Grob Basic Electronics Book Review

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS CONTENTS CHAPTER I: ELECTRICITY    

An invisible force that can produce heat, light, and motion. The force for _________ is an attraction or repulsion between electric charges. The basic form for a quantity of electricity. The closed path for the movement of charges.

Electricity Motion Electric Charge Circuit

NEGATIVE AND POS ITIVE POLARITIES    

Two basic particles of electric charge. _______ is the smallest amount of electric charge having the characteristic called negative polarity. The proton is a basic particle with ________. Is it true or false that the neutral condition means equal positive and negative charges?

Electron and Proton Electron Positive Polarity True

ELECTRONS AND PROTONS IN THE ATOM                  

The smallest particle of the basic elements that form solid, liquids, gases we know as physical substances. Central mass of an atom Proton is _______ times heavier than an electron. Electrons that can move freely from one atom to the next. Electrons that can move easily from atom to atom in a material. The best conductor. A material with atoms in which the electrons tend to stay in their own orbits. An insulating material and also can store electric charges. A material that conducts less than the metal conductors but more than the insulators. Practically all transistors are made of _________. Defined as a substance that cannot be decomposed any further by chemical action. Greek word that means a particle too small to be subdivided. Semiconductors have _____ electrons in the outermost ring. ____ Electrons in the outside ring is a stable structure. A group of two or more atoms. A group of two or more elements. The smallest unit of a compound with the same chemical characteristics. Atomic number of oxygen.

Atom Nucleus 1840 Free electrons Conductor Silver Insulator Dielectric Semiconductors Silicon Elements Atom 4 8 Molecule Compound Molecule 8

CHAPTER 2 : RESISTORS INTRODUCTION 

Carbon-composition type

The most often used construction of a resistor.

1

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS  

The purpose of using a resistor in a circuit is to reduce __________ to a specific value. True or false: the resistance has a common effect for DC and AC circuits.

Current (I) True

TYPES OF RES IS TORS 

Two main characteristics of a resistor.

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It means the power is wasted. The power rating of carbon resistors. Resistors with higher resistance values usually have lower wattage ratings because __________. True or false: the lower the power rating, the smaller the physical size of the resistor. A type of resistor that has a special type of wire called resistance wire. The power rating available in small wire-wound resistors. This type of resistor is made of finely divided carbon or graphite mixed with a powdered insulating material. These are metal caps with leads of tinned copper wire of resistor for soldering the connection into circuit. Available values of carbon resistors. The power rating of carbon resistor.

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Two kinds of film-type resistors.

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This type of resistor has a carbon coating fired onto a solid ceramic substrate. This type of resistor is a wire-wound resistor made to burn open easily when the power rating is exceeded. It then serves the dual functions of a fuse and a resistor to limit the current.

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Resistance and its power rating Dissipation 1W or less They have less current True Wire-wound Resistor 3 to 4W Carbon-composition Resistor Axial leads 1 to 20Ω 0.1 to 2W Carbon film type and Metal-film Chip resistors Fusible resistors

RES IS TOR COLOR CODING 

The organization standardized the color coding of resistor.

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In reading the resistor color coding value, the first band close to the edge gives ______.

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In reading the resistor color coding value, the third band indicates ______. The amount by which the resistor can be different from the color-coded value. The typical tolerance of wire-wound resistor. The typical tolerance of precision wire-wound resistor.

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VARIABLE R ES IS TORS It can be wire-wound or carbon-type resistor. The way resistor varies with the shaft control. It is convenient unit for providing any one resistor within a wide range of values.

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RHEOS TATS AND POTENTIOMETERS It is a variable resistor with two terminals connected in series with a load.

2

Electronic Industries Association (EIA) The first digit in the numerical value of resistor. The decimal multiplier. Tolerance ±5% ±1% or less

Variable Resistor Taper of the control Decade box

Rheostat


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The purpose is to vary the amount of current. It is generally called pot and it has three terminals. These are generally wire-wound high-wattage resistors for power applications. POWER RATING OF RES IS TORS A resistor should have _________ to dissipate the power produced by the current flowing through the resistance, without becoming too hot. A type of resistor that operates at high temperature, a typical value being 300°C for the maximum temperature. SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBIN ATIONS OF RES IS TORS Two equal resistors in ________ double the resistance. Two equal resistors in ________ have one-half the resistance.

Potentiometer Commercial rheostats

High wattage rating Wire wound resistor

Series Parallel

RES IS TORS TROUBLES 

When the open resistor is a series component, ____________.

  

These are preferred in applications such as volume and tone controls because the smoother change in resistance results in less noise when the variable arm is rotated. Resistance measurements are made with a _____________. A ____________ resistor reads infinitely high ohms.



A resistor can change in value beyond it tolerance caused by __________.

There is no current in the entire series path. Carbon controls Ohmmeter Open Heat over a long period of time

CHAPTER 3 : OHM’s LAW INTRODUCTION   

He discovered the Ohm’s Law. It is used to determine the amount of electric power in the circuit. True or false: Ohm’s law applies to both DC and AC circuits.

Georg Simon Ohm Ohm’s Law True

PRACTICAL UNITS   

It is the amount of current through a one-ohm resistance that has one volt of potential difference applied across it. It is the potential difference across a one-ohm resistance that has one ampere of current through it. It is the amount of opposition in a resistance that has a V/I ratio of 1, allowing one ampere of current with one volt applied.

One ampere One volt One ohm

LINEAR P ROPORTION BETWEEN V AND I  

The formula which states that V and I are directly proportional for any value of R. In ohm’s law, increases of volts will __________ the current.

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Ohm’s Law Increase

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS 

It shows how much current the resistor allows for different voltages.

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In a volt-ampere characteristic graph, the value in y axis or ordinate is _______________. In a volt-ampere characteristic graph, the value in x axis or abscissa is _____________. In ohm’s law, voltage and current are __________. This type has a nonlinear volt-ampere characteristic. Whether the resistor is linear is not, the current is ________ for more resistance, with applied voltage constant.

   

Volt-ampere characteristic graph Current values Voltage values Directly proportional Nonlinear resistance Less

ELECTRIC POWER             

The unit of electric power. He discovers the unit of electric power. It equals the work done in one second by one volt of potential difference in moving one coulomb of charge. It is the time rate of doing work. It is the time rate at which charges is forced to move by voltage. 1 horse power is equal to____________. One horse power is approximately equal to ____________. It is the power used during a period of time. One joule is equal to ________ One watt is equal to ___________. One joule is equal to ________ coulomb This is a unit commonly for large amounts of electrical work or energy. The amount is calculated simply as the product of the power in kilowatts multiplied by the time in hours during which the power is used.

Watt James Watt (1736-1819) One watt of power Power Electric power 764 Watts or 550 ft lb/s ¾ kW Work 1watt second 1 joule/second 6.25 x 10 18 eV Kilowatt-hour Kilowatt-hour

ELECTRIC SHOCK     

It is a sudden involuntary contraction of the muscles, with a feeling of pain, caused by current through the body. It can be fatal. The greatest shock hazard is from ______ that can supply appreciable amounts of power. The value of “let go” current for men. The value of “let go” current for women. The greatest danger of shock is form a source having an output of ________ with enough power to maintain the load current through the body when it is connected across the applied voltage.

Shock High-voltage circuits 9mA 6mA More than 30 V

CHAPTER 4 : SERIES CIRCUITS INTRODUCTION 

The purpose of this circuit is to connect different components that need the same current.

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Series Circuits

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS

WHY I IS THE S AME IN ALL PARTS OF A SERIES CIRCUIT    

It is a movement of charges between two points, produced by the applied voltage. The order in which components are connected in series does not affect the ___________. It is the same amount at the same time in all series components. The free electrons moving away from one point are continuously replaced by free electrons flowing from a ____________ in the series circuit.

Electric Current Current Current Adjacent Point

POLARITY OF IR VOLTAGE DROPS    

When an IR voltage drop exists across a resistance, one end must be either ________________ than the other end. The polarity of IR voltage can be associated with the direction of ___________. The top end of R in the diagrams is _______. True or false: The resistor does not know which direction of current we are thinking of.

More positive or more negative Current through a resistor Negative True

TOTAL POWER IN A S ERIES CIRCUIT  

The power needed to produce current in each series resistor is used up in the Heat form of __________. It is the sum of the individual values of power dissipated in each part of the Total Power circuit. SERIES -AIDING AND S ERIES OPPOS ING VOLTAGES

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These are connected with polarities that allow current in the same direction. Voltages are connected ______ when the plus terminal of one is connected to the negative terminal of the text. Voltages are connected ______ when the negative terminal of one is connected to the negative terminal of the text. If the series-opposing voltages are equal, the net voltage is equal to __________.

Series-aiding Voltages Series-aiding Series-opposing Zero

ANALYZING S ERIES CIRCUITS  

We must know the _________ to calculate current because the total applied voltage is given. A common application of series circuits is to use a resistance to ______ the voltage from the source to a lower value.

Total Resistance Drop

EFFECT OF AN OPEN CIRCUIT IN A S ERIES PATH  

It is break in the current path. The resistance of the _________ is very high because an insulator like air takes place conducting path of the circuit.

5

Open Circuit Open path

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS    

With an open in any part of a series circuit, the current is _____ in the entire circuit. Each of the resistors in the open circuit has an IR drop of ______. There is ___________ with the open circuit because there is no complete path outside the battery between its two terminals. The __________ have the entire applied voltage indicates a good way to find an open component in a series string.

Zero Zero No Current Open Terminals

CHAPTER 5 : PARALLEL CIRCUITS INTRODUCTION  

There have one common voltage across all the branches but separate branch currents that can be different. It is formed when two or more components are connected across one voltage source. THE APPLIED VO LTAGE VA

 

IS THE S AME ACROSS

Parallel Circuits Parallel Circuits

PARALLEL B RANCHES

The typical application of parallel circuits. It is formed when two or more components are connected across one voltage source.

Typical House Wiring Parallel Circuits

ANALYZING P ARALLEL C IRC UITS  

When you know the voltage across one branch, this voltage is __________. If you know IT and one of the branch currents I1 , you can find I2 by _______________.

Across all the branches Subtracting I1 from IT

EFFECT OF AN OPEN B RANCH IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS  

An open in any circuit is a ____________ that results in no current. In parallel circuits, open circuits in one branch results ___________, but in other branches can have their normal current.

Infinite Resistance No current through that branch

EFFECT OF A SHORT CIRCUIT ACROSS PARALLEL B RANCHES 

In parallel circuits, a short circuit has _________, resulting in excessive current.

Zero Resistance



In parallel circuits, when one branch is short-circuited, __________.

All the parallel paths are also short-circuited.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT FOR THE OR LOGIC FUNCTION 

The __________ function corresponds to switches in parallel.

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OR Gate


CHAPTER 6 : SERIES – PARALLEL CIRCUITS INTRODUCTION 

It is used when it is necessary to provide different amounts of voltage and current for the components using one source of applied voltage.

Series-Parallel Circuit

RES IS TANCE STRINGS IN PARALLEL 



In series-parallel circuits, with too low a _________, there would be insufficient current for normal operation and the bulbs would not operate at normal brilliance. Each branch current equals the voltage applied across the branch divided by __________ For any one resistance in a string, the current in the string multiplied by the resistance equals the ___________ across that particular resistance. It is equal to the sum of the branch currents for all parallel strings.

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It is equal to the applied voltage divided by the total line current.

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The series parts have the same _________. The parallel parts have the same __________.

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Voltage The total resistance in the branch. IR Voltage Drop Total line current Resistance of the total series-parallel circuit Current Voltage

ANALYZING S ERIES -PARALLEL C IRC UITS    

With parallel string across the main line, the branch currents and total current can be found without _______. When parallel strings have series resistance in the main line, ______ must be calculated to find I T, assuming no branch current is known. It is applied across the RT of the entire circuit, producing an IT that flows only in the main line. Any individual series resistance has its own IR drop that must be _____ the total VT.

Total Resistance Total Resistance Source Voltage Less than

WHEATS TONE B RIDGE 

It has four terminals, two for input voltage and two for output.

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Inventor of the Wheatstone Bridge

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In this circuit, an unknown resistance is balanced against a standard accurate resistor for precise measurement of resistance. It can be analyzed as simply series resistance strings in parallel when the current is zero through the meter.

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Bridge Circuit Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802 – 1875) Wheatstone Bridge Balanced Bridge Circuit

CHASS IS – GROUND CONNECTIONS   

It is usually made by driving copper rods into the ground and connecting the ground wire of the electrical system to these rods. A chassis ground in which connected to earth ground. A chassis ground in which not connected to earth ground.

7

Ground Connection Cold side or low side Hot side or High side


VOLTAGES M EAS URED TO CHASS IS GROUND 

When a circuit has the chassis as a common return, we generally measure the voltages with respect to ___________.

Chassis

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The negative side of total voltage is grounded.

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Positive voltages to negative ground

The voltage source is inverted. Any point in the circuit must be more negative than the positive terminal of the source, even when this terminal is grounded.

Negative Voltages to Positive Ground

CHAPTER 7 : VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVIDERS INTRODUCTION 

It gives the series voltages even when the current is not known.



It gives the branch currents even when the branch voltage is not known.

Voltage Division Formula Current Division Formula

CURRENT DIVIS ION BY PARALLEL CONDUCTANCES  

If conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, therefore, conductance and current are ____________ proportional. The method of _______ is usually easier to use than the method of resistances from three or more branches.

