the bottom of the pubic bones, upper regions of the bladder and the lower region of the small dous range of movements. movements. Each movement movement at a synovial synovial intestine. [1] joint joint resul results ts fromthe contra contract ctio ionn or relax relaxati ation on of the the musmuscles that are attached to the bones on either side of the articulation. The type of movement that can be produced 2.5.4 2.5.4 Membra Membrane ness at a synovial joint is determined by its structural type. Main article: Serous article:  Serous membrane Movement types are generally paired, with one being the A serous membrane (also membrane (also referred to as a serosa) is a thin opposite of the other. Body movements movements are always always described in relation to the anatomical position of the body: upright stance, with upper limbs to the side of body and palms facing forward.[1] 2.6.1

General General movem movements ents

2.6.2 2.6.2

Genera Generall moti motion on

Terms describing motion in general include: Serous membrane •

membrane that covers the walls of organs of organs in  in the thoracic the thoracic

  Flexion  and  Extension, which refer to a movement

that decreases (flexion) or increases increases (extension) (extension) the

12

CHAPTER 2. ANATOMICAL ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY  TERMINOLOGY 

example, a person skiing person skiing must  must pronate their arms in order to grasp the skis. •

  Eversion  and  Inversion  refer to movements that tilt

the sole of the foot away from (eversion) or towards (inversion) the midline of the body. 2.6.4

Other Other specia speciall motion motionss

Other terms include: and   Retrograde  flow, refers to movement of blood or other fluids in a normal (anterograde) or abnormal (retrograde) direction.

•

  Anterograde

•

  Protraction  and  Retraction  refer to an anterior (pro-

traction) or posterior (retraction) movement of the arm at the shoulders. •

cisely, conical cisely,  conical)) movement of a body part, such as a  ball-and-socket joint or joint  or the eye the  eye.. It cons consis ists ts of a combination of flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction. abduction. “Windmilling” “Windmilling” the arms the arms or  or rotating the hand from hand  from the wrist the wrist are  are examples of circumductive movement.

angle angle betwee betweenn body body parts. parts. For For examp example le,, when when standing up, the knees are extended. •

refersto ers to a motio motionn that that pull pullss   Abduction and adduction ref a structure away from (abduction) or towards (adduction) the midline of the body or limb. For example, a star a star jump requires jump requires the legs to be abducted.

•

  Internal rotation (or   medial rotation) and  External  rotation (or   lateral rotation ) refers to rotation to-

wards (internal) or away from (external) the center of the body. For example, the asana the  asana posture  posture in yoga in yoga requires the legs to be externally rotated. •

2.6. 2.6.3 3

Spec Specia iall moti motion onss of the the hand handss and and feet eet

These terms refer to movements that are regarded as [3] :590–7  :590–7 unique to the hands and feet: [3] •

•

•

•

  Opposition  –

•

  Reposition  – To release an object by spreading the

refers to flexion flexion(dor(dor  Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion refers

A motion involving a grasping of the thumb and fingers. fingers and thumb.

•

  Reciprocal motion  of

•

  Protrusion  and  Retrusion are sometimes used to de-

  Elevation and Depression refer to movement in a su-

perior (elevation) or inferior (depression) direction. Primarily refers to movements involving the scapula the scapula and mandible and mandible..

 Circumduction  refers to the circular (or, more pre-

a joint – Alternating motion in opposing directions, such as the elbow alternating between flexion and extension.

scribe the anterior (protrusion) and posterior (retrusion) movement of the jaw. •

  Occlusion  is the action of closing one’s jaw, the act

in which teeth touch teeth. May also be referred to as elevation of the mandible .

2.6. 2.6.5 5 Musc Muscle less siflexion) or extension of the foot at the ankle. For example, plantarflexion occurs when pressing the Main article: Muscle article:  Muscle brake pedal of pedal of a car. Muscle action that moves the axial skeleton work over a joint with with an origin and insertion of the the muscl musclee on resp respececdorsiflexio xionn refer refer to moveme movement nt of   Palmarflexion and dorsifle tive side. side. The inse inserti rtion on is on the the bone bone deem deemed ed to move move tothe flexion (palmarflexion) or extension (dorsiflex- tive contraction. Muscles are ion) of the hand at the wrist. For example, example, prayer  prayer is  is wards the origin during muscle contraction. often present that engage in several actions of the joint; often conducted with the hands dorsiflexed. able to perform for example both flexion and extension the forearm as  as in the biceps the biceps and  and triceps  triceps respectively.  respectively.[1]   Pronation and  Supination  refer to rotation of the of the forearm forearm or foot so that in the anatomical the  anatomical position This is not only to be able to revert actions of muscles, the palm or sole is facing anteriorly (supination) or but also brings on stability of the actions though muscle though  muscle posteriorly posteriorly (pronation) rotation rotation of the forearm. For coactivation coactivation..

2.7. ANATOMICAL ANATOMICAL VARIATION  VARIATION 

13

The biceps brachii flex the lower arm. The brachoradialis, in the  forearm,  forearm, and brachialis, located deep to the biceps in the upper  arm, are both synergists that aid in this motion.

Agonist Agonist and antagonist muscles muscles

The skeletal muscles of the body t ypically come in seven different  different   general shapes. This figure shows the human body with the major  muscle groups labeled.

Further information: Agonist information: Agonist and  and Antagonist  Antagonist gether, gether, these fibrous layers, along with tendons and ligaments, constitute the deep the  deep fascia of fascia of the body.[4] The muscle performing an action is the agonist the agonist,, while the muscle which contraction brings about an opposite action is the antagonist the  antagonist.. For example example an extension extension of the 2.6.6 6 Join Joints ts lower lower arm is performed by the triceps as the agonist and 2.6. the biceps as the antagonist (which contraction will perform flexion flexion over the same joint). Muscles Muscles that work to- Main article: Joint article:  Joint gether to perform the same action are called synergists called  synergists.. In the above example synergists to the biceps can be the Movement is not limited to only synovial joints, although brachioradialis and brachioradialis  and the brachialis the brachialis muscle. muscle.[1] they they allow for for most freedom. freedom. Muscles Muscles also run over over symphysis,, which allow for movement in for example symphysis the verte vertebral bral column by compr compres essi sion on of the the intervertebral Skeletal and smooth muscle discs.. Additionall discs Additionally, y, synovial joints can be divided divided into different types, depending on their axis of movement. Main article: Gross article:  Gross anatomy of muscles muscles The gross anatomy of a muscle is the most important indicator of its role in the body. One particularly important Anatomic ical al vari variati ation on aspect of gross anatomy of muscles is pennation is  pennation or  or lack 2.7 Anatom thereof. In most muscles, muscles, all the fibers are oriented in the same directi direction, on, running running in a line from from the origin origin to the in- Main article: Human article:  Human body § Anatomical variations sertion. In pennate muscles, muscles, the individual individual fibers are oriented at an angle relative to the line of action, attaching to the origin and insertion tendons at each end. Because The term anatomical variation  is used to refer to a difference in anatomical structures that is not regarded as a disthe contracting fibers are pulling at an angle to the overall structures vary slightly slightly between people, for action of the muscle, the change in length is smaller, smaller, but ease. Many structures example muscles that attach in slightly different places. this same orientation allows for more fibers (thus more For example, the presence or absence of the  palmaris force) force) in a muscle of a given size. Pennate Pennate muscles are longus tendon.  tendon. Anatomical Anatomical variation is unlike congenital unlike congenital usually found where their length change is less important longus anomalies,, which are considered a disorder. anomalies than maximum force, such as the rectus femoris. [4] Skeletal muscle is arranged in discrete muscles, an example of which is the  biceps brachii . The tough, fibrous 2.8 History tory epimysium of skeletal muscle is both connected to and 2.8 continuous with the tendons the tendons.. In turn, the tendons connect to the the periosteum layer layer surround surrounding ing the bones, bones, permittin permittingg International morphological terminology is used by the the the transf transfer er of force orce from rom the the muscl muscles es to the the skel skelet eton. on. ToTo- colleges of  of   medicine and  and   dentistry and dentistry  and other areas of

14

CHAPTER 2. ANATOMICAL ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY  TERMINOLOGY 

2.11 Ref Referen erence cess the health the health sciences. sciences. It facilitates facilitates communication communication and ex- 2.11 changes between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of  research  research,, This Wikipedia entry incorporates text from the freely liteaching and medical and  medical care. care. The internat internation ional al morphomorpho- cenced cenced Connexi Connexions ons edition edition of Anatom Anatomy y & Physiol Physiology ogy textlogical terminology refers to  to   morphological sciences as sciences  as book by OpenStax College a  biological sciences' sciences' branch. In this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or devel- [1]  “Anatomy & Physiology”. Physiology”. Openstax college college at ConnexConnexopments in the organism. organism. It is descriptive is descriptive and  and functional  functional.. ions. Retrieved November 16, 2013. Basical Basically, ly, it covers covers the gros grosss anat anatomy omyand andth thee microscopic Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Tibbitts, Adam W.M. (histology histology and  and cytology  cytology)) of living beings. It involves both [2] Drake, Richard Mitchel Mitchell;l; illustra illustration tionss by Richard; Richard; Richards Richardson, on, Paul Paul development anatomy ( anatomy (embryology embryology)) and the anatomy of (2005).  Gray’s anatomy for students   (Pbk.   (Pbk. ed.). Philadelthe adult. It also includes comparative includes  comparative anatomy between anatomy between phia: Elsevier/Churchill Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone. Livingstone.   ISBN 978-0-443different species. The vocabulary is extensive, varied and 06612-2. 06612-2 . complex, and requires a systematic presentation. Mark H. (2010).  Textbook of physical diagnosis :  Within the   international   field, a group of experts re- [3] Swartz, Mark history and examination  (6th ed. ed.). Philadelphia, PA: views, analyzes and discusses the morphological terms Saunders/Elsevier.  ISBN 978-1-4160-6203-5. 978-1-4160-6203-5. of the structures of the   human body, body, forming today’s Terminology Committee (FICAT) Committee (FICAT) from the International the International [4] Moore, Moore, Keith L., Dalley, Dalley, Arthur F., Agur Anne M. R. Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA). Anatomists (IFAA).[5][6] It (2010).  Moore’s Clinically Oriented Anatomy . Phildadeldeals with the anatomical, histological and embryologic phia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 29–35.  ISBN 978-1-60547-652-0.. 978-1-60547-652-0 terminology. In the   Latin Latin Amer America icann   fiel field, d, ther theree are meeti meeting ngss [5] Feder Federati ative ve Commit Committee tee on Anatom Anatomic ical al Termi Terminol nology ogy called Iberian called  Iberian Latin American Symposium Termino Terminology logy (2008).   Terminologia Histologica – International Terms   for Human Cytology and Histology. Cardiff: Cardiff: Lippincot Lippincottt (SILAT), where where a group of experts of the Pan the Pan American [7] Williams & Wilkins.   ISBN 0-7817-6610-9. 0-7817-6610-9.   OCLC Association of Anatomy (PAA) Anatomy (PAA) that speak Spanish speak Spanish and  and 63680504. 63680504 . Portuguese,, disseminates and studies the international Portuguese morphological terminology. [6] Feder Federati ative ve Commit Committee tee on Anatom Anatomic ical al Termi Terminol nology ogy (1998).

Termino erminolog logia ia Anatom Anatomica ica – Intern Internati ationa onal  l  Anatomical Terminology Terminology. Stut Stuttg tgar art: t: Thie Thieme me..   ISBN

2.9 •

•

Addi Additi tion onal al imag images es

 Older image of;  Parts of the Human Body. Posterior  and anterior view.  From the 1933 Morris’ Human Anatomy.

3-13-115251-6..  OCLC 43947698. 3-13-115251-6 43947698. [7] Losardo, Ricardo Ricardo J. (2009). “Pan American American Association Association of Anatomy: history and relevant regulations”. regulations”. Int J Mor 27  (4): 1345–52. ISSN  phol  27 1345–52.  ISSN 0717-9367. 0717-9367.

 Human body features displayed on bodies on which 2.12 2.12 body hair and male facial hair has been removed •

2.10 2.10

See See also also •

•

  Anthropometry

•

 Functional movement

•

  Histology Histology - also known as  Microscopic anatomy

•

 International scientific vocabulary

•

  Kinesiology

•

 Terminologia Anatomica

•

 Terminologia Anatomica

•

 Nomina Anatomica

•

 Terminologia Embryologica

•

 Terminologia Histologica

•

•

•

Furth Further er read readin ing g

 Calais-Germ  Calais-Germain, ain, Blandine Blandine (1993). (1993). Anatom Anatomy y of  Movement . Eastland Press. ISBN Press.  ISBN 0-939616-17-3. 0-939616-17-3.   Drak Drake, e, Richard Richard;; Vogl, Vogl, Wayne; Wayne; Mitche Mitchell, ll, Adam Adam (2004). Gray’s Churchill LivGray’s Anatom Anatomy y for Students  Students . Churchill ingstone. ISBN ingstone.  ISBN 0-443-06612-4. 0-443-06612-4.   Martini, Martini, Frederi Frederic; c; Timmons, Timmons, Michae Michael;l; McKinnMcKinnley, Michael (2000). Human Anatomy  (3rd ed.). Anatomy Prentice-Hall.  ISBN 0-13-010011-0. 0-13-010011-0. Marieb, Marieb, Elaine Elaine (2000). (2000). Essent Essential ialss of Human Human (6th ed.). Addison Addison WesWesAnatomy and Physiology   (6th ley Longman. ISBN Longman.  ISBN 0-8053-4940-5. 0-8053-4940-5. Muscolino, Joseph Joseph E. (2005). The Muscular System Manual: Manual: The Skeletal Skeletal Muscles Muscles of the Human Body

(2nd ed.). C.V. Mosby. ISBN Mosby.  ISBN 0-323-02523-4. 0-323-02523-4.

Chapter 3

Human skeleton “Bone structure” and “Skeletal system” redirect here. the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower For the skeletal system in other animals, see Skeleton see  Skeleton.. extremities at the hip the  hip joints. joints. The bones of the spine are supported by many ligaments. The erectors The erectors spinae musspinae  musThe  human skeleton  is the internal framework of the cles are also supporting and are useful for balance. body. It is composed of 270 bones 270  bones at  at birth[1][2][3] – this A human is able to survive with just the axial portion of total decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after some their skeleton. bones have fused together. The bone mass in the skeleton reac reache hess maxim maximum um dens densit ityy around around age age 30. The human human Appendicul cular ar skele skeleton ton skeleton can be divided into the axial the  axial skeleton and skeleton  and the 3.1.2 Appendi appendicular skeleton. skeleton. The axial skeleto skeletonn is formed by article:  Appendicular skeleton the vertebral the vertebral column, column, the rib the rib cage and cage and the skull the skull.. The ap- Main article: Appendicular pendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the pectoral the pectoral girdle, girdle, the pelvic the pelvic girdle and girdle and The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the the bones of the upper and lower limbs. pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, functions are to make The human skeleton serves six major functions; support, pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their functions movement, protection, production of blood of blood cells, cells, storage locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction. of ions and endocrine regulation. The human skeleton is not as sexually as sexually dimorphic as dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences be3.2 Func Functi tion onss tweensex tweensexes es in themorphology the morphology ofthe skull skull,, dentition dentition,, long 3.2 bones,, and pelves bones pelves exist. In general, female female skeletal skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than correspond- The skeleton serves six major functions; support, moveing male elements within a given population. The human ment, protection, production of blood cells, storage of female pelvis is pelvis  is also different from that of males in or- minerals and endocrine regulation. der to facilitate facilitate child birth. Unlike Unlike most other primates, human males do not have penile have penile bones. bones.[4] 3.2. 3.2.1 1 Supp Suppor ortt

3.1 3.1.1 3.1.1

The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintain maintainss its shape. The pelvis, pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. structures. Without the rib the rib cages, cages,  costal cartilages, cartilages, and intercostal muscles, muscles, the lungs the lungs would  would collapse.

Divi Divisi sion onss Axial Axial skel skeleto eton n

Main article: Axial article:  Axial skeleton

3.2.2 3.2.2

The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral the  vertebral column (32–34 (32–34 bones; bones; the number number of the verteb vertebrae rae differs differs from human to human as the lower 2 parts, sacral and coccy coccyge geal al bone bone may may vary vary in lengt length), h), the rib ca cage ge (12 pairs pairs of ribs of ribs and  and the sternum the  sternum), ), and the skull the  skull (22  (22 bones and 7 associated bones). The upright posture of humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head,

Move Moveme ment nt

The joints between between bones allow movement, movement, some allowing a wider range of movement movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot pivot joint at the neck. Moveme Movement nt is powered powered by skeletal ske letal muscle muscless, whic whichh areat are attac tache hedd to theskele theskeleton tonat at varvarious sites on bones. Muscles, Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.

15

16

CHAPTER CHAPTER 3. HUMAN HUMAN SKELETON  SKELETON 

3.2.4

Blood Blood cell product production ion

The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis of  haematopoiesis,, the development of blood cells that takes takes place in the bone the bone marrow. marrow. In children, haematopoiesis haematopoiesis occurs primarily in the marrow of the long bones bones such such as the femur femur and tibia. tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.[5] 3.2. 3.2.5 5

Stor Storag agee

The bone The  bone matrix can matrix  can store calcium store  calcium and  and is involved in calcium metabolism, metabolism, and bone and bone marrow can marrow can store iron store  iron in  in ferritin and ferritin  and is involved in iron in  iron metabolism. metabolism. Howe Howeve ver, r, bones are not entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and sulfate and hydroxyapatite  hydroxyapatite,, the latter making up 70% of a bone. bone. Hydro Hydroxy xyapa apati tite te is in turn turn compo composed sed of 39.8% of calcium, 41.4% of oxygen, oxygen, 18.5% of phosphorus, and 0.2% of hydrogen hydrogen by mass. Chondroitin Chondroitin sulfate sulfate is a sugar made up primarily of oxygen and carbon. 3.2.6

Endocrin Endocrinee regulati regulation on

Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin called  osteocalcin,, which contributes to the regulation of blood of  blood sugar ( sugar (glucose glucose)) and fat deposition. deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin the insulin se secretio cretionn and sensiti sensitivit vity, y, in additio additionn to boosting boosting the number number of insulin-producing of insulin-producing cells and cells and reducing stores of fat.[6] A human skeleton on exhibit at The Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma

3.3

Sex Sex diff differen erences ces

Anatomical differences between human males and females are highly pronounced in some soft tissue areas, but tend to be limited in the skeleton. skeleton. The human skeleskeleThe skeleton helps protect our many vital internal internal organs  organs ton is not as sexually as  sexually dimorphic as dimorphic  as that of many other from being damaged. primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology the  morphology of  of the skull the  skull,,  dentition  dentition,,  long bones, bones, and The skull protect protectss the brain brain,the ,the eyes, eyes, and and the the middle pelves (sing.   pelvis) pelvis) are exhibited across human popuand inner and inner ears. ears. lations. In general, female female skeletal skeletal elements elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements The vertebrae The vertebrae protect  protect the spinal the spinal cord. cord. within a given population. 3.2.3 3.2.3

Prote Protect ctio ion n

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

The rib The rib cage, cage, spine, and sternum and sternum protect  protect the lungs the  lungs,, 3.3. 3.3.1 1 heart and heart  and major blood major blood vessels. vessels.

