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HISTORY OF ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE
Subject:
History of English Literature
Class:
MA English (Part - I) (Morning)
Semester:
First
Prepared By:
Syed Arif Ali
Submitted To:
Ms Sajida
Dated:
10 September, 2009
2
S. No.
Contents
Page No.
1.
Introduction To Anglo-Saxon Literature
1-2
2.
Poetry In Anglo-Saxon Literature
2-4
• Anglo-Saxon Poetry At Early Age • Features Of Anglo-Saxon Poetry • Common Themes In Anglo-Saxon Poetry 3.
Genres in Anglo-Saxon Poetry
4 -5
• Heroic Poetry • Elegiac Poetry 4.
Major Poetical Works in Anglo-Saxon Literature • • • • • • •
5.
Beowulf Dream of the Rood Cædmon's Hymn Battle of Maldon Anglo Saxon Chronicle The Wanderer The Seafarer
Prominent Poets In Anglo-Saxon Literature • • • • •
5-7
8-10
Aldhelm St. Bede Caedmon King Alfred Cynewulf
6.
Prose In Anglo-Saxon Literature
7.
The Role Of Women In Anglo-Saxon Literature
8.
Bibliography
10 10-12 13
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Introduction To Anglo-Saxon Literature It has always been humans’ instinct to express their aesthetic sense and artistic skills to rejoice and literature is one of most expressive and finest forms to present different aspects and feelings of humans. The literature, especially poetry, has been existing since there was no means of writing it and it gradually developed from oral to written. Among the old eras, one noteworthy era was of Anglo-Saxon literature. Anglo-Saxon people were too much inclined towards fighting and wars which also influenced their literature. They were used to getting entertained by the poets when they returned from a battle and the poets were of high significance as well. Therefore we can find much literary works based on the theme of the great display of bravery, courage and heroics. The AngloSaxons were actually pagans but a religious effect is quite noticeable in written poems. Even they also converted to Christianity later on. Anglo-Saxon literature went through a great deal of changes since many of the poems were written after centuries of their oral composition. They were mainly written by Christian monks; among them the most noted is St. Bede. He wrote Caedmon’s oral poems. Therefore the Anglo-Saxon literary works also obtained the religious influence over them. This religious influence can be observed in poems such as “Beowulf”, “The Wanderer,” and “The Seafarer”. Although Beowulf is a heroic poem, it does depict many religiously composed verses and ideas since it was turned into a manuscript by a Christian poet. Anglo-Saxon literature was influenced by Latin literature same as Greek inspired Latin literature. It was Latin who enabled and educated Anglo-Saxons to use literary instruments properly. Anglo-Saxon poetry is divided into two types; the first is heroic Germanic pre-Christian poetry and the other is the Christian poetry.
4 There are almost 400 extant manuscripts from the era of Anglo-Saxons. The most noteworthy and significant existing manuscripts include “Beowulf”, “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle”, “Cædmon's Hymn”, “The Exeter Book”, “The Vercelli Book”, and “The Nowell Codex”. The genre in which Anglo-Saxon literature was written consists of epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, and riddles. The Anglo-Saxon literature was created between 650 and 1100.
Poetry In Anglo-Saxon Literature We have no clear clues of particular poetic rules Anglo-Saxons applied in their poetry. Whatever we know about their poetic style and rules is all based on present examination. The earliest broadly acknowledged theory was presented by Eduard Sievers in 1885. He told apart five distinctive alliterative patterns. John C. Pope’s theory of musical notation to track the verse patterns was also accepted. The theory of Eduard Sievers of alliterative verse gives the clearest comprehension of Old English poetry. The system is based on accent, alliteration, the number of vowels, and patterns of syllabic stress. It is based on five versions on base-verse scheme; any one of the five categories can be used in any verse. The system was inherited from and exists in one form or another in all of the older Germanic languages. More or less, Old English verses are parted in half by a pause; the pause is called a "caesura." Each half-line consists of two stressed syllables. The first stressed syllable of the second half-line alliterates with one or both of the stressed syllables of the first halfline. The second stressed syllable of the second half-line does not alliterate with either of the stressed syllables of the first half. For example:
5 fyrene fremman
feond on helle.