Directly Conductance

SERIES VOLTAGE DIVIDER WITH P ARALLEL LOAD CURRENT   

It is often used to tap off part of the applied voltage V T for a load that needs less voltage than VT. All the current in the circuit must come from the _______. It is a steady drain of the source.

Voltage divider Source Voltage Bleeder Current

DES IGN OF A LOADED VOLTAGE D IVID ER 

This type of circuit is used for the output of a power supply in electronic equipment to supply different voltages at the taps, with different load currents.

8

Loaded Voltage Divider


CHAPTER 8: DIRECT CURRENT METERS INTRODUCTION     

Meters with values printed on a scale and moving a pointer that indicates values on the scale. Meters with numerical readouts that indicates values directly. To measure voltage, the test leads of the voltmeter are connected in __________ across two points of potential difference. To measure currents in units of amperes, milli-amperes, or micro-amperes, the meter is a __________ component in the circuit. A combinational meter, like the VOM and DMM will all three functions.

Analog meters Digital meters Parallel Series Multimeter or multitester

MOVING COIL M ETER Volt-ohm-milliammeter

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It can be used to measure voltage or resistance.

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It is generally used in a VOM in which the construction consists essentially of a coil of fine wire on a drum mounted between the poles of a permanent magnet. It is directly proportional to the amount of current in the coil. It is an extremely sensitive instrument for measuring very small values of current. It is used for reading the value of a small momentary current, to measure electric charge. The moving coil arrangement is often called a ___________, after its inventor, who patented this meter movement in 1881. The optical error caused by looking at the meter from the side. The meter movement can be constructed with moving coil and pointer suspended by a metal band, instead of the pivot and jewel design with a restoring spring.

     

Moving coil meter Pointer deflection Galvanometer Ballistic galvanometer D’Arsonval Movement Parallax error Taut-band meters

VOLTMETERS     

It is commonly used for measuring voltage by the addition of a high resistance series with the movement. The series resistance must be _________ than the coil resistance in order to limit the current through the coil. It is a series resistor usually connected inside the voltmeter case. Since a voltmeter has high resistance, it must be connected in ______________ to measure the potential difference across two points in a circuit. The ohms-per-volt rating is also called ___________ of the voltmeter.

Voltmeter Higher Multiplier Parallel Sensitivity

OHMMETERS 

It consists of an internal battery, meter movement, a current-linking resistance.

9

Ohmmeter

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS         

For measuring resistance, the ohmmeter leads are connected across the __________ to be measured. Typical resistance of series ohmmeter circuit. When the ohmmeter leads are open, not touching each other, the current is _________. The arrangement of the ohms scale increases from left to right. A symbol which means that the measured resistance is infinitely greater than the ohmmeter resistance. It is given for each ohms range because the highest resistance is infinite on all the ohms ranges. For higher values of external resistance, the meter current _________ to indicate higher resistances on the back-off ohms scale. To compensate for lower voltage output as the internal battery ages, an ohmmeter includes a ____________ to calibrate the ohms scale. A back-off ohmmeter is always adjusted for __________.

External resistance 1500Ω Zero Back-off scale Lazy eight or “∞” Multiplying factor Decreases Variable resistor Zero ohms

M ULTIMETERS       

It is use to measure voltage, current, or resistance. The main types of Multimeters Most analog Multimeters have an AC voltage scale calibrated in _________ for measuring AC signals. It is a logarithmic unit used for comparisons of power levels or voltage levels. Positive decibel values, above the zero mark, indicate AC voltages above the reference of ___________. It is a probe with a clamp that fits around the current-carrying wire in which its magnetic field is used to indicate the amount of current. The accessory probe that can be used with a multimeter to measure DC voltages up to 30kV. The probe is basically just an external multiplier resistance for the DC voltmeter.

Multimeter VOM and DMM Decibels (dB) Decibels (dB) 0.775 V Amp-clamp probe High-voltage probe

DIGITAL M ULTIMETERS         

This type of test instrument has become very popular because the digital value of the measurement is displayed automatically with decimal point, polarity, and the unit for voltage, ampere, or ohms. These are generally easier to use because they eliminate the human error that often occurs in reading different scales on an analog meter with a pointer. The basis of the DMM operation is the use of a ____________ circuit. It is a visual display with decimal values in which generally used to show the values processed by digital circuit. The input resistance of the DMM is in the range of _________. The DMM has a ____________ that serves as an AC converter. A DMM ohmmeter usually has an open-circuit voltage across the meter leads of about __________. To measure current in DMM, the ______ provide proportional IR voltage. It is supplied by the DMM for the diode to test the voltage across it

10

Digital multimeter

Digital meters Analog to digital circuit Liquid-crystal display (LCD) 10 to 20MΩ Internal diode rectifier 0.4V Internal resistors Current


junction. For diode test in DMM, the short-circuit junction will read _______. It enough for practically all measurements made in troubleshooting electronic equipment. It is where the meter automatically shifts to a higher range as soon as an overload is indicated. Maximum diode test voltage in DMM. Maximum DC voltage range of DMM. Test frequency used for audio equipment. Test frequency used for power-line equipment. The range of current measurements of DMM. The bar at the bottom of the display is used only to show the relative magnitude of the input compared to the full-scale value of the range in use.

0V 3 ½ digit resolution Auto-range function 2V 1000V 400Hz 60Hz 0 to 320mA Analog display

CHAPTER 9 : KIRCHOFF’s LAW INTRODUCTION   

The algebraic sum of the voltage sources and IR voltage drops in any closed path must total ________. At any point in a circuit the algebraic sum of the currents directed in and out must total ________. Creator of Kirchoff’s Law

Zero Zero Gustav R. Kirchoff

KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)    

The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving any point in a circuit must equal the algebraic sum of the currents out of that point. It means combining positive and negative values. Consider all currents into a branch point as __________ and all current directed away from that point as ____________. It is really the basis for the practical rule in parallel circuits that the total line current must equal the sum of the branch currents.

Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) Algebraic Sum Positive; Negative Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)

KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE L AW (KVL)    

Go around any closed path and consider any voltage whose negative terminal is reached first as a negative term and any voltage whose positive terminal is reached first as a positive term. Any closed path is called __________. The Greek letter which means “sum of”. When a loop does not have any voltage source, the algebraic sum of the IR voltage drops alone must total ________.

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Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) Loop Sigma “Σ” Zero


CHAPTER 10 : NETWORK THEOEMS INTRODUCTION  

It is just a combination of components, such as resistances interconnected in Network a way to achieve a particular end result. It usually provides shorter methods of solving the circuit than the Kirchoff’s Network Theorems law. SUPERPOS ITION

      

This theorem is very useful because it extends the use of Ohm’s Law to circuits that have more than one source. In a network with two or more sources, the current or voltage for any components is the algebraic sum of the effects produced by each source acting separately. Each __________ can have any number of series resistances. It means that current is proportional to the applied voltage It means that the current is the same amount for opposite polarities of the source voltage. There are components that doesn’t amplify or rectify. These are components such as transistors, semiconductors diodes, and electron tubes in which are never bilateral and often are not linear.

Superposition Superposition Theorems Voltage Divider Linear Bilateral Passive components Active Components

THEVENIN’S THEOREM    

Named after M. L. Thevenin, a French engineer, this theorem is very useful in simplifying the voltages in a network. It states that the entire network connected to two terminals can be replaced by a single voltage source V TH in series with a single resistance R TH . It is the open-circuit voltage across terminal. It is the open-circuit resistance across terminals.

Thevenin’s Theorem Thevenin’s Theorem VTH RTH

NORTON’S THEOREM    

Named after E. L. Norton, a scientist with Bell Telephone Laboratories, this theorem is used for simplifying a network in terms of currents instead of voltages. It states that the entire network connected to two terminals can be replaced by a single current source IN in parallel with a single resistance R N . It is the resistance looking back from open terminals. Any components directly across the two terminals are also short-circuited by the _________.

Norton’s Theorem Norton’s Theorem RN Wire Jumper

M ILLMAN’S THEOREM  

This theorem provides a shortcut for finding the common voltage across any number of parallel branches with different voltage sources. This formula is derived from converting the voltage sources to current

12

Millman’s Theorem Net VXY

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS sources and combining the results. CHAPTER 11: CONDUCTORS and INSULATORS   

INTRODUCTION These have a very low resistance. Typical value of resistance in copper wire of 10 ft. It is used in the manufacture of carbon composition resistors.

Conductors 0.1Ω Carbon

FUNCTION OF THE CONDUCTORS 

The resistance of the two 10 – ft lengths of copper wire conductor is ________.

0.08Ω

TYPES OF WIRE CONDUCTORS               

Most wire conductors are ________. It is easier to solder for connections. It is flexible, easier to handle and less likely to develop an open break. It is often has an insulating coating of enamel or shellac. Hookup that is bare should be enclosed in a hollow insulating sleeve called ___________. Is it used for very low resistance. Two or more conductors in a common covering form a ________. It has 25 conductors but not in pairs. Constant spacing between two conductors through the entire length provides a _____________. It is generally used for the signals in cable television. Two conductors are imbedded in plastic to provide constant spacing. This type of line is commonly used in television for connecting the antenna to the receiver. It specifies an opposition to current that can include resistance, inductance and capacitance. It is constant for any length because it depends on the square root of ratio for the inductance in the line to the capacitance between the conductors. For ¼ inch coaxial cable, it s characteristic impedance is approximately _______. For twin lead wire with 3/8 inch spacing, the characteristic impedance is _______.

Copper Tinned Wire Stranded Wire Very Thin Wire Spaghetti Braided conductor Cable Ribbon Cable Transmission Line Coaxial Cable Twin – Lead Wire Impedance Characteristic Impedance 75Ω 300Ω

CONNECTORS      

It is often used for screw – type materials. It is commonly used for shielded cables with audio equipment. It is still used in some applications, but in a smaller size. It is universally used in cable television because of its convenience. It has eight wires in a flat, plastic ribbon. It is a standard connector for computer equipment. It has 26 pins.

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Spade Lug RCA – type Plug Phone Plug F Connector Multiple Connector RS – 232


PRINTED WIRING 

Most electronic circuits are mounted on a plastic insulating board with printed wiring.

Printed Circuit Board (PCB)

SWITCHES 

These are commonly used to open or close a circuit.

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It provides an ON or OFF position for one circuit.

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It provides switching for one side of the circuit.



It provides switching for both lines of either of two circuits.

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It has eight miniature rocker switches. It is an automatic switch with contacts that can be closed or opened by current in the relay coil.

Switches Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) DIP Switch Relay Switches

FUS ES 

It is used as a protection against an overload resulting from a short circuit.



The metal fuse element may be made of __________.

 

This type of fuse has a coiled construction. They are designed to open only on a continued overload. These have a thermal element in the form of a spring.



It is sometimes used as a fuse in television receivers.



It can be mounted between two terminal strips on the chassis.

Fuse Aluminum, tin coated copper or nickel Slow – Blow Fuse Circuit Breaker Short length of bare wire Wire link

CHAPTER 12: BATTERIES INTRODUCTION     

It is a group of cells that generate energy from the internal chemical reaction. It consists of two different conducting materials as the electrodes that are immersed in an electrolyte. A battery with an output of 1.5v. These are used for all types of portable electronic equipment, photographic equipment and toys. It is the type almost always used for automobile batteries.

Battery Cell Carbon zinc dry cell Dry Battery Lead Sulfuric Acid Cell

GEN ERAL F EATURES OF B ATTERIES  

It is combination of cells. It was used to supply enough current to heat the filament for thermoionic emission of electrons from a heated source.

14

Battery A Battery


Typical rating of A battery.

  

It was used for a small negative DC bias voltage at the control grid. A battery that has a medium voltage and current ratings This type of cell cannot be recharged.



This type of cell can be recharged because the chemical action is reversible.

   

The discharging and recharging of the cell is called _______. Secondary can be recharged. The most common type of secondary cell. In this type of cell, the electrolyte cannot be spilled and the cell can operate in any position. This type is a secondary cell that can be recharged, but it has a sealed electrolyte that cannot be refilled.



4.5 – 6 V with 150mA or more C Battery B Battery Primary Cells Secondary Cells Cycling Storage Cell Lead Acid Cell Dry Cells Sealed Rechargeable Cells

THE VOLTAIC C ELL   

The method of converting chemical energy into electric energy. Voltaic cell is also called a _______, named after Luigi Galvani. It gives relative activity in forming ion charges for some of the chemical elements.

Voltaic Cell Galvanic Cell Electromotive Series

CARBON – ZINC DRY C ELL     

This is probably the most common type of dry cell. It is also called the Leclanche cell. It consists of a zinc anode and a manganese dioxide cathode in a moist electrolyte. It is a combination of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride dissolved in water. The reaction in which the ammonia releases hydrogen gas which collects around the carbon electrode. Carbon – zinc dry cells are generally designed for an operating temperature of _______.

Carbon – Zinc Dry Cell Electrochemical System Electrolyte Polarization 70°F

ALKALIN E C ELL  

Type of cell which has an alkaline electrolyte. It consists of a powered zinc anode and a manganese dioxide cathode in an alkaline electrolyte.



The outstanding performance of the alkaline cell is due to its _________.



Low Internal Resistance

This type is actually a modified carbon – zinc cell but the electrolyte contains only zinc chloride.

Zinc Chloride Cells



Which is better for heavy duty use; alkaline or zinc chloride type?