Skul Skulll

A varie variety ty of gross gross morph morphol ologi ogical caltra trait itss of the the huma humann sku skullll demonstrate sexual dimorphism, such as the nuchal the nuchal crest, crest, mastoid processe processess,   supraorbital supraorbital margin margin,,   supraorbital The ilium The ilium and  and spine protect the digestive and uroridge,, and mental ridge and mental eminence. eminence.[7] genital systems and the hip the  hip.. The clavicle The clavicle and  and scapula  scapula protect  protect the shoulder the shoulder..

The patella The  patella and  and the ulna the  ulna protect  protect the knee the  knee and  and the 3.3.2 3.3.2 Denti Dentiti tion on elbow respectively. elbow  respectively. Human Human interinter-se sexx denta dentall dimorp dimorphis hism m cente centers rs on the The carpals The carpals and  and tarsals  tarsals protect  protect the wrist the  wrist and  and ankle  ankle canines canines,, but it is not nearly as pronounced as in the other respectively. great apes. apes.

17

3.5. REFERE REFERENCE NCES  S 

3.3. 3.3.3 3

Long Long bone boness

Long bones are generally generally larger in males than in females females within a given given population. Muscle attachment attachment sites sites on long bones are often more robust in males than in females, reflecting a difference in overall muscle mass and developm development ent between sexes. sexes. Sexual dimorphism dimorphism in the long bones is commonly characterized by morphometric by morphometric or gross morphological analyses. 3.3. 3.3.4 4

Pelvi elviss

Human pelves exhibit greater sexual dimorphism than other bones, specifically in the size and shape of the pelvic cavity, cavity,  ilia  ilia,, greater sciatic notches, and the subpubic angle. The Phenice Phenice method is method  is commonly used to determine the sex of an unidentified human skeleton by anthropologists with 96% to 100% accuracy in some populations. [8]

3.4 3.4

Diso Disord rder erss

fractures.[9] Osteoporosis is defined by the World fractures. the World Health Organization  in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard devi deviations ations below  below peak bone mass, relative to the age and sex-matched average, as measured by Dual by  Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, absorptiometry, with the term “established osteoporosis” including the presence of a fragility a  fragility fracture..[10] Osteoporosis is most common in women after ture menopause,, when it is called “postmenopausal osteomenopause porosis”, but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence presence of particular particular hormonal disorders and other chronic other chronic diseases  diseases or as a result of smoking of  smoking and  and [9] medications,, specifically glucocorticoids medications specifically glucocorticoids.. Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs.[9] For this reason, DEXA scans are often done in people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and be at risk of fracture. fracture.[9] Osteoporosis treatment includes advice to stop smoking, decrease alcohol consumption, exercise regularly, and have a healthy diet.   Calcium supplements Calcium  supplements may also be advised, as may Vitamin may Vitamin D. D. When medication is used, it may include include bisphosphonates bisphosphonates,, Str  Strontium ontium ranelate ranelate,, and and osteoporosis may be one factor considered when commencing Hormone ing Hormone replacement therapy. therapy.[9]

See also: Bone also:  Bone disease

3.5 There are many classified skeletal skeletal disorders. disorders. One of the most common is osteoporosis is osteoporosis.. Also common is scoliosis is scoliosis,, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced “C” or “S” shape when viewed on an xray of the spine. This condition is most apparent during adolescence, and is most common with females.

Ref Referen erence cess

[1] Miller, Miller, Larry Larry (2007-12-0 (2007-12-09). 9). “We “We're 're Born With With 300 Bones. As Adults We Have 206”. 206”. Ground Report. [2]   “How “How man manyy bon bones es doe doess the hum human an bod bodyy con contai tain?" n?".. Ask.yahoo.com. 2001-08-08. Retrieved 2010-03-04. [3]  Exploring our human bodies. bodies. San Diego Supercomputer Center Education

3.4.1 3.4.1

Arthri Arthriti tiss

Main article: Arthritis article:  Arthritis Arthritis is a disorder a disorder of  of the joints. It involves inflammation tion of one or more more joints joints.. When When affec affecte tedd by arthri arthritis tis,, the the joint joint or joints joints affec affected tedma mayy be painf painful ul to move move,, may may move move in unusual directions or may be immobile completely. The symptoms of arthritis will vary differently between types of arthritis. The most common common form of arthritis: arthritis: Osteoarthritisca Osteoarthritis cann affec affectt both both the the large largerr and small smaller er joints joints of the human human skele skeleton. ton. The cartilage in the the affec affected tedjoi joints nts will degrade, soften soften and wear away. This decreases the mobility of the joints and decreases the space between bones where bones  where cartilage should be. 3.4.2 3.4.2

Osteo Os teopo poro rosi siss

[4]

 Clellan S. Ford and Frank A. Patterns of Sexual Sexual Behavior  Clellan Beach, published by Harper & Row, New York in 1951. ISBN 0-313-22355-6

[5] Fernánde Fernández, z, KS; de Alarcón, Alarcón, PA (Dec 2013). “Devel“Development of the hematopoietic system and disorders of hematopoiesis that present during infancy and early childhood.”.  Pediatric clinics of North America  60  (6): 1273– 89. doi 89.  doi::10.1016/j.pcl.2013.08.002 10.1016/j.pcl.2013.08.002..  PMID 24237971. 24237971. [6] Lee, Na Kyung; Kyung; Sowa, Sowa, Hidea Hideaki; ki; Hinoi Hinoi,, Eiic Eiichi; hi; FerFerron, Mathieu; Mathieu; Ahn, Jong Deok; Confavr Confavreux, eux, Cyrille; Cyrille; Dacq Dacqui uin, n, Roma Romain in;; Mee, Mee, Patr Patric ickk J.; McKe McKee, e, Marc Marc D.; D.; Jung Jung,, Dae Dae Young oung;; Zhan Zhang, g, Zhi Zhiyou; you; Kim, Kim, Jaso Jasonn K.; Mauvai Mauvais-Jar s-Jarvis, vis, Franck; Franck; Ducy, Ducy, Patrici Patricia; a; Karsenty, Karsenty, Gerard Gerard (2007). (2007). “Endo “Endocrin crinee Regulation Regulation of Ener Energy gy Metabolism by the Skeleton”. Skeleton”.   Cell  130   (3): (3): 456–69 456–69.. doi::10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.047 doi 10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.047..   PMC 2013746. 2013746.   PMID 17693256.. 17693256

Main article: Osteoporosis article:  Osteoporosis

[7] Buikstra, J.E.; D.H. Ubelaker Ubelaker (1994).  Standards for data Arkansas Archaecollection collection from from humanskeletal remains  remains . Arkansas ological Survey. p. 208.

Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced bone duced  bone mineral density, density, increasing the likelihood of

[8] [8] Phen Phenic ice, e, T. W. (196 (1969) 9).. “A newly newly deve develo lope pedd vivisual sual meth method od of sexi sexing ng the the os pubi pubis” s”..   American

18

CHAPTER CHAPTER 3. HUMAN HUMAN SKELETON  SKELETON 

(2): (2): 297–30 297–301. 1. doi::10.1002/ajpa.1330300214 doi 10.1002/ajpa.1330300214..  PMID 5772048. 5772048.

Journal Journal of Physic Physical al Anthropolog Anthropology y 30

[9] Britton, the editors Nicki R. Colledge, Colledge, Brian R. Walker, Walker, StuartH. StuartH. Ralsto Ralstonn ; illust illustate atedd byRobert byRobert (2010) (2010)..   Davidson’s   principles and practice of medicine.  (21st ed. ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier Livingstone/Elsevier.. pp. 1116–1121. ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7. 978-0-7020-3085-7. [10] WHO (1994). “Assessment of fracture risk risk and its appliapplication to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Report of a WHO Study Group”. World Health Organization technical report series  843: 1–129. PMID 1–129.  PMID 7941614. 7941614.

Chapter 4

Table of muscles of the human body/End 4.1

Notes

4.2

Genera Generall ref referen erences ces

•

  Gosl Gosling ing,, J.A.; J.A.; Harris Harris,, P.F.; P.F.; Humph Humphers erson, on, J.R.; J.R.; Whitm Whitmore ore,, I.; Willan Willan,, P.L.T. P.L.T. (2008) (2008)..   Human Anatomy: Color Atlas and Textbook . phot. by A.L. Bentley Bentley (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Philadelphia: Mosby. Mosby.  ISBN 9780-7234-3451-1.. 0-7234-3451-1 http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/ http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/ MedEd/ GrossAnatomy/dissector/muscles/muscles.html

•

•

http://www.ptcentral.com/muscle http://www.pt central.com/muscles/ s/

•

http://www.rad.washington.edu/atlas http://www.rad.w ashington.edu/atlas2/ 2/

4.3 •

Exte Extern rnal al link linkss

 Tutorial & Quizzes on Skeletal Muscular Anatomy

19

Chapter 5

List of muscles of the human body This is a table of muscles of muscles of  of the human the human anatomy. anatomy.

Extrinsic muscle

There are approximately 642 skeletal 642  skeletal muscles within muscles  within the typical human, and almost every muscle constitutes one part of a pair pair of identical identical bilateral  bilateral muscles,  muscles, found on both sides, resulting in approximately 320 pairs of muscles, as presented presented in this article. Neverthele Nevertheless, ss, the exact exact number is difficult to define because different sources group muscles differently, e.g. regarding what is defined as different parts of a single muscle muscle or as several several muscles. Examples Examples range from 640 to 850.[1] The muscles of the human body can be categorized into a number of groups which include muscles relating to the head and neck, muscles muscles of the torso or trunk, muscles of the upper limbs, and muscles of the lower limbs. The action refers to the action of each muscle from the standard anatomical standard  anatomical position. position. In other other position positions, s, other actions may be performed. These muscles are described using anatomical using anatomical terminology.. ogy

Intrinsic

5.1.9

Soft palate

5.1.10   Pharynx 5.1.11   Larynx

5.2   Neck 5.2. 5.2.1 1

Cerv Ce rvic ical al

5.2.2   Suprahyoid 5.2.3   Infrahyoid/Strap

5. 1

Head

5.2.4 5.2.4

5.1.1   Scalp / Eyelid Eyelid

Anterior

5.1.2

Lateral

Extraocular muscles

5.1.3   Intraocular 5.1.4

Ear

5.1.5   Nose

Verteb ertebrat ratee

Posterior

|  obliquus capitis superior || superior  || lateral  lateral mass of atlas|| atlas || lateral half of the inferior the  inferior nuchal line || line || || suboccipital || suboccipital nerve || nerve || || |-valign="top” |- | inferior | inferior ||  || spinous process of the axis the axis ||  || lateral mass of atlas || atlas || || suboccipital || suboccipital nerve || nerve || || |}

5.1.6   Mouth 5.1.7   Mastication 5.1.8   Tongue

5.3   Torso

20

21

5.5. LOWE LOWER R LIMB  LIMB 

5.3.1   Back

5.5.1

5.3.2   Chest

5.5.2   Gluteal

5.3.3   Abdomen 5.3.4   Pelvis

Iliac region

5.5.3   Thigh anterior compartment

5.3.5   Perineum posterior compartment /  compartment / hamstring hamstring

5.4

Upper limbs

5.4.1

Vertebral column

5.4.2

Thoracic walls

medial compartment

5.5.4

Leg

anterior compartment

5.4.3   Shoulder posterior compartment

5.4.4

Arm Superficial

Anterior compartment Posterior Posteri or compartment

5.4.5   Forearm

Deep

Anterior compartment Superficial

lateral compartment

fibularis muscles: muscles: Deep

Posterior Posteri or compartment Superficial

Deep

5.5.5   Foot Dorsal Plantar

5.4.6   Hand

1st layer

Lateral volar 2nd layer

Thenar

Medial volar 3rd layer Intermediate

5.5

Lowe Lowerr lim limb 4th layer layer

22

5.6

CHAPTER CHAPTER 5. LIST OF MUSCLES MUSCLES OF THE HU HUMAN MAN BODY  BODY 

Innervati Innervation on overvi overview ew

Mind Map Showing Map Showing a summary of Lower Limb Muscle Limb Muscle innervation

5.7 5.7 •

See also also

 Accessory muscle

5.8 5.8

Notes

[1]   Enotes [2]   exrx.net [3] Essential Essential Clinic Clinical al Anatomy. Anatomy. K.L. Moore & A.M. Agur. Lippincott, 2 ed. 2002. Page 193 [4]   Gosling et al.  2008, p. 200

Mind Map showing Map showing a summary of Upper Limb Muscle Innervation

[5] Essential Essential Clinic Clinical al Anatomy. Anatomy. K.L. Moore & A.M. Agur. Lippincott, 2 ed. 2002. Page 217 [6]  Gosling 2008, p. 273

5.10. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

[7]  Gosling et al. 2008, p. 266 [8]   Medical Mnemonics  Mnemonics .com .com:  255

5.9 •

Ref Referen erence cess http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/ http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/ MedEd/ GrossAnatomy/dissector/muscles/muscles.html

•

http://www.ptcentral.com/muscle http://www.pt central.com/muscles/ s/

•

http://www.rad.washington.edu/atlas http://www.rad.w ashington.edu/atlas2/ 2/

5.10 5.10 •

•

Exte Extern rnal al link linkss

Tutorial & Quizzes on Skeletal Skeletal Muscular Anatomy Muscles of human human body also body also at

23

Chapter 6

List of muscles of the human body This is a table of muscles of muscles of  of the human the human anatomy. anatomy.

Extrinsic muscle

There are approximately 642 skeletal 642  skeletal muscles within muscles  within the typical human, and almost every muscle constitutes one part of a pair pair of identical identical bilateral  bilateral muscles,  muscles, found on both sides, resulting in approximately 320 pairs of muscles, as presented presented in this article. Neverthele Nevertheless, ss, the exact exact number is difficult to define because different sources group muscles differently, e.g. regarding what is defined as different parts of a single muscle muscle or as several several muscles. Examples Examples range from 640 to 850.[1] The muscles of the human body can be categorized into a number of groups which include muscles relating to the head and neck, muscles muscles of the torso or trunk, muscles of the upper limbs, and muscles of the lower limbs. The action refers to the action of each muscle from the standard anatomical standard  anatomical position. position. In other other position positions, s, other actions may be performed. These muscles are described using anatomical using anatomical terminology.. ogy

Intrinsic

6.1.9

Soft palate

6.1.10   Pharynx 6.1.11   Larynx

6.2   Neck 6.2. 6.2.1 1

Cerv Ce rvic ical al

6.2.2   Suprahyoid 6.2.3   Infrahyoid/Strap

6. 1

Head

6.2.4 6.2.4

6.1.1   Scalp / Eyelid Eyelid

Anterior

6.1.2

Lateral

Extraocular muscles

6.1.3   Intraocular 6.1.4

Ear

6.1.5   Nose

Verteb ertebrat ratee

Posterior

|  obliquus capitis superior || superior  || lateral  lateral mass of atlas|| atlas || lateral half of the inferior the  inferior nuchal line || line || || suboccipital || suboccipital nerve || nerve || || |-valign="top” |- | inferior | inferior ||  || spinous process of the axis the axis ||  || lateral mass of atlas || atlas || || suboccipital || suboccipital nerve || nerve || || |}

6.1.6   Mouth 6.1.7   Mastication 6.1.8   Tongue

6.3   Torso

24

25

6.5. LOWE LOWER R LIMB  LIMB 

6.3.1   Back

6.5.1

6.3.2   Chest

6.5.2   Gluteal

6.3.3   Abdomen 6.3.4   Pelvis

Iliac region

6.5.3   Thigh anterior compartment

6.3.5   Perineum posterior compartment /  compartment / hamstring hamstring

6.4

Upper limbs

6.4.1

Vertebral column

6.4.2

Thoracic walls

medial compartment

6.5.4

Leg

anterior compartment

6.4.3   Shoulder posterior compartment

6.4.4

Arm Superficial

Anterior compartment Posterior Posteri or compartment

6.4.5   Forearm

Deep

Anterior compartment Superficial

lateral compartment

fibularis muscles: muscles: Deep

Posterior Posteri or compartment Superficial

Deep

6.5.5   Foot Dorsal Plantar

6.4.6   Hand

1st layer

Lateral volar 2nd layer

Thenar

Medial volar 3rd layer Intermediate

6.5

Lowe Lowerr lim limb 4th layer layer

26

6.6

CHAPTER CHAPTER 6. LIST OF MUSCLES MUSCLES OF THE HU HUMAN MAN BODY  BODY 

Innervati Innervation on overvi overview ew

Mind Map Showing Map Showing a summary of Lower Limb Muscle Limb Muscle innervation

6.7 6.7 •

See also also

 Accessory muscle

6.8 6.8

Notes

[1]   Enotes [2]   exrx.net [3] Essential Essential Clinic Clinical al Anatomy. Anatomy. K.L. Moore & A.M. Agur. Lippincott, 2 ed. 2002. Page 193 [4]   Gosling et al.  2008, p. 200

Mind Map showing Map showing a summary of Upper Limb Muscle Innervation

[5] Essential Essential Clinic Clinical al Anatomy. Anatomy. K.L. Moore & A.M. Agur. Lippincott, 2 ed. 2002. Page 217 [6]  Gosling 2008, p. 273

6.10. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

[7]  Gosling et al. 2008, p. 266 [8]   Medical Mnemonics  Mnemonics .com .com:  255

6.9 •

Ref Referen erence cess http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/ http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/ MedEd/ GrossAnatomy/dissector/muscles/muscles.html

•

http://www.ptcentral.com/muscle http://www.pt central.com/muscles/ s/

•

http://www.rad.washington.edu/atlas http://www.rad.w ashington.edu/atlas2/ 2/

6.10 6.10 •

•

Exte Extern rnal al link linkss

Tutorial & Quizzes on Skeletal Skeletal Muscular Anatomy Muscles of human human body also body also at

27

Chapter 7

Axial skeleton The  axial skeleton  is the portion of the human the  human skeleton that ton  that consists of the bones of the head and trunk of an organism organism.. In humans, humans, it consis consists ts of 80 bones bones and is composed of eight parts; the skull bones, the ossicles the  ossicles of  of the middle ear, the hyoid the hyoid bone, bone, the rib cage, sternum and the vertebral the vertebral column. column. The axial skeleton along with the appendicular skeleton together skeleton together form the complete skeleton.