("to perpetrate torment, fiend of hell.") -- Beowulf, line 101 As we know that Anglo-Saxon poetry was mainly oral and it had the heroics themes, and it, later on, was properly written by Christian monks who left a religious impression on it. The other noticeable styles found in Anglo-Saxon poetry are kenning, variation, and litotes.
Anglo-Saxon Poetry At Early Age The poetry was always there in rough form among the Anglo-Saxons. They used to sing ballads whenever they had good deal of hunting or they returned from a war having defeated the enemy in the battlefield. It was not an organised effort but random. Among the gleeful crowd, any of them could cry out loud a random verse and the rest would say it after him rhythmically and some more lines could be added by others as well. This pattern inclined them towards the composition of complete ballads. it was the time when minstrels were developed. They even became professionals who made their living by roaming around the villages singing the legendary ballads or their own composed ones. Later on, these minstrels also served at courts of the kings and sang the heroic ballads for the warriors to entertain them. Since it was completely oral, the work is lost. But those popular ballads and minstrel poetry gradually developed into epic poetry because it passed on to others through word-of-mouth and other poets added into the poetry.
Features Of Anglo-Saxon Poetry The Anglo-Saxon poetry has three main factors which are kennings, variations, and litotes.
6 Kenning Kenning is a lyrical compound which attracts reader or listener making a vivid picture. It has an intentional effort to be vague and mysterious. For example, the kenning for the word “blood” would be written as “wounddew”. Variation Variation is a repetition of a word used earlier in the verse with a different word. For example, the word “glory” is the reputation for “valor” is a variation. Litotes Litotes is a type of oral irony. This is expressed in form of the overstatement such as in Beowulf when the hero is in the clasp of Grendel’s mother, and the poet writes repeatedly that what deep trouble Beowulf is in. It was used similarly used in the case of the understatement. Litotes aims to intensify the feeling in the poetry.
Common Themes In Anglo-Saxon Poetry The themes in Anglo-Saxon poetry start with heroics such as “Beowulf” and gradually move towards to the religious themes of Gospels. The following themes and subjects are commonly found in Anglo-Saxon literary works: Battle, war, warriors; seas; storms; ravens; eagles; wolves; death, dying; fate, destiny; nobles, rulers; weapons and armor.
Genres in Anglo-Saxon Poetry
7 The Anglo-Saxon poetry remained under growth for centuries. It started as pagan and then evolved to Christian religious poetry and from oral to manuscript. Therefore it gathered numerous genres in it. Heroic Poetry The Anglo-Saxons were ever ready to fight and go top the war. It was their in their blood to look for battles. The warriors were entertained by the poets when they came back from a war being triumph. The poets told them the stories of heroes, gallantry, valor, etc. as we can find much discussed poem “Beowulf” has many fighting depictions against the monster and the dragon. There is heroic poem which is actually a retelling of Beowulf namely “The Fight at Finnsburh”. Waldere is another heroic poem dealing with the life of Walter of Aquitaine. Widsith is also a heroic one pertaining to Eormanric and the Goths from 4th century. Moreover Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has heroic poems. They were so influenced by this heroic poetry that they thought of turning Gospel into heroic poetic manner. Elegiac Poetry The elegiac poems describe wisdom and the ups and downs of life. The Exeter Book has a numerous poems which fall under the category of elegies. The noticeable elegiac poems are “The Ruin”, “The Wanderer”, “The Seafarer”, “Wulf and Eadwacer”, “The Wife's Lament”, and The Husband's Message.