Alkaline Cell

LITHIUM C ELL

15

Manganese – Zinc Cell Electrochemical System

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS   

       

This type is a relatively new primary cell. Lithium cell can provide at least _______ more energy than the equivalent carbon zinc cell. The sulfur dioxide is kept in a liquid state using a high pressure container and an organic liquid solvent. LEAD ACID WET C ELLS Where high values of load current are necessary, it is the type most commonly used. It is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid. It is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged. It is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions. These are generally rated in terms of how discharge current they can supply for a specified period of time. Typical values of automobile batteries. It is a ratio comparing the weight of a substance with the weight of water. It refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are always connected to each other for supplying current to the load.

Lithium Cell 10 times Lithium Sulfur Dioxide

Lead Acid Wet Cells Electrolyte Lead Acid Wet Cells Sulfuric Acid Lead Acid Batteries 100 – 300 AH Specific Gravity Float Charging

ADDITIONAL TYPES OF SECONDARY CELLS 



It is a storage cell that can be recharged by reversing the internal chemical reaction. It is the common type of storage cell. This type is popular because of its ability to deliver high current and to be cycled many times for recharging. It is a true storage cell with a reversible chemical reaction for recharging that can be cycled up to 1000 times. Developed by Thomas Edison, this cell was once extensively in industrial truck and railway applications. This type has been used in limited railway applications.



This cell has been under development for use in electric vehicles.



This type is under development for commercial energy applications.



This is another type of cell being developed for electric vehicle applications. The cell is designed to operate at temperature between 550 and 650°F. A recent development in battery technology is the rechargeable plastic cell made from a conductive polymer, which is a combination of organic chemical compounds. It consists of an electrolyte between two polymer electrodes. This type converts the sun’s light energy direct into electric energy.

   

  

Secondary Cells Lead Acid Cell Nickel Cadmium Cell NiCd Cell Nickel – Iron (Edison) Cell Nickel Zinc Cell Zinc Chlorine (Hydrate) Cell Lithium Iron Sulfide Cell Sodium Sulfur Cell

Plastic Cell Plastic Cell Solar Cell

CHAPTER 13: MAGNETISM INTRODUCTION 

It is derived from the iron oxide mineral magnetite.

16

Magnetism


It refers specifically to the magnetic properties of iron.

Ferromagnetism

THE M AGN ETIC F IELD       

These are the points of concentration of magnetic strength. The magnet can be considered as the _____ for an external magnetic field, provided by the two opposite poles at the ends. These are unaffected by non magnetic materials. The end of the magnet bar in which pointed at the North. The end of the magnet bar in which pointed at the South. A North Pole (N) and a South Poke (S) tend to _________ each other. A North Pole (N) tends to ________ another North Pole (N), which is also, can apply in the South Pole (S).

North and South Poles Generator Magnetic Field Lines North-seeking pole South-seeking pole Attract Repels

THE M AGN ETIC F LUX (Φ) 



The entire group of magnetic field lines, which can be considered to flow outward from the North Poke of a magnet. It has more lines of forces and more flux than a weak magnetic field. It is equal to one magnetic field. It can provide a magnetic flux of about 5000Mx. An important Scottish mathematical physicist who contributed much to the electrical and field theory. It is equal to 1 x 108 lines or maxwells.



The weber unit is named for _________, a German physicist.



This system defines small units.



This system is for larger units of a more practical size.



It provides a worldwide standard in MKS dimensions.

  

With magnetic flux, the maxwell is a _______ unit. The weber is a _________ unit. For science and engineering, the _______ units are preferred values.

   

Magnetic Flux (Φ) Strong magnetic field One Maxwell (Mx) 1-lb of magnet James Clark Maxwell (1831 – 1879) Weber Wilhelm Weber (1804 – 1890) Centimeter-gramsecond system (CGS) Meter-kilogram-second system (MKS) System International (SI) CGS MKS or SI unit SI units

FLUX D ENS ITY (B)  

It is the number of magnetic field lines per unit area of a section perpendicular to the direction of flux. In the CGS system, this unit is one line per square centimeter, or 1 Mx/cm2 .



The unit Gauss is named for ____________, a German mathematician.



As typical values, flux density for the earth’s magnetic field can be about __________. In SI, the unit of flux density is weber per square meter. One weber per square meter is called ___. The unit tesla is named for ___________, a Yugoslav-born American Inventor in electricity and magnetism.

 

17

Flux Density (B) Gauss Karl F. Gauss (1777 – 1855) 2G Tesla (T) Nikola Tesla (1857 – 1943)


INDUCTION BY THE M AGN ETIC F IELD     

The electric or magnetic effect of one body on another without any physical contact between them. The ability to concentrate magnetic flux. The flux density in air. The relative permeability of the iron core. Typical values of relative permeability for iron and steel.

Induction Permeability 1G 200 100 – 9000

AIR GAP OF A M AGNET  



The air space between poles of a magnet is its _______. When it is desired to concentrate magnetic lines within a magnet, however, the magnet can be formed as ___________. It is made in the form of a doughnut. It is often used for the core. This type of electromagnet has maximum strength in the iron ring, with little flux outside. The small part of the field in the air.



The principle of the closed magnetic ring is used to ______.



It maintains the strength of the permanent magnet as it becomes magnetized by induction to form a closed loop.

  

Air Gap Closed Magnetic Loop Toroid or Ring Magnet Iron Ring Magnet Leakage Flux Protect permanent magnet in storage. Keeper

TYPES OF M AGNET    

It needs current from an external source to maintain its magnetic field. With this magnet, not only is its magnetic field present without any external current, but the magnet can maintain its strength indefinitely. With the length much greater than its width, the coil is called ___. It is a switch with contacts that are opened or closed by an electromagnet.



Common application of electromagnet.





These are made of hard magnetic materials, such as cobalt steel, magnetized by induction in the manufacturing process. A common material of permanent magnet. A commercial alloy of aluminum. It is often used for permanent magnet loudspeakers.



A typical size for a steady magnetic field.

  

The point at which a magnetic material losses its ferromagnetic properties. The Curie temperature for iron. These include iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, and commercial alloys such as alnico and Permalloy. Permeability of the ferromagnetic materials. The relative permeability of Permalloy. These include aluminum, platinum, manganese, and chromium.



  

18

Electromagnet Permanent Magnet Solenoid Relay Magnetic Tape Recording Permanent Magnet Alnico Alnico V About 5 lb, with a flux of 500 – 25,000 lines or maxwells Curie Temperature 800°C Ferromagnetic Materials 50 – 50,000 100,000 Paramagnetic Materials


The permeability of the paramagnetic materials. These include bismuth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury, gold, and silver. The permeability of the diamagnetic materials.



The basis of all magnetic effects is the __________.



In terms of molecular structure, iron atoms are grouped in microscopically Domains small arrangements called ____. Each domain is an elementary ________, with two opposite poles. Dipole magnet In crystal form, the iron atoms have domains that are _______ to the axes of Parallel the crystal.

 

More than 1 Diamagnetic Materials Less than 1 Magnetic field associated with electric charges in motion.

FERRITES    

This is the name for nonmetallic materials that have the ferromagnetic properties of iron. The ferrites have __________ permeability. The permeability of ferrites. The specific resistance is ________, which makes the ferrite an insulator.



A common application of ferrite.



It is used in small coils and transformers for signal frequencies up to 20MHz. It is used as a string for one or more beads of ferrite beads. The purpose of this is to reduce the current just for an undesired radio frequency.

 

Ferrites Very high 50 – 3000 105 Ω.cm Ferrite core in the coils of RF transformers Ferrite Core Bare wire choke

M AGNETIC SHIELDING  

The idea of preventing one component from affecting another through their common electric or magnetic field. It is best for two shielding functions.



The best shield for a steady magnetic field is a ______________.



It is produced by a permanent magnet, a coil with steady direct current, or the earth’s magnetic field. The shield can be considered as a __________ for the lines of magnetic flux.



Shielding Good Conductor Good Magnetic Material of High Permeability Steady Field Short circuit

THE HALL EFFECT    

A small voltage is generated across a conductor carrying current in an external magnetic field. The semiconductor material __________ is generally used to produce larger values of Hall voltage. It is directly proportional to the value of flux density. Flux density of InAs.

19

Hall Effect Indium Arsenide (InAs) Hall Voltage (VH) 10kG


CHAPTER 14: MAGNETIC UNITS INTRODUCTION 

It is always associated with charges in motion.



The current supplies a _____________ that increases with the amount of current.



It produces a flux density that increases with the permeability of the medium.

Magnetic Field Magnetizing force or Magneto Motive Force (mmf) Field Intensity (H)

AMPERE – TURNS OF M AGNETO MOTIVE FORC E (MMF)     

With a coil magnet, the ________ depends on how many current flows in the turns of the coil. The more current, the ___________ the magnetic field It specifies the amount of magnetizing force or magnetic potential. With thinner wire, _______ turns can be used in a given space. The CGS unit of mmf is _________.



An English scientist who investigated the magnetism of the Earth.



One ampere-turn is equal to __________.

Strength of the Magnetic Field Stronger Quantity IN More Gilbert (Gb) William Gilbert (1540 – 1603) 1.26 Gb

FIELD INTENS ITY (H)    

It depends on how long the coil is. The field intensity for a solenoid is at the ___________. The field intensity for a iron core is at the ___________. The CGS unit for H is _________.



A Danish physicist who discovered electromagnetism



The unit for field intensity (H).

Field Intensity (H) Center of an air core Through the entire core Oersted (Oe) H. C. Oersted (1777 – 1851) Ampere – turns per meter

PERMEABILITY (µ)   

Using SI units, it is the flux density in webers per square meter. B It is the absolute permeability, in unit of B/H. Permeability (µ) The values of relative permeability (µr) must be multiplied by ______ for µo 1.26 x 10 -6 to calculate µ as B/H in SI units. B – H M AGNETIZATION CURVE

   

It is often used to show how much flux density (B) results from increasing the amount of field intensity (H). The current in the coil equals to ________. The __________ of magnetizing force increase with more current. The field intensity (H) increases with _________.

20

B – H Curve V/R Ampere – turns IN Higher IN


The __________ depends on the field intensity (H) and permeability of the iron. The effects of little change in flux density when the field intensity increases.

Flux Density (B) Saturation

M AGNETIC HYS TERES IS       

It means “a lagging behind”. The flux ________ the increases or decreases in magnetizing force. The energy wasted in heat as the molecular dipoles lag the magnetizing force. It is actually a B – H curve with an AC magnetizing force. The value of flux density in which is residual induction of a magnetic material. The value of -HC, which is equals the magnetizing force that must be applied in the reverse direction to reduce the flux density to zero. The method of demagnetization.

Hysteresis Lags Hysteresis Loss Hysteresis Loop Retentivity Coercive Force Degaussing

CHAPTER 15: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION INTRODUCTION     

He found that current in a wire could move a magnetic compass needle. A magnetic field in motion forces electrons to move, producing ___________. The Henry unit of inductance is named after __________. The farad unit of capacitance is named after __________. It combines effect of an electric current and magnetism.

Oersted Current Joseph Henry Michael Faraday Electromagnetism

M AGNETIC F IELD AROUND AN ELECTRIC CURRENT      

The magnetic lines are ________, as the field is symmetrical with respect to the wire in the center. The magnetic field with circular lines of force is in a _____________ to the current in the wire. If you look along the wire in the direction of electron flow, the magnetic field is ___________. The opposite direction of electron flow produces a ___________. When the magnetic lines of two fields are in the same direction, _______________. With the magnetic lines in opposite directions, ___________.

Circular Plane Perpendicular Counterclockwise Reversed Field The lines of force aid each other. The fields cancel.

M AGNETIC POLARITY OF A COIL   

A coil of a wire conductor with more than one turn is generally called _________. An ideal solenoid has a length much greater than its ___________. If the coil is grasped with the fingers of the left hand curled around the coil in the direction of electron flow, the thumb points to the ______________.

21

Solenoid Diameter North Pole of the coil.


It is used here because the current is electron flow.



The magnetic polarity depends on the ______________.



It can be over and under, starting from one end of the coil, or under and over with respect to the same starting point.

Left Hand Rule Direction of the current and the direction of the winding Direction of winding

INDUCED CURRENT  

The action in which the motion of magnetic lines cutting across a conductor forces free electrons in the conductor to move. It is the result of generator action as the mechanical work put into moving the magnetic field is converted into electric energy when current flows in the conductor.

Induction Induced Current Current flows in the direction shown. No current



When the magnet is moved downward, _____________.

 

Without motion, there is ________ current It is necessary in order to have the flux lines of the magnetic field cut across Motion the conductor. The conductor must be ___________ to make its induced current have an Perpendicular associated magnetic field in the same plane as the external flux. The effect of electromagnetic induction is increased where a __________ is Coil used for the conductor.

 

LENZ’ L AW  

It is simply states that the direction of the induced current must be such that its own magnetic field will oppose the action that produced the induced current. The direction of the induced current is determined by the ________ for electron flow.

Lenz’ Law Left – Hand Rule

GEN ERATING AN INDUCED VOLTAGE     

It is an electromotive force (emf), generated by the work of cutting across the flux. With a coil, the induced emf is increased by the ___________. The polarity of the induced voltage follows from the direction of ____________. It represents a voltage source with a potential difference resulting from the separation of charges produced by electromagnetic induction In a motor, current is applied so that an associated magnetic field can react with the external flux to produce __________

Potential Differe nce Number of turns Induced Current Induced voltage as a generator Motion of the conductor

FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCED VO LTAGE   

The more magnetic lines of force that cut across the conductor, the _________ the amount of induced voltage. The more turns in a coil, the ___________ the induced voltage It is the sum of all individual voltages generated in each turn in series.