7.1 7.1

Struc tructu ture re

See also: List also:  List of bones of the human skeleton Flat bones Flat  bones house  house the the brain and other vital organs. organs. This article mainly deals with the axial skeletons of humans; however, it is important to understand the evolutionary lineage lineage of the axial skeleton. skeleton. The human axial skeleton skeleton consis consists ts of 80 differen differentt bones. It is the medial medial core of the body and connects the pelvis to the body, where the appendix skeleton skeleton attaches. attaches. As the skeleton skeleton grows older the bones get weaker with the exception of the skull. The skull remains strong to protect the brain from injury. 7.1. 7.1.1 1

Rib Rib cage cage

The rib cage is composed of 12 pairs of ribs plus the sternum for a total of 25 separate bones. The rib cage functions as protection for the vital organs such as the heart and lungs. The ribs are shaped like crescents, crescents, with one end flattene flattenedd and the other end rounded. rounded. The rounded rounded ends are attached at joints to the thoracic vertebrae at the back and the flattened ends come together at the sternum, in the front.[1] The upper seven pairs of ribs attach to the sternum with costal cartilage and are known as “true ribs.” The 8th through 10th ribs have non-costal cartilage which connects them to the ribs above. The last two ribs are called “free ribs” because they do not attach to the sternum or to other ribs and simply “hang free.” The length of each rib increases from number one to seven and then decreases until until rib pair number 12. The first first rib is the shortes shortest,t, [2] broadest, flattest, and most curved.

7.1. 7.1.2 2

Skul Skulll

The human skull consists of the cranium and the facial bones. bones. Thecra The craniu nium m hold holdss andpr and prote otect ctss the the brain brain in a large large space space called called the cranial cranial vault. vault. The cranium cranium is formed formed from eight plate-shaped bones which fit together at meeting points (joints) called sutures. In addition there are 14 facial bones which form the lower front part of the skull. Together the 22 bones that compose the skull form additional, smaller spaces besides the cranial vault, such as the the cavi caviti ties es for the the eyes eyes,, the inter internal nal ear, ear, the nose, nose, and the mouth. The most important facial bones include include the jaw or mandible, the upper jaw or maxilla, the zygomatic or cheek bone, and the nasal bone.[3] Humans are born with separate plates which later fuse to allow flexibility as the skull passes through the pelvis and birth canal during birth. During developmen developmentt the eight separate plates of the immature skull fuse together into one single structure structure known known as the skull. The only bone that remains separate from the rest of the skull is the mandible. [4] 7.1.3

Vertebral ertebral column column

At birth the majority of humans have 33 separate vertebrae. However However during normal development development several several vertebrae fuse together, together, leaving a total of 24, in most cases. The confusion confusion about whether whether or not there are 32-34 vertebrae stems from the fact that the two lowest vertebrae, the sacrum and the coccyx, are single bones made up of several several smaller bones which which have fused together. together. This is how the vertebrae are counted: 24 separate vertebrae and the sacrum, formed from 5 fused vertebrae and the coccyx, coccyx, formed from from 3-5 fused vertebrae. If you count the coccyx and sacrum each as one vertebra, then there are 26 vertebrae. vertebrae. If the fused vertebrae vertebrae are all counted separately, then the total number of vertebrae comes to between between 32 and 34. The vertebral column consists of 5 parts. The most cranial nial (upp (upper ermo most st)) part part is made made up by the the cervic cervical al verte vertebrae brae (7), followed by thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (4–5) and coccygeal vertebrae (3–4). Cervical vertebrae make up the junction between the ver-

28

7.6. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

tebra tebrall colum columnn and the the craniu cranium. m. Sacral Sacral and coccy coccyge geal al ververtebras are fused and thus often called “sacral bone” or “coccygeal bone” as unit. The sacral bone makes up the junction between the vertebral column and the pelvic bones.

7.2 7.2

History tory

The word  “Axial”  is taken from the word “axis” and refers to the fact that the bones are located close to or along the central “axis” of the body.[5]

7.3

Addi Additi tion onal al imag images es Illustration Illustration depicting anterior and posterior view of axial skeleton

•

7.4 7.4

See also also This article article uses anatomical anatomical terminolog terminology; y; for an overview, overview, see anatomical see  anatomical terminology terminology..

•

 Appendicular skeleton

7.5

Ref Referen erence cess

[1]  “Postcranial Skeletal/Ribs”. Skeletal/Ribs”. Observati Observation on and Analysis Analysis Method for Human Bones. Retrieved 25 February 2014. [2]   “Human Body Maps/Ribs”. Maps/Ribs”. Health Healthtim time. e. Retrie Retrieve vedd 25 February 2014. [3]  “Features of the Human Skull”. Skull”. Face and Emotion. Retrieved 25 February 2014. [4]   “Skull”. “Skull”. Inner Body. Retrieved 25 February 2014. [5]  “Axial skeleton”. skeleton”. AnatomyEx AnatomyExpert. pert. Retriev Retrieved ed 15 March 2013.

7.6 •

Exte Extern rnal al link linkss

  botany.uwc.ac.za

29

Chapter 8

Superior thoracic aperture The   superior thoracic aperture  refers to the opening at the top of the thoraci thoracicc cavity. cavity. It is also referre referredd to anatomically as the  thoracic inlet  and clinically as the thoracic outlet  as in thoracic in  thoracic outlet syndrome, syndrome, which refers to the superior thoracic aperture, and not to the inferior infe rior thoraci thoracicc aperture aperture which  which is the larger opening at the bottom of the thoracic cavity.

•

 thoracic duct

•

 apexes of the lungs

•

  nerves •

•

•

8.1 8.1

Struc tructu ture re

•

The thoracic inlet is essentially a hole surrounded by a bony ring, through which several vital structures pass. The superior superior thoracic aperture is bounded bounded by: the first thoracic vertebra (T1 (T1))   posteriorly, the first pair of  ribs laterally  (more specifically, the first ribs form lateral Cshaped curves posterior to anterior), the costal cartilage of the first rib and the superior superior border of the manubrium the manubrium anteriorly .

•

 phrenic nerve  vagus nerve  Recurrent laryngeal nerves  sympathetic trunks

  vessels •

  arteries  left and right common right common carotid arteries  left and right subclavian right subclavian arteries   veins  internal jugular veins  brachiocephalic veins  subclavian veins • •

•

• •

8.1.1 8.1.1

•

Relat Relatio ions ns

The clavicle The clavicle articulates  articulates with the manubrium the  manubrium to  to form the anterio anteriorr border of the thoracic thoracic inlet. Superior Superior to the thoracic inlet is the root of the neck the  neck,, and the superior mediastinum is mediastinum  is related inferiorly. The brachial The brachial plexus is plexus  is a superolateral relation of the thoracic inlet. The brachial plexus emerges between the anterior terior and middle middle scalen scalenee muscle muscless, supe superi rior or to the the first first rib, rib, and passes obliquely and inferiorly, underneath the clavicle, into the shoulder and then the arm. Impingement of the plexus the plexus in  in the region of the scalenes, ribs, and clavicles is responsible for thoracic for thoracic outlet syndrome. syndrome.

8.2 8.2

Func Functi tio on

•

 lymph nodes and nodes and lymphatic  lymphatic vessels  vessels

This is not an exhaustive list. There are several other minor but import important ant vesse vessels ls and nerv nerves es passi passing ng throu through gh,, and an abnormally large thyroid large  thyroid gland may gland may extend inferiorly through the thoracic inlet into the superior mediastinum superior  mediastinum.. The oesophagus lies against the body of the T1 vertebra, vertebra, separated from it by the prevertebral the  prevertebral fascia, fascia, and the trachea lies in front of the oesophagus, in the midline, and may touch the manubrium. manubrium. The apices apices of the lungs the lungs lie  lie to either side of the oesophagus and trachea, and is separated from them by the other vessels and nerves listed above. above. Furthermore, Furthermore, they extend slightly slightly superior superior past the level level of the inlet (e.g. the horizontal plane of the first rib).

Structures that pass through the  superior thoracic aperture include: 8.3 •

  trachea •

•

  esophagus 30

Addi Additi tion onal al imag images es

  Vasculature Vasculature entering entering at top. top. (Note: Note:

internal internal mammary is now known as  internal as  internal thoracic artery .)

8.5. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

8.4

Ref Referen erence cess

McMinn, RMH (Ed) (1994) Last’s Anatomy: Regional and applied applied (9th Ed). London: London: Churchi Churchillll Livingst Livingstone. one. ISBN 0-443-04662-X

8.5 •

•

Exte Extern rnal al link linkss  at GPnotebook 2033188804 at GPnotebook

−

 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome, Syndrome, Musculoskeletal Consumer Review

31

Chapter 9

List of muscles of the human body This is a table of muscles of muscles of  of the human the human anatomy. anatomy.

Extrinsic muscle

There are approximately 642 skeletal 642  skeletal muscles within muscles  within the typical human, and almost every muscle constitutes one part of a pair pair of identical identical bilateral  bilateral muscles,  muscles, found on both sides, resulting in approximately 320 pairs of muscles, as presented presented in this article. Neverthele Nevertheless, ss, the exact exact number is difficult to define because different sources group muscles differently, e.g. regarding what is defined as different parts of a single muscle muscle or as several several muscles. Examples Examples range from 640 to 850.[1] The muscles of the human body can be categorized into a number of groups which include muscles relating to the head and neck, muscles muscles of the torso or trunk, muscles of the upper limbs, and muscles of the lower limbs. The action refers to the action of each muscle from the standard anatomical standard  anatomical position. position. In other other position positions, s, other actions may be performed. These muscles are described using anatomical using anatomical terminology.. ogy

Intrinsic

9.1.9

Soft palate

9.1.10   Pharynx 9.1.11   Larynx

9.2   Neck 9.2. 9.2.1 1

Cerv Ce rvic ical al

9.2.2   Suprahyoid 9.2.3   Infrahyoid/Strap

9. 1

Head

9.2.4 9.2.4

9.1.1   Scalp / Eyelid Eyelid

Anterior

9.1.2

Lateral

Extraocular muscles

9.1.3   Intraocular 9.1.4

Ear

9.1.5   Nose

Verteb ertebrat ratee

Posterior

|  obliquus capitis superior || superior  || lateral  lateral mass of atlas|| atlas || lateral half of the inferior the  inferior nuchal line || line || || suboccipital || suboccipital nerve || nerve || || |-valign="top” |- | inferior | inferior ||  || spinous process of the axis the axis ||  || lateral mass of atlas || atlas || || suboccipital || suboccipital nerve || nerve || || |}

9.1.6   Mouth 9.1.7   Mastication 9.1.8   Tongue

9.3   Torso

32

33

9.5. LOWE LOWER R LIMB  LIMB 

9.3.1   Back

9.5.1

9.3.2   Chest

9.5.2   Gluteal

9.3.3   Abdomen 9.3.4   Pelvis

Iliac region

9.5.3   Thigh anterior compartment

9.3.5   Perineum posterior compartment /  compartment / hamstring hamstring

9.4

Upper limbs

9.4.1

Vertebral column

9.4.2

Thoracic walls

medial compartment

9.5.4

Leg

anterior compartment

9.4.3   Shoulder posterior compartment

9.4.4

Arm Superficial

Anterior compartment Posterior Posteri or compartment

9.4.5   Forearm

Deep

Anterior compartment Superficial

lateral compartment

fibularis muscles: muscles: Deep

Posterior Posteri or compartment Superficial

Deep

9.5.5   Foot Dorsal Plantar

9.4.6   Hand

1st layer

Lateral volar 2nd layer

Thenar

Medial volar 3rd layer Intermediate

9.5

Lowe Lowerr lim limb 4th layer layer

34

9.6

CHAPTER CHAPTER 9. LIST OF MUSCLES MUSCLES OF THE HU HUMAN MAN BODY  BODY 

Innervati Innervation on overvi overview ew

Mind Map Showing Map Showing a summary of Lower Limb Muscle Limb Muscle innervation

9.7 9.7 •

See also also

 Accessory muscle

9.8 9.8

Notes

[1]   Enotes [2]   exrx.net [3] Essential Essential Clinic Clinical al Anatomy. Anatomy. K.L. Moore & A.M. Agur. Lippincott, 2 ed. 2002. Page 193 [4]   Gosling et al.  2008, p. 200

Mind Map showing Map showing a summary of Upper Limb Muscle Innervation

[5] Essential Essential Clinic Clinical al Anatomy. Anatomy. K.L. Moore & A.M. Agur. Lippincott, 2 ed. 2002. Page 217 [6]  Gosling 2008, p. 273

9.10. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

[7]  Gosling et al. 2008, p. 266 [8]   Medical Mnemonics  Mnemonics .com .com:  255

9.9 •

Ref Referen erence cess http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/ http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/ MedEd/ GrossAnatomy/dissector/muscles/muscles.html

•

http://www.ptcentral.com/muscle http://www.pt central.com/muscles/ s/

•

http://www.rad.washington.edu/atlas http://www.rad.w ashington.edu/atlas2/ 2/

9.10 9.10 •

•

Exte Extern rnal al link linkss

Tutorial & Quizzes on Skeletal Skeletal Muscular Anatomy Muscles of human human body also body also at

35

Chapter 10

Scalene muscles The   scalene σκαληνός νός,, or scalene muscles muscles   (from   Greek   σκαλη [1] skalenos , meaning uneven as the pairs are all of differing length[2] ) are a group of three pairs of muscles of  muscles in  in the lateral neck lateral  neck,, namely the scalenus the  scalenus anterior, anterior,  scalenus medius,, and scalenus medius and  scalenus posterior posterior.. They are innervated by the fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical spinal cervical  spinal nerves (C4-C6). nerves (C4-C6). A fourth muscle, the scalenus minimus (Sibson’s muscle), is sometimes present behind the lower portion of the scalenus anterior.[2]

lene fissure” is also used). The region in which this lies is referred to as the scaleotracheal fossa. It is bound by the clavicle the clavicle inferior  inferior anteriorly, the trachea medially, posteriorly by the trapezius the  trapezius,, and anteriorly by the platysma the  platysma muscle.. muscle

10.4

Clini Clinical cal rele relevan vance ce

Since the nerves of the brachial plexus pass through the space between the anterior and middle scalene muscles, 10.1 Origin Origin and inser inserti tion on that area is sometimes sometimes targeted with with the administration administration of regional regional anesthe anesthesia sia by physic physician ians. s. The nerve nerve block, block, called called an interscalene block, block, may be performed prior to arm or They originate from the transverse the  transverse processes from processes  from the an interscalene [6] cervical vertebrae of vertebrae  of C2 to C7 and insert onto the first shoulder surgery. and second ribs second ribs.. Thus they are called the  lateral vertebral muscles muscles .[3]

10.5 10.5 10.2 10.2

Func Functi tion on

•

See See also also

  Muscles

List of muscles muscles of the human body The action of the anterior and middle scalene muscles muscles is to elevate the first the first rib and rib and laterally flex (bend) the neck the  neck to  to  Accessory muscles of respiration [4] the same side; the action of the posterior scalene is to elevate the second rib and tilt the neck to the same side. They also act as accessory muscles of inspiration, along 10.6 Addi Additi tion onal al image imagess with the sternocleidomastoids the sternocleidomastoids.. •

•

10.3 10.3

Rela Relati tion onss

•

 Musculi coli base

•

 Scalene  Scalene muscles muscles.. Muscles Muscles of the neck. neck. Lateral Lateralvie view. w.

 Scalene  Scalene muscles muscles.. Muscles Muscles of the neck. neck. Lateral Lateralvie view. w. The scalene muscles have an important relationship to other other structure structuress in the neck. neck. The brachial The  brachial plexus and subclavian artery pass artery  pass between the anterior and middle [5] scalenes. The subclavian The  subclavian vein and vein  and phrenic  phrenic nerve pass nerve  pass 10.7 10.7 Ref Referen erence cess anteriorly to the anterior scalene as the muscle crosses over the first rib. The phrenic nerve is oriented vertically [1]   Mosby’s Medical, Nursing & Allied Health Dictionary, Dictionary , as it passes in front of the anterior scalene, while the subFourth Edition, Mosby-Year Book Inc., 1994, p. 1395 clavian vein is oriented horizontally as it passes in front [2] Davies, Clair; Clair; Davies, Amber (2013).   The Trigger Point  of the anterior scalene muscle. [5] •

Therapy Workbook  (Third  (Third ed.). New Harbinger Publications. ISBN tions. ISBN 9781608824960. 9781608824960.

The passing of the brachial the  brachial plexus and plexus  and the subclavian the  subclavian artery through artery  through the space of the anterior and middle scalene muscles constitute the scalene hiatus (the term “sca-

[3] Henry Gray (1913).  Anatomy: Descriptive and Applied .

36

10.7. REFERE REFERENCE NCES  S 

[4] Buford JA, Yoder Yoder SM, Heiss DG, Chidley Chidley JV (Oct 2002). “Acti “Actionsof onsof the scale scalene ne muscl muscles es for rotati rotation on of the cervi cervical cal spine in macaque and human”.  J Orthop Sports Phys Ther  32   (10) (10):: 488–96 488–96.. doi doi::10.2519/jospt.2002.32.10.488 10.2519/jospt.2002.32.10.488.. PMID 12403200. 12403200. [5] Albertine, David A. Morton, K. Bo Foreman, Kurt H. (2011). “Chapter 25: Overview of the Neck, Muscles of the Neck”. Gross Gross anatomy: anatomy: the big picture picture. New York: York: McGraw-Hill.  ISBN 978-0071476720. 978-0071476720. [6] Graber, Graber, Raymo Raymound und.. “Interscal “Inter scalene ene Nerve Nerve Block”. Block”. WebMD, LLC . Medscape. Retrieved 10 December 2012.

37

Chapter 11

List of muscles of the human body This is a table of muscles of muscles of  of the human the human anatomy. anatomy.