Major Poetical Works in Anglo-Saxon Literature We might not have the slightest notion of Anglo-Saxon poetry in today’s world if it remained unwritten. But luckily we do have such great literary works with us in written
8 form now to study and learn. Some of the great poems include “The Battle of Brunanburh”, “The Battle of Maldon”, “Deor”, “Widsith”, “Beowulf”, “Cædmon's Hymn”, “The Wanderer”, “The Seafarer”, “Waldere”, “The Fight at Finnsburh”, “Dream of the Rood” and “Anglo Saxon Chronicle”. Beowulf Beowulf is the longest, oldest and a complete surviving epic poem consisting of 3182 verses in Anglo-Saxon literature. It was made as an oral composition and it is rich in formulas. It was actually conceived in 700 AD and then turned into a manuscript by a Christian poet in c.1000. The real creator of this epic poem is unknown. The poem is heroic work, but also displays human wisdom, honour, loyalty, and destiny. The poem describes the heroic acts of Beowulf who comes save the King Hrothgar and his people from a fierce monster, Grendel. In a massive action, Beowulf kills the monster and then his revenge-seeking monster mother as well. When he returns, he, after some time becomes the king his own tribe. He finally meets his death fighting against fire-breathing dragon which has become a plague to his people, for somebody has stolen a piece of treasure he is guarding. Beowulf is given a royal burial. Dream of the Rood The dream of the rood is the classical poem written in the form of traditional riddle style. In the poem a person dreams about a Cross which is extended to the sky adorned with jewels, and sometimes covered with blood while every creature
9 is worshipping it. The Cross tells the event of Crucifixion. The poem plays a significant because it guides people and lead to the righteous path. Cædmon's Hymn As we know that Caedmon’s oral compositions later turned into manuscripts are the oldest texts to survive. “Cædmon's Hymn” is one of the oldest extant works from 7th century. Battle of Maldon Battle of Maldon is a heroic poem of 325 verses. It tells about the celebration of Earl Byrhtnoth and his people who fell in a combat against the Vikings in 991. It is regarded as one of the most excellent works. But its beginning and end are lost. Anglo Saxon Chronicle Anglo-Saxon Chronicle carries numerous heroic poems. The first poem from 937 is called “The Battle of Brunanburh”. It is about celebration of the triumph of King Athelstan against the Scots and Norse. There are five shorter poems: capture of the Five Boroughs (942); coronation of King Edgar (973); death of King Edgar (975); death of Prince Alfred (1036); and death of King Edward the Confessor (1065). The Wanderer The Wanderer is about the life of an old man who witnesses an assault which took place when he was young. His close friends and relatives were murdered in the attack. The memories imprint on his mind. Then the old wise man gets involved in warfare to protect society. The Seafarer
10 The Seafarer is the story of a grave banishment from home to the sea. The only hope of salvation is the ecstasy of heaven.
Prominent Poets In Anglo-Saxon Literature There are five eminent poets namely Aldhelm, St. Bede, Cademon, King Alfred and Cynewulf. Aldhelm Aldhelm (640-709) is the first recognized English poet. He was the bishop of Sherborne and founder of Malmesbury. He was a learned man and skilled at writing religious and social, and political issues. He used to say verses extemporarily on a harp standing on a bridge leading to Malmesbury so that his flock did not stray. He was exalted by St. Bede for his multifarious works. It is assumed that here the flock in fact refers to astray people not to the sheep. He wrote sermons, treatise, and an epistle for his godson, King Aldfrith. Aldhelm’s most of the Latin work is extant, but his English works are completely lost. St. Bede St. Bede is the one who wrote Caedmon’s oral verses. Bede’s Latin works survive in thirty-six complete manuscripts, but like Bede’s surviving English work consists of only five lines. Bede also used the modern style of dating years AD in literature first, though, he did not invent it. Bede has been read through all the generation ever since it was written. He also translated the Gospel into English, but the text is lost as well. When he was on his deathbed, he sang verses of St Paul and then composed his death song afterwards. Caedmon
11 Caedmon belonged to 7th century. He was from Whitby, Northumbria and worked as a farmhand. He is regarded as the father of Old English poetry, for he is the one who first used Holy Scriptures in oral verse form and his work is the oldest to survive as well. Since he was not an educated person, he could not write his own verses. It was especially St. Bede who wrote his verses. Caedmon used to avoid and escape when he was asked sing in the feast. He did the same one day in a feast and went and slept in a stable. There he had a dream and saw a man asking him to sing. He replied in negative, but the person suggested him to sing about the Divine and Creation of all things. Thus he started singing admiring God. Since then, his main theme based on Divine and religion. King Alfred King Alfred is the youngest son of King Aethelwulf. He excelled at reading when he was twelve and also learnt Latin at the age of thirty-five. He reigned from 871 to 899. He was also entitled of Roman consul by the Pope in 853 when he came to Rome. When he became the king, there was not even a single priest who could read or write in Latin and English. His chief achievement is the revival of English culture and literature. He translated most significant Latin text into English and encouraged vernacular writing. He also helped the laity to gain knowledge but his efforts were did not bear fruits in his era, but it worked out in the times of his grandson, Edgar. It was his era when “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” began. Cynewulf Cynewulf is the most mysterious figure among the known poets. There is no account which can provide details about him. But research concludes that he was
12 from 9th century. We know about Cynewulf’s being a poet just because he signed his poems. His known works are “The Fates of the Apostles” and “Elene” from “Vercelli Book” and “Christ II” and “Juliana” form “Exeter Book”.