22

Higher Higher v ind


The __________ the flux cuts a conductor, the higher the induced voltage. The amount of induced voltage can be calculated by ___________. It means a change in the flux φ. It means a change in time.



A smaller value of dφ/dt, results in a _______________.



If the external flux increases, the magnetic field of the induced current will be in the ____________. The induced voltage has the polarity the __________ the change.



Faster Faraday’s Law dφ dt Lower value of induced voltage. Opposite Direction Opposes

CHAPTER 16: LATERNARING VOLTAGE and CURRENT INTRODUCTION    

The number of cycles per second is the frequency whose unit is ________. It is equal to one cycle per second. In alternating current, it reverses polarity at a specific rate. For either polarity, it varies in amplitude.

Hertz (Hz) One Hertz Voltage AC Voltage

ALTERN ATING C URRENT APPLICATIONS 

It is the reason why AC circuits have so many applications.



The changing magnetic flux of a varying current can produce ____________. It is important with the changing electric field of a varying voltage.



Characteristics of Varying Values Induced Voltage Capacitance (C)

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES FOR A S INE WAVE        

It is the maximum value VM or IM. It applies to either the positive or the negative peak. These values can be used for either current or voltage to define specific magnitudes for comparing one wave with another. In order to include both peak amplitudes, the _________may be specified. This is an arithmetic average of all the values in a sine wave for one alternation, or half-cycle. The most common method of specifying the amount of a sine wave of voltage or current is by relating it to DC voltage and current that will produce the same heating effect. The advantage of _______ is that is provides a measure based on the ability of the sine wave to produce power. The ratio of the RMS to average values.

Peak Value Peak, Average, or RMS Peak-to-peak Value Average Value Root Mean Square or Effective Value RMS Form Factor

NON-S INUS IODAL AC WAVEFORMS 

It is the basic waveform for AC variations for several reasons.



Any waveform that is not sine or cosine wave.

23

Sine Wave Non-Sinusoidal Waveform

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS       

It is measured between two points having the same amplitude and varying in the same direction. It is measured from the zero axes to the maximum positive or negative value. The RMS values of 0.707 of maximum apply only to _________. It is applied only to sine wave, as angular measures are used only for sine waves. All the waveforms represent ____________. It represents a voltage that slowly increases, with a uniform or linear rate of change, to its peak value, and then drops sharply to its starting value. Waveform of the sawtooth.

Cycle Peak Amplitude Sine Wave Phase Angles AC Voltage Sawtooth Wave Ramp Voltage

HARMONIC FREQUENCIES   

Exact multiples of the fundamental frequency. These are useful in analyzing distorted sine waves or non-sinusoidal waveforms. Unit for frequencies multiples which is a range of 2:1.

Harmonic Frequencies Harmonics Octave

THE 60 – HZ AC POWER LIN E             

The 120 V source of commercial electricity is the _________, indicating it is the main line for all the parallel branches. The incoming electric service to residences is normally given as ________. The advantage of AC over DC power is ___________. Frequency of the AC power line in the United States. Frequency of the AC power mains in the England and most European countries is __________. The 60 Hz power line frequency is maintained accurate to _________. The color coding for the grounded neutral wiring. The color coding for the high side wiring The color coding for the grounded wiring The three – wire service with a grounded neutral. It is grounded at the service entrance to a water pipe or metal rode driven into the earth. It is the practice of connecting one side of the power line to the earth or ground. It is a device that can sense excessive leakage current and open the circuit as a protection against shock hazard.

60Hz Power Lines or the Mains 120VRMS Greater Efficiency 60Hz 50Hz ±0.333% White Black or Red Green Edison System Neutral Wire Grounding Ground – Fault Circuit Interrupter (GCFI)

MOTORS AND GENERATORS     

It converts mechanical energy into electric energy. It can converts electricity into a rotary motion. In a generator, it connects to the external circuit to provide the generator output voltage. In a motor, it connects to the electrical source that drives the motor. It is often constructed in the form of a drum, using many conductor loops for increased output.

24

Generator Motor Armature Armature Armature




The rotating armature is the ______ part of the assembly. This electromagnet provides the flux cut by the rotor. In a motor, it is produced by the same source that supplies the armature. In a generator, it may be obtained from a separate exciter source. Residual magnetism in the iron yoke of the field allows _________ to start. When the field winding is stationary, it is the ______ part of the assembly. It enables the rotating loop to be connected to the stationary wire leads for the external circuit. These graphite connectors are spring mounted to brush against the spinning rings on the rotor. It converts the AC machine to DC operation.



The rotor of an inductor motors may be ______

 

It is constructed with a frame of metal bars. This type operates on either alternating or direct current because the field and armature are in series. For large power requirements, It is usually a rotating field, while the armature is the stator.





Rotor Field Winding Field Winding Field Winding Self-excited Generator Stator Slip Rings Brushes Commutator Wire wound or squirrel caged type Rotors Universal Motor Alternators

THREE – PHAS E AC POWER 



In an alternator with three generator windings equally spaced around the circle, the windings will produce output voltages _________ with each other.

120° out of phase

The three windings are in the form of a Y also called _______.

Wye or Star Connections

CHAPTER 17: INDUCTANCE INTRODUCTION     

It is the ability of a conductor to produce induced voltage when the current varies. Components manufactured to have definite value of inductance are just coils of wires called _________. The unit of inductance. These are used in RF circuits because higher frequencies need less inductance for the required inductive effect. These are used in the audio frequency range and for lower frequencies in general.

Inductance Inductors Henry Air – Core Coils Iron – Core Inductors

M UTUAL INDUCTANCE L M    

When the current in an inductor changes, the varying flux can cut across any other inductor nearby, producing _____ in both inductors. Two coils have ______ of 1H when a current change of 1A/s in one coil induces 1V in the other coil. Any magnetic lines that do not link the two coils result in ________. The fraction of total flux.

25

Induced Voltage Mutual Inductance Leakage Flux Coefficient of Coupling


A high value of coefficient of coupling It allows the current in one coil to induce less voltage in the other coil. It increases with higher values for the primary and secondary inductances and tighter coupling.

Tight Coupling Loose Coupling Mutual Impedance

TRANS FORMERS 

It is an important application of mutual inductance.



The purpose of the transformer is to ________.



It is used to provide power for the load resistance instead of connecting it directly across the generator, whenever the load requires an AC voltage higher or lower than the generator voltage. The ratio of the number of turns in the primary to the number in the secondary. The ratio of the voltage induced in each turn of the secondary and primary. It is the inverse of the voltage ratio. The voltage step – up in the secondary means current step – down, and vice versa. It consists of the one continuous coil with a tapped connection. These are used often because they are compact, efficient, and usually cost less since they have only one winding. The secondary is not connected directly to the AC power line in the primary produces _________. It is defined as the ratio of power out to power in. For the RF transformer, the color code of the output electrode of transistor amplifier. For the RF transformer, the color code of the DC supply voltage for this electrode. For the RF transformer, the color code of the input electrode of next amplifier. For the RF transformer, the color code of the return line of secondary winding. For the power transformer, the color code of the primary leads without tap. For the power transformer, the color code of the tap on primary For the power transformer, the color code of the high voltage secondary to rectifier in power supply. For the power transformer, the color code of the tap on high voltage secondary. For the power transformer, the color code of the low voltage secondary.

              

Transformer Transfer primary voltage to the secondary. Transformer Turn Ratio Voltage Ratio Current Ratio Auto Transformers Reducing the chance of the electric shock. Transformer Efficiency Blue Red Green Black or White Black Black with Yellow Red Red with Yellow Green - Yellow

CORE LOSS ES   

It flows in a circular path through the cross section of the core. It represents wasted power dissipated as heat in the core. It not only isolates the coil from external varying magnetic fields, but also minimizes the effect of the coil’s RF current for external circuits. It is the result from the additional power needed to reserve the magnetic field in magnetic materials in the presence of alternating current.

26

Eddy Current RF Shield Cover Hysteresis Losses


It is limited to low values in the microhenry or millihenry range.

Inductance for small coils with an air core

TYPES OF CORE     

The purpose of _______ is to reduce the amount of eddy currents. It is a shell-type core formed with a group of individual laminations. It is generally use to reduce eddy currents in the iron core of an inductance for radio frequencies. Powdered iron core consists of individual insulated granules pressed into one solid form called _______. It can be for high frequencies with minimum eddy current losses.

Core Laminated Core Powdered Iron Core Slug Ferrite Core

CHAPTER 18: INDUCTIVE REACTANCE       

INTRODUCTION It indicates reactances. It is an opposition to current, measured in ohms. The amount of XL is equal to _________. HOW XL RED UCES THE AMOUNT OF I The higher the frequency of the alternating current, the _____ is the XL opposition. There is no XL for _________. An inductance can have _______ to reduce the amount of alternating current. The ________ value depends on the amount of inductance and the frequency of the alternating current.

X Reactance 2πfL

Higher Steady Direct Current Inductive Reactance Inductive Reactance

CHAPTER 19: INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS INTRODUCTION 

It is use as a choke to reduce the current.

Coil

SIN E WAVE IL LAGS VL BY 90° 

It can be measured between any two points having the same value on the iL and vL values.

90° Difference



Why the phase angle is 90°?

Because the v L depends on the rate of the change of iL.

XL AND R IN S ERIES   

When a coil has series resistance, the current is limited by _______. Voltage VL is _______ with I. It just shows the 90° angle without any addition.

27

Both XL and R 90° out of phase Phasor


IMPED ANCE Z TRIANGLE 

A triangle of R and XL in series corresponds to the voltage triangle.



The angle between the generator voltage and its current.



It is a trigonometric function of any angle, equal to the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side of a triangle. The angle that has the tangent equal to ________. It specifies the angle’s tangent function as a numerical value. In a _______ circuit, the higher value of XL compared of R, the more inductive the circuit is.

  

Impedance Triangle Phase angle of the circuit Tangent 1 - 45° Ratio of XL/R Series

CHAPTER 26: RESONANCE INTRODUCTION  

The main application of this is in RF circuits for tuning to an AC signal of the desired frequency. It can select a particular frequency for the output, with many different frequencies at the input.

Resonance Resonant Circuit

THE R ES ONANCE EFFECT       



It increases as the frequency is increased. It decreases with higher frequencies. This case of equal and opposite reactances. The AC circuit can be called _________. It can be resonant. It all depends on the frequency. The frequency at which the opposite reactances are equal. In this use, the LC circuit provides maximum voltage output at the resonant frequency, compared with amount at any other frequency either below or above resonance.

Inductive Reactance Capacitive Reactance Resonance Resonant Circuit LC Circuits Resonant Frequency

One of the applications of resonance.

Tuning in Radio and Television

Tuning

SERIES RES ONANCE   

In a series AC circuit, the inductive reactance _______ by 90°, compared with the zero reference angle of resistance. In a series AC circuit, the capacitive reactance _______ by 90°, compared with the zero reference angle of resistance. The series resonance should be ______________ for a sharp increase in current at resonance.



The main characteristic of series resonance.



Below the resonant frequency, the _________ is small.

28

Leads Lags As small as possible The amount rise of current to its maximum at the resonant frequency XL


Above the resonant frequency, the ________ is small. At the resonant frequency, __________ are equal. The impedance of the series circuit. The current is ____________ at the resonant frequency. The current is ____________ with the generator voltage, or the phase voltage of the circuit is 0°. The voltage is ____________ across either L or C alone. The impendence is __________ at resonant frequency.

XC XC and XL Minimum Maximum In phase Maximum minimum

PARALLEL R ES ONANCE  

At parallel resonance, the line current is __________. At parallel resonance, the impedance is __________.



The main application of parallel resonance.



At the resonant frequency of 1000 kHz, the line current is at its minimum value of ___________. It is at minimum at the resonant frequency. The line current is _____________ with the generator voltage, or the phase angle of the circuit is 0°. The impedance is ______ at the resonant frequency. A parallel resonant LC circuit is called __________. The ability of the LC circuit to supply complete sine waves. The process of producing sine waves after a pulse of energy has been applied.

     

Minimum Maximum LC circuit as the load impedance 0.000133µA Line Current In phase Maximum Tank Circuit Flywheel Effect Ringing

CHAPTER 27: FILTERS INTRODUCTION   

It separates different components that are mixed together. It can separate particles from liquid or small particles from large particles. It can separate different frequency components.



These are used for filtering.



Most common filtering applications.

Filters Mechanical Filter Electrical Filter Inductors and Capacitors Separating audio from radio frequencies.

DIRECT CURRENT COMBIN ED WITH A LTERNATING CURRENT 

Current that varies in amplitude but does not reverse in polarity.



The effect in which the DC component has been inserted into the AC variations. The AC component that consists of the variations above and below the DC axis. As a common application, __________ always have fluctuating DC voltage or Current when used from amplifying an AC signal.

 

29

Pulsating or Fluctuating DC DC Insertion AC Ripple Transistor


It isolates or blocks steady direct current in the primary.

Transformer with a separate secondary winding

TRANS FORMER COUPLING   

It produces induced secondary voltage just for variations in primary current. It corresponds to a steady value of primary current that has a constant magnetic field. The phase of the AC secondary voltage may be _________, depending on the connections and direction of the windings.