Extrinsic muscle

There are approximately 642 skeletal 642  skeletal muscles within muscles  within the typical human, and almost every muscle constitutes one part of a pair pair of identical identical bilateral  bilateral muscles,  muscles, found on both sides, resulting in approximately 320 pairs of muscles, as presented presented in this article. Neverthele Nevertheless, ss, the exact exact number is difficult to define because different sources group muscles differently, e.g. regarding what is defined as different parts of a single muscle muscle or as several several muscles. Examples Examples range from 640 to 850.[1] The muscles of the human body can be categorized into a number of groups which include muscles relating to the head and neck, muscles muscles of the torso or trunk, muscles of the upper limbs, and muscles of the lower limbs. The action refers to the action of each muscle from the standard anatomical standard  anatomical position. position. In other other position positions, s, other actions may be performed. These muscles are described using anatomical using anatomical terminology.. ogy

Intrinsic

11.1.9

Soft palate

11.1.10   Pharynx 11.1.11   Larynx

11.2   Neck 11.2. 11.2.1 1

Cerv Ce rvic ical al

11.2.2   Suprahyoid 11.2.3   Infrahyoid/Strap

11.1 1.1

Head

11.2.4 11.2.4

11.1.1   Scalp / Eyelid Eyelid

Anterior

11.1.2

Lateral

Extraocular Extraoc ular muscles

11.1.3   Intraocular 11.1.4

Ear

11.1.5   Nose

Verteb ertebrat ratee

Posterior

|  obliquus capitis superior || superior  || lateral  lateral mass of atlas|| atlas || lateral half of the inferior the  inferior nuchal line || line || || suboccipital || suboccipital nerve || nerve || || |-valign="top” |- | inferior | inferior ||  || spinous process of the axis the axis ||  || lateral mass of atlas || atlas || || suboccipital || suboccipital nerve || nerve || || |}

11.1.6   Mouth 11.1.7   Mastication 11.1.8   Tongue

11.3   Torso

38

39

11.5. LOWE LOWER R LIMB  LIMB 

11.3.1   Back

11.5.1

11.3.2   Chest

11.5.2   Gluteal

11.3.3   Abdomen 11.3.4   Pelvis

Iliac region

11.5.3   Thigh anterior compartment

11.3.5   Perineum posterior compartment /  compartment / hamstring hamstring

11.4

Upper limbs

11.4.1

Vertebral column

11.4.2

Thoracic walls

medial compartment

11.5.4

Leg

anterior compartment

11.4.3   Shoulder posterior compartment

11.4.4

Arm Superficial

Anterior compartment Posterior Posteri or compartment

11.4.5   Forearm

Deep

Anterior compartment Superficial

lateral compartment

fibularis muscles: muscles: Deep

Posterior Posteri or compartment Superficial

Deep

11.5.5   Foot Dorsal Plantar

11.4.6   Hand

1st layer

Lateral volar 2nd layer

Thenar

Medial volar 3rd layer Intermediate

11.5 11.5

Lowe Lowerr lim limb 4th layer layer

40

11.6

CHAPTER CHAPTER 11. LIST OF MUSCLES MUSCLES OF THE HU HUMAN MAN BODY  BODY 

Innervati Innervation on overvi overview ew

Mind Map Showing Map Showing a summary of Lower Limb Muscle Limb Muscle innervation

11.7 11.7 •

See See also also

 Accessory muscle

11. 11.8

Notes tes

[1]   Enotes [2]   exrx.net [3] Essential Essential Clinic Clinical al Anatomy. Anatomy. K.L. Moore & A.M. Agur. Lippincott, 2 ed. 2002. Page 193 [4]   Gosling et al.  2008, p. 200

Mind Map showing Map showing a summary of Upper Limb Muscle Innervation

[5] Essential Essential Clinic Clinical al Anatomy. Anatomy. K.L. Moore & A.M. Agur. Lippincott, 2 ed. 2002. Page 217 [6]  Gosling 2008, p. 273

11.10. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

[7]  Gosling et al. 2008, p. 266 [8]   Medical Mnemonics  Mnemonics .com .com:  255

11.9 11.9 •

Ref Referen erence cess

http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/ http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/ MedEd/ GrossAnatomy/dissector/muscles/muscles.html

•

http://www.ptcentral.com/muscle http://www.pt central.com/muscles/ s/

•

http://www.rad.washington.edu/atlas http://www.rad.w ashington.edu/atlas2/ 2/

11.10 11.10 •

•

Exte Externa rnall link linkss

Tutorial & Quizzes on Skeletal Skeletal Muscular Anatomy Muscles of human human body also body also at

41

Chapter 12

Hip flexors is a  term used in anatomical terminology that terminology  that refers to a movement that decreases the angle between two bones two bones at  at a joint. For example, your elbow your elbow joint flexes joint flexes when you bring your hand your hand closer  closer to the shoulder the shoulder.. Flexion is typically instigated by muscle by  muscle contraction. contraction. A musc muscle le that flexes a joint is called a  flexor . In anatomy In anatomy,,  flexion (from the Latin verb flectere, to bend)[1] is a joint a  joint move movement ment that that decr decreas eases es the angle between between the bones that converge at the joint. Flexion

12.1 12.1

Fle Flexors ors

12.1. 12.1.1 1

Uppe Upperr limb limb

•

of forearm of forearm at  at elbow  elbow • • •

•

of humerus of humerus at  at shoulder  shoulder • • • •

•

  Brachialis   Brachioradialis  Biceps brachii

 Pectoralis major  Anterior deltoid   Coracobrachialis  Biceps brachii

The iliacus and nearby muscles 

of carpus of carpus at  at wrist  wrist • • • •

12.1.2 12.1.2

 flexor carpi radialis  flexor carpi ulnaris  palmaris longus

•

•

 Anterior compartment of thigh •

Lowe Lowerr limb limb

•

Hip

The hip flexors are (in descending order of importance to the action of flexing the hip joint):[2]

•

 Collecti  Collective vely ly known known as the iliopsoas iliopsoasorinnerhipmusorinnerhipmuscles: 42

•

 Rectus femoris (part femoris (part of the quadriceps the quadriceps muscle group)  Sartorius

 One of the gluteal the gluteal muscles: muscles: •

•

 Psoas major  Iliacus muscle

 Tensor fasciae latae

 Medial compartment of thigh

43

12.2. SEE SEE ALSO  ALSO 

•

•

•

•

  Pectineus  Adductor longus  Adductor brevis   Gracilis

12.2 12.2

This article article uses anatomical anatomical terminolo terminology; gy; for an overview, overview, see anatomical see  anatomical terminology. terminology.

12.3 Without the iliopsoas muscles, flexion in sitting in sitting position  position 12.3 [2] is not possible across the horizontal the  horizontal plane. plane.

Ref Referen erence cess

[1] Anderson Anderson,, Kenne Kenneth th N.; et al., al., eds. eds. (1994) (1994)..   Mosby’s  Medical, Nursing, & Allied Health Dictionary  (4th ed.). St. Lo Loui uiss:   Mosby-Y Mo sby-Year ear Book. Book. p. 624.   ISBN 9780801672255..  OCLC 312496360. 9780801672255 312496360.

Leg •

See See also also

of leg of leg at  at knee  knee (L5-S2)  (L5-S2)[3] •

 Posterior compartment of thigh/ thigh/Hamstrings  Biceps femoris   Semitendinosus   Semimembranosus   Gracilis  Sartorius  Tensor fasciae latae   Gastrocnemius   Popliteus  Plantaris (negligible)  Plantaris  (negligible) •

[2] Platzer Platzer (2004), (2004), p 246 [3]  Knee Articulations [4]  Foot Articulations

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of toes of toes •

 Posterior compartment of leg  Flexor hallucis longus  Flexor digitorum longus  Flexor digitorum brevis  Quadratus plantae  Flexor hallucis brevis  Flexor digiti minimi brevis • •

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of   proximal proximal phal phalange angess at   metatarsophalangeal [4] joint •

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Othe Ot herr

 torso//lumbar vertebrae  torso •

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 Lumbrical muscle (foot) Plantar interossei interossei   Dorsal interossei

 Rectus abdominis muscle

  neck at neck at atlanto-occipital  atlanto-occipital joint •

 Longus capitis muscle

12.4 12.4 •

Exte Extern rnal al link linkss

 at eMedicine Dictionary  Dictionary   Flexion at eMedicine

Chapter 13

Vesico-uterine pouch In human In human female anatomy, anatomy, the vesicouterine excavation uterovesic sical al pouch pouch of Meiring Meiring)isasecond,butshal(or uterove lower, lower, pouch pouch formed ormed from theperitoneum the peritoneum over over the uterus and bladder bladder,, continue continuedd over over the intesti intestinal nal surface surface and funfundus of the uterus the uterus onto  onto its vesical surface, which it covers as far as the junction of the body and cervix and  cervix uteri, uteri, and then to the bladder. Also termed Dunn’s pouch , this is an important anatomical landmark for chronic endometrioendometriosis. Endometrial Endometrial seeding in this region region causes cyclica cyclicall pain in women of child bearing age. Dunn’s pouch is also an important factor in retroversion of the uterus, which can frequently complicate pregnancies complicate pregnancies.. The vesicouterine excavation is close to the anterior fornix of the vagina. vagina.

13.1 •

 Median sagittal section of female pelvis.

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Addi Additi tion onal al image imagess

Exte Extern rnal al link linkss

  Anatomy photo:43:02-0102 at photo:43:02-0102  at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center - “The Female Pelvis: Distribution of the Peritoneum in the Female Pelvis” Anatomy image:9612   at the the SUNY SUNY Downs Downsta tate te Medical Center Anatomy image:9736   at the the SUNY SUNY Downs Downsta tate te Medical Center Anatomy image:9758   at the the SUNY SUNY Downs Downsta tate te Medical Center   figures/chapter_35/35-8.HTM   - Bas Basic Hum Human Anatomy at Dartmouth Medical School

This article incorporates text from from a  public domain edition domain  edition   Gray’s Anatomy. of  Gray’s

44

Chapter 14

List of bones of the human skeleton 14.1 14.1

Intr Introd oduc ucti tion on

The figure of 206 bones is commonly repeated, repeated, but does have have some peculiarit peculiarities ies in its method of counting. counting. It is taken of an  an   adult human—the adult  human—the number of bones in the skeleton changes with age, as multiple bones  fuse  fuse,, a process which typically reaches completion in the third decade of life. In addition, the bones of the skull and face are counted as separate bones, despite being despite  being fused natufused naturally. Some reliable reliable sesamoid bones such as the pisiform the pisiform are counted, while others, such as the hallux the  hallux sesamoids,  sesamoids, are not. Indiv Individ idual ualss may may have have more more or fewer ewer bones bones than than this this owing owing to anatomical variation variations. s. The most common variation variationss include include additional additional (i.e. supernumerary) supernumerary) cervical  cervical ribs or ribs  or lumbar verte vertebrae brae..  Sesamoid bone counts bone counts also may vary among individuals.

14.2 14.2

Bon Bones

14.2.1

Verte Ve rtebral bral column column

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Back view of a skeleton of an adult human

The skeleton The skeleton of  of an adult human adult human consists  consists of 206 bones 206 bones.. It [1][2][3] iscomposedof270 bones at birth, birth, whichdecreas which decreases es to 206 bones by adulthood after some bones have fused together. together. Together, Together, these bones form the axial the axial skeleton and the  the   appendicular skeleton. skeleton. Many Many small small and and often often variable variable bones, such as sesamoid as sesamoid bones and bones and ossicles, are not included in this count.

14.2 14.2.2 .2

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The cervical The cervical vertebrae (7) vertebrae (7) The thoracic The thoracic vertebrae (12) vertebrae (12) The lumbar The lumbar vertebrae (5) vertebrae (5) The sacral verte vertebrae brae (5 at birth, birth, later later fused fusedint intoo one) The coccygeal The coccygeal vertebrae (4 vertebrae (4 at birth, later fused into one) Ches Ch estt

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The sternum The sternum (1)  (1)

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The ribs The ribs (24,  (24, in 12 pairs), including: •

(7) pairs called “true ribs” directly attached attached to the sternum the sternum (1st-7th  (1st-7th pairs)

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CHAPTER CHAPTER 14. LIST OF BONES OF THE HUMAN HUMAN SKELETON  SKELETON 

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 (3) pairs (8th,9th and 10th pairs), also known as False ribs are attached anteriorly to each other and to the 7th rib by cartilages and synovial joints (2) pairs of floating ribs (11th and 12th pairs), have no anterior attachment.

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14.2 14.2.3 .3

 triquetrum bone (2) bone (2)  pisiform bone (2) bone (2)   trapezium (2) trapezium (2)  trapezoid bone (2) bone (2)  capitate bone (2) bone (2)  hamate bone (2) bone (2) The metacarpus The metacarpus (5  (5 × 2) The phalanges The phalanges of the hand  proximal phalanges (5 phalanges (5 × 2)   intermediate phalanges (4 phalanges (4 × 2)  distal phalanges (5 phalanges (5 × 2) •

Head He ad

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The cranial The cranial bones (8) bones (8) The occipital The occipital bone 14. 14.2.5 2.5 Le Leg g The parietal The parietal bones (2) bones (2) The frontal The frontal bone The hip The hip bone, bone, comprising the fused ilium fused ilium,, ischium  ischium,, The temporal The temporal bones (2) bones (2) and pubis and pubis (2)  (2) The sphenoid The  sphenoid bone (sometimes bone  (sometimes counted  The sacrum and the coccyx attach to the two as facial) hip bones to form the pelvis the pelvis The ethm ethmoid oid bone (sometim (sometimes es counted counted as facial) The femur The femur The facial The facial bones (15) bones (15) The patella The patella or  or knee cap The nasal The nasal bones (2) bones (2) The tibia The tibia The maxillae The maxillae (upper  (upper jaw) (2) The fibula The fibula The lacrimal The lacrimal bone (2) bone (2) The zygomatic The zygomatic bone (2) bone (2) The foot The foot (52  (52 bones in total, 26 per foot) The palatine The palatine bone (2) bone (2) The tarsus The tarsus The inferior The inferior nasal concha (2) concha (2)   calcaneus or calcaneus or heel bone (2) The vomer The vomer  talus (2)  talus  (2) The mandible The mandible (lower  (lower jaw)  navicular bone (2) bone (2) The hyoid The hyoid bone (sometimes bone (sometimes not counted  medial cuneiform bone bone (2)  (2) as facial)  intermediate cuneiform bone (2) bone (2)  lateral cuneiform bone (2) bone (2)  In the middle the middle ears (3 ears (3 x 2)  cuboid bone (2) bone (2)   malleus (2) malleus (2) The metatarsus The metatarsus   incus (2) incus (2) The phalanges The phalanges of the foot   stapes (2) stapes (2)  proximal phalanges (5 phalanges (5 × 2)   intermediate phalanges (4 phalanges (4 x 2)  distal phalanges (5 phalanges (5 x 2) 14. 14.2.4 2.4 Arm The sesamoid The sesamoid bones The bones of the upper upper arm •

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The clavicle The clavicle The scapula The scapula The humerus The humerus The ulna The ulna The radius The radius

The hand The hand (54  (54 bones, 27 in each hand) •

The carpus The carpus  scaphoid bone (2) bone (2)  lunate bone (2) bone (2) • •

14. 14.3

Notes tes

14.4 14.4

Ref Referen erence cess

[1] Miller, Miller, Larry Larry (2007-12-0 (2007-12-09). 9). “We “We're 're Born With With 300 Bones. As Adults We Have 206”. 206”. Ground Report. [2]   “How “How man manyy bon bones es doe doess the hum human an bod bodyy con contai tain?" n?".. Ask.yahoo.com. 2001-08-08. Retrieved 2010-03-04. [3]  Exploring our human bodies. bodies. San Diego Supercomputer Center Education

Chapter 15

List of homologues of the human reproductive system The  List of   homologues  of the human   reproductive system   shows shows how indifferent indifferent   embryonic embryonic organs organs   differen erenti tiat atee into into the resp respec ecti tive ve sex sex orga organs ns in   males and   females. females. Mülleria Müll eriann ducts ducts   are also also ref referred erred to as   paramesonephric and   Wolffian Wolffian ducts as paramesonephric ducts , and mesonephric duct .

15.1 15.1

Coun Counte terpa rparts rts

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Diagr Diagram am of of inter internal nal diff differenerentiation

15.3

Diagr Diagram am of of exte externa rnall diff differenerentiation

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Ref Referen erence cess

[1] Cai Y (2009). (2009). “Revisi “Revisiting ting old vagin vaginal al topics: topics: converconversion of the Müllerian vagina and origin of the “sinus” vagina”. Int J Dev Biol 2009; 53:925-34 53:925-34 53  (7): 925–34. doi::10.1387/ijdb.082846yc doi 10.1387/ijdb.082846yc..  PMID 19598112. 19598112.

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CHAPTER CHAPTER 15. LIST OF HOMOLOGUES HOMOLOGUES OF THE HU HUMAN MAN REPRODUCTI REPRODUCTIVE VE SYSTEM  SYSTEM 

Stages in the development of the external sexual organs in the male and female.

Diagrams to show the development of male and female generative organs from a common type.

Chapter 16

List of human anatomical features The detailed list of human of  human anatomical features anatomical features below is adapted from the table of contents of the 1918 public 1918  public domain edition main  edition of Gray’s of Gray’s Anatomy. Anatomy.

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 Articulations of the lower extremity •

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16.1   Syndesmology

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 Coxal articulation or hip-joint  The knee-joint  Articulations between the tibia and fibula  Talocrural articulation or ankle-joint   Intertarsal articulations   Tarsometatarsal articulations   Intermetatarsal articulations   Metatarsophalangeal articulations  Articulations of the digits  Arches of the foot

 Articulations of the vertebral column  Articulation of the atlas with the epistropheus or axis  Articulations of the vertebral column with the 16.2   Angiology cranium  Articulation of the mandible The blood The blood  Costovertebral articulations  Development of the vascular the vascular system   Sternocostal articulations Artic Articula ulati tion on of the the manub manubriu rium m andbod and bodyy of the the The thoracic The thoracic cavity sternum The pericardium The pericardium  Articulation of the vertebral column with the The heart The heart pelvis  Peculiarities in the vascular system in the fetus the  fetus  Articulations of the pelvis •

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 Sternoclavicular articulation  Acromioclavicular articulation  Humeral articulation or shoulder-joint  Elbow-joint   Radioulnar articulation  Radiocarpal articulation or wrist-joint   Intercarpal articulations   Carpometacarpal articulations   Intermetacarpal articulations   Metacarpophalangeal articulations

16.3

Anatom Anatomic ical al landma landmarks rks

On the trunk of the body, the chest is referred to as the thoracic thoracic area. The shoulder shoulder in general is the acromial, acromial, while the curve of the shoulder is the deltoid. The back as a general area is the dorsum or dorsal area, and the lower lower back as the lumbus or lumbar region. The shoulderblades derblades are the scapular area and the breastbone breastbone is the sternal region. The abdominal area is the region between the chest and the pelvis. pelvis. The breast is called the mamma or mamm mammar ary, y, the the armp armpit it as the the axil axilla la and and axil axilla lary ry,, and and the the navel navel as the umbilicus and umbilical. umbilical. The pelvis is the lower lower torso, between the abdomen abdomen and the thighs. thighs. The 49

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CHAPTER CHAPTER 16. LIST OF HU HUMAN MAN ANATOMI ANATOMICAL CAL FEATUR FEATURES  ES 

groin, where the thigh joins the trunk, are the inguen and inguinal area. Theentire Theentire arm is ref referred erred to as thebrachi thebrachium um andbrachi andbrachial, al, the front of the elbow as the antecubitis antecubitis and antecubital, the back of the elbow as the olecranon or olecranal, the forearm as the antebrachium and antebrachial, the wrist as the carpus and carpal area, the hand as the manus and manual, the palm as the palma and palmar, the thumb as the pollex, and the fingers as the digits, phalanges, and phalangeal. The buttocks are the gluteus or gluteal region and the pubic area is the pubis. Anatomists divide the lower limb into the thigh (the part of the limb between the hip and the knee) and the leg (which refers only to the area of the limb between the knee knee and the ankle). ankle). The thigh thigh is the the femur emur and the femoral femoral region. The kneecap is the patella and patellar while the back of the knee is the popliteus and popliteal area. area. The leg leg (betw (betwee eenn the the knee knee and the the ankle ankle)) is the crus crus and crura crurall area, area, the the latera laterall aspec aspectt of the the leg leg is the the peron peronea eall area area,, and and the the calf calf is the the sura sura and and sura surall regi region on.. The The ankl anklee is the tarsus and tarsal, and the heel is the calcaneus calcaneus or calcaneal. The foot is the pes and pedal region, and the sole of the foot the planta and plantar. As with the fingers, the toes are also called the digits, phalanges, and phalangeal area. The big toe is referred referred to as the hallux.