Prose In Anglo-Saxon Literature There is no doubt that Anglo-Saxons had the tradition of oral poetry and they brought it to Britain with them as well when they invaded. However, there is no evidence available that they had the tradition of prose. It can be safely said that the Anglo-Saxons had no origins of prose. The art of prose, in fact, initiated much later after their invasion. It is a common phenomenon in literature if the poetry comes first, then prose. The prose which is extant from old English is more in quantity than poetry. The most of the prose consists of sermons and Latin translations of religious works. The origination of prose can, without any doubt, be attributed to King Alfred. He translated Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”, Orosius’ “Histories”, Gregory’s “Pastoral care” and “Dialogues”, Augustine’s “Soliloquies” and Boethius’ “Consolation of Philosophy”. He also translated fifty Psalms into Old English. In all this process, he was accompanied by many other well-known writers. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was most likely started in King Alfred’s reign and it was carried on for more than 300 years as a historical record of Anglo-Saxon history.
The Role Of Women In Anglo-Saxon Literature It seems very evident in Anglo-Saxon literature that it highlights the role of men as warriors with a male-dominated society. There is barely a mention or reference of the role of women. Even if they are mentioned, their character is not given consideration;
13 instead they are referred as whom they belong to. Their main role is merely described as a cupbearer or a peacemaker. It is well described in “Beowulf” when there is a feast for the king and the warriors. The women just worked as cupbearer which is found in the following verses in the poem “Beowulf”. "Sometimes, Hrothgar's daughter distributed ale to older ranks, in order on the benches I heard the company call her Freawaru as she made her rounds, presenting men with the gem-studded bowl." (Beowulf ll. 2020-2025. 75) "So the Helming woman went on her rounds, queenly and dignified, decked out in rings, offering the goblets to all ranks." (Beowulf ll.620-622. 45). The women were also used to end fights between tribes. They women belonging to some influential class were married off to bring peace. The following verses from Beowulf also depict this situation. "A queen should weave peace" (Beowulf l.1942. 74) there are the 'hopes this woman will heal old wounds and grievous feuds." (Beowulf ll.2027-2028. 75). Women have only been shown as important and influential figures as an abbess, Hilda, in "Caedmon's Hymn" and as a female monster, Grendel's mother, in “Beowulf”. So the
14 women have significant role only if they possess extraordinary or strange position and ability in the society. Overall, it is clearly observed that in Anglo-Saxon literature, women are presented as submissive creature.
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Bibliography •
A History of English Literature
By Michael Alexander
•
A Critical History of English Literature
By David Daiches
•
Anglo-Saxon Literature Available at www.scribd.com
By John Earle
Webliography •
www.4shared.com
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www.wikipedia.com
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http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Anglo-Saxon_literature.aspx
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http://csis.pace.edu/grendel/projf20001a/onouraniwomen.html
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http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/rfletcher/bl-rfletcher-historypreface.htm
