Published in 1995 by Lark Books 50 College Street Asheville, NC 201 !"S"A"
# 1995, $re% Langsner Produ&tion' (laine )ho*+son Previously +ublished in slightly dierent or*at asGreen, Woodworking by -odale Press, (**aus, PA, in 19." Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Langsner, $re%s" /reen %ood%orking ' a handson a++roa&h by $re% Langsner +hotos and illustrations by the author" 3 2nd ed" +" &*" 3 4Country %orksho+ handbook 6n&ludes bibliogra+hi&al reeren&es a nd inde7" 6SBN 098.2.2 1" :ood%ork3A*ateurs; *anuals" 2" Lu*ber3$rying3A*ateurs; *anuals" 8" Lu*bering3A*ateurs; *anuals" 6" )itle" 66" Series" ))15"L2< 1995 <.;"3d&20 92809 C6P 109 . < 5 8 2 All rights reserved" No +art o this %ork &overed by &o+yright herein *ay be re+rodu&ed or used in any or* or by any *eans3gra+hi&, ele&troni&, or *e&hani&al, in&luding +hoto&o+ying, re&ording, ta+ing, or inor*ation retri eval syste*s3%ithout %ritten +er*ission o the +ublisher" (very eort has been *ade to ensure that all inor*ation in this book is a&&urate" =o%ever, due to diering &onditions, tools, and individual skills, the +ublisher &annot be res+onsible or any in>uries, losses, or other da*ages %hi&h *ay result ro* the use o the inor*ation in this book" Printed in the U.S. All rights reserved.
6SBN 098.2.2
?or inor*ation about Country :orksho+s; handson &ourses and green %ood%orking tools, &onta&t $re% Langsner at 90 @ill Creek -oad, @arshall, North Carolina 2.58" Phone' .0<5<220"
Contents
A&kno%ledge*ents"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" Prea&e' An Adventure in :ood%orking""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5 Part One: An In troduction to Green Woodworking
Cha+ter ne' :hat 6s /reen :ood%orking""""""""""""""""""""""12 Cha+ter )%o' A Cultural Pers+e&tive""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1 Part Two: Working Green Wood
Cha+ter )hree' @aterials"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""29 Cha+ter ?our' nie:ork""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" Cha+ter ?ive' =e%ing""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""66 Cha+ter Si7' -iving""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""".< Cha+ter Seven' Shaving""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""92 Cha+ter (ight' Boring"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""10. Cha+ter Nine' Bending""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""11. Cha+ter )en' Doinery"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""12< Part Tree: Profiles
Cha+ter (leven' @eet So*e /reen :ood%orkers""" 18 A++endi7 A' @aking a Shaving =orse""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1< A++endi7 B' Bark Seating"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1< A )o+i&al Bibliogra+hy""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1.8 6nde7""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1.5
ACN:L($/(@(N)S :hile %riting the original edition o this book, 6 ben eited ro* the en&ourage*ent and hel+ o *any good riends" :ood%orking adventures %ith stu dents at Country :orksho+s have e7+anded *y kno%ledge and +rovided valuable tea&hing e7+eri en&e" Da* sessions %ith other %ood%orkers, at ho*e and %hile traveling, have also been ruitul" n&eagain6%ould+arti&ularlyliketothank Dohn Ale7ander, Bill Co+erth%aite, and /regory @onahan"Dohn,Bill,and/reg&areullyrevie%ed ea&h &ha+ter and &ontributed *any suggestions that %ere in&or+orated in the te7t" 6 also %ish to thank *y srcinal editor at -odale Press, Bill =ylton"
S%oons and a &owl !arved fro freshly !ut green wood
4 Green Woodworking
Photos by $re% Langsner and /eorge Bell 4+ages 10, 1, 8, , 5, <let, 90, 99, 100, 108, 118, 11right, 18, 185, 18<, 18., and 18, -i&k @astelli 4+ages , 9botto*, )ad Sta** 4+ages 2<, 52, <5, $" (" /ilbertson and D" ?" -i&hards, Dr"' A Treasury of Norwegian Folk Art in Aeri!a 4+age 21let, (" $"Andre%s' Shaker Furniture 4+age 22, and="Ste%art' "edar 4+ages 20, .." )his book is dedi&ated to *y irst %ood%orking tea&her, #$fereister
P-(?AC(
An Ad!enture In Woodworking )his book %as srcinally +ubli shed in 19. titled Green Woodworking. )his ne%, revised edition brings *any details u+ to date, su&h as &hanges in *y +reerred ty+es o shar+ening eEui+*ent and the *ethods used in *aking tenons" )hese &hanges are the result o seven additional years in the %orksho+" Although 6 a* not a +rodu&tion &rats*an, 6 do +ut in *any ull %eeks ea&h year tea&hing traditional %ood%orking at Country :orksho+s" 46 also take orders or :indsor and ladderba&k &hairs, in addition to *aking *u&h o the urnishings and so*e table%are or our ho*e" :hile +rodu&tion %ork leads to +ere&ting s+e&ialiFed skills, 6 ind that tea&hing al%ays +resents ne% &hallenges as dierent students &o*e to our &ourses" As a tea&her, 6 do not %ork in the generally isolated environ*ent o a +rodu&tion %orksho+" )o e7+lain &on&e+ts and to a&hieve good, Eui&k results, 6 a* &onstantly innovating and trying ne% a++roa&hes" 6;* also a&ed %ith Euestions 4and *istakes that 6 %ould +robably not deal %ith in a +rodu&tion situation" 6n addition, 6 %ill gladly a&kno%ledge that *y students have oten &ontributed ideas and inor*ation that is ne% and useul to *e" )he best tea&hing inevitably in&ludes learning on the +art o the instru&tor" )hroughout this book you %ill ind *any uses o t%o related 4and invented ter*s, these being Ggreen %ood%orkingG and Ggreen %ood%orker"G /reen %ood%orking is a &on&e+tual bit o no*en&lature srcinally &oined by *y riend and &olleague Balti*ore &hair*aker and >oiner Dohn Ale7ander" /reen %ood%orking reers to a %ide range o traditional %ood%orking *ethods that generally involve the &rats+erson dealing dire&tly %ith a log ro* a reshly elled tree" A green %ood%orker oten begins a task by riving sto&k using *ethods si*ilar to s+litting ire%ood" =istori&ally this %as done %ith &ertain ty+es o %ood be&ause riving is ast and 4de+ending on Euality o the %ood +otentially very e&ono*i&al in that there is little %aste" nly a e%, si*+le tools are reEuired" -iving is *u&h easier than ri+ sa%ing %ith hand
tools" :hile so*e &ross &ut sa%ing is generally +art o the %ork, riven sto&k rees one ro* de+enden&e on a sa%*ill and all o the e7+ensive, energy &onsu*ing te&hnology that goes along %ith +rodu&ing *anua&tured lu*ber" ?or a green %ood%orker, riven sto&k is also oten su+erior to the *aterials +rodu&ed by *ore advan&ed te&hnology" -iving divides %ood ibers, %hereas sa%ing inevitably severs the ibers" A +ie&e o %ood %ith no iber GrunoutG along its length is *u&h stronger than a board %here iber runout o&&urs %illynilly along its length" Co*+ared to kiln dried lu*ber, green riven sto&k is *u&h easier to sha+e %ith hand tools" :ith a +ro+erly shar+ened dra%knie, reshly &ut oak see*s to shave like sli&ing butter" /reen, rived sto&k also bends *u&h eas ier and %ith ar e%er ailures than sa%ed lu*ber" But you *ay be thinking that using green %ood %ill lead to *any %ood%orking disasters" A &abinet *ade out o 4even +artially green %ood %ill inevitably dry, shrink, and all a+art" )rue" /reen %ood%orkers are %ell a%are that %ood &hanges sha+e" @ost oten %e see the results o shrinkage as it dries out, but %ood &an e7+and also" 6n a&t, %e +ay ar *ore attention to %ood *ove*ent than *ost other %ood%orkers" :e rive, sha+e, and bend green %ood %henever +ossible %orking green %ood is easier, *ore un, and less likely to ail" But %hen it &o*es to asse*bly and *any other tasks that %ood%orking involves, %e +ay great attention to the *oisture &ontent o %ood and even the gro%th ring orientation o +arts in relationshi+ to one another" )his is a book about %orking green %ood, starting %ith a living tree" 6;ll sho% you ho% to harvest %ood ro* a log and even ho% to use bark and li*bs" :e;ll he% %ood %ith an a7e or s+lit it %ith %edges into se&tions &alled &illets. :e;ll use sa%s, too, but *ainly or &ross&uts" )hen %e;ll sha+e the +ie&es %ith hand tools" )he end result %ill be ob>e&ts that are strong, un&tional, and beautiul"
An Adventure in Woodworking 5
Hour irst green%ood +ro>e&ts %ill +robably turn out ni&ely enough, but it takes +ra&ti&e and alert observation to be&o*e skilled %ith these &rats" Ater *y irst ten %eeks o a++renti&eshi+ %ith a S%iss &oo+er, -uedi Ihler, 6 &ould struggle through all the ste+s o *aking a si*+le %oodenhoo+ed &ontainer on *y o%n" But -uedi &hu&kled to hi*sel or a ull day %hen 6 asked about *aking an oval *ilking bu&ket %ith s&ul+ted staves" 6;ve ound that >ust learning the ine +oints o shar+ening hand tools is an unending &hallenge" As you gain e7+ertise, you;ll dis&over that the subtle reine*ents o hand%ork are virtually
6 *e*ory serves &orre&tly, *y irst gli*+se o green %ood%orking as a +ro&ess %as an (ri& Sloane dra%ing o a rontier &rats*an sitting at a shaving horse, *aking so*ething %ith a dra%knie" At the ti*e, 6 %as building +layground s&ul+tures 4later &alled Gadventure +laygroundsG %ith *y riend Day Be&k%ith" :e %ere deinitely *odernists, using +o%er tools, %elders, steel, and &on&rete" 6 stared at that guy in the illustration" 6t %as another %orld and one that attra&ted *e" 6 began to rene% *y +revious interest in +ri*itive and
unli*ited" @ost green %ood%orking &rats and *ethods %ere develo+ed beore those o *e&haniFation and *ass *arketing" =o%ever, throughout this book, 6;ll sho% ho% te&hnology has also reined, &lariied, and o&&asionally disregarded, so*e o the %oodlore handed do%n through the generations" )he green %ood%orker gets to kno% a +ie&e o %ood inti*ately, be&ause the traditional te&hniEues are de+endent on the nature o %ood3iber dire&tion, te7ture, and relative hardness" :hen %ood grain is ornery, you;ll kno% it, be&ause the %ork %ill be a struggle" !sing the a++ro+riate s+e&ies and Euality o %ood results in a s*ooth +artnershi+ o *aterial and %ood%orker" 6n &onventional %ood%orking, a +re*iu* is +aid or the stability o kilndried lu*ber" /reensa%n lu*ber, +arti&ularly i one o the hard%oods, is notorious or t%isting, bending, &u++ing, and &he&king during seasoning"
+easant &ultures, %ith +arti&ular to their &rating and &onstru&tion te&hniEues" Jaguelyregard ins+ired by books on olk ar&hite&ture, %e began to in&or+orate entire logs and rusti& &abins *ade o bark slabs into our +laygrounds" )his %as also the ti*e or another rite o +assage, *y transition ro* ba&helorhood to *arriage" And soon ater, %ith a e% thousand dollar s in %edding gits and savings, Louise and 6 bought one%ay ti&kets a&ross the Atlanti&" @y intention %as to travel in rural (uro+e and Asia and gather inor*ation or a book on olk d%ellings and the +eo+le %ho lived in the*" :e %ere ine7+erien&ed travelers, and *any o our +lans never *aterialiFed" But %e did learn to a&&e+t and a++re&iate the une7+e&ted, %hi&h in&luded so*e %onderul sur+rises" 6;ll tell >ust one story3ho% 6 be&a*e an a++renti&e to a S%iss &oo+er, a *aker o %ooden al+ine dairy &ontainers" :e %ere traveling in a J: Beetle and had been tent &a*+ing in the S%iss Al+s" 6 %as +arti&ularly interested in
But%ork" green:ith %ood%orkers &ovet %ood" 6t is *u&h easier to shar+ tools, even%et hard%oods su&h as oak, *a+le, and hi&kory are easily %orked" /ood riving %ood s+lits even *ore Eui&kly and +re&isely %hen green" And green %ood bends %ith a *ini*u* o trouble" Consider also the uniEue sigh t o reshly s+lit or he%ed %ood, e7+osed to light and air or the irst ti*e" Like reshly +i&ked s%eet &orn, this s+e&ial Euality &an be a++re&iated only or a e% *o*ents, be&ause light and o7idation &hange the %ood i**ediately, even i a inish has been a++lied" 4 &ourse, aged, inished, and %ellused %ood is beautiul too" 6n addition, %orking %ith green %ood involves other te*+oral e7+erien&es, o sound, s*ell, and tou&h, as body and tools &ollaborate to sha+e a +ie&e o %ood" )hese sensations are a*+liied be&ause the %ork sho+ is an inti*ate, Euiet +la&e, in %hi&h +o%er tools are used only or li*ited +ur+oses, i at all" )hrough green %ood%orking, 6 eel a &onne&tion %ith %orld%ide
the %onderul log and&halets ti*berra*e ar*housebarns, or 'auernh(user, &alled in (nglish" But to our dis*ay,
&rats+eo+le ar ba&k to unkno%n generations" 6 Green Woodworking
My Credentials
%e %eren;t *aking *u&h +rogress in getting to kno% S%iss ar*ers and their a*ilies" n to+ o that, the %eather %as de+ressing3rain every day3and %e %eren;t enthusiasti& about another night in the %et tent" $riving along a se&ondary high%ay, %e sa% a young hit&hhiker" Louise suggested that %e +i&k hi* u+ on the &han&e that this ello% *ight dire&t us to a dry +la&e to slee+ or a night" :e didn;t kno% /er*an, but -eas3the /er*an short version o Andre%, %hi&h is also *y na*e3 s+oke (nglish" -eas said he %as going to his +arents; ho*e in Bern, the S%iss &a+ital, but that i %e didn;t *ind hiking he kne% o an Al+ine barn %here %e &ould stay as long as %e %ished" ?ollo%ing a *a+ -eas had dra%n or us, %e +arked at the end o a s+ur road, +a&ked our ru&ksa&ks, and set out" 6t %as early evening in Dune,
Two of )uedi #ohler*s ilking &u!kets. The saller one is for goats.
and yet it began to sno%" )he &li*b %as stee+, and %e lost the trail several ti*es beore inding the &old, e*+ty barn on a high ridge, %ell above any other habitations" )here %as one roo* or the &o%herds, %ith a stone oven and stra% stre%n in one &orner to slee+ on" :e started a s*all ire, ate a bit o dinner, and ell aslee+" 6n the *orning %e ound a si7in&h sno%all on the ground, a blue sky, and a beautiul vista" 6 e7+lored the barn in detail, taking notes and +hotos and *aking dra%ings" Later %e hiked do%n to the nearest neighbor" )his turned out to be an Al%enh$tte, a s+e&ial al+ine barn %here *ountain &heese is *ade" )he &heese*aker invited us inside" =e %as heating *ilk in a huge &o++er kettle sus+ended over an o+en ire" :hen the &urd or*ed, he +ut it into a &heese&loth su++orted in a %ooden hoo+ o about 1< in&hes in dia*eter" )he &heese %as +ressed %ith stone %eights %ould be aged or a ull )he and &heese*aker;s kit&hen, %ithyear" its %alls and &eiling bla&kened by soot ro* the o+en ire, %as a
antasti& +la&e" ?or *e, the *ost %onderul things in the Al%enh$tte %ere the hand&rated %ooden vats and *ilking
bu&kets" !sing i*+rovised G+idgin /er*an,G %e asked %here %e &ould buy a *ilking bu&ket" )he &heese*aker re+lied that his %ere over 100 years old but that there %as an aging &oo+er a&ross the valley %ho still *ade the*" )he ne7t day, %e ound -uedi ohler at %ork in his sho+" =e sho%ed us his %ares, in&luding a *ilking bu&ket e7a&tly like %hat 6 had ho+ed to ind" :e bought it" But 6 didn;t %ant to leave Euite yet" Jisiting this sho+ %as like being in a drea*" +err ohler %as .1 years old but had the energy and enthusias* o a boy" =e did *ost o his %ork at a shaving horse, *u&h like the one 6 had seen in the (ri& Sloane dra%ing" n a %all hung a &olle&tion o dra%knives, s+okeshaves, rea*ers, augers, and other tools %hi&h 6 &ouldn;t identiy" An inner voi&e told *e that this %as a rare o++ortunity to learn so*ething s+e&ial about %ood%orking" :ith the hel+ o +err ohler;s soninla%, %ho s+oke ?ren&h, %e asked about the +ossibility o An Adventure in Woodworking 7
*y learning &oo+era ge" -uedi ohler said that the &rat %as dii&ult to learn but that he %ould be %illing to try tea&hing *e" Louise and 6 stayed on that *ountain or ten %eeks" 6 %orked @onday through Saturday" n Sundays %e visited another traditional &heese*aker, Ar*in (rb, %ho also *ade urniture that &o*bined S%iss traditional or*s %ith his o%n antasy" :hen %e returned to the !nited States, %e de&ided to lo&ate in a rural area %here %e &ould ar* and do %ood%orking" 6n 19., %e *oved to a *ountain ar*stead in %estern North Carolina" :e &hose the area or its &li*ate, %ater, and %ood, and or the subsisten&e ar*ing *ethods still +ra&ti&ed there by the older generation" 6 &ontinued to investigate traditional %ood%orking " @any o the older ar*ers %ere skilled %oods*en, but there %as little traditional %ood%orking still being done in our &o**unity" ur neighbors, Peter and Polly /ott, %ere the *a>or e7&e+tion" )he /otts had been ho*esteading or years and had been e7+loring green%ood &rats ranging ro* %hite oak basketry to log &abin building" )hrough their generosity, %e learned *any details about traditional &rats that %ould have taken a great deal o ti*e to dis&over on our o%n" Books %ere a hel+, too, in&luding (liot :igginton;s irst edition o Fofire 4Ne% Hork' $oubleday K Co*+any, 19.2, (ri& Sloane;s books on early A*eri&an %ood%orking, and books on &onventional %ood%orking, es+e&ially -" Bru&e =oadley;s e7&ellent Understanding Wood 4Ne%to%n, Conn"' )aunton Press, 190" A*ong the best resour&es %ere several (nglish books on traditional %oodland &rats" @y irst in&o*e+rodu&ing +ro>e&t %as the *aking o %ooden hayorks based on an old @ennonite +attern ro* Pennsylvania" 6 learned ho% to *ake the* ro* a riend o a riend %ho %as traveling through our area" Ater a e% &rude starters, 6 %as *akin g hayorks that %ere good enough to sell" 6 eventually *ade about 200 hayorks and %ould have &ontinued i 6 hadn;t started %riting "ountry Wood!raft 4(**aus, Pa"' -odale Press, 19." 6n re&ent years, 6;ve done s*all runs o ladderba&k &hairs, and 6 also *ake :indsors and do &oo+erage and &arved bo%ls on order"
How to Get Started =istori&ally, green %ood%orking %as learned through a*ily tradition or an a++renti&e syste*" )oday, an a++renti&eshi+ is generally i*+ra&ti&al" 6t
A Windsor -sa!k&a!k- ar!hair ade &y the author. "olle!tion )o&ert and Sue Adas.
reEuires *ore ti*e than *ost +eo+le have3even i you &ould ind a *aster &rats+erson %illing to tea&h over an e7tended +eriod" Books and %orksho+ &ourses &an take the +la&e o an a++renti&eshi+, +resenting a great deal o *aterial in a short ti*e" Personal ield study &an be ins+iring and useul, es+e&ially at Gliving historyG *useu*s that e*+hasiFe the traditions o lo&al olk &ultures" )he large, %ellkno%n *useu*s, like Sturbridge Jillage and Colonial :illia*sburg, are very i*+ressive, but s*aller, *ore +ersonal *useu*s are +o++ing all over thethe &ountry" %arning' So*e *useu*s tend tou+ro*anti&iFe +ast" ne Hou &an learn a great deal by visiting %orking &rats+eo+le" Sin&e &rats%orkers tend to be busy,
8 Green Woodworking
you should %rite in advan&e" )his allo%s the* to reuse gra&eully, %hereas &alling on the +hone and asking to visit the sa*e day &an +ut a &rats+erson in an un&o*ortable +osition" )his book has been %ritten to guide you by looking over your shoulder and taking your hands through ea&h ste+ o the +ro>e&ts" 6 don;t believe in se&rets, but 6;* not a living en&y&lo+edia, and a single volu*e &an;t &ontain everything about a sub>e&t" 6 have in&luded a e% areas o green %ood%orking %here *y o%n e7+erien&e is li*ited" 6n su&h &ases, 6;ve been &areul to &redit *y sour&es" 6;ve o*itted &o**only +ra&ti&ed hand %ood%orking skills, su&h as turning at a lathe, *ortiseandtenon >oinery, and +lane %ork" @any good books and *agaFine arti&les &over these sub>e&ts, and green %ood te&hniEues are basi&ally the sa*e as using sa%n lu*ber" )he *ain dieren&e is that green %ood is easier to %ork %ith than dry %ood" But gree n %ood is also so*e%hat %eaker, &ausing un%anted vibration %hen thin s+indles are turned on a lathe" And differential shrinkage 4e7+lained in &ha+ter 8 &auses green %ood to distort as it dries shaved green &ylinders and turned bo%ls be&o*e oval, and s+e&ial a&&o**odations are needed or *ortiseandtenon >oinery" /reen %ood is not suitable or building &onventional &abinets or &ar&ase urniture" 6 also have not gone into detail on s+e&ialiFed &rats, su&h as basketry, log building, &oo+erage, and &hair *aking" )o +ursue these &rats, reer to the books and +eriodi&als listed in the bibliogra+hy Attending a %eeklong &lass, su&h as those %e tea&h at Country :orksho+s, is oten the best %ay to learn the unda*entals o a &rat Euite Eui&kly"
Warning: Woodworking is Dangerous
Serious a&&idents &an ha++en %hen the hu*an body, %ood, and shar+ tools get together" !lti*ately, you are res+onsible or your saety" And %hen %orking %ith instru&tions, you run the added risk o *isinter+reting the*" =ere are a e% guidelines' 1" $o not use tools %hen you are atigued or dis tra&ted" A study by Fine Woodworking *agaFine revealed that %ood%orkers are *ost a&&ident+rone >ust ater eating a illing *eal" 2" ?ollo% re&o**ended saety +re&autions" :ear saety gear 4su&h as eye and hearing +rote&tion %hen using +o%er sa%s, grinders, and i*+a&t tools 4su&h as %hen striking steel %edges %ith a sledgeha**er" 8" Chain sa%s ar e the *ost da ngerous tools us ed by green %ood%orkers" 6t is es+e&ially i*+ortan t to read and ollo% saety instru&tions +rovided by the *anua&turer"
Tools
Naturally, you;ll need green %ood%orking tools" Hou *ay have a e% already, su&h as a dra%knie, an a7e, %edges, or a s+litting *aul" Hou &an *ake so*e o the tools yoursel" Plans or *aking a roe and other tools are in&luded throughout this book" But unless you;re a skilled tool*aker, you;ll need to +ur&hase a e% s+e&ialty tools, su&h as a dra%knie, a broad hat&het, and a s+okeshave" @y advi&e is to get the best tools that you &an aord, +i&king the* u+ as needed" A good hard%are store *ay have a e% o the*, and several de+endable *ailorder &o*+anies s+e&ialiFe in selling hand tools" 6t;s also +ossible to buy e7&ellent used tools, but su&&ess here de+ends on %here you live and your %ood%orking e7+erien&e, bargaining e7+ertise, and +atien&e" An Adventure in Woodworking 9
Green woodworking often &egins &y s%litting sto!k fro a log. This red oak will &e !onverted into ladder&a!k !hair %arts.
10 Green Woodworkins
PA"T O#$
An Introduction to Green Woodworking
C=AP)(- N(
Wat is Green Woodworking% 6 originally used the +hrase G&ountry %ood&ratG to des&ribe *y %ay o %orking %ith %ood" Louise and 6 %ere novi&e ho*esteaders, and *ost o *y %ood%orking related to our rural liestyle" And the book 6 %as %riting at the ti*e %as na* ed "ountry Wood!raft 4(**aus, Pa"' -odale Press, 19." ne early reader o the book %as Dohn Ale7ander, a Balti*ore &hair *aker %ho had >ust %ritten /ake a "hair fro a Tree. 4riginally +ublished by )he )aunton Press in 19., a revised edition is no% available +ublis hed by )he Astragal Press, Needha*, ND" Dohn +ointed out that the ter* G&ountry %ood&ratG e7&ludes so*eone like hi*, %orking in the base*ent o an inner&ity ro% house, %hereas in a&t *any &rats that are no% &onsidered G&ountryG %ere also the %ork o village and even urban &rats+eo+le" GCountry %ood&ratG also see*ed to e7&lude &onte*+orary evolution or invention" Dohn suggested a substitute ter*, Ggreen %ood%orking"G 6 soon dis&overed that green %ood%orking a++eals to %ood%orkers o *any ba&kgrounds, age grou+s, and o&&u+ations" 6t;s &ertainly no se&ret that &ity d%ellers and suburbanites ind hand%ork to be a satisying &o*+le*ent to a %ay o lie in %hi&h al*ost everything is *anua&tured and *ass *arketed" /reen %ood%orking is also an e7&ellent a++roa&h or tea&hing the use o hand tools to kids o all ages" Dohn;s ter* &rystalliFed or *e one day as 6 %as driving through the heart o :est Jirginia, en route to visit -a&hel Nash La%, the %hite oak basket *aker %ho* you;ll *eet later in this book" 6 %as thinking about ho% to deine green %ood%orking %hen 6 rounded a bend and sa% the ans%er right there on the side o the road" /reen %ood%orking, in its *ost basi& or*, is a s+litrail G%or* en&e"G (veryone has seen a %or* en&e, i only in an illustration" )hey %ere *ade by ho*esteaders ba&k %hen there %as an abundan&e o easily s+lit, de&ayresistant trees like bla&k lo&ust, %hite oak, &hestnut, red%ood, &edar, and 4this is true even bla&k %alnut" Straightgrained logs %ere &ross&ut into lengths about 10 eet long, then s+lit length%ise into rails" )he rails 12 Green Woodworking
are sta&ked about eet high, the ends o ea&h sta&k &riss&rossing %ith the ends o the ne7t" Jerti&al +osts %ere not reEuired" )he na*e G%or*G des&ribes the %ay these en&es FigFag over the lands&a+e" /reen %ood%orking is a *ethod3a&tually a bundle o related te&hniEues3o %orking %ood and other *aterial taken straight ro* a tree" Like *ost &rats+eo+le, green %ood%orkers have their s+e&ial %ords, su&h as riving, &olts, and differential shrinkage. :hen they &o*e u+, 6;ll be sure to in&lude a brie e7+lanation" ur en&e *aker %ent dire&tly to the sour&e or his *aterial" )he rails %ere s+lit out, not sa%ed" S+litting, or riving, is the *ethod o &hoi&e or dividing %ood length%ise, +arallel to the long ibers" )his ha++ened to be the astest and easiest %ay to do the >ob and be&ause the resulting sura&e ollo%s the ibrous stru&ture o the %ood, the rails absorb less *oisture and there ore are *ore resistant to de&ay" /reen %ood%orkers use *any other *ethods to sha+e %ood" Logs are he%ed %ith a7es or adFes" Curved adFes are used or hollo%ing large &ontainers and or saddling :indsor &hair seats" nives and gouges o *any sha+es and siFes are used or roughing out and detail %ork" -ived %ood &an be sha+ed +re&isely and Eui&kly %ith a dra%knie and then inished %ith a inely set s+okeshave" Bending is e7tensively used in *any green%ood &rats" Bending green %ood is +robably easier and less te&hni&al than you think" /reen %ood%orkers also use a variety o boring tools, in&luding augers, rea*ers, and no%adays +ossibly a handheld ele&tri& drill" Sa%s are used *ainly or &utting a&ross %ood ibers" ?or &utting logs and ti*bers, the t%o*an &ross& ut sa% is one o the great inventions it &uts Eui&kly and easily i +ro+erly shar+ened" )here are *any ty+es o hand sa%s that &o*e into use" 6n the %oods 6 generally use a &hain sa%" And 6 have a bandsa% in the %orksho+" /reen %ood%orkers use not only the &entral trunk, but also tree +arts that are usually &hi++ed or negle&ted" Li*bs &an be %orked3es+e&ially a &rook or
&urved sha+e" )raditional %ooden boat builders and ti*ber ra*ers +riFe the &urved li*bs o oaks gro%ing in *eado%s" Naturally bent %ood also inds its %ay into bo%ed &hair ba&ks and &urved s+oons" )he natural bo% e&ono*iFes *aterial, but *ore i*+ortantly, it;s *u&h stronger than a &urved +ie&e sa%ed ro* straight *aterial" So*eti*es the tough li*b o a &onier &an substitute or a true hard%ood" An e7a*+le is &oo+erage hoo+ing shaved ro* +ine li*bs" Sa+lings and withes 4s*all shoots have been lashed or %oven by *any traditional &ultures to *ake d%ellings, livesto&k en&losures, and &ontainers o all siFes" (uro+ean ti*berra*e buildings %ere oten inilled %ith wattle and dau& , a ra*e%ork o %ithes &overed %ith +laster" Sti broo*s, &alled &esos in (ngland, %ere *ade ro* straight, +liable t%igs su&h as s%eet bir&h" Beso*s are still used in so*e (uro+ean &ities to s%ee+ the +ubli& streets" :illo% basketry is the *ost +o+ular surviving &rat that uses %ithes" /reen %ood%orkers use leatherlike innerbark, &alled &ast, or lashing, +liable %eaving stri+s, and sheeting" (veryone is a*iliar %ith the bir&hbark &anoes *ade by 6ndians o eastern North A*eri&a" 6n S&andinavia, bir&h bark %as traditionally used underneath sod rooing" 6ndians o the Pa&ii& North%est turned &edar bark into basketry, &lothing, and ro+e" ne o the *ost durable and attra&tive seating *aterials or ladderba&k &hairs is the inner bark o hi&kory" 6n &ha+ter 8, 6;ll e7+lain ho% to *ake a bark &ontainer" No%adays, roots don;t have *any %ood&rat a++li&ations" =arvesting the* is hard %ork, and i*bedded grit is rough on edge tools" =o%ever, roots are in&redibly tough, and root %ood oten has a very interesting igure" Bla&k %alnut roots have al%ays been +riFed or *aking beautiul and stable gun sto&ks" A root *aul is +ra&ti&ally indestru&tible 6 have a dog%ood root *aul that has seen over a de&ade o hard servi&e" S*all roots &an be %oven into baskets" S+lit s+ru&e root %as the avored tradition al *aterial or lashing bir&hbark &anoes" :hile %e;re &onside ring *aterials, 6;d like to *ake a e% other observations dire&tly related to the deinition o green %ood%orking" G/reenG reers to the a&t that the %ood, bark, or root %as s+lit or sha+ed ro* its natural state, and not sa%ed out or &o**er&ially +ro&essed" :henever +ossible, %ood is rived and sha+ed green" )he *ain advantage is that %et ibers are tender, +liable, and readily %orked %ith hand tools" Hou;ll be a*aFed at ho% easy it is to %ork green %ood"
0adder&a!k side!hair designed &y 1ave Sawyer, ade &y the author. )ed oak with hi!kory &ark seating. Author*s !olle!tion
@aterials are green %hen &olle&ted" But in so*e a++li&ations, green %ood should be allo%ed to dry beore use" 6 an a7e head is itted to a green handle, the handle %ill shrink and all out %hen the %ood dries" 6n &oo+erage, staves are s+lit and roughly he%ed %hen green, but a tight &ontainer reEuires that the %ood be Gbone dryG during inal sha+ing and asse*bly" A si*ilar, although *ore &o*+le7, situation o&&urs %ithin the >oints o %ooden urniture" )hin stri+s o %et %ood, su&h as basket %eavers, %ill bend &old %ith e% +roble*s" But larger stu, su&h as a :indsor &hair rail, is less likely to ail during bending i the %ood is stea*ed or boiled" Hou;ll ind out %hy in &ha+ter 9" )he %or* en&e illustrates another &hara&teristi& o green %ood%orking" )here %as no atte*+t to What is Green Woodworking? 13
A fine white oak &asket fro southern A%%ala!hia. 2"olle!tion of 0ouise 0angsner3
disguise ho% the en&e %as *ade" 6t %as si*+le, un&tional, and &o*+le*ented the environ*ent" Although green %ood%orking is traditional, 6 don;t ne&essarily use or tea&h Gauthenti&G or histori&ally &orre&t *ethods" =istori&ally, so*e &rats have been very &onservative and slo% to &hange and visitors to *y %orksho+ oten e7+e&t a +urity that doesn;t e7ist here" )he real %orld o ti*e restraints and *onthly bills ae&ts everyone" Like *any &rats+eo+le, 6;* o+en to learning about ne% tools and te&hniEues that save labor, i*+rove Euality, or *ake *y %ork *ore &o*+etitive in the *ar ket+la&e" Hou shouldn;t be sur+rised to ind a green%ood &hair *aker using a band sa% to &ut ladderba&k rungs to length" Characteristics of Greenwood Crafts )he designs o traditional green%ood &rats tend to be straightor%ard, un&tional, and ageless" A ine bo%l, s+oon, or basket *ay a++ear both old and yet *odern, si*ultaneously" ?or e7a*+le, a :indsor &hair is at ho*e in a &onte*+orary setting as %ell as in a roo* o +eriod urniture" $ue to the su+erior strength o rived *aterials, green%ood &rats &an be lo% in %eight %ithout sa&rii&ing
stru&tural integrity" )his%ere suited traditional %hi&h household ob>e&ts *ade to be used&ultures, or *anyin years" ten there are detail variation s ro* one e7a*+le o an ite* to another" $ieren&es in grain +attern and %ood Euality *ean that a &rats+erson 14 Green Woodworking
using hand tools *ust al%ays be alert, ada+ting te&hniEues to ea&h +ie&e o %ood" Be&ause &rats are *ade one at a ti*e or in s*all bat&hes, it;s easy to *ake *odii&ations or a +arti&ular user" So*e &rats+eo+le +rodu&e +lain and an&y versions o the sa*e ite* a s+e&ial bo%l or s+oon *ay be *ade or a +arti&ular o&&asion" @ost green%ood &rats utiliFe straightor%ard, basi& &onstru&tion" :hy a >oint %orks, or ho% it;s done, is not al%ays obvious, but >oinery is seldo* hidden" !nderstanding %ood *ove*ent, the result o &onstant &hanges in iber *oisture &ontent, is &riti&al to longlasting &onstru&tion" @any traditional &rats %ithered %ith the develo+*ent o +rodu&tion %ood%orking and &o**er&ial *arketing" )here have been e% survivors" So*e &rats, like ra*e and +anel urniture, %ere ada+ted to *a&hine +rodu&tion" A*ong the surviving green%ood &rats, basket *aking is the *ost visible, +robably be&ause it is suited as a ho*e &rat, oten &arried on in isolated lo&ations %ith lo% overhead" Although baskets are no longer a ne&essity, they a++ear to ill that &ertain need +eo+le have or things hand*ade" So*e other green%ood &rats, su&h as &hair *aking, log building, and ti*ber ra*ing, al*ost died, but not Euite" :e still have so*e oldti*e &ountry basket *akers, but &onte*+orary &hair *akers, log builders, and ti*ber ra*ers tend to be ne%&o*ers, oten ro* urban ba&kgrounds" Chairs )he &o**on +ostandrung &hair, kno%n also as a ladder ba&k or slatba&k, is a +ere&t e7a*+le o an ongoing green%ood &rat" )he basi& design %as readily ada+ted to *ass +rodu&tion, but a&tory*ade ladderba&ks use sa%ed sto&k, and little attention is +aid to details su&h as *oisture &ontents o the &o*+onents during asse*bly" )he result is generally a &lunky &hair, short on &o*ort, gra&e, and durability" /odrey Beaton, a British historian o hand &rats, learned ho% to *ake ladderba&ks %ith rived %ood and hand tools, and he des&ribes his res+e&t or their si*+le design in an arti&le, G)hinking About Chairs,G in the @ayDune 19. issue o a British +eriodi&al, "rafts. A ladderba&k &hair %ith a rush seat is a &hair redu&ed to its essentials" 6t is, Euite literally, a sti&k &hair, analogous to a sti&k *an su&h as a &hild *ight dra%" 6t has no su+erluous +arts, and no e7&ess o *aterials" Stru&tures o this kind are &lose to being in %hat the engineer des&ribes as their G*ini*u* &ondition"G )o a
re*arkable degree this traditional +rodu&t e*bodies a design +rin&i+le asso&iated %ith the Bauhaus' that o obtaining the *a7i*u* ee&t ro* a *ini*u* o *aterial" !sing green %ood%orking te&hniEues, an entire &hair &an be *ade ro* a s*all hi&kory, %hite oak, or ash log" -ed oak &an also be used or the ra*e, although it doesn;t +rovide a seating *aterial" @any ladderba&ks are, in a&t, *ade ro* a &o*bination o dierent %oods" !ntil not long ago, there %ere a e% oldti*ers in southern A++ala&hia %ho still *ade ladderba&ks the old %ay" 6n the srcinal edition o Fofire 4Ne% Hork' $oubleday K Co*+any, 19.2, Lon -eid des&ribe s to a grou+ o student re+orters ro* -abun /a+ =igh S&hool ho% he *akes a &hair" 6t;s as&inating to learn that Lon;s te&hniEues %ere a&tually si*+ler than those used by his ather" )%o e7a*+les' =is ather used a Ghand turned lathe 4+ossibly a s+ring +ole to round his +osts and rungs, and he 4Lon uses a shaving horse instead"G :e also learn that the ather bent his ba&k +osts by boiling the* in %ater, %hereas Lon;s &hairs %ere straight ba&ks, or they de+ended on a natural &rook in the s+lit %ood" Baskets all green%ood &rats, basketry has been the great survivor" Ash s+lint basketry, *ade by the Shakers and other basket *akers, %as on&e &o**on throughout the Northeast" But ash basketry al*ost died out, +robably be&ause o the a*ount o %ork reEuired in +re+aring s+lints and be&ause the baskets
%ere *ade o in aShaker region that early %as industrialiFed" )hethe +o+ularity &rats is on largely res+onsible or &urrent revival o interest in ash s+lint basketry" :illo% basketry is +rodu&ed and *arketed inter nationally" 6n &entral (uro+e, haFel %ithes are used by basket *akers or stout hauling baskets reEuired by Al+ine ar*ers" A strong +oint in avor o haFel and %illo% is that you &an easily gro% the trees yoursel" 6;ll dis&uss gro%ing your o%n *aterials 4&alled !o%%i!ing3 in &ha+ter 8" :hite oak baskets have been *ade *ostly in the southeastern !nited States" :hite oak baskets tend to be un&tional, handso*e, and sturdy" )y+i&ally, they have a sEuare or round botto* &o*+osed o ribs that bend u+ at the edges to or* sides" -i*s and handles are lashed in +la&e ater the %eaving is &o*+leted" @elonsha+ed baskets are *ade by starting %ith a ra*e &onsisting o a horiFontal ri* and a verti&al handle loo+, se&ured in +la&e %ith lashing" -odlike ribs radia te ro* the lashi ng" )he or* &an be bulbous or re&tangular, %ith &ountless variations"
Rived Crafts Minial finish work: Fene !osts and rai"s# shee! and garden hurd"es Rived and !oined: $hests# s%a"" ta&"es# stoo"s Rived and lashed: 'oo!s# ker()&ent &o*es# round and ova" &o*es# sieves Rived and shaved: +asket hoo!s# oo!erage# ha,(orks and rakes# "adder)&ak hairs# s,the snaths# shing"es# snowshoes# s!"int &askets# too" hand"es# wagon s!okes# Windsor s!ind"es -an, "adder)&ak hairs# Rived and turned: s!inning whee"s# strethers# Windsor "egs
"og Reduction #$e and ad%e:+ee gu%s. dugout anoes. "og ontainers. sha(ts /wagons# %i""s. s"ed runners /o(ten &ent. ti%&ers /"og &ui"dings# rai"road ties# ti%&er (ra%ing. treen)ware /&ow"s# trenhers# troughs Carving:'ardware /hand"es# hinges# hooks# "athes# et. %ise"" aneous /arvings# deo,s# !i!es# et. utensi"s /soo!s# s!oons# et Miscellaneous:$"og shoes# !i!es /water# wiss a"! horns Turned:+ow"s# hair !arts# "idded ontainers
S&ecial Materials Bark:+asketr,# anoe skins# "ashed ontainers# ro!e# seating# sod roo( under"a, Roots:+asketr,. "ashing /anoes# ontainers# snowshoes# et. %au"s. !i!es /s%oking Withes:+eso%s. en"o sures /"ivestok . hurd"es. o rd &asketr,. ti%&er)(ra%e in)(i"" "i's:+oat &raes# s!oons# "othes hooks# twig (urniture
Greenwood #rchitecture 6n the building &rats, t%o verna&ular or*s o green
%ood%orking have ra*ing" been revived in re&ent years3log building and ti*ber @ost A*eri&ans asso&iate log %ork %ith the rontier &abin, a very basi& stru&ture that usually %as Eui&kly and &hea+ly built by the o%ner" But What is Green Woodworking? 15
A willow &asket ade in 4ngland &y 1avid 1rew. 2"olle!tion of 5ohn and 5oy!e Aleander3
the log building tradition in the ld :orld, +arti&ularly S&andinavia and Al+ine and eastern (uro+e, %as a highly develo+ed &rat, oten the %ork o s+e&ialists" 6n &entral (uro+e, a single *assive ti*berra*e stru&ture oten served all o the shelter needs o a ar*" )i*ber ra*ing, using *illed *aterials, is still &o**only used or houses and barns in the S%iss Al+s" @ost &onte*+orary log and ti*berra*e builders no% order ti*bers &ut to di*ensions ro* sa%*ills" 6nstea d o using a traditional inill o *asonry or +laster, builders oten surround ra*es %ith energyei&ient stress skin +anels" )he green %ood%orking traditions in %hi&h these rene%ed building trades are rooted re*ain a sour&e o ins+iration"
# Green Woodworker(s Sho& ten traditional &rats+eo+le %orked seated on a sturdy lo% ben&h, using their la+ and hands or holding %ood and %orking the tools" @any %orked outdoors, in a shed, or in ront o the a*ily hearth" Basketry is oten done sitting on the loor" )he %ood%orkers %ho* you;ll *eet in Part )hree %ork in a variety o settings" A sho+ &an be a 16 Green Woodworking
shed, a ba&k roo* at ho*e, or the great outdoors" Sin&e al*ost all green %ood%orking eEui+*ent and tools are +ortable, it;s relatively easy to &hange lo&ations %ith the seasons" ?or an indoor sho+, 150 to 250 sEuare eet is adeEuate" !ntil re&ently, *y sho+ %as 10 by 1< eet, >ust large enough or a %orkben&h, shaving horse, and lathe" )he *ost +ro*inent +ie&e o eEui+*ent in *y sho+ is the shaving horse, a lo% ben&h that you straddle, %ith a ooto+erated s%inging &la*+" Shaving horses are *ostly used or dra%knie and s+okeshave %ork" )he oot o+erated &la*+ is Eui&ker than a vise, and a s*all ledge &alled a GbridgeG su++orts the *aterial being %orked on" Another &o**on holding devi&e is a &rake, used to hold *aterial %hile it;s being s+lit" @ost green %ood%orkers also use a standard %orkben&h %ith a &onventional %ood vise" /reen %ood%orkers don;t have to deal %ith *any unhealthul sho+ +roble*s that threaten other %ood%orkers" )he %aste generated by he%ing, shaving, and lathe%ork *akes great kindling" Jery little dust ro* sa%ing and sanding loats around the sho+" )here;s also no need or to7i& *aterials su&h as highly volatile solvents or syntheti& inishes" And it;s Euiet
ne real saety haFard is the &hain sa%, although ne% ones are &onsiderably saer than those o a e% years ago" Band sa%s, a7es, and &arving tools &an inli&t serious in>uries, but the +otential or danger is less than that o *ost +o%er *a&hinery" (ar +rote&tors, a dust *ask, and saety glasses should be used %hen &alled or" &ourse, it;s i*+ortant to be &areul using any shar+ edge tools" Why Bother)
/reen %ood%orking takes ti*e" And ti*e igures in the Gbotto* lineG o +rodu&tion &rats" 6 this %eren;t true, the list o surviving green%ood &rats %ould be longer" So *aybe you;re asking, %hy bother :hen 6 %as *aking %hite oak hayork s, 6 so*eti*es %ondered %hy they %ere so +o+ular" 6 tested *y orks against the *ass+rodu&ed hard%are store variety in various &ir&u*stan&es3gathering leaves, turning &o*+ost, +it&hing hay" )he hand*ade orks %ere inerior" &ourse 6 kne% that very e% o *y orks %ould ever be +ut to use in a garden" )hey %ere usually bought or dis+lay in a den or above a hearth" )his disturbed *e" 6 en>oyed *aking every ork" )hey %ere beautiul and a++eared un&tional" But on the >ob, *y hayorks %ere out+eror*ed by ones that &ost hal as *u&h" 6 talked this over %ith $aniel ;=agan, a riend %ho has also *ade hayorks" $aniel;s re+ly %as
Steaer Work'ench
+hiloso+hi&al" =e said that +eo+le have a dee+ longing or things hand*ade and or the liestyle that hand*ade things re+resent" 6n this age o s+eed and *ass +rodu&tion %e;ve al*ost lost our ability to %ork %ith our o%n hands, as %ell as in the &o*+any o our a*ilies and neighbors" $aniel believes that the hand*ade hayork is a sy*bol o an endangered %ay o lie that is still attra&tive" )he hayork on the den %all serves a un&tion si*ilar to a +i&ture o a that&hed &ottage in its +astoral setting" /reen %ood%orking de*ands a &lose relationshi+ bet%een %ood%orker and basi&, un&o*+li&ated tools" )here is also the &hallenge o %orking in har*ony %ith natural +ro+erties o a +arti&ular %ood" Hou learn by s+e&ies and sa*+le" Hou %ork %ith %ood iber, gravity, and ever+resent lu&tuations o *oisture &ontent" )he result is the satisa&tion o kno%ing that you;ve *ade so*ething yoursel, %ith your o%n hands and %its" )here is a deinite &ontrast to the e7+erien&e o +ushing *anua&tured lu*ber through *a&hines that do the a&tual %ork" And so*eti*es green %ood%orking is si*+ly better" 6;* thinking about the stren gth and beauty o a green %ood%orker;s &hair or a +air o hand*ade sno%shoes, both de*onstrably stronger, lighter, and *ore durable than the a&tory*ade ite*"
The floor %lan of y old worksho%, lo!ated u%stairs in our log house. The sho% is 7 feet wide and 6 feet long. 8 have an overhead shelf a&ove the steaer and the work&en!h.
Shaving Horse
Shelving Tools
What is Green Woodworking? 17
C=AP)(- ):
A Cultural Pers&ecti!e to drit%ood ound on the bea&hes another +ossibility is trade a&ross the Aleutian 6slands" A*ong no*adi& and tribal +eo+le, %ood%orking %as oten done %hile sitting on the ground" :oodholding devi&es %ere not generally used" Jery e7a&ting %ork and de&orative sura&e &arving %ere &o**on" :ood%orking %as oten &o*bined %ith other *aterials, su&h as bone, hide, and shells" No*ads tended to *ake and +reer round rather than sEuare sha+es" (7a*+les o no*adi& &rats using %ood in&lude their highly develo+ed *eans o trans+ortation3kayaks, &anoes, sleds, sno%shoes" *oadic and Hunter+Gatherer Woodworkers )e*+orary and trans+ortable d%ellings %ere also usually round" Cylindri&al &ontainers 4*ade ro* bark and %ood A e% e7a*+les o no*ads and huntergatherers %ho %ere &o**on" 6n &ontrast, the villagebased hunter traditionally %orked %ith %ood in&lude S&andinavian gatherers o the Pa&ii& &oast ty+i&ally built re&tilinear La++s, A*eri&an 6ndians o the Pa&ii& North%est &oast d%ellings and &ontainers" and the northeast, and natives o Siberia" Be&ause no*ads %ere oten on the *ove, tools and other +ossessions %ere ,easant Woodworking Traditions generally ke+t to a *ini*u*" 6n &ontrast, village d%ellers )he %ood&rat o +easant &ultures +robably re+resents our so*eti*es a&Euired *any +ossessions and *ade large, $uring the years that 6;ve sat at a shaving horse, 6;ve rele&ted at odd *o*ents on the role o &rats and te&hnology %ithin various &ultures" )he sub>e&t is s%ee+ing3really beyond the s&o+e o this te7t" A thorough treat*ent3%hi&h &ould be&o*e a as&inating book3%ould reEuire an interdis&i+linary study in&luding tool *aking, *etallurgy, e&ono*i&s, so&ial syste*s, et&" )his &ha+ter &onsists o *y +ersonal &olle&tion o &ultural Gsna+shots,G %hi&h, as a grou+, +resent a generaliFed +ers+e&tive o green %ood%orking"
substantial valued d%ellings" )he %ealth, 6ndian %ith tribesanounusual the Pa&ii& North%est *aterial t%ist' the %otlat!h %as a ritual dis+lay o +ersonal %ealth %here treasures %ere given a%ay or so*eti*es destroyed" A*ong northern A*eri&an 6ndian &ultures, %ood%orking %as highly develo+ed beore the intro du&tion o *etal tools ro* (uro+e" 6n the Jan&ouver, :ashington, area, e7&avations have unearthed %ood%orking tools %hi&h %ere used bet%een 5,000 and ,000 years ago" :ood%orking tools %ere *ade ro* stone, bone, horn, shells, and %ood" Co**on tools in&luded knives, a7es, adFes, s&ra+ers, and a%ls" Controlled burning %as used e7tensively or elling, hollo%ing, and &utting a&ross logs" Pa&ii& North%est &oast 6ndians *ade e7tensive use o %edges to s+lit +lanks as large as by 0 eet ro* giant &edar trees" )he sa*e &oastal %ood%orkers %ere using tools %ith steel blades at least 500 years ago" :here their *etal &a*e ro* is not kno%n" ne sour&e &ould have been *etal atta&hed 18 Green Woodworking
general o notion o traditional green %ood%orking" )he liestyle +easants &o*bines subsisten&e agri&ulture %ith a variety o &rat skills" Peasant e&ono*ies are usually based on lo&al needs, trading, and *ini*al involve*ent %ith an oi&ial e&ono*y" Peasant %ood%orkers +rodu&ed a %ide variety o un&tional &rats" Basketry, &arved %ooden utensils, and bo%ls %ere &o**on household &rats, usually *ade during %inter *onths %hen there %as sla&k in ar* %ork" Agri&ultural i*+le*ents, su&h as sleds and harro%s, %ere oten *ade on the side by a lo&al ar*er" A ho*e*ade %ooden +lo% *ight reEuire a steel +oint or other hard%are bartered ro* a lo&al +artti*e bla&ks*ith" @ore s+e&ialiFed +easant &rats in&luded &hair *aking 4+ostandrung, &oo+erage, and *aking hoo+ed &ontainers 4sieves and bo7es" )hese &rats reEuired so*e s+e&ial training and %ere oten %inter %ork or ar*ers" @y &oo+ering *entor, -uedi ohler, a++renti&ed as a young *an during t%o su&&essive %inters" !ntil he Gretired,G -uedi %as a
hired Al+ine &heese*aker and &o%herd *ost o the year" Coo+erage ke+t hi* busy %ith indoor %ork during the &old S%iss %inters" 6n so*e +easant &ultures there %ere also a e% ull ti*e s+e&ialiFed &rats+eo+le" @aking and re+airing &arts and %agons reEuired several highly develo+ed skills3 there %as oten a division o labor bet%een %ood%orkers and bla&ks*iths" /eorge Sturt;s 1928 &lassi&, The Wheelwright*s Sho% 4Ca*bridge' Ca*bridge !niversity Press, 1928, 19., is a rare irsthand a&&ount o the skills and dedi&ation o the &rats+eo+le %ho %orked in his a*ily;s and %agon )he &art %ooden olk sho+" houses o +reindustrial (uro+e in&lude *any e7e*+lary e7a*+les o the a7e*an;s art" 6n %ooded, &onierous S&andinavia and the *ountainous regions o (uro+e, a7ehe%ed log stru&tures %ere &o**on" Straight, &o*+aratively light &oniers are suited to sta&king u+ log %alls %ith &rossed, not&hed &orners" Barns and outbuildings &ould be o%nerbuilt, but the best d%ellings %ere generally *ade by +roessional &ar+enters" 6n areas o de&iduous orests3*u&h o (ngland and %estern (uro+e3ti*ber ra*ing develo+ed" =eavy, oten &urved hard%oods %ere *ore suitable or *aking a >oined ra*e, inilled %ith *asonry" Large log and ti*berra*e stru&tures %ere e7+ensive, re+resenting an invest*ent that %ould +ay dividends to several generations into the uture" 6n +easant &ultures, &rat skills %ere trans*itted through oral tradition" Crat kno%ledge is based on %hat %orks" b>e&tive tests, or resear&h, are usually unkno%n" )raditional to guidelines be &ontradi&tory one &o**unity another" A&an&o**on e7a*+le o ro* diering Gkno%ledgeG are the dierent rules o %hen to &ut ti*ber by astrologi&al signs and *oon +hases" Woodworking and -ndustrial Culture
(arly industrialiFation %as *arked by *a>or develo+ *ents that &hanged the role o &rats" ?or various reasons, oten not o &hoi&e, *any +easants let subsisten&e &rats and agri&ulture to %ork ull ti*e in &ottage industries, a&tories, and or %ealthy lando%ners " )he need or &ash %as e*+hasiFed3to +ay ta7es and to +ur&hase &o**er&ial goods, ood, and servi&es" $uring the early industrial era, &rats tended to be&o*e *ore s+e&ialiFed" So*e s+e&ialiFation +robably o&&urred naturally, but entre+reneurs also had a hand in *u&h o %hat ha++ened" Crats su&h as %illo% basketry %ere divided into se+arate trades,
A "herokee &asket ade fro rived white oak s%lits. 2"olle!tion of 1arry Wood,3
su&h as +rodu&tion o *aterials 4gro%ing and harvesting, +ro&essing *aterials, and the a&tual %eaving 4oten a &ottage industry done on a +ie&e%ork basis" ?inished baskets %ere *arketed by traders %ith a&&ess to distant *arkets" )he +rodu&tion o :indsor &hairs in /reat Britain %as +ossibly the earliest e7a*+le o a +rodu&tion &rat that used inter&hangeable &o*+onents +rodu&ed by s+e&ialiFed trades" )he srci n o the :indsor style is not &learly established, but %e kno% that :indsors %ere ashionable in the early 1.00s" )he (nglish and Colonial aristo&ra&y oten &hose to sit in :indsors %hen their +ortraits %ere +ainted" By the early 100s, :indsors %ere +rodu&ed and *arketed by the thousands" Setting the +attern o &o**er&ial develo+*ent, a*ous :indsor G&hair*akersG %ere a&tually business*en %ho develo+ed +rodu&tion *ethods and sold &hairs, not the anony*ous &rats+eo+le %ho *ade the*" :indsor +rodu&tion traditionally reEuired the %ork o at least three +rodu&tion s+e&ialists" )urners +rodu&ed the legs, stret&hers, and s+indles" Ben&h*en sa%ed and adFed the solid +lank seats" )hen ra*ers +ut the &hairs together" 6n larger sho+s, there %as *ore s+e&ialiFation3su&h as benders, inishers, and so*eti*es &aners" :indsor turnings %ere generally done on a +ie&e%ork basis by inde+endent &rats*en, kno%n as &odgers, %ho set u+ sho+ in the %oods" )his A $u"tura" ers!etive 19
'ow&a!k Windsor &y 1ave Sawyer
A !oo%ered ale %it!her fro Norway ade in the early 977s
&o*+ete %ith &a+italis*" ?or instan&e, the Shakers e*+hasiFed the desirability o +ersonal &o*+eten&y in a diversity o skills, aside ro* having a s+e&ialty =ere is an e7&er+t ro* the >ournal o a Shaker artisan, =enry $e:itt, %hi&h %as re+rodu&ed in Shaker Furniture, by (d%ard $e**ing Andre%s 4Ne% Hork' $over Publi&ations, 6n&", 19<' $e&" 12. Levi K 6 began to *ake a lot o great s+inning %heels" ?ri" 211 *ade a &ou+le o dra%ers to +ut under the vi&e ben&h" @ond" 2 :e began to *ake a s*all &ase o dra%ers %ith a &u+board at the to+ o it" )ues" 25 )his day %e &elebrate in *e*ory o our blessed Lord and Saviour" Sat" 29 :e inished our &ase o dra%ers all but staining" Dan" 12 )ues" Levi K 6 began to *end old baskets K &hairs"
So*eti*es a i7ing s+inning %heels, At other ti*es to %ork at reels3 6 6 should *ention all 6 do, @y ti*e and +a+er %ould be e%"
Sat" 12 @ended 1 baskets K 8 &hairs"
?eb 12 ?ri" 6 &ut a %alnut tree or basket bails K ri*s
)ues" 15 6 *ade a &ou+le o books
turned 52 reel legs
?ri" 1 6 *ended 2 &hair botto*s
5 6 +olished K straightened s+indles"
@ond" 211 i7ed a sa% +la&e in a bo% K &ut ne% teeth K iled it"
12 6 %orked sa%ing out the &ogs to the reel %heels"
Dan" 81 G@y %ork is so oten &hanged it is hard to give a true state*ent o it"G
10 6 turned about 0 %heels or &lo&k reels"
A $u"tura" ers!etive 21
The si%li!ity and honesty of Shaker furniture has ins%ired any !onte%orary green woodworkers.