16.4 16.4

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List of human anatomical parts named after people

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List of regions regions in the human brain

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 Superficial anatomy

Chapter 17

List of human anatomical parts named after people This is a list of human of human anatomical parts named parts named after people.

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Alpha Alphabet betic ical al list list •

For clarity, entries are listed by the name of the person associated with them, so Loop so  Loop of Henle is Henle is listed under H not L.

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  Achilles Achilles tendon –   Achilles, Achilles, Greek Greek mythol mythologi ogical cal character

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 Alcock’s canal (pudendal canal (pudendal canal) – Benjamin Alcock (1801–1859?), Irish anatomist

 Duct of Be  Duct Belli llini ni – Lorenzo Bellini (1643–1704), Italian anatomist  Renal columns of Bertin – Bertin  –  Exupere Joseph Bertin (1712–1781), French anatomist   Betz cells –  Vladimir Alekseyevich Betz  (1834– 1894), Ukrainian histologist   Billroth’s cords –  Theodor Billroth (1829–1894), Billroth  (1829–1894), Austrian surgeon  Bowman’s capsule and capsule and Bowman’s  Bowman’s membrane – membrane – Sir  Sir William Bowman  Bowman   (1816–1892), English surgeonanatomist  Broca’s area –   Paul Broca   (1824–1880), French French surgeon-anatomist   Brodmann’s areas –  Korbinian Brodmann (1868– Brodmann  (1868– 1918), German neurologist neurologist  Brunner’s glands – glands – Johann  Johann Conrad Brunner (1653– Brunner (1653– 1727), Swiss anatomist  Buck’s fascia – fascia – Gurdon  Gurdon Buck (1807–1877), Buck (1807–1877), American surgeon

Artery of Ad Artery Adamk amkie iewi wicz cz –   Albert Albert Wo Wojciec jciechh 17. 17.1.3 1.3 C Adamkiewicz (1850–1921), Adamkiewicz  (1850–1921), Polish pathologist  Cajal cell – cell  – Santiago  Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), Cajal  (1852–1934), Spanish pathologist 17.1 7.1.2 B   Cajal–Retzius cell –  Santiago Ramón y Cajal and   Bachmann Bachmann’s ’s bund bundle le –   Jean Jean Geor George ge Bac Bachmann hmann Gustaf Retzius (1842–1919), Retzius (1842–1919), Swiss histologist (1877–1959), German-American physiologist  Calot’s triangle – triangle – Jean-François  Jean-François Calot (1861–1944), Calot (1861–1944),  Balbiani bodies – bodies – Édouard-Gérard  Édouard-Gérard Balbiani French surgeon •

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 Bartholin’s gland –  Caspar Bartholin the Younger (1655–1738), Danish anatomist

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  Batson’s Batson’s plexus –   Oscar Oscar Viv Vivian ian Bats Batson on   (1894– 1979), American anatomist   Long thoracic nerve of Bell –   Sir Charles Bell (1774–1842), Scottish Scottish surgeon-anatomist surgeon-anatomist

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  Chassaignac Chassaignac tuberc tubercle le –   Charles Charles Mari Mariee Édou Édouard ard Chassaignac (1804–1879), Chassaignac  (1804–1879), French physician  Circle of Willis – Willis  – arterial circle in base of brain – Dr. Thomas Willis (1621–1675), Willis (1621–1675), English physician   Clara Clara cel celll –   Max Clara   (1899–1966) (1899–1966),, German German anatomist

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CHAPTER CHAPTER 17. LIST OF HUMAN HUMAN ANATOMI ANATOMICAL CAL PARTS PARTS NAMED NAMED AFTER PEOPLE 

 Cloquet’s canal  Colles’ fascia – fascia – Abraham  Abraham Colles (1773–1843), Colles (1773–1843), Irish surgeon

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 Cooper’s fascia – fascia – Astley  Astley Cooper (1768–1841), Cooper (1768–1841), English surgeon

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  Organ Organ of Cor Corti ti – Alf Alfonso onso Corti (1822–1876 (1822–1876), ), Italian Italian microanatomist

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 Cowper’s glands – glands  –  William Cowper (1666–1709), Cowper  (1666–1709), English surgeon-anatomist

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  Cuvie Cuvierr duc ducts ts –   Georges Georges Cuv Cuvier ier   (1769–1832), French Naturalist and comparative anatomist

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 Darwin’s tubercle – tubercle  – Charles  Charles Darwin (1809–1882), Darwin  (1809–1882), British Naturalist  Denonvilliers’ fascia – fascia – Charles-Pierre  Charles-Pierre Denonvilliers (1808–1872), French surgeon surgeon   Descemet’s membrane –   Jean Descemet   (1732– 1810), French physician  Space of Disse – Disse – Joseph  Joseph Disse (1852–1912), Disse  (1852–1912), German histologist  Dorello’s canal – canal – Primo Dorello (1872–1963), Italian Anatomist.  Pouch of Douglas – Douglas  –  James Douglas (1675–1742), Douglas  (1675–1742), Scottish anatomist   Dua’s layer –   Harminder Dua (1967 Dua  (1967 – ) BritishIndian ophthalmologist

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 Von Ebner’s glands –   Victor von Ebner   (1842– 1925), German histologist histologist

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Edinger–Westphall nucle Edinger–Westpha nucleus us –   Ludwig Ludwig Eding Edinger er (1855–1918 (1855–1918), ), German German neuroana neuroanatomi tomist, st, and  and   Karl Friedrichh Otto Wes Friedric Westphal tphal   (1833–1890) (1833–1890),, German German neurologist

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  Eustachian tube –   Bartolomeo Eustachi   (1500 / 1514 / 1520–1574), Italian anatomist F

 Fallopian tube –  Gabriele Falloppio (1523–1562), Falloppio  (1523–1562), Italian anatomist

 Gallaudet’s fascia – fascia – Bryan Baron Gallaudet (1853– 1942), American anatomist Gartner’sduc Gartner’s ductt – Herm Hermann ann Tre Tresch schow ow Gartn Gartner er(1785– (1785– 1827), Danish surgeon-anatomist surgeon-anatomist   Gerdy’s Gerdy’s Fibe Fibers rs –   Pierre Pierre Nic Nicolas olas Ger Gerdy dy   (1797– 1856), French physician   Gerota Capsule –   Dumitru Gerota (1867–1939), Gerota  (1867–1939), Romanian urology surgeon-anatomist   Giacomini vein –   Carlo Giacomini   (1840-1898) Italian anatomist  Glisson’s capsule – capsule  – Francis  Francis Glisson (1599?–1677), Glisson (1599?–1677), English anatomist  Golgi apparatus and apparatus and Golgi  Golgi receptor – receptor – Camillo  Camillo Golgi (1843–1926), Italian pathologist pathologist  Graafian follicle – follicle  – Regnier  Regnier de Graaf (1641–1673), Graaf  (1641–1673), Dutch anatomist Gräfenberg spot   (G-sp Gräfenberg (G-spot) ot) –   Ernst Gräf Gräfenb enberg erg (1881–1957), German-American German-American gynecologist gynecologist  Great vein of Galen and Galen  and the other veins other  veins of Galen – Galen  – Galen (129 Galen  (129 AD – 200 / 216 AD), an ancient Greek physician

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 Hartmann’spouc  Hartmann’s pouchh – Henri Henri Huber Hubertt Vadim Vadim Hartm Hartmann ann  Hasner’s Fold – Fold – Joseph  Joseph Hasner (1819–1892), Hasner (1819–1892), Austrian ophthalmologist   Haversian canal –   Clopton Havers  (1657–1702), English physician  Spiral valves of Heister –  Lorenz Heister (1683– Heister  (1683– 1758), German surgeon-anatomist surgeon-anatomist  Loop of Henle – Henle – F.  F. G. J. Henle (1809–1885), Henle (1809–1885), German pathologist  Canals of Hering – Hering  – Karl  Karl Ewald Konstantin Hering (1834–1918), German physiologist   Hering’s nerve –   Heinrich Ewald Hering (1866– Hering  (1866– 1948), Austrian physician  Herring bodies – bodies  –  Percy Theodore Herring (1872– Herring  (1872– 1967), English physiologist   Heschl’s gyri –   Richard L. Heschl  (1824–1881), Austrian anatomist  Hesselbach’s triangle –   Franz Kaspar Hesselbach (1759–1816), German surgeon-anatomist surgeon-anatomist

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17.1. ALPHABET ALPHABETICA ICAL L LIST 

•

17.1.11 1.11 M Antrum of Hig Antrum Highmor hmoree – Nathanie Nathaniell Highmo Highmore re (1613– 17. 1685), English surgeon-anatomist  Macewen’s triangle – triangle – Sir William Sir William Macewen  Bundle of His –  Wilhelm His, Jr.   (1863–1934),  Foramen of Magendie – Magendie – François  François Magendie Swiss cardiologist •

•

•

•

•

•

•

 Houston’s muscle (Bulbocavernous muscle (Bulbocavernous Penile Fibers) – John Houston (1802–1845), Irish anatomist  Houston’s valves – valves – John Houston, Irish anatomist anatomist  Canal of Huguier – Huguier – Pierre  Pierre Charles Huguier (1804– Huguier (1804– 1878), French surgeon-gynecologist  Hurthle cell – cell  – Karl  Karl Hürthle (1860–1945), Hürthle  (1860–1945), German histologist

17.1 7.1.9 •

•

K

 Kerckring’s valv  Kerckring’s valves es –   Theodor Kerckring   (1638– 1693), Dutch anatomist  Kernohan notch – notch – James  James Watson Kernohan (1896– Kernohan (1896– 1981), Irish-American pathologist

•

•

•

•

•

 Meissner’s corpuscle and corpuscle and Meissner’s  Meissner’s plexus – plexus – Georg  Georg Meissner  Meyer’s loop

•

 Möll’s gland and gland and Space  Space of Möll – Möll – Jacob  Jacob A. Möll  Foramina of Monro – Monro – Alexander  Alexander Monro

•

 Pores of Kohn – Kohn – Hans Kohn

•

•

 Krause’s end-bulbs – end-bulbs – Wilhelm  Wilhelm Krause

•

 Kupffer cells – cells – Karl  Karl Wilhelm von Kupffer

 Langer’s lines – lines – Karl  Karl Langer

 Meibomian glands – glands – Heinrich  Heinrich Meibom

•

•

•

  Meckel’s Meckel’s cartilag cartilagee and   Meckel’s dive diverticul rticulum um – Johann Friedrich Meckel

 Merkel cell – cell  – Friedrich  Friedrich Sigmund Merkel

 Kiesselbach’s plexus – plexus  – Wilhelm  Wilhelm Kiesselbach

L

  Malpig Malpighian hian corpuscl corpusclee –   Marcello Marcello Malpi Malpighi ghi,, the the name given to both renal both renal corpuscle and corpuscle and splenic  splenic lymphoid nodules

•

•

17. 17.1.10 1.10

 McBurney’s point – point – Charles  Charles McBurney

•

  Glands Glands of Mont Montgom gomery ery –   William Fethe Fetherstone rstone Montgomery  Hydatids of Morgagni, Morgagni, and Lacunae and Lacunae of Morgag Morgagni ni –  – Giovanni Battista Morgagni

•

 Morison’s pouch – pouch – James  James Rutherford Morison

•

 Müllerian ducts – ducts – Johannes  Johannes Peter Müller

•

  Islets of Langerhans and Langerhans and  Langerhans cell –   Paul 17. 17.1.12 1.12 N Langerhans  Nissl bodies or bodies or granules and Nissl substance – Franz – Franz  Langhans giant cell – cell – Theodor  Theodor Langhans Nissl  Lauth’s canal – canal – Thomas  Thomas Lauth

•

 Leydig Cells – Cells  – Franz  Franz Leydig

•

•

•

•

•

Crypts Cryp ts of Li Lieb eber erkü kühn hn –   Johann Johann Nat Nathan hanae aell Lieberkühn

17. 17.1.13 1.13 •

O

Sphincter Sphinct er of Oddi – Oddi – Ruggero  Ruggero Oddi

Lissauer’s tract tract –  – Heinrich  Heinrich Lissauer 17. 17.1.14 1.14

P

•

 Lister’s tubercle

•

 Kiesselbach’s plexus

•

 Pacinian corpuscles – corpuscles – Filippo  Filippo Pacini

•

 Urethral glands of Littré – Littré – Alexis  Alexis Littré

•

 Paneth cells – cells – Joseph  Joseph Paneth

•

 Lockwood’s ligament – ligament – Charles  Charles Barrett Lockwood

•

 Papez circuit – circuit – James  James Papez

•

 Angle of Louis – Louis – Antoine  Antoine Louis

•

 Peyer’s patches – patches – Johann  Johann Conrad Peyer

•

 Lovibond’s angle

•

 Poupart’s ligament – ligament – François  François Poupart

•

 Lund’s node

•

 Prussak’s space – space – Alexander  Alexander Prussak

•

 Purkinje cells – cells – Jan  Jan E. Purkinje

•

 Pimenta’s Point

•

  Crypts of Luschka, Luschka,   Ducts of Luschka, Luschka,   Foramina of Luschka, Luschka, and   Luschka’s Luschka’s joints –  Hubert von Luschka

54

CHAPTER CHAPTER 17. LIST OF HUMAN HUMAN ANATOMI ANATOMICAL CAL PARTS PARTS NAMED NAMED AFTER PEOPLE 

17. 17.1.15 1.15

R

17. 17.1.18 1.18

V

•

 Island of Reil – Reil – Johann  Johann Christian Reil (1759-1813) Reil (1759-1813)

•

 Sinus of Valsalva – Valsalva – Antonio  Antonio Maria Valsalva

•

 Node of Ranvier – Ranvier – Louis-Antoine  Louis-Antoine Ranvier

•

 Ampulla of Vater – Vater – Abraham  Abraham Vater

•

 Rathke’s pouch – pouch – Martin  Martin Heinrich Rathke

•

 Limbus of Vieussens – Vieussens – Raymond  Raymond Vieussens

•

 Reichert cartilage – cartilage  – Karl  Karl Bogislaus Reichert

•

 Valve of Vieussens – Vieussens – Raymond  Raymond Vieussens

•

 Renshaw cells – cells – Birdsey  Birdsey Renshaw (1908–1948) Renshaw (1908–1948)

•

•

Space of Ret Space Retzius zius and Ve Veins ins of Ret Retzius zius–– And Anders ers Retzius •

•

•

 Riedel’s  Riede l’s lobe – Bernh Bernhard ard Mori Moritz tz Carl Lud Ludwig wig Rie Riedel del  Rokitansky–Aschoff sinuses –   Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky and Rokitansky  and Ludwig  Ludwig Aschoff

•

 Vieussens valve of the Coronary Sinus – Sinus  – Raymond  Raymond Vieussens   Virchow–Ro Virchow–Robin bin spaces –   Rudolf Rudolf Virc Vircho how w and Charles-Philippe Robin  Virchow’s node – node – Rudolf  Rudolf Virchow

  Rolandic fissure and   fissure of Rolando –  Luigi 17. 17.1.19 1.19 W Rolando   Waldeyer’s tonsillar ring – ring  – Heinrich  Heinrich Wilhelm Got Rotter’s lymph nodes – nodes – Josef  Josef Rotter tfried von Waldeyer-Hartz  Ruffini’s corpuscles – corpuscles – Angelo  Angelo Ruffini  Weibel–Palad  Weibe l–Paladee body body –  – Ewald  Ewald R. Weibel Weibel and  and George  George Emil Palade 17. 17.1.16 1.16 S Wencke Wen ckebach’s bach’s bundle – Karel Frederik FrederikWen Wencke ckebach bach  Duct of Santorini – Santorini – Giovanni  Giovanni Domenico Santorini  Wernicke’s area – area – Karl  Karl Wernicke  Canal of Schlemm – Schlemm – Friedrich  Friedrich Schlemm   Wharton’s Wharton’s duc ductt and   Wharton’s jell jellyy –   Thomas  Sertoli cell – cell – Enrico  Enrico Sertoli Wharton •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

 Sharpey’s fibres – fibres – William  William Sharpey

•

  Shrapnell’s membrane – membrane – Henry  Henry Jones J ones Shrapnell

•

 Skene’s gland – gland – Alexander  Alexander Skene

•

 Spigelian fascia – fascia – Adriaan  Adriaan van den Spiegel

•

 Duct of Wirsung – Wirsung – Johann  Johann Georg Wirsung

•

 Stensen’s duct – duct – Niels  Niels Stensen

•

 Wolffian duct – duct – Kaspar  Kaspar Friedrich Wolff

•

 Stilling’s canal

•

 Wormian bones – bones – Ole  Ole Worm

•

 Struthers’ ligament – ligament – Sir  Sir John Struthers

•

 Sylvian aqueduct – aqueduct – Franciscus  Franciscus Sylvius

•

•

  Fora Forame menn of Wi Wins nslo low w –   Jean-Jacques Jean-Jacques Bénigne Winslow

17. 17.1.20 1.20 •

17. 17.1.17 1.17

 Circle of Willis – Willis – Thomas  Thomas Willis

Z

 Zonule of Zinn – Zinn – Johann  Johann Gottf Gottfried ried Zinn

T

•

 Thebesian foramina – foramina – Adam  Adam Christian Thebesius

•

 Thebesian valve – valve  – Adam  Adam Christian Thebesius

•

 Thebesian vein – vein – Adam  Adam Christian Thebesius

•

17.2 17.2

See See also also

•

 List of eponymous diseases

 Thorel’s pathway – pathway – Carl Thorel (1859–1938)

•

 List of eponymous medical signs

•

 White lines of Toldt – Toldt  – Carl  Carl Toldt

•

 List of eponymous medical treatments

•

 Torcular herophili – herophili – Herophilus  Herophilus

•

 Lists of etymologies

•

 Traube’s space – space – Ludwig  Ludwig Traube

•

 Human anatomy

•

 Ligament of Treitz – Treitz  – Václav  Václav Treitz

•

 List of anatomical topics

17.3. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

17.3 17.3 •

Exte Extern rnal al link linkss

 Whonamedit, name origins in the medical field

55

Chapter 18

List of muscles of the human body This is a table of muscles of muscles of  of the human the human anatomy. anatomy.