Transformer DC Axis 180° opposite

CAPAC ITOR COUPLING      

This method is probably the most common type of coupling in amplifier circuits. It means connecting the output of one circuit to the input of the next. It is effectively a high pass filter for pulsating direct current. It blocks the steady DC voltage but passes the AC component. It is the steady DC component of the input voltage in the RC coupling circuit. In RC coupling circuit, when vin decreases below the average level, __________.

Capacitor Coupling Coupling RC Coupling Circuit Capacitance Voltage across CC The capacitor loses charge

B YPASS CAPACITORS  

It is path around a component. Bypass These are often used in parallel with resistance to bypass the AC component Capacitors of a pulsating DC voltage.



FILTER C IRC UITS It allows the lower frequency components of the applied voltage to develop output voltage across the load resistance. It allows the higher frequency components of the applied voltage to develop voltage across the output load resistance. The case of RC coupling circuit is an example of _________.



With higher frequencies in the AC components, ____________.

 

Most common types of filters. The _____________uses coupling capacitance in series with the load or choke inductance in parallel in the load The __________ uses inductance in series or bypass capacitance in parallel with the load.

 



Low – Pass Filters High – Pass Filters High – Pass Filters More AC voltage is coupled. L, T, and π High – Pass Filters Low – Pass Filters

LOW – PASS FILTERS   

The ability to reduce the amplitude of undesired frequencies. The frequency at which the attenuation reduces the output to 70.7 percent response. Frequency lower than the cut – off frequency.

30

Attenuation Cut – Off Frequency Passband

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS     

Frequency higher than the cut – off frequency. A low resistance generator needs the ____________ so that the choke can provide a high series impedance for the bypass capacitor. It is more suitable with a high resistance generator where the input capacitor can be effective as a bypass. Filters that uses only capacitors, inductors, and resistors. Filters that uses the operational amplifiers (op amp) on an IC chip, with R and C.

Stopband T Filter π Filter Passive Filters Active Filters

HIGH – PASS FILTERS    

It passes to the load all frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. Filter that allows a band of frequencies to be coupled to the load. Its purpose is to have the filter present constant impedance at the input and output terminals. The design is based on the ratio of the filter cutoff frequency to the frequency of infinite attenuation.

High – Pass Filter Bandpass Filter Constant – K Filter The m-derived Filter

RES ONANT FILTERS    

It provides a convenient method of filtering a band of radio frequencies. Filters that prevents a band of frequencies from being coupled to the load. In the application of a bandstop filter to suppress certain frequencies, the LC circuit is often called __________. It has maximum current and minimum impedance at the resonant frequency.



It has maximum impedance at the resonant frequency.

 

Filters which uses quartz crystals. The characteristic of some crystals in which can be made to vibrate by a voltage input or produce voltage output when it is compressed, expanded, or twisted. Crystal used in crystal filters.



Tuned Circuits Bandstop Filter Wavetrap Series Resonant Circuit Parallel Resonant Circuit Crystal Filters Piezoelectric Effect Lead Titanate

INTERFERENCE F ILTERS  

It is a conductor for interfering RF currents produced by motors, fluorescent, lightning circuits, and RF equipments. Filters that attenuate frequencies below 54MHz, which is lowest frequency for channel 2.

Power – Line Filters Television Antenna Filter

CHAPTER 28: ELECTRONIC DEVICES INTRODUCTION 

A group of chemical elements with special electrical characteristic and has a unique atomic structure that allows the addition of specific impurity

31

Semiconductor




elements to produce useful features that can be applied in electronic circuits. Most common semiconductors.

Silicon and Germanium

SEMICONDUCTORS    

Materials that are not as good as the metals as electrical conductors but they are not insulators. Electron valence of all semiconductor elements. Atomic number of silicon. A combination of atoms sharing groups of valence electrons.



All semiconductor devices are ____________, generally using silicon.

     

Semiconductor that doesn’t have impurities. _________ is the common source of silicon. Silicon Dioxide. The year where the element silicon was discovered. The year where the element germanium was discovered. Germanium is recovered from the ___________.



Germanium has only about ________ the resistance of Silicon.



1 1000

The process of adding impurity elements that result in the desired electrical characteristics.

Doping



Doped semiconductor is also called _________.



Doping elements for N-type.



Doping elements for P-type.



The one missing electron in such a covalent bond that is considered as a free positive charge. The charge that is same amount as a proton, equal to that of an electron but with opposite polarity. Electron flow in P-type semiconductor. When the majority charges are made to move in a semiconductor by an applied voltage, the result is a relatively large amount of ___________.

   

Very small current of minority charges.



________ is an atom, with it nucleus, where the atom has a net charge, either positive or negative.

Semiconductor ±4 14 Covalent Bond Solid-State Components Intrinsic Sand 1823 1886 Ash of certain coals

Extrinsic Semiconductor Arsenic, Antimony, or Phosphorus Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, or Indium Hole Hole Charge Hole Current Forward Current or Easy Current Reverse Current or Leakage Current Ion

THE PN J UNCTION     

_________ provides an internal contact potential, which is 0.7v for silicon and 0.3v for germanium. Width of the PN junction. The combination of opposite charge in the PN junction that is neutral. External voltage of Silicon External voltage of Germanium

32

PN junction 10 -4 cm Electron-hole pairs 0.7 V 0.3 V


The barrier voltage is higher for a ____________ because its lower atomic number allows more stability in the covalent bonds. _________ of the junction is characteristic of the element. Because of its neutral electron-hole pairs, the junction area is considered as ____________. It has no free charge carriers that can be moved. Barrier voltage ______ when higher than room temperature is applied. Connection of wire conductors without any barrier potential.

Silicon Junction Barrier Voltage (Vb) Depletion Zone Decreases Ohmic Contact

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES         

A _________ is essentially a PN junction. The CR stands for ___________ in the schematic diagrams. ________ is the positive side of the diode. ________ is the negative side of the diode. This function is converting ac input from the 60Hz power line to dc output. A rectifier that only using one diode. It uses a diode to rectify a modulated signal in order to recover the modulating signal. In these circuits, the diode functions as a switch. It is on when the diode conducts and off without conduction.



Diode that can use for electronic tuning.

     

Common current for rectifiers. The stud mount type of diode generally has ____________. Type of power supply that requires four diodes. The PIV rating for popular diode is typically __________. Rating of maximum forward current. The value that can be used across the diode in reverse polarity, negative at the anode, without disrupting the electrical characteristics of the junction.

Diode Crystal Rectifier Anode Cathode Power-Supply Rectifier Half-Wave Rectifier Signal Detector Digital Logic Gates Capacitive Diode (Varactor) 1A High Current Ratings. Bridge Rectifiers 1000 V 1-25 A Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

PNP AND NPN TRANS IS TORS  

A component consists of a P or N semiconductor between opposite types. The function of emitter in the transistor.



The function of base in the transistor.



The function of collector in the transistor.

   

With the N-type base, the transistor is _________. Most small transistors are _________ type. Most small transistors are made of ___________. In schematic diagram of transistor, the arrow indicates the flow of current to Emitter the __________. In the transistor schematic diagram, if the arrow is pointed to the base, the PNP transistor is _________ type. Bipolar Junction The NPN and PNP types are called __________. Transistors Three terminals of BJT. Collector, base, emitter Bipolar junction transistor is a __________ device. Current-controlled

   

33

Transistor Supplies free charges Controls the flow of charges Collects the charges from the emitter PNP NPN Silicon

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS          

With three electrodes, the transistor is considered a _________. Practically, all __________ in electronics circuits use transistors. Transistors are the main components in _________. The transistor was invented in ______ at Bell Telephone Laboratories. The name transistor is derived from ________, meaning that it can transfer its internal resistance from low resistor in the emitter-base circuit to a much higher resistor in the collector-base circuit. This junction has forward voltage applied across the PN or NP junction in order to allow the free charges of the emitter to move into the base. Typically, ________ is a normally off device because it needs forward voltage applied to start conducting. The function of this junction is to remove charges from the base. Practically, _____ transistors take dc supply voltage at the collector for reverse voltage. The typical values of dc supply voltage of transistor depending on the power rating of the transistor.



The reverse voltage across the collector-base junction means _________.

   

The ________ has heavy doping to supply free charges. The ________ has only light doping and is very thin. The ________ voltage is relatively high. For typical amplifiers, the actual _________ may have a lower value than the supply voltage because of voltage drops in the circuit. Typically, _________ or more of the emitter charges provide collector current. It is standard practice to consider _________ into semiconductor as the positive direction of current. For most transistors, ____ is in microamperes or milliamperes. _______ is in milliamperes or in amperes in power transistors. The factor why a transistor can amplify signal input is because the base current controls the _________ current The increase of base current means increase of ________. To produce current, the emitter-base junction must have at enough ___________. For a silicon transistor, the typical values of V BE are _______. With enough VBE to provide emitter current, the transistor can produce __________.

        

Triode Amplifiers IC chips 1948 Transresistor Emitter-Base Junction Junction Transistor Collector-Base Junction NPN 3-100v No majority current can flow from collector to base Emitter Base Collector Electrode Voltage 98-99% Hole current IB IC and IE Collector Collector current Forward voltage 0.5-0.7v Amplification

FIELD-EFFECT TRANS IS TOR (FET)      

This semiconductor device is an amplifier with the same function as a junction transistor. It is a unipolar device. FET input resistance is very high. The typical value is _______. FET is a ___________ device. Three terminals of FET. A part of FET that serves as a platform on which the other electrodes are diffused.

34

Field-Effect Transistor (FET) 15MΩ Voltage-controlled Drain, source, and gate Bulk or substrate


This is the terminal where the charge carriers enter the channel bar to provide current through the channel. This is the terminal where current leaves the channel. This terminal controls the conductance of the channel between the source and drain. The input voltage is generally applied to this terminal. Terminals that has no polarity since they are just ohmic contacts. ________ Voltage at the gate induces negative charges in the channel. It consists of a metal electrode for the gate separated from the channel by a thin layer of silicon oxide. In IGFET, _________ is used to apply a voltage to the gate to induce charges in the channel.



Two type of IGFET.

   

The depletion type of IGFET is a normally _____-device. In EIA, IGFET depletion-enhancement type C requires _______. In EIA, IGFET depletion-enhancement type A takes _______for a middle value of drain current. In EIA, IGFET depletion-enhancement type B can operate with _______.



JFET means ___________.



Source Drain Gate Source and drain positive Insulated-Gate FET (IGFET) Electrostatic induction Depletion and enhancement mode On Positive gate bias Negative gate bias Zero gate current Junction Field-Effect Transistor

THYRIS TORS      

This name is a general term for semiconductor devices like the silicon controlled rectifier and the triac often used for power-control circuits. A solid-state electronic switch for high values of current in the range of amperes. The name thyristor comes from an older device called a _________, which is a gas-filled tube formerly used for similar applications. The thyristor is a __________ device. Reverse voltage at any junction of thyristor prevents _________ between the two end terminals It is a power rectifier device that needs a forward gate voltage to start conduction. It is considered as a reverse-blocking triode thyristor.



Terminals of SCR.

     

Typical values for the gate electrode of SCR. Typical value of gate current of SCR. The minimum value of anode current needed to sustain conduction. The value needed to switch the anode circuit on from the off condition. The latching current is typically _______ times more than the holding current. The thyristor device which is equivalent to a bidirectional SCR.



The triac can supply power to the load for both _________.



This thyristor is a two-terminal device without a gate electrode. It is used as a bidirectional trigger diode. The typical value of firing potential of the diac.



35

Thyristors

Thyratron PNPN Forward current Silicon Controller Rectifier (SCR) Anode, cathode, and gate 1-3V 10-20mA Holding Current Latching Current Three Triac Half-cycles of the AC input Diac 30V


True or false, unijunction transistor not a transistor amplifier. A negative resistance characteristic of UJT means that the current _________ with less voltage. The power rating of UJT is __________. The name ______________ is sometimes used for UJT. Maximum emitter current of UJT is ______.

True Increases Less than 1 W. Double-base diode 8-20mA

SEMICONDUCTOR TYPE NUMBERS AND CAS E STYLES  

In EIA, the letter __ indicates a semiconductor device. In JIS, the letter __ indicates a semiconductor device.



The semiconductor packaging is standardized by _________.

 

Case styles labeled TO is for ________. ____________ is a metal chassis or any metal structure that conducts heat away from the transistor. True or false, transistor gets hot in normal operation from the collector current. The ______ package is for the high-power applications. Typically, small-signal transistors generally have a maximum power dissipation of ____________. Small-signal transistors have a collector current of ____. Package case of medium-power transistor. Typical power rating of medium-power transistor. Typical collector current rating of medium-power transistor. Typical power rating of TO-220 transistor. Typical collector current rating of TO-220 transistor. Typical power rating of TO-3 transistor. Typical collector current rating of TO-3 transistor.

          

N S Joint Electronic Device Engineering Council (JEDEC) Transistor outline Heat sink True TO-3 200 to 800 mW 1-50 mA TO-5 5W 2A 10W 4A 25-100 W 5A

SPECIAL-PURPOS E DIODES           

A semiconductor diode is just a _________. The main use of semiconductor diode. This semiconductor device is also called a capacitive diode. With reverse voltage of the varactor, the _________ enables the junction to serve as a capacitance because of the separated charges in the depletion zone. The capacitance values in the varactor are in _______ range. The amount of _______ of the varactor can be controlled by varying the reverse voltage. The __________ is negative at then anode of the varactor. The __________ determines the oscillator frequency of the varactor. Across the tuned circuit, that varactor provides ________ as part of capacitance that determines the resonant frequency. Also known as the voltage-reference diode. The name Zener diode is named after __________, who analyzed the voltage breakdown of insulators.