More Recent Develo&ents )he S%iss Al+ine &oo+ering that -uedi ohler learned in 1920 is kno%n in (nglish as %hite &oo+erage" )he traditional *ountain &oo+er su++lied a variety o s+e&ialiFed &ontainers3tubs, *ilking bu&kets, butter &hurns3used by lo&al, a*ily dairy ar*ers" )his ty+e o &oo+ering &ould be highly reined" ?or instan&e, %ooden hoo+ing %as retained, and &ertain &ontainers reEuired s+e&ial &arved handles or s&ul+ted staves" 6n the re*ote Al+s the %ay o lie &hanged slo%ly there %as deinitely a strong *easure o +ride in a &ulture that had thrived under severe &li*ati& and geogra+hi& &onditions" But the develo+*ents o the 20th &entury gradually &hallenged Al+ine e&ono*i&s" ?ar* sons %ho traditionally stayed on the land *oved to villages and the gro%ing &ities" 6n res+onse to the need or labor, s+e&ial *a&hinery %as develo+ed" Ne% sanitary regulations restri&ted the use o the old %ooden &oo+ered &ontainers to the e% surviving *ountain herders %ho +rodu&ed &heese" nly a e% &oo+ers %ere reEuired to +rovide ne% &ontainers and do re+airs" )here 22 Green Woodworking
%ere no ne% a++renti&es sin&e there %as no uture in the &rat" $uring :orld :ar 66, rationing o *etal +rovided te*+orary %ork or &oo+ers" )hen, the +ost%ar +lasti&s industry al*ost killed the &rat" :hen 6 *et -uedi ohler in 19.2, his situation %as &hanging on&e again" )he S%iss %ere be&o*ing saturated %ith the +rodu&ts and +a&e o *ass &ulture" Peo+le began to re*e*ber and a++re&iate the s+e&ial Eualities o things *ade by hand" )his led to a revival o interest in the old %ays %hi&h %ere generally harder than &onte*+orary e7isten&e oten ree orsthe &onstant stresses oohler;s *odern lie" n&e but again, &usto*e %ere &o*ing to =err %orksho+, kee+ing the retired ar*er and &oo+er busy" By this ti*e, e% herders %ere let %ho needed re+la&e*ent &oo+erage the #ufereister*s *ain business %as %ith &ity olk %ho %anted a*ily heirloo*s re+aired or ne% &oo+ered &ontainers3 &oo+erage %hi&h %ould never &ontain *ilk or &rea*, but be +ro*inently dis+layed in neat S%iss ho*es and taverns"
,reserving Craft Skills -uedi ohler;s &areer has s+anned *ost o the t%entieth &entury, linking the +easant tradition %ith the +resent revival o interest in hand&rats" )he S%iss are a%are that Al+ine &oo+erage +layed a vital role in lo&al &ulture and that *astery o this &o*+le7 &rat *ay be lost by uture generations" 6n Da+an, highly skilled *aster artisans are honored by the govern*ent as Gliving treasures"G As 6 %rite, there are still a e% unoi&ial living treasures here in North A*eri&a" )hese olk&raters are oten hard to lo&ate,
be&ause tendistooten survive in o re*ote areas +ersonal they *akedo a %ay lie" As 6;ve%here said, a*ong the green %ood%orking &rats, basketry has survived best" 6n the North, there are still a e% 6ndians *aking sno%shoes the old %ay" 6 re&ently learned about t%o a*ilies in Arkansas %ho have been *aking green %ood ladderba&k &hairs or generations" -esear&hers are no% re&ording ho% various &rats %ere done Gthe old %ay"G (liot :igginton;s ?o7ire Pro>e&t links young +eo+le o southern A++ala&hia %ith the traditions o their heritage" =enri Jaillan&ourt, %ell kno%n or his bir&hbark &anoes, has established the )rust or Native A*eri&an Cultures and Crats" )he )rust has *ade videota+es o Native A*eri&ans *aking sno%shoes, building an AlgonEuian bir&hbark &anoe, and tanning leather" )he Hurt ?oundation 4lo&ated in Bu&k;s =arbor, @aine has also done ield resear&h o native &rats" -e&ording these skills is a slo% +ro&ess" 6t begins %ith develo+ing a +ersonal relationshi+ %ith +eo+le &an %ho*ake *ay *eet e% outsiders" Ca*eras and ta+e re&orders the* un&o*ortable" (ven %hen a olk&rater is %illing to share skills, the resear&h *ay go slo%ly be&ause these *ethods have never beore been +resented to a stranger" Another +roble* is that legiti*ate resear&hers so*eti*es ollo% the trail o entre+reneurs %ho took inan&ial advantage o &rats+eo+le" Green Woodworking Today @ost green %ood%orkers that 6 kno% a++roa&h their &rat so*e%hat dierently than the oldti*ers did" )oday there is a re&e+tiveness to ne% *ethods, *aterials, and tools3 in&luding a slo% but %orth%hile tri&kle do%n ro* *ainstrea* %ood te&hnology resear&h" :e no% kno% *ore about bending %ood and %hy a %ell*ade ladder ba&k &hair holds together"
?ro* *y +ers+e&tive, the uture o green %ood %orking looks +ro*ising" Custo*ers are learning to a++re&iate genuine &rats" No one %ould buy a hand*ade :indsor &hair that &o+ies the ones sold by Sears and no a&tory3not even the best3&an &o*+ete %ith those *ade by *y riend $ave Sa%yer, %ho* you;ll *eet in Part )hree" A hand&rated ladderba&k &hair *ay sell or ten ti*es the +ri&e o one at a dis&ount store but %hen you buy the real thing, you have so*ething o beauty and &o*ort that %ill last or generations o daily use" Also, only an individual &rats+erson or a very s*all sho+ &an build a &hair to *eet a +arti&ular &usto*er;s reEuire*ents" Possibly or the irst ti*e ever, baskets are selling or +ri&es that &an su++ort a *odest livelihood" Skilled basket *akers %orking oak)his andisash are no% selling all the baskets they in &an%hite *ake" +arti&ularly i*+ressive sin&e the interna A $u"tura" ers!etive 23
tional basket *arket in&ludes e7tre*ely &hea+ basketry ro* )hird :orld &ountries" Custo*ers are %illing to +ay or baskets &rated %ith indigenous *aterials in the lo&al tradition" 6 %as never able to kee+ u+ %ith orders or %hite oak hayorks" 6t *ay see* that *aking doFens o hayorks %ould be boring and re+etitious" But be&ause ea&h +ie&e o %ood %as dierent and 6 %as %orking %ith hand tools only, ea&h ork %as a &hallenge" ?inally, 6 should +oint out that &onte*+orary green %ood%orking is not restri&ted to traditionalis* but is evolving" Several &hair *akers have develo+ed the the*e o the traditional ladderba&k" ?or e7a*+le, Dohn Ale7ander;s reine*ent o the &o**on ladderba&k involves resear&h on %hy a %etdry >oint holds together" $ave Sa%yer;s design or a ire%ood tote, %hi&h is the bending +ro>e&t in &ha+ter 9, is an e7a*+le o an e7&ellent ne% design" all green %ood%orkers, +erha+s basket *akers have been the *ost +rone to e7+eri*ent" -a&hel Nash La%, %hose %ork is sho%n in Part )hree, has been develo+ing her o%n variations o traditional %hite oak basketry" ther basket *akers are using their &rat as an art *ediu*, %ith less interest in un&tion and tradition" Persona lly, 6 +reer baskets that are *eant or use" But this doesn;t *ean that the te&hniEues o green %ood%orking should re*ain the +ro+erty o traditionalists" Please eel ree to use the inor*ation ro* this book in any dire&tion that you &are to take it"
24 Green Woodworking
1uring the first day of a ladder&a!k !hairaking !ourse at "ountry Worksho%s, students rive %osts and rungs fro a !lear, straightgrain oak log.
A $u"tura" ers!etive 25
'oring rung ortises for a ladder&a!k 2<
/reen :ood%orking
PA"T TWO
Working Green Wood
0i&s fro a gnarly old a%%le tree ake e!ellent s%oon wood. 2
/reen :ood%orkins
C=AP)(- )=-((
'aterials /etting %ood, bark, or a s+e&ially &urved li*b is an integral +art o green %ood%orking" 6t;s an adventure, generally an en>oyable one" /reen %ood%orkers don;t +ur&hase standard *aterials ro* a lu*ber dealer" 6nstead, they sear&h %oodlands and ield edges or *aterials in a ritual that is as old as *ankind;s involve*ent %ith *aking things" :hile *aterials or green %ood%orking are a rene%able resour&e, they;re not unli*ited in su++ly" 6n one year 6 &ut all the +re*iu* %hite oaks ro* our hard%ood orest to *ake hayorks" )hes e %ere trees about 0 years old, and there %ere about eight o the*" :e do have a nu*ber o s*all %hite oaks in our %oods the right siFe or basket *aking, but none is good enough to *ake ine s+lits" 6 also believe that develo+ing a &ons&ientious res+onsibility or land ste%ardshi+ is an i*+ortant &onsideration in &olle&ting *aterials" 6t;s i*+ortant to leave high Euality seed trees throughout an area" Careless logging &an also &ause serious erosion and strea* sedi*entation" )he &hallenge o %orking %ood s+e&ies %ith diering &hara&teristi&s is one o the ni&e things about green %ood%orking" But %hen *aterials are *edio&re, or %orse, the a*ount o ti*e &onsu*ed is seldo* %orth the eort, e7&e+t as a learning e7+erien&e" )he best *aterials are oten dii&ult to lo&ate, so %e *ay be reEuired to use %ood that leaves a little to be desired" ne traditional solution, &alled !o%%i!ing, is to +lant and *aintain groves o a single s+e&ies or a s+e&ii& &rat use" Which Wood for What)
(a&h green%ood &rat has its o%n reEuire*ents, oten &o*bining several %ood &hara&teristi&s" &&asionally, only one kind o %ood is suitable or a +arti&ular &rat, but usually several s+e&ies are suitable, ea&h %ith slightly dierent &hara&teristi&s" 6ndividual %ood%orkers oten have dierent avorites or the sa*e &rat" Hour lo&ation and lo&al availability %ill *ake the dieren&e" 6 you
(7+eri*ent" /reen %ood%orkers oten use straightgrained hard%ood, su&h as %hite oak, hi&kory, and ash" )his is not to say that 6 don;t a++re&iate igured %oods like hard &urly *a+le or %ild &herry" Both are %onderul %oods and 6 do use the*, but usually in s*all a*ounts or s+e&ial uses, su&h as knie handles or %ooden hard%are" ?igured %ood %on;t s+lit +redi&tably, i at all" 6t;s dii&ult to sha+e and i*+ossible to bend" :henever +ossible, 6 use reshly &ut %ood or %ood stored to *aintain *oisture &ontent and to dis&ourage de&ay" 6;ll e7+lain ho% to store %ood later in this &ha+ter" ?or rived %ood&rats, su&h as &hair *aking and basketry, &hoose a %ood %ith &oarse, long ibers that s+lits easily and +redi&tably" Shortgrained %ood is +reerable or &arving or he%ing, te&hniEues that reEuire %orking a&ross the iber and oten %ith ine detailing" ther desirable &hara&teristi&s *ay in&lude +liability, toughness, la&k o taste, and de&ay resistan&e" )ree s+e&ies are divide d into t%o grou+ s, both o %hi&h &ontain a %ide range o &hara&teristi&s that ae&t %ood%orking" 1e!iduous trees, generally &alled Ghard%oods,G have broad leaves %hi&h are usually shed ater a year;s gro%th" "oniferous trees, the Gsot%oods,G have needlelike leaves that are dro++ed by rotation3ne% needles develo+ beore the old needles all o" )he &oniers are so*eti*es &alled Gevergreens"G But these ter*s are *isleading nature has +rovided +lentiul e7&e+tions to the general &hara&teristi&s o ea&h grou+" )here are, or instan&e, de&iduous trees that retain leaves around the year, in&luding holly, eu&aly+tus, and the shrublike rhododendron" 6n tro+i&al Fones, *ost broadleaed trees kee+ leaves around the year" Citrus trees are a %ellkno%n e7a*+le" And or urther &onusion, the lar&h is a &onier that loses its needles ea&h %inter" Not all de&iduous Ghard%oodG trees have hard %ood" Linden, +o+lar, and alder are as sot as *ost &oniers" A*ong the &oniers, eastern red &edar and southern yello% +ine are harder than so*e hard%oods"
&an;t get the *aterial suggest +ro>e&t, try %hat;s available" -eerthat to 6the tablesorin a this &ha+ter" -ateria"s 29
+ .arlywood / "atewood (Ray Annua" Growth ing
"ross se!tion of a ring%orous hard wood. The %roinent rays are ty%i!al of the oaks. The wind !he!k is a inor !ra!k found in any logs.
Wind $hek ith 'eartwood a!wood Sa&wood Ca'iu "ayer of Cells -nner 0"iving1 Bark2/Bast/ 3uter 0Dead1 Bark
Stru&turally, %ood &ells &onsist o hollo% ibers, not unlike a bundle o stra%s" )he &ell %alls are al*ost entirely *ade o &ellulose, a ty+e o &arbohydrate" :hen you %ork %ood, it;s oten *u&h easier to divide ibers length%ise than to &ut a&ross the*" :hen you s+lit %ood, the or&e is +er+endi&ular to the length%ise a7is the ibers se+arate easily" =ard%oods &ontain t%o ty+es o large, sa+&ondu&ting &ells, rays and %ores 4or vessels3, and are so*eti*es &alled %orous %oods" Sot% oods are ree rred to as non%orous. )hese ter*s reer to &ell ty+e, not to a&tual +orosity" -ay &ells are arranged in %ide, lat lakes that radiate out ro* the &enter o the tree, &rossing the gro%th rings" -ays are usually +ro*inent in so*e hard%oods, +arti&ularly oak, lo&ust, ha&kberry, bee&h, sy&a*ore, and &herry" 30 Green Woodworking
=ard%oods are divided into three +orosity ty+es" )ing%orous hard%oods are distinguished by &o*+aratively
large early%ood 4s+ring gro%th +ores and *u&h s*aller late%ood +ores" (7a*+les in&lude oak, ash, hi&kory, osage orange, &atal+a, *ulberry, and el*" ?or a &hair*aker %ho rives and shaves +osts and rungs, these %oods are e7&ellent *aterials be&ause they s+lit easily and +redi&tably at the +lane %here the large+ored &ells and the s*all+ored &ells *eet" 6n diffuse%orous hard%oods, early%ood and late%ood have +ores o a++ro7i*ately the sa*e siFe" )hese hard%oods in&lude &herry, *a+le, bee&h, bir&h, dog%ood, and sy&a*ore" 6n bet%een the %elldeined e7tre*es are the seiring%orous hard%oods, su&h as bla&k %alnut, butternut, and bla&k lo&ust" )he +ore stru&ture o these %oods &an vary &onsiderably ro* s+e&i*en to s+e&i*en" So*e rese*ble diuse+orous
This s%lit log shows how &ran!hes 2and knots3 srcinate at the %ith. Note the distorted grain surrounding the knot.
%oods, but others rese*ble ring+orous s+e&ies" )he ray &ells and the +ro*inent early%ood vessels o the ring+orous hard%oods or* distin&t +lanes o %eakness" )his is an advantage to the green %ood%orker, be&ause these %oods rive and shave easily" An e7&e+tion is el*, %hi&h is al*ost i*+ossible to s+lit and dii&ult to shave" All o the ring+orous hard%oods bend %ell, in&luding el*" All %ood is hygros!o%i!, a an&y %ord *eaning that the ibers &ontinuously absorb and lose *oisture a&&ording to environ*ental &onditions" 6n The New S!ien!e of Strong /aterials 4Ne% Hork' :alker and Co*+any, 19<, author D" (" /ordon &oined the ter* Gs%elluloseG to des&ribe the ee&t o %ater on &ellulose" :ater &an literally be sEueeFed ro* green %ood" )ry it, using a &la*+ or vise" :hen you i*agine a bundle o ibers absorbing *oisture, you &an a++re&iate that %ood s%ells in thi&kness, not in length" Length%ise *ove*ent is *ini*al, usually about onetenth o 1 +er&ent, %hile ibers &an s%ell or shrink in %idth as *u&h as 12 +er&ent" @oisture also ae&ts strength" )horoughly %et %ood *ay have >ust onethird the strength o the sa*e %ood %hen dry" :ood *oisture &ontent 4*"&" is stated in ter*s o a
+er&ent *"&" or *ore" )his &an be &onusing sin&e a +ie&e o %ood obviously &annot be all %ater re*e*ber that *oisture &ontent is a ratio, e7+ressed as a +er&entage, o %et to dry %eight" ?reshly &ut green %ood &ontains t%o ty+es o *oisture" @oisture insid e the &ells is &alled free water. @oisture in the &ell %alls is &ound water. As %ood dries, it irst loses ree %ater, do%n to about 80 +er&ent *"&" )his is the fi&er saturation %oint, at %hi&h the &ell &avities are e*+ty" )he &ell %alls are still saturated" !ntil drying %ood &o*es do%n to the iber saturation +oint, it re*ains stable it doesn;t shrink, &he&k, or %ar+" :ood begins to G*oveG %hen it loses bound %ater" 6n the eastern !nited States, airdrying in a draty shed &an bring&ontent %ood %ill to a &ontinue *"&" bet%een 20 +er&ent" @oisture to dro+15 in aand heated house to 5 to 10 +er&ent *"&" 6n the arid %est, %ood airdries to belo% 10 +er&ent *"&" ilndrying lo%ers %ood to about 5 +er&ent *"&" Be&ause %ood is hygros&o+i&, *oisture &ontent &an also go u+" 6 hard%ood looring is re*oved ro* a kiln, taken to a building site or lu*beryard, then let un%ra++ed during a +eriod o hu*id %eather, it %ill eventually rea&h the sa*e *oisture &ontent as a +ie&e that has been only air dried" All o a tree;s gro%th takes +la&e in the &a*biu*, the narro% ring o &ells that or*s the boundary bet%een bark and %ood" As the &a*biu* &ells
+er&entage that &o*+ares the %eight o a +arti&ular sa*+le to that sa*e +ie&e ater drying in a kiln" ?or e7a*+le, a %ood %ith .5 +er&ent *"&" %eighs .5 +er&ent *ore than a thoroughly dried sa*+le" So*e really >ui&y green %oods have 100 -ateria"s 31
The fastgrowing red oak on the left is signifi!antly stronger than the slowergrowing sa%le on the right.
gro% and divide, the inner &ells develo+ into %ood and the outer &ells be&o*e bark" Look at a &ross se&tion o a log, and you;ll oten see a distin&t transition bet%een sa%wood on the outside and heartwood on the inside" 6n a living tree, the sa+%ood &ells &ondu&t nutrients to and ro* the leaves and the roots" )he inner &ir&le o heart%ood a&ts as a stru&tural skeleton or the tree" As heart%ood develo+s, &he*i&als &alled etra!tives i*+regnate the &ells" )hese e7tra&tives give *any ty+es o heart%ood a distin&tive &olor" )he un&tion o e7tra&tives is to *ake the heart%ood de&ay resistant and so*eti*es un+alatable to inse&ts" All sa+%ood, in&luding that o s+e&ies kno%n or de&ay resistan&e, %ill rot Eui&kly %hen e7+osed to &onditions %hi&h &ause de&ay" )here is no relationshi+ bet%een hardness and de&ay resistan&e" =i&kory, one o the hardest &o**on %oods, rates very lo% in de&ay resistan&e" Bla&k lo&ust, another very hard %ood, is a*ous or longevity in &onta&t %ith soil and is +riFed or en&e +osts" :hite oak heart%ood is resistant to de&ay +artially be&ause the heart%ood +ores are illed %ith globular obstru&tions that blo&k air and *oisture" -ed oak, %hi&h de&ays Eui&kly, has large o+en +ores %hi&h &ondu&t and hold *oisture" A*ong the &oniers, there are *any s+e&ies that have e7&ellent de&ay resistan&e" Cedar, &y+ress, and red%ood are a*ong the best" nots are the re*ains o li*bs" :hen you begin s+litting out *aterials, you;ll observe that all sig 32 Green Woodworking
nii&ant knots originate at the +ith" nots are oten un%orkable %ith hand tools" )he %ood surrounding a knot is distorted on both sides" A &o**on stru&tural engineering guideline is that a knot, and the surrounding distorted grain, should be &onsidered as a hole or void in a +ie&e o %ood" /reen %ood%orkers generally avoid all but the very s*allest knots" )he e7&e+tion is log and ti*ber %ork %here knots are not loved but tolerated" /ro%th rate deter*ines %ood Euality" )rees gro%ing in shaded orest +ut on height *ore Eui&kly than those gro%ing in o+en sun" )hey also shed lo%er li*bs as the &ro%n li*bs render the* redundant" )he result is that orestgro%n trees tend to have a straighter grain and e%er knots than trees gro%n in the o+en" As *ight be e7+e&ted, trees in the a&e less or sunlight and nutrients ando+en thereore tend&o*+etition to develo+ girth rather than height" Large bent li*bs rea&hing out to sunlight are &o**on" /ro%th rate also ae&ts the strength o %ood3 +arti&ularly the thi&kness and %eight o &ellular stru&ture" Curiously, a*ong de&iduous ring+orous s+e&ies, ast gro%th results in stronger %ood" =ere;s %hy" 6n late s+ring and early su**er, the &a*biu* o de&iduous trees Eui&kly develo+s large, %eak +ores" S*aller, stronger &ells are develo+ed later in the season" :hen the environ*ent is &ondu&ive to gro%th, the +ro+ortion o s*aller lategro%th &ells to larger earlygro%th &ells is greater than under
Avoid using rea!tion wood fro leaning trees. The stressed !ellular stru!ture often s%lits, shrinks, or distorts un%redi!ta&ly.
greater than nor*al in rea&tion %ood" Sin&e the stress is uneven, the ee&t is un+redi&table" )he Fone o rea&tion %ood generally e7tends %ell beyond the obvious &urve on a log" -ea&tion %ood *ay undergo une7+e&ted s+litting, ra&ture, and distortion during sha+ing and drying"
lessavorable &onditions" A*ong &oniers, ho%ever, ast gro%th results in %eaker %ood" )roubleso*e %ood is +rodu&ed in the lo%er trunks o trees gro%ing on stee+ slo+es" $istorted &ells &alled rea!tion wood serve to straighten out or su++ort the tree and dire&t the &ro%n gro%th u+%ard" A*ong &oniers, &o*+ressive rea&tion %ood develo+s on the &onve7 side o the tree, +ushing the tree so that it is verti&al" :ith hard%oods, rea&tion %ood in tension develo+s on the &on&ave side6no the straightening the tree by +ulling it u+%ard" *ost+ith, %ood, longitudinal shrinkage is generally a negligible a&tor, but it &an be ten ti*es @aterials 88
*ote RegardingTa'les he ta&"es on the(o""owing !ages were o%!i"ed to he"! ,ou se"et %ateria"s esoure s in"uded !u&"iations o( the nited tates e!art%ent o( Agriu"ture /A Forest roduts a&orator, /F# "i&rar, researh# %, e*!eriene# and o%%entaries (ro% other woodworkers o not assu%e that the "ists are o%!"ete -an, s!eies are known &, various na%es in di((erent "oations $harateristis o(ten var, within a s!eies (ro% area to area +asswood /a"so known as "i%e in :ng"and is "isted as "inden :astern white !ine# whih not is "isted# an &e su&stituted (or northern white !ine $hestnut# a one wide", used wood that is now virtua"", e*tint due to the hestnut &"ight# is in"uded (or o%!arison and historia" interest
Co&arativ e Hardness and Softness
Co&arativ e Benda'ility
'ardness is the !ro!ert, that %akes a sur(ae di((iu"t to dent# srath# or ut o(tness re(ers to woods that work easi", with hand too"s and have a so(t# uni(or% te*ture Fro% Forest roduts a&orator, ta&"es# !"usauthor;s additions %arked with an asterisk /<
!eies with good &enda&i"it, wi"" readi", &end into a urved (or% his is not to &e on(used with &ending strength; whih re(ers to "oad)arr,ing a!ait, o( a hori) Bonta" %e%&er Within a s!eies there an &e great varia) tions in &enda&i"it, (ro% one tree to another Author;s "ist o%!i"ed (ro% Forest roduts a&orator, tests# !ersona" e*!eriene# and "i&rar, researh Author;s additions to tests %arked with an asterisk /< A%ong good &ending woods# the highest)ranking are hak&err,# white oak# red oak# and hikor,. ash is "owest -an, !oor &ending woods are not "isted
Hard
-nterediate
Soft
A!!"e<
A"der<
As!en<
Ash# a""
$hestnut
+irh# gra,
+eeh
$,!ress
+uke,e<
+irh#white
Fir#oug"as
+utternut $ata"!a<
+irh#,e""ow
Gu%#red
$edar#easternred
'e%"ok#a""
$edar# northern white
G ood
4air
,oor
$herr,#wi"d
-u"&err,<
$edar#southernwhite
Ash
A"der
+utternut
$edar#western
+eeh
$edar#At"antiwhite
$oni(ers#%ost
$herr,#!in"ea(<
+irh#a""
$edar#northernwhite
$ottonwood
ogwood
edwood
:"%#a""
assa(ras<
Gu%#&"ak
!rue#a""
$ottonwood
$edar#western
$herr,
ogwood
'ak&err,
Fir# true
:"%# so(t
$hestnut
Gu%# &"ak
'awthorn< 'ikor,
inden -agno"ia
Fi"&ert< Gu%#sweet
Fir# oug"as< Gu%#&"ak
-a!"e# si"ver
'ak&err,
Gu%#red
o!"ar#,e""ow
'ikor,
oust#&"ak
,a%ore
-adrone
-a!"e#red
'o"",< 'orn&ea%#A%erian =ronwood< arh#western i"a<
-a!"e#stri!ed ine#northernwhite ine#!onderosa ine# sugar
-agno"ia
ine#southern,e""ow
-a!"e#sugar
edwood<
oust#&"ak
ine#westernwhite
-u"&err,
oust#hone,
o!"ar#,e""ow
ak# red
-a!"e# red
u!e"o# water
ak# white
-a!"e# sugar
Wi""ow<
sage orange<
-es>uite<
ean
ak# a""
Wa"nut
"ive<
Wi""ow
sage orange<
@ew
ear< ean< ersi%%on< ine# southern ,e""ow ,a%ore Wa"nut @ew# ai(i<
34 Green Woodworking
inden ak#"ive
Co&arative Toughness
Co&arative Decay Resistance 0Heartwood1
oushness is the a!ait, to withstand sudden", a!!"ied "oads Fro% Forest roduts a&orator, ta&"e# !"us author;s additions %arked with an asterisk /<
@e""ow !ine shows suh variane that it;s hard to deter) %ine where the average s!ei%en wou"d (a"". at its &est# ,e""ow !ine rates high Fro% Forest roduts a&orator, ta&"e# !"us author;s additions %arked with an asterisk /<
High
-nterediate
"ow
Ash# a""
A!!"e<
$edar# northern white
+eeh
$edar#easternred
+irh#,e""ow ogwood :"%#a""
$herr, $hestnut $ottonwood
$edar#southernwhite $edar#western Fir#&a"sa% Fir#white
'ak&err, 'awthorn<
$,!ress Fir#oug"as
inden -a!"e#si"ver
'ikor,
Gu%#red
-u"&err,<
'orn&ea%# A%erian =ronwood<
'e%"ok# a"" 'o"",<
ine# northern white ine#!onderosa
oust#&"ak
arh#western
ine#sugar
oust#hone,
ear<
o!"ar#,e""ow !rue# :ng"e%ann
High $ata"!a
-nterediate "ow
$edar# a""
A"der
$herr,
Ash
$hestnut
As!en<
$,!ress
+eeh
=ronwood<
+irh# a""
Cuni!er# a""
+uke,e
oust# &"ak
+utternut
-es>uite
$ottonwood
-u"&err,<
Gu%# sweet
ak# white
'ak&err,
sage orange<
-a!"e# sugar
ine# southern ,e""ow
ak#a""
ine#westernwhite
sageorange<
edwood
ean<
!rue#eastern
ersi%%on<
!rue#itka
Wa"nut
,a%ore
ersi%%on<
u!e"o
o!"ar# true
'ikor,
edwood
inden
assa(ras<
-agno"ia
Wa"nut
-a!"e# a""
@ew<
ean<
o!"ar# ,e""ow !rue# a"" ,a%ore u!e"o Wi""ow< :"%# a"" Fir# a"" true Fir# oug"as Gu%# red 'e%"ok 'orn&ea% arh# western oust# hone, ak# red ak# swa%! ine# northern white ine# ,e""ow a%arak
A ladder&a!k !hair !an &e ade using any of the wood s%e!ies in the +igh !ategory of the listings for "o%arative Toughness.
-ateria"s 35
Co&arative 4reedo fro 3dor and Taste When Dry
Co&arativ e Riving 5uality 0Clear Sa&les1
Fro% Forest roduts a&orator, ta&"e# !"us author;s addi) tions %arked with an asterisk /<
Goodto.$cellent
4air
,oor
Ash
A"der
:"%
A!!"e
:ua",!tus
#cce&ta'le
6ndesira'le
+utternut
$ottonwood
$edar# a"" Fir#
$edar#northernwhite
+eeh
Gu%#&"ak
$,!ress
ous"as arh#
$edar#western
+irh
Gu%#&"ue
oust# &"ak
western ine# a""
$hestnut
+uke,e
'orn&ea%
$,!ress
$ata"!a
ak#
oust# hone, ak# a""<
.$cellent
swa%! 'ak&err, 'e%"ok#a""
A!!"e< Ash
$edar#easternred $herr,
+eeh
'ikor,
$ottonwood
+irh
arh
ogwood
+uke,e<
oust#&"ak
Fir#oug"as
+utternut<
oust#hone,
'awthorn
$ata"!a<
ak#red
'o"",
$herr,
ak#white
inden
$hestnut
sageorange
-agno"ia
os wood<
ean
-a!"e#a""
:"%
ine# eastern white
-u"&err, ak#"ive
Fir# &a"sa%
edwood
Fir# white
!rue
ear
Gu%# &"ak
Wa"nut
ine#southern,e""ow
'ak&err,
Wi""ow
o!"ar#,e""ow
'e%"ok# a""
u%a /a"anthus
'ikor,<
,a%ore
'o"",< inden -a!"e# a"" ,ear o!"ar# ,e""ow hododendron !rue# a"" ,a%ore a%arak< u!e"o# water Wa"nut< Wi""ow<
A oisture
ersi%%on
eter works &y easuring ele!tri!al resistan!e &etween two %ro&es. 36 Green Woodworking
Getting 7our Materials
)here are several +ossible a++roa&hes to getting *aterials or green %ood%orking" )he *ethod you use %ill de+end on %here you live available eEui+*ent, hel+, and ti*e your +hysi&al &ondition your budget and other a&tors" Jarious *ethods o obtaining green %ood are dis&ussed in the ollo%ing +ages" 6t;s oten easy to &olle&t *ore %ood than you &an use" Sin&e a +riori ty is to %ork green %ood, you;ll have to store e7tra %ood to +revent drying or %ork %ith %ood that is drier 4and harder than desirable" @y re&o**endation is to &olle&t only as *u&h %ood as you guess you &an use in hal a year" )his takes so*e &al&ulation" ?or e7a*+le, a Euality oak log, 10 in&hes in dia*eter and eet long, should yield enoug h %ood to *ake our ladderba&k &hairs" ne su**er 6 elled a 2 in&h dia*eter red oak that %as *ostly &lear or over thirty eet" )his one tree su++lied *aterial or three &hair*aking %orksho+s and *y o%n use3about 85 &hairs" A very ni&e <in&hdia*eter %hite oak sa+ling, < eet long, *ight *ake si7 to eight ire%ood totes or a doFen *ediu*siFed baskets" Selecting a "og Muality is i*+ortant" Poor logs yield a lo% +ro+ortion o usable %ood3you *ay be lu&ky to get anything" Sorry %ood is *u&h harder to %ork than good %ood" Start out by kno%ing the s+e&ies and log siFe you;re looking or" ?or *ost uses, an ideal log is +ere&tly straight and round" Any variation %ill sho% u+ during s+litting as &urved or distorted %ood" Bo%ed logs oten &ontain rea&tion %ood" nots *ean trouble" )hey srcinate at the +ith, and %ood on either side %ill be distorted" Li*bs that ell o during early gro%th are oten &overed %ith s&ar tissue that is rele&ted by lu*+s on the sura&e o the bark" Bark urro%s are good indi&ators o grain dire&tion" 6 verti&al bark &revi&es s+iral u+ the trunk, the %ood %ill t%ist as it s+lits" )he lared buttress o a log oten &ontains distorted, %avy grain, es+e& ially in hard%oods over 12 in&hes in dia*eter, and the lo%er t%o or three eet *ay not be usable or green %ood%orking" 4Log buttresses *ake great &ho++ing stu*+s, though" As e7+lained earlier, gro%th rate &orrelates %ith strength" Look or astgro%ing hard%oods and slo% gro%ing sot%oods' At a sa%*ill, you &an easily &o*+are the s+a&ing o gro%th rings on logs
S%iral &ark furrows indi!ate twisted wood.
in the %oods, you &an get an idea o gro%th by &ho++ing or sa%ing a s*all not&h out o a tree beore elling it" Hou &an take a &o*+lete &ore sa*+le %ith an in&re*ent borer, but this tool &osts about .5" 6 you;re buying ro* a sa%*ill, ind out %hen the logs %ere &ut" )he sa+%ood o so*e s+e&ies deteriorates very Eui&kly during su**er" :hen you &he&k end grain, also look or signs o de&ay" ?or a good vie% o a dirty log, you *ay have to sa% an in&h or so o one end" Bluish stains oten indi&ate hidden rot or i*bedded *etal" A ga++ing s+lit *ay lo%er the value o a log or lu*ber but not ne&essarily or green %ood%orking" "ogging Basics
$oing your o%n logging is +robably *ost%ood" satisying, &hallenging, and interesting %ay to getthegreen S*all s&ale logging is an adventure" ?elling a tree is dra*ati&" -ateria"s 37
S*all and *ediu*siFed ti*ber &an be elled %ith a &hain sa% in only a e% *inutes" But elling is a skill that;s not Eui&kly *astered" 0ogging is dangerous. ?elling s*all trees, though not as dangerous as elling larger ones, &an still be lethal sa+lings gro%ing in a dense stand o young gro%th oten lodge a*ong other trees on the %ay do%n or bind bet%een standing trees, turning a s*all +ole into a %i&ked, loaded s+ring" :oods lore is illed %ith rules on %hen to &ut ti*ber" )here are rules based on %hether or not sa+ is rising, *oon +hases, &onstellations, %ind dire&tion, and *ore" ten, the rules &ontradi&t ea&h other" )he ollo%ing basi& guidelines have been substantiated" Muality ti*b er &an be &ut any ti*e o year" )he *ove*ent o sa+ varies ro* season to season and ro* s+e&ies to s+e&ies, but the ee&t is only a slight &hange o *oisture &ontent" $on;t &ut ti*ber i it;s %indy3you %on;t have &ontrol over the alling tree" )rees &ut in all and %inter %ill be less +rone to da*age ro* inse&ts, de&ay, and &he&king, but be sure to re*ove your ti*ber ro* the %oods beore the return o %ar* %eather" )i*ber &ut during s+ring and su**er should be re*oved ro* the %oods as soon as +ossible" =i&kory &ut or +eeling bast 4inner bark or &hair seating should be elled during the +eriod o a&tive &a*biu* gro%th" )his is usually late s+ring through early su**er" 6n other seasons and in dry years, +eeling bark &an be dii&ult i not i*+ossible" )he rudi*ents o elling a tree are airly si*+le" 6n this &ha+ter 6;ll e7+lain ho% to ell a s*all or *ediu*siFed tree" ?or details on s+e&ii& situations, 6 suggest a s+e&ialiFed te7t, su&h as $" $ouglas $ent;s Professional Ti&er Falling 4Beaverton, reg"' $" $ouglas $ent, 19., %hi&h is available ro* the author at P"" Bo7 905, Beaverton, - 9.005" Hou need only a e% tools" )he absolute *ini*u* +ie&e o eEui+*ent is a shar+ a7e or elling, bu&king, and li*bing" =o%ever, elling and bu&king %ith an a7e is i*+ra&ti&al or *ost o us" /ood a7e %ork is a skill a&Euired through a great deal o +ra&ti&e" ?elling and bu&king %ith an a7e also generates &onsiderably *ore %aste than sa%ing" ?or &utting s*all sa+lings and li*bs, 6 oten use a basi& +runing sa%" )o &ut logs thi&ker than 8 in&hes, use a one or t%o*an &ross&ut sa% or a s*all &hain sa%" A logger;s &ross&ut sa% is *u&h saer than a &hain sa%, and i +ro+erly shar+ened, it %orks Euite easily" 4?or inor*ation on shar+ening 38 Green Woodworking
and *aintaining a &ross&ut sa%, reer to :arren @iller;s "ross!ut Saw /anual, available ro* the /overn*ent Printing i&e, $o&u*ents $e+art*ent, :ashington, $C 20029285" Sto&k nu*ber 0010010081" 6 you +reer a &hain sa%, 6 suggest buying a light%eight *odel %ith a s*all engine 42 to 8 &ubi& in&hes, itted %ith a 1 to 1<in&h bar" Ne% &hain sa%s have e7&ellent &hain brakes and antivibration handles" /et a Euality brand that &an be servi&ed lo&ally" Be sure to study the o%ner;s *anual, es+e&ially the se&tions on shar+ening and saety" Hou;ll also need a +olled a7e or a hat&het or driving %edges" )hin elling %edges are used to +revent sa%blade +in&hing and so*eti*es to &orre&t elling dire&tion" Chain sa% %edges are +lasti&, to +revent da*age to the &hain;s teeth" 6n the %oods, 6 &arry a 2ootlong +ie&e o string %ith a large %asher on one end as a +lu*b line to &he&k tree lean" 6 you;re using a &hain sa%, take along a ) %ren&h to ad>ust &hain tension" 6n the %oods, you should %ear stout boots %ith rough soles" Clothing should be &lose itting, so it %on;t snag on li*bs" :ear a hardhat or +rote&tion ro* %ido% *akers3 dead li*bs that &o*e do%n une7+e&tedly" Chain sa% sho+s sell hardhats %ith atta&hed eye and ear +rote&tion" S+e&ial loggers saety +ants are highly re&o**ended" )hese %ill slo% and sto+ a &hain sa% &hain that goes out o &ontrol" :hen you go into the %oods, %ork %ith a buddy" $on;t allo% &hildren or dogs to be nearby" Beore dro++ing a tree, e7a*ine it or lean and obviously dead li*bs" $ee+ leaners &ause elling +roble*s they &an s+lit une7+e&tedly" )o &he&k the lean o an a++arently straight tree, retreat about 50 eet and &o*+are the trunk to your +ie&e o %eighted string" 6 there;s any Euestion, &he&k the tree again at a right angle to the irst sighting line" Ne7t, &lear out a %ork area so you &an *ove around easily %ithout tri++ing or getting &lothes snagged" Lo&ate an es&a+e route to take %hen the tree begins to all" 6t should be roughly ba&k and to one side o the elling dire&tion" (7a*ine nearby trees in the elling dire&tion" Hou %ant to avoid lodging the tree you;re &utting in standing ti*ber" :ellbalan&ed trees that stand al*ost +lu*b &an be elled in any dire&tion" Slight leaners, and those %ith unbalan&ed li*bs, are elled to the avored side in su&h &ases, you &an &ontrol the elling angle %ithin an ar& o about 5O" ?elling &onsists o t%o &utting seEuen&es' re*oving a %edge, so*eti*es &alled the a&e &ut, in
the elling dire&tion and *aking a ba&k &ut to release the tree" A hinge o unsevered %ood divides the a&e &ut ro* the ba&k &ut" )he a&e &ut, or not&h, &onsists o t%o &uts" ?irst, deine the to+ o the stu*+ %ith a level &ut" )hen *ake a slo+ed &ut &o*ing do%n to the irst3 level3&ut" )he not&h de+th should be onethird o the tree dia*eter" )he inside line o the a&e &ut %here the level &ut and the slo+ed &ut interse&t *ust be +er+endi&ular to the elling dire&tion" )he ba&k &ut, or elling &ut, is also level and at least 2 in&hes above the level &ut o the %edge" )his &reates a ste+, %hi&h hel+s to +revent the alling tree ro* sli++ing ba&k%ard" 'e sure not to saw through the hinge area. :hen elling a tree thi&ker than 10 in&hes, you &an insert a elling %edge in the ba&k &ut right behind the sa% blade or &hain bar" )his %ill +revent +in&hing i the tree should begin to lean ba&k%ard" :hen the tree begins to all, re*ove the sa% and head along the es&a+e route" 46 you;re using a &hain sa%, kill the *otor" 6deally, the tree alls as +lanned" :hen it does, 6 e7+erien&e a eeling o relie" Co*+li&ations are e7+erien&ed by everyone %ho has &ut any ti*ber" 6 the tree begins to lean ba&k%ard, 10O ro* the elling dire&tion, you *ay be able to send it in the right dire&tion by +ounding on the %edge" 6 this doesn;t %ork, or i the tree be&o*es lodged, leave the i**ediate area and get e7+erien&ed hel+" Lodged trees and ba&k leaners are dangerous, even or e7+erts" 6n re&ent years, t%o +roessional loggers in *y &o**unity %ere killed %hile atte*+ting to ree lodged trees" n&e it;s do%n, the tree is &ross&ut, or &u!ked, into logs o suitable lengths" 6n *any instan&es green %ood%orkers use only the lo%er, straightest se&tion o a tree, belo% the li*bs and the bark s&ars, %hi&h &over hidden knots" )he re*ainder o the tree &an be &ut into ire%ood li*bs &an also be neatly sta&ked as erosion &ontrol or let or %ildlie shelter" Hou *ay als o be able to harvest sa% logs i the re*aining log is *ore than 12 in&hes in dia*eter at the at end and at least in&hes at the ti+ end" &ourse you a&e the >ob o hauling the log to a sa%*ill or *illing on site %ith a &hain sa% *ill or +ortable band *ill" Bu&king and li*bing &an be tri&ky" Logs roll over suddenly or slide do%nhill" Al%ays %ork ro* the u+hill side, %ith se&ure ooting" Beore beginning to bu&k a log, survey the situation" 6 a elled
Fe""ing $ut
'in ge D o Eot $ut
Fe""ing iretion
Fae $ut /A"so $a""ed Wedge
:sa!e ath Felling. . 1eterine felling dire!tion and es!a%e %ath. :. "lean u% the work area. ;. Saw the fa!e !ut. <. Saw the felling !ut at least : in!hes a&ove the &ase of the fa!e !ut. =. 1o not saw through the hinge wood. The es!a%e %ath is angled &a!k and to one side of the felling dire!tion. The re!oended es!a%e distan!e is :7 feet. -ateria"s 39
tree is su++orted by other logs or uneven terrain, the trunk and li*bs %ill be stressed" :hen a log is su++orted bet%een t%o +oints, the u++er hal is in &o*+ression and the lo%er hal is in tension i you sa% straight do%n, your sa% %ill bind beore you get through" 6nstead, *ake a shallo% &ut on the to+, then sa% through the log %orking ro* the botto* u+" )his ty+e o &ut is +ossible only %ith a &hainsa%" 6 a se&tion o a elled tree is &antilevered into s+a&e, the lo%er hal o the trunk %ill be in &o*+ression and the u++er hal %ill be in tension" ?irst &ut about oneourth o the %ay through the botto*, then &o*+lete the &ut ro* above" Logs lying +er+endi&ular to stee+ slo+es tend to slide do%nhill as you &ut through the*" )o kee+ the sa% ro* being +in&hed, insert a %edge into the &ut as soon as +ossible" :hen li*bing, &he&k or bran&hes that su++ort the tree or are s+rung on obsta&les" )hink ahead about %hat %ill ha++en %hen you sa% through the* like the trunk, li*bs under load have stresses o &o*+ression and tension" /reen %ood%orking sto&k &an oten be hauled or dragged out o the %oods %ithout too *u&h trouble" 6 you;ve &ut so*ething that;s too heavy, s+lit it into se&tions that you &an deal %ith" r, get hel+ ro* so*eone %ith a tra&tor"
&o**only 12 eet long" A largedia*eter log *ay suit you better, be&ause s*aller ones are usually ro* the u++er end o a tree %here there are knots and bran&hes" )he butt log %ill be &learer" )he seller *ay be %illing to bu&k a log to your reEuired lengths" 6 you have a tru&k, ask to have the log loaded by orklit" 6 you don;t have a tru&k, the seller *ay be able to arrange delivery" ?inally, a note about Euality" (ven %ith &areul sele&tion, there;s al%ays a +ossibility that a log %ill not *eet your e7+e&tations" )his is a &han&e that you take %hether you +ur&hase a log or do your o%n logging"
Buying "ogs 6 en>oy doing so*e o&&asional logging" But 6 oten
Green Wood for City+Based Woodworkers 6 you live in or near a rural area, es+e&ially east o the @ississi++i, you should be able to get suitable %ood or >ust about any ty+e o green %ood%orking %ithout *u&h trouble" !rbanites and %esterners %ill have a greater &hallenge" But having lived in a San ?ran&is&o suburb, 6 suggest that anyone &an ind *aterials, although you *ay have to %ork at it" /reen %ood%orkers in *any %estern states have a great sele&tion o &oniers to %ork %ith, but inding suitable hard%oods is a &hallenge, es+e&ially strong, straightgrained %ood that rives and shaves %ell" :alnut and +e&an *ay be available, and there are natural +o&kets o hard%oods su&h as regon ash, regon %hite oak, and +a+er bir&h" Al%ays ask +er*ission beore taking any %ood, dead
+ur&hase logs ro* %oodlot o%ner a lo&al sa%*ill i they &an&utsu++ly %ooda that 6 either don;torhave or %ant to hold on to or uture use" 6t;s Eui&ker and saer to buy logs than to do the logging yoursel" And it;s not e7+ensive" )he hy+otheti&al &hair log 6 *entioned earlier, *easuring eet long, %ith an average dia*eter o 10 in&hes, +otentially &ontains 82 board eet o lu*ber" At 8 +er board oot, a ty+i&al 199 +ri&e or high grades o red or %hite oak, irst rate *aterial or one ladderba&k &hair *ight be 2" )he +er&entage o usable *aterial in a log goes u+ Eui&kly as dia*eter in&reases, and you *ay ind a seller %ill ask only the +ri&e or ungraded ti*ber" Hour &hallenge is to lo&ate the seller and e7+lain %hat you;re looking or" ee+ in *ind that the average sa%*ill o+erator or %oodlot o%ner has other things to do than deal %ith a %ood%orker out to buy a single log" (7+lain that you reEuire the best Euality, and be &lear that you;re %illing
or alive, o +rivate or +ubli&%hen +ro+erty" the ans%er %ill be +ositive, es+e&ially you !sually, e7+lain %hat you %ant the %ood or" !se your intuition on oering to +ay or to haul brush or &ut u+ ire%ood in e7&hange" Hou *ight even barter %ith your inished &rat%ork" Che&k out ne% real estate develo+*ents you *ay be able to get good stu beore the bulldoFers *ove in" r&hards are e7&ellent +la&es to ind %oods su&h as a++le, +ear, %alnut, olive, +ersi**on, +e&an, and ilbert" :ood be&o*es available during annual +runing and %hen older trees are re*oved to *ake roo* or young sto&k" =o*e yards &an also be a sour&e or orna*entals, ruit, and nut trees, in&luding e7oti&s that don;t naturally gro% in your area" Hou *ight also &he&k %ith +ark and high%ay de+art*ents and orest servi&es" Co*+anies that do tree surgery and *aintain +o%er line right o%ays *ay be %illing to tell you %here they;ll be %orking so that you &an +i&k u+ %ood beore it;s &ut into ire%ood or ground into
to +ay a +re*iu* Hou *ay have+ri&e" to &hoose a larger log than needed" Sa%*ills in our area deal %ith logs that are
&hi+s"
40 Green Woodworking
6 you;re %illing to do so*e long distan&e driving, you &an visit an area %here the %ood you need gro%s naturally" @a+s sho%ing the natural habitats o trees are in&luded in *any tree identii&ation books" :hen you get to an area, ask at lo&al stores or the orest servi&e about nearby sa%*ills" S*all Euantities o %ood or basketry, &arving, or &oo+erage &an be &arried in a &ar" 6 you need a larger Euantity but don;t have a tru&k, &onsider renting or buying a s*all trailer" Another +ossibility is !o%%i!ing3gro%ing your o%n *aterials" 6n a &o++i&e the established root syste*s o elled trees are allo%e d to +ut out ne% above ground gro%th" An advantage is that these trees %ill gro% *u&h *ore Eui&kly than reshly +lanted seedlings" Co++i&es should be lo&ated in s+e&ially sele&ted and +re+ared ground to urther s+eed gro%th" :illo%s, or e7a*+le, are +lanted in %et, ri&h earth" 6n (ngland, bee&hes and alders %ere traditionally &o++i&ed, and %illo%s are today" :e &o++i&e %illo%s and ilberts, and both yield basketry *aterials >ust t%o or three years ater +lanting"
Western Woods for Green Woodworking
Conifers $edar# western
De c i d u o u s A"der
$,!ress#AriBona
Ash#regon
Fir# oug"as
As!en
Fir# true 'e%"ok#western
+irh#!a!er +uk+uke,e
.$otics 0 - n t r o du c e d 1 A!!"e $herr, :ua",!tus Fi"&ert 'o"",
Cuni!er#western
$ottonwood# &"ak
'orse hestnut
arh#western
ogwood#ai(i
-u"&err,
ine/various
:"der#&o*
edwood
'ak&err,#western
"ive ear
!rue#western
-adrone
ean
@ew#ai(i
-a!"e#&ig"ea(
ersi%%on
-es>uite
The kno&&y &ark of this straight red oak indi!ates !on!ealed knots surrounded &y distorted grain.