Extrinsic muscle

There are approximately 642 skeletal 642  skeletal muscles within muscles  within the typical human, and almost every muscle constitutes one part of a pair pair of identical identical bilateral  bilateral muscles,  muscles, found on both sides, resulting in approximately 320 pairs of muscles, as presented presented in this article. Neverthele Nevertheless, ss, the exact exact number is difficult to define because different sources group muscles differently, e.g. regarding what is defined as different parts of a single muscle muscle or as several several muscles. Examples Examples range from 640 to 850.[1] The muscles of the human body can be categorized into a number of groups which include muscles relating to the head and neck, muscles muscles of the torso or trunk, muscles of the upper limbs, and muscles of the lower limbs. The action refers to the action of each muscle from the standard anatomical standard  anatomical position. position. In other other position positions, s, other actions may be performed. These muscles are described using anatomical using anatomical terminology.. ogy

Intrinsic

18.1.9

Soft palate

18.1.10   Pharynx 18.1.11   Larynx

18.2   Neck 18.2. 18.2.1 1

Cerv Ce rvic ical al

18.2.2   Suprahyoid 18.2.3   Infrahyoid/Strap

18.1 8.1

Head

18.2.4 18.2.4

18.1.1   Scalp / Eyelid Eyelid

Anterior

18.1.2

Lateral

Extraocular Extraoc ular muscles

18.1.3   Intraocular 18.1.4

Ear

18.1.5   Nose

Verteb ertebrat ratee

Posterior

|  obliquus capitis superior || superior  || lateral  lateral mass of atlas|| atlas || lateral half of the inferior the  inferior nuchal line || line || || suboccipital || suboccipital nerve || nerve || || |-valign="top” |- | inferior | inferior ||  || spinous process of the axis the axis ||  || lateral mass of atlas || atlas || || suboccipital || suboccipital nerve || nerve || || |}

18.1.6   Mouth 18.1.7   Mastication 18.1.8   Tongue

18.3   Torso

56

57

18.5. LOWE LOWER R LIMB  LIMB 

18.3.1   Back

18.5.1

18.3.2   Chest

18.5.2   Gluteal

18.3.3   Abdomen 18.3.4   Pelvis

Iliac region

18.5.3   Thigh anterior compartment

18.3.5   Perineum posterior compartment /  compartment / hamstring hamstring

18.4

Upper limbs

18.4.1

Vertebral column

18.4.2

Thoracic walls

medial compartment

18.5.4

Leg

anterior compartment

18.4.3   Shoulder posterior compartment

18.4.4

Arm Superficial

Anterior compartment Posterior Posteri or compartment

18.4.5   Forearm

Deep

Anterior compartment Superficial

lateral compartment

fibularis muscles: muscles: Deep

Posterior Posteri or compartment Superficial

Deep

18.5.5   Foot Dorsal Plantar

18.4.6   Hand

1st layer

Lateral volar 2nd layer

Thenar

Medial volar 3rd layer Intermediate

18.5 18.5

Lowe Lowerr lim limb 4th layer layer

58

18.6

CHAPTER CHAPTER 18. LIST OF MUSCLES MUSCLES OF THE HU HUMAN MAN BODY  BODY 

Innervati Innervation on overvi overview ew

Mind Map Showing Map Showing a summary of Lower Limb Muscle Limb Muscle innervation

18.7 18.7 •

See See also also

 Accessory muscle

18. 18.8

Notes tes

[1]   Enotes [2]   exrx.net [3] Essential Essential Clinic Clinical al Anatomy. Anatomy. K.L. Moore & A.M. Agur. Lippincott, 2 ed. 2002. Page 193 [4]   Gosling et al.  2008, p. 200

Mind Map showing Map showing a summary of Upper Limb Muscle Innervation

[5] Essential Essential Clinic Clinical al Anatomy. Anatomy. K.L. Moore & A.M. Agur. Lippincott, 2 ed. 2002. Page 217 [6]  Gosling 2008, p. 273

18.10. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

[7]  Gosling et al. 2008, p. 266 [8]   Medical Mnemonics  Mnemonics .com .com:  255

18.9 18.9 •

Ref Referen erence cess

http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/ http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/ MedEd/ GrossAnatomy/dissector/muscles/muscles.html

•

http://www.ptcentral.com/muscle http://www.pt central.com/muscles/ s/

•

http://www.rad.washington.edu/atlas http://www.rad.w ashington.edu/atlas2/ 2/

18.10 18.10 •

•

Exte Externa rnall link linkss

Tutorial & Quizzes on Skeletal Skeletal Muscular Anatomy Muscles of human human body also body also at

59

60

CHAPTER CHAPTER 18. LIST OF MUSCLES MUSCLES OF THE HU HUMAN MAN BODY  BODY 

18.11

Text Text and and image image sourc sources, es, contri contributo butors, rs, and license licensess

18.11. 18.11.1 1

Text ext

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%2 http://en.wikipedia.org/w iki/Human%20body?oldid=6355 0body?oldid=635569987 69987  Contributors:   Borisporosin, Darkwind, Julesd, Samw, Raven in Orbit, RodC, Ke4roh, Schutz, SchmuckyTheCat, Centrx, Peoplesyak, Jackol, John Abbe, OverlordQ, Kaldari, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Discospinster, Vsmith, HCA, Xezbeth, Bender235, Rubicon, Rubicon, Neko-chan, Neko-chan, Pablo X, Fallingwithstyle, Fallingwithstyle, Arcadian, Arcadian, Giraffedata, Giraffedata, Pacula, MPerel, Alansohn, Eric Kvaalen, Mysdaao, Velella, RJFJR, SteinbDJ, Stemonitis, Henrik, TigerShark, MONGO, Tslocum, Mendaliv, Phillipedison1891, Ketiltrout, Sjö, Jake Wartenberg, Gurch, Kolbasz, Peter1219, King of Hearts, Chobot, Fwed66, Brandmeister (old), RussBot, Devahn58, ONEder Boy, Peter Delmonte, Delmonte, Carl Daniels, Daniels, Moe Epsilon, RL0919, Nick C, Semperf, Daqron, Zzuuzz, Jacklee, Modify, Reader781, Jaranda, Mejor Los Indios, DVD R W, Snalwibma, SmackBot, Sticky Parkin, 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•

  Human body  Source: 

•

  Anatomical Anatomical terminology terminology   Source: 

•

  Human skeleton  Source: 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Anatomical%20terminolog %20terminology?oldid=633481 y?oldid=633481064 064   Contributors:    BullRangifer, Rangifer, CFCF, Mikael Häggström, AnomieBOT, Animalparty, Animalparty, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, DPL bot, Khazar2, Aftabbanoori, Aftabbanoori, LT910001, Forcefully, Monkbot, Lephalala and Anonymous: 8

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%2 http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Human%20skeleton?oldid=6355 0skeleton?oldid=635561625 61625  Contributors:  Alex.tan, Enchanter, Karen Johnson, Graft, Heron, Someone else, Patrick, Ixfd64, Sannse, Nightbringer, Arpingstone, Gjbloom, Ihcoyc, Theresa knott, Darkwind, Julesd, Tristanb, Raven in Orbit, Ec5618, Dragons flight, SEWilco, Traroth, Fvw, Renato Caniatti, Raul654, Robbot, Pingveno, Academic Challenger, Reytan, Cyrius, Cutler, Giftlite, Smjg, Pmaguire, Nunh-huh, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, Fastfission, Zigger, Xerxes314, SoCal, Everyking, Yekrats, Erich gasboy, gasboy, Alexf, Antandrus, OverlordQ, MisfitToys, MisfitToys, Jossi, Kesac, DragonflySixtysev DragonflySixtyseven, en, Karl-Henner, DomCleal, Joyous!, Trevor MacInnis, Eisnel, Bornintheguz, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Farmbrough, Number 0, Corvun, Calair, RoyBoy, Causa sui, Bobo192, Arcadian, Jag123, Nsaa, Jjron, Alansohn, Arthena, Rd232, Keenan Pepper, BodyTag, Snowolf, Velella, Ronark, Fourthords, Bsadowski1, Cphi, George Hernandez, Woohookitty, Kurzon, WadeSimMiser, The Wordsmith, Chochopk, Kelisi, LadyofHats, Cyberman, Mandarax, Voxhumana, Rjwilmsi, Aximilli, HandyAndy, Nneonneo, Crazynas, TBHecht, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, RobertG, RexNL, Benanhalt, Ahunt, VolatileChemical, Elfguy, The Rambling Man, Borgx, Jimp, Spaully, Witan, Chris Capoccia, Crism, Iamdalto, Eleassar, Wimt, Shanel, NawlinWiki, NawlinWiki, Slodave, Slodave, PhilipO, Raven4x4x, Raven4x4x, Samir, Mieciu K, Kkmurray, Nick123, Wknight94, Epiq, Lyhana8, Closedmouth, Adilch, Urocyon, Urocyon, Bob Hu, Allens, Junglecat, Junglecat, Crystallina, Crystallina, True Pagan Warrior, Warrior, SmackBot, Unschool, KHenriksson, Person man345, Slashme, KnowledgeOfSelf, KnowledgeOfSelf, Mdd4696, Edgar181, HalfShadow, HalfShadow, Yamaguchi, Yamaguchi, Gilliam, Skizzik, Bluebot, Persian Poet Gal, RayAYang, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Snowmanradio, Pmkazouris, TheKMan, Addshore, Decltype, SnappingTurtle, MiniGeek, DMacks, LeoNomis, Kukini, NikoSilver, NikoSilver, Kuru, John, Dilip gerba, Shlomke, Goodnightmush, Goodnightmush, Majorclanger, Majorclanger, Ckatz, Shoraru, Slakr, Booksworm, Kizzatp, Novangelis, Fredwerner, Kvng, Xionbox, Sifaka, Pandacantante, DouglasCalvert, HisSpaceResearch, UncleDouggie, DavidOa DavidOaks, ks, Blehfu Blehfu,, Courcel Courcelles, les, Tawk Tawkerbo erbot2, t2, Jaeger5 Jaeger5432, 432, Lolabear Lolabear101 101,, KnightLag KnightLago, o, THF, NickW55 NickW557, 7, .mdk., .mdk., AnthonyBradbur AnthonyBradbury, y, Samuell, Samuell, Fair Deal, Drybittermelon, Drybittermelon, Anthonyhcole, Anthonyhcole, DangApricot, DangApricot, Kazubon, Shirulashem, Dougweller, Christian75, DumbBOT, JodyB, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, Dimensio, Yzmo, Marek69, John254, NorwegianBlue, Doyley, Xycl0ne, Mentifisto, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Ope-

18.11. TEXT TEXT AND IMAGE IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIB CONTRIBUTORS, UTORS, AND LICENSES 

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lio, QuiteUnusual, Dr. Blofeld, Gdo01, Figma, Joehall45, MikeLynch, Res2216firestar, JAnDbot, MER-C, Hut 8.5, PhilKnight, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AtticusX, Firebladed, WeatherExperiment, Avicennasis, Bubba hotep, Catgut, DerHexer, Patstuart, Hdt83, MartinBot, Grandia01, Church of emacs, Red Sunset, Anaxial, Mschel, Kostisl, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, LedgendGamer, 3dscience, Lt7662, Tgeairn, Tgeairn, Slugger, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nev1, CFCF, Trusilver, Rgoodermote, Stew1223, Barts1a, Alcashion, Mikael Häggström, Coin945, NewEnglandYankee, Urzadek, Heero Kirashami, KylieTastic, Cometstyles, STBotD, Daredeval756, Uhai, APoincot, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., Vanished user 39948282, 39948282, Dzenanz, Ja 62, Vinsfan368, Vinsfan368, Rebondir, Black Kite, Meiskam, Meiskam, 28bytes, VolkovBot, VolkovBot, CWii, ABF, Thisisborin9, Trilinguist, Trilinguist, Jeff G., Scipex, Ryan032, Ryan032, Thabit.pulak, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Philaweb, Technopat, Ann Stouter, Qxz, Bigrogerhy Bigrogerhyde, de, Clarince63, Seraphim, DennyColt, Corvus cornix, Jackfork, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, LeaveSleaves, Raymondwinn, Raymondwinn, BotKung, The unknownEX, unknownEX, Dirkbb, Dirkbb, Meters, Synthebot, Monty845, Pastel kitten, Doc James, Nagy, Noisyschmidty, Noisyschmidty, IndulgentReader, IndulgentReader, D. 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What a country, Capricorn42, Capricorn42, Renaissancee, Tyrol5, Abce2, АлександрВв, Auxiliary Watchlist, Brandon5485, RibotBOT, Mathonius, Doppo145, Natural Cut, A.amitkumar, A.amitkumar, Dougofborg, Dougofborg, Griffinofwales, Griffinofwales, Rooji11, George2001hi, FrescoBot, Tangent747, Tangent747, Amilnerwhite, Recognizance, HJ Mitchell, Mitchell, PantherFudge, PantherFudge, HamburgerRa HamburgerRadio, dio, Citation bot 1, Amplitude101, Amplitude101, Tocant, AstaBOTh15, Pinethicket, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, MJ94, A8UDI, Jschnur, MastiBot, Brocam11, Brocam11, Jujutacul Jujutacular, ar, Reconsider Reconsider the static, FoxBot, Nomicks4899, Nomicks4899, Fama Clamosa, Vrenator, Vrenator, Lkjh0987, SeoMac, Diannaa, Rzuwig, Suffusion of Yellow, Tbhotch, Lord of the Pit, Keegscee, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Bpavlakis, TjBot, Bento00, DexDor, 123Mike456Win 123Mike456Winston789, ston789, Hajatvrc, Hajatvrc, DASHBot, EmausBot, GeneralCheese, GeneralCheese, Immunize, Gfoley4, Heracles31, Ryan5091, RA0808, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, K6ka, IntensifyIt, Capybara123, ZéroBot, Josve05a, Bollyjeff, Lateg, ElationAviation, Cobaltcigs, Fuc dis sht, Ocaasi, Rcsprinter123, Rcsprinter123, Lothar Klaic, Brandmeister, Brandmeister, NYMets2000, NYMets2000, Xephis11, Xephis11, Donner60, , Kochankalappu, Lizaweb, DASHBotAV, 28bot, Monkeysbum, Petrb, Gwen-chan, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Mattsnow81, Snotbot, Reedman72, Cntras, Jameslovely, Asukite, Ilurvhistury, Widr, WikiPuppies, Vibhijain, Diyar se, Helpful Pixie Bot, Theill6, Iste Praetor, Calabe1992, Martinkqwerty, Irtotalythecooliesdudealive, Cpillay2, Kinaro, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, Wiki13, Xxstertoka99, Kackiearribas, Lilyonthesand, Dipankan001, Palirohan, Tiffanybn, Snow Blizzard, NotWith, Ms Mystical, Davidude666, Glacialfox, Minsbot, Klilidiplomus, Shaun, Agent 78787, Biosthmors, Biosthmors, Riley Huntley, HueSatLum, Hghyux, W.D., Mrt3366, ChrisGualtieri, Ngoquangduong, Ngoquangduong, TrollingtoiletTrollingtoiletpaper, EuroCarGT, Fartach123, Ekren, MadGuy7023, JYBot, Dexbot, Janga Tsunami 5598, Gdsafasgfdsg, Safihospfhsp, Jkfashlfhaskulf, GREATBURRITO, RichardYule, Lugia2453, JakobSteenberg, Bem Estrella, Epicgenius, JPaestpreornJeolhlna, Melonkelon, Everymorning, Wikiuser Wikiuser13, 13, Cleliaalbano,LT9100 Cleliaalbano,LT910001, 01, Ginsulo Ginsuloft, ft, Victaco Victaco,, Lizi Lizia7, a7, MSRoodv MSRoodvoets, oets, Simplysa Simplysavvy, vvy, A.leathe A.leatherd, rd, DualViss DualVission ion,, Chaudhry Chaudhrya00, a00, Dan12456, Dan12456, Mclovin39, Mclovin39, Csutric, Ryan115, Ryan115, Sipslice11, Sipslice11, Monkbot, The serene republic, Constance.martinelli, Constance.martinelli, NickTheRed37 and Anonymous: 1097   Table of muscles of the human body/End  Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table%20 /wiki/Table%20of%20muscles% of%20muscles%20of%20the%2 20of%20the%20human% 0human% 20body/End?oldid=617718223 Contributors:  Arcadian, Arcadian, RHaworth, RHaworth, Bgwhite, Malcolma, Malcolma, Timotheus Canens, Skittleys, CFCF, Prhartcom, Temporaluser, Wilhelmina Will, Eeekster, Drpickem and GoingBatty   Table Table of muscl muscles es of the human human body: body: Head Head   Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/w http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_muscles_ iki/List_of_muscles_of_the_human_ of_the_human_body?oldid= body?oldid=  Contributors:  635579305  AxelBoldt, Topbanana, Discospinster, Neko-chan, Arcadian, Anthony Appleyard, Cburnett, Rjwilmsi, Slodave, ENeville, Grafen, ONEder Boy, SmackBot, AaronM, Mangoe, Gilliam, J. Spencer, Frap, MegA, Khazar, Rizome, Twas Now, AndrewHowse, Skittleys, Clovis Sangrail, Xantharius, CharlesHoffman, Spencer, JAnDbot, PhilKnight, Plamoa, Magioladitis, VoABot II, EagleFan, Scottalter, Schmloof, R'n'B, Nono64, Adavidb, Mikael Häggström, Belovedfreak, Prhartcom, Zumlin, Juliancolton, Funandtrvl, 28bytes, 28bytes, KC KC Panchal, Panchal, Madhero88, Temporal Temporaluser, user, Doc James, Dan Polansky, Polansky, SieBot, WereSpie WereSpielChequers, lChequers, This, that that and the other, Radon210, Faradayplank, Manway, Drgarden, ClueBot, Gmreed2, Snigbrook, Niceguyedc, Excirial, Walking Softly, S19991002, Joecalladine, Daughter of Mímir, Addbot, DOI bot, Warpath, Diptanshu.D, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Jason Recliner, Esq., A Stop at Willoughby, Willoughby, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Materialscientist, Jmarchn, Xqbot, 78.26, SD5, FrescoBot, Pinethicket, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Rushbu Rushbugled13, gled13, Fumitol, Drdad, Reach Reach Out to the Truth, KinkyLipids, KinkyLipids, John of Reading, Soundedit38, Soundedit38, Racerx11, Racerx11, RA0808, Hazard-SJ, Hrvoje1234, Hrvoje1234, Rollgood, Tolly4bolly, Tolly4bolly, Bill william compton, ClueBot NG, Wimpus, Widr, Theopolisme, Theopolisme, Craterib, B2322858, B2322858, Stephenwan Stephenwanjau, jau, Mark Arsten, Bonechamber, NotWith, EricEnfermero, EricEnfermero, Ducknish, Hilmorel, JakobSteenberg JakobSteenberg,, Sriharsh1234, Sriharsh1234, I am One of Many, Mutley1989, Daregym, LT910001, Akelly10, Addie.trif, BRUZZO and Anonymous: 175   Table Table of muscl muscles es of the human human body: body: Neck Neck   Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/w http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_muscles_ iki/List_of_muscles_of_the_human_ of_the_human_body?oldid= body?oldid= 635579305  Contributors:   AxelBoldt, Topbanana, Discospinster, Neko-chan, Arcadian, Anthony Appleyard, Cburnett, Rjwilmsi, Slodave, ENeville, Grafen, ONEder Boy, SmackBot, AaronM, Mangoe, Gilliam, J. Spencer, Frap, MegA, Khazar, Rizome, Twas Now, AndrewHowse, Skittleys, Clovis Sangrail, Xantharius, CharlesHoffman, Spencer, JAnDbot, PhilKnight, Plamoa, Magioladitis, VoABot II, EagleFan, Scottalter, Schmloof, R'n'B, Nono64, Adavidb, Mikael Häggström, Belovedfreak, Prhartcom, Zumlin, Juliancolton, Funandtrvl, 28bytes, 28bytes, KC KC Panchal, Panchal, Madhero88, Temporal Temporaluser, user, Doc James, Dan Polansky, Polansky, SieBot, WereSpie WereSpielChequers, lChequers, This, that that and the other, Radon210, Faradayplank, Manway, Drgarden, ClueBot, Gmreed2, Snigbrook, Niceguyedc, Excirial, Walking Softly, S19991002, Joecalladine, Daughter of Mímir, Addbot, DOI bot, Warpath, Diptanshu.D, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Jason Recliner, Esq., A Stop at Willoughby, Willoughby, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Materialscientist, Jmarchn, Xqbot, 78.26, SD5, FrescoBot, Pinethicket, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Rushbu Rushbugled13, gled13, Fumitol, Drdad, Reach Reach Out to the Truth, KinkyLipids, KinkyLipids, John of Reading, Soundedit38, Soundedit38, Racerx11, Racerx11, RA0808, Hazard-SJ, Hrvoje1234, Hrvoje1234, Rollgood, Tolly4bolly, Tolly4bolly, Bill william compton, ClueBot NG, Wimpus, Widr, Theopolisme, Theopolisme, Craterib, B2322858, B2322858, Stephenwan Stephenwanjau, jau, Mark Arsten, Bonechamber, NotWith, EricEnfermero, EricEnfermero, Ducknish, Hilmorel, JakobSteenberg JakobSteenberg,, Sriharsh1234, Sriharsh1234, I am One of Many, Mutley1989, Daregym, LT910001, Akelly10, Addie.trif, BRUZZO and Anonymous: 175   Axial skeleton  Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial%20skel /wiki/Axial%20skeleton?oldid=63292 eton?oldid=632921680 1680  Contributors:  Fuelbottle, Everyking, Brockert, Grunt, Markalex, Discospinster, Susvolans, Arcadian, Alansohn, Pinar, Supine, Cburnett, George Hernandez, LadyofHats, Chobot, Drumex, BigCow, Syrthiss, Samir, Open2universe, Open2universe, CIreland, JDCMAN, SchfiftyThree, DO11.10, Kvng, Dj empirical, empirical, Nilfanion, Antho-