36

PN Junction Rectification Varactor Barrier Voltage Pico farad Capacitance Reverse voltage LC tuned circuit Capacitance (CV) Zener Diode C.A. Zener

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS               

Typical reverse breakdown voltage of the Zener diode. In a Zener diode, the __________ is constant as a reference value that can be used for voltage regulation. The name ____________ is also used for a Zener diode. Another term for a tunnel diode. ___________ can cause a tunneling effect of charge carriers through the depletion zone at junction. __________ is a low-power device for microwave frequencies, with relative freedom from radiation effects. For best efficiency for LED, special compounds of __________ are used. In Light-emitting diodes, a ________ radiates light when current passes through the unit. Type of voltage used in LED. Typical voltage value of LED to produce a forward current Typical value of forward current of LED. These are made of a photosensitive material, where the resistance decreases with more light. Material used in photocells. The resistance without light. Typically range of the dark resistance.

3 to 100 V Voltage Avalanche Diode Esaki Diode Heavy doping Tunnel diode Gallium (Ga) PN junction Forward Voltage 1.6 V 20mA Photocells Sulfide Dark Resistance Mega ohms

VIS UAL CHARACTER DIS PLAYS         

The ________________ has more elements of display than the sevensegment display device. The __________ is displayed by having all seven segments lit. The _________ uses a combination of five columns of dots vertically with seven horizontal rows. In dot matrix, how many combinations of dots can be lit? The complete assortment of characters is called _______. The type of package of seven-segment display. The __________ display uses thin filaments for each segment, similar to those in regular light bulbs. The display that requires relatively high voltage and emits orange glow. The __________ display gives off a greenish glow and operates at lower voltages.



The very common display which is usually has a red glow.

  

The newer display that creates black characters on a silver background. In actual applications, IC units called _________ are used to activate the segments for desired number. The ____ is formed when segments a, b, and c are lit in LED display.



Segments on the LCD are driven by ___________.



True or false, direct current must be used to LCD.

37

Dot Matrix Digit 8 Dot Matrix Display 35 Font DIP package Incandescent Gas-discharge Tube Fluorescent Light-emitting diode Display Liquid Crystal Display Decoder/drivers 7 Low-frequency AC signals False, it must not use cause it will damage them.

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS VAC UUM TUBES      

     

A ________ has a glass envelope enclosing metal electrodes in a vacuum. A ________ is heated to emit electrons. A ________ is a two-terminal device, since the heater connections are not considered as electrodes. In diode tube, the _________ is connected to a power source to heat the cathode to a high temperature, which emits electrons. A ________ has three electrodes: cathode, plate, and control-grid electrode.

The _____ is a fine metal wire wrapped around two supports placed in the space between the cathode and anode. It connected to a base pin so that its voltage determines how many electrons can travel from the cathode to the plate. For small triode amplifier tubes, typical values of positive plate voltage are ______. This tube has an additional grid, resulting in four electrodes. The ___________ purpose is to screen the plate from the control gird, in order to reduce the amount of capacitance between the two electrodes. The screen grid must have _________ applied. This tube has one more electrode which is placed between the plate and the screen grid. The _________ purpose is to suppress secondary emission form the plate.

Vacuum Tube Cathode Diode Tube Heater or filament Triode Tube

Control Grid

90 to 300 V Tetrode Screen Grid Positive DC voltage Pentode Suppressor Grid

TES TING DIODES , TRANS IS TORS , AND THYRIS TORS        

It can be used to check either for an open circuit or a short circuit. In an ohmmeter, short indicated practically in ________. In an ohmmeter, open circuit indicated practically in ________. When the ratio of reverse to forward resistance is _______, the diode is probably good. When both the forward and reverse resistances are very low, close to zero, the diode junction is ___________. When _____________ are very high, close to infinite, the diode probably has an open at the terminal. When the forward voltage for VBE is 0.6 to 0.7 V, the transistor is _________. When the forward voltage for VBE is 0.2 to 0.3 V, the transistor is _________.

Ohmmeter Zero Ohms Infinite Ohms Very High Short Circuit Forward and reverse resistance Silicon Germanium

CHAPTER 29: ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS INTRODUCTION  

Two common types of semiconductor devices that make it possible to have so many applications of electronics. One of the main applications of transistors.

38

Transistor and Diodes Amplifier Circuit


A device that increases the magnitude or amplitude of signal variations to make the desired signal stronger.



_________ combines transistors and diodes in one unit.



Transistor or diode that not in an IC chip because the part is complete itself.

Amplifier Integrated Circuit (IC) chip Discrete Component

ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS          

__________ consists mainly of amplifiers for voltage or current variations that are smooth and continuous. __________ provide electronic switching of voltage pulses. The analog form is generally called a ________ type of IC unit because analog information deals with proportional values. The ________ in electronic circuits are changes in voltage and current that corresponds to the desired information. The electrical variations have a direct relation to the changes that represent the information. A _________ consists of a train of pulses for the voltage or current. The pulse in digital signal is called ___________. Group of bits is called ___________. A word can have up to _______ bits. An 8-bit word is called __________.

Analog Circuits Digital Circuits Linear Signal Analog Signal Digital Signal Bit Word 32 byte

AMPLIFIER GAIN  

 

An amplifier circuit has ability to _________ the amount of signal. Defined as the ratio of output signal to input signal. Measurement of amplifier circuit. ___________ is a general form of symbol of amplifier. Typical values of voltage gain for transistor amplifier circuits. The amplifier can be considered as a _________ circuit because it can reverse the polarity of the signal. It is more important in amplifier is the ________ of the output signal. True or false: there are no units for current gain it is a ratio of the same two units of current. Typical values of current gain with transistors. The product of the voltage gain times the current gain.



A high value of power gain for an amplifier means _________.



True of False: IC chips have higher power rating than discrete transistor.

 

Each amplifier circuit with one transistor is called ________. When the output terminal of one stage drives the input terminal of the next stage, the two stages are connected in __________. In amplifier stages that are in cascaded form, the total gain is __________.

    



39

Increase Gain Triangle 10 to 2000 Inverter Current Gain True 1 to 500 Power Gain It can drive a load that requires appreciable voltage and current False, discrete is higher than the IC chip Stage Cascade Multiplied

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS CHARACTERIS TICS OF AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS       

Transistors are called a _________ because it can amplify the signal. Resistors, inductors, and capacitors are considered _________. The ________ reduces the amount of current. Resistance provides a __________ which is equal to IR. A ________ can charge and discharge with changes in voltage. Capacitive reactance _________ for higher frequencies. Capacitor is practically an __________ circuit.



The functions of capacitors in amplifier circuits are;



   

Typical value that is commonly used for a coupling or bypass capacitor in audio amplifiers. Typical value that is commonly used for RF circuits. A ___________ allows direct current with dc voltage applied. The amount of inductive reactance _______ with higher frequencies and more inductive. Inductors are used where it is desired to have _________ for alternating current. Both inductor and capacitor can be used in _________. The range of audio frequency. The frequency range for high-fidelity audio equipment. The range of audio frequencies in telephone.



Four bands that included in RF range.

   

Range of AM radio broadcast service. Range of FM commercial radio service. Range of TV broadcast stations. RF amplifiers are usually tuned with _______ resonant at the desired frequency. A ___________ is a special case for amplifying audio and radio frequencies. The amount of gain in a tuned RF amplifier is its ________. __________ is how narrow the response is in terms of the band of frequencies that are amplified.

   

  

Active device Passive device Resistance Voltage drop Capacitor Decreases Open To block dc voltage, couple ac signal, and bypass the ac signal around the components 5µF 100pF Inductor Increases High impedance Resonant circuits 20 to 20,000 Hz 50 to 15,000 Hz 100 to 3,000 Hz MF, HF, VHF, and UHF 635 to 1605 kHz 88 to 108 MHz 6 MHz LC circuits Wideband Amplifier Sensitivity Selectivity

OS CILLATORS   

The process of ________ means that variations in amplitude are repeated continuously at a specific frequency. A mechanical example of oscillation. A ___________ generates ac signal output without any AC signal input from an external source. It is an AC generator for audio or radio frequencies.



True or false: the oscillator output can generate without using energy.



The _________ means that the AC signal for oscillator feedback must be in

40

Oscillation Swinging Pendulum Oscillator False, it cannot generate Positive polarity




the same phase that an AC input signal would have for amplification. The ________ results from the two phase reversals of 180° each. This type of circuit uses a tuning circuit and amplifier which provide feedback. The tuned circuit is often called a ________ because it stores energy. In the oscillator circuit, the capacitor is the tuning capacitor which is use to _________. These are named for the inventors of the two main types of circuits for an RF feedback oscillator. In this type of circuit, the feedback is provided by a tapped coil which serves as an AC voltage divider for the output voltage and feedback signal. In this type of circuit, similar results are obtained with a capacitive voltage divider. In this type of circuit, a piezoelectric crystal is used as a resonant circuit. The __________ means the crystal can vibrate mechanically when excited electrically and produce AC voltage output. Typical values of resonant frequency of crystal oscillators.



The advantage of crystal over the LC circuit is _________.



This type of circuit is used for audio oscillators.



Typical frequencies for the RC feedback oscillators.

        

Positive feedback Tuned RF feedback Oscillators Tank Circuit Set the frequency of the oscillator output. Hartley and Colpitts Oscillators Hartley Circuit Colpitts Circuit Crystal Oscillators Piezoelectric effect 0.5 to 30 MHz Very high Q which results in good frequency stability RC feedback Oscillators 20Hz to 200kHz

M ULTIVIBRATORS           

The ________ is in a class by itself as an oscillator because it is important as a pulse generator in digital electronics. Multivibrator serves as a __________ to synchronize the timing in a digital system for the switching of pulses. The voltage levels oscillate between the high and low levels because of the changes between conduction and cutoff in the MV circuit is sometimes called _________ because of the periods of cutoff. True or false: the Multivibrator operates as an oscillator without need for any input signal. The Multivibrator is a ___________. In Multivibrator, _______ in a stage means it is turned on with driving voltage at the input. In Multivibrator, the OFF means that the stage in not conducting because of _________ at the input. In Multivibrator, the ON means that the stage is conducting and the output voltage is _______. The __________ is a type of Multivibrator which is not stable in terms of the ON and OFF states of their stage. This circuit is a free-running oscillator. The __________ is a type of Multivibrator that can be made to remain stable with either stage OFF and the other ON. It has two stable states. The function of forcing the stage into conduction when the circuit stays in one of these states until an input pulse is applied to the off stage to make it

41

Multivibrator (MV) Reference clock Relaxation Oscillator True Pulse Generator Conduction Cutoff Voltage Low Astable Multivibrator Bistable Multivibrator Triggering


conduct. The name _________ is used for the bistable Multivibrator circuit to describe this idea of switching the ON-OFF states one way and then the opposite way by means of input trigger pulses. This circuit has only one stable state. An input pulse is needed to trigger the OFF stage in to conduction.

Flip-flop Monostable or One -shot Multivibrator

MODULATION 



It can be defined as modifying the characteristics of one waveform with the variations in another signal. Common examples of modulation. The frequencies of carrier wave must be much ______ than the modulating frequency. In AM radio broadcasting, audio frequency signals modulate a __________. The lower-frequency signal for the modulation. In AM and FM radio broadcasting, the baseband modulation is a ____________. In television, ________ is used as the baseband modulation.



Three characteristic of the carrier wave in baseband modulation.

 

The carrier input to the modulator comes from an RF oscillator. ____________ means that the output amplitudes are not exactly proportional to the input signal. In the AM output signal, the _________ have variations that correspond to the audio modulation. The outline of varying amplitudes. True or false: the RF amplitude variations are symmetrical around the zero axis. Frequency spacing of AM radio broadcasting. Frequency spacing is needed in AM radio broadcast for the bandwidth of __________ with an AF baseband signal. AF baseband signal of AM radio broadcast. In television service, _________ channels are used for broadcasting. Frequency bandwidth of channel 2. Frequency bandwidth in television service is needed for a video baseband signal of _______.

    

        

Modulation AM and FM Higher RF carrier wave Baseband signal Audio signal Video signal Peak-to-peak amplitude, instantaneous frequency, and phase angle Amplitude Modulation Nonlinear Amplification RF peak-to-peak amplitude Modulation envelope True 10kHz ±5kHz 50 to 5000 Hz 6MHz 54-60MHz 0 to 4 MHz



A modulated signal needs more bandwidth than the carrier wave itself because ___________.



To allow for the variations produced by the modulation

The necessary bandwidth is at least ________ to the frequencies in the baseband signal.

Equal



More than 100% modulation cannot be used in an AM signal because ______________________.

The part of the baseband signal would be missing and the carrier amplitude is

42


zero.

  

In this method, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier wave is made to vary in step with the variation of voltage in the baseband signal. The FM radio broadcast band. Frequency spacing of FM radio broadcast band. In this method, the instantaneous phase angle of the RF carrier wave is made to vary in step with the modulating voltage.



Phase modulation produces ____________.