Wa"nut#:ng"ish
-,rt"e /$a"i(ornia "aure" ak# regon white Wa"nut# &"ak Wi""ow
Storing Wood Conventional %ood%orkers store their lu*ber in a dry,
sheltered But green an ongoings+a&e" su++ly o the resh, %et%ood%orker %ood" :oodideally begins %ants to dry out as soon as a tree is &ut" (ven
i let inta&t, a tree elled during the gro%ing season loses *oisture by trans+iration through its leaves" :hen it;s bu&ked into logs or ire%ood, *oisture es&a+es through the +orous end grain *u&h *ore Eui&kly than through the bark" @oisture %ithin the &ells is lost irst" As *oisture bound in the &ell %alls eva+orates, the drying %ood shrinks" Che&ks develo+ to a&&o**odate the stresses, and as drying &ontinues, the log &ra&ks" )he ob>e&tive o seasoning lu*ber is to lo%er *oisture &ontent evenly, so that internal *oisture *igrates to%ard the sura&es andand end grain %ithout &ausing stresses that result in &ra&ks &he&king" )here are a nu*ber o %ays to *ini*iFe &he&king and &ra&king" Pressure &an be relieved by sa% -ateria"s 89
The .ffects of #cid Rain and #ir ,ollution =n reent ,ears# sreen woodworkers have notied deterioration in the >ua"it, o( white oak sa!wood used (or &asket s!"its and in that o( hikor, and oaks used (or &endins ro&"e%s have a"so &een noted &, %anu(aturers o( high)srade veneers# whoshave ver, thin "a,ers o(( a rotating "og Growth rates a!!ear to &e s"owing down. in so%e "oations# trees are d,ing !re%ature", he !ro&"e%s see% to &egin at higher e"evations# whih intere!t wet weather White oak &asket %akers at "ower e"evations have ,et to notie these !ro&"e%s ossi&"e auses are aid rain and air !o""ution in gen) era" A "oa" si"vau"turist to"d %e that white oaks are !artiu"ar", suse!ti&"e to !ro&"e%s &eause the, take u! a"u%inu% and heav, %eta"s "i&erated (ro% the soi" during (or%ation o( the a%&iu%
ing a log into boards or s+litting it into &illets 4the (nglish &ountry ter* or s+lit se&tions o a log" Another *ethod, oten &o*bined %ith sa%ing or s+litting, is to &oat the end grain o ea&h +ie&e in order to slo% do%n the loss o *oisture" (nd grain sealers in&lude a bees%a7 and +arain *i7ture, late7 +aint, alu*inu* +aint, and rooing as+halt" Pro+rietary end grain sealants are also available" )o kee+ a log or large ti*ber ro* &he&king, you &an sa% a ker do%n the entire length o one side" )his %ill relieve +ressure, +reventing s+lits ro* develo+ing on the other sides" )o be ee&tive, the ker should be sa%ed all the %ay to the +ith" !nless ste+s are taken, %et %ood &ontinues to lose *oisture &ontent until it stabiliFes at the e>uili&riu oisture !ontent, %hi&h is deter*ined by lo&al at*os+heri& hu*idity" $uring the loss o bound %ater, %ood distorts in &ross se&tion" )he shrinkage tangent to the gro%th rings is a++ro7i*ately t%i&e that o shrinkage at the +er+endi&ular ray %lane. )his is kno%n as differential shrinkage. $ierential shrinkage &auses boards to &u+ and %ar+" )angential shrinkage on latsa%ed lu*ber &auses boards to &u+ a%ay ro* the +ith" Muartersa%ed boards are &o*+aratively stable be&ause tangential stress is *ini*al and evenly distributed" A bea* Gbo7edG around the heart o a log tends to retain its sha+e as it dries" But it %ill &he&k" A bea* taken ro* one side o the +ith dis 42 Green Woodworking
torts into a re&tangle or dia*ond sha+e in &ross se&tion" $ierential shrinkage also &auses green &ylinders sha+ed outside the +ith area to dry into an oval se&tion" Pith %ood is avoided, be&ause it &o**only &he&ks or s+lits" )here;s no +oint in ighting shrinkage" But %hen you understand it, you &an +ut this or&e to %ork" :ell be dealing %ith dierential shrinkage as %e %ork on the +ro>e&ts in the ollo%ing &ha+ters" 6n so*e a++li&ations, green %ood%orkers reEuire very dry *aterials" )hree e7a*+les are %heel%righting, &hair *aking, and &oo+erage &hairs,ater andasse*bly" barrels all a+art i s+okes, rungs, and%heels, staves shrink But or *ost green%ood &rats, the ideal is to *aintain a high *oisture &ontent, so that %ood is rived to inal siFe and sha+ed %hile still green, sot, +liable, and easy to %ork" :ood &an be ke+t %et longer, or ease o %orking and to *ini*iFe &he&ks and distortion, by several *ethods" (nd grain &oatings slo% do%n the loss o *oisture and hel+ to +revent rot" 6 use t%o &oats o a +arainbased endgrain sealant" Late7 +aint and %hite or yello% glue %ill also %ork" )rough &arvers and bo%l turners &an +revent &ra&ks ro* ruining a turning by burying inished %ork in a +ile o shavings" Pie&es are taken out o the +ile or only about an hour ea&h day so the %ood %ill dry at a slo% rate" :ood &an be stored under %ater" ur s*all +ond generally &ontains a variety o sunken hard%ood" Ladderba&k &hair*aker Dohn Ale7ander uses an old ski illed %ith %ater" A 55gallon dru* or a +lasti& garbage &an %ill also %ork"&ontains Sub*erged %illonot unless the %ater or %ood a air%ood a*ount air"rot ak %ill stain %ith a bluish *old but usually only on the sura&e this &an easily be shaved a%ay" :ood stored under %ater *ay also be&o*e &oated %ith algae, but 6 haven;t ound this to be a +roble*" /reen %ood &an be sealed in +lasti& bags ro* %hi&h *ost o the air is re*oved >ust beore &losing %ith tie stri+s" 4Plasti& bags are also useul or kee+ing dry %ood ro* regaining *oisture" ?or &ontrolled slo% drying, turn the bag inside out daily, and +ut the %ood ba&k inside" /reen %ood is vulnerable to the threat o staining and de&ay &aused by ungi that use &arbohydrates %ithin %ood &ells or ood" $e&ay ungi +hysi&ally break do%n the &ell %alls by se&reting enFy*es" Advan&ed de&ay o %ood into a +o%der is oten &alled dry rot" But this da*age is &aused by *oisture, not dryness"
$e&ay&ausing ungi thrive in an environ*ent very si*ilar to &onditions that %e tend to live in, es+e&ially in the eastern !nited States during su**er" By &hanging >ust one &ondition on the ollo%ing list, you &an +revent %ood de&ay" 1" Te%erature. +ti*al te*+eratures or de&ay range bet%een .5O and 90O?" /ro%th sto+s belo% 0O and above 105O?" 2" ?ygen. $e&ay ungi reEuire o7ygen" 8" /oisture. :ood *oisture &ontent o about 80 +er&ent is ideal or de&ay" $e&ay sto+s belo% 20 +er&ent *"&" " Food. Carbohydrates in sa+%ood are +re erred" =eart%ood de&ays *ore slo%ly be&ause it naturally &ontains ungiresistant substan&es" Sa+%ood is +o+ularly &onsidered %eaker than heart%ood, but in a&t there is little dieren&e in strength bet%een the t%o" )he reason or this *is &on&e+tion is that sa+%ood de&ays Eui&kly, resulting in dra*ati& loss o strength" Hou &an delay de&ay by the sa*e +ro&esses used to slo% eva+oration" (nd grain &oatings kee+ de&ay organis*s ro* entering %ood" ?or this reason, it;s i*+ortant to &oat end grain i**ediately, beore *i&ro &he&ks develo+" /reen %et %ood stored in +lasti& bags is sae be&ause the *oisture &ontent is too high" 6 the air is re*oved >ust beore sealing, the ungi %ill be de+rived o o7ygen" !nder%ater storage is also ee&tive in dis&ouraging de&ay" Ba&teria and &ertain sot rot ungi &an atta&k sub*erged %ood, but the resulting da*age is usually very slo%" )he oldest kno%n e7a*+les o %ood%orking have been +reserved at sites that are either very dry or %aterlogged" Sub*erged ruins o the S%iss Lake $%ellers have resisted de&ay or &enturies" :ooden%are *ade by North%est Coast 6ndians 2,900 years ago %as ound under %ater near Jan&ouver, :ashington" Preserved hulls o several Jiking shi+s have been ound in s%a*+s" :inter te*+eratures *ay kee+ ungi ro* invading" ?urther*ore, roFen %ood retains *oisture" A shed or the shady north side o a building *akes a good storage lo&ation in %inter" S*all Euantities o green %ood &an even be stored in a ho*e reeFer" $e&ay and drying +ro&eed *u&h aster in su**er" Store logs in the shade, and elevate the* ro* the ground on &ross +ie&es" Plasti& tar+s &an dis&ourage de&ay i the *oisture level is already too high or the organis*s" But i a log is +artially dry, +lasti& &an retain *oisture at a level &ondu&ive to de&ay" :hat;s *ore, in %ar* %eather a tar+ &an
raise te*+eratures by retaining interior heat" 6n so*e &ases, re*oval o bark is hel+ul" 6nse&ts &an also be a +roble*" )he sa+%ood o su**erelled hard%oods is &o**only invaded by a*brosia beetles" )hey bore +inheadsiFed holes in da*+ %ood, o+ening it to invasion by ungi, %hi&h subseEuently eed the beetles" Although nearly invisible, the ungi %eaken the %ood" Po%der +ost beetles atta&k both reshly &ut and seasoned ti*ber hi&kory and the oaks are liable to severe in>ury" )he larvae o roundheaded +ine borers &he% tunnels that enlarge as the grubs gro%" )unnels &an be 2 eet long and 12 in&h in dia*eter by the ti*e the *ature beetles e*erge" :ood stored on or near the ground is +arti&ularly sus&e+tible to atta&k" Hou &an dis&ourage an invasion by re*oving bark and sa+%ood ro* logs" ?all and %inter &utting so*eti*es +revents inse&t da*age" ?or &ertain +ro>e&ts you;ll need dry %ood as %ell as green" Sta&k %ood to be dried %ith in&hsEuare Gsti&kersG se+arating ea&h layer" )his air s+a&e around ea&h +ie&e o %ood +ro*otes trans+iration o *oisture so that %ood dries beore ungi be&o*e established" )he %eight o the sta&k hel+s to kee+ %ood ro* %ar+ing, and you &an +la&e heavy %eights on to+" A draty shed is a +ere&t lo&ation or drying %ood" @oisture &ontent &an be lo%ered to an *"&" that a++roa&hes kilndrying by bringing %ood indoors, +arti&ularly during %inter %hen ho*es and sho+s are heated" :ood should irst be +artially dried in a shed, be&ause very Eui&k drying is likely to %ar+ %ood or &ause interior Ghoney&o*bing"G !se sti&kers or indoor drying" :hen %ood is dry, it &an be deadsta&ked %ithout sti&kers" S*all Euantities o %ood &an be dried to less than 10 +er&ent *"&" by sus+ending the %ood on a ra&k above a %ood stove or urna&e" $ire&tions or *aking a si*+le kiln, &onsisting o an oil dru* and a radiant heat la*+, are given in &ha+ter 10" S&ecial Materials /reen%ood &rats traditionally use *any tree *aterials in addition to %ood ro* the trunk" Sa+lin gs, li*bs, and shoots are used or baskets, livesto&k en&losures, and %attleanddaub inill or ti*berra*e stru&tures" )he inner bark3k no%n as &ast3 o &ertain trees &an *ake strong, durable sheeting, stri+s, ro+e, and lashing" -ootlets, es+e&ially o s+ru&e and &edar, are e7&ellent or lashing" A knotty root node &an be *ade into a very tough *aul"
-ateria"s 43
Roofing: +irh /sod under"a, in !re)industria" andinavia# "inden /shins"es in eastern :uro!e
Conte*+orary green %ood%orkers have ound so*e o these *aterials to be su+erior to a&tory*ade +rodu&ts" Sa+lings, li*bs, bark, and roots are not only beautiul, but have individual &hara&ter that is i*+ossible to +rodu&e %ith *a&hinery" )here is no &o*+arison bet%een a %illo% or s+lint basket and one *ade ro* &o**er&ially *anua&tured *aterials" ne o the *ost beautiul and durable seating *aterials or ladderba&k &hairs is hi&kory bast" 6 it;s ke+t indoors, hi&kory bast a++ears to be as durable as ra%hide" 6;ve e7a*ined a &enturyold ladder ba&k that is said to have its srcinal bark seat" )he
Ro&e: :"%# "inden# s%ooth wi""ow# western edar Seating and 'asketry 0'ast stri&s1: :"%# he%"ok# hikor,# "inden# !a!er &irh# !ean# s%ooth wi""ow# western edar# ,e""ow !o!"ar
bir&hbark &anoes that =enri Jaillan&ourt *akes are a delight to look at in addition to being strong and durable" )he +a+er bir&h sheeting is lashed to the ra*e %ith s+lit s+ru&e roots"
Sa&lings /tree ste%s under 6 inhes in dia%eter
,ro!ect: # Bark Container As a tribute to Native A*eri&an &rats, or our irst +ro>e&t 6;ve sele&ted t%o &ylindri&al bark &ontainers *ade by Native A*eri&ans" )he Cherokee Gberry bo7G &an be *ade Eui&kly" )he botto* isn;t lat, but this &ontainer is *eant to be &arried by a shoulder stra+ or hung on a %all hook" )he other bark &ontainer, %hi&h is still *ade by Cree 6ndians in northern Muebe&, has a lat botto*" S*all versions are &arried, and larger ones serve as storage &ontainers 4they *ake beautiul %astebaskets" )he Cree baskets oten have a tightly itted lid" )hese olded and lashed &ontainers &ould be i*+rovised on the s+ot as needed or *ade %ith a great deal o &are" =ere in southern A++ala&hia, des&endants o %hite settlers *ade si*ilar bark Ghu&kleberry bo7esG +robably as late as the 1950s" Tools. Hou need a knie, bra&e and bit, &halk, a%l, and s+ring &la*+s" /aterials. )he bark ro* several hard%oods and &oniers +eels easily, in large +liable sheets" )uli+ +o+lar, %hi&h %as gener ally used to *ake the Cherokee bark &ontainers, +eels early in the gro%ing season3usually late @ay through Dune" )he duration o the +eeling +eriod see*s to &orrelate to seasonal rainall" Pa+er bir&h also +eels during early su**er" 6;ve used *agnolia %ith so*e su&&ess, but it;s brittle" ther +eeling barks in&lude el*, linden, s*ooth %illo%, and %estern &edar" )he bark ro* one s*all tree %ill yield *aterial or several &ontainers" 6n sele&ting a sa+ling, kee+ in *ind that the dia*eter o your bark &ontainer %ill be al*ost t%i&e that o the tree that you &ut to *ake a &ontainer < in&hes in
TR#D-T-3*#" CR#4T 6S.S 43R *3*+ "6MB.R ,R3D6C-*G ,#RTS 34 TR..S Bark /used in sheets and stri!s Canoes: +irh# e"% /seond hoie# a(ter others# western edar Containers: +irh# e"%# "inden# %agno"ia# western edar# ,e""ow !o!"ar
Basketry 0s&lits1: Ash# hikor,# northern white edar# !ean# so(t %a!"e# white oak Hoo&ing 0coo&erage1: Ash# &eeh# hikor,# hard %a!"e# white oak# red oak S&oons 0rived 'illets1: +irh /andinavia# dogwood# hard %a!"e /witBer"and# s,a%ore /:ng"and
"i's Hoo&ing 0coo&erage1: ine "athing 0wattle+and+dau' ti'er+frae in+fill live + stock enclosures1: Ash# &irh# e"%# (i"&ert# wi""ow Mauls: +eeh# hikor,# horn&ea%# !ersi%%on S&oons: A!!"e# &irh# hard %a!"e# rhododendron
Shoots Rods Basketry: Fi"&ert# wi""ow Hoo&ing 0coo&erage1: Fi"&ert# wi""ow Rustic furniture: Wi""ow
Withes 0Twigs1 Basketry: Western edar Besos: +irh Ro&e: Western edar
Roots Basketry: Western edar# s!rue Carving: +irh# %a!"e# wa"nut "ashing: $edar# !ine# s!rueMauls: ogwood# hikor, 44 Green Woodworking
dia*eter, sele&t a in&h sa+ling" Cherokee &arrying baskets are
"ontainers ade fro tuli% %o%lar &ark. The -&erry &o- on the left is a "herokee %attern. The s>uare &otto !ontainer is a traditional "r@e design.
usually about t%othirds taller than the dia*eter" ?lat botto* Cree baskets are generally sEuatter, about one third taller than the botto* di*ension" )he sa+ling should be straight, %ith a slight ta+er and e% li*bs or i*+ere&tions" :ith tuli+ +o+lar, sealed bark s&ars over areas %here knots e7ist %ill +eel easily, and they &an add an interesting tou&h to the &ontainer;s a++earan&e" ?reshly &ut bark is ragile" )o +rote&t the bark, the sa+ling should be &arried or dragged %ith only a ti+ end &onta&ting the ground" Hou &an %ork %ith a ulllength sa+ling, but it;s a%k%ard" 6 you don;t need a long +ole, &ross&ut your sa+ling into se&tions" )o deter*ine the length, add the distan&e a&ross the botto* and the heights o t%o sides" 6 you;re using +o+lar bark, you &an allo% s*all bran&h
(7a*ine your length o +ole to deter*ine the best +la&e or the sea*s" @ark out and &ut the t%o ends by girdling around the sa+ling %ith a knie" )hen *ake a length%ise slit through the bark ro* one end to the other" ten, the bark %ill easily sli+ loose ro* the &a*biu*" 6 the bark resists, insert your ingers under the bark and lit u+%ard" /rabbing and +ulling a &orner %ill da*age the *oist, ragile bark" :hen the bark &o*es loose, leave it %ra++ed around the sa+ling" )o *ake the Cherokee basket, use the +attern %ith the eyesha+ed botto* 4see illustration on +age <" :ith the bark on the +ole, dra% the &enterline around the &ir&u*eren&e onto the bark 4&halk is a good *arking *aterial" At o++osing +oints 10O ro* the length%ise slit, *ake t%o *arks indi&ating the %idth o the botto*" )hese
holes in the sides o the &ontainer, but not in the botto* or the area near the sea*s" $is&ard bark se&tions %ith holes larger than 12 in&h a&ross"
are eEuidistant ro* the &enterline" (7a*+le' ?or a <in&h botto*, ea&h *ark is 8 in&hes ro* the &enterline" Ne7t dra% an eye sha+e %ith ar&ing lines that -ateria"s 45
Reove
Score Then 4old
2 12G
;/+9
24)30
S!heati! for aking a Native Aeri!an &erry &o. S!ore on the &roken line. "ut away the &ark in the shaded area.
Reove
() O!erla&
B 0=/1
C *(+),
>/
?8/
46 Green Woodworking
Ty%i!al diensions of a &ark !ontainer with a flat &otto. S!ore on the verti!al &roken line. Fold 2&ut do not s!ore3 on the dotted line. "ut away the shaded area.
&onne&t at the slit" )he ends o both ar&s should >ust &ross the &enterline, *aking a s*all in ea&h &orner" !sing a knie, &areully &ut hal%ay through the bark along the eye outlines" -e*ove the bark ro* the sa+ling" )o old the sides, hold do%n both eye &orners %ith one hand %hile liting one end %ith the other hand" )hen lit the other end" Ad>ust the overla+ at the sides to +leasing +ro+ortions" S*all s+ring &la*+s are useul or holding the sides in +la&e or boring holes and lashing" !se &halk to lo&ate the lashing holes" )he stit&hing +attern be straight &rosseda&ross diagonals or slashes, stit&hes &an run %ith diagonals on or the the inside" =oles are 1 in&h to 8 in&h in dia*eter, de+ending on the la&ing *aterial" =oles &an be +un&hed %ith a rea*er or a +o&ketknie or drilled" 6 use a bra&e %ith an auger bit" So*e barks, like +o+lar, tear very easily %hen %et, so be &areul" =i&kory bast is one o the best la&ing *aterials" Cedar bast is e7&ellent, and linden, el*, and %illo% &an also be used" )he Cree baskets are traditionally la&ed %ith s+ru&e roots, and tanned leather stri+s %ill also %ork" ther la&ing *aterials in&lude %ild bra*ble 4also &alled blas+he*y vine, very thin %hite oak s+lits, and t%ine" Ater la&ing the sides, lash on a sturdy inner ri* to reinor&e and hold the round sha+e as the bark dries" )he ri* &an be a thin bran&h or s+lit o %hite oak, ash, hi&kory, or any other good riving %ood" )he Cree bark basket has a lat, sEuare botto*" ur neighbor, Peter /ott, has %orked out a si*+le or*ula or deter*ining the di*ensions o the botto* based on the &ir&u*eren&e o the +ole" 46 doubt that any 6ndians used a or*ula, but it %ill eli*inate trial and error e7+eri*ents" )he distan&e a&ross the botto* edges eEuals the &ir&u*eren&e o the sa+ling *inus 1 in&h, divided by 2" )he 1in&h *easure*ent is or the stit&hed overla+" :ith the bark still on the +ole, use &halk to dra% the botto* outline at the &enter o the +ie&e 4see illustration on a&ing +age" )he base overla+s a++ro7i*ate hal &ir&les" Note the s*aller 1in&h overla+ area at the botto* &orners o the sides" !se a knie to &ut out the +attern" )hen s&ore hal%ay through the baseline o the t%o sides" )he baseline o the large hal&ir&le overla+s is not s&ored"
A lidded "ree &o ade fro %a%er &ir!h &ark 2"olle!tion of +enri aillan!ourt3
)he latbotto* basket is asse*bled like the eye sha+ed Cherokee basket" )o *ake a lid, latten a +ie&e o bark and &ut out a round sha+e, 1 in&h larger than the outside dia*eter o the asse*bled &ontainer" )he inner ri* is a %ood s+lit lashed to the botto* o the lid"
-ateria"s 47
C=AP)(- ?!-
nife-Work @any &onte*+orary %ood%orkers have little use or knives" :hittlers still use knives, but *any %ood&arvers no% de+end on highs+eed +o%er tools that &ut through %ood by grinding, like a dentist;s drill" ?or so*e
%ith geo*etri& &arvings and an in&ised ins&ri+tion" 6 learned through S%edish %ood%orker :ille SundEvist that knie%ork is still held in high regard throughout S&andinavia" Carving %ooden%are %as a
%ood%orkers, a knie is a s&ribing tool used to lay out >oints" But not long ago, knives and a7es %ere the basi& tools available to *any %ood%orkers" A7es %ere used or s+litting and sha+ing %ood %hen a large a*ount o *aterial had to be re*oved" nives %ere or detail %ork" 6n green%ood &rats, knie%ork oten takes a +ro*inent +la&e" A shar+ knie is the essential tool or &arving s+oons, di++ers, and %ooden hard%are, su&h as door lat&hes, %all hooks, and handles" :hen 6 *ake a ladderba&k &hair, 6 *ay use a knie to detail rung tenons and the knobs o ront and ba&k +osts" nives are essential or basket *aking and other green%ood &rats that utiliFe bark, roots, and %ithes" 6 irst began to a++re&iate the +ossibilities o knie %ork during *y a++renti&eshi+ %ith -uedi Ihler" S%iss &oo+ers use knives or a %ide range o tasks that *ost %ood%orkers %ould assign to other tools" Prior to hoo+ing
traditional +asti*e during the long northern %inters" Learning to %ork %ith one;s hands is &onsidered to be an integral +art o ele*entary edu&ation" A La++style sheath knie is the S&andinavian eEuivalent o our +o&ketknie" Ater s+ending a e% days %ith :ille SundE vist in 19.., 6 invited hi* to our ar* to tea&h a grou+ o A*eri&an %ood%orkers or a %eek" :ille agreed, and the result %as the irst o our Country :orksho+s" ?or +ro>e&ts, :ille has students *ake s+oons and large %ooden bo%ls" 6n doing this, they not only learn ho% to &arve s+oons, but they learn too about the nature o %ood and about tools, in&luding tool shar+ening" @any students also *ake their o%n knives" @ost o *y kno%ledge about knie%ork 4and the he%ed bo%l +ro>e&t in &ha+ter 5 &o*es ro* :ille and his son Dogge, %ho has also taught at Country :orksho+s"
athe staved s*allin lo&ating do%elsasse*bly" are itted bet%een staves&ontainer, to hold the* +la&e during )hese do%els are &arved ro* short, rived blanks o bo7%ood, a hard, slo%gro%ing &onier" )o rive the do%el blanks, a knie is +la&ed a&ross the end grain o a 1in&hlong +ie&e o bo7%ood, then stru&k %ith a ha**er" )he blanks are &areully %hittled, then itted into holes bored in the sides o ea&h stave" n&e the staves are hoo+ed together, a larger knie is used to &arve a%ay a narro% %edgesha+ed se&tion ro* the inside o both ri*s" )he result, %hi&h looks like lathe%ork, *akes the staves a++ear *u&h thinner than they really are" A s*all +ointed knie is used to &arve the *ale and e*ale interlo&king tabs or the %ooden hoo+ing" And a knie is used even to &ut the handhold into an e7tended stave on a *ilking bu&ket" 4See +hoto, +age ." ?inally, a S%iss &oo+er is e7+e&ted to be a skilled &hi+ &arver" )he hoo+ing on s+e&ial *ilking bu&kets3given as +riFes at tra ditional Al+ine athleti& events3is oten de&orated 48 Green Woodworking
Carving Materials All but the *ost ornery o hard%oods are suitable or %orking %ith a knie" nots, burls, and &urly grain are usually avoided" :ooden kit&hen utensils are *ade ro* hard %ood %ith short, dense ibers" it&hen%are *ust be &arved ro* %oods that don;t i*+art taste or odor" :ooden hard%are3lat&hes, knobs, and hinges3&an be &arved ro* any hard %ood, in&luding &oarsegrained %oods su&h as oak" Carvings that aren;t sub>e&ted to %ear or stress &an be &rated ro* *u&h soter %oods" Linden is a &o**on avorite the iber is very sot, in addition to being ine and tight, so it takes &ris+ details" ther sot &arving %oods in&lude yello% +o+lar, bu&keye, and %illo%" Carving @nives 6n the S&andinavian tradition a general+ur+ose %ood &arving knie has a narro%, +ointed blade about 8 in&hes long" )he bevels should be &learly deined and o even %idth ro* the handle to the
After a !oo%ered !ontainer is %ut together, 8 ta%er the interior ri to ake the staves a%%ear thinner. The knife is skewed so that it takes a sli!ing eut. At this stage the staves are held in %la!e with white glue
Wille Sund>vist ade this -yogurt s%oon- for 0ouise 0angsner.
ni(e)Work 49
knie +oint" )he blade is narro% or s&oo+ing &uts, su&h as at the ne&k o a s+oon %here the bo%l >oins the ste*" )he blade should be long enough or taking a sli&ing &ut and yet not &u*berso*e %hen &arving details" )he +oint &an be used or in&ision %ork, su&h as sura&e de&orations" )he handle *ust be large enough or a &o*ortable gri+" 6t should be narro% and s*ooth %here it >oins the blade, and %ithout a guard, sin&e you *ay need to gras+ the lat sides o the blade bet%een thu*b and inde7 inger" ?e% knives *eet all these reEuire*ents" A very s*all sheath knie *ay be suitable, and so*e %ood&arvers +reer a goodEuality +o&ketknie" But all too oten, the &ross se&tion o the blade is not really suitable or use as a %ood%orking tool, and the steel is too sot to hold a shar+ edge" 6n S%eden, *any %ood%orkers use sloyd 4or hand&rat knives *ade by ir*s that s+e&ialiFe in &arving tools" )he bestkno%n brand is (rik ?rost, lo&ated in @ora, but there are others lo&ated throughout S&andinavia" ?rost knives have a good la*inated steel blade, a +lain bir&h handle, and a very reasonable +ri&e tag3about 9 as this is %ritten" 6n the !nited States, ?rost knives are sold by *ail order through several %ood%orking tool su++liers" )he la*inated blade o a ?rost sloyd knie sand%i&hes a thin %aer o hard, high &arbon steel bet%een t%o thi&ker slabs o *u&h soter steel" As on *ost knives, the blade is beveled on both sides" )he hard &enter la*ination holds a shar+ &utting edge *u&h better than soter steel does" But hard steel is brittle" Hou &an bend a raFor blade, %hi&h is also hard steel, >ust so ar and it %ill suddenly sna+ in hal" )he sot steel sides strengthen the knie" Hou &an a&tually +ut the blade in a vise, bend it at a 5O angle, and then straighten it" 6n addition to holding an edge, hard steel resists shar+ening" )he sot steel sides *ake shar+ening easier, sin&e you only have to re*ove a narro% band o hard steel" &ourse, it;s ni&e to have several &arving knies" ?rost oers knives %ith 8 to 5in&h blades" Hou *ay need a larger knie or Eui&kly re*oving large shavings" Hou;ll also %ant a s*aller knie or in&ision %ork, su&h as &utting bark and &arving de&orations" =ere even a 8in&h blade be&o*es &u*berso*e" 6 don;t kno% o a really ni&e, general+ur+ose, shortbladed &arving knie on the *arket" =o%ever, it;s not dii&ult to *ake your o%n by *odiying a ?rost blade" )he sidebar on +age 5, G@aking a Carving nie,G sho%s ho%"
50 Green Woodworking
Shar&ening 6n %ood%orking, tool shar+ening is divided into t%o broad divisions' edge tools and everything else" (dge tools in&lude +lane blades, &hisels, gouges, dra%knives, s+okeshaves, he%ing a7es, and knives" Sa%s and boring tools are e7a*+les o Geverything else"G Shar+ening is a &o*+le7 sub>e&t 6;ll introdu&e so*e o the basi&s in this &ha+ter and give urther details %hen %e shar+en the tools used in su&&eeding &ha+ters" A knie is shar+ened *u&h like any other edge tool, e7&e+t that *ost knie blades are beveled on t%o sides rather than leaving one side lat 4su&h as &hisel and +lane blades" )he shar+ening +ro&ess &an be divided into three stages' sha+ing, honing 4also &alled %hetting, and +olishing" (a&h +ro&ess re*oves the grooves &reated by the abrasives used in the +revious stage" Sha+ing is reEuired i a blade is ni&ked or i the bevel or +roile *ust be altered" Sha+ing &an be done on an ele&tri& ben&h grinder, but be&ause knie blades are very thin the heat generated by a grinder is likely to result in a loss o te*+er" 6nstead, use a grinder that turns in %ater or a very &oarse ben&h stone" )hese abrasives &ut slo%ly, so there;s no &han&e o overheating" n&e the blade is in good sha+e, it;s honed and +olished %ith ben&h stones" ?irst you hone a shar+ edge as ast as +ossible by using a Eui&k&utting, *ediu*grit abrasive" Polishing is re*oving the s&rat&h *arks let by the honing stone" ?or shar+ening ben&h)he stones be siFe at least 2 in&hes %ide and knives, in&hes long" *ostshould versatile or a general +ur+ose ben&h stone is t%i&e that length" )he siFe o abrasive +arti&les in ben&h stones ranges ro* 1 *i&ron3about 150 the thi&kness o a hu*an hair 3to over 150 *i&rons" Coarse abrasives shar+en Eui&kly, but they leave dee+ly grooved tra&ks that *ust be re*oved %ith a su&&ession o iner abrasives the bevel o a really shar+ blade %ill shine like a *irror" Ben&h stones are *ade in a be%ildering variety o *aterials" !ntil re&ently, *ost o the &oarser ben&h stones available to A*eri&an and (uro+ean %ood%orkers %ere *ade ro* alu*inu* o7ide or sili&on &arbide" )he iner +olishing stones %ere Euarried novi&ulite, kno%n as Arkansas Stones" All o these stones %ere su++osed to be lubri&ated %ith thin oil during use" 6n the 190s Da+anese G%ater stonesG %ere introdu&ed to %estern %ood%orkers" :ater stones
Feru"e /eures hank a%ination /'igh $ar&on tee" i
A Swedish sloyd knife with a ;B<in!h &lade. Se!tion A shows the lainated &lade, wide &evels, and :6C en!losed angle at the edge. ' shows a ty%i!al %o!ketknife &lade.
26 A
40 +
+eve"
terally use %ater to &reate a +aste on the stones; sura&e during honing and +olishing" )he less e7+ensive %ater stones are synthesiFed ro* &ertain *uds and other *aterials" )he *ore e7+ensive ones
%heel that runs in a %ater bath" ?or large, &urved tools, su&h as an inshave, 6 like to use s*all, ine7 +ensive dru* sanders that atta&h to an ele&tri& drill" )he tool being ground is held in a vise and the sander
are Da+anese Euarried" %ater stones &ut *u&h aster than any %estern oil stones" )he iner +olishing stones +olish &onsiderably iner 4and aster than the best hard, bla&k Arkansas stones" :ater stones are even *essier to use than oil stones" Be&ause they are sot, they *ust be resura&ed Euite oten" 4But this is not dii&ult" 6;ll e7+lain ho% on +age 5" Cera*i& and dia*ond stones are also no% avail able" Cera*i& stones are *ade or ine honing and +olishing" )he ones that 6;ve used are in&redibly slo%" Also, only the inest high +olish &era*i& stones *eet basi& &riteria or latness" )he others are %ar+ed ro* the iring +ro&ess during *anua&turing" Syntheti& dia*ond stones &onsist o ine +arti &les bonded to a steel or +lasti& *atri7" $ia*ond stones &ut even aster than Da+anese %ater stones" But they are not available in ine +olishing grits"
is runsander over is thehard blade" ?or initial lattening, a s*all belt to beat" 46 *ount a handheld ty+e belt sander u+sidedo%n to the sura&e o *y shar+ening ben&h" ?or the iner ty+e o sha+ing %ork 6 use &oarse or *ediu* dia*ond stones" 6 have not been i*+ressed %ith the &oarse %ater stones, %hi&h %ear a%ay e7tre*ely Eui&kly" :hetting in *y sho+ is no% done %ith dia*ond stones and %ater stones" )he dia*ond stones are used dry" 6 start %ith a *ediu* 42.0 grit dia*ond stone, ollo%ed by ine 4<00 or su+erine 41200" )hen 6 use a 1000 or 1200 grit %ater stone" 6;* not sure %hy, but %ith the harder tool steels these %ater stones leave a &onsiderably iner sura&e than the 1200 grit dia*ond stone" ?or +olishing, 6 use 000 to 000 grit %ater stones" )hese stones are available in a range o sha+es and siFes, in&luding various sli+s and &ones" )o +olish
And theyduring gradually ra&ture use" %ear a%ay as the dia*onds =ere;s %hat 6 &urrently use' ?or &oarse sha+ing %ork 6 use several ty+es o le&tri& eEui+*ent" ?or tools that reEuire a hollo% grind 6 use a slo% s+eed, 0 grit alu*inu* o7ide
the bevels o gouges andand turning 6 use asteelG very hard elt buing %heel %hitetools Gstainless buing &o*+ound" )he old oil stones have been +ut into storage, as have the &era*i& stones that %ere +ur&hased or testing +ur+oses" ni(e)Work 51
Shar%ening a sloyd knife. Fingers of the left hand %ress down on the knife &evel. The &lade is ru&&ed &a!k and forth diagonally at one end of the &en!h stone.
Shar+ening stones &an be itted to %ooden holders so they &an be se&ured in a vise or to a ben&h to+" So*e stones &o*e glued into ragile little bo7es or a sturdy holder, you &an *ortise a re&tangular &avity in a blo&k o %ood" )o *ount a %edgesha+ed sli+ stone, *ortise a &avity %ith a slo+ed botto*" @ost stone holders are about 1 in&h in height" But i you +lan to use the stones or shar+ening a dra%knie, *ake your holders about < in&hes tall" )he e7tra height allo%s &learan&e bet%een the angled dra%knie handles above the %orkben&h sura&e" -e&ently, 6;ve *ade several Da+anesestyle holders %hi&h se&ure stones %ith end blo&ks and s*all %edges"
:estern and Da+anese %ood%orkers" :ith +ra&ti&e, you should be able to +rodu&e and *aintain very shar+, highly +olished blades or all edge tools" ?irst, e7a*ine your knie blade" 6deally, the blade has lat, %elldeined bevels" )he lat bevels a&t as a registration +lane so that you &an &ontrol your de+th o &ut" But the blades o *ost knives3 in&lud ing so*e *ade or %ood%orking3are *anua&tured %ithout distin&tly beveled edges" !sually, the &ross se&tion rese*bles a long, thin %edge, %ith very narro% bevels at the edge" 6 your knie la&ks %elldeined bevels, 6 suggest getting one that has the*" -esha+ing a &onventional %edgese&tioned blade is very dii&ult" )he en!losed angle o a blade is &ru&ial to its
)he *ortise doesn;t haveloaded sides"u+Also, botto* the *ortise doesn;t be&o*e %iththe *etal dust,ostone residue, and oil" No% let;s shar+en a knie" Hou *ay ind these shar+ening dire&tions to be a de+arture ro* other *ethods" )his syste* &o*bines *ethods used by
+eror*an&e" )his is the angle or*ed by the t%o bevels at the &utting edge 4see illustration on +age 51" )he angle o a kit&hen knie is about 05O" )he en&losed angle o a knie used or %ood%orking should be 2<80O" )o &he&k the angle, use a +rotra&
52 Green Woodworking
tor, or &ut a 2<80O J in a thin +ie&e o *etal or &ardboard" 6 your knie blade is &lose to 2<80O, shar+en it at the a&tory*ade angle and try it out" 6 the en&losed angle is o by *ore than 2 or 8O, &orre&t the blade by resha+in g %ith a &oarse or *ediu* dia*ond ben&h stone" )o *ake the en&losed angle narrower, begin sha+ing at the heel o the bevel, and gradually &ut to%ard the edge" Sto+ %hen a %ire edge 4or burr or*s on the o++osite side o the edge" )o widen the angle, start at the edge and &ut in%ard" 6n either &ase, do hal o the ne&essary &orre&tion, then turn the knie around and sha+e the bevel on the other side o the blade" :hen the bevel angle is &orre&t, you;re ready to +ro&eed to the ne7t ste+3honing" 6n des&ribing ho% to hold a knie or shar+ening , 6;ll assu*e that you;re righthanded" /ras+ the knie handle %ith the lo%er inger +ads o your right hand" )he blade should +oint to your let %ith the edge a&ing a%ay ro* you" Pla&e the ingerti+s o your let hand along the bevel" Hour let thu*b should &onta&t the ba&k o the blade, in o++osition to your inde7 inger" Lo%er the bevel to the sura&e o the stone, and ro&k the blade ba&k and orth slightly to dis&over the e7a&t +oint %here the bevel lies lat on the stone" Press the knie bevel against the stone, and rub the blade ba&k and orth, at an angle o 1815O to the a7is o the blade" 6n ee&t, you are *aking *inute abrasive s&rat&hes along the entire bevel" !sing the %eight o your u++er body, be sure to *aintain hard, even +ressure on the bevel so that it re*ains in ull &onta&t %ith the stone" Beginners oten ail to get a good edge be&ause they a++ly too little or&e" Another reason, %hi&h is *u&h harder to &orre&t, is that the blade oten isn;t held at a steady angle" 6t hel+s here to avoid e7tra body *otions" Ater about 80 +asses, e7a*ine the blade" 6 the knie is shar+, you %on;t be able to see the a&tual edge even %ith a *agniying glass" Also, you;ll eel a burr, &alled %ire edge, indi&ating that the abrasive stone has begun to +ush a s*all a*ount o *etal over the edge" )o &he&k or the burr, +ass your ingerti+s along the bevel %hile angling a%ay the edge" As soon as you &an eel a burr, you;ve honed as ar as +ossible %ith the abrasive that you;re using" !nless your knie %as Euite shar+ to begin %ith, the &han&es are that you haven;t got a burr yet" :hen you go ba&k to the stone, rotate the knie 10O, and hone the other beveled edge" 4Hou
6sing 7our Body .fficiently uring the !ast (ew ,ears# =;ve &een "earning a&out body mechanics (ro% $ar" wensson# a +a"ti%ore woodworker who was (or%er", a tennis !ro +od, %ehanis is onerned with wa,s o( a!!",ing &a") ane# use o( "everage# and the (oregravit, o( =n s!orts# or an, !h,sia" work# ,our &od, %ove%ents shou"d &e under %a*i%u% ontro" he &od, %ehanis (or shar!ening are si%i"ar to those (or doing other woodworking For !reise shar!ening Dor kni(e)work# or hewingD,ou shou"d deve"o! a &od, !osition that issta&"e# with as"itt"e e*tran eous %ove%ent as !ossi&"e First# reate a stead, &ase (or ,our &od, &, s!reading ,our (eet a&out 18 inhes a!art 'o"d ,our ar%s "ose to ,our ri&s# so the, an;t ("o! a&out =dea"",# on", two Hoints in eah ar% wi"" %ove during an, shar!ening !roess =( %ore &od, !arts &eo %e invo"ved# ,our % ahine wi"" &egin to wo&&"e and "ose ontro" in addition to wasting energ, When ,ou;re in a &a"aned !osition# %ost o( ,our &od, an re"a* Faia" gri%aing is a waste o( energ,
%ouldn;t do this %ith a tool having a single bevel, like a &hisel" )he +osition or your right hand is basi&ally the sa*e, only tilted a little to a&&o**odate the bevel angle or the other side o the blade" Hour let thu*b +resses do%n on the bevel, %hile the other ingers steady the ba&k edge" ?ind the e7a&t bevel angle, and rub the blade ba&k and orth as beore" )his ti*e, ater about 80 +asses, begin to ar& the handle a%ay ro* your body in order to %het the &urve o the blade to%ard the +oint" n a sloydty+e knie, the entire length o the bevel, ro* handle to the +ointed ti+, is ground to the sa*e %idth" n *any other knives, ho%ever, the bevel narro%s as it a++roa&hes the ti+ this reEuires that you lit the knie in order to shar+en to%ard the +oint" As you lit, the en&losed &utting angle %idens" )he %ider angle isn;t good" Liting also results in a s*aller &onta&t +at&h on the stone" )his is one reason %hy knie blades tend to %ear a groove into shar+ening stones" )o *ini*iFe this ee&t, use dierent +la&es on the stone ro* one ti*e to the ne7t" Also, stay %ithin 1 in&h o the end o the ben&h stone to &ounter the hollo% &reated in the *iddle by other tools" Again, ater about 800 strokes, sto+ to e7a*ine the blade, &he&king or the telltale burr" ni(e)Work 53
Bench+Stone Maintenance As ,ou use a &enh stone# the sur(ae &eo%es irregu"ar =t;s i%!ortant to kee! ,our stones ("atne reason is that it;s ver, di((iu"t to ho"d a too" at a stead, ru&&ing ang"e i( the stone sur(ae is sha!ed "ike a wave or a dish =n addition# the non&eve"ed side o( too"s with a sing"e &eve" shou"d &e ke!t ver,# ver, ("at# and this isn;t !ossi&"e i( ,our stones aren;t ("at a"so he easiest wa, to ("atten a &enh stone is to ru& it on a !iee o( wetdr, sand!a!er &aked &, a s"a& o( !"ate g"ass he g"ass shou"d &e a&out 5 &, 12 inhes and at "east 38 inh thik F"atten oarse sha!ing stones with 80* !a!er se 120* !a!er (or honing stones and 180* or 220* (or !o"ishing stones !rink"e so%e "u&riantDoi" or water# de!ending on the t,!e o( stone &eing dressedD onto the g"ass ear a !iee o( sand!a!er in ha"( and enter it on the g"ass hen s!rink"e oi" or water onto the sand!a!er u& the stone# &earing down on the a&rasive !a!er# (or a&out ha"( a %inute &serve the sur(ae o( the stone# and ,ou;"" see a ("at &order where the stone %akes ontat with the !a!er and a onave inner area that ,ou sti"" have to wear down to A"so# sight aross the sur(ae o( the stone with a straightedge he"d "engthwise and then ross) wise $ontinue heks out ("at dressing unti" the entire sur(ae Ca!anese water stones ("atten %uh %ore >uik", than Western oi" stones &ut %a, re>uire dressing severa" ti%es (or eah hour o( use i" stones an usua"", &e ke!t ("at with one)a),ear %aintenane A"" &enh stones shou"d &e stored under a dust over or in a "osed &o* or drawer ust wi"" "og the !ores# %aking the sur(ae virtua"", use"ess irt, oi" stones an &e "eansed &, heating in an oven ,ntheti water stones /800)1200 grit an &e stored su&%erged in water in "idded !"asti &o*es %ade (or re(rigerated (oods o"ishing water stones /4000)8000 shou"d &e stored dr,
Continue ro* bevel to bevel until you &an eel a slight burr along the ull length o the edge" 6 you don;t have a %ire edge %ithin t%o or three *inutes, use a stone %ith a &oarser grit until you get a burr, then return to the +revious stone, treating both bevels" 54 Green Woodworking
)he inal ste+, +olishing, re+eats the above rubbing +ro&edure" !se your inestgrit ben&h stone" Again, be sure to get a burr along the ull length o the edge" )hen li+ the blade and or* a burr ro* the other side" -ub %ith less +ressure to re*ove the burr" :hen are you done Look at the dieren&e in inish and light rele&tan&e bet%een this stone and the one used beore" :hen the sura&e inish sto+s &hanging, you;ve gone as ar as +ossible %ith that +arti&ular abrasive" :ith e7+erien&e, you;ll eel %hen the blade is as shar+ as it &an get %ith a +arti&ular stone" !ntil you get the hang o this, you *ight use a *agniying glass to &he&k your +rogress" :ood%orkers have all sorts o %ays o &he&king or shar+ness" Hou &an shave so*e %rist hair, but &oarse hair shaves *u&h *ore easily than ine hair" Hou &an also balan&e the edge on a ingernail, then angle the nail to%ard verti&al to see ho% long the blade holds" A&tual use is the best test" )o *aintain this %onderul edge, do tou&hu+ +olishing oten" 6deally, you should be able to +rodu&e a *inute %ire edge ater rubbing on your +olishing stone only 15 or 20 ti*es" )hen re*ove the burr %ith so*e light +ressure, and get ba&k to %ork" 6 you &an;t or* a %ire edge Eui&kly, go ba&k to a &oarser grit stone and %ork u+ to the +olishing stage on&e again"
@nife+Work TechniAues :ille and Dogge SundEvist tea&h several knie te&hniEues gras%s. So*e gras+s are or *aking Eui&k, *assive &alled%hile &uts, others are used or detail %ork" )hese gras+s are based on a e% &o**on +rin&i+les" Hou *ust be &onvin&ed that knives and all other blade tools &ut %ood 4and lesh u!h *ore easily %ith a sli&ing a&tion 4tangential to an ob>e&t than at right angles" 6n %orksho+s, 6 de*onstrate this by +ushing the edge o a shar+ knie against the ti+s o *y ingers, %ith the &o* *ent that 6;d be un%illing to +ull the knie a&ross *y ingers even lightly" All gras+s in&lude a saety a&tor" )he %ay you hold a knie *ust involve a %ay to sto+ the blade so you !an*t get &ut" ?or ee&tive &ontrol, only one or t%o >oints o either ar* should *ove %hen *aking a &ut" Hou should be in a stable +osition, %ith the %ood or your ar*s bra&ed against your body" !se the knie bevel to &ontrol de+th o &ut"
5ogge Sund>vist deonstrating the ost &asi! gras%, used for large shavings. 'e sure to sli!e a!ross the &lade as you %ush outward.
Like other hand tools, a knie &uts easily along straight grain or a&ross %ood ibers, but not against the grain" 6t;s oten ne&essary to alter %ood or holding +ositions in &o*bination %ith the various gras+s" )aking *any shallo%, but s*ooth, &uts is al%ays +reerable to &utting dee+ly and leaving a rough sura&e" )he *ost &o**on gras+, used by %hittlers every%here, is useul or taking large shavings o the
ba&k o the blade" Hour let hand holds the %ood, and the ba&k o the hand should be bra&ed against your let thigh" )he &utting a&tion is a diagonal sli&e do%n and to the right" Sli&e a%ay ro* your legs and into s+a&e, or +osition your right leg as a sto+ or your right hand" !sing the sa*e gras+, s*all and detailed &uts &an be *ade by holding the %ood &lose to your &hest" By rotating the knie 10O, you &an *ake several
end o a +ie&e o %ood" )he knie is gri++ed +al* do%n, %ith the blade +ointed let and its edge dire&ted a%ay ro* your body" Hour thu*b &an be %ra++ed around the handle or +ressed against the
useul sha+ing and detail &uts" Bra&e the %ood against your &hest, or +ull your let elbo% against your side" :hen &arving the ne&k o a s+oon, the blade +oints u+ to%ard your let shoulder, and you ni(e)Work 55
With this gras%, sli!e outward &y rolling the &ase of your fist on your !hest.
Pull the &lade siultaneously toward your &ody and downward. 5< /reen
:ood%orking
Using this twohanded gras%, the right thu& a!ts as a %ivot finger. Fingers of the left hand %rovide additional for!e.
+ull do%n%ard" )o &arve to%ard the end o a +ie&e o %ood, +la&e your thu*b against the end or %ra+ it around the o++osite side" !se your thu*b as a +ivot" Sli&e u+%ard by rotating your %rist" A +o%erul but &ontrolled &ut &an be *ade by +la&ing the base o your ists, knu&kles u+, against your &hest, %ith both elbo%s +ointing out%ard" =old the knie bet%een your thu*b and inde7 inger, %ith the blade dire&ted to%ard your let elbo%" =old the %ood in your let hand in a si*ilar *anner, or*ing a *irror i*age o the right hand" A sli&ing &ut is *ade by +ivoting out%ard %ith both hands" )he base o your ists, %hi&h re*ain
Another ee&tive *ethod is the dagger gras+, in %hi&h the knie is held as i you %ere about to stab so*ething" Although it eels a%k%ard at irst, this gras+ +er*its short strokes that &o*bine +o%er %ith a&&ura&y" )o take large shavings, hold the ar end o the %ood %ith your e7tended let ar*, resting the ba&k o your hand against your let thigh" Pull the knie to%ard your &hest, holding it at an angle so that your right ar* %ill be sto++ed against your sto*a&h" !sing this gras+, you &an also *ake s*all, highly &ontrolled &uts by ar&ing your %rist so that the blade *oves +arallel to your orear*" Hou &an also use both hands to guide the blade" :ith
+ositioned your &hest, a&ts as a ul&ru*" Pull your large, u++eragainst ar* *us&les ba&k%ard to%ard your body, and roll your ists out%ard, a&ross your &hest"
these the right a ul&ru*, %hileor&e the ingersgras+s, or thu*b o thehand let a&ts handasa++ly additional against the ba&k o the blade"
ni(e)Work 57
Making a Carving @nife =n andinavia# woodworkers o(ten %ake their own arv) ing kni(es=( ,ou;re so in"ined# ,ou an start (ro% srath &, (orging a &"ade (ro% a high ar&on stee" rod Another o!tion is to (a&riate a &"ade (ro% too" stee" &ar stok
to dr, &e(ore %ounting the &"ade to the hand"e or the wood %a, rak as itdries and shrinks around the tang# he hand"e an &e (ro% 34 to 78 inh in thikness and 1 to 1 )14 inhes high A t,!ia" "ength (or the hand"e o( a
+oth o( these a!!roahes re>uire ski"" and know"edge o( wood)arving kni(e is 4 or 5 inhes# annea"ing# hardening# and te%!ering stee" A %uh si%) +oring the tang ho"eI with a !eni"# draw enteriines !"er a!!roah is to use a read,)%ade &"ade# %odi(,ing it down aJ (our sH des o( the handKe &Kank and aross &oth i(neessar,to,ourneeds ends osHtHon the hande vertiaK", in a vise /r i(,ou :*e""ent "a%inated kni(e &"ades are avai"a&"e ine*!en) have a dri"" !ress# use it (or this ste! se a s%a"" tr, sive", (ro% ut"er, s!eia"ists and woodworking too" su!) s>uare to hek (or !"u%& (ro% two !er!endiu"ar dire) !"iers =;ve%ade severa" knives using Frost &"ades @ou an tions ri"" arow o(332)inh o h"es a"ongthe enter"in e o( &u, an un%ounted &"ade# or ,ou an s!"it the &"ade out the end that is to reeive the tang +rad!oint &its are eas, o( a kni(e hand"e ,ou don;t %ind sari(iing Wra! ta!e to !osition aurate", =( ,ou use a high)s!eed twist &it# around the &"ade so that ,ou an;t get ut hen ask (irst di%!"e a row o( entering ho"es with an aw" or nai"# so%eone to ho"d the kni(e &, the &"ade on a workta&"e +ore to the de!th o( the tang# so ,ou an rak o(( the hand"e with a hise" and ha%%er Wra! the &"ade wHth ta!e so that ,ou wont ut ,ourse"( 'ere;s how to resha!e the !ro(i"e o( a a " %inated &"ade $"ean the sides o( the %ortise so that ,ou an get the tang +eause the enter "a%ination is harder than a haksaw into it on;t &e too (uss, with this = use a ver, thin 38) &"ade# ,ou an;t saw through it /@ou ou"d grind it# &ut inh su"!tor;s hise" @ou ou"d a"so run a hand)he"d this risks overheating and "osing the te%!er raw a e"etri dri"" in and out o( the ho"e# s"anting it at di((erent straight "in e on &oth sid es o( the &"ad e where ,ou want ang"es to! as soon as ,ou an insert the tang a"" the wa, it uto(( $"a%! the &"ade ("at toa ta&"eto! se a hak) he ne*t ste!is to design the hand"e eaving the tang in saw or a three)ornered (i"e to ut a groovethrough the !"aL# out"ine the hand"e sha!e on sides# to!# and &ot) so(t side "a%ination to! when ,ou run into the hard to% he side view an take an, sha!e that is o%(orta&"e enter urn the &"ade over# "a%! again# and ut the and !rovides a good gri! he to! view shouKd &e s,%) o!!ositegroove @ou an noweasi", sna!o(( the end o( %etria" he end that Hoins the &"ade shou"d &e narrow# the &"ade 'o"dthe &"ade in a vise#and sna! it o(( Wear so ,ou an o%(orta&", Mhoke u!N on the hand"e# with sa(et,gogg"es ,ourthu%&and(irst(ingeragainstthesideso(the&"ade se a &enh grinder to sha!e the new !ro(i"e o( the =( the hand"e sha!e in"udes a negative urve# saw a ker( &"ade With a grinder# ,ou have to kee! the &"ade oo" so at the dee!est !oint to at as a kni(e sto! so that ,ou that it doesn;t "ose its te%!er to! grinding o(ten to oo" won;t re%ove too %uh wood @our kni(e strokes an the &"ade in water A &etter %ethod is to have so%eone run with or aross the grain &ut not intoit to! o(ten to ontinua"", s!ra, water on the &"ade as ,ou grind An o&serve ,our work (ro% di((erent angKes ine this is a ine*!ensive hand s!ra,er works (ine kni(e hand"e# ontinua"", test it (or (eeO in various gras!s ha!ing the &eve" is %ore di((iu"t than grinding the !ro) @ou an work with the &"ade in or out o( the hand"e# (i"e = reo%%end using a oarse dia%ond &enh stone# When ,ou get the sha!e Hust right# sand the hand"e un"ess ,ou;re ver, good at (reehand grinding he &eve"s s%ooth shou"d &e an even width# running !ara""e" with theutting he &"ade is!er%anent", seured with ordinar, two)!art edge Eote that the &eve" "ine runs into the to! edge o( e!o*, =( the (it s i "oose# "oate the&"ade in the e*at the &"ade instead o( o%ing into the !oint Fina"",# the !osition that ,ou want with two %iniature wedges on;t tang shou"d &e shortened to a&out 2 inhes "ong tr, to !ut a #"arge &"o& o( e!o*, into the ho"e at one )air For the hand"e# use hard wood with short# dense grain# wi"" &eo%e tra!!ed# and ,ou won;t get the ho"e (i""ed# suh as hard %a!"e# herr,# &eeh# &irh# or a!!"e 'igh", Fi"" the ho"egradua"",# !ushing the e!o*, inwith a o t oth) (igured or &ur"ed wood %akes a &eauti(u"# tough hand"e# !ik =( the %ortise is wide and unsight",# ,ou an o"or &ut it wi"" have to &e sha!ed with ras!s the "ast &it o( e!o*, &, %i*ing in a "itt"e sanding dust (ro% @ou an s!"itthe hand"e &"ank (ro% a "og or saw it (ro% a the hand"e wood Fina"", (inish the hand"e with oi" /= "ike &oard Green wood is %uh easier to arve than dr, tung oi"# re%ove the ta!e (ro% the &"ade# shar!en ,our wood +ut i( ,ou use green wood# ,ou shou"d wait (or it kni(e# and &egin a s!oon 58 Green Woodworking
nie:ork 59 Profile and to% views of a short&laded !arving knife that 8 ade. The &lade was ade fro a standard sloyd &lade. The &lade tang is se!ured in the hardwood handle with e%oy. After 7 years use, it hasn*t loosened. "arving knives that 8*ve ade using Swedish sloyd &lades
,ro!ect: Carving a S&oon S+oon *aking is an e7&ellent e7er&ise in &arving te&hniEues" Hou;ll learn ho% to look at ob>e&ts very &areully ro* various angles o vie% and ho% visual aestheti&s relates to the un&tion o an ob>e&t" Attra&tive +ro+ortions and balan&e &an transor* a s+oon into a s*all +ie&e o s&ul+ture" Hou &an *ake *i7ing s+oons, ladles, servers, sou+ s+oons, +orridge s+oons, salad servers, butter s+readers, and ri&e +addles" Serving s+oons are oten *ade %ith an attra&tive angled ste*" An end hook is a ni&e eature, es+e&ially or di++ers" Tools. nly a e% tools are reEuired3you &an take your s+oon*aking GkitG along %hen traveling or %ork in the living roo* %hile visiting %ith riends" =and&arved s+oons *ake +riFed gits" A s+oon*aking tool kit in&ludes a good, allaround &arving knie and one or t%o gouges or hollo%ing out the bo%l" )he &arving blank &an be roughed out %ith a light hat&het or a s*all bo% sa% %ith a blade that &an be rotated at any angle" 4A &o+ing sa% %ill also %ork" A s*all vise or &la*+ is ne&essary i you;re going to sa% out the blanks" Hou;ll also need sand+a+er in several grits"
A few of y serving s%oons, ade fro a%%le wood.
isualiDation of %ossi&le s%oons Se ctio n
!"it i%& at ith
Pit
within a !rooked li&. Note the saller &owl of the u%%er s%oon. 'e sure to avoid the %ith wood.