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CHAPTER CHAPTER 18. LIST OF MUSCLES MUSCLES OF THE HU HUMAN MAN BODY  BODY 

nyhcole, Dark Samus, Aldis90, Epbr123, John254, VoABot II, MartinBot, Nono64, CFCF, Complete fanatic, Uncle Dick, Bailo26, Gregfitzy, KylieTastic, Funandtrvl, Cireshoe, Jeff G., WOSlinker, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Lxs602, Jackfork, MrChupon, SieBot, Augustus Rookwood, AS, BabyJonas, Aillema, Flyer22, Harry, Rhcastilhos, Cyfal, Pinkadelica, Drgarden, ClueBot, Bowden1029, Wikitumnus, La Pianista, Kikos, Alchemist Jack, Nutsybunny, Addbot, Fieldday-sunday, Lindert, Tide rolls, Teles, 2D, Materialscientist, Yupimanoob, OllieFury, Roux-HG, ArthurBot, Scottybunts, Auxiliary Watchlist, Watchlist, FrescoBot, Locomocn, HRoestBot, Hoo man, Doitenberg, Doitenberg, Dusty777, AlFReD-NSH, Akerans, Wayne Slam, DASHBotAV, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, Frietjes, Chickenfa Chickenface99, ce99, Titodutta, Frze, Tutelary, JakobSteenberg, JakobSteenberg, JamesMoose, Tentinator, Glaisher, LT910001, BruceBlaus, Joelickscake, Rightingwords, Anon685, Kingsta3939, C759 and Anonymous: 149 •

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior%20thor http://en.wikipedia.org/w iki/Superior%20thoracic%20apertur acic%20aperture?oldid=634717 e?oldid=634717217 217   Contributors:  Taoster, Arcadian, Wouterstomp, Gurch, RussBot, Trovatore, SmackBot, Jfurr1981, Bluebot, Mattopaedia, CmdrObot, Barticus88, CFCF, Prhartcom, DRAJ 25, TXiKiBoT, Addbot, Skyerise, Victor.khoo76, Victor.khoo76, Inferior Olive, Twinglemimi, WikitanvirBot, WikitanvirBot, ClueBot NG, Friet F rietjes, jes, Iztwoz, LT910001 and Anonymous: 11

  Superior thoracic aperture   Source: 

  Table Table of muscles muscles of the human human body: Torso Torso   Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/w http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_muscles_ iki/List_of_muscles_of_the_human_ of_the_human_body?oldid= body?oldid= 635579305  Contributors:   AxelBoldt, Topbanana, Discospinster, Neko-chan, Arcadian, Anthony Appleyard, Cburnett, Rjwilmsi, Slo-

dave, ENeville, Grafen, ONEder Boy, SmackBot, AaronM, Mangoe, Gilliam, J. Spencer, Frap, MegA, Khazar, Rizome, Twas Now, AndrewHowse, Skittleys, Clovis Sangrail, Xantharius, CharlesHoffman, Spencer, JAnDbot, PhilKnight, Plamoa, Magioladitis, VoABot II, EagleFan, Scottalter, Schmloof, R'n'B, Nono64, Adavidb, Mikael Häggström, Belovedfreak, Prhartcom, Zumlin, Juliancolton, Funandtrvl, 28bytes, 28bytes, KC KC Panchal, Panchal, Madhero88, Temporal Temporaluser, user, Doc James, Dan Polansky, Polansky, SieBot, WereSpie WereSpielChequers, lChequers, This, that that and the other, Radon210, Faradayplank, Manway, Drgarden, ClueBot, Gmreed2, Snigbrook, Niceguyedc, Excirial, Walking Softly, S19991002, Joecalladine, Daughter of Mímir, Addbot, DOI bot, Warpath, Diptanshu.D, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Jason Recliner, Esq., A Stop at Willoughby, Willoughby, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Materialscientist, Jmarchn, Xqbot, 78.26, SD5, FrescoBot, Pinethicket, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Rushbu Rushbugled13, gled13, Fumitol, Drdad, Reach Reach Out to the Truth, KinkyLipids, KinkyLipids, John of Reading, Soundedit38, Soundedit38, Racerx11, Racerx11, RA0808, Hazard-SJ, Hrvoje1234, Hrvoje1234, Rollgood, Tolly4bolly, Tolly4bolly, Bill william compton, ClueBot NG, Wimpus, Widr, Theopolisme, Theopolisme, Craterib, B2322858, B2322858, Stephenwan Stephenwanjau, jau, Mark Arsten, Bonechamber, NotWith, EricEnfermero, EricEnfermero, Ducknish, Hilmorel, JakobSteenberg JakobSteenberg,, Sriharsh1234, Sriharsh1234, I am One of Many, Mutley1989, Daregym, LT910001, Akelly10, Addie.trif, BRUZZO and Anonymous: 175 •

  Scalene muscles  Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalene%20 /wiki/Scalene%20muscles?oldid=6349 muscles?oldid=634973630 73630 Contributors:  Ronz, CanisRufus, CanisRufus, Brim, Ar-

cadian, Woohookitty, Woohookitty, MONGO, Rjwilmsi, Rjwilmsi, Uwe Gille, Rmky87, Mike Serfas, SmackBot, Reedy, EncycloPete EncycloPetey, y, RDBrown, RDBrown, SnowmanraSnowmanradio, Horiavulpe, Flummoxer, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Fayenatic london, SadanYagci, SadanYagci, Oliver Oliver Münz, Vanish2, Vanish2, Olavrg, David Eppstein, Mikael Häggström, Nitroshockwave, McM.bot, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Raj2022, PipepBot, Atamnabooj, DumZiBoT, Addbot, MartinezMD, Luckas-bot, Vedran12, Yobot, Citation bot, Xqbot, Skydiver123, Юрий Педаченко, Corinne68, MMS2013, Slammingr, Lucien504, Thecheesykid, Frietjes, Anatomist90, Rytyho usa, JakobSteenberg, RileyBot, Monkbot and Anonymous: 27 •

Table of muscles muscles of the human body: Lower limb  Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/w http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_muscles_ iki/List_of_muscles_of_the_human_ of_the_human_body?oldid= body?oldid= 635579305  Contributors:   AxelBoldt, Topbanana, Discospinster, Neko-chan, Arcadian, Anthony Appleyard, Cburnett, Rjwilmsi, Slo-

dave, ENeville, Grafen, ONEder Boy, SmackBot, AaronM, Mangoe, Gilliam, J. Spencer, Frap, MegA, Khazar, Rizome, Twas Now, AndrewHowse, Skittleys, Clovis Sangrail, Xantharius, CharlesHoffman, Spencer, JAnDbot, PhilKnight, Plamoa, Magioladitis, VoABot II, EagleFan, Scottalter, Schmloof, R'n'B, Nono64, Adavidb, Mikael Häggström, Belovedfreak, Prhartcom, Zumlin, Juliancolton, Funandtrvl, 28bytes, 28bytes, KC KC Panchal, Panchal, Madhero88, Temporal Temporaluser, user, Doc James, Dan Polansky, Polansky, SieBot, WereSpie WereSpielChequers, lChequers, This, that that and the other, Radon210, Faradayplank, Manway, Drgarden, ClueBot, Gmreed2, Snigbrook, Niceguyedc, Excirial, Walking Softly, S19991002, Joecalladine, Daughter of Mímir, Addbot, DOI bot, Warpath, Diptanshu.D, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Jason Recliner, Esq., A Stop at Willoughby, Willoughby, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Materialscientist, Jmarchn, Xqbot, 78.26, SD5, FrescoBot, Pinethicket, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Rushbu Rushbugled13, gled13, Fumitol, Drdad, Reach Reach Out to the Truth, KinkyLipids, KinkyLipids, John of Reading, Soundedit38, Soundedit38, Racerx11, Racerx11, RA0808, Hazard-SJ, Hrvoje1234, Hrvoje1234, Rollgood, Tolly4bolly, Tolly4bolly, Bill william compton, ClueBot NG, Wimpus, Widr, Theopolisme, Theopolisme, Craterib, B2322858, B2322858, Stephenwan Stephenwanjau, jau, Mark Arsten, Bonechamber, NotWith, EricEnfermero, EricEnfermero, Ducknish, Hilmorel, JakobSteenberg JakobSteenberg,, Sriharsh1234, Sriharsh1234, I am One of Many, Mutley1989, Daregym, LT910001, Akelly10, Addie.trif, BRUZZO and Anonymous: 175 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flexors_o http://en.wikipedia.org/w iki/List_of_flexors_of_the_human_b f_the_human_body?oldid=63552 ody?oldid=635529814 9814 Contributors:  Kwekubo,  Kwekubo, Selket, Timc, Bloodshedder, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, Foobar, Imroy, Dcfleck, Discospinster, D-Notice, CanisRufus, Shenme, Arcadian, Ringbang, DESiegel, Sjakkalle, PhatRita, FlaBot, GreyWyvern, Phantomsteve, Dosey, Caerwine, Cadillac, KnightRider, SmackBot, EncycloPetey, cloPetey, Gjs238, Eug, Rrburke, Rrburke, Shoeofdeath, Shoeofdeath, Alaibot, Natalie Erin, Escarbot, Figma, Joehall45, Strafpeloton2, Strafpeloton2, VoABot II, Edward321, Edward321, WLU, CFCF, M-le-mot-dit, Idioma-bot, Oh Snap, Temporaluser, Temporaluser, SieBot, Winchelsea, Flyer22 Flyer22,, Oxymoron83, Oxymoron83, Mygerardromance, Mygerardromance, ClueBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Neverquick, DumZiBoT, Addbot, MrOllie, Luckas-bot, Materialscientist, Capricorn42, TechBot, BenzolBot, Javert, Corinne68, Fama Clamosa, Jeffrd10, Thecheesykid, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, LT910001, Jianhui67, Zmellman and Anonymous: 71

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 Vesico-uterine pouch  Source: 

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesico-uterine%20pouch?oldid=6 http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Vesico-uterine%20pouch?oldid=634728394 34728394 Contributors:  Arcadian, Vary, Xabian40409, PaddyM, Prhartcom, Denisarona, Loren.wilton, Darktide, Eekerz, Frietjes, Crisp2006 and Anonymous: 14

List of bones of the human skeleton skeleton Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/w http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20 iki/List%20of%20bones%20of% bones%20of%20the%20huma 20the%20human%20skeleton? n%20skeleton? oldid=635561542 Contributors:  Kpjas,   Kpjas, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Danny, Heron, Someone else, Ubiquity, Ixfd64, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp,

Slovakia, Joseaperez, Raul654, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, Sushi, Elf, Nunh-huh, Lupin, Zigger, Xerxes314, SoCal, Utcursch, Antandrus, Dcfleck, Mattman723, Mattman723, Bornintheguz, Bornintheguz, Moverton, Moverton, Discospinster, Discospinster, Dbachmann, Dbachmann, Kbh3rd, Kwamikaga Kwamikagami, mi, Acoster, Bobo192, Sortior, Reinyday, Reinyday, Maurreen, Maurreen, Giraffedata, Giraffedata, Mareino, Gary, Wouterstomp, Wouterstomp, Evil Monkey, Monkey, Dzhim, Stemonitis, George Hernandez, Chochopk, Chochopk, Isnow, Kralizec!, Tslocum, Matt Deres, Titoxd, Gurch, YurikBot, Borgx, Spaully, CambridgeBayWeather, NawlinWiki, Keithonearth, Samir, Pash, Leptictidium, Mike Dillon, Dspradau, Dspradau, Mikepascoe, Mikepascoe, Luk, SmackBot, Daftmunkie, Daftmunkie, Mdd4696, Gilliam, Skizzik, Miquonranger03, Miquonranger03, SchfiftyThree, Gracenotes, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chlewbot, Nixeagle, Snowmanradio, SundarBot, Smooth O, Ultraexactzz, Wilt, Žiga, RandomCritic, Ryulong, Bryantjs6, Fvasconcellos, Roshan baladhanvi, Blacknightshade, Karenjc, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Mikey h, Alphius, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, JAnDbot, PhilKnight, Acroterion, BigAl LBL, Freedomlinux, Wikidudeman, Careless hx, Mkaksone, Mkaksone, MartinBot, CommonsDelinker, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, Uncle Dick, Collegebookworm, Collegebookworm, 83d40m, Prhartcom, Uhai, Idioma-bot, Alexandria, Jackfork, Jackfork, VampBites, The Rock And Roll Pirate, SieBot, Cooladoola, Flyer22 Flyer22,, Wilson44691, Denisarona, Drgarden, ClueBot, Sanjeev.singh3, CounterVandalismBot, Xenon54, Excirial, Jusdafax, Mumia-w-18, Cenarium, Thehelpfulone, Tupac305, Tupac305, Aj00200, Jovianeye, Jovianeye, Jojhutton, Fyrael, Haruth, Feťour, Feťour, LaaknorBot, Grubel, Isavevski, Isavevski, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Megaman en m, Ptbotgourou, Paulthomas2, Jim1138, Pyrrhus16, Piano non troppo, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Doctor.may, Xqbot, NFD9001, Movingmazes, Shadowjams, Shadowjams, Who then was a gentleman?, gentleman?, Gouerouz, Cannolis, Pinethicket, Pinethicket, Mewto55555, Mewto55555, BigDwiki, RedBot, Pianoplonkers, Pianoplonkers, Fox Wilson, Dinamik-bot, Dinamik-bot, Seahorseruler, Seahorseruler, Diannaa, Bj norge, Pjskinsc, Pjskinsc, EmausBot, GeneralCheese, GeneralCheese, Gfoley4, Gfoley4, Ibbn, Maashatra11, Solarra,