Phase angle produces a larger change in the ___________ for higher audio modulating frequencies. Many FM transmitters use a phase-modulator circuit because __________________. This method is necessary with the pulses representing digital information.



Typical systems of pulse modulation.



Pulse modulation is efficient because ______________.



Pulse modulation needs ___________ for the harmonic frequency components of sharp pulses.



Frequency Modulation 88-108 MHz 200kHz or 0.2MHz Phase Modulation Equivalent FM or Indirect FM RF carrier frequency Good frequency stability. Pulse Modulation PAM, PFM, PWM, PCM The carrier power is on for only the time of the pulses. Greater bandwidth

DIODE RECTIFIERS                

The non-conducting diode is practically an_________ circuit. The current in the positive half-cycle of the diode is a __________ because it only flows in one direction. A _________ can operate in such a way that it really serves as electronic switch. Current can flow in the diode only when the ____ is positive. The diode is off when ___________. A process of switching in accordance with a specific polarity. One of the most common applications of the diode rectifier is the ___________. Half-wave rectifier uses ________ diode because only one-half of the AC input cycles are used from DC output. In the diode circuit, a __________ is used to act as a surge-limiter which prevents excessive current through the diode The capacitors in the half-wave rectifier circuit are used for ___________. The ___________ represents the combined resistance of all the load currents connected to the output of the DC power supply.

Open Conventional current or electron flow Diode Anode The anode is negative Commutating DC power supply One Resistor Filters Output resistor

The input filter capacitor can charge to the peak value The value of DC output voltage, compared to the AC input voltage, depends The amount of DC load on ___________. current The circuit which have an opposite polarity of DC output. Inverted power supply The frequencies of AC ripple. 60 to 120 Hz The inductor filter of a power supply is an iron-core choke used as a Series components The DC output voltage may be higher than the RMS value of the AC input voltage because ______________.

43

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS      

_________. The inductor filter of a power supply must have _______ reactance at the frequency of the AC ripple. Half-wave rectifier with ___ diode is the basic power supply. A two diode power supply can be arranged in a _________ circuit. The higher ripple frequency means ________________. A __________ is a rectifier circuit for small values of signal voltage. Type of diode that have less resistance.

High One Full-wave rectifier Easier to filter Detector Germanium Diode

TROUBLES HOOTING THE DC SUPPLY VO LTAGE 



The effect when the filters in a power supply do not have enough capacitance and the result is too much of the AC ripple component in the DC output voltage.

Hum

Troubles in a power supply are generally __________.

No DC output and Insufficient DC output

CHAPTER 30: TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS INTRODUCTION  

Any _______ operates by having a small input able to control more power in the output circuit. Amplifier circuits for __________ operate with a combination of AC and DC values.

Amplifier AC signals

CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS     

This description specifies which electrodes in the amplifier are used for input and output signals. The ___________ usually is the one that does not have any signal in the circuit configuration. True or false: all the circuit configurations of the transistor have reverse voltage for the collector and forward bias for the emitter-base junction. The _________________ circuit is the one generally used for amplifiers because it has the best combination of current gain and voltage gain. The only advantage of __________ is that it has the best stability with an increase in temperature.

Circuit Configuration Common Electrode True Common-Emitter Common-Base Collector current must be less than emitter current.



The common-base circuit has no current gain from the input to output because ______________.



A transistor circuit which input voltage is applied to the base with respect to Common-Emitter the grounded emitter. Collector current is The common-emitter has current gain because _____________. much larger than base current. The disadvantage of common-emitter circuit is that _______________ is Reverse leakage current amplified in the circuit. The only amplifier that inverts the polarity of signal voltage. Common-emitter

  

44


amplifier A circuit configuration of the transistor which input voltage is applied to the base with respect to the grounded collector.



There is no voltage gain in common-collector circuit because __________.

  

The name __________ is generally used for the common-collector circuit. The emitter-follower circuit is often used for ____________. The circuit configuration consists of two emitter followers connected in cascade.

Common-collector The output signal provides negative feedback to the base input. Emitter-follower Impedance matching Darlington Pair

CLAS S A, B, OR C OPERATION 

The amplifier class of operation is defined by the ________ that is able to produce output signal.



The class of operation depends on this two amplitudes:



The class of operation determines the ____________ of the signal may be produced by the amplifier. In this type of operation, the DC bias allows an average output current of about one-half the maximum value. True of false: output current of class A operation can cut-off. In this type of operation, the output current flows 180°, or approximately one-half of the input cycle. In class B operation, the negative half-cycles of input signal are cut-off in the output because _____________. True or false: class b operation requires more DC bias and more AC signal drive than the class A. Class B operation with a single stage corresponds to ___________ of the AC signal input. In this type of operation, the output current flows for less than one-half the input cycle. Typical operation is 120° of output current during the positive half-cycle of input. Class C operation is used for ______________ because of its high efficiency. In class A operation, distortion is ______, but also are AC power output and efficiency. Typical values of percent distortion of class A operation. Typical values of efficiency of class A operation. Typical values of efficiency of class C operation. The ___________ operation allows the greatest AC power output but with the most distortion. With audio amplifiers, _________ must be used in a single stage for minimum distortion. A _______________ amplifying an amplitude-modulated signal must operate class A for minimum distortion of the modulation.

              

45

Percentage of the input signal DC bias compared to cutoff value and the peak AC signal compare with DC bias. Power efficiency and distortion Class A False, It never cut-off Class B Output current then is zero. True Half-wave rectification Class C Tuned RF power amplifiers Lowest 5 to 10 20 to 40% 80% Class C Class A RF stage


Most small-signal amplifiers operate in ______________. The circuit used in class B which in each stage of which supplies opposites half-cycles of the signal input.



Push-pull circuit is often used for _______________.



Audio power output to a loudspeaker.

In class C operation, __________ circuit can provide a full-sine wave cycle of output for each pulse of the output current.

LC circuit



Class C operation have high efficiency because ___________.



A ___________ operates as a class C operation.

Class A Push-pull amplifier

Output current is very low compared with the peak signal amplitude. Pulse clipper circuit

ANALYS IS OF COMMON-EMITTER (CE) AMPLIFIER               

Typical values of VBE are in _________ for junction transistor. The required bias at the base for a class A amplifier is _________ for silicon. The required bias at the base for a class A amplifier is _________ for germanium. A __________ means that the amplifier conducts current of 360° of the signal cycle for minimum distortion. The maximum AC input signal without overload distortion. Without any forward bias, a junction transistor is cut off by __________. The __________ is the lowest V BE that allows appreciable collector current. The __________ is the highest V BE that allows it to produce proportional changes in collector current. True or false: at saturation, the maximum collector current does increase with an increase of forward voltage. The transistor amplifier itself is usually labeled ________. True or false: one supply voltage is used for both collector and base in the common-emitter circuit. The signal changes in _________ produce variations in the voltage drop across the collector load for the output circuit. In signal analysis of the common-emitter circuit, positive signal voltage in the forward direction __________ the base current. True or false: the base bias produces the required collector current with the specified RL . Each of the cascaded amplifiers increases the __________ enough to drive the next stage.

Tenths of a volt 0.6 to 0.7 V 0.2 to 0.3 V Class A operation ±0.1 V Barrier potential Cut-in voltage Saturation voltage False, it doesn’t increase Q True Collector current (iC ) Increase True Signal current

COLLECTOR CHARACTERIS TIC CURVES   

The _________ shows the volt-ampere characteristics for the collector and also provided by the manufacturer in a transistor manual or application notes. For the common-emitter circuit, the collector curves are for different values of __________. For common-base circuit, the collector curves are for different values of __________.

46

Characteristic curve Base current Emitter current


For more collector current, the transistor needs more ________. This specification for a junction transistor indicates the amount of current gain in the common-emitter circuit.

Base current



True or false: there is a unit for beta (β).



This ratio compares collector current to emitter current.

False, because it is a ratio of two currents. Alpha (α) characteristic

Beta (β) characteristic

LETTER SYMBOLS FOR TRANS IS TORS 

Symbols in capital letters and subscripts are used for _________.



Double subscripts that are repeated in V CC indicate __________.



The symbol _________ is used to denote the DC supply voltage for the emitter.



The small letters are used for ___________.



A small letter in the subscript indicates the _____________.



A capital letter with a small in the subscript indicates the _____________

 

The symbol ____________ denotes reverse leakage current. Small letter “h” stands for ___________.

Average DC values The supply voltage that does not change. VEE Instantaneous value that vary with fluctuating DC waveform AC waveform RMS value of the AC component ICB O Hybrid parameters

FET AMPLIFIERS 

      

This circuit corresponds to the common-emitter with junction transistors. With an FET, the input signal is applied to the gate which is the control electrode. Amplified output signal is taken from the drain. The source is the common electrode In this circuit, the input signal is applied to the source, with output from the drain. In this circuit, the input signal is applied to the gate, with output from the source. Common-drain circuit is named ________, corresponding to the emitter follower with junction transistors. The circuit configuration used most often for FET amplifiers. This factor is important for the FET because it specifies how the gate voltage controls the drain current. The unit of g m because it is a ratio of current over voltage. The ______ indicates a mutual conductance relation of how the effect of the input voltage at the gate is transferred to the output current in the drain current.

Common-source circuit

Common-gate circuit Common-drain circuit Source follower Common-source Transconductance (gm ) Siemens gm

TYPES OF DIS TORTIONS  

The __________ has been introduced in the amplifier when the waveform of the amplified output signal is not exactly the same as that of the input signal. The _________ is produced by operating the amplifier over the nonlinear

47

Distortion Amplitude distortion


part of the transfer characteristic of the amplifier. This distortions occurs when the input signal or drive is excessive Any _________ in a class A amplifier is a measure of the amount of amplitude distortion. The change of the relative amplitudes is the same as introducing harmonic components not present in the input signal. A ___________ is composed of a fundamental sine wave at the same frequency plus odd-harmonic frequency components. Typical values of harmonic distortion at full power output. The effect which results in harmonics introduced in the amplifier can combine with each other or with original frequencies to produce new frequencies that are not harmonics of the fundamental. ____________ is the reason for the rough, unpleasant sound of amplitude distortion, because that distortion is not harmonically related to the signal. The distortion that results when the gain of the amplifier varies with frequency. The uniform gain at the center of the curve.

Overload distortion Shift of DC level Harmonic distortion Square Wave 1to 5% Intermodulation distortion Intermodulation Frequency distortion Flat response

NEGATIVE F EEDBACK        

___________ means coupling part of the amplified output signal back to the input. The result when the feedback is in phase with the input signal. Positive feedback is used in _________. The result when the feedback is out-of- phase with the input signal. The amount of feedback is determined by __________ which is also can vary the feedback for different frequencies. The amount of amplifier gain with feedback. The amount of amplifier gain without feedback. The reason why negative feedback reduces distortion is because ___________.

Feedback Positive feedback Oscillator circuits. Negative feedback Feedback network Closed-loop gain Open-loop gain There is partial cancellation of the outof-phase signals

CHAPTER 31: DIGITAL ELECTRONICS INTRODUCTION   

It involves circuits that operate using only two voltage levels for all input and output signals. The two voltage levels most commonly used in digital electronics. Modern calculators and computers that process binary numbers use decision-making elements called _______.



Two broad categories of digital logic circuits.



A circuit is considered a ___________ if its output goes either low or high with a specified combination input signals. This circuit must have a definite order or sequence for its inputs before the



48

Digital Electronics 0 and 5 v Logic Gates Combinational logic circuits and sequential logic circuits Combinational logic circuits Sequential logic circuits


desired output is obta ined. The basic building block of combinational logic circuits. The basic building block of sequential logic circuits.

Logic gates Flip-flop

COMPARING B INARY AND DEC IMAL NUMBERS           

All number systems have a _________ which specifies how many digits can be used in each place count. In the decimal number system, the base is _____. In the binary number system, the base is ____. The most commonly used number system. A number system that is used in digital electronics. True or false: typical binary numbers are often written in groups of four or eight digits. Each digit of binary numbers is referred to as a _______. A string of four bits are called _________. Eight bits makes a __________. For either binary or decimal numbers, the digit at the right is referred to as a _________. The digit at the left-most is referred to as a _________.

Base or radix 10 2 Decimal Binary True Bit Nibble Byte Least significant digit (LSD) Most significant digit (MSD)

DECIMAL TO B INARY CONVERS ION 

The method used to convert a decimal number to its binary equivalent. It requires successive divisions by 2.

Double-dabble

HEXADEC IMAL NUMBERS     

It is used extensively in the microcomputer field. It has a base of 16. The first ten digits in the hexadecimal system are represented by _________. The ______________ are used to represent the numbers 10, 11,12,13,14 and 15. The method used to convert a decimal number to a hexadecimal number. The process of replacing long strings of data with a much shorter string.

Hexadecimal Numbers 0-9 A-F Hex-dabble Chunking

B INARY CODED DECIMAL SYS TEM   

Commonly used number system in the field of digital electronics in which expresses each decimal digit as a 4-bit nibble. The highest BCD value that a 4-bit nibble could represent. It is used when it is necessary to transfer decimal information into or out of a digital machine.

Binary coded decimal system (BCD) 9 BCD number system

THE ASCII CODE 

The _____________ is an alphanumeric code; it has binary values for each letter, number, and symbol.

49

ASCII Code


Each keystroke on an ASCII keyboard produces a corresponding _________ for the designated character. ASCII code represented by a ___________ in the form of X6, X5, X4, X3, X2, X1, and X0. The first bit of ASCII code. The ASCII code for the capital letter “W”.