=< Green Woodworking
>/+ 8/+Diaeter "i'
/aterials. Hou &an use al*ost any kind o %ood that has short, dense ibers and is tasteless and odorless" @y s+oons are usually a++le or dog%ood and are al%ays &rated green" -uedi ohler uses hard *a+le to &arve &rea* ski**ers" (nglish s+oon &arvers +reer sy&a*ore" S%edish s+oon *akers usually &arve bir&h and so*eti*es bir&h root" ther suitable %oods in&lude bee&h, holly, +ear, and +ersi**on" 6n southern A++ala&hia, slo%gro%ing, &onvoluted rhododendron used to be &alled Gs+oon%ood"G Crooked li*bs *ay +rovide %ood in the a++ro7i*ate sha+e o the s+oon" )he advantage o using so*ething %ith a natural &rook is greater strength, sin&e &arving severs e%er ibers, es+e&ially around the bo%l" Countless generations o s+oon &arvers have evolved &lassi& sha+es that are hard to i*+rove on" 6 advise beginners to &o+y e7isting designs beore trying +ersonal ideas" 6 your irst s+oons are &o+ies, you;ll have a &han&e to +ra&ti&e knie gras+s and hollo%ing the bo%l %ithout the distra&tion o trying to be &reative" Hou;ll also be *ore likely to *ake ni&e s+oons ro* the start, s+aring yoursel rustration" ?eel ree to &o+y the +attern in the illustration on +age <0 and the s+oons in the +hotogra+h" :elldesigned s+oons share &ertain &hara&teristi&s" )hey tend to be light%eight and %ell balan&ed, and they do the intended >ob &o*ortably" A really ine s+oon %ill be +leasing to observe ro* any angle" Note that the s+oons in the +hotogra+hs are very threedi*ensional they;re not lat but oer interesting angles %hen seen ro* any angle" ?or strength, the leading edge o the bo%l, %hi&h is end grain, should be &o*+aratively thi&k" )he botto* o the bo%l &an be very thin" )he bo%l o an eating s+oon should be airly shallo%" 6t %on;t eel &o*ortable in your *outh i it;s dee+" )he area %here the bo%l >oins the ste* should have adeEuate strength" )he ste* *ust eel &o*ortable in all +ositions in %hi&h the s+oon %ill be used" ?or %ood, sele&t a trunk se&tion, sa+ling, or li*b, &alled a &ole, ro* any o the trees *entioned above" )he *ini*u* siFe is about 8 in&hes in dia*eter" Anything larger is ine" )he +ie&e &an be straight or bent" 4:ille and Dogge +reer the bent ones" Hou *ay %ant to begin by *aking a +ra&ti&e s+oon ro* a sot %ood, su&h as %hite +ine" )he sa%ed length o the li*b or trunk should be no longer than the s+oon you;re about to *ake"
)he easiest %ay to redu&e the bole into a s+oon blank is by s+litting it" S+lit 2 to 8in&hdia*eter boles in halves to *ake t%o s+oons, one ro* either hal" Larger boles &an be s+lit into a nu*ber o radial se&tions" 6 like radial s+lits be&ause the unior* grain is easier to &arve" =o%ever, you then sa&rii&e the advantage o using a &rook" 6t;s a trade o" )he *ost a&&urate *ethod or s+litting s+oon blanks3 and other s*allish boles3is to use an a7e or a %edge, hitting the blade;s lat head 4or %oll3 %ith a %ooden &lub" 4Hou &an read ho% to *ake the &lub in &ha+ter <" Stand the bole u+right on a log stu*+" Position the blade o the a7e so that it +asses a&ross the +ith, then strike the a7e +oll %ith the &lub" 6 you;re *aking radial blanks, the se&ond s+lit should be +ositioned to *ake Euarter se&tions" ?or visual reasons, 6 seldo* &o*bine &ontrasting heart and sa+%ood in the sa*e s+oon" $is&ard the heart%ood or sa+%ood, %hi&hever is s*aller" 6t;s i*+ortant to re*ove all o the +ith, or the s+oon %ill &ertainly s+lit during drying" )he ne7t ste+ is dra%ing the outline o the to+ vie% o the s+oon" Hou &an dra% on %et %ood %ith a sot +en&il or a *arking +en" 4@y avor ite green%ood *arker is an (berhard ?aber BluBlak +en&il, nu*ber .0, available ro* a stationery store" !se a straightedge to dra% a &enterline do%n the *iddle o the blank, then dra% the outline about 1 in&h oversiFe" )he blank &an be roughed out %ith a light hand a7e or a bo% sa%" =e%ing %ith an a7e is a greater &hallenge and *ore ada+table on&e the skill is develo+ed" =e%ing is also &onsiderably *ore dii&ult than sa%ing" An advantage o sa%ing the to+ outline is that the ker yields verti&al sides on %hi&h you &an easily dra% the side +roile" 6 re&o* *end that you sa% out your irst s+oons" 6;ll introdu&e he%ing *ethods in &ha+ter 5" A (uro+ean style bo% sa%, %ith knobs that rotate the blade, %orks es+e&ially ni&ely" Hou &an *ake one Euite easily or buy one ro* a %ood%orking tool su++lier" Hou &an also use an ordinary &o+ing sa% or a band sa%" Bo% sa%s %ork best &utting on a +ull stroke, %ith the teeth angled to%ard your body" )ake light strokes, %ithout +utting *u&h +ressure on the blade" Let the sa% do the &utting" As you enter a &urve, gradually sa% ba&k and orth %hile advan&ing only slightly" 6 ne&essary, rotate the knobs so that the sa% ra*e doesn;t bu*+ into the sto&k" :hen you ad>ust the knobs, *ake sure both are set ni(e)Work 61
Making a Bow Saw Blade he &"ades that =;ve !urhased with (ator,)%ade &ow saws are not !artiu"ar", e((etive = re!"ae the% with "ensths o( ordinar, &and)saw &"ade = use a 14)inh &"ade with eisht teeth !er inh +e(ore ,ou an use a &and)saw &"ade# ,ou need to dri"" a s%a"" ho"e in eah end to ae!t the ho"dins !ins ine &and)saw stee" is hardened# it %ust &e annea"ed /so(tened &e(ore ,ou an dri"" through it 'ere;s how 'eat the "ast inh o( the &"ade red hot over a !ro!ane torh or kithen gas stove hen re%ove the &"ade to one side o( the ("a%e and a""ow it to oo" s"ow", Fina"",# di%!"e the end with a enter !unh and dri"" the re>uired ho"e with an ordinar, twist &it hen do the other end
in the sa*e +lane so that the blade isn;t t%isted" -e+osition the blank in the vise as ne&essary or easy &utting, and kee+ the sa% +er+endi&ular to the a&e o the blank" 6 you have a hard ti*e sa%ing on the +ull stroke, try reversing +osition and sa%ing %ith the +ush stroke" So*e +eo+le do *u&h better +ushing" n&e the to+ vie% o the s+oon is &ut out, dra% the +roile vie% on the sides and sa% it out" No% you;ll get to +ra&ti&e so*e knie gras+s" Start by taking the edges o the shar+ &orners, +arti&ularly at the botto* o the bo%l" !se the knie bevel as a guide to take long shallo% shavings" Sto+ oten to e7a*ine %here you;re going" @y &olleague Carl S%ensson says to *ake s*all *istakes, not large ones that %ill get you into big trouble" Co*+are your s+oon %ith the *odel that you;re &o+ying" Learn to analyFe the sha+e in ter*s o the overall &oniguration, %hi&h is gradually reined" Look at your s+oon ro* various angles, and hold it by the ste* in the +osition in %hi&h it %ill be used" A &o**on +roble* a*ong beginners is *aking the ne&k too skinny" Also, leave the bo%l oversiFed or no%, so that it;s large enough to hold by hand %hen you hollo% it" Careully latten the li+ o the bo%l so that it des&ribes a lat +lane" :hen your s+oon is blo&ked to a++ro7i*ate sha+e, it;s ti*e to &arve the bo%l &avity %ith a gouge" )he *ethod that 6 learned ro* :ille SundEvist is unusual be&ause it doesn;t reEuire holding the s+oon in a vise" )his *ethod uses one or t%o &onventional gouges" S+e&ial bent s+oon &arvers knives &an also be used" 62 Green Woodworkins
/ouges are sold in dierent %idths, *easured in *illi*eters and dierent swee%s or &urvatures, ranging ro* Q1, %hi& h is al*ost lat, to Q11, a !sha+ed veiner. S%oon gouges and &ent gouges are ni&e to have, but they;re not used or s+oon &arving" 6 re&o**end starting %ith a Q s%ee+ 1** gouge and +ossibly a Q8 s%ee+ 1** gouge" Beore starting to hollo% the s+oon bo%l, dra% an outline o the inner edge o the ri*" )he gouge gras+ or hollo%ing *ay see* a%k%ard at irst" :ith +ra&ti&e, you;ll ind that it;s ast, ei&ient, and sae" Start %ith the Q s%ee+ gouge" /ras+ the gouge blade %ith your right +al* a&ing u+%ard" ?old your inde7 inger around the ste* o the blade" (7tend your thu*b to%ard the butt o the handle" )he blade should +oint to your let" 4)his is also the gras+ or using a &rooked knie" :ith your let hand also +al* u+, gras+ the s+oon around the ne&k" )he bo%l should +oint a%ay ro* your body the handle end should +oint to%ard your sto*a&h" (7tend your let thu*b a&ross the to+ o the bo%l" Press the heel o your right hand against the end o your let thu*b" )he gouge &utting edge is so*e%here bet%een 12 and 8 o;&lo&k on the s+oon bo%l" Lo%er the blade to the %ood" !se the end o your let thu*b as a ul&ru* to take a &ut, starting at the ri* and s&oo+ing to%ard the &enter" Be sure to *aintain &onta&t bet%een the heel o your right hand and your e7tended let thu*b" )his is your saety +rovision" )ake long, shallo% &uts, rather than digging do%n and then sto++ing" Ater so*e +ra&ti&e, gras+ urther do%n the ste* o the s+oon so that you &an gouge the bo%l bet%een 8 and < o;&lo&k" )he ront o the bo%l should have a shallo% slo+e the ba&k &an be stee+er" -everse the s+oon in your let hand so that the handle +oints a%ay ro* your body" =ollo% the bo%l bet%een . and 11 o;&lo&k as seen ro* the srcinal s+oon +osition" )his area is harder to &arve than the irst side, es+e&ially on a s*all s+oon" Be sure to kee+ your let thu*b in the saety +osition" -eturn to the srcinal holding +osition %henever ne&essary" 6t;s "" to *odiy your hand +ositions, but the saety sto+ and the basi& gras+ %ith both hands are al%ays reEuired" :hen the bo%l rea&hes the desired de+th, s*ooth it out %ith very shallo% &uts" )his is %here the Q8 s%ee+ gouge is used" S*ooth gouge%ork *eans less sanding later" Ater the bo%l is hollo%ed, return to the knie%ork" )ri* around the edge o the bo%l" Jie% the
To% view, %rofile, and se!tions of a s%oon ade &y the author. The length is 9 in!hes.
+roile o the s+oon, sighting or irregularities in the bo%l ri* and in&ongruous bu*+s in the handle" (7a*ine the s+oon ro* above to see i it;s sy**etri&al" Che&k the bo%l thi&kness by eeling the inner and outer sura&es bet%een your thu*b and inde7 inger" 6 it;s too thi&k, you &an &arve *ore o the e7terior or dee+en the bo%l and then lo%er the ri*" Perha+s the *ost &hallenging +art o inishing a s+oon is detailing the end o the ste*" Hou have to &ut a&ross the grain, and the inal result should be sy**etri&al" Be sure to sli&e %ith the knie, either a%ay ro* or into the &ut" A si*+le, eye+leasing inial at the ti+ is a traditional S&andinavian tou&h" 6 you don;t inish your s+oon in one day, you &an kee+ the %ood %et by storing it in a +lasti& bag or in da*+ sa%dust" Hour s+oon *ust be dried beore it &an be sanded" Be&ause they;re so thin, s+oons usually dry %ithout &he&king" )o be sure, you &an +artially seal the +ores by rubbing the %ood %ith a boiled +otato" )his slo%s do%n sura&e trans+iration" )hen +ut your s+oon in a %ar* +la&e to dry3or instan&e, above a heater or %ood stove" Hou &an tell %hen
%ood is dry by holding it against your &heek or &la++ing it against another +ie&e o dry %ood and listening" )he sound should be *usi&al, not *ushy" Beore sanding the tool *arks o your s+oon, you *ay de&ide to do so*e *ore knie or gouge%ork" )he dry %ood is harder to %ork, but it &uts *ore &leanly and &ris+ly" $on;t sand and then go ba&k to using an edge tool, be&ause tra&es o abrasive grit %ill dull your knie" Start sanding %ith a s*all +ie&e o 0grit +a+er, about 112 by 5 in&hes and olded into thirds" Be &areul not to sand the ri* o the bo%l too thin" Sand o all the rough tool *arks" )hen sand the abrasive *arks o %ith 120grit +a+er, ollo%ed by s*oothing %ith 10 or 220grit" :hen the s+oon is s*ooth, Eui&kly di+ it in hot %ater to raise the sura&e ibers" :hen it dries, resand the uFFy areas" ?or a inish, 6 suggest using %alnut oil 4+ur&hased at a health ood store" !se a daylong soak, or rub in the oil %ith a &lean, %hite rag" -ubbing vigorously +rodu&es heat %hi&h aids +enetration" Allo% the oil to dry or a e% %eeks beore +utting the s+oon to use"
ni(e)Work 63
+ollowing a s%oon with a straight gouge. The left thu& a!ts as a ful!ru and a safety sto% for the gouge.
S%oon finials
64 Green Woodworking
Shar&ening Gouges earning how to shar!en a gouge isn;t that di((iu"t ,ou;ve i( done we"" with kni(e shar!ening he %ain di((erene that is a gouge has on", one &eve"# on the onve* side he inside o( the &"ade ("ute is straight
Shar%ening the &evel of a gouge. )otate the &lade 2don*t roll it3 so that the eterior &evel ru&s on the &en!h stone.
When ,ou get a new gouge# e*a%ine the &eve" are(u"", seetothat it is("at he &ase o( the &eve"# whereHoins it the &ak o( the &"ade# shou"d &e rounded his reates the "earane needed at the the &ak &"ade o( (or gouging out a avit, =( ,our gouge has a %iro)&eve"# a s%a""# seondar, &eve" near the utting edge# ,ou;"" need to re%ove it &, resha!ing with a oarse &enh stone therwise# !roeed with honing eure an a!!ro!riate stone to the &enh to! /in a ho"der With the hand"e !ointing to ,our right# gras! the u!!er end o( the &"ade with the (ingerti!s o( ,our right hand "ae the ti!s o( ,our "e(t inde*# %idd"e# and ring (ingers on the near edge o( the &"ade ("ute ower the gouge &eve" to the stone# with the hand"e "i(ted a&out 25 (ro% horiBonta" u& the &"ade (orward and &ak) ward on the stone over a distane o( a&out 3 inhes At the sa%e ti%e# rotate the &"ade awa, (ro% ,our &od, on the (orward ru& and toward ,our &od, on the &ak ru& so that the entire sur(ae o( the &eve" is a&raded ress down (air", hard on the stone A(ter a&out 30 ru&s# hek (or a wire &urr a"ong the ("ute =( ,ou;ve got a &urr# !roeed with the !o"ishing stone =( ,ou don;t have a &urr# tr, the sa%e stone (or 30 %ore ru&s =( ,ou sti"" don;t get a &urr# dro! &ak to a oarser stone unti" ,ou do hen work u! again through the (iner stones se a (ine)grit s"i! stone to re%ove the %inute !o"ishing &urr on the inside o( the ("ute "ae the s"i! stone ("at inside the ("ute o( the gouge +eing sure to gri! we"" &ak on the sides o( the s"i! so ,ou an;t get ut# ru& the stone &ak and (orth whi"e rotating the gouge &"ade to insure ontat within the (u"" ar o(Be thesure ("ute to keep the slip stone flat in the flute;"i(ting it wi"" a"ter the en"osed ang"e o( the edge to! when the &urr is re%oved =( ,ou;ve reated a s"ight &urr on the outside o( the &eve"# return to the !o"ishing &enh stone and ver, "ight", re%ove it A (ina" !o"ish an &e ahieved with a hard (e"t &u((ing whee"
ni(e)Work 65
C.APT$" /I0$
.ewing @ost readers o this book %ill have so*e e7+erien&e using an a7e, but you *ay not be a*iliar %ith its older relative, the adFe" 6n use, these tools overla+, %ith ea&h having &ertain s+e&ialties" )he *ain dieren&e is that the blade o
*ost ti*ber &utting is done %ith sa%s, doublebit a7es are seldo* needed, and the se&ond &utting edge &an &ause serious in>uries %hen the a7e is s%ung or &arried" )y+es o he%ing a7es dier *ainly in blade &ross
an adFe is +er+endi&ular to the handle, like that o a garden hoe" :hen you s%ing an a7e, the blade des&ribes a lat +lane" A %edgesha+ed blade striking end grain %ill s+lit %ood" A blade sha+ed *ore like a knie or a &hisel &an be used to sha+e %ood by severing %ood ibers" )his is kno%n as he%ing" )he ar& o an adFe des&ribes a s&oo+ing a&tion si*ilar to that o a *atto&k" 6n +roile, adFe blades are &urved to suit that ar&" )he &utting edge *ay be straight or &u++ed" AdFes %ith a straight &utting edge are used to he% lat or slightly &urved sura&es" (7a*+les in&lude building ti*bers and so*e %ooden boat ra*ing" GLi++edG adFe blades have an u+turned radius at ea&h &orner to +revent grain tearout" )he &u++ed blade o a hollo%ing adFe rese*bles a very large, bent gouge" !ses in&lude s&oo+ing out %ooden bo%ls, saddling the thi&k +lank seats o :indsor &hairs,
se&tion and handle length" )he &ross se&tion o a he%ing a7e blade &an be either sy**etri&al 4%ith bevels on both sides o the &utting edge or asy**etri& 4%ith one lat side and one bevel, like a &hisel" )hus, the our general a7e ty+es are' 1" the singlebevel, shorthandled a7e 2" the singlebevel, longhandled a7e 8" the doublebevel, short handled a7e and " the doublebevel, longhandled a7e" )he shorthandled a7es are usually &alled hat&hets" 6n sho+ no*en&la ture, hat&hets are kno%n as &en!h aes. )hey are distinguished ro* ordinary &a*+ing hat&hets by a thinner blade and oten a single bevel" Large, singlebevel a7es used to he% logs and bea*s are kno%n as &road aes. )he head o a broad a7e used to he% an A*er i&an log &abi n %eighs ro* < to 10 +ound s and has a &utting edge to 1 in&hes long" S*aller broad hat&hets, %eighing 2 to +ounds, are used in the sho+ and or &ar+entry" )o he% %ith a doublebevel a7e, you *ust tilt either
and &rating dugout &anoes" )raditional a7es and adFes %ere *ade in a very %ide range o %eights and sha+es" A skilled bla&ks*ith &ould easily *odiy a design to suit the needs o a +arti&ular &rats+erson or *ake s+e&ial +atterns suitable or dierent trades" :ith the develo+*ent o industrial te&hnology, ne% tools and *a&hinery dis+la&ed *ost o these s+e&ialiFed hand tools" )he &o**on hard%are store a7e, %hi&h has an en&losed blade angle o about 5O, is a basi& s+litting tool" )he blade *ust be thi&k enough so that it &an %ork as a %edge, +ushing bundles o ibers a+art" 4S+litting te&hniEues are dis&ussed in &ha+ter <" =e%ing is usually li*ited to &ho++ing li*bs or o&&asionally elling s*all trees" )he %oll, %hi&h is the lat head o++osite the blade on a singlebit a7e, &an be used to drive %ooden or +lasti& elling %edges" $oublebit a7es tend to be thinner" ne bit &an be ke+t
the blade *aterial so%ood that the inner bevel )he &an *ake sli&ing &utorinthe line %ith the being he%ed" singlea bevel broad a7e &an be used %ith an easy, +lu*b a&tion3 that is, straight u+ and do%n" )he disadvantage o a broad a7e is that it;s li*ited to he%ing lat and slightly &onve7 +lanes" )hinse&tion, doublebevel a7es and hat&hets &an be used or he%ing lat +lanes, Jnot&hes, and &on&ave sha+es" 6 the en&losed blade angle is too %ide3sha+ed or s+litting3you &an *odiy it by regrinding the bevel &losest to your body, &reating an asy**etri& doublebevel se&tion" -eer to the illustration on the a&ing +age" =andle length is deter*ined by the use an a7e is +ut to" ?ulllength handles hel+ you to deliver the or&e needed to s+lit end grain" But or he%ing 6 oten ind that hat&het and a7e handles are longer than ne&essary" =e%ing &alls or e7a&ting &ontrol oten
shar+ or elling other blade ground at a %ider angle or orli*bing, s+litting"%hile )histhe is +robably theisulti*ate %oods*an;s a7e" But sin&e 66 Green Woodworking
A 30
+
40
$
45
+at!hets. A. A Geran single&evel &en!h ae. '. An 4nglish dou&le&evel #ent ae. The &evel angle on one side has &een ade stee%er. The &roken line indi!ates the srcinal &evel. ". A dou&le&evel !a% hat!het, useful for s%litting &ut not hewing.
you need to gri+ the handle &loser to the head than you %ould or s+litting" =eavy a7e heads reEuire the shorter handles" )he handle o a heavy ben&h a7e should be >ust long enough to give you so*ething to hold on to" Hou &an sa% a long handle do%n to a reasonable length or *ake a re+la&e*ent" 6n sele&ting a he%ing a7e o any ty+e, irst &onsider the blade the handle &an be re+la&ed" =e%ing reEuires a thinner blade than you;d use or s+litting %ood, %ith an en&losed blade angle o about 80O" ?or balan&e, he%ing a7es generally have a lo% +roile" A tall head *akes the a7e dii&ult to &ontrol be&ause it tends to %obble as you s%ing" )he &orners o the blade *ust be +ro*inent i it is to be useul or &ut
ting" (dge bevels should be &ris+ly deined, %ith a &onsistent bevel angle ro* &orner to &orner" A &urved blade &uts better than a straight blade be&ause it sli&es *ore easily" Like knives, so*e o the best a7es are *ade %ith la*inated blades" )he la*inated edge o a singlebevel a7e &onsists o a thin slab o high &arbon steel, orge%elded to the inner side" Hou &an oten see the la*ination by e7a*ining the ends or inner side o the blade or the bevel" La*inated doublebevel a7es are s&ar&e" )he &arbonsteel la*ination is sand%i&hed bet%een the t%o sides o the blade" 6 you;re buying a used a7e, re>e&t anything %ith dee+ +itting near the &utting edge" Su+eri&ial rust 'ewing 67
'en!h aes. The ae at the to% is a !oo%er*s &road hat!het, ade in Gerany Eust &efore World War 88. 8t has a single &evel and a lainated &lade. The iddle ae is a 5a%anese !ar%enter*s hat!het. The lower hat!het is a re%rodu!tion of a 7th !entury iking ae fro Sweden. The &lade is dou&le &eveled.
he%ed" )he shorter hand adD e is used or s*allers&ale %ork, su&h as not&hing logs or s&oo+ing bo%ls" )ightly &urved adFes reEuire a short, stubby handle" AdFe blades generally have a single bevel" )he lat bevel o a oot adFe is on the inner side o the blade, %hile the gougelike blade o a s&oo+ing adFe reEuires an e7terior bevel" is easily re*oved using sand+a+er lubri&ated %ith shar+ening oil" Hou &an test the &utting edge or hardness %ith a ne% *ill ile" )o get a eeling or hardness, irst try out the ile on so*e steel o kno%n hardness the shank o a s&re%driver is about the sa*e hardne ss as a good a7e blade" )he ile *ust bite, but it shouldn;t re*ove large ilings" 6 the edge eels very sot against the ile, there;s a good &han&e that the a7e has lost its te*+er in a ire or that the srcinal o"is6very the hard ile slides a&rossla*inated the edge,edge as i has overbeen glass,ground the edge and brittle" )his &an be a&&e+table, but shar+ening %ill be tedious, and you;ll have to %at&h out or &hi++ing" 6n sele&ting a singlebevel a7e, be sure that the lat side o the blade looks straight %hen e7a*ined verti&ally" =oriFontally, the inner side should take a slight &onve7 bo%, so that the blade &orners %on;t dig into the %ood being he%ed" )he &urve &an rise 11< to 81< in&h, de+ending on the length o the blade" )he edge, %hen vie%ing the +roile o the blade, should also a++ear &urved, rising 1 to 8 in&h ro* the &enter to the &orners" &&asionally, the eye is oset ro* the +lane o the blade" )his hel+s to &reate knu&kle &learan&e %hen he%ing lat sura&es" !sually the handle o a broad a7e bends a%ay ro* the blade at the reEuired angle" AdFes are also *ade %ith long and short handles and %ith dierent bevels" )he handle o a foot adDe is about 80 in&hes long, thebeing tool is used %hile straddling or standing on theand %ood 68 Green Woodworking
Shar&ening Shar+ening an a7e or adFe involves the sa*e ste+s3 sha+ing, honing, and +olishing3as knie shar+ening" A7e and adFe blades are larger, and they are oten *ade ro* soter steel" Hou *ay ind yoursel restoring an antiEue or *odiying so*ething that;s available" Sha+ing oten in&ludes deining ne% bevels and re*oving ni&ks and rust +its" )he straight inner side o a broad a7e *ay reEuire lattening3not an easy +ro>e&t" @inor sha+ing &an oten be done %ith a *ill ile" But serious reurbishing *ay &all or using abrasive *a&hines, su&h as a ben&h grinder or a belt sander" Al%ays &areully study the &oniguration o a tool beore grinding3it;s so*eti*es te*+ting to start grinding beore being sure %hat to do" !nderstand why a tool is &onigured as it is beore you &hange the sha+e" :hen you use +o%er abrasives, be sure to ollo% the re&o**ended saety +ro&edures" (ye +rote&tion is a ne&essity"
Po%er grinding &arrie s the risk o overheating *etal, &ausing a loss o te*+er" A ty+i&al %ood%orking tool blade is te*+ered bet%ee n 8.5O and 00O?" )hat;s not very hot higher te*+eratures are easily &reated by grinding ri&tion and %ill drasti&ally soten tool steel" )e*+eratures &an get out o hand unnoti&ed" At 500O?, tool steel turns blue and loses te*+er" Anyone %ho uses a ben&h grinder has e7+erien&ed this" :hen an edge turns blue, the only re*edy, short o rehardening and rete*+ering, is to grind o the entire area" =eat al%ays *oves to%ard &old" :hen you grind, heat *igrates a%ay ro* the area being abraded" =ot s+ots tend to o&&ur as an edge gets thinner and in &orners %here heat is tra++ed" Coarse abrasives &ut *ore Eui&kly and &oolly than iner abrasives" /laFed grinding %heels and abrasive belts &ontain ine *etalli& debris bet%een the abrasive +arti&les" )hey &ut slo%ly and generate e7&essive heat" /rinding %heels should be dressed reEuently" :hite or green %heels o vitriied alu*inu* o7ide &ut *ore &oolly than the *ore &o**on gray sili&on &arbide %heels" :hite and green %heels &ost *ore and %ear *ore Eui&kly, but are %orth the invest*ent" =eat buildu+ &an be *ini*iFed by slo%ing do%n the s+eed o the abrasive" n beltdriven eEui+*ent, you &an generally &hange +ulley siFes" Belt sanders run &onsiderably *ore &oolly than +o%ered grinding %heels" =and&ranked grinders %ith a 22tol gear ratio are e7&ellent or deli&ate %ork but la&k the +o%er reEuired or substantial sha+ing" An alternative to grinding %ith a stationary *a&hine is to se&ure the tool in a vise and go at it %ith a handheld oset grinder or a *inibelt sander" S*all +o%er tools are usually +o%ered %ith a universal 4AC$C brushty+ e *otor, %hi&h &an be slo%ed do%n %ith a devi&e &alled a s+eed &ontrol" )his *ethod gives you better visibility o the tool blade" A disadvantage is that you aren;t shielded ro* s+arks, so %ear eye +rote&tion" Al%ays set saety shields and tool guides &areully, and *ake sure that all ad>ust*ent nuts are tight" Beore 6 turn on a grinder, 6 go through a dry run to *ake sure that the blade &an be a&&urately +ositioned as it;s *oved a&ross the abras ive" n&e you start grinding, kee+ the blade *oving at all ti*es" 6 you don;t, the *etal is sure to overheat and lose te*+er" @a&hinists &o**only use a ine %ater *ist as a &ontinuous &oolant during grinding" A *ist syste* isn;t e7+ensive, but it reEuires an air &o*+ressor or
A flat&laded hand adDe 2left3 and a foot adDe 2to%, !enter3 have single &evels on the inner side of the &lades. +ollowing hand adDes 2right and &otto3 should have an eterior &evel.
+o%er" Hou &an a&&o*+lish the sa*e &ooling ee&t by getting a hel+er to s+ray %ater %ith a hand*ister o the sort used or s+raying house+lants" Another *ethod is to i**erse the tool in a bu&ket o %ater as soon as it begins to get hot" !se your ingers as a te*+erature gauge by holding the blade as &lose to the grinding edge as is sae" 6 a blade reEuires a ne% edge +roile, deine it beore sha+ing the bevel by grinding straight a&ross the edge" )his is &alled Eointing. !se light, even +ressure" ?ilesand *ust have ile tang ro* thehandles edge otothe+rote&t tool your +al* ro* the =e%ing <9
being shar+ened" !se iles in the &utting dire&tion only, &utting a%ay ro* your body" $on;t rub ba&k and orth" ?ile teeth should be ke+t &lean" Hou &an *ake a ile &leaner %ith a 12 or 1<+enny &o**on nail" ?ile a lat edge on the nail head then dra% this edge through the ile teeth to groove it to the +attern o the ile being &leaned" @ake a handle or the nail shank by drilling a hole in a +ie&e o hard%ood" 6 you;re using a ben&h stone, be &areul to gri+ it %ell above the lo%er sura&e o the stone so that you %on;t get &ut by the a7e or adFe edge" )he +ro&edure is the sa*e as shar+ening a knie, only u+side do%n you *ove the abrasive instead o the tool" ?ind the &orre&t bevel angle, then rub the stone ba&k and orth until a %ire edge is or*ed" $ress the lat side o a singlebevel a7e beore sha+ing the bevel, and then leave it alone" Start %ith a belt sander, ile, or a &oarse dia*ond ben&h stone" Be sure to *ake &onta&t %ith the area leading to the &utting edge" Hou &ould also take the a7e head to a *a&hine sho+" :hen you get a burr, +rogress to a honing stone3a ine dia*ond3 ollo%ed by a +olishing stone" :hen +olishing the lat side o a singlebevel a7e, be sure to hold the stone lat against the bevel" ?urther %ork on the lat side is unne&essary and oten destru&tive" n a singlebevel a7e, hone the beveled side only on&e the lat side is truly lat, you never hone it" A little +olishing is all that;s ne&essary" n a doublebevel a7e, hone both bevels" Sto+ honing %hen you eel a burr along the ull length o the o++osite side o the bevel" Polish %ith a 000 to 000 %ater stone" :ork at the bevel until you &an eel a *u&h iner burr than the one &reated by the honing stone" )he bevels should shine" n&e your a7e is shar+, *ake a blade guard to +rote&t both the edge and yoursel and others ro* in>ury" Se%n or riveted leather blade guards are best, but 6 oten si*+ly tie a slitted +ie&e o hose over the edge" #$e TechniAues
=e%ing is strenuous, +re&ise, and +otentially dangerous body *e&hani&s is i*+ortant" Hou should %ork with gravity" Begin he%ing %ith a %ide stan&e" 6 you need to lean or%ard, e7tend your let leg 4assu*ing a right handed gri+ so that your &enter o gravity re*ains %ithin the base &reated by your eet" :ork at develo+ing a rhyth*i& a&tion" -estri&t body *ove*ents to one or t%o >oints o 70 Green Woodworking
ea&h ar*" )o save energy, rela7 and i**obiliFe body +arts not involved in the %ork" Avoid %rist *ove*ent" Ben&h a7es are generally used %ith a &ho++ing stu*+ to su++ort the %ork and a&t as a saety sto+" )he stu*+ should be tall enough that you don;t need to lean over it" A stu*+ or he%ing short %ork, su&h as &oo+erage staves, should be taller than one used or he%ing larger *aterials" )he stu*+ *ust be stable" Hou &an *ake a t%olevel stu*+ by &utting a ste+ in the %ork sura&e" )o +revent a +ie&e ro* sli++ing side%ay s %hen you are he%ing, hollo% a groove or shallo% &avity in the to+ o the stu*+" 4Hou &an do this %ith a &hain sa%" Be very &areul to avoid ki&kba&k, using the lo%er ti+ end o the sa% bar only" )he &ho++ing sura&e should be ke+t &lean, sin&e grit %ill dull a shar+ he%ing a7e" An inverted bo7 *akes a good +rote&tor %hen the &ho++ing stu*+ is not in use" =old the %ood being he%ed so that it;s i*+ossible to get &ut" Pla&e the end you are he%ing on the stu*+, and hold on to the +ie&e on the o++osite side o the he%ing" Never let your ingers gri+ the a&e being he%ed" Also take a %ide stan&e, %ith your right leg %ell ba&k and a%ay ro* the +ath o the a7e i it should *iss the %ood being he%ed" Cho+ %ith a verti&al s%ing %henever +ossible" Let gravity %ork or you" ?or angled &uts, tilt the %ood to allo% a verti&al s%ing" )he %ood *ust be %ell su++orted by the stu*+, both so that it &an;t sli+ and to ba&k u+ the or&e o the a7e" Su++ort is +arti&ularly i*+ortant %hen he%ing a thin and deli&ate +ie&e that &ould break" 6t;s so*eti*es &onvenient to su++ort a +ie&e at a horiFontal angle, overhanging the edge o the stu*+" !se the a7e so that it sli&es, rather than trying to &ut +er+endi&ularly to the ibers" :hen he%ing large &hi+s, gras+ the handle to%ard the end or a good s%ing" S%edish %ood%orker Dogge SundEvist sho%ed *e ho% to Gthro%G the a7e" Hou rea&h high above your head, take ai*, and ling the a7e into the %ork3 without releasing your gras% on the handle. )he te&hniEue is ee&tive and not as dii &ult as you *ight i*agine" Be sure to gras+ the %ork a sae distan&e ro* the a7e s%ing, and use a large, solid he%ing stu*+" )o he% a%ay a large a*ount o %ood, *ake a series o diagonal s&oring &uts into the grain, then he% o the %aste in line %ith the ibers" ?or s*all, detailed %ork that reEuires &ontrol, hold the handle &lose to the a7e head" Pla&e your thu*b around the inner side o the eye, and e7tend
'owls and s%oons !arved &y 1rew 0angsner, e!e%t the serving s%oon on the left, whi!h was !arved &y Wille Sund>uist
your inde7 inger a&ross the outer side" !se a short, deliberate &ho++ing a&tion" Hou &an also use a ben&h a7e as a giant &hisel" Position the blade on the %ood, then +ress do%n hard %ith your ull body %eight" )his &an be ee&tive to%ard the end o a he%ing >ob, %hen you don;t %ant &ho+ *arks to sho%" Be sure to have the %ork saely and se&urely held"
#d%e TechniAues Posture is +arti&ularly i*+ortant %hen using an adFe" Stand dire&tly over the %ork or as &lose to it as +ossible, so that you don;t have to rea&h out ar ro* your body" Short hand adFes &an be used %ith one or t%o hands" 6 generally use both hands, gri++ed &lose together on the handle" A variation is to gras+ the adFe %ith your right hand, then gri+ your right %rist %ith your let hand or added strength" )o &ontrol both de+th o &ut and the ar& o the adFe, +ress your elbo%s against your torso or thighs so that your lo%er ar*s s%ing in a &onstant radius" As %ith all other hand tools, adFes &ut %ith or a&ross grain, but not against it"
)he hollo%ing adFe *ust have a &urved edge %hen vie%ed in se&tion and an e7terior bevel 4one on the outside o the &urve" So*e hollo%ing adFes that 6;ve seen have an interior bevel and a +oll" As sold, they;re useless or hollo%ing" 6 bought one, ground o the srcinal interior bevel, sha+ed an e7terior bevel, and ha&ksa%ed o the +oll sin&e the adFe elt too heavy" )he tool %orks Euite %ell, but 6 had to add to the &ost o this adFe a *orning;s labor and hal a grindstone" 6t;s %orth inding 4and +aying or a really good adFe that %ill do the >ob as intended" /aterials. )he ty+e o %ood you &hoose de+ends on the use your bo%l %ill be +ut to" !sually, large bo%ls are he%ed ro* sot %oods, but *any &arved bo%ls have been *ade ro* %alnut and other hard%oods, in&luding burls" 6n S%eden, he%n troughs are generally +a+er bir&h" A&tually, bo%ls &an be he%ed ro* al*ost anything ree o knots" ?or hel+ in &hoosing a %ood, reer to the tables GCo*+arative =ardness and SotnessG and GCo*+arative ?reedo* ro* dor and )aste :hen $ryG in &ha+ter 8" Bo%ls that &onta&t ood *ust be *ade %ith a %ood that doesn;t i*+art an odor or taste" Linden, yello% +o+lar, and bu&keye are traditional &hoi&es" Catal+a and butternut &an also be used" 6 re&ently sa% an advertise*ent or dough bo%ls *ade ro* %ater tu+elo, guaranteed not to s+lit" 6 haven;t tried %ater tu+elo, but it should be ni&e to %ork green" :ater tu+elo gro%s in river and &oastal s%a*+s ro* Jirginia to )e7as"
,ro!ect: Hewing a "arge Bowl Tools. )o he% a large bo%l, you use a ben&h a7e, hol
lo%ing adFe, gouges, and +ossibly a +lane, dra%knie, and s+okeshave" 'ewing 71
1iension and %ro%ortions for a ty%i!al hewed and adDed &owl
3riginal Contour of "og 9 ?+9?9?Diaeter
S&lit ,ith
78
5/8"
8/+/
/+99/
=/+E/
98/+9;/
10G12G
)he design o a he%ed bo%l &an take *any sha+es, but there are basi& guidelines that enhan&e a++earan&e %hile strengthening the bo%l and lessening &han&es o &he&king" @ost bo%ls are taken length%ise ro* a log that has been s+lit in hal" Also, it is easier to *ake a shallo% bo%l %ith gradually slo+ed sides and a rounded interior botto* than one %ith stee+ sides and ends" @ost traditional &arved bo%ls are sy**etri&al, but asy**etri& sha+es &an also be attra&tive" @ost oten, bo%l &arvers begin by he%ing the e7terior, based on an idea that they have better &ontrol or &an *ake *ore interesting or*s than i they started by hollo%ing" 6 +reer to hollo% the &avity irst and %ill des&ribe that *ethod" Hou need a log se&tion %ithout any end &he&ks" )he dia*eter should be slightly greater than the %idth o the bo%l" )he de+th %ill be so*ething less than the radius" A bo%l that;s about 15 in&hes long and in&hes %ide *akes an e7&ellent starting +ro>e&t"
Cross&ut the log slightly longer than the inished bo%l" Avoid knots and &he&ks" )o s+lit the log in hal, stand it on end, +la&e a %ide a7e blade a&ross the +ith, and strike the a7e +oll %ith a %ooden &lub" 4Never strike the a7e +oll %ith an iron sledge or *aul" )he irst ste+ is to he% a lat botto*" Su++ort the s+lit edge o the log hal on your &ho++ing stu*+" )ilt about 20O ro* verti&al" Cho+ a series o s&oring &uts" )hen he% the botto* as lat as +ossible, eyeballing it ro* end to end at a lo% angle" At this stage, the botto* e7tends the ull length o the log" Ater he%ing, inish lattening the botto* %ith a +lane" A >a&k +lane %ith a slightly &onve7 blade is ideal" Ne7t, use the a7e to rough out the ri*" =e% the ri* belo% the +ith i the +ith %ere to stay, the bo%l %ill &ra&k as it dries" !se the sa*e he%ing +ro&edure, starting %ith s&oring &uts" )he ri* at this stage is usually +arallel to the +lane o the botto*" $on;t be ussy, sin&e the ri* is easy to inish on&e the &avity is hollo%ed" 72 Green Woodworking
!sing a elt *arker or a sot +en&il, outline the inner and outer edges o the ri*" )he sides should be thinner than the ends, %hi&h are *u&h %eaker end grain" )y+i&al thi&knesses are 5 in&h or the sides and 1 in&h or the ends" (7tended handles %ill *ake the ends longer" )o adFe the &avity, +la&e the bo%l on the loor or on a sturdy lo% ben&h" Se&ure it %ith end &leats or +egs, and a tightening %edge" 6 you &an;t +ut nails in the loor, nail the &leats to a +ie&e o +ly%ood that;s %ide enough to stand on" :hen 6 use a shorthandled adFe or s&oo+ing or lattening, 6 like to stand dire&tly over the %ork %ith *y legs bent" )o su++ort *y ba&k, 6 +ro+ both elbo%s against *y thighs" 6 s%ing the adFe %ith *y lo%er ar*s" )he radius o *y s%ing is sae and easy to &ontrol, sin&e both ar*s +ivot ro* *y i7ed elbo%s" Start adFing >ust +ast the &enter and &ho+ to%ard the near end" At irst, adFe >ust a e% &entral &uts" )hen, turn yoursel3or the bo%l3around, and &ho+ ro* the other dire&tion to%ard the srcinal &uts" 6n&rease the siFe o the hollo% by %orking ro* both ends to%ard the &enter" $on;t adFe &lose to the sides or ends until you have a good eeling o &ontrol and o ho% the &hi+s &o*e o" Che&k the de+th %ith a ruler set against a sti&k +la&ed a&ross the ri*" A &onservative adFed botto* thi&kne ss is 8 in&h" AdFe the interior as ni&ely as +ossible, be&ause subseEuent gouge%ork %ill be *u&h easier to a&&o*+lish"
+ollowing a trough ade fro &u!keye. The sall, tightly !urved adDe is fro Sweden. Note the gras%.
?inish the interior %ith the bo%l se&ured to a %orkben&h or a lo% ben&h" !se large &la*+s or a &leat and%edge holding syste*" )he bo%l gouges that 6 use *ost oten are a Q s%ee+ 85** bent gouge and a Q8 s%ee+ 20** straight gouge " 6 also like a Q5 s%ee+ 85** bent gouge and a s+e&ial dog leg gouge or &leaning the botto*, %hi&h is a bit tri&ky"
5ogge Sund>vist. +ollowing is finished with large gouges &efore the eterior is hewed.
'ewing 73
?or gouge%ork, 6 start using a *allet and then s%it&h to using >ust body +ressure" =old gouges %ith both hands" Position your let thu*b or ingers inside the lute, about A sra!er is a !iee o( saw stee" with %inute hook) 12 in&h above the edge o the blade" !se the large *us&les sha!ed &urrs on the edges that s%ooth wood A o your u++er ar*s and the %eight o your u++er torso" o%%on siBe is a 3)&,)5)inh retang"e# &ut other Be&ause o grain dire&tion, *ost gouge%ork starts at siBes and sha!es are avai"a&"e# in"uding urved the ri* and +rogresses do%n%ard to%ard the botto*" sra!ers /@ou an %ake a sra!er o( an, sha!e (ro% $eined interior &orners at the sides and botto* &an be the &"ade o( ano"d hand saw ro!er", shar!ened# attra&tive, but a gently rounded interior is easier to *ake" a sra!er wi"" re%ove tissue)thin shavings A sra!er )he botto* o the bo%l is the *ost dii&ult area to s*ooth has severa" advantages over sand!a!erI =t takes an be&ause grain stru&ture &onverges there ro* all dire&tions" even shaving# !rodues no sanding dust# doesn;t Muit %hen you eel that the &avity is about 95 +er&ent ause grit to &e e%&edded in the wood# and is &o*+lete" Hou;ll do the inal gouge%ork and s&ra+ing or ine*!ensive to use sanding ater the e7terior is sha+ed and the bo%l has dried" =t;s ,our Ho&to !ut &urrs on,our sra!er he =e% the e7terior at a &ho++ing stu*+" Any shar+ &urr is "oated where an edge and a side o%e ben&h a7e &an be used, but a s*all broad hat&het is aster together h is intersetion is a""ed anarris.@ou an and easier to use than *ost doublebevel hat&hets" )ilt the !ut one or two &urrs on an, edge bo%l as needed to take a verti&al s%ing %ith the a7e" =e% First# s>uare the edge with a %i"" (i"e ut the o the &orners irst, then sha+e the sides" =e%ing the ends sra!er in a vise so that an inh o( it e*tends a&ove is the *ost dii&ult +art" =old your hat&het so that it takes the vise Haws "ae the (i"e "engthwise a"ong the to! an angled &ut that sli&es a&ross the end ibers" A design edge 'o"d the ("at o( the (i"e !er!endiu"ar to the detail that *akes this easier is a gradual slo+e %ith a sides o( the sra!er ush the (i"e a"ong the edge# verti&al li+ >ust belo% the ri*" then "i(t it# and re!eat the !ush stroke @ou;re done 6t;s i*+ortant to sto+ oten to vie% your he%ing ro* when the edge re("ets "ight as a ("at sur(ae all angles" ee+ in *ind the sha+e that you;re ater" !se he rough arris &urrs aused &, (i"ing %ust &e your thu*b and inge rs to test or unior* thi&kness" re%oved se a ("at# (ine &enh stone 'o"d the -e*e*ber that the ends %ill be thi&ker than the sides" sra!er s"ight", askew on the stone# so that it won;t ?inish the e7terior %ith a s+okeshave, gouge or wear a groove in the sur(ae 'o"d the sra!er !er) dra%knie" ?or a ri++led te7ture3%hi&h is harder to Shar&ening a Scra&er
!endiu"ar to the%ake stone#a and &ak and (ew ti%es hen (ew ru& "ightit !asses on(orth the a sides o( the sra!er he sra!ing &urr is %ade with a &urnisher# whih an &e an, !iee o( round stee" that;s s%ooth and harder than the sra!er &"ade @ou an &u, a &urnisher# &ut a hise" &"ade or srewdriver shank works Hust as we"" ut the sra!er &ak in the vise A dro! o( oi" he"!s the &urnishing 'o"d the &urnisher with &oth hands ower the &urnisher aross the sra!er edge i"t it a&out 7 (ro% horiBonta" u& the &urnisher a"ong the edge o( the sra!er three or (our ti%es @ou shou"d now &e a&"e to (ee" the &urr a"ong the arris @ou a"so an %ake a seond &urr &, &urnishing the other arris o( the edge o use the sra!er# ti! it a&out 10 (ro% vertia" ush or !u"" the sra!er toward ,ourse"( When sra!ing a ("at &ow thean &"ade s"ight", so that it u!s intosur(ae# the wood @ou re)&urnish severa" ti%es &e(ore going &ak to s>uaring the edge with the (i"e
74 Green Woodworking
a&hieve than a s*ooth sura&e3use a gouge %ith a shallo% s%ee+" Leaving attra&tive, even tool *arks reEuires very shar+ tools and &onsiderable +ra&ti&e" Sha+e the ri* %ith a dra%knie or a s+okeshave" bserve the bo%l ro* the +roile and end vie%s the ri* &an be lat or dished at the sides" :hen the ri* is inished, you *ay %ant to do *ore gouge%ork on the interior" 6 the %ood is still %et, allo% it to dry beore doing the inal sura&ing" Care is ne&essary to +revent &ra&king as the bo%l dries out" $rying should be as slo% as +ossible" An old S%edish *ethod is to rub the interior and e7terior end grain %ith a boiled +otato" Another is to dry inished %ork in a +ile or bo7 o shavings" A &onte*+orary eEuivalent is a sealed +lasti& bag" )o slo%ly lo%er the *oisture, air the bo%l or an hour on&e or t%i&e a day, turn the bag inside out, and +ut the bo%l ba&k inside"
)hin bo%ls are less likely to &ra&k than thi&ker ones" ne reason is that there is less *oisture dieren&e bet%een internal and sura&e %ood" Stresses tend to &ause thin bo%ls to %ar+ or &hange sha+e, rather than &ra&k" n&e the %ood is dry, inal sura&ing is done %ith sand+a+er or a s&ra+er" Sanding sot%oods is ee&tive in any dire&tion to the grain" S&ra+ers *ust be used %ith the grain, or you;ll get iber
tearout" Hou &an buy a &urved s&ra+er or the interior or *ake one ro* the blade o an old hand sa%" $ry bo%ls are usually given an oil inish" )he *ost &o**on traditional inish uses linseed oil3 %hi&h &an &ontain to7i& additives" -e&ently, *any bo%l &arvers have been using ood grade %alnut oil" Saturate the %ood" 6 the oil is thinned by %ar*ing, it %ill +enetrate better"
Using a iking ae to hew the ri 'ewing 75
C.APT$" 1I2
"i!ing @ost green%ood &rats begin by dividing ra% *aterials3 logs, li*bs, bark, or roots3into s*aller, *ore %orkable di*ensions" :ood is generally &ross&ut to length %ith a sa% )hen, or division in %idth or thi&kness, green
riving" Muality *aterial is i*+ortant" :ood *ust be straight gro%ing and ree o knots and other dee&ts" As a &lue, bark urro%s should be straight, not s+iraled or bu*+y" :henever +ossible, %ood or riving should be
%ood%orkers +ut a%ay their sa%s and get do%n to the serious business o riving -iving3also kno%n as !leaving3is a *ethod o s+litting %ood that allo%s you to a&&urately &ontrol the +ro&ess" )he basi& idea is si*+le" As %ith the bundle o stra%s, dividing %ood ibers into bun&hes is easier than &utting a&ross the*" :hy rive %ood %ith s%eat and *us&le, %hen +o%er sa%s &an ri+ *aterials to any +re&ise di*ension )he ans%er is that rived %ood is al%ays stronger than sa%ed %ood be&ause it ollo%s the &ellul ar stru&ture o the *aterial" )his is es+e&ially benei&ial i the %ood is to be bent" Also, be&ause rived %ood ollo%s &ell boundaries, it resists %eathering and has su+erior de&ay resistan&e" -iving isn;t a grueling >ob" ?or *e, &leaving %ood is a >oy and al%ays an adventure" 6n the best &ases, riving is very +re&ise, yielding e7a&tly %hat;s %anted and %ith very little %aste" But you never kno% ho% a +ie&e o %ood %ill
green3that is, saturated %ith %ater" ?or *ore details on sele&ting %oods, reer to &ha+ter 8" @any ring+orous hard%oods &leave easily and +redi&tably" )hese are de&iduous trees %hi&h gro% %ith distin&t annual rings that &learly deine early gro%th ro* late gro%th" )hey in&lude *ost oaks, hi&kory, ash, lo&ust, osage orange, and ha&kberry" :hite oak is the avored &leaving %ood o *any green %ood%orkers" ne ring +orous hard%ood that resists s+litting is el*" )%o diuse +orous hard%oods that should be reserved or uses in %hi&h resistan&e to s+litting is advantageous are bla&k gu* and hornbea*" :hen you start riving, you;ll Eui&kly learn that so*e s+e&ies &leave easily +arallel to the rays" A e% s+e&ies, su&h as ash, rive tangent to the gro% th rings, but not radially" Straightgrained hi&kory %ill so*eti*es rive %ith +ere&t &ontrol irres+e&tive o the gro%th rings or the rays" )he *ost in&redible riving %oods native to North
&leave until you;re into it" $e+ending on *aterial and your skill, riving %aste &an vary ro* al*ost Euality nothing to &onsiderably *ore than that o &onventional sa%ing" =idden knots, %eak grain stru&ture, une7+e&te d de&ay, unusual iber +atterns, and t%isted gro%th are a e% o the sur+rises that *ay sura&e even i *aterial is &areully sele&ted" 6;ve been riving %ood or 22 years, but 6;* &hallenged by every ne% +ie&e o %ood" Sin&e %ood &leaves into natural divisions, lat +lanes and straight lines don;t e7ist" 6 &let %ood or a +otential &hair rung takes a &urve, it;s either re>e&ted or a&&e+ted, but not straightened out" By taking advantage o natural variations, you &an *ake so*ething stronger and *ore interesting than a +ie&e o *a&hinesha+ed %ood"
A*eri&a the APa&ii& and yello% o any the north%estare &oast" +ri*ered s+e&i*en %ill &edar &leaves in +lane, regardless o gro%thring orientation" Beore the introdu&tion o (uro+ean tools, Native A*eri&an %ood%orkers %ere s+litting 2in&hthi&k &edar +lanks 2 to 8 eet %ide and u+ to 800 eet long"
Materials Although *ost hard%oods and sot%oods &an be s+lit, *any s+e&ies are not suitable or &ontrolled 76 Green Woodworking
Tools 6 green %ood%orkers %ere to ado+t a tool to sy*boliFe their &rat, they %ould +robably &hoose the roe" )his %onderul tool is a &o*bination o %edge and lever" 6t &onsists o a straight, doublebevel blade astened at a right angle to a %ooden handle to des&ribe an GL"G A roe &an be a&tory*ade, or &rated by a lo&al bla&ks*ith or %elder" S+litting &lubs, gluts, and a &rake are usually ho*e*ade" 6ron %edges, a sledgeha**er or s+litting *aul, and a +olled a7e are available at any
good hard%are store" Sa+lings, li*bs, and roots are so*eti*es rived %ith a s*all hunting knie or a short handled brush hook &alled a &illhook. )he s+litting *aul or sledgeha**er is used to drive iron %edges and gluts 4%ooden %edges" A s+litting *aul is a sledge %hose head has a striking sura&e and a s+litting sura&e" )he s+litting end &an be used or rough s+litting %ithout %edges, but a&&ura&y is i*+ortant or *ost o our %ork, so %ell use %edges" )he heads o *auls and sledges &o*e in %eights ro* < to 1< +ounds" A 10+ounder is a heavyduty tool +ounds should be adeEuate or *ost &rat +ur+oses" /reen %ood%orkers use several ty+es o %edges" ?elling %edges are *ade or inserting behind a sa% blade so that the ker &an;t &lose during elling or bu&king logs" ?elling %edges are usually %ide, thin, and an sha+ed" ld ashioned ones, or use %ith a t%o*an &ross&ut sa%, %ere *ade o *alleable iron" )heir sha+e *akes the* useul or starting to rive a large log" Plasti& elling %edges are *ade or use %ith a &hain sa%" )hey;re ine or sa%ing ti*ber, but not or s+litting" Standard *alleable iron s+litting %edges are a ne&essity or this" Hou need t%o or three" Hou also need a e% %ooden gluts" ?a&tory*ade so&ket %edges, %ith a hollo% steel +oint, a %ooden body, and a ring to +revent s+litting, %ill outlast *any %ooden gluts" But 6 *ake *y gluts and dis&ard the* %hen they bust a+art" An a7e is needed to sever &ross ibers that o&&asionally &onne&t the se&tions o a s+lit" 6n &ha+ter , %e used a +olled a7e as a %edge to s+lit blanks or s+oon &arving, and a %ooden *aul to strike the +oll" Never hit an ae %oll with a sledge or godevil. Also, never use an ae %oll to strike an iron wedge. A7e heads are not designed to be hit
by steel or iron tools" )hey;ll *ushroo* and *ay &ra&k *ore i*+ortant, there is a danger o lying *etalli& &hi+s" Hou need t%o %ooden &lubs' a big one or s+litting %ith a +olled a7e and a s*aller version or hitting the roe" An e7&ellent &lub &an be *ade ro* the root &luster o a hard%ood sa+ling" Hou &an also use a hard%ood li*b or a sa+ling that &ontains a &luster o knots" =i&kory, oak, bee&h, dog%ood, and hornbea* are e7&ellent" Sin&e it resists s+litting, +ersi**on is highly valued or *aking &lubs, but sin&e it is a *ediu* %eight %ood, it &an;t be used or heavy %ork" )he big &lub &an be about 80 in&hes long, %ith a dry %eight o about 10 +ounds" :hen ashioning the &lub ro* green %ood, *ake it about t%i&e as heavy
A Northwest "oast 8ndian &o ade fro rived yellow !edar. The sides are a single %lank whi!h is kerfed at the !orners, then steaed and folded. The fourth !orner and the &otto &oard are se!ured with angled %egs.
as you need" )he s*aller roe &lub should be narro%, so that the roe blade &an be +ounded bet%een the roe handle and the %ood being rived ater the blade has started a s+lit" )he head o a roe &lub is roughly 812 in&hes %ide and in&hes long" )he overall length should be about 1< in&hes" A &rake is a holding >ig that e7erts &ounter +ressure against o++osite sides o a +ie&e o %ood during riving" 6t;s ty+i&ally nothing *ore than t%o roughly +arallel *e*bers, bet%een %hi&h the *aterial is >a**ed" )he t%o *e*bers &an be s+layed slightly to a&&o**odate +ie&es o dierent di*ensions" A very good brake &an be *ade ro* a narro% tree &rot&h" )he lo%er ste* end is rested on a log stu*+" )he t%o bran&hes are su++orted by t%o stout sti&ks that are inserted through the &rot&h ro* o++osite sides" (a&h sti&k +asses under the &lose bran&h and over the ar bran&h" As one old ti*er intervie%ed by the ?o7ire Pro>e&t 4see &ha+ ter 2 &o**ented, the &rossing sti&ks hold the ork u+ by G%orking &ontrary to ea&h other"G Brakes are oten i*+rovised" 6 so*eti*es use *y ben&h vise as a light duty brake" )he >a%s are set loosely" :hen riving %ood in the barn, 6;ve used the ra*e%ork o a tra&tor i*+le*ent " ?or s+litting shingl es, 6 have a s*all brake *ade ro* s&ra+ lu*ber nailed to a big stu*+ it;s ni&e to use be&ause the stu*+ +rovides a resting sura&e or the short +ie&es o %ood" iving 77
Wedges 2left to right3 A :B:%ound s%litting wedge with a &adly ushrooed head 2this wedge is dangerous and should not &e used unless re%aired striking the head with an iron aul or sledge !ould result in flying etalli! !hi%s3 a ;%ound s%litting wedge a thin felling wedge that 8 like to use for starting a s%lit in end grain a hi!kory glut.