18.11. TEXT TEXT AND IMAGE IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIB CONTRIBUTORS, UTORS, AND LICENSES 

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Tommy2010, Wikipelli, TheDramaQueen, Analkumar2, Donner60, DameonRogers, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Widr, Strike Eagle, Maylisachic42, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Bmusician, MusikAnimal, Altaïr, Snow Blizzard, NotWith, Zujua, Spectroscopedian, Zfreeland, Zfreeland, LizP276, Anbu121, Anbu121, Prakhar.basant, Prakhar.basant, Akshay jain786, Ivomagum2012, Ivomagum2012, RichardYule, Joshtaco, Frosty, Kevinhaaland123, Kevinhaaland123, I am One of Many, Howicus, Howicus, Melonkelon, Melonkelon, Eyesnore, LT910001, Quenhitran, Harrymuir, Harrymuir, Tc34374, SantiLak, Leon.di553, Niroboo, Nivetha006 Nivetha006 and Anonymous: Anonymous: 346 List of homolo homologues gues of the human human reproduc reproductiv tivee system system   Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%2 /wiki/List%20of%20homologues%2 0homologues%20of% 0of% 20the%20human%20reproductiv 20the%20huma n%20reproductive%20system?oldid=62 e%20system?oldid=628977814 8977814 Contributors:  Dominus,   Dominus, Cyde, Diberri, Jfdwolff, Soren.harward, Beland, Maurreen, Maurreen, Arcadian, Arcadian, Dennis Valeev, Valeev, Pearle, Ekem, BD2412, Monk, Fieari, AJR, TeaDrinker, TeaDrinker, EB0und, Michael Slone, DeadEyeArrow, DeadEyeArrow, Brinerustle, Brinerustle, Caue.cm.rego, Caue.cm.rego, Nehrams2020, Nehrams2020, Courcelles, Courcelles, AndyVolykho AndyVolykhov, v, Chasingsol, Chasingsol, AntiVandalBot, AntiVandalBot, TheBluePhoenix, TheBluePhoenix, VoABot VoABot II, CFCF, Mikael Häggström, 97198, Flyer22, Addbot, Jarble, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Nasnema, Corkeee1985, Slightsmile, Whoop whoop pull up, Wimpus, Wjdittmar, Grace8647, HoneyBadger4 and Anonymous: 18 List of human human anatomi anatomical cal featur features es   Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%2 wiki/List%20of%20human%20a 0human%20anatomical%20 natomical%20features?oldid= features?oldid= 635636466  Contributors:  The Anome, Alex.tan, Wapcaplet, Wapcaplet, Minesweeper, Minesweeper, Rossami, Jay, Will, Robbot, Zandperl, Nmg20, Bird, Dcfleck, Bornintheguz, Maurreen, Montefin, Tony Sidaway, Salix alba, YurikBot, Epipelagic, Lt-wiki-bot, Curpsbot-unicodify, Snowmanradio, BullRangifer, BullRangifer, Odedee, MTSbot, JeffW, Courcelles, Courcelles, Cydebot, Christian75, JaGa, STBot, Nono64, CFCF, Uncle Dick, Bobber0001, DagnyB, BotKung, 2112 rush, Wavehunter, Eikenhein, Elassint, ClueBot, Bbb2007, Addbot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Cinister, Gamewizard71, CaroleHenson, CaroleHenson, Widr, Betty Noire, NotWith, DavidLeighEllis, DavidLeighEllis, LT910001, LT910001, Liz and Anonymous: 34  List of human anatomical parts named after people   Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%2 /wiki/List%20of%20human%20 0human%20anatomical% anatomical% 20parts%20named%20after%20people?oldid=612055616  Contributors:  Alex.tan, Rsabbatini, Mahjongg, Charles Matthews, Jay, Qertis, Auric, Macrakis, PFHLai, Icairns, D6, PhilHibbs, JackWasey, Jimhutchins, Reinyday, Maurreen, Kazuaki Shimazaki, Alansohn, Semenelin, Semenelin, Computerjoe, Computerjoe, Ekem, Moormand, GregorB, Hovea, BD2412, Sceptre, ENeville, SigPig, Lexicon, SmackBot, Andreas Erick, Adambrowne666, DeCaux, Stewart.morison, AdAdAdAd, Dicklyon, Cydebot, Anthonyhcole, Thijs!bot, Baville, Riffle, Shift6, JAnDbot, Brownian Desmond, ...And Beyond!, GhostofSuperslum, STBot, Mlliu, CFCF, Clerks, Chiswick Chap, Chakradiwaker, Mschamberlain, Biglovinb, Biglovinb, Tarsaucer, Prhartcom, Philip Trueman, Esseh, Flyer22, Flyer22, KathrynLybarger, KathrynLybarger, ClueBot, Franamax, DragonBot, Muenda, Djneufville, Thatguyflint, Addbot, Toyokuni3, CanadianLinuxUser, Tassedethe, Filip em, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, TechBot, Gilo1969, FrescoBot, Holly10, Peace and Passion, Webmassster, Webmassster, Epididymus10, Dagko, Dotheleprachaun, Dotheleprachaun, RockMagnetist, RockMagnetist, PC-XT, Iztwoz and Anonymous: 70  List of muscles of the human body  Source:  http://en.wikipedia.org http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%2 /wiki/List%20of%20muscles%20of 0muscles%20of%20the%20hum %20the%20human%20body? an%20body? oldid=635579305 Contributors:  AxelBoldt, Topbanana, Discospinster, Neko-chan, Arcadian, Anthony Appleyard, Cburnett, Rjwilmsi, Slodave, ENeville, Grafen, ONEder Boy, SmackBot, AaronM, Mangoe, Gilliam, J. Spencer, Frap, MegA, Khazar, Rizome, Twas Now, AndrewHowse, Skittleys, Clovis Sangrail, Xantharius, CharlesHoffman, Spencer, JAnDbot, PhilKnight, Plamoa, Magioladitis, VoABot II, EagleFan, Scottalter, Schmloof, R'n'B, Nono64, Adavidb, Mikael Häggström, Belovedfreak, Prhartcom, Zumlin, Juliancolton, Funandtrvl, 28bytes, 28bytes, KC KC Panchal, Panchal, Madhero88, Temporal Temporaluser, user, Doc James, Dan Polansky, Polansky, SieBot, WereSpie WereSpielChequers, lChequers, This, that that and the other, Radon210, Faradayplank, Manway, Drgarden, ClueBot, Gmreed2, Snigbrook, Niceguyedc, Excirial, Walking Softly, S19991002, Joecalladine, Daughter of Mímir, Addbot, DOI bot, Warpath, Diptanshu.D, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Jason Recliner, Esq., A Stop at Willoughby, Willoughby, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Materialscientist, Jmarchn, Xqbot, 78.26, SD5, FrescoBot, Pinethicket, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Rushbu Rushbugled13, gled13, Fumitol, Drdad, Reach Reach Out to the Truth, KinkyLipids, KinkyLipids, John of Reading, Soundedit38, Soundedit38, Racerx11, Racerx11, RA0808, Hazard-SJ, Hrvoje1234, Hrvoje1234, Rollgood, Tolly4bolly, Tolly4bolly, Bill william compton, ClueBot NG, Wimpus, Widr, Theopolisme, Theopolisme, Craterib, B2322858, B2322858, Stephenwan Stephenwanjau, jau, Mark Arsten, Bonechamber, NotWith, EricEnfermero, EricEnfermero, Ducknish, Hilmorel, JakobSteenberg JakobSteenberg,, Sriharsh1234, Sriharsh1234, I am One of Many, Mutley1989, Daregym, LT910001, Akelly10, Addie.trif, BRUZZO and Anonymous: 175

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File:201_Elements_of_the_H File:201_Elements_of_the_Human_Body-01.jpg uman_Body-01.jpg   Source:  http://upload.wikime http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com dia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/201 mons/f/fd/201_Elements_of_ _Elements_of_ the_Human_Body-01.jpg   License:    CC-BY-3.0  Contributors:    Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site.   http://cnx.org/content/ col11496/1.6/ , Jun 19, 2013.  Original artist:  OpenStax College File:Abdominal_Quadrant_Re File:Abdominal_Quadrant_Regions.jpg gions.jpg   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Abdominal_Quadrant_ Regions.jpg License:  CC-BY-3.0  CC-BY-3.0 Contributors:  http://cnx.org  http://cnx.org Original artist:  Connexions File:Anatomical_Male_Figure_ File:Anatomical_Male_Figure_Showing_H Showing_Heart,_Lungs,_and_Main_Arteries.jpg eart,_Lungs,_and_Main_Arteries.jpg   Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/4/44/Anatomical_M commons/4/44 /Anatomical_Male_Figure_Show ale_Figure_Showing_Heart%2C ing_Heart%2C_Lungs%2C_a _Lungs%2C_and_Main_Arterie nd_Main_Arteries.jpg s.jpg   License:    Public domain   Contributors:  http://www.metmuseu http://www.metmuseum.org/special/Leon m.org/special/Leonardo_Master_Draf ardo_Master_Draftsman/tour_gal tsman/tour_gallery4.htm lery4.htm Original artist:  Leonardo da Vinci  File:Anatomical_position.jpg   Source:  http://upload.wikime http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co dia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/An mmons/b/b2/Anatomical_positi atomical_position.jpg on.jpg   License:  BY-3.0 Contributors:  http://cnx.org/content/m4 http://cnx.org/content/m47807/latest/ 7807/latest/ Original artist:  Connexions

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File:Anterior_Hip_Muscles_2.PNG File:Anterior_Hip_Muscles_2.PNG Source:  http://upload.wikime http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co dia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Anterior mmons/e/e2/Anterior_Hip_Muscles_ _Hip_Muscles_2.PNG 2.PNG License:  CC-BY-SA-3.0  CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:  Own  Own work  Original artist:  Beth ohara File:Anterior_view_of_human_fem File:Anterior_view_o f_human_female_and_m ale_and_male,_without_labels.jpg ale,_without_labels.jpg   Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co edia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ mmons/f/ f1/Anterior_view_of_human_ f1/Anterior_view _of_human_female_and_ female_and_male%2C_wi male%2C_without_labels.jpg thout_labels.jpg  License:  CC0  Contributors:  Own work   Original artist:   Taken

at City Studios in Stockholm (www.stockholmsfotografen.se), September 29, 2011, with assistance from KYO (The organisation of life models) in Stockholm. Both models have consented to the licence of the image, and its usage in Wikipedia. Image uploaded by  Mikael Häggström  File:Biceps_Muscle_CNX.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/B mons/9/96/Biceps_Muscle_CNX iceps_Muscle_CNX.jpg .jpg  License:  CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors:  http://cnx.org/content/m http://cnx.org/content/m46487/latest/?co 46487/latest/?collection=col1149 llection=col11496/latest 6/latest Original artist:  OpenStax College  File:Body_Movements_I.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Bo mons/8/85/Body_Movements_I.jp dy_Movements_I.jpgg License:  CC-BY CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors:  http://cnx.org/content/m4 http://cnx.org/content/m46398/latest/?col 6398/latest/?collection=col1149 lection=col11496/latest 6/latest Original artist:  Tonye Ogele CNX  File:Body_Movements_II.jpg   Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Body mons/b/bc/Body_Movements_II.jp _Movements_II.jpgg   License:  CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors:  http://cnx.org/content/m http://cnx.org/content/m46398/latest/?co 46398/latest/?collection=col1149 llection=col11496/latest 6/latest Original artist:  Tonye Ogele CNX   File:Body_cavities.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Body_ mons/c/cf/Body_cavities.jpg cavities.jpg License:  CC-BY-3.0  Contributors:  http://cnx.org  Original artist:   http://cnx.org  Connexions

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CHAPTER CHAPTER 18. LIST OF MUSCLES MUSCLES OF THE HU HUMAN MAN BODY  BODY 

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File:Braus_1921_124.png File:Braus_1921_124.png  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Bra mons/f/fb/Braus_1921_12 us_1921_124.png 4.png License:  Public Contributors:  Anatomie  Anatomie des Menschen: ein Lehrbuch für Studierende Studierende und Ärzte Original artist:  Braus, Hermann

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File:Diagram_of_the_human File:Diagram_of_the_human_heart_(cropped _heart_(cropped).svg ).svg   Source:  http://upload.wikime http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com dia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Diag mons/e/e5/Diagram_of_the_ ram_of_the_ human_heart_%28cropped%29.svg License:  CC-BY-SA-3.0  CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:  Own  Own work  Original artist:    File:Directional_Terms.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co edia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Directio mmons/e/e1/Directional_Terms.jpg nal_Terms.jpg License:  CC-BY-3.0  CC-BY-3.0 Contributors:  http://cnx.org  http://cnx.org Original artist:  Connexions   File:Edit-clear.svg   Source:   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg   License:    Public Tango! Desktop Project .  Original artist: 

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File:Externarvm_hvmani_corporis File:Externarvm_hvmani_corporis_sedivm_partivmve,_1543..J _sedivm_partivmve,_1543..JPG PG   Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c edia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/ ommons/c/c9/ Externarvm_hvmani_corporis_sediv Externarvm_hvm ani_corporis_sedivm_partivmv m_partivmve%2C_1543 e%2C_1543..JPG ..JPG  License:  Public  Public domain  Contributors:  Courtesy  Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine. Images from the History of Medicine (IHM), http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/ http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/A1090 images/A109087 87.. Also showcased showcased in the book:  Hidden Treasure (New York, York, NY: Blast Books, 2012), p. 19. HMD Collection, Collection, WZ 240 V575dhZ V575dhZ 1543.   Original artist:  Vesalius, Andreas, 1514-1564.  Andreae Vesalii Bruxellensis, scholae medicorum Patauinae professoris, suorum de humani corporis fabrica librorum epitome . File:Fascicle_Muscle_Shapes File:Fascicle_Muscle_Shapes.jpg .jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Fascicl mons/1/18/Fascicle_Muscle_Shapes.jp e_Muscle_Shapes.jpgg License:  CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:  http://cnx.org/content/m http://cnx.org/content/m46487/latest/?co 46487/latest/?collection=col1149 llection=col11496/latest 6/latest Original artist:  OpenStax College File:Folder_Hexagonal_I File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg con.svg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4 .org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexag /48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg onal_Icon.svg License:   Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors:  ?  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:Gray1110.png  Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c edia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Gray ommons/e/eb/Gray1110.png 1110.png License:  Public  Public domain  Contributors:  ?  ? Original artist:  ?  ?   File:Gray1119.png  Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co edia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Gray1 mmons/d/d6/Gray1119.png 119.png License:  Public  Public domain  Contributors:  ?  ? Original artist:  ?  ?   File:Gray112.png  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Gra mons/8/88/Gray112.png y112.png  License:   Public domain  Contributors:  ? Original artist:  ?  ?   File:Gray1120.png  Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co edia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Gray1 mmons/d/da/Gray1120.png 120.png License:  Public  Public domain  Contributors:  ?  ? Original artist:  ?  ?   File:Gray188.png  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Gray mons/2/2c/Gray188.png 188.png  License:  Public domain  Contributors:  ? Original artist:  ?  ?   File:Heart-and-lungs.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Heart-and-lungs.jpg mons/e/e6/Heart-and-lungs.jpg  License:   Public domain Contributors:  Gray’s   Gray’s Anatomy at Anatomy  at http://www.bartleb http://www.bartleby.com/107/13 y.com/107/138.html 8.html  Original artist:  Gray’s Anatomy   File:Human-Skeleton.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c edia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/H ommons/1/14/Human-Skeleton.jpg uman-Skeleton.jpg  License:  CC0  CC0  Contributors:  Own  Own work  Original artist:  Sklmsta  File:Human_brain_NIH.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Hu mons/4/49/Human_brain_ man_brain_NIH.jpg NIH.jpg License:  Public  Public domain  Contributors:  ?  ?  Original artist:  ? File:Human_skeleton_back.svg File:Human_skeleton_back.svg Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c edia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/H ommons/4/4e/Human_skeleton_b uman_skeleton_back_en.svg ack_en.svg License:  Public domain  Contributors:  Own work. Image renamed renamed from from File:Human  File:Human skel skeleton eton back.sv back.svgg   Original artist:   LadyofHats Mariana LadyofHats  Mariana Ruiz Villarreal  File:Human_skeleton_front.svg  Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co edia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Hum mmons/c/ca/Human_skeleton_fron an_skeleton_front_en.svg t_en.svg License:  Public domain  Contributors:  Own work. Image renamed renamed from File:Human from File:Human skeleton front.svg   Original artist:   LadyofHats Mariana LadyofHats  Mariana Ruiz Villarreal  File:Illu_endocrine_system.png   Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Illu_endo mons/d/da/Illu_endocrine_system.png crine_system.png   License:  Public domain  Contributors:  ?  ?  Original artist:  ?  File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg  Source:  Contributors:  ?  ?  Original artist:  ?  ?

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  File:Laelops-Charles_Knight-1896.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co edia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/La mmons/1/16/Laelops-Charles_Knight-1896. elops-Charles_Knight-1896. jpg  License:  Public domain  Contributors:  http://www.charlesrknig http://www.charlesrknight.com/Enlarge.htm?9 ht.com/Enlarge.htm?922  Original artist:  Charles Robert Knight (1874-

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Source:  File:LowerLimbMuscleinnervationCo File:LowerLimbMuscleinnervationCorrected.gif rrected.gif     http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/ LowerLimbMuscleinnervationCorrected.gif License:  CC-BY-3.0  CC-BY-3.0  Contributors:  Own  Own work  Original artist:  Madhero88

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Created from from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question on Image:Question book.png created book.png  created by User:Equazcion by User:Equazcion Original artist:  Tkgd2007

18.11. TEXT TEXT AND IMAGE IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIB CONTRIBUTORS, UTORS, AND LICENSES 

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File:Regions_of_Human_Bo File:Regions_of_Human_Body.jpg dy.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c edia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/R ommons/5/5a/Regions_of_Hu egions_of_Human_Body.jpg man_Body.jpg License:  CC-BY-3.0  CC-BY-3.0  Contributors:  http://cnx.org  http://cnx.org Original artist:  Connexions  File:Rod_of_Asclepius2.svg  Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co edia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Rod_ mmons/e/e3/Rod_of_Asclepius2.svg of_Asclepius2.svg  License:   CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors:  Rod   Rod of asclepius.png Original artist: 

  Original:  Original:   CatherinMunro   File:Rostralcaudal.svg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedi http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com a.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Ro mons/b/b2/Rostralcaudal.svg stralcaudal.svg  License:  Public domain   Contributors:   Rostralcaudal.jpg: Rostralcaudal.jpg:  Spiral5800 Original artist:  Shandris  Shandris  File:Serous_Membrane.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Serou mons/6/69/Serous_Membrane.jpg s_Membrane.jpgLicense:  CC-BY-3.0  CC-BY-3.0 Contributors:  http://cnx.org  http://cnx.org Original artist:  Connexions File:Skeletal_muscles_homo_ File:Skeletal_muscles_homo_sapiens.JPG sapiens.JPG   Source:  http://upload.wikime http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com dia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Skeleta mons/8/8c/Skeletal_muscles_homo_ l_muscles_homo_ sapiens.JPG License:  Public   Public domain  Contributors:  Own  Own work  Original artist:  KVDP   File:Skelett-Mensch-drawing.jpg Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Skelett-Mensch-drawing.jpg mons/2/21/Skelett-Mensch-drawing.jpg License:  Public domain  Contributors:  ?  ?  Original artist:  ?   File:Skin-no_language.PNG Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co edia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Skin-no_langua mmons/c/cb/Skin-no_language.PNG ge.PNG License:  Public  Public domain  Contributors:  ?  ?  Original artist:  ?  File:Sobo_1909_35.png  Source:  http://upload.wikime http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com dia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Sob mons/a/a3/Sobo_1909_3 o_1909_35.png 5.png License:  Public  Public domain  Contributors:  Sobotta  Sobotta Atlas and Text-book of Human Anatomy 1909  Original artist:  Dr. Johannes Sobotta  File:Sobo_1909_36.png Source:  http://upload.wikim http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co edia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Sobo_ mmons/d/d6/Sobo_1909_36.p 1909_36.png ng License:  Public   Public domain Contributors:  Sobotta  Sobotta Atlas and Text-book of Human Anatomy 1909  Original artist:  Dr. Johannes Sobotta   File:Sobo_1909_605.png  Source:  http://upload.wikime http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com dia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Sob mons/7/7a/Sobo_1909_6 o_1909_605.png 05.png  License:   Public domain Contributors:  Atlas  Atlas and Text-book of Human Anatomy Volume III Vascular System, Lymphatic system, Nervous system and Sense Organs Original artist:  Dr.  Dr. Johannes Sobotta File:Stomach_colon_rectum_ File:Stomach_colon_rectum_diagram.svg diagram.svg   Source:  http://upload.wikime http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com dia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Stom mons/8/82/Stomach_colon_rectum ach_colon_rectum__ diagram.svg License:  Public   Public domain  Contributors:  US  US PD picture.  Original artist:  Indolences created   Indolences created it on the English Wikipedia. Wikipedia. File:Upper_LimbMuscleinnervationcorr File:Upper_LimbMusc leinnervationcorrected.gif ected.gif   Source:    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Upper_ LimbMuscleinnervationcorrected.gif License:  CC-BY-3.0  CC-BY-3.0 Contributors:  Own  Own work  Original artist:  Madhero88 File:View_of_Viscera_Page_ File:View_of_Viscera_Page_82.jpg 82.jpg  Source:  http://upload.wikimedia http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com .org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/View mons/2/2e/View_of_Viscera_Pa _of_Viscera_Page_82.jpg ge_82.jpg License:  Public   Public domain  Contributors:  Flickr:   Flickr:  View of Viscera Page 82  Original artist:  Sue Clark  File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg   Source:  CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: 

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