Binary code 7-bit binary word X6 1010111

LOGIC GATES , SYMBOLS , AND TRUTH TABLES           

It is a circuit that has one or more input signals but only one output signal. The ______________ list all input possibilities and the corresponding output for each input. It has only one input and one output, where the output is the opposite of the input. The small bubble on inverter diagram represents __________. The number of possibilities listed in the truth table is __________. A logic circuit with two or more inputs but only one output. The output is high if any or all inputs are high. The output is low only when all inputs are low. A logic circuit with two or more inputs. The output is low if any or all inputs are low. The output is high only when all inputs are high. A logic circuit with two or more inputs but only one output. The output is low if any or all inputs are high. The output is low only when all inputs are low. A logic circuit with two or more inputs but only one output. The output is high if any or all inputs are low. The output is low only when all inputs are high. A logic circuit with two or more inputs but only one output. The output is high when an odd number of 1s is applied to its inputs. The output is low when an even number of 1s is applied to its inputs. A logic circuit with two or more inputs but only one output. The output is high when an even number of 1s is applied to its inputs. The output is low when an odd number of 1s is applied to its inputs.

Logic Gate Truth table Inverters Inversion 2N OR Gate AND Gate NOR Gate

NAND Gate

XOR Gate

XNOR Gate

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA  

Logical system of using binary information in digital circuits. For the basic logic inverter the Boolean algebra expression would be ____________.



The over-bar above the input variable A represents __________.

      

To invert or complement, a binary number means to change it to the _____. The “+” sign stands for ___________. The multiplication dot stands for __________. The Boolean expression for the NOR gate. The Boolean expression for the NAND gate. The Boolean expression for the XNOR gate. The Boolean expression for the XOR gate.

50

Boolean algebra X= Ā Inversion or complementing Opposite state OR addition AND operation

A +B = X A•B = X A⊕B = X A⊕B = X

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS DEMORGAN’S THEOREM   

Important principles of Boolean algebra which can help to greatly simplify expressions in which a product or sum is inverted. First theorem of Demorgan’s theorem. Second theorem of Demorgan’s theorem.

Demorgan’s Theorem

A +B = A . B A•B = A + B

ACTIVE HIGH/ACTIVE LOW T ERMINOLOGY     

When an input or output line on a logic gate symbol does not show a bubble, it indicates that these lines are _________. When an input or output line on a logic gate symbol does show a bubble, these lines are said to be _________. The presence or absence of _________ on the inputs and output of logic gates indicates whether a line is considered to be high or low. When an input variable or output in a Boolean expression has no over-bar, it means that the input variables or outputs are ______. If an input variable or output in a Boolean expression does have an overbar, it means that the input variables or outputs are ______.

Active high Active low Bubble Active high Active low

TREATING UNUS ED INPUTS ON LOGIC GATES      

Unused inputs on AND and NAND gates should be connected directly to __________ or tied to another input that is being used. Unused inputs are always ________. The unused input should never be tied to ground for an AND gate because ______________. Unused inputs on OR and NOR gates should be tied to ________. The unused inputs on OR gates should never be tied to V CC because ___________. NAND OR NOR gates can be used as __________ if all inputs are tied together.

VCC (+5V) High The output would always be low. Ground The output will remain high. Inverters

TTL CIRCUITS AND THEIR CHARACTERIS TICS 

It is the most popular family of digital devices.

 

It is a group of compatible devices with the same logic voltage levels and DC supply voltage. The __________ are categorized according to the number of logic gates contained in one IC.



Two basic technologies for manufacturing digital ICs.

    

It fabricates bipolar transistors on an IC. It fabricates MOSFETS on an IC. It is used for SSI and MSI. It is used for LSI, VLSI, and USLI. True or false: bipolar device have faster switching speeds than MOS devices.

51

Transistor-transistor Logic (TTL) Digital family Digital IC Bipolar and MOS technology Bipolar technology MOS technology Bipolar technology MOS technology True




It is used when it is required to package hundreds or thousands of logic gates into one chip. The TTL devices are often referred to as the ___________. The 7400 device is a __________, which means that this chip contains four 2-input NAND gates inside. The 7404 device is called ________.



The 7427 contains ___________.

 

The 7400 series uses VCC of _____________. The arrangement of schematic diagram of hex inverter in which used because of its low output impedance. If an input to a standard TTL logic gate is 0.8V or less, the logic gate recognizes this as ______. If an input to a standard TTL logic gate is 2.0V or more, the logic gate recognizes this as ______. The range of two input voltage levels of TTL logic gates are referred to as a ___________. The maximum number of TTL inputs that can be reliably driven by a standard TTL output is called the _________. 7400 series device will work over a temperature of ___________. Range of supply voltage of 5400 series device. Temperature range of 5400 series device.

 

      

MOS technology 7400 series Quad 2-input NAND gate Hex inverter Three, 3-input NOR gates +5V Totem-pole output Low input High input Worst case input voltages Fan-out 0° to 70° C 4.5 - 5.5 V -55° to 125°C

CMOS DEVIC ES 

The basic logic gates such as inverter, AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates are manufactured using ____________.



Disadvantages of MOS.

 

Complementary metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor True or false: CMOS devices have slower switching speeds as compared to TTL.



The MOSFETS most often used in the construction of logic gates.

 

Commonly used CMOS device series. Range of supply voltage of 4000 series.

MOSFET Slower switching speed and extreme sensitivity to ESD CMOS True P-channel and Nchannel enhancement types 4000 series 3-15 V

COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRC UITS 

Digital circuits often consist of several different ________, interconnected in such a way as to perform a specific logic function.

Logic gate



Sum of products is called ________.



Minterm Boolean expression

Any logic circuit of AND gates and OR gates can be replaced with equivalent _________.

NAND gates

52

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS B INARY ADDERS   

The _____________ of computer is where arithmetic operations such as addition take place. Logic circuits that has provisions for carry-out of 1 but not carry-in. Digital circuit that has provisions for carry-in of 1 and carry-out of 1.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) Half adder Full adder

FLIP-F LOPS                 

It is a digital circuit that has two stable states. It can hold or store digital data. True or false: the flip-flop can remain in either stable state indefinitely. Flip-flops are used to store ____________. The __________________ that can store bits of data are an essential part of any computer system. The most basic type of flip-flop that can be built using either two NOR gates or two NAND gates. The flip-flop is said to be set when __________. The flip-flop is said to be reset when __________. These can pull TTL inputs to ground for binary 0. The maximum resistance of pull-down resistors should not exceed ______. These pulls the TTL inputs up to +V CC for a binary 1. It is a RS flip-flop that has a clock (CLK) input. It is a square wave that has a maximum value of +5V and minimum value of 0V. It prevents the flip-flop outputs from changing until exactly right time. Type of flip-flop in which the flip-flop can edge-triggered. The flip-flop is edge-triggered because the flip-flop only responds when the _____ is changing states. This flip-flop will respond only to a negative-going clock pulse. In JK flip-flop, the flip-flop is ______ when the clock is low, high, or on its positive- going edge.

Flip-flop True Binary information Digital memory circuits RS flip-flop Q=1 and Q’=0 Q=0 and Q’=1 Pull-down resistors 500Ω Pull-up resistors Clocked RS flip-flop Clock voltage Clock input signal D-type flip-flop Clock JK flip-flop Inactive

B INARY COUNTERS AND REGIS TERS       

JK flip-flops can also be connected together to form a ________. These are used when it is necessary to count the number of clock pulses that arrive at a clock input. Equivalent circuit of binary counters. The counter in which the output of one flip-flop is fed to the clock input of another. The _________ of the counter is the number of output states it has. It is a digital circuit that can hold or store digital data. Equivalent circuit of buffer register.

Binary counter Binary counters Four JK flip-flop Ripple counter Modulus Buffer register Memory circuit

NEW LOGIC SYMBOLS 

In 1984, a new set of standard symbols was introduced by the _______________.

53

IIEE and ANSI


The _______ inside the inverter gate rectangle denotes a gate with only one input. The _______ symbol inside the AND gate rectangle means the output will go active high only when the all inputs are active high. The symbol inside the OR gate rectangle means that the output will go active high when one or more inputs are active high.

1 & ≥

TROUBLES HOOTING DIGITAL CIRCUITS    

One of the most commonly used pieces of test equipment for troubleshooting digital circuits. It has two LED indicators that light to indicate whether a voltage level is equivalent to binary 0 or binary 1. It is a troubleshooting tool that generates a short-duration pulse when activated manually, usually by pressing a button. A very special oscilloscope that has either 8 or 16 input leads for connection to the circuit, which allows the electronic technician or engineer to see how all the different circuits are functioning at the same time. A very useful tool to help determine the exact location of a short without breaking the circuit.

Logic probe Logic pulsers Logic analyzer Current tracer

CHAPTER 32: INTEGRATED CIRCUITS INTRODUCTION    

This is actually microelectronic circuits. It is used in computers, calculators, and digital clocks as well as many other digital devices. It is used in analog-type circuits such as audio amplifiers, voltage regulators, operational amplifiers, and radio frequency circuits.

Integrated Circuits

True or false: most linear IC’s are high-power devices.

False, there are lowpower devices.

Digital IC Linear IC

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS AND THEIR CHARACTERIS TICS 

It is a high-gain, direct-coupled, differential amplifier.

 

Common op amp which different manufacturers produce. The output of op amp is taken at the emitters of transistors which are connected in a _____________ configuration. The push-pull configuration in the output of op amp allows the op amp to have a ____________. The ___________ affects the operation of the op amp at higher frequencies and it is used to prevent undesirable oscillations from occurring within the op amp. Typical value of compensating capacitor of the op amp. Figure of schematic symbol of an op amp. Pin 7 of 741 op amp connects to ________. Pin __ of 741 op amp connects to -VCC. Pin _____ of 741 op amp connects to the op amp input.

      

54

Operational Amplifier (Op amp) 741 Push-pull Very low output impedance Compensating capacitor 30pF Triangle +VCC Pin 4 Pin 2 and 3


Pin 6 of 741 op amp connects to the ________. The _____________ of an op amp is its voltage gain when there is no negative feedback.



The open-loop voltage gain of an op amp is the ratio of _________.

 

The typical value of AVOL for a 741 op amp. When the voltage at the non-inverting (+) input is made negative with respect to its inverting (-) input, the output is _________.



The upper limit of output voltage of op amp.



The lower limit of output voltage of op amp.



If the output voltage of any op amp lies between positive and negative saturation voltage, then the differential input voltage can be considered as ________. Typical input bias current of 741 op amp. The difference between the current flowing for the non-inverting terminal and the current flowing from the inverting input terminal. Typical input offset current of 741 op amp. The frequency where gain of open-loop equals to 1. Unity frequency of 741 is approximately ________. The ___________ tells how fast the output voltage can change. The slew rate of an op amp is specified in _____. Slew rate of 741 op amp. Slew rate distortion of a sine wave produces a _________. If the initial slope of the output waveform exceeds the slew rate of the op amp, ____________ will occur. The _________ of an op amp circuit is the highest undistorted frequency out of an op amp for a given slew rate and peak voltage. The output short circuit current of 741 op amp. It is defined as its ability to amplify differential input signals while attenuating or rejecting common mode signals. Typical CMRR of 741 op amp.

             

Op amp output Open-loop voltage gain AVOL Output voltage to its differential input voltage 200,000 Negative Positive saturation voltage Negative saturation voltage Zero 80nA Input offset current 20nA Unity frequency 1MHz Slew rate Volts per microsecond 0.5V/µs Triangular wave Slew rate distortion Power bandwidth 25mA Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) 90dB

OP AMP CIRCUITS        

Most op amp uses ____________ feedback. It reduces the overall voltage gain of the op amp circuit. Type of amplifier in which the input and output signals are 180° out of phase when input voltage is applied to the inverting (-) input terminal. It provides the negative feedback of inverting amplifier, which in turn controls the circuit’s overall voltage gain. Type of op amp circuit in which the input signal drives the non-inverting input terminal of the op amp. For the non-inverting amplifier circuit, the input and output signals are always ___________. The op amp circuit connected to provide a voltage gain of one, or unity. Voltage follower provides no voltage gain because op amp circuits will

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Negative Negative feedback Inverting amplifier Resistors RF and Ri Non-inverting amplifier In phase Voltage follower Buffer

GROB BASIC ELECTRONICS ______ the voltage source for the load. THREE- TERMIN AL IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS     

IC’s feature when the internal temperature of the chip reaches a certain temperature, the regulator shuts down and prevents the chip from getting any hotter. The range of load current of IC voltage regulators. The popular series of three-terminal IC voltage regulators. To ensure proper operation of a three-terminal IC voltage regulator, the unregulated DC input voltage must always be at least ________ higher than its regulated DC output voltage. This IC has 1.25V reference voltage between its output terminal and adjustment terminal.

Thermal shutdown 100mA – 3A LM340 series 2-3V LM317

555 TIMERS     

A very popular IC used in timing circuits. Range of supply voltage of 555 timers. This circuit will produce a single output pulse when a trigger input pulse is applied. True or false: in monostable operation, the larger the RC time constant, the greater the length of the output pulse. In this circuit, the capacitor voltage is initially 0V when power is applied.

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555 timers 5-18V Monostable (one shot) multivibrator True Astable multivibrator

Grob Basic Electronics Book Review

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