The large !lu&, hewed fro the root node of a dogwood, is used to strike the %oll of a single&it ae. The sall !lu&, ade fro a knotty hi!kory sa%ling, is used with a froe.
78 Green Woodworking
12)16 We"d
1G12G
3)-(4)-
1 14)2
F"at Washers 30 ag +o"t
)e!oended froe diensions. The eye is a %ie!e of %i%e welded to the ild steel &lade. Traditional froes were ade fro a single %ie!e of sto!k. The eye was sha%ed on one end and forgewelded to the &lade.
iving 79
Making a 4roe he traditiona" (roe &"ade is a ("at !iee o( stee" &ar stok# with an e,e at one end (a&riated &, &end) ing a "oo! and (orge)we"ding it &ak against the &"ade A onte%!orar, %ethod o( %aking the e,e is to we"d a short !iee o(!i!e to one end o( a %i"d stee" &ar @ou an &u, a (ator,)%ade (roe# &ut the ones =;ve seen re>uire so%e %odi(iation to &e usa&"e A we"der or he &"aks%ith an %ake ,our re>uire%ents di%en sions that = giveone an to a"so &e used to %odi(, a (ator,)%ade (roe he &"ade an &e o%%on %i"d stee"Dhigh ar&on too" stee" isn;t re>uired he &"ade shou"d &e 1)14 to 2 inhes wide# 8 to 12 inhes "ong# and 14 to 38 inh thik he &eve"s are sha!ed with a grinder &e(ore the e,eis we"ded he en"osed &eve" ang"e shou"d &e a&out 30 n"ike true edge too"s# the (roe has its &eve"s eased into the sides o( the &"ade. that is# don;t de(ine the% Fi"e or grinder shar!ening is ade>uate o %ini%iBe wear on the (roe "u&# round o(( the striking sur(ae a"ong the &ak edge o( the &"ade he inner dia%eter o( the e,e shou"d &e 1) 14 to 1)12 inhes =( the e,e is we"ded# use &"ak !i!e# not ga"vaniBed A (roe hand"e an &e %ade (ro% an, straight) grained# tough hardwood he "ength shou"d &e a&out 50 !erent "onger than the &"ade =( ,ou sha!e the hand"e (ro% green wood# &e sure to dr, it /so that itshrinks &e(ore (itting one end to the &"ade soket he gras!ing setion an take an, sha!e# &ut there %ust &e a s%a"" shou"der at the &usiness end to sto! the &"ade (ro% %igrating u!ward o%e o"d (roes were %ade with a ta!ered soket# "ike that on a %attok# and the hand"e was shaved to (it euring the hand"e to a (roe &"ade soket has aused grie( (or %ore than one wou"d)&e green woodworker he (roe &"ade is hit down) ward# &ut it reats to resistane &, %oving u!ward he shou"der on the hand"e sto!s this %ove%ent +ut wedges wi"" not !revent the &"ade (ro% "oosening and (a""ing o(( the end =nstead o( using a wedge# = seure the &"ade with a "ag &o"t and two or three staked washers he "argest washer draws against the e,e o( the (roe &"ade +ore the "ag &o"t ho"e 116 inh s%a""er than the "ag &o"t dia%eter
80 Green Woodworking
Riving TechniAues Several rules or* the basis o all riving te&hniEues" )he +ro&ess is essentially one o al%ays s+litting the *ass in hal" ?irst, lo&ating a s+lit %ith even internal +ressure on both sides is &riti&al, es+e&ially %hen riving narro% %idths %ith a roe" 6 one hal o the s+lit is narro%er, it has less resistan&e, %hi&h tends to &ause a s+lit to GrunG urther to%ard the narro %er side" (ven side +ressure isn;t as i*+ortant %hen s+litting large se&tions o logs" )he se&ond rule is that you *ust ollo% through %ith
ea&h s+lit" the 6 a roe +ie&eo o &enter, %ood has an in&i+ient i you strike inish riving it" &ra&k, 6gnoreorthis rule and you;ll o+en t%o s+lits si*ultaneously" )he results are loss o &ontrol and %asted *aterial" )he third rule isn;t as i*+ortant, but it;s a good one to ollo%" Al%ays rive as &lose to the inished di*ensions as +ossible" Close riving *ini*iFes ti*e s+ent shaving or he%ing" -iving is the astest %ay to bring *aterials to usable di*ensions" 6n deter*ining the %idth o rived *aterials, you need to strike a balan&e bet%een riving &lose to inished di*ensions and the +ossibility o une7+e&ted runout resulting in %asted *aterials" (7+erien&e hel+s in *aking the de&is ion, but there is al%ays an ele*ent o &han&e" Beore you start riving, you;ll +robably have to do so*e *easuring and +ossibly &ross&ut *aterial %ith a sa% to a++ro+riate lengths" :ith irst&lass *aterial, you &an &ross&ut very &lose to the inal length" 6 there is any Euestion %ood allo% so*eoe7tra length Hou in &ase you about %ant to shitEuality, the inal lo&ation the +ie&e" &an also rive a log into halves and Euarters beore &ross&utting so you &an see %hat it;s like inside" 46 the log is dirty, use an a7e to re*ove the bark at the &ross&uts beore beginning to sa%" $o so*e +lanning beore starting a s+lit" !sually, there are several +ossibilities" -iving ty+i&ally begins %ith a +rogression o +iesha+ed radial s+lits" $ivisions tangent to the gro%th rings are &o**only *ade later in the +ro&ess" :ood that s+lits very true &an so*eti*es be &leaved in a grid +attern" )he advantage o a grid is that there;s less %aste in &o*+arison, the triangular and tra+e Foidal sha+es o radial s+lits oten reEuire *ore shaving" Slabs ro* &ertain %oods, su&h as &edar and &y+ress, &an be &leaved in series ro* one side o a log that is irst rived into a sEuare &ross se&tion" -iving by division in hal isn;t ne&essary %ith &edar and &y+ress"
+ewing the handle of a sall root !lu&. The edge of the !ho%%ing stu% is dire!tly &elow the ae &lade.
Making Clu's and Gluts =( ,ou;re using a root# dogwood is a good hoie# &eause its root deve"o!s (ro% a "u%! with %an, radia"s knott, he knots %ake the head !artiu"ar", dura&"e -ost other trees grow dee! ta!roots# whih are tough &ut %ore "ike", to s!"it An a"ternative is a trunk or "i%& with a "ear setion (or the hand"e and a "uster o( two or three knots (or the head end A !a ir o( "u&sand severa" g"uts an&e %ade (ro% the trunko( a sing"esa!"ing %ake a rootsha!e "u&# (e"" sa!"ing 3 (eet "eve" out not the too root(ond "u%! %attok Wash ando sru& it hen andthe s%ooth thea&out root with ana&ove a*e orground hathet that ig ,ou@e o( with Grit a e%&edded in the root wi"" ruin a good edge o (or% the hand"e# hew a wide P around the iru%(erene Hust &e"ow what is to &e the head /@ou an a"so use a saw to ut a iru"ar ker( ive o(( or hew %ost o( the waste to (or% the hand"e +e are(u" not to hew or "eave dee!er than the &otto% o( the hewed P ring se a drawkni(e to (inish sha!ing the hand"e A""ow the "u& to season in an air, shed &e(ore using itDi( !ossi&"e# (or a (u"" ,ear or "onger +eause the "u& is sha!ed around the !ith# it &ui"ds u! onsidera&"e interna" stresses as it dries and shrinks o %ini%iBe heking# dr, the "u& s"ow", /"ike the wooden &ow" in ha!ter 5 And don;t store it in a dr,# heated environ%ent Another ti! is to %ake the hand"e a&out a (oot "onger than ,ou;"" need it A(ter seasoning# tri% o(( the end# a"ong with an, heks that %ight have (or%ed @ou an a"so s"ow dr,ing &, oating the entire head with !aint or end grain sea"ant G"uts are usua"", 2)12 to 3)12 inhes in dia%eter and 10 to 12 inhes "ong he wedge sha!e is (or%ed &, hewing two onverging sides to an en"osed ang"e o( a&out 20Drough", 8)or 9)inh sides (or a 3)inh)dia%e ter g"ut he &otto% 12 inh %ust &e &"unter# sha!ed to an en"osed ang"e o( around 60 o %ini%iBe da%age (ro% %au" &"ows# &eve" the edge around the striking end A"though g"uts are usua"", %ade (ro% "i%&s or sa!"ings# ,ou an a"so rive retangu"ar g"ut &"anks that don;t in"ude !ith wood Whi"e %aking a g"ut# the round# ta!ered sha!e doesn;t give ,ou %uh to ho"d in a vise# a shaving horse# or &, hand on;t saw g"ut %ateria" to the "ength o( individua" g"uts unti" the,;re (inished =nstead# %ake the% in a series (ro% a sa!"ing severa" (eet "ong G"uts an &e hewed with a &enh a*e# then dressed with a drawkni(e =;ve a"so %ade g"uts >uik", with a &and saw he ang"ed sides %ust &e straight =n use# onve* sides tend to !o! "oose. onave g"uts drive in !artwa,# &ut sto! where the wider ang"e &egins to enter the %ateria" ike "u&s# g"uts shou"d &e air)dried &e(ore use
iving 81
Avoid using rived +ie&es that in&lude the +ith and inner*ost gro%th rings" Hou *ay be able to rive good *aterials &lose to the +ith, but in&or+orating the a&tual +ith usually leads to &he&king %hen the %ood dries" 6t;s oten a +oor idea to in&lude sa+%ood and heart%ood in a single +ie&e, be&ause the t%o &ould shrink dierently during dry ing" 6 de&ay is a +otential +roble*, s+lit o all sa+%ood" 4Co*+ared to heart%ood, sa+%ood deteriorates *u&h aster and is *ore sus&e+tible to %oodboring inse&ts" Hou &an dra% on %et %ood %ith a %atersoluble +en&il or a elt *arker" @easure %ith a ruler, or >ust *ake a++ro+riate *arks on a +ie&e o s&ra+ %ood" 6 oten ste+ o eEual seg*ents %ith dividers" Begin &leaving by s+litting any e7isting &ra&ks" :ith radial divisions, ollo% the +aths o visually e7+osed ray &ells" ?or riving &ontrol and *ini*al %aste, try to %ork out divisions that &an be halved" )o rive a log, you;ll need the bigger tools' a sledge ha**er, iron %edges, gluts, and an a7e or hat&het" 6 the log is a big one and you &an;t trans+ort it, &onsider &leaving it %here it lies" 6 you &an avoid skidding the log, it stays &lean" 46n&identally, +aint a broad red or orange blaFe on tools used in the %oods" Leaves and dirt *ake a ine &a*oulage"
Logs under 8 eet long &an be set on end or riving" An advantage is that you &an +ound straight do%n, %ith gravity" Also, the ground resists the +ounding or&e, and the log %on;t *ove" Longer logs are rived horiFontally" 6t;s oten said that you should begin riving ro* the s*aller, or u++er, end o a log, but in *y o+inion there;s no dieren&e" Let;s i*agine that %e have a log that;s 12 in&hes in dia*eter and < eet long" All o the initial s+lits %ill be radial" !se body *e&hani&s %hile s+litting %ith a heavy *aul" )o *ini*iFe ba&k stress, align your &enter o gravity over the base o your legs" ?or a&&ura&y in s%inging the *aul, straddle the log and s%ing the *aul bet%een your legs" Sin!e you*ll &e hitting iron wedges with an iron aul, &e sure to wear %rote!tive glasses.
Begin %ith a s+lit into the end grain" Look or an e7isting &ra&k, %hi&h %ill ollo% a ray +lane" 6 the %idth o an e7isting &ra&k is short, you &an lengthen it by s&oring along the ray" !se an iron %edge and the *aul to or* a ro% o endtoend indentations" 6t;s not ne&essary to s&ore very dee+ly" )he i*+a&t ro* driving a %edge into a log lying on the ground %ill *ove the log a%ay ro* you and absorb energy ro* the *aul" )he re*edy is to +la&e the o++osite end against a +ost or other stationary ob>e&t"
a!wood 'eartwood
"ats Waste -nci&ient Crack
osts ungs
S!heati! for riving a :in!h log into !hair %arts, with nu
&ered s%litting se>uen!e. The large &roken !ir !les indi!ate &illets that will &e ade into %osts saller &roken !ir!les indi!ate rung sto!k.
82 Green Woodworking
$rive an iron %edge into the s&ored line" 6 like to start %ith a %ide, thin, elling %edge, but a standard s+litting %edge %ill %ork" Sto+ +ounding %hen the head o the %edge is %ithin 1 in&h o the log" $rive an iron s+litting %edge into the &ra&k on the side o the log" As you do this, the irst %edge should loosen so that it &an be re*oved easily, but you *ay need to hit the sides o the %edge to get it loose" Again3and al%ays3 sto+ +ounding %hen the head o the %edge is %ithin 1 in&h o the log" )o lengthen the &ra&k, lea+rog another s+litting %edge in ront o the +re&eding %edge, and &ontinue to the end o the log" Never %ut your hands inside the %ie!e &eing s%lit, in !ase it should sna% shut.
6n *any instan&es, the log halves %ill still be &onne&ted by a e% interior &onne&ting ibers" !se your gluts to %iden the &ra&k, +la&ing the* %here the log is ree o &ross ibers" :hile the head end o a glut &an take &onsiderable +ounding, the %edge end has no shear strength inter&e+ted &ross ibers %ill s+lit it" Ater re*oving the iron %edges, you &an saely use an a7e or hat&het to sever &onne&ting ibers in the &ra&k" 6 a log still resists division into halves, rotate it 10O and drive in %edges ro* the other side" S+lit the log into Euarters and eighths %ith the sa*e +ro&edure" :henever +ossible, lo&ate s+lits to *ake seg*ents that are eEual in %idth" So*eti*es it *ight see* *ore e&ono*i&al to divide a log into thirds, but this %ould +revent you ro* driving %edges ro* one side o the log through the +ith" 6n s+litting a log, 6 %ould *ake eight rather than nine divisions" $ividing halved logs into thirds oten %orks" &enter riving into thirds is *ore likely to be su&&essul during early +hases o riving, %hen there;s a large a*ount o *ass 4and resistan&e on either side o the &ra&k" (7+erien&e3and observation o ho% %ell a +arti&ular log s+lits3 %ill guide your de&ision" !se the roe, &lub, and brake to rive %ood that;s narro%er than or 5 in&hes" At the brake you &an either rive a round sa+ling or you &an &ontinue &leaving s+lits that are radial or tangential to the gro%th rings" Position the %ood in the brake so that it tilts to%ard your body" 6 you don;t have a brake, +la&e %ood u+right on a &ho++ing stu*+ or dire&tly on the ground" =ere;s %here the key riving rules3eEual division and going %ith any e7isting &ra&k3be&o*e
When s%litting a log, 8 usually &egin &y o%ening an eisting !ra!k often found at either end. 8* using a 7%ound s%litting aul and a ;%ound allea&le iron wedge. When striking iron against iron, always wear %rote!tive glasses or goggles.
&ru&ial" (Eual division *eans eEual *ass, not the halving o a lineal *easure*ent" =old the roe %ith your let hand, %ith the blade horiFontal and dire&ted to the right" Lo&ate the blade over the e7a&t &enter o *ass o the *aterial being rived" :ith the &lub in your right hand, &areully strike the ba&k o the roe blade dire&tly above the *aterial" As you raise and then lo%er the &lub, be sure not to *ove the roe" )his is a &o**on +roble* or beginners" =old the roe blade se&urely in +la&e, e7a&tly %here you %ant it" )he irst blo% %ith the &lub should drive the roe blade into the %ood" 6 it doesn;t, re+eat %ith the blade in the e7a&t sa*e lo&ation" :hen the %idth o the blade is ully inserted, sto+ &lubbing" No% +ull do%n on the roe handle, so that the blade t%ists and e7erts +ressure on the t%o sides o the &ra&k" As the &ra&k o+ens, lo%er the blade dee+er into the &ra&k" 6 the blade is +in&hed too tightly to be lo%ered, lever the roe handle and insert a +ie&e iving 83
To s%lit short sto!k, su!h as !hair %osts, it*s u!h easier to stand the log on end.
o s&ra+ %ood 4but not your hands into the s+rung &ra&k" :ith the &ra&k or&ed o+en by the s&ra+, lo%er the roe, and &ontinue levering until the %ood s+lits in hal" 6 the %ood resists division, don;t strain yoursel in +ulling the roe handle" )he %ood &ould suddenly +o+
This &rake is used to s%lit sto!k fro ; to 6 feet long. 8t !onsists of a forked li& fro a &la!k lo!ust and two short %oles that are %ro%%ed inside the fork.
o+en, and this an in>ury" 6nstead, the %ood3%ith the&ould stu&k&ause roe3on the ground %ith+la&e the roe end +ro++ed on a &ross +ie&e" )hen drive an iron %edge into the side o the s+lit, +arallel to the roe blade" 6 you;re %orking %ith an eighth se&tion, you *ay be at the right di*ension or &leaving tangentially to the gro%th rings" )his &reates an inner triangle and an outer tra+eFoid" )o eEualiFe *ass and side +ressure, +osition the roe so that the triangular se&tion is so*e%hat larger than the tra+eFoidal se&tion" At ti*es you *ay %ant to inluen&e the dire&tion o a s+lit as it develo+s" (ven %hen riving begins at the &enter o *ass, the s+lit *ay run o &enter be&ause o a hidden knot or slightly de&ayed sa+%ood 4%hi&h is %eaker than the heart%ood or be&ause o uneven roe +ressure" )%isted grain also &an &ause a s+lit to %ander" )o alter the riving dire&tion, lever the roe handle to%ard the thi&ker o the t%o se&tions" )his usually reEuires rotating the %ood 10O"
is that the s+lit tends to travel to%ard the %ood ibers &urved do%n%ard under tension by +ressure ro* the roe" :ith e7+erien&e, you &an learn to noti&e and &orre&t uneven side +ressure by eel" ne %orker %ho rived a great a*ount o haFel told =erbert L" (dlin, author o Woodland "rafts in 'ritain 4$evon, (ngland' $avid K Charles, 199, 19., that on&e a &let had been started he &ould kee+ it running %ith his eyes shut" :hen you %ant to tri* a +ie&e o rived %ood to a narro%er %idth, you &an so*eti*es use off!enter riving. )his is *u&h aster than he%ing or shaving %ith a dra%knie" By +ositioning the roe o &enter, you &an be airly sure that the s+lit %ill saely run out to%ard the narro% side" )he *ethod &an be used to s+lit a s*all usable +art, su&h as a &hair rung, ro* a *u&h larger +art, su&h as a +ie&e o +ost %ood that is oversiFed"
)he +rin&i+le behind this te&hniEue
riving isend the %hen ter* 6anuse or starting a se&ond s+lit ro*'a!k the o++osite atte*+ted
84 Green Woodworking
When riving narrow divisions, su!h as !hair slats, %la!e the froe with e>ual ass on ea!h side of the &lade. This &rake was ade of s!ra% lu&er nailed to a large stu%. )iving &u!ket staves with a froe and !lu&
division runs out o &ontrol" 6deally, the t%o o++osing s+lits %ill run together" 6 they don;t, use a hat&het to se+arate the se&tions" 6 you;re *aking &hair rungs or +osts, you;ll *ake both radial and tangential s+lits" Sin&e radial s+lits are oten *ore +redi&table, it;s best to *ake the* irst" )he illustrations o s+litting seEuen&es on +ages 2 and . sho% ty+i&al e7a*+les" Be very &areul in +ositioning the roe or ea&h s+lit" Plan a seEuen&e o ste+s" !se &orre&tive s+litting %hen ne&essary" $on;t be shy about taking so*e risks" By +ushing your li*its, you &an hone your skills, and you *ay get e7tra +ie&es that %ould other%ise be %asted" )he +ro&edure or riving largedia*eter logs into shingles is basi&ally the sa*e" Cross&ut a log se&tion to length and stand it on end" !se a +air o
dividers to ste+ o 812in&h in&re*ents along the &ir&u*erential division bet%een sa+%ood and heart%ood" A 812in&h%ide s+lit divides into eight shingles, ea&h .1< in&h thi&k at the outer edge" 6 the log dia*eter is greater than 2 in&hes, you *ay be able to rive an additional inner ring o shingles" Start ea&h s+lit by s&oring along a ray +lane to the +ith" Pla&e the irst iron %edge about 8 in&hes ro* the edge" Pound in a se&ond %edge a e% in&hes &loser to the +ith until the irst %edge is loosened" -e*ove the irst %edge, then drive a glut in its +la&e" Later, %hen the glut is needed again, it &an be %orked ba&k out by +ounding the sides ro* o++osite dire&tions" :hen you &o*+lete ea&h s+lit, leave the se&tion s standing in their srcinal +osition" $on;t sever &onne&tive &ross ibers until all the 812in&h %ide billets are rived, so they su++ort ea&h other until the +ro&ess is &o*+lete" iving 85
the sa*e as or &leaving %ider +ie&es " -ive radially until s+lits are about 1 in&h %ide" )hen rive o the +ith and inner heart%ood by &leaving tangent to the gro%th rings" -ive the tra+eFoid radially to &reate t%o narro% re&tangular se&tions" Cleave these narro% se&tions in hal tangentially" 6 you;re riving %hite oak, this s+lit should be at the division bet%een sa+%ood and heart%ood" )hese sEuarish se&tions are dressed beore +ro&eeding to *ake the inal s+lits" !se a dra%knie at a shaving horse to &areully shave o the bark" )hen sEuare the sides by shaving on the ray +lane until the %idth o ea&h +ie&e is unior* end"*ade tangent to the gro%th rings" )he ro* inal end s+litstoare !se a s*all roe or a thi&kbladed knie to start &leaving the sEuares" Be sure to divide the *ass e7a&tly in hal" As soon as +ossible, gras+ ea&h halse&tion %ith your ingers and begin to +ull the s+lits a+art *anually" 6 you;re sitting, you &an hold the %ood bet%e en your knees" 6 you;re standing, hold it under one ar*" Corre&t or any tenden&y o runout by +ulling on and bending do%n the thi&ker se&tion" !se a shar+ knie to sever any &ross ibers and to start the inal s+lits" Continue halving s+lits until you rea&h the desired thi&kness" 6 the s+lits are %ider than needed, you &an tri* the* to siFe later %ith a knie, shears, or s*all tin sni+s"
This is what 8 !all off!enter riving. The net s%lit will &e at the division &etween sa%wood and heartwood.
(a&h billet is then rived by halving into eight shingles at a s*all brake like the one sho%n in the +hoto above" ?irst, roe o the sa+%ood, %hi&h de&ays Eui&kly and *ust be dis&arded" ?or shingles, all o these s+lits are radial" Ater s+litting, shingles are edgetri**ed %ith a broad hat&het and s*oothed %ith a dra%knie" ?ine s+lits or baskets and &hair seating are rived ro* sa+lings < to 10 in&hes in dia*eter" :ood Euality *ust be &lose to +ere&t" /ro%th rings should be about 11< in&h thi&k" Narro%er gro%th rings tend to +rodu&e %eak s+lits, and s+lits ro* thi&ker rings are usually too heavy to *ake good %eavers or seating" Sele&t a sa+ling that has gro%n straight, %ith *ini*al ta+er" S&attered +in knots, +rodu&ed by lealets that gro% ro* the trunk sura&e, are oten a&&e+table" :hite oak is the +ri*e *aterial or basket s+lits, but *a+le, hi&kory, and so*e &oniers &an also be used" )he sidebar on +age 9 e7+lains ho% to *ake ash s%lints by +ounding" )he *ethod or riving ine s+lits is essentially 86 Green Woodworking
West irginia &asketaker )a!hel Nash 0aw riving white oak s%lits
Se>uen!e for riving oak shingles. The iniu log diaeter is :7 in!hes. The sa%wood, whi!h de!ays u!h ore >ui!kly than heartwood, ust &e dis!arded. With a good s%e!ien, it*s often %ossi&le to rive &illets for an inner ring of shingles 2indi!ated &y s%lit nu&er 63.
'eartwood a!wood Ray
:aste
A. Se>uen!e for riving white oak &asketry s%lits. '. Soeties a grid se>uen!e !an &e used for s%litting %arti!ularly straightgrained sto!k. The sall !enter area of this hi!kory is heartwoot
1312+i""et
3 isard a!wood )
2'a"ves
7
16
4 Quarters
5 :ighths
i%s and
'eartwood
Weavers and i&s A 4)6)ia%eter White ak
a!wood
+ 6)ia%eter 'ikor,
iving 87
Pre%aring to rive white oak &asket s%lits. Use a drawknife to reove &ark and to shave &illets to a s>uare !ross se!tion. The s>uares are then rived tangent to the growth rings.
The final white oak s%lits are started with a stout knife...
88 Green Woodworkins
...then !arefully divided &y hand.
#sh S&lints Ash s!"its used (or &asketr, or hair seatins are a""ed splints—)with an n Fresh", ut ash "oss are !ounded with a %au" to rush "arge# ear", growth !ores so that the wood de"a%inates a"ong the growth rings Ash &askets are usua"", %ade (ro% &"ak ash# a"so known as &rown ash Aording to -artha Wether&ee# the ash)s!"int &asket %aker who '= introdue in art hree# red ash and green ash work Hust as we"" White ash is onsidered a seond hoie As with other riving %ateria"s# "og >ua"it, is i%!ortant ogs shou"d &e "ear and 5 to 10 inhes in dia%eter !"ints (ro% s%a""er sa!"ings have too %uh u! Fast)growing ash is &est &eause the "arge ear",wood !ores rush easi", Ash (or !ounding an &e (e""ed an, ti%e o( ,ear Work the "og green# or store it under water unti" needed e%ove the &ark with a drawkni(e osition"og theso that itwon;t &oune around as ,ou !ound on it An a"ternative# !re(erred &, so%e ash)s!"int &asket %akers# ishe to s!"it >uarter eighth setion hen %ake a s!"it with the growth rings to e"i%inate the inner heartwood ashout s!"ints are or !ounded (ro% theradiais resu"ting outer tra!aBoid setion se a s"edgeha%%er or a !o""ed a*e he edges o( the striking too" shou"d &e rounded o(( so as not to da%age the (ragi"e wet wood ound in one area near an end o( the "og unti" ,ou see the growth rings se!arate hen !ound toward the enter When an entire growth ring de"a%inates# re%ove it &, utting "ong# 1)inh)wide stri!s "oose with a kni(e $ontinue !ounding and re%oving suessive growth rings unti" the s!"ints are too u!!ed or knott, to &e used +oth sa!wood and heartwood are usa&"e. the di((erene is o"or ounding ash &, hand is hard work sing a !o""ed a*e# -artha Wether&ee has !ounded a "og (or as "ong as ten da,s to de"a%inate it he now hires a %an to o!erate an anient tri! ha%%er to %ake ash s!"ints# and even using this %ahine# it %a, take a (u"" da, to !ound a "og into s!"ints +ut one "og an %ake s!"ints (or %an, &askets hik ash s!"ints an &e se!arated into two or even (our "a,ers he tehni>ue is the sa%e as dividing white oak s!"its se a kni(e to start# then !ee" s!"ints a!art &, hand he natura" divisions that (o""ow the growth rings o( ash s!"ints are (uBB, and need to &e s%oothed with (ine sand!a!er when dr, he inner sur(aes o( s!"int s %ade &, dividinggrowth rings are ver, s%ooth and don;t re>uire "eaning u!
Coarse s+lits &an be s&ra+ed s*ooth by +ulling the* under a stationary knie blade" @ost basket *akers do this ro* a
sitting +osition" )he knie blade is held against a thigh that is +rote&ted by a +ie&e o s&ra+ leather" 6 the +ie&es are too thi&k, they &an be thinned %ith a dra%knie at a shaving horse, as e7+lained in &ha+ter ." ,ro!ect: Garden Hurdles
/arden hurdles are *odular en&e units that you &an easily set u+ %herever needed" Anyone %ith a garden or livesto&k %ill ind these hurdles useul" )hey;re +ere&t or trellis &ro+s, su&h as +eas or &u&u*bers" )hese hurdles &an also be an attra&tive, rusti& addition to a lo%er garden" =urdles are easily stored in a li*ited s+a&e %hen not needed" =urdles %ere srcinally used in (ngland as te*+orary en&losures or shee+" )%o ty+es %ere traditionally *ade" :oven hurdles &onsist o a ro% o u+rights &alled standards, %hi&h are %oven together using thin, horiFontal withes, usually
%illo% or haFel" )he result is a solid +anel that *akes a good %indbreak" -ived hurdles rese*ble light%eight en&e gates" -e*ovable %ooden +ins are used to >oin a nu*ber o hurdles together" )he gate hurdle is the ty+e 6 %ill des&ribe here" -iving out hurdles is un to do and a +ere&t +ro>e&t or learning the basi&s o riving" Tools. Hou;ll need a *aul, %edges, gluts, a roe, a roe &lub, a broad hat&het, a bra&e %ith a 8in&h auger bit, an ordinary ha**er, and a 1in&h &hisel" Hou;ll also need a &ross&ut sa% to &ut your logs to length" A dra%knie and a shaving horse or ben&h*ounted vise are useul but not ne&essary" /aterials. Sele&t a %ood that rives easily and resists de&ay" ur hurdles %ere *ade %ith bla&k lo&ust or standards and %hite oak or &rossbars and bra&es" Sot%oods su&h as red%ood or &edar &an also be used" Sele&t goodEuality logs, to 12 in&hes in dia*eter" 6n the dire&tions, di*ensions or +arts are or hard%oods" 6 you are using sot%oods, %hi&h are %eaker than hard%oods, in&rease %idths and thi&knesses about 50 +er&ent" iving 89
)ived hurdles !an &e used as a garden trellis or as te %orary livesto!k en!losures. Sall %egs and dowels are rived fro ring%orous hard woods using a knife and haer.
ur hurdles are < eet long and < in&hes high, %ith seven &rossbars and three bra&es" Hou &an alter this overall siFe and nu*ber o &rossbars, but these di*ensions have %orked %ell or us"
?it all the &rossbars into the standards" )o sEuare u+ the hurdle, +ut a nail or a do%el through the to+ and botto* &rossbars o one standard" !se <+enny galvaniFed nails or rived hard%ood do%els 4storebought do%els are too %eak
-ive the standards ro* your best %ood, sin&e they %ill take the *ost strain %hen +ut to use" )he standards are 8 in&h thi&k, 212 in&hes %ide, and < in&hes long" )hen rive the .2in&hlong &rossbars, 12 in&h thi&k by 2 in&hes %ide" )he bra&es &an be *ade ro* re>e&ted &rossbars" @ake the* 12 in&h thi&k by 112 in&hes %ide" )he verti&al bra&e is 0 in&hes long the diagonal bra&es are 50 in&hes long" -ived +ie&es &an vary by 1 in&h in thi&kness or 12 in&h in %idth" 6 the rived +arts are too thi&k or too %ide, shave the* to siFe %ith a dra%knie" !se a hat&het to +oint the lo%er end o ea&h standard" =e% or shave both ends o the &rossbars to it rounded *ortises in the standards" )hese *easure 8 in&h by 112 in&hes" A loose it is a&&e+table" )he *ortis es are s+a&e d as you &hoose" Start the *ortises by boring t%o 8in&h holes on 8in&h &enters" Cho+ out the %aste %ith the &hisel" Bore 8in&h holes or the &onne&ting +ins *id%ay
and oten it too loosely" )hen *easure both diagonals o the hurdle" 6 the *easure*ents dier, +ush the &orners o the longer diagonal together" :hen the distan&es are &lose to eEual3%ithin 1 in&h3you;re sEuare enough" Nail or do%el the to+ and botto* &rossbars o the other standard" Che&k or sEuare again" StabiliFe the hurdle by nailing3not do%eling3 the verti&al and diagonal bra&es" Clin&h the nails by +ounding the +ointed ends over on the ba&k side" )hen nail or do%el the re*aining &rossbars to the standards" )he re*ovable +ins should be rived ro* a tough, straightgrained hard%ood" Cleave .in&h sEuares, in&hes long" !se a dra%knie to round the shanks to an 111<in&h dia*eter, but leave one rived end sEuare so it &an;t +ass through the 8in&h holes in the standards" Put a +oint on the other end"
bet%een the t%o u++er &rossbars"
90 Green Woodworking
1iensions for our rived shee% hurdles. The overall diensions and nu&er of !ross &ars !an &e odified to suit your re>uireents. The &ra!es are !lin!hnailed.
+urdles are Eoined end to end with reova&le wooden %egs. iving 91
C=AP)(- S(J(N
1a!ing Shaving is a *ethod o sha+ing %ood using sli&ing tools
su&h as dra%knives and s+okeshaves" Although related to knie%ork, shaving is *u&h aster" :ith +ra&ti&e, you &an learn to do e7a&ting %ork, taking dee+ or deli&ate shavings"
ohler, the S%iss &oo+er" Probably the *ost *undane a++li&ation o shaving is re*oving bark" )he blade o a general+ur+ose dra%knie is to 10 in&hes long" Blades *ay be slightly &onve7 %hen vie%ed
:hen an e7+ert shaves a +ie&e o %ood, ea&h stroke &ounts, and there;s a sense o authority that re*ains in the inished %ork" )here;s a deinite sense o satisa&tion in shaving a rived billet into a +re&isely sha+ed +ie&e o %ood, su&h as a &hair +ost or a basket handle" Straightgrained %oods, both hard and sot, are +arti&ularly suited to sha+ing %ith shaving tools" =ard%oods are usually shaved green" Although dry hard%oods are dii&ult to shave, the inished sura&e &an be +arti&ularly attra&tive" Hou &an shave %et %ood slightly oversiFe, allo% it to dry 4and shrink, and then &areully shave to inal di*ensions" :ood or shaving is usually se&ured in a holding devi&e, su&h as a shaving horse" Hou also &an use a vise 4a *a&hinist;s vise is es+e&ially useul or fids, %hi&h are ad>ustable dogs %ith steel holding +oints" :hen a &rooked knie is used, the %ork is held by a ree hand" (7&e+t or s+okeshaves, tool &ontrol is by hand and
either ro* above or ro* head on" ?or general use, 6 +reer a straight, lat blade, *ainly be&ause it;s &onsiderably easier to shar+en than a &urved blade" @ost dra%knie blades have a single bevel, although so*e old ones are doublebeveled" )he advantage o a single bevel is that you &an shave bevel u+ or bevel do%n, %ith dierent results" ld dra%knie blades %ere oten *ade ro* la*i nated steel" !sually, both handles are set in the sa*e +lane as the blade and at a right angle to it" $ra%knie handles should be se&urely atta&hed, %ith the tangs riveted over %ashers or end &a+s" So*e ne% dra%knives have a button at the end o ea&h handle to &on&eal a tang %hi&h is &lin&hed over the %ood" )his inerior &onstru&tion leads to loose handles" Sin&e dra%knives %ere on&e very &o**on, used ones are ine7+ensive" ne good dra%knie %as the /reenlee, also sold under the brand na*es o Crats*an and @ontgo*ery :ard" But there are *any others %orth
eye, %ith attention no *e&hani&al sto+s or or +rodu&ing de+th or %idth &ut" Constant is ne&essary good o results" =istori&ally, *any &rats de+ended on sha+ing %ood by shaving" Coo+ers develo+ed a variety o s+e&ialiFed dra%knives" Ladderba&k and :indsor &hairs reEuired shaving in their &onstru&tion" ?or strength, the best ladder rungs and %agon s+okes %ere on&e rived and shaved" $ra%knives and s+okeshaves &an be used to &ha*er ar&hite&tural bea*s, railings, and tri* %ork" )ool handles &an be shaved Eui&kly and a&&urately" :ood to be turned on a lathe is oten +resha+ed to a round &oniguration by shaving %ith a dra%knie" S+okeshaves &an be used to &reate a s*ooth sura&e on urniture %here hand +lanes &an;t be used" Ater riving, shingles are dressed %ith a dra%knie" Basket *akers oten shave their handles and ri*s" @y irst >ob %ith a dra%knie %as +ointing hal round en&e +i&kets or -eudi
o%ning" 6n it;s sele&ting a usedrusted, dra%knie, e7a*ine blade insure that not %ar+ed, or badly +ittedthe near the to edge" 6 so, it %ill be dii&ult to restore and shar+en" )he ba&k edge o a dra%knie that has been beaten do%n ro* abuse as a riving tool %ill reEuire grinding" Loose handles &an be i7ed %ith e+o7y this %orks" An old narro%bladed dra% knie3narro% be&ause it;s been shar+ened *any ti*es3&an be e7&ellent or shaving inside &urves" ?or lattening %ork, su&h as dressing &hair slats or shingles, 6 +reer a dra%knie %ith a slightly bo%ed sha+e and a single bevel on the &on&ave side o the blade" So*e &oo+er;s dra%knives %ere *ade %ith one angled handle and one handle in line %ith the blade" )hese %ere used or &ha*ering the inner ri* o a barrel, %here the standard angled handle %ould get in the %ay" )he S%edish &andkniv 4translated %ush knife3 has both handles in line %ith the blade" 6t;s used
92 Green Woodworking
/y ost used drawknife 2to%3 has a straight, flat &lade. 8t*s easy to shar%en and works well as an all %ur%ose tool. The &lade of the iddle drawknife, fro Gerany, is slightly &owed when viewed fro a&ove. 8 use it to sha%e the edges of a Windsor !hair seat. The &otto drawknife, a Fren!h Peugeot, has a &lade that*s &owed when viewed fa!ing the edge. 8t*s used to flatten !hair slats and shingles.
eront !hairaker 1ave Sawyer shaving Windsor s%indles fro hi!kory
having 93
A few s%e!ialiDed shaving tools. A !oo%er*s hollowing knife 2u%%er left3, an inshave 2u%%er right3, a Swedish %ush knife 2!enter3, a Swedish !arver*s hook 2&otto left3, and a s!or% 2&otto !enter3.
S%okeshaves. 4tree left an all %ur%ose shave with a flat sole and two adEusting nuts. To% to &otto a slightly !onve shave, sho%ade &y odifying the sole and &lade of a flat shave a halfround shave an adEusta&lethroat shave a roundfa!e shave.
%here the handles o a &onventional dra%knie %ould get in the %ay" 6 ind the +ush knie dii&ult to &ontrol" 6nstead, 6 use a s+okeshave" +ollowing knives are used +ri*arily by &oo+ers" ?or s&oo+ing, the bevel *ust be on the e7terior side o the blade" An inshave is a dra%knie used to s&oo+ &hair seats and the &avities o large bo%ls and troughs" 6n &ontrast to a hollo%ing knie, the handles don;t e7tend to the sides beyond the &urved blade instead, the handles angle ba&k and u+%ard >ust beyond the dee+ly bo%ed blade" ?or *ost uses, you need an e7terior bevel" S%okeshaves in&or+orate a sole and a blade de+th &ontrol si*ilar to that o a +lane" S+okeshaves &an be %ood or &ast iron" 6 use ironbody s+okeshaves the blades o so*e &an be ad>usted easily %ith knurled knobs, and 6 like the %eight" But other green %ood%orkers +reer the lightness o a %ooden s+okeshave and the lo%er &utting angle o the blade380O &o*+ared to 5O or an ironbody s+okeshave" 94 Green Woodworking
S+okeshaves are oten &onsidered a inishing tool" =o%ever, they;re also useul or general sha+ing %ork, es+e&ially or ornery grain" A shar+ s+okeshave %ith a ine blade setting %orks very ni&ely on end grain" ?or your irst s+okeshave, 6 re&o**end one %ith an iron body, a lat sole, and knurled knobs or setting blade e7+osure rather than a &entral ri&tion s&re%" 6t;s %orth +aying a e% dollars e7tra or a body o *alleable iron +lain &ast iron &an easily &ra&k" )%o good *odels are the Stanley 151@ 4G@G or *alleable and the -e&ord A151" Hou *ight also be interested in a s+e&ialiFed s+okeshave" A light, &o*+a&t *odel &an be used in &onined lo&ations, su&h as bet%een hayork +rongs" :ith an ad>ustablethroat s+okeshave, you &an use a %ide setting or hogging %ood Eui&kly and then narro% the throat or inish %ork or shaving dii&ult grain" /iant &oo+er;s s+okeshaves are useul or larges&ale %ork, %here a dra%knie &an;t be used" An e7a*+le is dressing the e7terior o a barrel"
+alfround s+okeshaves have a sole and blade that a++ear &on&ave %hen vie%ed straight on" )hese are useul or Eui&kly rounding dra%knied &hair legs" )he one *odel that 6 kno% o reEuires ine tuning beore it &an be used" 4See the sidebar on +age 100, G@odiy ing the unF =al -ound S+okeshave"G )adius s+okeshaves have a sole and blade that a++ear &onve7 %hen held beore you" )hey;re used or shaving hollo%s, su&h as saddling :indsor &hair seats" A standard, latsoled s+okeshave &an be &onverted into a shallo% radius shave" -esha+e the sole into a length%ise &urve %ith a lat *ill ile, then grind the blade to *at&h" ?or %ork &learan&e, shorten the handle ends %ith a ha&ksa%, and then round the shar+ edges %ith a grinder or a ile" )he sole and blade o a round fa!e s+okeshave a++ear &onve7 %hen vie%ed ro* the side 4ro* the ront, the blade edge is straight" )hese are used to shave &on&ave sha+es on so*ething like the edge o a board" /reen %ood%orkers also use several onehand shaving tools" A*eri&an 6ndians and other northern no*adi& &rats+eo+le used !rooked knives or both rough and detailed shaving %ork" )he &rooked knie is gras+ed +al* u+, %ith the &rook o the blade dire&ted u+ and in%ard, to%ard the user;s body" )he &arver;s thu*b is bra&ed against the end o the handle, %hi&h is angled so*ething like a ho&key sti&k" Bir&hbark &anoe *aker =enri Jaillan&ourt +reers using a &rooked knie over a dra%knie" =enri says he &an +osition the %ood %ith his ree hand or better knie &ontrol and visibility than i the %ood %ere %orked %ith a dra%knie and se&ured in a shaving horse or vise" "arver*s hooks have short, &urved blades" )hey;re gras+ed +al* u+ or do%n and, like &rooked knives, are +ulled to%ard the body" Carver;s hooks are used to hollo% the bo%ls o s+oons, a*ong other things" A s!or% is a onehand s&oo+ing tool %ith a blade sha+ed in a &losed loo+" An obs&ure shaving tool that 6 +lan to e7+eri*ent %ith is the &lo!k knife, traditionally used or rough sha+ing o sabots 4%ooden shoes, bo%ls, and s+oons" )he straight blade, %hi&h rese*bles the dra%knie, is atta&hed at one end to an eye hook driven into a &ho++ing stu*+" )he other end has a long handle, bent at a slight angle to the blade" )he %ork is +la&ed on the stu*+, and the blade is +ushed do%n%ard, as %hen using a +a+er &utter"
Shaving Horses Any dis&ussion o shaving %ood %ould be in&o*+lete %ithout introdu&ing *y avorite holding devi&e, the shaving horse" )his an&ient invention is a s+e&ialiFed variation o the lo% %orkben&h that you sit on" )he %ork is su++orted at a &onvenient height on an angled bridge and held in +la&e by a +ivoting ar* o+erated %ith a oot treadle" 6n *y e7+erien&e, a shaving horse is the su+er ior holding devi&e or *ost dra%knie and s+okeshave %ork" )he %ood &an be gri++ed Eui&kly and at a good +osition
or *ost +ur+oses" -uedi ohler told *e that beore %orkben&hes %ith vises be&a*e &o**on, shaving horses %ere also used to hold %ood or sa%ing, &hiseling, and boring" )%o ty+es o shaving horses are kno%n as the du& head horse and the &odger*s horse. )he *oving +art o the du*b head is a single s%inging ar* that +asses through *ortises in the ben&h and the bridge" )he bodger;s horse utiliFes a yoke that holds the %ork under a +ivoting >a% *ortised to t%o verti&al *e*bers that +ivot at the sides o the ben&h" Both horses are easily ad>usted or holding %ood o dierent thi&knesses" the t%o, 6 +reer the du*b head" Be&ause the +ivot is higher u+, lo&ated at the bridge near the holding >a%, you get greater leverage ro* the ooto+erated treadle" Also, the &entrally lo&ated ar* allo%s you to Eui&kly reverse the %ood %ithout %ithdra%ing and reinserting it, as *ust be done bet%een the verti&al side *e*bers that link >a% and treadle on bodger;s horse" the %ith other*ore hand, the +ivoting >a%the o the bodger;s horsen holds ri&tion and is less likely to &ause indentations ro* +ressure on the %ood" Shaving horses have either three or our legs" )hree legged horse s are suite d or outdoor %ork on uneven ground" See A++endi7 A or &o*+lete +lans or building a du*b head shaving horse" Shar&ening Shaving Tools $ra%knives are shar+ened slightly dierently than other singlebevel edge tools" ?irst, e7a*ine the blade" !se a +rotra&tor to &he&k the blade angle" Look &losely" 6 the bevel isn;t lat, or i the ba&k side is du&&ed 4slightly &onve7 near the edge, the a&tual &utting angle %ill be %ider than it *ay a++ear at irst" )he en&losed bevel angle o a dra%knie blade should be near 80O" )he a&tual !utting angle is deter*ined by ho% you hold the dra%knie in rela having 95
A !rooked knife, ade &y +enri aillan!ourt
tion to the %ood" )hirty degrees is a good bevel angle be&ause it &o*bines shar+ness %ith durability" A narro%er angle is %eaker" 6;ve seen dra%knives %ith bevels ranging ro* 20 to 50O these e7tre*e bevels should be reground" )he bevel o a dra%knie &an be slightly dubbed 4&onve7" )he bevel sha+e deter*ines i a dra%knie %orks %ell bevel u+ or bevel do%n" )his is a *a>or dieren&e bet%een dra%knives and all other bevel edged tools" 6 you use a dra%knie bevel do%n, the bevel *ust be 4very slightly dubbed" 6 it is truly lat, you %on;t have &ontrol o the de+th o the &ut" )he dra%knie %ill dive in and %on;t &o*e out" )his is +arti&ularly true %hen shaving hard%oods" $ra%knives used bevel u+ %ill invariably have a slightly dubbed lat side" $ubbing both the bevel and lat side isn;t a good idea be&ause you end u+ %ith an en&losed bevel angle that is too %ide or shaving %ood" )he edge o a s+okeshave blade should be sha+ed >ust like a +ro+erly tuned &hisel or +lane blade" A s+okeshave bevel &an be either lat or hollo% ground" A hollo% grind *akes honing and +olishing at a &onsistent angle *u&h easier" Hou &an register bevelground, on the ben&h stone usingtot%o distin&t +oints'steady the &utting edge and the heel o the bevel" :hen a bevel is lat 4and notthe hollo% it;s very dii&ult hold a +ere&tly shar+ening angle" As sho%n in the illustrations on +age 9, the hollo% grind shouldn;t e7tend to the a&tual &utting edge or the heel" 6 it did, the bevel angle %ould be too nar
ro%, &ausing the shar+ edge to break do%n Eui&kly" Also, hollo% grinding to the a&tual edge &ould &ause overheating and loss o te*+er in the steel" $oing a good hollo% grind reEuires +ra&ti&e, es+e&ially on a dra%knie, be&ause the blade is so long" At a standard ben&h grinder, the +er+endi&ular dra%knie handles %ill bu*+ into the *otor as grinding a++roa&hes the *iddle o the blade" ?or grinding a dra%knie blade 6 use a slo%s+eed grinder %ith a stone that runs through a %ater trough" Beore grinding, +osition and tighten the grinder tool guide" )hen rehearse a G*otor o +ass ro* one end o the blade to the other" By inking the bevel %ith *a&hinist;s bluing or a eltti+ +en, you &an see e7a&tly %here you;re grinding" At a grinder, always use eye %rote!tion. Wear safety glasses or use the trans%arent guard on the grinder.
:ith the grinder turned on, be sure to kee+ the dra%knie blade *oving &onstantly, %ith an even s+eed and +ressure" )his %ill give you an even &ut" $ra%knives %ith straight, lat blades and a *oderate hollo% grind are easily honed using the tall ben&h stone holder des&ribed in &ha+ter " )he tall holder allo%s &learan&e or the +er+endi&ular handles to +ass above the %orkben&h %hen you;re honing and +olishing the bevel" Se&ure the stone holder bet%een ben&h dogs, %edges, or the >a%s o a vise" )he holder *ust be +ositioned +er+endi&ular to your body so that you a&e one end sEuarely" Start %ith a *ediu*grit dia*ond stone or an 00 to 1,200grit %ater stone" 96 Green Woodworking
+"ade =nsert etion
wine
+eve" =nsert euring +"ade wine
$utting :dge
1cale in IncesThe diensions, %ro%ortions, !urve, and width of a !rooked knife !an &e !hanged to suit your
needs.
Making a Crooked @nife = "earned so%e &asi %eta"s%ithing and how to %ake a rooked kni(e when = visited &irh&ark anoe %aker 'enri Pai""anourt o %ake a rooked kni(e# on", a (ew too"s are re>uired he &"ade is ra(ted (ro% a s%a""# worn)out (i"e First# anneal/so(ten the (i"e &, heating it to a du"" red o"or hen oo" it ver, s"ow", 'enri;s heat soure in the &ush is a tin a%! stove Agood (i"e is then used to sha!e the ross setion o( the &"ade he o"d teeth are (i"ed o((# and is it %ade thinner and given a sing"e)&eve" edge sing a !air o( !"iers (or tongs# reheat the &"ade Whi"e it;s red hot# &end the &"ade to an a!!ro!riate urve he &eve"ed edge is on the onave side o( the urve o harden the &"ade# heat it red hot again# this ti%e to the te%!erature at whih it "oses %agnetis% he hot stee" is >uenhed in water At this stage# the &"ade is e*tre%e", &ritt"e and ou"d rak Hust &, &eing dro!!ed onto a wooden ("oor Temperingis the !roess o( &ringing the stee" to an a!!ro!riate toughness (or use he &"ade is "eaned and !o"ished# then heated ver, are(u"", at a %uh "ower te%!erature When the stee" turns &"ue# it;s >uenhed again he resu"t is a &"ade that &oth kee!s a (air", shar! edge and is ("e*i&"e -an, woodworking too"s are te%!ered onsidera&", harder# at an even "ower te%!erature to a straw o"or Attah the (inished &"ade to a hardwood hand"e &, (itting it into a sha""ow %ortise arved into one side he %ortise is "osed with a ("ush)(itting !iee o( arved wood hen the "ower end o( the hand"e is wra!!ed with twine
having 97
Five %rofiles for single &evel edge tools. For ost tools 8 %refer 4, &ut " is !orre!t for a drawknife that is used &evel down. A. Flat &evel. An e!ellent %rofile &ut diffi!ult to sha%e and aintain a!!urately. '. /i!ro&evel. Good for %lane &lades, sin!e the !utting angle is !onstant. ". )ounded &evel. This !oon %rofile results fro la!k of !ontrol dur ing honing. 8n a %lane, fi&ers s%lit in front of the edge. 1. Full hollow grind. The narrow angle at the edge &reaks down >ui!kly. 4. Partial hol low grind. Strong edge. This %rofile is easy to hone and works well with knives and shaving tools the edge and the heel of the &evel !reate a flat registration %lane.
Press do%n hard, a++lying the %eight o your u++er torso" =one until you &an eel a %ire burr begin to or* along the ull length o the bevel side o the blade" )hen s%it&h to a ine or su+erine dia*ond stone or a ,000 to ,000grit %ater stone" Sto+ %hen the +revious abrasions are re*oved" )he %ire edge should no% be so ine as to be al*ost i*+er&e+tible to the tou&h" )he ba&k side o the dra%knie blade is no% inished only slight tou&hu+s %ill be reEuired ro* ti*e to ti*e" )o shar+en the bevel, return to the *ediu*grit honing stone" Position the right end o the bevel at
Beore honing the bevel, dress the lat ba&k side o the blade" Hou only need to do this on&e, not every ti*e the edge reEuires shar+ening" Position the right end o the dra%knie blade at the ar end o the ben&h stone" Pull the dra%knie a&ross the ben&h stone, si*ultaneously *oving it to the right so that %hen you rea&h the near end o the stone you;re at the let end o the blade" Stated another %ay, you *ake a diagonal +ass ro* the ar to the near end o the stone" !sing this *ethod, the entire length o the blade is shar+ened, and the stone %ears evenly" 98 Green Woodworking
+oning a straight, fiat&laded drawknife. Pull the knife diagonally a!ross the &en!h stone. The tall &en!h stone holder %rovides !learan!e for the angled drawknife handles.
This s%okeshave &lade holder was ade fro a reEe!t !hair run. A kerf sawed at one end a!!e%ts the &lade. For &lade !learan!e, a wedge is reoved fro the &otto end of the holder. The &lade is se!ured with a ;B6in!h stove &olt and a wing nut.
the ar end o the ben&h stone" )o ind the bevel angle, irst lo%er the heel to the stone, then dro+ to the bevel by lo%ering the handles" !se the ben&h stone te&hniEue des&ribed above or honing the ba&k o the blade" Sto+ %hen you eel a burr on the ba&k o the blade" )hen use a iner stone" Continue until the burr or*ed on the ba&k o the blade al*ost disa++ears" )hen li+ the dra%knie over3so that the bevel a&es u+3and lightly re*ove the burr ro* the ba&k side o the blade" Hou;re inished )he ne7t ti*e your dra%knie is dull, you only need to hone and +olish the bevel side o the blade" Leave the ba&k side alone, aside ro* re*oving the inal, slight burr *ade by the +olishing stone" 6 a dra%knie blade is bo%ed, %ith the bevel on the &on&ave side o the &urve, you %on;t be able to use a ben&h stone %ith the tall ben&h stone holder" 6nstead, hone and +olish the bevel by steadying one handle against a i7ed sto+, like the shaving horse riser" !se a +rogression o &onesha+ed %ater stone sli+s they are available in &oarse, *ediu*, and ine grits" )he &onve7 side &an be dressed %ith &onventional lat ben&h stones" $ra%knives are relatively sae edge tools" Be&ause o body geo*etry, it;s nearly i*+ossible to
+ull the blade into your &hest" @ost a&&idents involve &utting ingers or thighs on the shar+ &orners o the blade" )o +revent &uts, round the &orners o the blade %ith a ben&h stone or a ile to a 1in&h radius" S+okeshaves are shar+ened at a bevel angle o 80O" Be&ause s+okeshave blades are so s*all, they;re dii&ult to hold on to" )he sho+*ade blade holder sho%n above is very useul" )he blade holder also *akes it easier to *aintain the &orre&t bevel angle" As %ith the dra%knie and all other singlebevel edge tools, +re+are the ba&k irst" @ake the ba&k really lat" Ne7t hone and +olish the bevel" S+okeshave blades are oten %ider than &o**on 2 in&h%ide ben&h stones" :hen you shar+en the bevel, +osition the blade at a diagonal so that it its %ithin the ben&h stone %idth" Ske%ing the blade also *akes it easier to hold the blade at a &onstant angle as you rub ba&k and orth" S+okeshaves %ith &urved blades reEuire s+e&ial shar+ening stones" Conesha+ed sli+s are available in dierent grits" 6 se&ure the blade in a vise and %ork the stone over the stationary blade" 6nshaves are shar+ened by se&uring the iron %ings in a vise and *oving abrasives over the having 99
-odi(,ing he unB 'a"()ound !okeshave he %ost o%%on ha"()round s!okeshave is %ade &, unB in Ger%an, he ones =;ve seen re>uire so%e handwork &e(ore the, an &e used A(ter o%!"eting these si%!"e %odi(iations# ,ou;"" have a (air", ae!ta&"e too" First# ,ou %a, need to %odi(, the &"ade urve
Pushing a drawknife into the shoulder of a tenon. A %ush stroke !an also &e used where edge grain rises away fro the end of a %ie!e of wood.
blade" 6 sha+ing is reEuired, 6 use a s*all dru* sander %ith a sand+a+er sleeve *ounted to an ele&tri& drill" !se a ben&h stone on the e7terior bevel" Clean u+ the interior burr %ith a &onesha+ed sli+"
having ehni>ues
-iving and shaving are %onderully &o*+le*entary te&hniEues" Both are based on using and %orking %ith straight grain" $ra%knives are al%ays used by &utting %ith the grain dire&tion" :hen grain shits, the %ood is usually reversed end or end, and you shave ro* the other dire&tion" $ra%knives are generally +ulled to%ard your torso" 6t;s also +ossible to +ush a dra%knie, but &ontrol is *u&h *ore dii&ult" )he bevel &an be +ositioned u+ or do%n, de+ending on the %ork at hand, the +arti&ular tool, and your +reeren&e" :ith the bevel do%n, the bevel a&ts as a ul&ru*, resulting in de+th &ontrol" Con&ave &uts *ust be done bevel do%n" Shave bevel u+ to *ake very straight &uts" Shaving *ay be easier i you hold the knie in a ske% +osition" Ske%ing redu&es the ee&tive &utting angle o the blade to the %ood" )his is be&ause a ske%ed blade &uts at the ang le or *ed by a diagonal se&tion through the bevel angle" Ske%ing %ill hel+ to +revent %en!il %ointing and hourglassing. So*eti*es large a*ounts o %ood &an be re*oved by &o*bining shaving and s+litting into a 100 Green Woodworking
to so"e o( the iron &od,%i"" hen# the%ath &eve"the ang"e with a ha"()round (i"e rede(ine he orret ang"e is 30. as so"d# the &eve" is %uh stee!er Finish &, honing with one or gouge s"i!s =( the a! iron wo&&"es on the &"ade# a ga! o!ens that tends to Ha% with shavings F"atten the underside o( the a! iron &, (i"ing the high !oints he &eve" o( the a! iron %ust %ate with the &"ade e*terior o %ake (ine shavings ,ou wi"" need to narrow down the ga! at the throat o( the s!okeshave his is easi", ao%!"ished &, insert) ing !a!er shi%s &etween the &"ade and the iron &od, his %odi(iation an &e %ade to an, s!okeshave or hand)!"ane
single stroke" Start by *aking a dee+ shaving" n&e you;re into the &ut, rotate the dra%knie handles u+%ard to s+lit o the %aste" &&asionally, %ood *ay &ontinually sli+ out o the shaving horse >a%, es+e&ially i it;s very hard or %et, or %hen you are hogging large shavings" 6 a billet sli+s loose, it +un&hes you in the belly" )o eli*inate this +ainul annoyan&e, you &an in&rease holding ri&tion by ta&king leather or inner tube +ads to the >a% or the bridge o the shaving horse" Pads also kee+ the >a%s ro* denting the %ork"
:*eriseI having $,"inders Shaving a &ylinder ro* a rived, sEuarish billet %ill give you handson +ra&ti&e %ith several shaving te&hniEues" A ty+i&al rived billet3or so*ething like a ladderba&k &hair rung3%ould be about 1 in&h sEuare and 15 in&hes long" :e %ant to inish %ith a 8in&hdia*eter &ylinder" Any ty+e o straightgrained %ood %ill do or +ra&ti&e" 6 you use a hard%ood, it should be green" 6n *ost &ases, %ork %ith any natural &urvature in the %ood" Straightening out a &urve ne&essitates
angentia" "ane Growth ing Green etion o( ound $,"inder a, a, "ane
Se!tion of a round !ylinder shaved fro green wood. When the round dries, shrinkage on the tangent to the growth rings %lane is twi!e that of the ray %lane. This is known as differential shrinkage.
r, etion a(ter hrinkage a, "ane
angentia" "ane 3
1
Se>uen!e for shaving a !ylinder fro a s>uarerived &illet The ea%le is a !hair rung.
4
2
5
6
7
&utting a&ross ibers, %eakening the %ood" 6nstead, try to use natural &urves as an interesting eature" ten, &rooks are hardly noti&eable in a inished +ie&e" So*eti*es &rooks &an be hidden" A &rooked rung &an go under the seating or be used as a +oint o interest" :hen you &an;t %ork %ith a natural &urve, dis&ard the %ood" Begin by &leaning u+ one side o the billet" !sually, 6
re*ove enough %ood to &reate a lat sura&e" :ork ro* both ends o the billet, reversing the %ood end or end as ne&essary" -otate the billet 90O to dress an ad>a&ent gro%th ring side" Hou;re no% on the tangential +lane, %hi&h or*s a tangent to the gro%th rings" Again, do the *ini*al a*ount o %ork"
shave best side irst" :ith hard%oods, start by shaving ray %lane 4that is, a&ross the gro%th rings" )he ray on the the +lane is generally easier to &leave and shave than the gro%th ring +lane" Dust
:hen the se&ond side is lat, rotate the %ood another 90O so that the other ray +lane a&es u+" Start redu&ing the billet to thi&kness by &ha*ering the &orners to the desired di*ension" )hen shave do%n the lat" having 101
%ide, rived billet, as you %ould i shaving a &hairba&k slat or shingles" )he rived billet should be 2 to 8 in&hes %ide, a++ro7i*ately 15 in&hes long, and 12 in&h thi&k" =ere;s %here 6 like to use a bo%ed dra%knie" )he bo%ed blade lattens %ide sto&k *u&h *ore Eui&kly and easily than a straight blade" )he blade is slightly &onve7, %ith the bevel on the inner side o the &urve" 4:ith the ?ren&h Peugeot dra%knie, the +e&uliar ballsha+ed handles allo% holding at a range o %rist angles" ?irst, e7a*ine the rived sto&k or %ar+" A slight %ar+ &an oten be re*oved" =old the blank >ust belo% eye level
Swiss !oo%er )eudi #ohler hollowing a very short &u!ket stave. Wood is se!ured &etween a &reast &i& and a ledge at the end of the shaving horse &ridge.
-otate the billet again and shave the other gro%th ring +lane to thi&kness" Be sure to shave &ha*ers at the &orners beore shaving the lat" Ne7t, &onvert the sEuare billet into an o&tagonal se&tion by &ha*ering all our edges" -otate the billet 5O onto one edge, and shave a &ha*er on the u++er edge" @ake the about oneourth o the theto billet" 4)o&ha*ers hold sEuare billets on edge, you%idth *ay o %ant sa% or &hisel a s*all J&ut under one side o the shaving horse >a%" -everse the billet end or end and shave the o++osite &ha*er" )hen &ha*er the other t%o edges, %orking ro* both ends" Continue shaving by rotating the +ie&e until the srcinal lats and the ne% &ha*ers are eEual %idth" Hou should no% have a very ni&e o&tagonal se&tion billet" !se a s+okeshave to round the o&tagon" Begin by shaving o the edges" S+okeshaves %ork eEually %ell as +ush or +ull tools" Pra&ti&e %orking in both dire&tions" Ske%ing is hel+ul" 6 your s+okeshave >a*s %ith shavings or &hatters, the blade either is set too dee+, inserted u+side do%n, or needs shar+ening" )here;s no need or &ylinders, like +osts and rungs, to be +ere&tly round" 6 oten leave narro% lats" )here;s an old /er*an saying that G/od loves a little unevenness, but not too *u&h"G .$ercise: Shaving Wide 4lats Another good e7er&ise is shaving a lat board ro* a 102 Green Woodworking
so that &an along sight ro* one end to the end,irst" and look oryou a t%ist its length" Shave the other best side Corre&t any %ar+ by shaving o a triangular &orner slab ro* the high &orner o ea&h end" Che&k your %ork oten" S*all *istakes are +reerable to large ones" :hen the %ar+ is re*oved, &areully dress the entire sura&e" Shave the +ie&e to the desired thi&kness ro* the o++osite side" Start by shaving o any high areas" 6 you;re *aking &hair slats or anything else that %ill be bent, be sure to %ork or unior* thi&kness" verly thi&k areas %ill resist bending, and thin s+ots %ill bu&kle" 6t;s sur+rising ho% a&&urately you &an test or even thi&kness by running the *aterial bet%een your thu*b and ingers" As the shaved board gets thinner, it %ill tend to bend under +ressure ro* the dra%k nie" 6 this be&o*es a +roble*, su++ort it %ith a board set on the bridge" )he su++ort board &an be so*ething like a s&ra+ 1 by 8, roughly 2 eet long" )he edge o a board &an be shaved in several %ays" 6 the board isn;t too %ide or long, you &an se&ure it verti&ally %ith the shaving horse >a%" Another *ethod is to hold the %ood bet%een a not&h in the bridge and a &reast &i&3a %ooden +lank sus+ended by a string around your ne&k" ?or dressing the edges o &hair slats, 6 hold the %ood in a ben&h vise" 6 roughtri* %ith a dra%knie, then inish %ith a s+okeshave or a +lane" 4)o dress shingle edges, 6 use a broad hat&het at a &ho++ing stu*+" ,ro!ect: # Grass and "eaf Rake $uring our years o ho*esteading, %e;ve ound that there;s no substitute or a %oodentined rake or gathering leaves and grass &li++ings" 6;ve *ade rakes ollo%ing several traditional +atterns" )his one &o*es ro* ?inland" )he rake is an e7&ellent learning +ro>e&t, in addition to yielding a useul garden tool" )he design is si*+le" =o%ever, *aking a ni&e one is a &hallenge"
Edge shaving a %ost and rung !hair &a!k slat. Soeties a &en!h vise is the &est holding devi!e.
Tools. $ra%knie s+okeshave ri+sa% &ross&ut sa% 8in&h &hisel 1in&h &hisel bra&e 4or ele&tri& drill %ith three bits 451< in&h, 8 in&h, and .1< in&h shaving horse C&la*+ ta+e *easure and 12in&h ruler" /aterials. 6deally, the handle, head, and disk %ill be ash, be&ause this %ood &o*bines strength %ith light %eight" :hite or red oak, hi&kory, bla&k lo&ust, %alnut, +e&an, and ha&kberry &an also be used" )he tines should be as tough as +ossible and *ight be *ade o bla&k lo&ust, hi&kory, oak, or osage orange" )raditionally, the ?inns used lila&" )he handle should be rived to about 112 in&hes sEuare" Hou &an also use a straight, thin sa+ling" )he handle;s length ranges ro* .0 to 0 in&hes" ?irst shave the handle to a sEuare se&tion, 11 in&hes on ea&h side" Leave 5 in&hes at one end sEuare, and round shave the re*ainder" )hen shave the last < in&hes o the rounded end to a blunt +oint so that the rake &an be stu&k into the grass %hen not in use"
Bore t%o 8in&h do%el holes in the sEuared ne&k, &entered 11 and 81 in&hes ro* the end" Ne7t, sa% the slot in the ne&k to a&&e+t the disk" !se a ri+sa% to *ake t%o +arallel kers" )he slot is 8 in&h %ide and in&hes dee+" !se a &hisel to re*ove the %aste %ood bet%een the kers" -ive the %ood or the rake head" 6n ?inland, a slightly bo%ed rake head is &o**on" Although the bo% is attra&tive, it;s not ne&essary, and *aking it reEuires a naturally bo%ed billet" )he rived blank should be about 11 in&hes %ide by 18 in&hes dee+" )he length &an range ro* 2 to 82 in&hes, de+ending on ho% you +lan to use the rake" Shave the head 1 in&h %ide" )he &entr al in&h se&ti on, %hi&h holds the disk, is shaved 18 in&hes in height" ?ro* there, *ake a gra&eul &urve do%n ea&h shoulder to a height o 1 in&h" )he botto* o the rake head should be +er+endi&ular to the edges t%o sides" the endsandor &ha*er the u++er until $on;t later, round ater boring *ortising are &o*+leted" :ith a +en&il, dra% the 8 by in&h *ortise having 103
The wooden tines of this rake are ideal for gathering !li%%ed grass, hay, and leaves. The traditional design is fro Finland.
on the outer side o the head" !se a sEuare to transer the outlines o the *ortise to the botto* and u+ onto the inner side" $ra% a &enterline do%n the length o the *ortise outline" thetorake head,ben&h" inner side o s&ra+Cla*+ lu*ber a sturdy 4)hedo%n, seat oover youra +ie&e shaving horse &an be used" Bore a ro% o &losely s+a&ed 51<in&h holes do%n the &enter o the *ortise, +assing straight through the head into the s&ra+ %ood" A +ie&e o *asking ta+e %ra++ed around the bit &an serve as a de+th gauge" 6t;s i*+ortant to *ake the holes +arallel to the side o the rake head so that the drill %ill e*erge %ithin the *ortise boundary" )o align the drill, +la&e a sEuare on the ben&h to+, blade u+ and +er+endi&ular to the rake head" Align the bit so that it;s +arallel to the blade o the sEuare" !se a 1in&h &hisel to &lean the *ortise sides and a 8in&h &hisel to &lean the ends" :ith shar+ &hisels, you &an +are using hand +ressure and body %eight" r, you &an strike the &hisel %ith a %ooden *allet or a steel ha**er" 46 +reer using a ha**er %hen the &hisel handles are hoo+ed or *ade o i*+a&tresistant +lasti&" A %ooden *allet absorbs i*+a&t that should be driving the &hisel" Chisel to a de+th o about 12 in&h, then turn the rake head over and inish &hiseling ro* the other side" )he *ortise is &o*+leted %hen the interior %alls are 104 Green Woodworking
lat or slightly under&ut 4&on&a ve %hen gauged ro* one side to the other" !se a +en&il to *ark out the &enters o the rake tines" )he t%o inner tines are &entered 12 in&h out ro* the outer disk *ortise" )he end tines should be &entered 112 in&hes ro* the ends o the head" S+a&es bet%een the tines &an range ro* 212 to 812 in&hes" Cla*+ the head to the ben&h to+, %ith the s&ra+ board in the *iddle" Bore the holes &areully, using a sEuare or align*ent" ?inish the head ater the disk *ortise and tine holes are *ade" )he ends o the head are rounded and slightly ta+ered, as vie%ed ro* above" n&e the +ro+ortions look right, s+okeshave a 1in&h%ide &ha*er along both u++er edges" )he &ha*er ta+ers out at the ends" ?or the disk, rive a blank 5 in&h thi&k, +lus in&hes %ide, and about 12 in&hes long 4the inished .12in&h length is a dii&ult siFe to shave" $ra%knie the disk blank to an even 8in &h thi&kness, then sa% it o to .12 in&hes" )he oval sha+e &ould be sa%ed out, but you;ll have *ore un sha+ing it %ith a dra%knie and a s+okeshave" $ra% the disk outline, then +la&e the blank in a vise" Shave %ith the grain, %orking ro* the *idsides to the ends" A shar+ s+okeshave %orks ni&ely on the end grain" Shaved do%els are used to se&ure the disk and or the rake tines" -ive and shave the* ro* green
Plans for a Finnishstyle grass and leaf rake
Wedge owe"
isk
'ead
'and"e 1 ia%eter
R ines
Profile detail of the head asse&ly
having 105
or dry %ood" 6 you;re using green %ood, shave the do%els about 11< in&h oversiFe" Ate r the do%els have dried, shave the* again to an e7a&t 8 in&h" )he tines *ust be thoroughly dried beore they;re installed, or they;ll shrink and all out" Co**er&ially *anua&tured *a+le do%els are %eak and not straight grained" $on;t use the*" -ive do%el sto&k about 12 in&h sEuare and 12 to 15 in&hes long" )he rake tines %ill be to 5 in&hes long, and you;ll need 10 to 1< o the*, de+ending on your s+a&ing" :hile you;re at it, rive and shave a e% e7tra do%els or re+la&e*ent tines i the srcinals break" Hou;ll also need t%o do%els, ea&h 2 in&hes long, to se&ure the disk to the handle" @ake a do%elhole gauge in a dry hard%ood board" ?or green %ood, bore several .1<in&h holes or dry %ood, use 8in&h holes" 6t;s i*+ortant to use the sa*e 8in&h bit or boring the gauge, the handle, and the tine holes in the head, be&ause there;s oten a &onsiderable variation a*ong sa*e siFed boring bits" Also, standard auger bits are a&tually 1< in&h larger than no*inal di*ensions" Auger dowel &its are siFed e7a&tly, but they are no longer *anua&tured" Shave the do%els into sEuares, ollo%ed by o&tagons, and inally rounds" 6 you;re using green %ood, shave to a dia*eter o .1< in&h" !se a narro% su++ort sti&k under the do%el sto&k" :hen you;re inished, +ut the do%els in a %ar* +la&e, su&h as above a %ood stove or a %ater heater, to dry and shrink or a e% days" :hen the do%els are bone dry, shave the* to 8 in&h" )he it in the test gauge *ust be sEueaky tight" !se several holes, as they tend to enlarge %ith ea&h test it" ee+ dry do%els in a &losed +lasti& bag until they;re itted to the rake head" )o lo&ate the disk do%el holes and the ta+ered %edge *ortises, insert the disk into the handle, then it the rake head over the disk" Be sure that the disk and rake head are &orre&tly +ositioned" :ith a +en&il, *ark the &enters o the do%el holes, and s&ribe a line a&ross the outside o the head" )hen take everything a+art" )he holes in the disk are draw &ored 4oset ro* the holes in the handle to insure that the do%els %on;t loosen" Pen&il a &ross *ark or the &enter o ea&h do%el hole about 11< in&h &loser to the head end o the rake disk than the testit +en&il *arks" Ne7t, +en&il on the disk the outlines o the *ortises that %ill house %edges to se&ure the rake head" Pen&il the *ortise on the u++er side o the disk, or*ing a 12in&h sEuare" )he inner edge o
106 Green Woodworking
the *ortise should be 11< in&h beyond the line you dre% a&ross the rake head this oset insures that the head %ill it tightly against the handle %hen %edged" Pen&il the lo%er side o the disk *ortise, 12 in&h %ide by .1< in&h dee+, and oset it too, 11< in&h on the inside edge" )he .1<in&h di*ension &reates a 11<in&h slo+e or the %edges" Cla*+ the disk over a s&ra+ board on your %ork ben&h" Bore 8in&h holes at the oset do%el *arks and in the &enters o the %edge *ortise outlines" !se a 8 in&h &hisel to &ho+ out the *ortises" By eye, +are the outer %edge *ortises to angle slightly in%ard" )he %edges slo+e about O at this angle an in& h &hisel %ill tilt about 1 in&h ro* verti&al" )he e7a&t angle isn;t &riti&al" =o%ever, a shallo% angle holds a %edge *u&h better than a stee+er angle" )he t%o %edges &an be shaved ro* a 10in&h blank rived about 8 in&h sEuare" ?irst shave t%o o++osite sides to a %idth o 12 in&h" Shave the third side lightly , in line %ith the %ood grain" Shave the ourth side to a ta+er beginning 212 in&hes ro* ea&h end" At O, the s*all end o the %edge %ill be 1 in&h %ide" Sa% the %edges o the ends o the blank" Sa% the dry do%el sto&k to the length o the tines" :ith a knie, &ha*er one end to *ake the tines easier to insert" 4)he a&tual +ointing is done ater the tines are in +la&e" Su++ort the rake head on t%o blo&ks so you &an ha**er the tines straight through the 8in&h holes" )hey should it tightly" /lue &an be used, but broken tines are easier to re+la&e i they &an be ha**ered out %ith a drit 4a +un&h %ith a blunt end" 6 tines are loose, tighten the* %ith tiny %edges" !se a 8in&h &hisel to s+lit the to+ o the loose tine" S+lit out %edges 8 in&h %ide by 8 in&h long ro* a 8in&h blo&k o straightgrained hard%ood" Put a tou&h o glue on the %edges only" )hen ha**er the %edges into the s+lits in the tines" 6nsert the disk into the slot in the handle" Cha*er one end o the 2in&h do%els, then ha**er the* ho*e" Sa% o the e7tending ends lush %ith the handle" Sli+ the head over the disk, and ta+ in the t%o %edges" No% +oint the tines" Pla&e the asse*bled rake, tines do%n, on a +ie&e o s&ra+ board set on a %orkben&h" Pare the +oints %ith the 1in&h &hisel %ork %ith the bevel a&ing out%ard" ?inish the rake %ith tung oil thinn ed %ith about 20 +er&ent tur+entine" A se&ond oiling, a++lied ater the irst &oat has hardened, %ill give the sura&e a handso*e, durable inish"
C.APT$" $IG.T
5oring $rilling a hole in %ood has long been an essential te&hniEue or *ost %ood%orkers" /reen%ood >oinery &o**only utiliFes round *ortises itted %ith &ylindri&al tenons" $rilling also s+eeds u+ the &learing o %aste ro* re&tilinear *ortises" 'oring tools re*ove *aterial dire&tly ro* the botto* o a &avity" =ole dia*eter is &onstant as de+th in&reases" )eaing enlarges the dia*e ter o a hole by re*oving *aterial ro* the sides" Be&ause rea*ers are ta+ered, the sides o a rea*ed hole are angled" -ea*ing is advantageous %here tenons tighten under +ressure" )he *ortises or the legs o a :indsor &hair are rea*ed" =and+o%ered boring tools, su&h as a bra&e and bit, are si*+le *a&hines" =ole +roiles are deter*ined by the &oniguration o the bit, not the skill o the o+era tor" @e&hani&al de+th sto+s and various guides and >igs &an *ake the >ob easier still" ne o the early %ood drills %as the s%oon &it, %hi&h is sha+ed like a gouge but %ith an u+turned, s+oonlike &utting edge" S+oon bits date ba&k to the -o*an (*+ire" S+oon bits &ut by boring and rea*i ng" :ith ea&h rotation, the bit &uts through alternate Euadrants o end grain and long grain, resulting in a slightly oval hole" Be&ause s+oon bits la&k a +ointed lead, you &an drill al*ost all the %ay through a +ost or board %ithout &o*ing through on the other side" But the rounded nose *akes it so*e%hat dii&ult to start a hole at a +re&ise lo&ation, es+e&ially on a &urved sura&e su&h as a &hair +ost" n a du!k&ill s+oon bit, the sides are ta+ered slightly narro%er than the &utter %idth" )his redu&es ri&tion as boring de+th in&reases" )he du&kbill sha+e allo%s the bit to slo+ around at the botto* o the hole, resulting in a hole that is %ider at the botto* than it is at the o+ening" 6 *ating tenons are *ade slightly bulbous3so*ething eas ily done %ith a lathe3the undersiFed *outh o the *ortise tra+s the tenon" )he tenon &an;t &o*e out, although it &an loosen and rattle" S+oon bits are still used by %ood%orkers %ho +reer authenti& +eriod *ethods" But s+oon bits %ere histori&ally re+la&ed by *ore &o*+le7 boring
The &ore and waste ade &y an anti>ue du!k&ill s%oon &it, used here with a S%offord &ra!e. The sa%le was sawed o%en after the hole was &ored.
tools, su&h as t%ist bits and augers" An auger &it &o*bines several eatures, ea&h %ith a s+e&ialiFed un&tion" )he %orking end in&ludes a +ointed lead s!rew, one or t%o s%urs, and one or t%o !utters. )he lead +re&isely lo&ates the hole" )he s&re% +ulls the &utter into the %ood, &ontrolling the bite taken %ith ea&h rotation" )he s+urs, %hi&h e7tend ahead o the &utters, s&ore the &ir&u*eren&e o the hole" )he &utters sli&e o the %aste" Cutter shavings are re*oved ro* the hole by the s+iral auger" )he end o the shat is usually a ta+ered sEuare shank or use %ith a bra&e" ther augers are *ade to be &hu&ked into ele&tri& drills" Auger bits are *anua&tured in various +atterns" )he shank o a Dennings +attern auger bit &onsists o t%o &ontinuous s+irals that %ind around ea&h other" )he less e7+ensive 6r%in auger bit has a &oarser lead s&re% and a single s+iral that %inds around a substantial shank" )he &utter heads o both are si*ilar" )he Dennings +attern &an be advantageous %hen boring very hard %ood" ?or boring *ost %oods, the 6r%in is aster, and the heavy +oring 107
or dry %ood" 6 you;re using green %ood, shave the do%els about 11< in&h oversiFe" Ater the do%els have dried, shave the* again to an e7a&t 8 in&h" )he tines *ust be thoroughly dried beore they;re installed, or they;ll shrink and all out" Co**er&ially *anua&tured *a+le do%els are %eak and not straight grained" $on;t use the*" -ive do%el sto&k about 12 in&h sEuare and 12 to 15 in&hes long" )he rake tines %ill be to 5 in&hes long, and you;ll need 10 to 1< o the*, de+ending on your s+a&ing" :hile you;re at it, rive and shave a e% e7tra do%els or re+la&e*ent tines i the srcinals break" Hou;ll also need t%o do%els, ea&h 2 in&hes long, to se&ure the disk to the handle" @ake a do%elhole gauge in a dry hard%ood board" ?or green %ood, bore several .1<in&h holes or dry %ood, use 8in&h holes" 6t;s i*+ortant to use the sa*e 8in&h bit or boring the gauge, the handle, and the tine holes in the head, be&ause there;s oten a &onsiderable variation a*ong sa*e siFed boring bits" Also, standard auger bits are a&tually 1< in&h larger than no*inal di*en sions" Auger dowel &its are siFed e7a&tly, but they are no longer *anua&tured" Shave the do%els into sEuares, ollo%ed by o&tagons, and inally rounds" 6 you;re using green %ood, shave to a dia*eter o .1< in&h" !se a narro% su++ort sti&k under the do%el sto&k" :hen you;re inished, +ut the do%els in a %ar* +la&e, su&h as above a %ood stove or a %ater heater, to dry and shrink or a e% days" :hen the do%els are bone dry, shave the* to 8 in&h" )he it in the test gauge *ust be sEueaky tight" !se several holes, as they tend to enlarge %ith ea&h test it" ee+ dry do%els in a &losed +lasti& bag until they;re itted to the rake head" )o lo&ate the disk do%el holes and the ta+ered %edge *ortises, insert the disk into the handle, then it the rake head over the disk" Be sure that the disk and rake head are &orre&tly +ositioned" :ith a +en&il, *ark the &enters o the do%el holes, and s&ribe a line a&ross the outside o the head" )hen take everything a+art" )he holes in the disk are draw &ored 4oset ro* the holes in the handle to insure that the do%els %on;t loosen" Pen&il a &ross *ark or the &enter o ea&h do%el hole about 11< in&h &loser to the head end o the rake disk than the testit +en&il *arks" Ne7t, +en&il on the disk the outlines o the *ortises that %ill house %edges to se&ure the rake head" Pen&il the *ortise on the u++er side o the disk, or*ing a 12in&h sEuare" )he inner edge o
106 Green Woodworking
the *ortise shou ld be 11< in&h beyond the line you dre% a&ross the rake head this oset insures that the head %ill it tightly again st the handl e %hen %edged" Pen&il the lo%er side o the disk *ortise, 12 in&h %ide by .1< in&h dee+, and oset it too, 11< in&h on the inside edge" )he .1<in&h di*ension &reates a 11<in&h slo+e or the %edges" Cla*+ the disk over a s&ra+ board on your %ork ben&h" Bore 8in&h holes at the oset do%el *arks and in the &enters o the %edge *ortise outlines" !se a 8in&h &hisel to &ho+ out the *ortises" By eye, +are the outer %edge *ortises to angle slightly in%ard" )he %edges slo+e about O at this angle an in&h &hisel %ill tilt about 1 in&h ro* verti&al" )he e7a&t angle isn;t &riti&al" =o%ever, a shallo% angle holds a %edge *u&h better than a stee+er angle" )he t%o %edges &an be shaved ro* a 10in&h blank rived about 8 in&h sEuare" ?irst shave t%o o++osite sides to a %idth o 12 in&h" Shave the third side lightly , in line %ith the %ood grain" Shave the ourth side to a ta+er beginning 212 in&hes ro* ea&h end" At O, the s*all end o the %edge %ill be 1 in&h %ide" Sa% the %edges o the ends o the blank" Sa% the dry do%el sto&k to the length o the tines" :ith a knie, &ha*er one end to *ake the tines easier to insert" 4)he a&tual +ointing is done ater the tines are in +la&e" Su++ort the rake head on t%o blo&ks so you &an ha**er the tines straight through the 8in&h holes" )hey should it tightly" /lue &an be used, but broken tines are easier to re+la&e i they &an be ha**ered out %ith a drit 4a +un&h %ith a blunt end" 6 tines are loose, tighten the* %ith tiny %edges" !se a 8in&h &hisel to s+lit the to+ o the loose tine" S+lit out %edges 8 in&h %ide by 8 in&h long ro* a 8in&h blo&k o straightgrained hard%ood" Put a tou&h o glue on the %edges only" )hen ha**er the %edges into the s+lits in the tines" 6nsert the disk into the slot in the handle" Cha*er one end o the 2in&h do%els, then ha**er the* ho*e" Sa% o the e7tending ends lush %ith the handle" Sli+ the head over the disk, and ta+ in the t%o %edges" No% +oint the tines" Pla&e the asse*bled rake, tines do%n, on a +ie&e o s&ra+ board set on a %orkben&h" Pare the +oints %ith the 1in&h &hisel %ork %ith the bevel a&ing out%ard" ?inish the rake %ith tung oil thinn ed %ith about 20 +er&ent tur+entine" A se&ond oiling, a++lied ater the irst &oat has harde ned, %ill give the sura&e a handso*e, durable inish"
C=AP)(- (6/=)
5oring $rilling a hole in %ood has long been an essential te&hniEue or *ost %ood%orkers" /reen%ood >oinery &o**only utiliFes round *ortises itted %ith &ylindri&al tenons" $rilling also s+eeds u+ the &learing o %aste ro* re&tilinear *ortises" 'oring tools re*ove *aterial dire&tly ro* the botto* o a &avity" =ole dia*eter is &onstant as de+th in&reases" )eaing enlarges the dia*e ter o a hole by re*oving *aterial ro* the sides" Be&ause rea*ers are ta+ered, the sides o a rea*ed hole are angled" -ea*ing is advantageous %here tenons tighten under +ressure" )he *ortises or the legs o a :indsor &hair are rea*ed" =and+o%ered boring tools, su&h as a bra&e and bit, are si*+le *a&hines " =ole +roiles are deter*ined by the &oniguration o the bit, not the skill o the o+era tor" @e&hani&al de+th sto+s and various guides and >igs &an *ake the >ob easier still" ne o the early %ood drills %as the s%oon &it, %hi&h is sha+ed like a gouge but %ith an u+turned, s+oonlike &utting edge" S+oon bits date ba&k to the -o*an (*+ire" S+oon bits &ut by boring and rea*ing" :ith ea&h rotation, the bit &uts through alternate Euadrants o end grain and long grain, resulting in a slightly oval hole" Be&ause s+oon bits la&k a +ointed lead, you &an drill al*ost all the %ay through a +ost or board %ithout &o*ing through on the other side" But the rounded nose *akes it so*e%hat dii&ult to start a hole at a +re&ise lo&ation, es+e&ially on a &urved sura&e su&h as a &hair +ost" n a du!k&ill s+oon bit, the sides are ta+ered slightly narro%er than the &utter %idth" )his redu&es ri&tion as boring de+th in&reases" )he du&kbill sha+e allo%s the bit to slo+ around at the botto* o the hole, resulting in a hole that is %ider at the botto* than it is at the o+ening" 6 *ating tenons are *ade slightly bulbous3so*ething eas ily done %ith a lathe3the undersiFed *outh o the *ortise tra+s the tenon" )he tenon &an;t &o*e out, although it &an loosen and rattle" S+oon bits are still used by %ood%orkers %ho +reer authenti& +eriod *ethods" But s+oon bits %ere histori&ally re+la&ed by *ore &o*+le7 boring
The &ore and waste ade &y an anti>ue du!k&ill s%oon &it, used here with a S%offord &ra!e. The sa%le was sawed o%en after the hole was &ored.
tools, su&h as t%ist bits and augers" An auger &it &o*bines several eatures, ea&h %ith a s+e&ialiFed un&tion" )he %orking end in&ludes a +ointed lead s!rew, one or t%o s%urs, and one or t%o !utters. )he lead +re&isely lo&ates the hole" )he s&re% +ulls the &utter into the %ood, &ontrolling the bite taken %ith ea&h rotation" )he s+urs, %hi&h e7tend ahead o the &utters, s&ore the &ir&u*eren&e o the hole" )he &utters sli&e o the %aste" Cutter shavings are re*oved ro* the hole by the s+iral auger" )he end o the shat is usually a ta+ered sEuare shank or use %ith a bra&e" ther augers are *ade to be &hu&ked into ele&tri& drills" Auger bits are *anua&tured in various +atterns" )he shank o a Dennings +attern auger bit &onsists o t%o &ontinuous s+irals that %ind around ea&h other" )he less e7+ensive 6r%in auger bit has a &oarser lead s&re% and a single s+iral that %inds around a substantial shank" )he &utter heads o both are si*ilar" )he Dennings +attern &an be advantageous %hen boring very hard %ood" ?or boring *ost %oods, the 6r%in is aster, and the heavy +oring 107
shank is less likely to bend" A shi% auger, %hi&h is also &alled an ele&tri&ian;s auger, has one &utter, a single s+ur, and a dee+%alled s+iral that or&es it to bore straighter than a &onventional auger, %hi&h &an be dele&ted by grain angle" )he shank end is generally si7sided or use %ith an ele&tri& drill" Shi+ augers are *ade in dia*eters ro* 8 in&h to 2 in&hes" A &o**on length is 1 in&hes, %ith a 12 in&h auger" Dennings and 6r%in auger bits are *anua&tured in 11<in&h in&re*ents, ro* 1 in&h to 1 in&h in dia*eter and in 1in&h in&re*ents, ro* 11 in&hes to 112 in&hes" )he siFes are nu*bered in si7teenths' Q is 1 in&h, Q10 is 5 in&h, Q20 is 11 in&he s, and so on" )he dia*eters o *any auger bits are a&tually 1< in&h larger than their no*inal di*ension" ?or true siFes, 6 use 6r%in do%el bits 4but these are no longer *anua&tured" Twist &its are designed or drilling *etal but are oten used in %ood" Muality t%ist bits are *ade ro* high s+eed steel, an alloy that holds a good edge and resists overheating" Polished lutes re>e&t shavings &onsiderably better than the uninished lutes o &hea+ t%ist bits" Standard dia*eters run ro* 11< in&h to 12 in&h in in&re*ents o si7tyourths and hundredths" )%ist bits in larger siFes are also available" )%ist bits are usually shar+ened on the side o a 100 grit grindstone" 6ne7+ensive shar+ening >igs are available, but t%ist bits &an also be shar+ened reehand, by eye" Careully du+li&ate the srcinal &oniguration" )he &rad %oint is a s+e&ial %ood%orker;s version o the a*iliar t%ist bit, or use in %ood only" )he design o the &utter in&ludes a short lead +oint and t%o s+urs that +res&ore the dia*eter o the hole" )he best brad+oint bits have knieedged verti&al s+urs and +olished lutes" )he s+urs on lesse7+ensive brad +oints are *ade by laring the &utters at a reverse angle3the +roile rese*bles a butterly" Co*+ared to standard t%ist bits, brad +oints are easier to &enter, and they &ut &leaner holes" Be&ause o the &o*+le7 sha+e, shar+ening is dii&ult, es+e&ially %ith the s*aller siFes" Co**on siFes are ro* 1 in&h to 12 in&h in si7teenths, and ro* 5 in&h to 1 in&h in eighths" )he Forstner %ood bit and its younger ne+he%, the Stanley Power 'ore, are *ade or use %ith an ele&tri& drill, but they &an also be used in bit bra&es that have universal >a%s" 6nstead o s+urs, ?orstner bits ride on t%o Euarter &ir&le s&oring ri*s" Neither style has a s+iral to &arry out shavings" )he shank 108 Green Woodworking
is &onsiderably s*aller than the &utting head dia*eter" Shavings e7it as a hole dee+ens" 6 they don;t, you need to %ithdra% the bit +eriodi&ally, or the shavings %ill >a* the bit in the hole" )he lea d +oint on a ?orstner bit is short, and the &urved ri*s are very lo%, allo%ing you to bore very &lose to the botto* o your *aterial %ithout &o*ing through the ba&k side" )he holes are e7&e+tionally &lean" !sing a drill +ress, ?orstners &an &ut at any grain angle, in&luding end grain, %ithout dele&tion" )hey &an also be used to &ut overla++ing holes" )he standard ?orstner shank is &ylindri&al, but so*e &o*bine a ta+ered sEuare se&tion3usable in any bit bra&e 3at the end o the round shank" ?orstner bits are *anua&tured ro* 1 to 111< in&h in 11<in&h in&re*ents, and ro* 11 to 212 in&hes in 1in&h in&re*ents" $ue to the li*ited &learan&e %ithin the &utting head and the rounded ri*, ?orstner bits are not easy to shar+en" )he Po%erBore bit is *ade %ith a 12in&h lead, one 1in&h s+ur, and a single &utter" SiFes are ro* 8 in&h to 1 in&h, in eighths" 6;ve noted &onsiderable variation in dia*eter %ithin ea&h no*inal siFe" )he shank is ground %ith three lats or a Da&obsty+e &hu&k" )he steel is sot ater about a doFen shar+enings, 6 toss the*" :hat;s good about the Po%erBore ?irst, it *akes a &lean hole, as Eui&kly as a ?orstner does" Be&au se o the sot steel, the lead and s+ur are easily shortened" 4!se a s*all, triangular ile" 6 ne&essary, you &an ile or grind do%n the sides o the &utter to s+e&ial dia*eters" @ost i*+ortant, Stanley and 6r%in *anua&ture e7tensions %hi&h are very useul or reehand boring" :hen they %ere introdu&ed, Po%erBore bits &ost &onsiderably less than ?orstners *ore re&ently, the &ost o ?orstners has allen, %hereas Po%erBore +ri&es are rising" Bit bra&es %ere originally develo+ed or use %ith s+oon bits and rea*ers" (arly versions held bits in various odd %ays so*e bits %ere +er*anently atta&hed" )he S+oord s+lit so&ket bra&e, %hi&h uses ta+ered, sEuare shank bits, %as invented in 159" 6 like to use a S+oord bra&e be&ause there;s no &hu&k *e&hanis*, %hi&h invari ably %obbles" )he *odern shell &hu&k, %ith ad>ustable >a%s and a rat&het advan&e, %as +atented in the 1<0s" Shell &hu&ks are *ade %ith t%o ty+es o >a%s" An alligator &hu&k has t%o >a%s %hi&h +ivot ro* the
Shar&ening #uger Bits
Wood&oring &its 2left to right3 5ennings, 8rwin, Forstner, Power'ore 2new3, Power'ore 2with shortened lead and s%ur3.
botto* o the &hu&k >a%s" )his li*its use to ta+ered, sEuareshank bits" )he >a%s o a universal &hu&k &an o+en and &lose either +arallel or at an angle to ea&h other" !niversal &hu&ks hold ta+ered sEuare shanks and +arallel shanks %ith lats" Chu&ks %ith three and our >a%s have also been *anua&tured" Swee% reers to the dia*eter o a &ir&le des&ribed by the &rank o a bra&e" Co**on bra&es have a 10 or 12in&h s%ee+" (ightin&h s%ee+ bra&es are ni&e or boring s*all dia*eter holes and or %orking in &lose Euarters" S%ee+s o 12 or 1 in&hes are re&o**ended or boring holes larger than 1 in&h in dia*eter and or %orking in very hard %ood" =and+o%ered eggbeater drills and breast drills are *ade or use %ith t%ist bits and brad+oint bits ro* 11< in&h to 8 in&h" $rill gearing develo+s s+eed, but there;s very little +o%er behind the bit"
Two !oon &ra!e &it
!hu!ks. The less e%ensive alligator !hu!k 2left3 works well with !onventional ta%ered
Auger &its are o%%on", neg"eted# &ut shar!ening the% is not di((iu"t A shar! &it wi"" !u"" itse"( into the wood# re>uiring "itt"e downward !ressure on the &rae +oring wide ho"es in hard wood re>uires %us) "e !ower# &ut the work shou"d &e in turning the &rae# not in getting enough advane +its are shar!ened with a s!eia" auger &it (i"e# whih has two e"ongated# ("at ta!ers at o!!osite ends o( a entra" shank he (i"e teeth o( one end are on the ("at sides. the narrow edges are s%ooth At the other end# the teeth are on the edges# and the ("ats are s%ooth With this arrange%ent# there;s no danger o( aidenta"", (i"ing two adHaent !"anes at one# whih wou"d &e eas, in the rowded interior arhiteture o( an auger &it Auger &its "arger than a&out 58 inh an a"so &eshar!ened with a s%a""# three)ornered (i"e# "ike the ones %ade (or shar!en) ing hand saws First (i"e the s!urs =( the s!ur is wedge sha!ed# it shou"d &e thinned to a kni(e"ike setion Fi"e the "ead) ing edge on the inside o( eah s!ur unti" ,ou raise a &urr on the e*terior e%ove the &urr with one or two ver, "ight (i"e strokes on the e*terior o shar!en the utters# rest the "ead !oint on a !iee o( sra! wood# ti"ting the auger shank awa, (ro% ,our "ine o( vision Fi"e the interior &eve" o( the utters to a&out 30 =t;s eas, to (i"e the utters at a stee!er ang"e# &ut resist the te%!tation When ,ou raise a &urr on the "ead side# "ight", (i"e it o(( +e sure to kee! the (i"e ("at# so that the "ead o( the utter doesn;t &eo%e du&&ed over
s>uareshank auger &its. The universal !hu!k 2right3 also holds round and %arallelsided, heagonal shank &its.
+oring 109
6n re&ent years *any green %ood%orkers have taken to using hand held, variable s+eed ele&tri & drills or *any boring tasks" )he ne%, better Euality &ordless ele&tri& drills are es+e&ially useul they have i*+ressive torEue and &an be o+erated at very slo%, sae s+eeds" So*e o *y &olleagues also use a drill +ress" But +ersonally, 6 +reer reehand boring or *ost green %ood%orking, in&luding *aking &hairs" Boring TechniAues Boring %ood by hand is &o**only looked u+on as a
*onotonous avoided %henever 4)he ad>e&tivea&tivity, GboringGtois bederivative" Personally,+ossible" 6 en>oy drilling holes, i the %ood isn;t e7tre*ely hard or ornery" And boring &o*+ound angles &an +resent so*e good &hallenges" ten, holes *ust be bored at dierent angles, and so*eti*es in *irrored +airs" Hou have to stay alert at all ti*es *istakes &an be disastrous to the %ork" :hile hel+ing students learn ho% to *ake green%ood &hairs, 6;ve +robably en&ountered *ore *istakes during boring than in all other +hases o &onstru&tion &o*bined" )he astest learners so*eti*es *ake the %orst errors" Boring angles &an be &o*+li&ated and &onusing, but there are several *ethods or getting your bearings" @ost drilling tasks &an be >igged" )o bore the &o*+ound angles or the legs o a S%iss t%oboard &hair, -uedi ohler uses a bo7like >ig %ith align*ent holes that;s +la&ed dire&tly over the seat blank" $rill +ress tables &an be tilted" n a radial drill +ress, the head itsel &an be set at an angle" 6 +reer to bore reehand, although 6 do use visual align*ent aids and de+th sto+s" :ithout a *e&hani&al >ig, you *ust kee+ alert at all ti*es and also develo+ skills in eyeballing" Boring angles &an be reerred to as si*+le 4+er +endi&ular or &o*+ound" :hen +er+endi&ular, the drill a++ears sEuare to its base %hen vie%ed ro* any dire&tion" A &o*+ound angle tilts ro* the sura&e, in one or t%o dire&tions, de+ending on ho% it;s vie%ed" Any boring angle &an be lo&ated by deter*ining the interse&tion o t%o +lanes, or one angle and the lean dire&tion" Angles are oten s+e&iied in relationshi+ to a horiFontal 4level or verti&al 4+lu*b reeren&e" Level and +lu*b reeren&es are +arti&ularly useul or boring into irregular sha+es, su&h as logs or &hair +osts" A line level &an be ta+ed to boring tools and angle gauges, su&h as sEuares and sliding bevel gauges" !singto arotate horiFontal +lane as+osition a reeren&e, it;s al%ays +ossible your sighting 110 Green Woodworking
until a &o*+ound angle looks verti&al ro* your vantage +oint" 4)his is easy to understand i you i*agine yoursel %alking in a &ir&le around a leaning tree" -egardless o the lean, ro* t%o o++osite +ositions the tree a++ears verti&al" )his vie%+oint is the lean dire!tion. )he lean angle is the angle or*ed %hen the lean dire&tion is seen as verti&al" Co*+ound angles &an be *easured and notated ro* a *odel3either a *o&ku+ or an ob>e&t being re+rodu&ed3 and ro* dra%ings" )o take angles ro* dra%ings, use t%o +er+endi&ular vie%s, usually one headon and the other ro* a side" Hou %ill have t%o lean angles" ?or the lean dire&tion, you need a +lan vie%, as seen ro* above" )he angles are &o+ied %ith a lat +lasti& drating +rotra&tor" A se&ond kind o +rotra&tor, &onsisting o a re&tangular steel +late that is et&hed %ith a 10O ar& and that has a +ivoting leg, is used or *easuring angles o things su&h as a *odel" (ither +rotra&tor &an be used to set bevel gauges" @ost boring at +er+endi&ular and &o*+ound angles is done ro* a verti&al boring +osition" )he +ie&e is se&ured to a horiFontal sura&e3usually a %orkben&h3%ith &la*+s or a three+egand%edge holding syste* 4see sidebar on +age 118" )he boring tool is +ositioned by reeren&ing against t%o gauges +la&ed +er+endi&ular to ea&h other" (yeball your boring +osition by tilting the boring tool so that it a++ears +arallel to ea&h guide %hen vie%ed ro* res+e&tive vie%+oints" ne %ay to bore a &o*+ound angle is by ti++ing the drill in the lean dire&tion at a s+e&ii& lean angle" )o insure that the drill is &orre&t, ad>ust a sliding bevel at the lean angle, and +la&e it +arallel to the lean dire&tion" )hen set a sEuare +er+endi&ular to the lean dire&tion" ?ro* +er+endi&ular vantage +oints, the gauges and the bit %ill be +arallel" 6n a se&ond *ethod, you use t%o lean angles and sight against t%o sliding bevels, set +er+endi&ular to ea&h other" Lean dire&tion isn;t &onsidered" 6t;s +ossible to bore &o*+ound angles by eye" ?or a set o &o*+ound angles, su&h as the legs o a ben&h, you &an bore the irst hole by eyeballing the drill shank ro* t%o +er+endi&ular dire&tions" 4A bit e7tension hel+s to in&rease a&&ura&y by *agniying any errors" Ater the irst hole is bored, insert a irst leg into it" -eer to the irst leg as a *irror i*age o an ad>a&ent hole" Bore the se&ond hole, insert another leg, and &ontinue the set" ?or horiFontal boring, the drill is al%ays held level" ne advantage is that you &an bore a series o holes using a level as a &onstant reeren&e" 6 use
!ind"e
iting oint
Siting the !o%ound angles of a !hair s%indle &y !o&ining lean dire!tion and lean angle. The !hair seat is shown on a flat surfa!e.
>uare !ind"e
atta&hed to the +ost" 46 not, insert a du**y rung in one o +eve" Gauge
the holes" )o set u+ the rotational +osition, ta+e a line level to a sliding bevel set at an angle taken ro* a *odel or dra%ing" =old the sliding bevel %ith the bubble &entered in the level" -otate the +ost until the atta&hed rungs are +arallel to the angled leg o the sliding bevel" Hou &an also *ake s+e&ial angle gauges or s+e&ii& +ro>e&ts" @y GPotty SeatG 4not +atented &o*bines the various angles o a ladderba&k &hair in a single gauge" )he outer angles re+resent the rung+ost angles and their relationshi+ to the ba&k slat *ortises" )he gauge has a hollo% &enter, so that a line level &an be ta+ed +arallel to one side"
horiFontal boring or the rung *ortises in the +osts o a ladderba&k &hair" )he holding devi&e &an be a ben&h vise or a three+egand%edge syste* on a %all" )o insure that the drill is horiFontal, ta+e a line level to the bit shank" )he addition o a bit e7tension e7aggerates angular lu&tuations and *akes sighting easier" Stand %ith your eet about 1 in&hes a+art" Steady the bra&e by holding the knob >ust inside your let or right hi+ >oint" n a ladderba&k &hair, the rungs interse&t to or* a tra+eFoid" )he boring angle or rungs &o*ing into a +ost is oten +er+endi&ular" )o bore the interse&ting rungs, you *ust rotate the +ost to the &orre&t angle" !sually, the irst set o rungs is already +oring 111
/easuring !o%ound angles using drawings of front and side views. Note that the side views are easured fro the tilted seat, not a horiDontal %lane.
Boring Ti&s
?reehand is de+endent a&&urate eyeballing" best ti+ isboring to &he&k align*ent on ro* t%o vantage +oints@y at right angles to ea&h other" :ith auger bits, you &an sto+ boring at a very shallo% de+th3the lead s&re% %ill hold the bra&e in +osition3and then ste+ ba&k to &he&k the angle ro* both vie%s" r you &an rely on a hel+er to align the setu+" @irrors and lines on the loor or a %all &an also be used" 4Plasti& *irrors survive abuse in the sho+" $e+th gauges kee+ you ro* drilling too ar" Hou &an %ra+ a +ie&e o ta+e around the drill shank, but 6 +reer a *e&hani&al gauge that +hysi&ally li*its the bore" ?or t%ist bits, you &an buy s*all &ollars that are held in +la&e by a set s&re%" r, drill a hole through a s*all blo&k o %ood that;s >ust the right length to sto+ boring %hen it rea&hes the *aterial being bored the blo&k *ust be +ositioned against the &hu&k" ?or auger bits, 6 use a Stanley No" . de+th gauge" )his neat devi&e is a s+ring %ith a ballsha+ed end that *akes a %arning noise %hen it &onta&ts the %ood, %ithout +reventing you ro* boring dee+er" !nortunately, these are no longer available" 112 Green Woodworking
)he e7it end o a hole bored through a +ie&e o %ood is oten *arred by torn ibers" 6 you &la*+ the *aterial on to+ o a +ie&e o s&ra+ %ood, you &an bore straight through the %ork and into the s&ra+ %ithout tearout" )here *ust be &lose &onta&t bet%een the t%o +ie&es" Another *ethod is to bore a hole +art%ay ro* o++osite dire&tions" )his %orks +arti&ularly %ell %ith bits that have a long lead s&re% sto+ boring %hen you see the ti+ o the lead &o*ing through" )urn the %ood over and inish boring, using the lead +ri&k to &enter the bit" 6 you;re boring at an angle, reversing dire&tion &an be &onusing the se&ond +ass *ust *irror the srcinal angle" By drilling ro* both ends, you also &an *ake dee+ holes that *ight other%ise %ander out o align*ent" An e7a*+le %ould be boring or dee+ *ortises, su&h as or the %edges o a trestle table" Again, &areul align*ent ro* t%o vantage +oints is the key to su&&ess" :hen a bit doesn;t &ut &leanly, it reEuires shar+ening and +ossibly resha +ing o the &utters or s+urs" Auger bits *ay have been iled at too stee+ a &utting angle"
The Three+,eg+and+Wedge Holding Syste hree !egs !rotrude (ro% ho"es &ored in&enh a to! or an, other horiBonta"# vertia"# or ti"ted sur) (ae he !egs shou"d &e hardwood and "east at 34 inh in dia%eter wo !egs are !"aed in "ine# as a &ase (or the %ateria" to &e &ored he third !eg is !"aed a&ove the &ase to seure the work !"us a&out ha"( the width o( a wedge Wedges o( di((er) ent widths an &e used in o%&ination with %ater) ia" o( varied di%ensions he en"osed ang"e o( the wedge shou"d &e no %ore than 10# or it wi"" "oosen too easi",
+oriDontal &oring using a three%egandwedge holding syste. The drill rig !onsists of a Power'ore &it, a &it etension, a line level, and a &it &ra!e with universal Eaws. The &ore de%th gauge is a %ie!e of ta%e wra%%ed around the Power'ore shank.
'oring a !o%ound angle using two lean angles. The siting guides are two sliding &evels, %ositioned %er%endi!ular to ea!h other.
+orins 113
A %air of lightweight, rived and shaved trestles. The legs and !ross %ie!es are white ash.
This -Potty Seat- is used to set u% front and &a!k %ost &oring angles for y ladder&a!k !hairs.
?or ti+s on boring into the side o a &ylinder 4su&h as rung *ortises in a ladderba&k +ost, see the +ro>e&t des&ri+tion in &ha+ter 10" ,ro!ect: # ,air of "ightweightTrestles 6 irst sa% these trestles %hile visiting *y riend $aniel ;=agan" $aniel had been doing so*e &ar+entry or a neighbor %hen he dis&overed that the neighbor didn;t have any sa%horses" $aniel Eui&kly *ade a +air, using a s+lit sa+ling or the trestles" =e liked the* so %ell that he *ade another set or hi*sel" :hen 6 returned ho*e, 6 *ade these" )hese trestles are light%eight and strong" )hey sta&k ni&ely, sin&e there are no bra&es bet%een the legs" @aking the* %ill give you +ra&ti&e doing verti&al boring o &o*+ound angles" :ell do so*e horiFontal boring %hile *aking the stool in &ha+ter 10, %hi&h you should +revie% beore building the trestles" Tools. )he standard riving tools bit bra&e 1in&h auger bit t%o sliding bevels dra%knie s+okeshave a inetoothed &ross&ut sa% &hisel &arving knie t%o large &la*+s shaving horse and a 2 to 8+ound ha**er or *allet" A %orkben&h %ith a vise is useul but not ne&essary" /aterials. ?or the t%o trestles, you need a sa+ling, 12 to 512 in&he s in dia*eter and 2 to 80 in&hes long
or the legs, enough %ood to s+lit and shave eight 2in&h legs" @y sa%bu&ks are ash, %hi&h is strong and light, but any strong, 114 Green Woodworking
straightgrained, ring+orous hard%ood is a++ro+riate" Hello% +ine &an also be used" Hou also need *aterial to *ake eight s*all %edges, and %hite or yello% glue" -ive the leg blanks, about 2 in&hes on ea&h side" Shave the* into sEuares, 112 in&hes on ea&h side, then into o&tagons, and inally into rounds" :et rounds should be air dried a e% days, then Gsu+erdriedG in a %ar* +la&e, su&h as behind a urna&e or %ood stove, so that they %on;t shrink and all out o the )hehas tenons %ill be dried" shaved >ust beore asse*bly, atertrestles" the %ood thoroughly :ork on the trestles %hile the legs are drying" Both trestles are *ade by s+litting or sa%ing the sa+ling in hal" 46 ri++ed *ine %ith a &hain sa%, sin&e 6 %asn;t sure i *y ash sa+ling %ould s+lit straight, and 6 had only one +ie&e to use" ?latten the inner sura&e %ith a +lane" -e*ove the bark %ith a he%ing hat&het or dra%knie" )he *ortises are bored ro* the botto* o the trestle" !se t%o &la*+s to se&ure the trestle, lat side do%n, over a +ie&e o s&ra+ %ood" )he end to be bored should overhang the s&ra+ so you &an see the auger lead %hen it starts to e7it" Lo&ate ea&h +air o *ortises at &enterlines, 212 in&hes and 5 in&hes ro* either end o the trestle" Be&ause the trestle is e7&e+tionally narro%, the *ortises are staggered, rather than lo&ated o++osite one another"
)he leg angle as vie%ed ro* the end o the trestle, &alled s%lay, is 20O ro* verti&al" ?ro* the side, the leg !ant angle is 18O ro* verti&al" Set t%o sliding bevels to these angles" 4Hou &ould also use &ardboard triangles &ut out to these angles" Pla&e the 20O gauge on the ben&h to+ +arallel to the end o the trestle set the 18O gauge +arallel to the side o the trestle" )he irst hole &an be at the 212in&h or 5in&h lo&ation" )o deter*ine the +la&e*ent o the bit, hold the drill +arallel to the end sliding bevel, then lo&ate it +er+endi&ular to the tangent o the halround side" At the &orre&t +osition, the lead s&re% should +oint near the &enter o the trestle to+" :hen vie%ed ro* the end o the trestle, the auger %ill a++ear +arallel to the 20O slidi ng bevel" Shove the lead into the %ood so that it %on;t sli+" :hile holding the bra&e at the 20O angle, shit your vie%+oint to one side" No% tilt the bra&e to the 18O side angle" 4)his is %here beginners %ill a++re&iate a hel+er Start boring" Sto+ as soon as the lead s&re% &an hold the bra&e at the angled +osition in the %ood"
Ste+ ba&k a e% +a&es and vie% the bit ro* the end and side vie%s" Dudge the angle o the bit in &o*+arison to both sliding bevels" )hey should a++ear +arallel to the bit" Ad>ust the bra&e as ne&essary use your sense o >udg*ent, shiting the bra&e u+ or do%n, let or right" )ake about t%o turns o the bra&e to set the ne% angle" )hen &he&k your align*ent on&e *ore" Continue boring until the lead >ust begins to +oke through the trestle sura&e" )hen sto+, and ba&k out o the hole" Bore the other three holes" Be &areul to *ake the &orre&t bevel setu+s or ea&h leg" -otate the so board" that the)oto+ side a&es u+" Cla*+ it in +osition ontrestle, the s&ra+ +revent the trestle ro* rolling, sli+ t%o or three %edges under the &urved botto*" Set u+ the sliding bevels, %ith angles *irroring the +ositions %hen the botto* %as bored" 4)he s+lay and &ant angles are no% dire&ted in%ard" ?inish the holes by boring through the lead+ri&ked &enters" n&e the leg blanks have dried, you &an %ork on the tenons" )he length o the 1in&hdia*eter tenons is deter*ined by the de+th o the trestle
Plans for a lightweight trestle. /ake two of the.
+oring 115
The tenon wedges ust &e %er%endi!ular to the long fi&ers of the trestle.
*ortises" ?ind the dee+est *ortise, and *ake all the tenons the sa*e length" 4@ine %ere 212 in&hes" Any e7&ess length %ill be tri**ed ater the tenons are in +la&e" )o a&&urately siFe the tenons, *ake a gauge by boring three or our 1in&h holes through a +ie&e o dry hard%ood about 12 in&h thi&k" @ake several holes, sin&e they;ll be&o*e larger %ith use" )o *ake these big tenons, 6 start by sa%ing a shallo% ker, about 81< in&h dee+, around the &ir&u*eren&e o the leg" )his &an be done at a shaving horse or %ith a ben&h vise" Begin shaving the tenon %ith the dra%knie bevel a&ing do%n" )o shave u+ against the shoulder, reverse the dra%knie and +ush it into the sa% ker" !se the hole gauge oten" )he tenon should it through, but Euite tightly" 46 one o these long tenons gets shaved too s*all, don;t %orry" )he tenon %ill +robably tighten u+ %hen it;s %edged into the trestle" :hen the tenon dia*eter is right, &arve a s*all &ha*er on the end" Sin&e loads tend to &on&entrate at the sEuare shoulders, you &an also dra%knie a &ha*er at the tenon shoulders or added strength" @ake a 2in&hdee+ sa% &ut tangent throughtothethe&enter o rings" ea&h tenon or a %edge" Sa% the ker gro%th )o *ake the %edges, rive t%o or three 12in&hlong blanks about 1 in&h %ide and 1 in&h thi&k"
116 Green Woodworking
Shave a 2in&hlong %edge ro* one end o a blank, then sa% it o and *ake another %edge" :hen the irst blank be&o*es too short to shave, s%it&h to another +ie&e" Pla&e the trestle u+side do%n on t%o +ie&es o s&ra+ %ood" Leave &learan&e or the tenons to e7it" Brush glue in one *ortise and on one tenon" rient the tenon so that the %edge ker is +er+endi&ular to the long ibers o the trestle" !se a ha**er or *allet to drive the tenon into the *ortise" 46 use a 8+ound *allet %ith ra%hide inserts that it into an iron head" Sto+ %hen the tenon shoulders engage the &ross +ie&e" :hen all our legs are in +la&e, turn the sa%bu&k over" 6t %ill +robably %obble" :e;ll level it ater the other sa%bu&k is +ut together to *ake a *at&hed +air" -ight no%, you need to drive in the %edges beore the glue around the tenons dries out" Put a little glue on ea&h %edge, and ha**er it in until it its tightly" !se a 12 to 1<oun&e steelheaded ha**er" -e*ove glue slo+ around the tenons %ith a da*+ened &loth" )ri* the +rotruding tenon ends %ith a sa% or &hisel" Asse*ble the se&ond sa%bu&k" )hen level both sa%bu&ks %ith ad>ust*ent %edges, and sa% the legs to inal lengths" $etails or this +ro&edure are given near the end o the stool +ro>e&t in &ha+ter 10"
C=AP)(- N6N(
5ending )here;s a *agi& in bending %ood that re*inds *e o a bla&ks*ith sha+ing hot *etal at a orge" Hou %ork the *aterial Eui&kly, %ith deliberate a&tions" Digs *ust be >ust right" All ne&essary tools are %ithin ar*;s rea&h" As %ith bla&ks*ithing, you *ust inish a hot bend beore the %ood loses its heat" Also, there;s an ele*ent o risk and sus +ense" :ith tight bends, you &an e7+e&t so*e ailures even %ith e7+erien&e" :ood bending is +arti&ularly suited to the needs o green %ood%orkers" North A*eri&an 6ndians have bent %ood to *ake sno%shoes, sleds, toboggans, and &anoe ra*es" n the Pa&ii& North%est &oast, 6ndians &rated re&tangular storage bo7es ro* rived &edar +lanks" Corners %ere *ade by &arving kers a&ross the grain, heating, and olding" )he ourth &orner and a botto* +lank %ere astened %ith +egs or lashing" (ven logs %ere bent" Ater a &edar dugout &anoe %as adFed ro* a log to a unior* thi&kness o t%o inger %idths, the hull %as illed %ith boiling %ater" As the %ood sotened, the bea* %as %idened by %edging sti&ks a&ross the hull" )he slats o a ladderba&k &hair are al%ays bent" 6 the &hair is to be &o*ortable, the ba&k +osts *ust be &urved" 4n Shaker theside %hi&h aren;t +arti&ularly &o*ortable, ba&k &hairs, +osts %ere usually straight" :indsor &hairs o all styles have a bent ba&k rail" n a &ontinuous ar* :indsor, a single 5oot rod is bent into a tri+le &urve to or* both ar* rests and the ba&k su++ort" )hinrived :indsor ba&k s+indles so*eti*es reEuire straightening3 %ood bending in reverse" ther uses o bending by green %ood%orkers in&lude basket ra*es and handles, %ooden bu&ket hoo+ing, tool handles, &anes and she+herd;s &rooks, and the ri*s o large %ools+inning %heels" Bending has several uniEue advantages over other sha+ing *ethods" Bent %ood is *u&h stronger than %ood sha+ed by &utting a&ross the long ibers" )his advantage is +arti&ularly true %hen the %ood is rived instead o sa%ed" 46n industry, sa%ed lu*ber %ith a grain runout o 1'153 %hi&h *eans that in a 15in&h board, the grain *oves to the side 1 in&h3is &onsidered +ri*e *aterial" -ived sto&k has
A Eig used to &end &a!k slats for ladder&a!k !hairs
little, i any, runout" Sin&e it;s stronger, bent %ood &an be used in s*aller di*ensions and, thereore, be &onsiderably lighter than %ood sha+ed by sa%ing" )here is also a savings in *aterials" )here are a e% disadvantages to %ood bending" Be&ause bent %ood s+rings ba&k slightly ater or*ing, it &an be dii&ult to *at&h +aired &o*+onents" $ue to lu&tuations in %ood *oisture &ontent, unrestrained bent %ood, su&h as a bent hayork, &an &hange sha+e long ater bends are set" :ood bending reEuires la%less *aterials, and even then ailures are +ossible" Bending %ide sto&k is *u&h easier than bending dee+se&tioned sto&k" :hen %ood is bent, the ibers on the outside o the &urve are stressed in tension" At the sa*e ti*e, the inner &urve is or&ed into &o*+ression" As in a loaded bea*, so*e%here in the *iddle there is a neutral a7is %hi&h is neither tensed nor &o*+ressed" :ood &an be %lasti!iDed3*ade *ore bendable3by the use o heat and *oisture to te*+orarily soten the &ellular stru&ture" 0i&ering is a te&hniEue o gradually &reating a &urve by le7ing %ood several ti*es beore bending it to the reEuired radius" n a dee+ bend, the outer &urve *ay stret&h 2 +er&ent %hile the inner &urve &o*+resses as *u&h as 80 +er&ent" +ending 117
'ending the &a!k rail of a !ontinuousar Windsor
deter*ined any &orrelation bet%een %eight or gro%th rates and bending Eualities" A table rating bending Eualities o %ood s+e&ies is in&luded in &ha+ter 8" Be&ause o variation %ithin s+e&ies, you should e7+eri*ent %ith %oods in your area" :indsor &hair*aker $ave Sa%yer observed that North Carolina hi&kory gro%ing on our ar* %oodlot didn;t bend as %ell as the hi&kory he uses in Ne% (ngland" =enri Jaillan&ourt, ounder o the )rust or Native A*eri&an Cultures and Crats, says that the 6ndians o Muebe&, Canada, +reer to bend sno%shoes ro* yello% bir&h, not %hite bir&h" =enri has ound that Ne% (ngland %hite bir&h is too %eak, so he uses %hite ash" Bla&k ash bends easily, but it %ears Eui&kly" ?or sno%shoes, *a+le %ears %ell, but the uneven grain is dii&ult to %ork and to bend %ithout ailures"
Bending .Aui&ent
Stret&hing on the outer &urve is insignii&ant relative to the e7tensive &o*+ression o the inner &urve, %here &ell %alls deor* into *i&ros&o+i& olds and %rinkles" )here *ay also be a s*all a*ount o &ellular sli++ing" Be&ause green %ood%orkers use %et rived sto&k, radi&al bends &an be *ade %ith lo%te&h *ethods" Bending sa%ed, dried lu*ber reEuires tension stra+s and other s+e&ialiFed eEui+*ent" /reen %ood +lasti&iFes better and *ore Eui&kly than dry %ood" Be&ause o high *oisture &ontent, green %ood &ondu&ts and holds heat *u&h better than dried %ood" 6n e7tre*e bends, hydrostati& +ressure %ithin the &ell %alls o saturated %ood &an &ause ailures lo%ering the *oisture &ontent to 80 +er&ent *ay hel+" Bending sto&k *ust be high Euality and ree o dee&ts su&h as knots, inse&t holes, in&i+ient de&ay, and &he&king" Hou &an e7+e&t both su&&esses and ailures, even using %ood s+e&ies rated highly or bending" )ests by the !"S" $e+art*ent o Agri&ulture ?orest Produ&ts Laboratory haven;t 118 Green Woodworking
)hin green sto&k, su&h as that used or sno%shoes and la+ strake boat +lanking, is so*eti*es bent &old by nailing or riveting into its bent or*" =eavier
'ending fors for &asket ris and handles used &y /artha Wether&ee
sto&k reEuires +lasti&iFing %ith stea* or hot %ater and the use o bending >igs" )he use o heat *ay *ake an unrestrained bend *ore +er*anent" A &o**only used >ig or lat &urves &onsists o a or* board sha+ed to the interior &urve o the bend, s&re%ed to a base o +ly%ood or lu*ber" )he bent +ie&e is held in +la&e bet%een the or* board and +egs %ith %edges" A se+arate >ig is reEuired or ea&h sha+e" 6n a *ore le7ible3but less e7a&t3 arrange*ent, a tableto+ or a %ide, thi&k board is drilled %ith a grid o holes" Pegs are inserted to des&ribe the interior o the desired &urve" ther +egs, used %ith %edges, are +la&ed in holes to se&ure the bent %ood on the e7terior o the &urve as it sets" :hen 6 %as *aking hayorks, 6 used si*+le ra*e >igs that or* bends in both %idth and de+th si*ultaneously" )he hayork handl e is *ade %ith an S &urve, as vie%ed ro* the side, %hile the tines are bent in &o*+ound &urves, as vie%ed in +lan vie%" )he >ig &onsists o a shallo% ra*e o 1 7 s, %ith holes in the sides that are itted %ith re*ov able do%els" 6;ve used these >igs to bend hundreds o hayorks and also the ba&k +osts o ladderba&k &hairs" )o &hange the &urve, 6 >ust bore dierent do%el holes in the sides o the ra*e"
)he &hair +ost >igs that 6 &urrently use are *ade ro* a 1in&hthi&k board %ith a not&hed kee+er board s&re%ed to the base to hold the +osts in +la&e" ne or* holds t%o +osts, +ositioned ba&k to ba&k" 6 like these >igs %hi&h are easy to *ake and don;t take u+ *u&h s+a&e in storage or %hen used" 6n designing any >ig, the &urvature should be slightly e7aggerated to &o*+ensate or the ee&t o s+ringba&k" A &hange ro* one *aterial to another &ould reEuire >ig *odii&ations" )he stea*er 6 use %as +ut together in about hal an hour" )he stea* &ha*ber is a bo7 o rough +ine lu*ber nailed together" 6t;s better than *ost +i+e stea*ers, sin&e the %ood bo7 doesn;t &ause *u&h &ondensation" 6nside the bo7 there are si7 &ross do%els, lo&ated about 1 in&h above its loor, to kee+ the +ie&es being stea*ed out o the &ondensation on the botto* and to allo% stea* to &ir&ulate reely" )he ends o the stea*er are +lugged %ith re*ovable +ie&es o oa* rubber" )he stea*er rests dire&tly on a 212gallon +ot, %hi&h is heated on a stove or a hot +late" Stea* enters the &ha*ber through a +otsiFed o+ening &ut in the botto*" Be&ause the stea*er is narro%er than the +ot, 6 &over the e7tra %idth o the +ot to+ %ith t%o %ooden lids, one on ea&h side o the bo7"
Bending 119
This frae Eig &ends hayforks in two %lanes. AdEustents in the %rofile &end !an &e ade &y relo!ating the large, iddle dowel.
)o *onitor the te*+erature in the bo7, 6 insert a dee+ ry dial ther*o*eter into an end" )hese are available at su+er*arkets and hard%are stores or a e% dollars" )he *a7i*u* te*+erature that 6 a&hieve is 195O?, %hi&h see*s to be adeEuate" )he &ha*ber should not be larger than ne&essary" @ine %as *ade or stea*ing the ba&k rail o a &ontinuous ar* :indsor and is <2 in&hes long, 12 in&hes %ide, and 512 in&hes high"
Wood Bending TechniAues Careul sha+ing3es+e&ially thi&knessing3is i*+ortant" Bending or&es tend to &on&entrate and &ause, ailures at abru+t &hanges in di*ension" )hi&k areas resist bending thin areas tend to &olla+se" )he thi&kness o a &hair ba&k slat should be unior*" A +ur+oseully *ade ta+er in thi&kness &an be used to *odiy the radius o a bend" (7a*+les in&lude the irregular &urves o a sno%shoe ra*e, so*e basket handles, and the bent ba&k +osts o ladderba&k &hairs" S*ooth sura&ing %ill *ini*iFe ailures su&h as &ross grain slivering" A slight &ha*er at the edges o sEuare se&tion *e*bers also hel+s to +revent tearouts" :ooden bu&ket hoo+ing +rovides an interesting illustration o the i*+ortan&e in &areul thi&knessing and detailing" Bending the hoo+ seldo* +resents a +roble*" But %hen the hoo+ is +ut in +la&e and driven tightly against the staves, the entire hoo+ is or&ed into tension" A slight i*+ere&tion in 120 Green Woodworking
the %ood or the di*ensions o the hoo+ usually results in a ailure" )o a +oint, hoo+ strength in&reases as the thi&kness is redu&ed" /enerally, bending billets should be rived and sha+ed so that bends are +arallel %ith the gro%th rings" )his isn;t al%ays +ossible, but &han&es o su&&ess are greater" 6n the &ase o *ultidi*ensional bends, su&h as the ba&k rail o a &ontinuousar* :indsor, gro%th rings &an be oriented in either di*ension" )he &ross se&tion o the %ood being bent should be %ide, not dee+" $ee+se&tioned bends tend to bu&kle at the sides" $o any *ortising or boring ater bending" 6t;s usually %orth%hile to shave and bend e7tra +ie&es, es+e&ially i you need *at&hed +arts su&h as &hair +osts, be&ause so*e are likely to ail during bending or to set %ith une7+e&ted &urvatures" Li*bering *ay hel+ %ith both &old and hot bends" )he %ood should be le7ed only in the dire&tion o the bend" )he &onta&t sura&e o a li*bering i7ture should be &urved, to s+read out the &o*+ression or&es and to +revent dents in the %ood" 6 so*eti*es bend the %ood against *y leg" Ater li*bering a hot bend, 6 oten reheat the %ood or the inal >igged bend" Boiling %orks as %ell as stea*ing" )he disadvantage is that large boilers are &u*berso*e" Boiling &an be used to advantage on a long +ie&e i only one end reEuires bending" Boiling %ater &an be ladled over thin sto&k, su&h as &hair slats, bu&ket hoo+s, and basket handles"
A si%le, &ut effe!tive, steaer, ade fro %ine &oards nailed together. 'oth ends are %lugged with %ie!es of foa ru&&er. The &lo!k of wood on to% is a &alan!e. 2The heating eleent of this %arti!ular hot %late is sall and ti%%y.3
0i&ering a ladder&a!k %ost. 8f the wood sees stiff 8*ll %ut it &a!k in the steaer for a few inutes &efore &ending it in the Eig.
sure to have everything &lose at hand, in&luding a su++ly o t%ine and a sele&tion o C&la*+s in dierent siFes" )hese &an save the day, as %e;ll see belo%" A hel+er %ill be a++re&iated, es+e&ially by beginners" About an hour ater e7e&uting a bend, it;s oten +ossible to re*ove the %ood ro* its >ig and tie the bend in +la&e %ith t%ine" )his is useul i you have
Allo% an hour o stea*3or boiling3ti*e +er in&h o thi&kness or airdried %ood and hal an hour +er in&h or green %ood" Longer stea*ing ti*es *ay hel+, but the %ood &an also be %eakened i it begins to G&ook"G 6t;s i*+ortant to %ork Eui&kly on&e the %ood is re*oved ro* the heat" :ear neo+rene gloves" Be +ending 121
,ro!ect: # 4irewood Carrier ?or years, 6 stubbornly hauled ire%ood to our kit&hen by the ar*ul" 6;ve tri++ed on the %ay, 6;ve balan&ed a ull load in one ar* so that 6 &ould o+en the door, and so on" No%, %ith a ire%ood &arrier, 6 &an haul t%i&e the load %ith hal the eort" :hen it;s raining, 6 have a ree hand to &arry an u*brella" )he &arrier &an also be used to store ire%ood on&e it;s in the house" )he design or this &arrier %as develo+ed by Jer*ont :indsor &hair*aker $ave Sa%yer" )he &arrier *ay look s*all, but it easily holds about 50 +ounds o ire%ood" :ith t%o &arriers, you &an &arry t%o *oderate loads and stay balan&ed" =ere;s a se&ond use or the &arrier" 6 t%ine or hi&kory bark is %oven around the ra*e like a &hair seat, it;s transor*ed into a very ni&e indoor s%ing or a s*all &hild" Beore starting this +ro>e&t, +revie% &ha+ter 10" Tools. -iving kit dra%knie s+okeshave bra&e .1< in&h auger bit 5in&h Stanley Po%erBo re or ?orstner bit ri+sa% ta+e *easure shaving horse stea*er si*+le >ig 4des&ribed belo%" Also needed are %hite or yello% glue t%ine and our 8in&h &ut nails or brass brads" )he leg s+reader reEuires a no*inal 1 7 , 1 in&hes long, and eight 112in&h bo7 nails" /aterials. )his ire%ood &arrier &an be *ade ro* any ring+orous hard%ood 4e7&e+t el*" )he one in the +hoto on +age 128 is red oak" :hite oak, ash, hi&kory, and ha&kberry are also good &hoi&es" Hou &ould use bee&h,
'ending a ladder&a!k %ost. A se!ond %ost will &e &ent on the other side. The %osts are held in %la!e with %reknotted loo%s of twine.
to bend several +ie&es ro* a single or*" Setting ti*e or bends de+ends on several a&tors, su&h as %ood s+e&ies, *oisture &ontent, %ood thi&kness, and bend radius" Setting ti*e is *u&h Eui&ker in a dry, %ar* environ*ent" A si*+le kiln heated by a radiant heat la*+ to 120O to 10O? %orks very ni&ely, but any %ar*, dry +la&e %ill %ork >ust as %ell" 46nstru&tions or *aking a lo%te&h kiln are in&luded in &ha+ter 10" Hou kno% a bend is set %hen the %ood rattles in the >ig or s+rings ba&k >ust slightly %hen untied" 122 Green Woodworking
*a+le, bir&h, or %alnut, but %ith these se*idiuse +orous %oods it;s ne&essary to sa% out the +arts, rather than rive the*, and shaving %ill be a ussier >ob be&ause the grain is not +arti&ularly straight" )he bo% is *ade ro* a s*alldia*eter log at least <0 in&hes long" -ive out a blank roughly 11 in&hes %ide and 8 in&h thi&k" )he %idth shoul d be tangent to the gro%th rings so that the +ie&e %ill be easier to bend" )ri* the +ie&e to 5 in&hes" Shave the blank to 1 in&h %ide and 12 in&h thi&k " Begin %ith a dra%knie, then use a s+okeshave or inal sura&ing" Pen&il a &ons+i&uous *ark around the &enter o the bo%" @easuring out ro* the &enter, *ake *arks at 1, 8, ., and 9 in&hes on both sides" )hese *arks indi&ate %here the bo% is thinned to 51< in&h so that the bent handle %ill be straight a&ross the to+" All of these thinned areas are lo!ated on the inner side of the &ow. @ake t%o *ore *arks, sa% out1< thein&hes legs" ro* the ends, to indi& ate ho% long to
n ea&h hal o the bo% blank, shave the t%o 51< in&hthi&k areas or the &orner bends" )he transition ro* a thi&kness o 12 to 51< in&h o&&urs bet%een the *arks at 1 and 8 in&hes, and bet%een . and 9 in&hes" Shave the 2in&hlong area in the *iddle o the bo% to a thi&kness o .1< in&h" Careully ri+sa% the legs to the 1<in&h *arks" 46 you have a band sa%, use it" 6t;s i*+ortant to sa% o++osing +airs o legs to eEual %idths or the legs %ill take dissi*ilar bends" !se a s+okeshave to round all &orners 4e7&e+t inside the legs to a radius o about 1in&h" About 112 in&hes in ro* the end o ea&h sa% ker, %ra+ the legs tightly together %ith t%ine to +revent the bo% ro* s+litting %hen the legs are bent" @ake the leg s+reader ro* a 8 to 1in&h board, . 12 in&hes %ide and 1 in&hes long" !se a dra%knie and a s+okeshave to bevel the long sides to about 2O ro* the srcinal edge angle" n the long sides, set +airs o nails, s+a&ed 5 in&h a+art and 15 in&hes ro* ea&h end" Let the nail heads +rotrude 8 in&h"
This firewood !arrier !an &e used to haul =7 %ounds or ore. For a &alan!ed load, ake two.
+ow
) ie 'ere
eg
ai"
ia%eter trether
Plans for the firewood !arrier
Bending 128
Stea* the bo% or about hal an hour" 6 you don;t have a stea*er, you ight su&&eed %ith green %ood by ladling boiling %ater over the handle area and the leg bends >ust beore bending the*" :ith your gloves on, re*ove the bo% ro* the stea*er" )he irst bends or* the handle" Li*ber the bo% at the handle G&ornersG by bending it a&ross your knee" Be sure that the thinned, 51<in&hthi&k sura&es are on the inside o the bend" $on;t li*ber the &enter handle area" Bend the bo% until the ends are 912 in&hes a+art, and then restrain the sides by tying %ith t%ine" Ne7t, li*ber the &urves or the legs" 46 you;re not stea*ing, ladle *ore boiling %ater over the legs beore li*bering the bends" @ake gradual &urves by li*bering along the length o ea&h leg" 6nsert the legs bet%een the nails on the s+rea der" bserve the bo% ro* dierent angles to see i it;s s*ooth and sy**etri&al" @ake ad>ust*ents %hile the %ood is still %ar* and su++le" )ie the bo% into the +osition in %hi&h you %ant it to set" $ry the bo% in a %ar* +la&e" )he ends *ust be thoroughly dry at the ti*e o asse*bly" -ive the 9in&hlong stret&hers about . in&h sEuare" Shave the green %ood to 8 in&h in dia*eter" Airdry the stret&hers or a e% days, then su+erdry the*" ?or a Gkiln,G use any dry +la&e that;s bet%een 100O and 10O?" :hen the stret&hers
are bone dry, s+okeshave the* to 5 in&h in dia*eter" ?or a test gauge, bore a 5in&h hole in a +ie&e o s&ra+ hard%ood" )he it should be sEueaky tight" $o this shortly beore asse*bly" -ive the 1212in&hlong rails roughly 112 in&hes sEuare" Shave the* to 11in&h sEuares" !se a s+okeshave to &ha*er the edges at the ends" Bore 5in&hdia*eter *ortises, &entered 2 in&hes ro* ea&h end" Bore into the gro%th ring +lane 4+er+endi&ular to the rays" @ake the holes . in&h dee+" Be&ause the %ood beyond the hole is only 1 in&h thi&k, use a ?orstner bit or a Stanley Po%e rBore bit %ith a shortened lead +oint" )hese bits are dis&ussed in &ha+ter " )he .1<in&hdia*eter holes or the legs are &entered 11 in&hes ro* the ends o the rails and 51< in&h ro* the inner side" )he boring angle is 2O ro* verti&al set a sliding bevel to that angle or a guide" !se a &onventional auger bit %ith a s&re%ty+e lead +oint" Sto+ boring >ust as the lead +oint begins to e*erge through the rail" )hen inish boring ro* the other side" )o take advantage o dierential shrinkage 4as e7+lained in &ha+ter 10, orient the stret&hers so that their rays are in line %ith the rails" Put the ra*e together %ith %hite or yello% glue" Hello% glue dries aster and has so*e%hat
Center of Bow
1iensions for sha%ing onehalf of the &ow. 8n the %lan and %rofile drawings, the thi!knesses and widths are shown at twi!e the s!ale of the length.
124 Green Woodworking
better *oisture resistan&e" 6 use both, de+ending on &ir&u*stan&es" 46 use %hite glue or &o*+le7 glue +ro>e&ts and or tea&hing" Hello% glue is +reerred or +rodu&tion, es+e&ially %hen &la*+s are in li*ited su++ly" Beore the glue sets, *ake sure that the ra*e is lat" 6 it isn;t, +ut one rail in a vise and t%ist the other rail until the ra*e lies in a lat +lane" n&e the bo% &urves have set, you &an ad>ust the lengths o the legs" ?irst, retie the t%ine at the &rot&hes to &o*+ensate or %ood shrinkage during drying" Stand the bo% on a lat sura&e, and %edge u+ the legs until the bo% stands straight" )hen s&ribe a line around the legs %ith a &o*+ass set at the height o the shortest leg, as *easured ro* the lat sura&e" Sa% the leg ti+s o at the s&ribed lines" Ne7t, *ake the round tenons at the leg ends %ith a s+okeshave" )he tenons are .1< in&h in dia*eter and 1 8 in&hes long" SiFe the tenons in a .1<in&h test hole bored in a +ie&e o dry hard%ood" $ye transer 4des&ribed in &ha+ter 10 is a useul *ethod or a&&urate siFing" Beore asse*bly, use a s&ra+er or sand+a+er to s*ooth the inner sides o the legs" ?it the leg tenons into the holes" !se glue" bserve the %ood &arrier ro* dierent angles" ?inal ad>ust*ents &an be *ade by driving the legs urther into the stret&her *ortises do this by striking the botto* o the stret&hers %ith a ha**er" :hen you get the bo% >ust right, sa% o the ends o the tenons %here they +rotrude through the botto*" 6 the tenons are loose, &hisel slots a&ross the ends and glue %edges into the slots" )he +ro&edure is si*ilar to %edging loose rake tines, dis&ussed in &ha+ter ." Bore a 11<in&hdia*eter hole through ea&h tenon ro* the inner side o the rails" )a+ a nail, siFed slightly larger than the holes, into ea&h" Leather su++ly stores &arry 8in&h &ut nails that are +ere&t you &an also use s*all brass linoleu* ta&ks" :hen the ire%ood &arrier is asse*bled, s&ra+e or sand any rough sura&es" ?or a inish, use t%o &oats o tung oil"
0eg s%reader for the firewood !arrier
C=AP)(- )(N
6oinery )he strength o a green%ood >oint de+ends to a great e7tent on the *aker;s understanding and use o the drying &hara&teristi&s o %ood" ?a&tors in&lude the orientation o gro%th rings and the relative *oisture &ontent o *ortises
%rote on the %eakness o the &onventional ladderba&k >oint, and 6 began to ear that *y &hairs %ould soon all a+art" But 15 years later, *y srcinal &hairs are still as tight as they %ere %hen 6 +ut the* together" )hese &hairs have
and tenons" Although green%ood >oinery generally uses bored *ortises and &ylindri&al tenons, the +rin&i+les &an also be a++lied to &onventional re&tilinear *ortiseand tenon >oints" A ladderba&k &hair ra*e is a +ere&t e7a*+le o green%ood wet 8 dry >oinery" )he verti&al +osts have bored *ortises, into %hi&h are driven horiFontal round tenons" )he &onstru&tion o a :indsor &hair is also based on %etdry &onstru&tion" ther e7a*+les o green%ood >oinery in&lude the rake, sa%bu&ks, lo% ben&h, and ire%ood &arrier &overed in &ha+ters . through 9" 6t is oten said that a %et *ortise, su&h as a rung hole bored in a green &hair +ost, %ill later shrink and tighten around a dry tenon" But >oints oten ail so*eti*e ater &onstru&tion" Chair*aker Dohn Ale7ander and %ood s&ientist -" Bru&e =oadley de&ided to ind out %hy" )hey learned that loosening ollo%s +eriods o high hu*idity, %hi&h &auses the ibers o s%elling tenons to &ru*+le ro*
been in &onstant use, %ith no +arti&ular &are other than the a&t that they;re not let outdoors" ur environ*ent is less than ideal or +reserving urniture" )he su**er %eather is hu*id, and our log &abin, %hi&h is heated by a %ood stove, is Euite dry during %inter" :hat holds these &hairs together $ealing %ith %ood *oisture &ontent is &ru&ial, but other a&tors are also i*+ortant" )he result is a Gbelt and sus+endersG a++roa&h to green%ood >oinery" Control o %ood *oisture &ontent at ti*e o asse*bly is *ost i*+ortant" Parts are sha+ed slo++y%et and green but dried %ithin s+e&ii& ranges o *oisture &ontent beore asse*bly" ?inal siFing o tenons *ust be done ater all shrinkage has taken +la&e and the %ood is thoroughly dried" )heoreti&ally, tenon *oisture &ontent 4*"&" should be &lose to 5 +er&ent, but sound >oints &an be *ade %ith tenons that are so*e%hat %etter, +robably u+ to or 10 +er&ent *"&"
e7tre*e :ith to lo%shrink" hu*idity, the *oisture &o*+ression" &ontent dro+s anda &hange the tenons Cy&li& &hanges in %ood *oisture &ontent are also a &ontributing &ause o ailure %ith so&keted %ooden tool handles, su&h as a7es and ha**ers" )he key to %etdry >oinery is a >oint that %orks %hen %ood shrinks and swells %ith &hanging environ*ental &onditions" 6n the &ase o ladderba&k &hair &onstru&tion, another a&tor is ra!king, the lateral or&es a++lied to the ra*e during use" Leaning a ladderba&k on the rear +osts +uts tre*endous stress on the >oints3+arti&ularly those in the side +anels" )he stru&tural %eakness o a ladderba&k &hair is that it la&ks triangulation" 6 *ade *y irst +ostandrung &hair in the su**er o 19.9, during Dohn Ale7ander;s irst &lass at Country :orksho+s" )hat %inter, 6 *ade about a doFen *ore &hairs" 6n the @ar&hA+ril 190 issue o Fine Woodworking *agaFine, -" Bru&e =oadley
%ood, su&hshrinkage, as +osts, should have$uring a 15 toasse*bly, 20 +er&ent*ortise *"&" So*e o the ro* loss o bound %ater, %ill already have taken +la&e" 6 *oisture &ontent is higher, there;s a &han&e that *ortise %ood %ill s+lit as it dries around the tenon" 6n the hu*id eastern !nited States, %ood dried in a shed stabiliFes at an eEuilibriu* *oisture &ontent &lose to 20 +er&ent" :hen the relatively %et *ortise is >oined %ith the dry tenon, the *ortise shrinks slightly and the tenon s%ells and tightens as it absorbs *oisture ro* the *ortise %ood" )ight, longlasting >oints are de+endent on an o+ti*al balan&e o s%elling and shrinkage" )he environ*ent that a >oint is sub>e&ted to should also be &onsidered" 6n the arid :est, *oisture &ontent or both *ortises and tenons should be relatively lo%er" rientation o the tenon in the *ortise is very i*+ortant" :et %ood shrinks about t%i&e as *u&h tangent to the gro%th rings as it does on the +er
126 Green Woodworking
+endi&ular ray +lane" A round, green &ylinder %ill dry and shrink into an oval &rossse&tion" )angent to the gro%th rings, *any green %oods shrink 10 to 15 +er&ent" n the ray +lane, +otent ial shrinkage is 5 to . +er&ent" )he heavy hard%oods &o**only used or green%ood >oinery are a*ong the s+e&ies that shrink the *ost" Sin&e the length%ise shrinkage o %ood is only about 110 o 1 +er&ent, a *ortise or tenon *ade ro* green %ood %ill have al*ost no length%ise shrinkage" Sele&tion o %ood s+e&ies and Euality is i*+ortant" ?or a green %ood >oint, use strong, straightgrained, easily rived, ring+orous hard%oods su&h as hi&kory, ash, %hite and red oak" Bla&k lo&ust and bla&k %alnut are harder to %ork but are a++ro+riate also" $iuse+orous hard%oods su&h as bir&h, bee&h, and &herry &an be used, but &o*+onents are dii&ult to rive and shave using these %oods" :ood or %etdry >oinery should be ree o dee&ts su&h as rot, bug holes, and knots" ?or strength, the gro%th rings o ring+orous hard%oods should be at least 11< in&h %ide, and +reerably 1 in&h or *ore" 6n designing a >oint, you %ant to orient the Fones o *ini*u* shrinkage in the +lane o *a7i*u* stress" n a ladderba&k &hair, both dire&t load and lateral ra&king stress the to+ and botto* o the +ostandrung >oints there is very little +ressure on the sides o the >oints" )he tenons o a ladderba&k &hair rung should be asse*bled so that the rays are verti&al 4+arallel %ith the length o the +ost" )he >oint *ust also have adeEuate de+th" )he dia*eterlength ratio should be at least 1'112" Shorter tenons +ull loose too easily and have too little sura&e area or ra&king loads to bear u+on" A &o**on ladderba&k +ostandrung >oint is 5 in&h in dia*eter and 1 in&h dee+" 6t;s un%ise to lengthen a tenon so that it e7tends through the +ost, be&ause the e7+osed tenon end %ill &y&le *ore *oisture than i it %ere in a &onventional sto++ed *ortise" Both the *ortise and the tenon should have s*ooth sura&es" )he ragged ibers o a rough sura&e are stru&turally %eak, *ake a +oor glue sura&e, and are sub>e&t to *oisture &y&ling" Although *any green%ood &hairs have been *ade %ithout glue, 6 use it" /lue slo%s do%n *oisture e7&hange %ithin the >oint" (ven though the stressed sura&es in the >oint *ate end grain against long grain, *odern glues do +rovide so*e
This %ost se!tion, whi!h was asse&led without glue, was %ut in a vise, and the rung was twisted using a %air of ise Gri%s it won*t !oe out.
bonding strength" /lue also %orks as a lubri&ant during asse*bly" ?or green%ood >oinery 6 use %hite glue" Hello% glue has greater *oisture resistan&e, but it grabs i**ediately in a tight >oint" )here is no +ossibility o *aking an ad>ust*ent" $on;t allo% %hite 4or yello% glue to reeFe" -ealthe hide>oints glue &an is +ossibly the best to use" is be&ause be dissolved in glue al&ohol i a)his re+air should ever be ne&essary" n a ladderba&k &hair, rung tenons &an also be se&ured %ithin the +ost by interlo&king %ith the tenon o an ad>a&ent rung" )he se&ond rung slightly overla+s3and &uts through3the tenon o the irst rung" :hen 6 asse*ble a &hair, 6 bore and asse*ble the >oints o the side +anel beore +ro&eeding %ith the overla++ing +er+endi&ular >oints o the ront and ba&k +anels" )he bearing sura&es o a tenon should be &areully di*ensioned and &an be oversiFed by about 1 +er&ent" )he nonbearing sura&es3the sides o a rung >oint3&an be a slightly undersiFed" $uring *y early years as a &hair*aker 6 a&tually +ared a%ay a thin slab ro* the sides o the tenons" )his %as su++osed to redu&e the +ossibility o the +ost s+litting %hen the *ortise shrinks in %idth" Another detail that 6;ve abandoned is &utting a shallo% rat&het sha+ed not&h or groove on the bear Coiner, 127
ing sura&es o the tenon" :hen the *ortise endgrain s%ells, ibers su++osedly lo&k into the groove" 6n re&ent years 6;ve &o*e to believe that neither o the above te&hniEues 4slabbing and grooving are a&tually hel+ul" A *oistureresistant inish hel+s to *ini*iFe *oisture &y&ling" ?or ladderba&ks, 6 use tung oil thinned %ith a little tur+entine" )ung oil dries hard and has a subtle luster" A *i7ture o tung oil and urethane varnish %ill +rovide better +rote&tion ro* *oisture than a straight oil inish" 6 +aint *y :indsor &hairs %ith 8'1 *i7ture o satin ena*el and satin urethane varnish"
Checking Moisture Content :ith e7+erien&e, you &an >udge the a++ro7i*ate *oisture &ontent by kno%ing the history o a +ie&e o %ood ater it %as &ut and by sensory tests o eel and sound" :hen t%o +ie&es o dry %ood are kno&ked together, the %ood G+inks"G 6n &ontrast, %et %ood Gthuds"G 6 you hold a +ie&e o dry %ood to your &heek, it eels %ar* %et %ood eels &ool" )ry these tests using sa*+les that you kno% to be %et, air dried, and bone dry" 6t;s instru&tive to have so*e ball+ark igures to go by" utdoors, in the eastern !nited States, %ood airdries to 15 to 20 +er&ent *"&" 6n the :est, %ood %ill airdry to 10 to 15 +er&ent *"&" 6ndoors, above a stove or gas %ater heater, %ith a te*+erature o 90O? or so, %ood eventually dro+s to 5 to 10 +er&ent *"&" Ater sha+ing +arts, %eigh the* +eriodi&ally as they dry" Pen&il S*all the +arts, su&hand as &hair rungs, &an be:hen %eighed as a set" %eight date on the +arts" %eight loss levels out, they;re as dry as your &urrent &onditions %ill get the*" )his syste* &an be i*+roved by irst drying a test sa*+le in a lo% oven until you;re sure it;s bone dry" 6 you;re drying rungs, sa% o a 2in&hlong +ie&e as a sa*+le" :eigh it, then dry it in the oven until it sto+s losing %eight" $ry the rungs along %ith re*ains o the test rung, ro* %hi&h you +eriodi&ally &ut o a 2in&h sa*+le to %eigh and &o*+are to the bonedry sa*+le" )o deter*ine the +er&entage o *oisture &ontent, use this or*ula' ", green%eightdry%eight7100 *oisture &ontent R 3Oi" , , dry %eight A *oisture *eter is useul, but they &ost bet%een .5 and 200, and 6 don;t kno% o any +rodu&tion green %ood%orkers %ho use one" 128 Green Woodworking
TechniAues )raditionally, round tenons %ere usually turned on a lathe" Cylindri&al tenons &an also be sha+ed %ith a hollow auger, %hi&h is a &ir&u*erential &utter turned %ith a bit bra&e" )urned and hollo%augered tenons are al%ays shouldered the tenon;s dia*eter is less than the se&tion it;s *ade ro*" 6 *ade the tenons or *y irst doFen &hairs %ith an antiEue A" A" :oods ad>ustable hollo% auger" :ith a little +ra&ti&e, it %orks Eui&kly" A +roble* %ith the hollo% auger is that the knie &uts by s&oring a&ross the ibers" (ven %ith a very ine ad>ust*ent, the ibers at the sura&e o the tenon are +artially severed" ?or a good >oint, the sura&e *ust be s*ooth" :ith a &oarse %ood like oak, the ee&t &an be Euite rough" $uring *y se&ond year o &hair *aking, 6 s%it&hed to turning tenons on a s+ring +ole lathe" )urning takes *ore ti*e, but the results see* to be %orth the e7tra eort" =i&kory and even ash &an be turned to a s*oother sura&e than oak" )he shoulder o a tenon is a +oint o %eakness" Loads &on&entrate at the angular &hange in di*ension" A . in&hdia*eter rung %ith a 5in&h tenon *ay look strong, but the rung is %eakened at the shoulder, %here it enters the *ortise" :hile 6 %as turning tenons, Dohn Ale7ander %as e7+eri*enting %ith shaved, shoulderless tenons" )he shaved rung is nearly unior* in dia*eter ro* end to end" 46n +ra&ti&e, only the tenons are &losely siFed, %hile the *iddle se&tion shavedtenons by eye" :hen irst but see they the*, thin rungs %ithisshaved *ay lookyou %eak, *ay be stronger than heavier rungs %ith shouldered tenons" Shaved rungs are also lighter in %eight and they use less %ood" Shaving is a little slo%er than turning, but the result is a strong, resilient tenon that ollo%s the natural ibers" )he only tools needed are a s+okeshave, a &arving knie, and a sho+*ade tenon gauge" 6 no% shave tenons %henever +ossible" )he shaved tenon *ethod &an be reined by inishing siFing %ith a ine ras+ or a stri+ o sand+a+er +ulled ba&k and orth over the tenon like you do %ith a rag %hen +olishing shoes" Another %ay to *ake tenons is by &arving the* %ith a knie" )his is the slo%est *ethod o all, and unless you;re Euite skilled, it;s not very a&&urate" Carving &ould be a++ro+riate i you need to *ake shouldered tenons and a lathe isn;t available" :ith any or a sEueakytight it, +arti&ularly ontenoning the areas*ethod, tangent ai* to the
Four ethods of sha%ing round tenons 2left to right3 s%okeshaved straight fro the rung, turned on a lathe, whittled, hollowaugered.
gro%th rings" )urned tenons &an be siFed on the lathe %ith outside &ali+ers or a sho+*ade GgonogoG gauge" 4)his is a Csha+ed &utout in a thin board or +ie&e o +lasti& you siFe the tenon by itting it in the *outh o the C, %hi&h is &ut to the a++ro+riate siFe" Shaved and &arved tenons are siFed %ith a si*+le hole gauge" )his is a +ie&e o dry hard%ood %ith several sa*+le holes bored in it" 6 use a dye transer te&hniEue to deter*ine %here a tenon needs urther shaving' 6 &oat the inside o the gauge holes %ith sot +en&il lead" :hen a tenon is inserted, areas o tight &onta&t +i&k u+ the dye" A slight &ha*er at the ends o the tenons *akes the* easier to insert in a hole gauge or in the a&tual *ortise" )he *ost dii&ult +art o shaving tenons is avoiding G+en&il+ointing,G &aused by shaving over areas that already it" 6t hel+s to ske% the s+okeshave and to ad>ust the blade inely" Hou &an also try +ushing the s+okeshave, so that you &an begin ea&h stroke >ust ahead o the high area that you;re ater" :hen +ushing, be &areul not to *ake rungs sha+ed like an hourglass3&aused by shaving the &enter +art o a rung ro* both ends" -egardless o ho% they;re sha+ed, tenons should be +re+ared %ith t%o +oints in *ind" 1" )he %ood *ust be bone dry35 to +er&ent *"&"3 %hen it;s brought to inal di*ensions"
2" Hou should orient the tenon in the *ortise so that the ray +lane runs length%ise, +arallel to the long ibers o the *ortise, and against the ra&king dire&tion" @ortises &an be bored verti&ally or horiFontally" 6 use both *ethods, de+ending on &ir&u*stan&es" ?or *ortising ladderba&ks, boring" )he *ainas reason that 6 &an use6 a+reer level horiFontal ta+ed to the bit e7tension a is &onsistent +lane o reeren&e" 6 bore verti&ally or *ost si*+le tasks and or the *any dierent &o*+ound angles o a :indsor &hair seat" @ortising bits are dis&ussed in &ha+ter " 6 generally use standard 6r%in auger bits or *ortises that go straight in or at *oderate angles" ?or ladderba&k *ortising, 6 use a 5in&h Stanley Po%erBore bit %ith a shortened lead" ?orstner bits are also good, but they are dii&ult to shar+en, and *ost ?orstner bits &annot be &hu&ked into a bit bra&e"
Drying Methods /reen %ood should be airdried a e% days beore you +ut it in an oven to dry, to avoid end &he&ks, %ar+ing, and interior honey&o*bing" An ideal te*+erature or oven drying is 120O to 10O?" Any dry +la&e over 90O %ill %ork, but the +ro&ess is slo%er" ver 1<0O, %ood &an &har or even Coiner, 129
To% S%lit rung showing honey!o&ing 3the result of drying green wood too >ui!kly. 'otto The &eginning of s!or!hing3!aused &y a te%erature a&ove 67CF.
stove, %ra+ the *iddle area o the %ood %ith alu*inu* oil to kee+ it ro* drying"
,ro!ect: # ,ost+and+Rung Stool
The tenons of turned Windsor legs and stret!hers are >ui!kly su%erdried in hot sand. The iddle areas, whi!h will !ontain &ored ortises, reain at a higher, airdried oisture !ontent. #ee% the te%erature &elow =7C. Periodi!ally stir the sand, or there will &e a large te%erature variation getting hotter !loser to the &otto.
tually ignite" -ushed drying &an also &ause interior honey&o*bing" Hou &an +robably ind a +la&e in your ho*e or sho+ that %orks %ell enough or oven drying" A ra&k above a %ood stove or a gas %ater heater is all that;s needed or drying s*all a*ounts o %ood, es+e&ially i you;re not rushed" )he +osts and stret&hers o :indsor &hairs reEuire a *ore s+e&ialiFed drying *ethod" )he tenon ends *ust be bone dry, %hile the *iddle areas should be air dry, sin&e they &ontain *ortises" )he tri&k is to dry the ends in sand heated to 110O to 10O?" !se &lean, dry sand and a ther*o*eter the)enons te*+erature" )he heat%hen sour&e &an be a stovetoor*onitor hot +late" are G&ookedG they be&o*e oval" Stret&hers %ith t%o tenons have to be dried at both ends" 6 the heat sour&e is a radiant 130 Green Woodworking
)his +ro>e&t %as sele&ted as an e7a*+le o %etdry >oinery and or +ra&ti&e %ith horiFontal boring" )he design derives ro* si*ilar stools *ade by the Shakers the *ain dieren&e is that this one is shaved, not turned" ?or details on ho% to *ake a +ostandrung &hair %ith slats and a bent ba&k, reer to Dohn Ale7ander;s book, /ake a "hair fro a Tree 4Astragal Press, 199, or attend a %orksho+" Tools. -iving kit shaving horse dra%knie s+okeshave knie ta+e *easure s*all &o*bination sEuare %ith level 2 to 8+ound ha**er or *allet &ross&ut sa% +en&il bra&e 5in&h bit &hair sti&k 4see the illustration on +age 188 sho+*ade +ostrung shaving gauge tenon siFing gauge %hite glue" +tional' %orkben&h %ith vise bit e7tension line level 2in&h bar or +i+e &la*+" /aterials. ?or shaved &hairs and stools, use straight grained ring+orous hard%oods that s+lit and shave easily 3%hite and red oak, hi&kory, and ash are e7&ellent" @y +reeren&e is or %hite oak +osts and hi&kory rungs" :hite oak +osts are resilient and beautiul" =i&kory rungs are tough, and the &rea* &olor o seasoned hi&kory is a ni&e &ontrast to the %hite oak" -e>e&t any %ood that &ontains dee&ts, su&h as knots, rot, or bug holes " 6 generally avoid riving billet s that &ontain sa+%ood and heart%ood in one +ie&e" ak sa+%ood de&ays Eui&kly rungs &an be
The srcinal "ountry Worksho%s ele!tri! wood kiln, ade fro a == gallon steel dru. The heat sour!e is a =77watt radiant la% ounted in a !hi!k &rooder so!ket fitted with an aluinu refle!tor. The !urved etal shield defle!ts dire!t radiation, !ausing heat to !ir!ulate evenly throughout the kiln. A heavy &lanket dou&les as insulation and a door.
# "ow+Tech Wood @iln
*ade %ith oak sa+%ood i the %ood is used shortly ater elling" Hou &an test or in&i+ient de&ay by atte*+ting to break a dry rived rung billet" Put the billet in a vise and bend it" 6 the %orkben&h isn;t bolted do%n, it should ti+ over beore the billet breaks" =i&kory and ash sa+%ood are ine or rungs or +osts" -ive the +osts 18 in&hes sEuare and 20 in&hes long" -ive ive or si7, so that you have e7tras in &ase o *istakes or %ar+age during drying, or so that you &an *ake test >oints" -ive si7 rung s . in&h sEuar e and 18 in&hes long " -ive nine or ten rungs . in&h sEuare and 1.8 in&hes long 4e7tras &an be &ut do%n or short rungs" Beore shaving +arts, *ake the &hair sti&k and the siFing gauge that is used to *easure the dia*eter o +osts and rungs" ?or the siFing gauge, use s&ra+ %ood, @asonite, thin *etal, or +lasti&" )he gauge is 2 by 8 in&hes, %ith t%o not&hes that &orres+ond to the dia*eters o the +osts and rungs" ne not&h is 8 in&h %ide, the other is 18 in&hes %ide" @arkings on the &hair sti&k indi&ate the lo&ation o *ortises, the lengths o +osts, and so on" -ung lengths &an be *arked on the ba&k o the sti&k" n&e you try a &hair sti&k, you;ll not %ant to use a ta+e *easure or yardsti&k" @ake the &hair
For $ountr, Worksho!s# = rigged u! a si%!"e ki"n that oven)dries rungs (or ten hairs# taking the% (ro% a 20 !erent % to 7 !erent % in a&out 36 hours he housing is a "ean 55)ga""on stee" dru% with one end ut out he other end has three vents (or %oisture to e*it /he &ak end ou"d &e ut out entire",# a""owing aess (ro% either diretion he dru% is !"aed on its side aross a !air o( saw&uks Wedges !revent the dru% (ro% ro""ing he heat soure is a 500)watt "ear /not red radi) ant heat "a%!# used with a hik &rooder "a%! ho"der and a wide a"u%inu% re("etor he "a%! is entered on the &otto% o( the dru%# (aing u! he dr,ing rak isa rough wooden (ra%e %ade o( 1 * 2s# he"d a&ove the ("oor o( the dru% &, (our 8) inh "egs 'a"()inh hardware "oth is taked to the &otto% to !revent rungs (ro% ro""ing o(( the rak A !iee o( sheet %eta"# a&out 2 &, 3 (eet# is !"aed &etween the "a%! and the rak to kee! the wood (ro% &eing harred (ro% diret radiation he door# and insu"ation# is !rovided &,heav, a &"anket dra!ed over the ki"n = use a ther%o%eter to %onitor the interior te%!erature#) it sta,s a&out 135F with one "a%!
Coiner, 131
sti&k ro* a +ie&e o %ood that;s about 1 in&h thi&k, 1 1 in&hes %ide, and a e% in&hes longe r than the +osts" Beveling one edge %ill *ake a&&urate *easure*ents easier" )he irst ste+ at the shaving horse is shaving all the +osts to 18in&h sEuares" ?ollo% the grain, even i this results in &rooked +osts" Ater sEuaring, %ork ea&h +ost individually" !se the &hair sti&k, al%ays *easuring ro* the botto* u+, to *ake a +en&il *ark at the beginning o the ta+er or the botto* end o the +osts" Shave the lo%er ta+er %hile the +osts are sEuare" )he botto* o the +ost is 1 in&h a&ross" 6 the ta+ered end &urves or bo%s, you &an *ake an ad>ust*ent by shaving *ore ta+er o one side or another" :hen you e7a*ine the +ost, look do%n its length this vie% +rovides the *ost telling story" )hen shave the +ost into an o&tagon, ollo%ed by a &ylinder" Set shaved +osts aside and let the* airdry to 15 to 20 +er&ent *"&" )his *ight take t%o %eeks indoors or a *onth in an airy shed" All the rungs should be shaved to 8in&h sEuares as a set beore shaving the* into o&tagons and &ylinders" Be sure to ollo% the grain" -e>e&t bananasha+ed +ie&es" -ungs %ith a double or tri+le &urve3and ends that are *ore or less in line %ith ea&h other3&an be ke+t" Airdry the rungs or a e% days" )hen kilndry the* %ith %hatever setu+ is available" )enons are s+okeshaved %hen the rungs are bone dry" ?irst, &he&k the lengths" )hey should be unior* %ithin 11< in&h" :hile %orking on one rung, you &an kee+ the others in a dry environ*ent3in a +lasti& bag, over a stove, or under a la*+" 6n hu*id &onditions, rungs %ill s%ell %ithin 80 *inutes" @ake a tenonsiFing gauge ro* a +ie&e o dry hard%ood about 12 in&h thi&k" Bore three holes %ith the sa*e 5in&h bit that %ill be used or the a&tual *ortises, and nu*be r the*" Hou %ill start out using hole Q1 and, %hen it enlarges, &ontinue to use it or the initial test it, but use Q2 or the inal it" @ove on to Q8 %hen hole Q2 see*s a little loose" !se a ine ras+ or &oarse ile to &arve a slight &ha*er around both ends o ea&h rung" 6nitial siFing is done %ith a s+okeshave" Set a s*all blade e7+osure" 6 usually shave ro* the *iddle o the rungs to%ard the near end" :hen 6 start to get &lose, 6 *ark the inside o *y test holes %ith ink or sot lead +en&il to reveal high areas to shave do%n" ?inal siFing is done %ith the ras+ or stri+ o sand+a+er 4&loth ba&ked sand+a+er %orks best" SiFe the tenons or a very tight it tangent to the gro%th rings" )he inal it in the test gauge should 132 Green Woodworking
be sEueaky tight and hard to +ull out" -ene% a slight &ha*er around the ends so the tenons &annot >a* on the *ortise %all during asse*bly" ?or *ortising, you need to orient boring in relation to the grain dire&tion o the +osts" )he +osts %ill shrink in %idth t%i&e as *u&h a&ross the gro%th rings as they %ill a&ross the rays" Sin&e +osts %ill have *ortises at right angles to ea&h other, 6 &o*+ro*ise so that *ortises in both +lanes shrink about the sa*e a*ount" $o this by looking do%n at the +osts and rotating the* so that the rays are angled diagonally a&ross the stool" Dust or looks, you &an also orient the +osts so that the gro%th rings &urve %ith the +ith side a&ing in%ard, as they did on the tree" Pair the +osts into let and right sides" 4?or this stool, the short di*ensions are &alled the sides" :ith a +en&il, dra% a verti&al orientation line do%n ea&h +ost %here the side rungs &o*e in" )o lo&ate the *ortises, use the &hair sti&k, *easuring u+ ro* the botto* o the +osts and the sti&k" )he to+s o the +osts run rando*ly overlength3they;re tri**ed ater asse*bly" =old the &hair sti&k ne7t to ea&h +ost and transer rung tangent lines on the &hair sti&k a&ross the verti&al orientation line on the +ost" @ortises or the side +anels are bored >ust above the tangent lines sho%n on the &hair sti&k" )he *ortises or the ront and ba&k %ill be bored ater the side +anels are asse*bled" $ra% a &ir&le above ea&h tangent line" :ith the &ir&les, you %on;t *ake a *istake by boring on the %rong side o the tangent lines or by using a tangent line as a boring &enter" Set aside the +osts or one side +anel so that you %on;t a&&identally %ork on the* until ater the irst side +anel is asse*bled" 6 +reer horiFontal boring or these *ortises" !se a %aisthigh vise or a three+egand%edge holding syste*" Position the +ost so that the length%ise orientation line a&es you" )he +ost is horiFontal, but it doesn;t have to be +ere&tly level" :ith a vise, 6 se&ure the +ost to bore the *iddle and to+ *ortises irst" 4)he vise >a%s gri+ the lo%er hal o the +ost" 6 use a bra&e %ith universal >a%s" ?or a bit, 6 like a 5in&h Stanley Po%erBore" 4:ith this bit, the lead +oint *ust be iled do%n to about 81< in&h, as noted in &ha+ter " Hou &an also use an auger bit %ith a shortened lead, or a ?orstner bit" @y boring syste* also in&ludes so*e other a&&essories" )he long shat o a bit e7tension *ini*iFes boring slo+ and *akes ai*ing *ore a&&urate" 6 ta+e a &ar+enter;s line level to the e7tension" 6 also
use a de+th gauge 4Stanley Q., set to 1 in&h" 6 you don;t have a de+th gauge, %ra+ ta+e around the bit 1 in&h above the &utters" )he *ost dii&ult +art o boring into a round +ost is ai*ing the auger bit dire&tly at the +ost &enter o *ass" 6 you *iss the &enter, the auger side s+ur &ould e*erge through the ba&k side o the +ost beore you;ve bored a ull in&h" Bore the *iddle *ortise irst" )o lo&ate the bit, kneel so that you &an sight straight do%n the length o the bit shank" Che&k the line level to *ake sure that the bit is horiFontal" Be&ause you are looking at a &ylinder, the &enter o your eye;s iris *ust be level %ith the &enter o the bit shat" 4)he bit e7tension hel+s here, too" 6 your eye is too high or too lo%, the horiFon lines that deine the edges o the round +ost %ill shit ro* the horiFontal &enter o *ass" !se eyeball >udg*ent to *ove the bit u+ or do%n so that it;s &entered on the +ost" )hen lo&ate the &ir&u*eren&e o the bit against the tangent line" ?inally, +ress in the lead so that the bit %on;t sli+" A shaved stool. Posts and rungs are oak. The seating is hi!kory &ast.
$hair tik
Plans for a %ostandrung stool The !hair sti!k is used to transfer diensions to the individual %arts. )ung diensions are on the other side of the sti!k.
Coiner, 133
A %lasti! siDing gauge, with not!hes to easure the diaeter of %osts and rungs. Shave all the %arts to a s>uare se!tion &efore sha%ing into o!tagons, and finally !ylinders.
1iagra on the floor
shows the &oring ori entation in relation to the growth rings and rays of the %ost s. The arrow on to% of the %ost indi!ates the rays.
The verti!al %en!il line is the &oring ais for the short side rungs.
134 Green Woodworking
Stand u+, legs a+art , to bore the *orti se" Pla&e the bra&e knob inside your right hi+ so&ket" @ake sure the bit is level" !se a sEuare to insure that you;re ai*ed +er+endi&ular to the +ost" As you bore the *ortise, kee+ an eye on the shavings" 6 they sto+ e>e&ting, i**ediately %ithdra% the bit" Po%er Bore and ?orstner bits easily >a*" Sto+ boring %hen the gauge bu*+s the +ost" Ne7t, bore the to+ *ortise" (ven i the +ost is &rooked, ai* or the &enter o *ass" 6 the +ost is held in a vise, it;s ne&essary to shit it beore third 4botto* *ortise" i*+ortant the +ostboring is nottherotated %hen you *ove 6t;s it" )o +reventthat rotation, use an align*ent do%el3a <in&h length o rung 3%ith another line level ta+ed to it" )he bubble on the do%el *ust read level beore and ater *oving the +ost" No% bore the botto* *ortise" Again, ai* or the &enter o *ass" $on;t try to *ake a straight line ro* one *ortise to the other" -e+eat the *ortising +ro&edures or the se&ond +ost" )he only dieren&e is that the se&ond +ost is a *irror i*age o the irst" Using a !hair sti!k to lo!ate &oring tangents on the &a!k %osts of y daughter*s youth !hair. /ake a se%arate sti!k for ea!h design that you &uild.
'oring rung ortises. Pro%er verti!al %osi tioning of the &it relative to the !ylindri!al %ost is !riti!al. 'efore &oring, site the &it &y aligning your eye with the leveled &it etension. Then e>ualiDe the s%a!ing on the %ost a&ove and &elow the &it.
Coiner, 135
An alignent %eg 2with a ta%edon level3 is used to re%osition the %ost so that the &otto ortise !an &e &ored.
Hou;re no% ready to asse*ble a side +anel" But beore +utting the +anel together, &lean u+ the +osts" S+okeshave and s&ra+e o all the +en&il s&ribblings and s*udges" )his is the best ti*e to s*ooth the sura&es" Che&k the rungs or even length and or +ro+er it in
GthudG as it botto*s in the *ortise" $on;t be araid to hit the rungs hard" 6 the %ood is sound, the rungs &an take it" Ater three rungs are seated, *easure their lengths and sight a&ross the ends o the tenons" 6 the &enter tenon +rotrudes, try to +ound it urther in or sa% o the e7tra
test holes" $e&ide %hi&h rungs %ill go %here" !nattra&tive but strong rungs are used at the to+, sin&e they;re hidden by the seating" Crooked rungs &an be attra&tive i you +lan %here to +ut the*" 6 a rung has a slightly loose tenon, use it in a *iddle *ortise, %here there;s less stress" )o start, you need three short side rungs" ee+ the other rungs dry" )o s+read glue, 6 use an old toothbrush" ee+ a &lean da*+ rag ready or &leanu+" Put glue on the tenons at one end o the three short rung s" Brush glue in the *ortises o one +ost" Pla&e the +ost on the ben&h to+ above a %orkben&h leg or on a log stu*+" A hel+er %ill be a++re&iated" Be sure that the *ortise is se&urely ba&ked by the %ork sura&e to guard against the +ossibility that a tenon %ill break right through" As you insert the rungs, *ake sure that the rays are oriented length%ise, +arallel %ith the long ibers o the +ost" Curved rungs are oriented &ro%n u+" no&k the tenons in %ith a *allet" 46 use a 8+ound
length" -e&ha*er the ends i ne&essary" $on;t %orry i the rungs do not line u+ in a straight ro%" )hey %ill +ull together %hen the o++osing leg is itted" Brush glue on the e7+osed tenons and in the *ortises o the se&ond +ost" Be sure that the +osts *at&h 4to+ *ortises %ith to+ *ortises, and so on" Position the initial asse*bly %ith the irst +ost on the %ork sura&e, rungs +ointing u+%ard" Hou *ay have to +ull or +ush the rungs around to line the* u+ %ith the *ortises o the se&ond +ost" )a+ on the se&ond +ost to start it onto the tenons" n&e all the rungs are started, ha**er on either +ost until the se&ond tenons are about hal%ay in" Sto+ to &he&k align*ent" Jie% the +anel by looking a&ross the rungs" 6 the +anel is %ar+ed, +ut one +ost in a vise, or on the ben&h to+, and t%ist the other +ost in the a++ro+riate dire&tion" :hen the +anel is lat, +ro&eed by +ounding the +osts until all the tenons seat" 6 a tenon %on;t seat, or i +ounding *akes you
iron *allet *allets %ith ra%hide inserts, Co*+uthane &an also be used" but :hen%ood you hitand a rung, you %ill hear Gbong, bongG and then
nervous, you &an +ull the tenons in %ith a bar &la*+ or +i+e &la*+"
136 Green Woodworking
A try s>uare and level are used to orient the side %anels &efore &oring the front and &a!k rung ortises.
:hen all the tenons are seated, &he&k the s+a&ing" )he side +osts should be 11 in&hes a+art" Also, &he&k align*ent again, and &orre&t it i ne&essary" !se the da*+ rag to &lean u+ glue slo+ beore +ro&eeding %ith the se&ond side +anel" )hen sto+ and ad*ire your a&&o*+lish*ent" )he asse*bly o the se&ond side +anel is identi&al to that o the irst, e7&e+t that this +anel *irrors the irst one" )o bore *ortises or the ront and ba&k +anels, +ut either +anel into a vise or three+egand%edge holding syste*" !se a &o*bination sEuare or a try sEuare %ith a ta+edon level to orient the rungs verti&ally" @ake sure that you;re about to bore in the right dire&tion3to%ard the other side +anel" :hen you bore the ront and ba&k +anels, overla+ the side *ortises by about 11< in&h so that the rung s %ill interlo&k %ith one another" @ake the
overla+ eEual or all the *ortis es unio r*ity is *ore i*+ortant than the a&tual a*ount o overla+" 'e sure to ortise &elow the side rungs. Bore all 12 *ortises3< in ea&h side +anel" Brush glue in the si7 *ortises o one side +anel and on one end o all the long rungs" Start +ounding the rungs in" :hen all si7 rungs have botto*ed, &he&k lengt hs and align*ent o tenon ends" Brush glue on the o++os ing tenons and in the *ortises o the other side +anel" Bend the rungs as needed, and start ha**ering on the +osts" n&e all the tenons are started, sto+ to &he&k align*ent" Jie% the stool by looking a&ross the ront and side +anels to o++osite rungs, and do%n the +anels at a &lose angle" 6 the stool is lo+sided, deter*ine %hi&h dire&tion &ould be shortened to straighten things u+" Put the a++ro+riate +ost on the loor and bear do%n on the ra*e" $ave Sa%yer &alls this G&hair %rassling"G )hen +ound the tenons ho*e" @easure bet%een the ront and ba&k +osts they should be 158 in&hes a+art" Che&k align*ent and G%rassleG the stool into sha+e i ne&essary" 6 it;s stubborn, run a bar &la*+ ro* the to+ o one +ost to the botto* o an o++osite +ost" Leave the &la*+ in +la&e overnight" Chan&es are that your asse*bled stool %obbles a bit on the loor" )he easiest %ay to level it is to ind out %hi&h +osts a&t as a ul&ru* and then sa% or ras+ the* do%n a little" But this isn;t a good *ethod, sin&e the seat %ill not ne&essarily be level" 6nstead, irst level the seat by +la&ing %edges under the +osts" Pla&e the stool on a lat sura&e, su&h as a table sa%" Che&k or level by taking *easure *ents ro* the loor to the to+ o the ront and ba&k rungs" Play %ith the %edges until you get the seat >ust right" Ne7t, s&ribe a &utting line around the botto*s o the +osts" 4!se a &o*+ass or a +en&il held at a &onstant height %ith an a++ro+riate shi*" )he s&rib ing height is the distan&e ro* the tableto+ to the botto* o the shortest +ost" S&ribe around the other three +osts at this height" :hen you sa% o the +ost botto*s, align your sa% blade %ith the s&ribing lines on the other +osts" A inetooth dovetail sa% %orks ni&ely" Sa% o the rando* to+s o the +osts, leaving at least 8 in&h above the to+ o the side rungs" @arking the +osts by *easuring ro* the table at 8 or +la&es %ill hel+ in getting a sEuare sa% &ut" Cha*er the to+ and botto* ends o the +osts %ith a shar+ &hisel, used bevel u+" 6 also +are the Coiner, 137
Chair Doctoring A %istake an usua"", &e orreted -ortises %a, &e &ored in the wrong "oation or at the wrong ang"e hort and "ong rungs an get swithed osts have &een asse%&"ed u!side down =;ve seen a"" these !ro&"e%s# and worse =( an inorret", &ored %ortise isdisovered &e(ore asse%&",# ,ou an !"ug it and &ore again -ake the !"ug (ro% an e*tra rung ee that it (its tight",# and use g"ue =( the orret %ortise wi"" over) "a! the !"ug# a Forstner &it wi"" work ver, nie",# &ut other &its an a"so &e used =( a rung is in the !ost when the %istake is disovered# saw it o(( and ,ou have a &ui"t)in !"ug A rung Hoint %a, !u"" "oose# &ut !ro!er", siBed tenons won;t o%e a!art When a !ost &oring %istake is disovered a(ter asse%&",# ,ou an save the rungs &, s!"itting o(( the !ost with a hise" Figure out what went wrong# then &ore %ortises in a s!are !ost and reasse%&"e thestoo" ... =( ,ou disover that tenons are undersiBed &e(ore &oring# ,ou an swith to a s%a""er &it A 916)inh %ortise wi"" do# a"though it "ooks under) siBed =t;s !ossi&"e to grind or (i"e a ower)+ore &it a&out 132 inh undersiBe @ou an a"so inrease the tenon;s dia%eter &, g"uing a n,"on stoking over the end or &, driving a tin, &ak wedge into a ker( at the end o( the tenon as it;s !ounded into the !ost %ortise For suess(u" &ak wedging# are(u" !"anning is neessar, on;t %ake the wedge too &ig =( ,ou do# ,ou %a, s!"itthe !ost# or ,ou %a, not &e a&"e to drive the tenon in =n the aseo( a terri&"e disaster# re%e%&er that a "oser !roHet an &e a good "earning e*!eriene aw so%e Hoints in ha"( to stud, how the hair works and what went wrong r, to !u"" so%e Hoints a!art r , stressing so%e rungs u&Het Hoints to sev) era" ,"es o( hanges in hu%idit, ong rungs an &e sawed o(( and re,"ed as short rungs
to+s o the +osts >ust slightly &onve73like the loor o the Parthenon, a very slight do*esha+e looks *u&h better than a lat sa% &ut" Beore +utting on a inish, do a inal s&ra+ing >ob and +ossibly a little sanding" ?or a +olished sura&e, a brisk rub %ith dry s+okeshave shavings %ill %ork better than sand+a+er" 6 don;t try to re*ove flats, the subtle +lanes let ro* shaving, but 6 re*ove irregularities that %ould dra% attention" 138 Green Woodworking
'efore glue sets, -!hair wrassling- !an often &e used to even u% alignent of front and rear %anels !aused &y inor &oring irregularities. 'ar and %i%e !la%s !an also &e used.
?or a inish, 6 use tung oil &ut %ith about 15 +er&ent tur+entine, or a +ro+rietary +enetrating oil" 6 never use stain or &oloring agent" A++ly the oil %ith a &lean rag" -ubbing heats the oil a little and this i*+roves +enetration" 6n a e% hours, you &an a++ly a se&ond &oat" Sin&e air hardens tung oil, it should be stored in an airless &ontainer" Hou &an +ut *arbles into the &an to dis+la&e air as the tung oil is used u+" r, you &an transer the oil +utting to a +lasti& beore on thebottle &a+" and then sEueeFe out the air 6nstru&tions or %eaving the seat %ith hi&kory bast are given in A++endi7 B"
Wille Sund>uist, !arving a s%oon at our North "arolina hoe in HII.
Doinery 189
Swiss #ufereister )uedi #ohler %laning the interior of a !oo%ered &owl. Photo taken in H97 when )uedi was IH.
140 Green Woodworking
PA"T T."$$
Profiles
ro(i"es 141
eront Windsor !hairaker 1ave Sawyer
12 /reen :ood%orkins
C=AP)(- (L(J(N
'eet 1o7e Green Woodworkers :hile shaving bu&ket staves or asse*bling a &hair, 6 so*eti*es +ause to daydrea*" 6 usually %ork alone, but %hen 6 think about %ood%orking, riendshi+s %ith other &rats+eo+le oten &o*e to *ind" @y e7+erien&e as a %ood%orker has not been one o isolation" )hrough tea&hing and travel, 6;ve dis&overed that green %ood%orking is a &o**on interest or an un&o**on grou+ o +eo+le" @u&h o %hat 6;ve %ritten has been learned ro* other %ood%orkers and *y students" :hen 6 began to %rite this book, 6 started out by visiting several &olleagues"
White oak &asket artisan )a!hel Nash 0aw
6 *et -a&hel Nash La% %hen %e %ere looking or so*eone to tea&h %hite oak basketry at Country :orksho+s" At the ti*e, the La%s lived in a large ra*e house on the *ain street o the s*all to%n o Beverly, :est Jirginia" :hen 6 drove around the alley to the rear o the house, 6 sa% -a&hel %orking in an en&losed ba&k +or&h" A large /er*an she+herd greeted *e %ith enthusias*" So did -a&hel" -a&hel %as busy %eaving a large, doublehandled %hite oak basket" She s*ooth ed several oak s+lits by +ulling the* under a knie blade +ressed against a leather +ad on her thigh" She %orked
ro(i"es 143
An alostfinished elon &asket with two swing handles
A s>uare to round white oak &asket &y )a!hel Nash 0aw
144 Green Woodworking
)a!hel*s die used to for oak rods
Eui&kly and e7+ertly and %e began talking about baskets and basket *akers" 6 soon realiFed that -a&hel %as a +erson %ho %as dedi&ated to her %ork, but %ho also valued her riendshi+s and en>oyed sharing her e7tensive kno%ledge basketry" 6 askedoho% she be&a*e involved %ith basketry" -a&hel re+lied that her ather, %ho is an inventor, *ade baskets as a hobby" -a&hel *ade her irst baskets in 19< %hen she %as nine" As a teenager, she &a*e under the tutelage o a lo&al basketry resear&her and tea&her na*ed Catherine Canda&e Laird" Ater high s&hool, -a&hel studied at the 6nternational S&hool o 6nterior $esign in :ashington, $"C", and at the Jirginia Polyte&hni& 6nstitute and State !niversit y at Bla&ksburg, %here she re&eived a B"S" in interior design" 6n 19., -a&hel &o*+leted a oneyear &ourse in %illo% basketry at the Staatli!he Fa!hs!hule f$r #or&le!hterei und /o&el&au 4National S&hool o Basket @aking in Li&htenels, :est /er*any" She also did ield resear&h and *useu* studies in =olland, ?ran&e, (ngland, and S&otland" :hen she returned to the !nited States, -a&hel *ade
-a&hel is inluen&ed *ainly by the traditional or*s, te&hniEues, and *aterials o the A++ala&hian region" =er baskets are *ade in a %ide range o styles" ne o her s+e&ialties is the *elonsha+ed basket, %hi&h is started by *aking a ra*e &onsisting o t%o hoo+s lashed together at right angles to or* the ri* and handle o a basket" She oten *akes baskets %ith one or t%o s%ing handles, instead o the *ore &o**on rigid handle lashed to the horiFontal ri*" ?or these baskets, the ribs are &ylindri&al rods, and the %eavers are thin, narro% s+lits" :ith the e7&e+tion o a neatly &rated %illo% basket, the %ork that 6 sa% %as %hite oak" -a&hel;s baskets aren;t ussy or +re&ious, but everything is *ade very &areully %ith +re&ision and a rela7ed sense o e7+ertise" 6 +arti&ularly liked her inter+retations o A++ala&hian basketry, %hi&h are innovative but re*ain rooted to traditional or*s" She also en>oys e7+eri*enting %ith dierent te&hniEues" ?ro* 192 through 19<, she %as %riting a book on %hite oak basketry %ith a riend, Cynthia :" )aylor" )hey have done e7tensive ield%ork in &entral A++ala&hia, intervie%ing traditional basket *akers and +hotogra+hing histori&al &olle&tions" Published by the !niversity o )ennessee Press in 1991, their book is titled A%%ala!hian White ?ak 'asketry.
$uring their resear&h, -a&hel and Cynthia learned about &ertain (uro+ean basket *akers %ho &a*e to this &ountry and ada+ted oak rod in order to *ake %illo%style baskets like those they kne% ro* the old &ountry" -ods are &ylindri&al, not lat, and are sha+ed %ith a die3a steel +late drilled %ith holes ranging ro* 12 to 1 in&h in 1<in&h in&re*ents" )he +late is bolted to a sturdy ben&h" )o de*onstrate *aking oak rods, -a&hel irst rived so*e %hite oak s+lits and Eui&kly &leaned the* u+ %ith a dra%knie" An end o ea&h s+lit %as rounded and &ha*ered to get it started through one o the larger holes in the die" ?or this o+eration, -a&hel %ore leather gloves and used Jise /ri+s to +ull the oak s+lits through the die" )he s+lit %as Eui&kly rounded and then *ade s*aller in dia*eter by +ulling the oak through su&&essively s*aller holes in the die" :hen rods are used in a ra*ed *elon basket, the ends *ust be ta+ered %ith a knie"
baskets livelihood" (7a*+les o herone %orkat have a++earedorin her nu*erous e7hibits, in&luding the -en%i&k /allery at the S*ithsonian 6nstitution" @ore re&ently, -a&hel had been resear&hing basketry history, %riting, and tea&hing" ro(i"es 145
/artha Wether&ee lashing ris and handles to iniature ash s%lint &askets
@artha :etherbee is +ossibly the bestkno%n basket *aker %orking in the !nited States" =er re+utation has been &areully earned" 6n the *id19.0s, @artha be&a*e interested in *aking re+rodu&tions o ash s+lint baskets originally +rodu&ed by the Shakers" She investigated Shaker &olle&tions and original do&u*ents, and taught hersel basketry %hile %orking at the Canterbury, Ne% =a*+shire, Shaker &o**unity" Sin&e then, she;s e7hibited e7tensively and %ritten about Shaker basketry or %ood%orking and ho*e urnishing +ubli&ations" :hen 6 kno&ked on the door o her +i&turesEue rural Ne% =a*+shire &ottage, 6 didn;t re&ogniFe the %o*an %ho %el&o*ed *e" 6t %as @artha3but %ith a short, &urled hair&ut" 6 had seen only +hotos o her %ith long straight hair that hid +art o her a&e" 6 ollo%ed @artha into the living roo*, a s&ene o basketry in a&tion" @artha introdu&ed *e to her husband, Nathan )aylor, %ho %as busy %eaving one o the s*allest baskets 6 had ever seen" )his %ork 146 Green Woodworking
reEuires &on&entration, but Nathan %as *ore than a*enable to taking a break to tell *e about ash s+lint basketry and the @artha :etherbee story" A table in the *iddle o the roo* %as +iled %ith sta&ks o *iniature ash s+lints, *any les s than 1 in&h %ide and only to 10 in&hes long" As Nathan talked, @artha resu*ed her %ork, %hi&h %as binding ri*s and handles to a grou+ o even s*aller baskets, ranging in dia*eter ro* 1 to 212 in&hes" 6 learned that @artha doesn;t +ersonally do all the %ork on the baskets %hi&h &arry her na*e" Nathan;s son, (ri&, %orks ull ti*e at basketry, and @artha and Nathan e*+loy a nu*ber o +artti*e basket %eavers and a *an %ho o+erates their ash s+lint +ounding *a&hine" )hey also hire a bookkee+er and, inbe&ause there is a so+artti*e *u&h &orres+onden&e involved the business, se&retary" )he @artha :etherbee Basket Sho+ is lo&ated in a t%ostory building that looks like a s*all Ne% (ngland &arriage house" $o%nstairs is the +rodu&
An ash s%lint Shaker re%rodu!tion &y /artha Wether&ee Pounding &rown ash s%lints at /artha Wether&ee*s
ro(i"es 147
A Shaker %attern -kitten head&asket, and the old that it*s woventoover. +eight ri, :B: in!hes diaeter, ;B: in!hes.
tion roo*, &ra**ed %ith stationary +o%er tools, *olds, +iles o s+lints, and doFens o baskets in various stages o &onstru&tion" )he se&ond loor &o*bines a salesroo* %ith the shi++ing de+art*ent" :hileroo*" %e talked, *y be eyes and hands about the living As &ould e7+e&ted, %e %andered %ere surrounded by baskets" @artha and Nathan have an outstanding &olle&tion o antiEue Shaker baskets, as %ell as Shaker oval bo7es" Shaker baskets are notable or *eti&ulous &rats*anshi+, unior*ity, and a &areul sense o +ro+ortion' @artha reerred to the designs as Gstrea*lined"G )he Shaker baskets range ro* very s*all, an&y baskets, %ith s+lints e7a&tly 882 in&h %ide, to ull siFed %ork baskets" So*e o the utility baskets are lined %ith &otton ti&king" thers have %ooden skids riveted to the botto*s" @artha;s baskets %ere also on dis+lay" )he only dieren&e that 6 sa% bet%een the originals and @artha;s re+rodu&tions %as age" )he old Shaker baskets take on a ta%ny &olor and sho% signs o %ear" 6n &ontrast, ne% ash s+lint doesn;t have *u&h &hara&ter" )he irst thing that 6 learned about Shaker baskets3 and @artha :etherbee re+rodu&tions3is 148 Green Woodworking
that they %ere *ade to e7a&ting standards" $esigns %ere +ere&ted and then +ut into +rodu&tion +arts or individual baskets %ere &o*+letely inter&hangeable" )o do this, the Shakers used *olds, and they develo+ed s+e&ialiFed tools and *a&hinery" But unlike *any other &rats that be&a*e *e&haniFed, Shaker basketry stayed at a high level o Euality" &ourse, the %eaving has al%ays been hand%ork" @artha :etherbee baskets are %oven %ith bro%n ash s+lints" Muality ash is hard to ind, but she re&ently ound a de+endable @aine" an ash s+lint is re*oving the )he irstsour&e ste+ inin*aking bark %ith a dra%knie" )o release the annual gro%th rings, the sura &e o the log is re+eatedly +ounded until the +orous rings o annual early%ood ibers &rush and dela*inate" ?or years, @artha3or so*eti*es an assistant 3+ounded logs by hand %ith the +oll o an a7e or %ith a sledgeha**er" As did the Shakers, Nathan eventually set u+ a *e&haniFed tri+ ha**er to take over this laborious >ob" )he +ounding *a&hine is lo&ated in a shed, %hi&h also houses a table sa% and a sha+er" )he *a&hine, %hi&h *akes a loud, re+etitious thu*+ing
noise, is an an&ientlooking Bradley;s Cushion =a**er, a behe*oth srcinally *ade or re+airing auto*obile bu*+ers" )he devi&e is a &onglo*eration o heavy belts, &a*s, and levers +o%ered by an ele&tri& *otor" )he logs &an be 5 to 10 in&hes in dia*e ter and < to 10 eet long" )hey are sus+ended ro* a &hain atta&hed to an overhead trolley that rides on an 6bea* tra&k" )he *an %ho %orks at the tri+ ha**er, a retired tru&k driver na*ed Alvin, told *e that the *a&hine %as three to our ti*es aster than +ounding by hand" 6;* sure this is true, if yo u &ould kee+ u+ the +ounding &ontinuou sly" Alvin said that %ith the *a&hine, it &ould take a ull day to +ound and +eel a goodsiFed ash log" (a&h ti*e a gro%th ring dela*inates, Alvin uses a knie to &ut stri+s, about an in&h %ide, %hi&h are easily lited o the &ore o the log" )he +ro&ess &ontinues until the s+lint Euality degenerates inner s+lints are s+oiled by knots or*ed during early years o gro%th, or %hen the dia*eter gets so s*all that they are too &urved to be usable" Beore the s+lints are %oven into baskets, they *ust be dressed and &ut to narro%er %idths" @ost s+lints are +eeled into t%o layers, and the best &an be subdivided again to yield our ull%idth +ie&es" Ne7t, the s+lints are slit into the %idths reEuired or %eaving baskets" ?or this +ro&ess, Nathan built a slitter that uses inter&hangeable s+a&ers and knives that atta&h to a stationary base" )o use it, you si*+ly +ull the srcinal %idth s+lints through the slitting blades" ?or unior*ity, the baskets are %oven over %ooden *olds" )he a&tual %eaving is hand%ork, and the %eaver *ust +ay attention at all ti*es" )he result is a basket that is +ere&tly sy**etri&al" @artha, Nathan, (ri&, and several +artti*e e*+loyees3%ho %ork *ostly at ho*e3do the %eaving" ne advantage o unior* %eaving is that standard ri*s and handles &an be +rodu&ed" )hese heavier +arts are *ade ro* %hite bir&h, a %ood &hosen or its light &olor and good bending Eualities" 6n a nearby +avilion, Nathan has set u+ a s*all bandsa% *ill" Clear bir&h logs are sa%ed into lit&hes3slabs, %ith the bark edges inta&t3to a thi&kness o 1 in&h" )o *ake the larger ri*s, the lit&hes are resa%ed into 12in&h stri+s, then run through a hal round *older" A sander is used or inal thi&knessing and to ta+er the ends" )he blanks are boiled in an o+en trough, then bent on >igs" Ater bends set, the handles and ri*s are given a inal tou&hu+ at a dru* sander"
)hat evening, the living roo* table %as &leared o basket *aterials and %e ate takeout ood ro* the Chinese restaurant in Sanbornton" :hen %e inished, @artha got ba&k to the %ork o lashing *iniature ri*s and handles to her tiny baskets" @artha and Nathan shared their ideas about %hat they;re doing" Nathan +ointed out that a division o labor is not in&onsistent %ith +ra&ti&es o the Shakers" @artha said that she didn;t see any reason %hy &rats should be +ri&ed so lo% as to kee+ the *akers +er+etually i*+overished" )heir +ri&es in 19< ranged ro* 59 to 89" She said that %hile their +ri&es *ay a++ear high, they are a ra&tion o %hat;s +aid or &o*+arable antiEues" @artha :etherbee;s baskets are a business, *u&h as +rodu&tion basketry %as or the Shakers" 6 *entioned that Shaker baskets %ere *ade to be used and not or &olle&tors" Personally, the *iniature baskets didn;t interest *e" 6 +reer %orking baskets that the Shakers +rodu&ed or hauling a++les and %ood &hi+s, and iner baskets or herbs, stit&hery, or baked goods" @artha res+onded that it;s hard to earn a living *aking the larger baskets, even %ith the +ri&es that they &urrently ask" @artha and Nathan also talked about ne% areas o interest that they;re e7+anding into" @artha %as %orking on t%o books, The Shak er 'asket Stor y and 0egend of the 'ushwha!ker 'asket, %hi&h is about )aghkani& baskets, na*ed or a region o eastern Ne% Hork State %here t%o large, isolated a*ilies +rodu&ed baskets or sale or generations" Ater *ore than ten years o *aking Shaker re+rodu&tions, @artha and Nathan %ere develo+ing ne% designs" A&&ording to Nathan, the ne% baskets ollo% Shaker traditions, as i Shaker designs had &ontinued to evolve to the +resent" )hey also %ere beginning to oer %orksho+s in ash s+lint basketry and %ere looking into selling ash basketry kits, tools, and *olds" F
F
F
Proiles 19
+enri aillan!ourt shaving !edar with a !rooked knife
=enri lives in /reenville, Ne% =a*+shire" ?inding his +la&e %as easy" =e +reers to %ork in ront o his sho+, and there %ere t%o or three ne%ly inished &anoes on the la%n, +lus several older &anoes in a nearby leanto" @y i**ediate i*+ression %as a sense o =enri;s +roound res+e&t or the 6ndians that srcinally *ade bir&hbark &anoes" )he design is ully
=enri Jaillan&ourt has been *aking bir&hbark &anoes sin&e he %as 15 years old" :hen 6 visited, in Nove*ber 195, =enri had built al*ost 100" =is &anoes are *ade to order and are sold by length" 6n 19<, the +ri&e %as 800 +er running oot" A ty+i&al Jaillan&ourt &anoe is about 1< eet lEng" $uring the last e% years, he has built 8 or &anoes a year, %orking ive 0hour %eeks on ea&h" 150 Green Woodworking
A new aillan!ourt &ir!h&ark !anoe ade in H9=.
un&tional3obviously highly evolved" Jisually, the sha+e is e7&iting" =enri;s &anoes are +ut together %ith &are, skill, and attention to detail" =enri has dedi&ated his adult lie to the &rats o North A*eri&an natives" )hereore, T %as so*e%hat sur+rised to see the (uro+ean inluen&e in the design o the &o*bined sho+ and residen&e he built" )he *oti o his living Euarters is derivative o ti*ber ra*e %ith *asonry inill, and in&ludes a bay %indo% and a rather de&orative bal&ony" )he overall ee&t is +leasing and &o*ortable" :hen 6 arrived, =enri %as busy *aking railing styles or the bal&ony" :hile %e talked, =enri sat on the loor, %orking %ith a &rooked knie, a ras+, and sand+a+er" =e said that he had tried &utting the &urved styles %ith a bo% sa% but %as un&o*ortable using it he didn;t have a vise to hold the
boards" ?or *e, it %as a treat to see a &rooked knie used e7+ertly and in an un&onventional a++li&ation" =enri sho%ed *e other &rooked knives o various sha+es, used or s+e&ii& kinds o %ork" =e has *ade *ost o his %hile in the bush o northern Muebe& %ith his CrUe 6ndian riends" Learning to *ake bir&hbark &anoes %as a slo% +ro&ess, de*anding *useu* resear&h and trial and error" By the ti*e =enri ha++ened to see so*eone else building a bir&hbark &anoe, in 190, he had already been *aking the* or *ore than 15 years" )he &anoes =enri *akes are identi&al to those +rodu&ed by several AlgonEuian tribes %ho d%elled on the Penobs&ot -iver in @aine" )hey;re not &o+ies o any +arti&ular &anoe, but &o*bine *any o the eatures used by this tribal grou+" =enri said that i his %ere thro%n into a grou+ o &anoes ro* that Proiles 151
A detail of the aillan!ourt !anoe
+eriod, he doubts that anyone %ould +i&k the* out as being unusual" =is %ood%orking te&hniEues are also authenti&" =enri;s &anoes are built like those o the early 19th &entury, i not +reColu*bian" )he use o steel tools a*ong the AlgonEuian 6ndians goes ba&k about 800 years nails have been used or *ore than 150 years" )he &anoe ribs and +lanking are s+lit and shaved &edar" )he gunnels are s+ru&e, and the bra&es are bir&h" Bark or the skin is %hite 4+a+er bir&h, %hi&h &an be +eeled in late s+ring or early su**er" /oodEuality bark doesn;t dela*inate it should be about 1 in&h thi&k" )he lashing is s+ru&e roots" )he &aulking, used at bark sea*s, is a *i7ture o rosin and lard"
*akers have develo+ed the &rat to a +oint that is &lose to +ere&tion" =e believes that his re&ent &anoes re+resent a high standard o Euality in details and inish" =enri is also interested in other Native A*eri&an &rats and in the 6ndians %ho &ontinue to live &lose to the old traditions" 6n addition to building &anoes, =enri *akes traditional 6ndian sno%shoes and &rooked knives" 6n the *id0s, =enri devoted a &onsiderable +ortion o his energy to do&u*enting re*aining traditional 6ndian &rats and %ays o living" )he )rust or Native A*eri&an Cultures and Crats, %hi&h he ounded, s+onsored ield resear&h, in&luding the +rodu&tion o videota+es o Native A*eri&ans doing traditiona l &rats" )he )rust +ublished =enri;s irst book, /aking the Attikaek Snow shoe, %hi&h
=enri =is *aintains he;s not interested being an innovator" goal isthat to *ake the best &anoe in +ossible" =e eels that generations o &anoe
-etails the &onstru&tion o one o the *ost so+histi&ated and beautiul Native A*eri&an sno%shoe
152 Green Woodworking
Attikaek %attern snowshoe ade &y +enri aillan!ourt
styles" )he )rust has also +rodu&ed several do&u*entary videos, in&luding GBuilding an AlgonEuin Bir&hbark CanoeG and GBeaver )ail Sno%shoes"G )he book and video are available ro* )he )rust or Native A*eri&an Cultures and Crats, /reenville, Ne% =a*+shire"
ro(i"es 153
'owl !arver, furniture s!ul%tor, and house &uilder 1irk )osse
%ork, %eathered %ood, and a long %indo% %all a&ing a garden" )he bea*s are uneven, and the inish on the +laster isn;t sli&k 6 ound the building attra&tive" $irk and Dohanna -osse *et *e at the door" Dohanna, %ho s+eaks %ith an a&&ent3she;s $ut&h3oered to sho% *e around" )he entry roo* &ontains a dis+lay o &rat%ork or sale, *ostly $irk;s %ooden bo%ls and &utting boards, and also Dohanna;s handdyed yarns and knitted %ares" 6 had a eeling that the dis+lay %as situated near the door so that the -osses &ould sho% visitors their &rats or sale %hile +reserving their +riva&y"
:hen 6 s+oke to $irk -osse on the +hone, he said he %as very busy building a s+e&ulation house" Sin&e he hadn;t been &arving lately, he &ouldn;t do a de*onstration" 6 %as %el&o*e to visit, but he %ould +robably be %orking on the Gs+e&G house" )he -osses live several *iles out o @illbrook, Ne% Hork" )heir drive%ay +asses through a short stri+ o eastern hard%ood regro%th" )he irst building 6 noti&ed %as a long, o+ensided shed overlo%ing %ith logs, slab %ood, lu*ber, and old *a&hinery" )hen 6 sa% the -osses; house" 6nstin&tively, 6 kne% it %as o%nerbuilt by an artist&rats+erson" )he t%ostory stru&ture &o*bines %hite +laster 154 Green Woodworking
5ohanna )osse knitting in the )osse living roo
%e entered living e7+lainedtothat %henAs$irk srcinallythebuilt theroo*, house,Dohanna it %as su++osed be&o*e his %orksho+" But $irk ound that he +reerred %orking outdoors" Dohanna said that the lagstone loor and uneven tro%elled +laster are not easy to &lean she kee+s the house s+otless" )he %all to the right o the entry is do*inated by a large *asonry ire+la&e that re*inded *e o A*eri&an 6ndian adobe %ork ro* the South%est" (7&e+t or a e% antiEues, %hi&h a++ear (uro+ean, the urnishings are $irk;s %ork3a large, reeor* s%ivel &hair *ade o %eathered roots or li*bs, and a builtin desk, &ou&h, and &abinets" Dohanna asked i 6 had eaten lun&h" 6 had" But it %ould be an o++ortunity to talk %ith $irk3*aybe *y one &han&e" Dohanna served a hearty sou+, reshly baked dark bro%n bread, &heese, and &oee" $irk -osse %as born in 1925, in Ne% City, Ne% Hork, but raised in =olland" )he -osses *oved to @illbrook in
?or $irk, %ood%orking has never been a business, but rather a %ay o living Euietly in the &ountry" =e en>oys %orking alone and said that i he had hel+ers, there %ould be too *u&h to sell and that he %ouldn;t ind ti*e to %ork" $irk -osse isn;t your ty+i&al idea o a green %ood%orker" =e doesn;t do traditional %ood%orking" But he does %ork dire&tly ro* logs, and his %ork sho%s great res+e&t or ra% *aterials" =is %ood%orking &o*bines a variety o inluen&es" G6 %as irst ins+ired as a &hild by $ut&h %agon *akers,G he said, Gso*e %ith sidelines o *ilking stools and %ooden shovels, and by the %ooden shoe*akers %ho turned %illo% and +o+lar trees into shoes"G =is designs are *ostly &onte*+orary, oten e7+eri *ental, and usually +ersonal" =e re*ains interested in traditional (uro+ean olk or*s and A*eri&an 6ndian art%ork" rgani& sha+es and natural +ro&esses o gro%th and de&ay also inluen&e his %ork" $irk gets *aterials ro* a variety o sour&es" Bo%ls are oten *ade ro* la++ings3re>e&ted ti*ber3let by &o**er&ial loggers" )ableto+s *ight be
1952, e&ono*i& de&line" )hey looking%hen orthea area %ay%astoinlive e&ono*i&ally and %ere sel sui&iently, in har*ony %ith nature" ro(i"es 155
Walnut &owl &y 1irk )osse
&rot&h %ood, unusable by the lo&al sa%*ill" A &urved &herry li*b &an be&o*e +art o a +ie&e o urniture" So*eti*es he &uts trees ro* his o%n +ro+erty or +ur&hases a log ro* a neighbor" ?or *ore &onventional urniture3generally *ade as a s+e&ial order3he uses &usto*sa%ed lu*ber, %hi&h is airseasoned in the %oodshed" So*e o $irk;s bo%ls are variations o traditional &arved bo%ls" A e% are sy**etri&al and &onventional, but *ost are i*aginative, bio*or+hi& or*s" So*e re*inded *e o seed+ods, and others %orked %ith natural deor*ities in the %ood" Bla&k %alnut, butternut, and &herry are a*ong his avorite *aterials" =e so*eti*es leaves gouge *arks or a te7tural ee&t, but all his %ork is &areully inished" $irk -osse is an energeti& %orker" 6n a good day he &an *ake 12 s*all bo%ls" =e starts by roughing the e7terior o a bo%l %ith an ele&tri& &hain sa%" )o hollo% the interior, he *akes a series o &rossiber &uts %ith the &hain sa% or a &ir&ular sa%" -e*oving the &enter, and the re*aining %ork, is done %ith gouges, s+okeshaves, and other hand tools" :hen the bo%ls dry, he sands the* by hand i the gouge *arks %ill re*ain" @ost o his bo%ls are disk 156 Green Woodworking
sanded3so*e are s*ooth, others are given a ri++led te7ture" =is usual inish is boiled linseed oil thinned %ith tur+entine" -osse *arkets through &rat galleries, ro* ho*e, and at an o&&asional &rats air" $irk said that s+e&ialty ood stores &an be an e7&ellent outlet or s*all ite*s like bo%ls and &utting boards" =is +ro7i*ity to Ne% Hork City and other urban &enters is a deinite advantage" Sur+risingly, lo&al +eo+le +rovide only a e% sales" (arning a living doing &rats isn;t easy, even or the -osses %ith their talent, energy, and e7+erien&e" As the @illbrook area develo+ed and their &hildren gre% older, their &ost o living in&reased" $irk said ta7es have skyro&keted" Dohanna +ointed out that %ood%orking is not their sole *eans o in&o*e" Dohanna tea&hes kindergarten" She also does +roessional knitting, besides kee+ing house, gardening, and doing their bookkee+ing" )hey o%n a s*all rental &ottage, %hi&h $irk built" )he s+e&ulation house %as taken on or t%o reasons' to *ake *oney, but also be&ause $irk en>oys building" $irk said he %ould be ba&k to &arving and *aking urniture on&e the house %as inished"
5ohn Aleander tea!hing ladder &a!k !hairaking at "ountry Worksho%s, /arshall, North "arolina
ti*e to set it u+" Part o *y *ission %as to hel+ get the sho+ in order" 6 also %anted to +hotogra+h &hairs and baskets in the Ale7anders; &olle&tion and ho+ed to do so*e handson %ood%orking %ith Dohn" Dohn started *aking stools and &hildren;s &hairs in 19<, in a neighbor;s base*ent %orksho+" =is *aterials &a*e ro* a lu*beryard, and he soon a&Euired a lathe, band sa%, and drill +ress" So*e%here, Dohn read that green %ood is easier to turn than dry %ood" =e tried it and %as i*+ressed" :hen a lo&al &rat grou+ asked Dohn to give a le&
Dohn Ale7ander has &onsidered *aking &hairs or sale, but re>e&ted the idea be&ause his *ain interest in %ood%orking is histori& resear&h and te&hni&al e7+loration" 6nstead o getting into +rodu&tion, he;s de&ided to stay %ith his G&ash &ro+G3being a la%yer, %hi&h allo%s the ti*e and energy to +ursue his various interests" 6n 195 6 s+ent a threeday %eekend at the Ale7anders; ne%ly renovated inner&ity ro% house in Balti*ore" Dohn has a sho+ in the house but, in the year that they had lived there, he had not had ro(i"es 157
?ne of 5ohn Aleander*s ladder &a!ks
ture on &hair *aking, he intended to do a lathe de*onstration" ?or saety reasons, he %asn;t allo%ed to" At that ti*e, he %as roughing out green turning sto&k %ith a dra%knie" Dohn;s %ie, Doy&e, suggested that he shave the &hair +arts to their inished di*ensions" )his %as the beginning o Dohn;s e7+loration into shaving &hairs ro* green %ood" )his adventure in %ood%orking has been in%ard, as *u&h as it has involved studying history, %ood te&hnology, and sho+ te&hniEues" Dohn says that %hen he visited the Sabbath $ay Lake Shaker &o**unity in @aine, he G%ent to see the urniture, but stayed to *eet the Shakers"G Learning to share has been an integrated +art o Dohn;s %ood%orking" Dohn is an aateur %ood%orker in the ull sense o the ter*" :hile a +rodu&tion &rats+erson 158 Green Woodworking
needs to get %ork a&&o*+lished, an a*ateur &an take e7tra ti*e to think about %hat he;s doing, to e7+eri*ent, to +ut eort into develo+ing and reinin g designs" 6;ve had a eeling that so*e o Dohn;s best &rat ideas &o*e to hi* on his %ay to %ork and during trials" :hen he dis&overed green %ood%orking, Dohn ta++ed into an an&ient tradition" At the ti*e, a e% isolated &rats+eo+le %ere *aking &hairs the old %ay, ro* rived %ood" Dohn studied both their *ethods and old &hairs to ind out %hy so*e &hairs hold together %hile others loosen at the >oints" Dohn %ent on to &ondu&t tests %ith %ood s&ientist -" Bru&e =oadley to ind out %hat a&tually ha++ens %hen a &hair >oint is sub>e&ted to &y&les o *oisture and reEuent *e&hani&al stress"
Ta&le &y 5ohn Aleander white oak &asket &y 0ouise 0angsner
)he shaved ladderba&k &hairs Dohn *akes &o*bine traditional and &onte*+orary ele*ents" =is ob>e&tive is to *ake a light%eight &hair %ithout &o*+ro*ising strength" )he &rats*anshi+ is straightor%ard" 6n *y o+inion, his &hairs set a ne% standard o &o*ort or this ty+e o urniture" ver the years, Dohn has also *ade a e% tables %ith ra*es *ade ro* green %ood, using %etdry >oinery" Dohn;s skills as an attorney have been a++lied to %ood%orking, in that he has ke+t thorough notes o his investigations over the years" 6n 19., Dohn %as satisied that he kne% ho% to *ake a &hair and %hy it %orked, and he turned his notes into a book, /ake a "hair Fro a Tree 4originally +ublished in 19. by )he )aunton Press, re+rinted in 199 by )he Astragal Press" )he ne7t su**er, Dohn began tea&hing &hair *aking at Country :orksho+s" Dohn has also investigated +aneled &hests that %ere *ade o green %ood during the 1.th &entury" )he &onstru&tion is si*ilar to a ti*berra*ed building" )he &o*+onents3+osts, rails, and +anels3are rived ro* %et red oak" )he +rin&i+les o green %ood%orking, su&h as
design and layout, but the te&hnology is a++lied dierently" )he *ortiseandtenon >oints are re&tilinear, and the +arts are lat, %ith right angles" Ater the sto&k is rived, *ost o the %ork is done %ith &hisels and hand +lanes" 6t took us *ost o Saturday to organiFe Dohn;s %orksho+" n Sunday *orning, %e %ere >oined by Carl S%ensson, a highly skilled &rats+erson %hose *ain interest is Da+anese %ood%orking" Dohn and Carl shar+ened tools %hile 6 built a &ardboard *o&ku+ o a si*+liied 1.th&entury &hest" Dohn;s green %ood had been airdrying sin&e the *ove to the ne% house, so it %asn;t +arti&ularly %et %hen %e got to it" :orking the oak %as tedious, but %e did *anage to s+lit out and +lane a set o +osts and eight rails" :e used grooving +lanes to *ake housings or the side +anels" 6 had ho+ed to see an asse*bled &hest beore leaving" But on @onday 6 %as busy taking +hotogra+hs, and Dohn de&ided to %ork on a series o test >oints" Dohn e7+lained that e7+eri*enting %ith tools and >oint theory %as >ust as i*+ortant to hi* as getting the &hest together"
grain orientation and dierential shrinkage, +lay an i*+ortant role in Proiles 159
1ave Sawyer riving hi!kory for Windsor s%indles
$ave;s sho+ used to be the living roo*" 6t;s >ust the right siFe or one +erson, +lus an o&&asional hel+er" )%o +eo+le %orking ull ti*e %ould be a &ro%d" Hou don;t see an over%hel*ing tool &olle&tion in $ave;s sho+" Along one %all is a *assive /er*an %orkben&h" A e% tools3a dra%knie, t%o or three s+okeshaves, and an antiEue S+oord bra&e3hang tu&ked on hooks above one lathe3a %indo%" sturdy ther tools are &onveniently a%ay" $ave;s &ast iron *a&hine, +erha+s 50 years old3is in ront o the %indo% o the ad>a&ent %all" )o the
$ave Sa%yer lives %ith his %ie, Susan, and their three young &hildren in a ra*bling ra*e house on the outskirts o (ast Calais, Jer*ont" :hen 6 arrived, 6 %as greeted as a *e*ber o the a*ily" :e e7&hanged %ar* hugs and ne%s about our a*ilies" $uring *y visit, $ave oered his ull servi&es" ne reEuest 6 had %as to +hotogra+h the bending o a ba&k rail or athat &ontinuousar* :indsor &hair" $ave agreed to s+lit out the %ood and shave the rail so that 6 &ould observe the ull +ro&ess" 160 Green Woodworking
1ave Sawyer ade this high !hair for his son, 5onathan.
ut on the ba&k +or&h, $ave had a hi&kory sa+ling, saved or :indsor ba&k rails" :ithin a e% *inutes he s+lit out several billets and &hose one or the &ontinuousar* :indsor" 6 noted that $avid;s *ove*ents are very e&ono*i&al" =e tends to do e7a&tly %hat;s ne&essary, and nothing *ore" :hen he uses a dra%knie, every stroke &ounts" Hou &an tell that $ave en>oys his %ork" )here is a sense
right is a tin %ood stove" 6n addition to heating the sho+, the stove is used to boil %ater or the %ood stea*er and to dry %ood on a ra&k sus+ended ro* the &eiling" $ave also has a band sa%" )he *ost +ro*inent +ie&e o eEui+*ent is a long legged shaving horse that *at&hes $ave;s +hysiEue" )he boys; Lionel trains oten o&&u+y a third o the loor s+a&e" )o the let o the door%ay is a s*all desk, %hi&h serves as an oi&e" Proiles 1<1
A 1ave Sawyer !ontinuousar Windsor finished with &arn red ilk %aint. 2"olle!tion 5ohn and 5oy!e Aleander.3
o satisa&tion as ea&h +ie&e is &o*+leted" :hen a tool is slightly dull, $ave sto+s to shar+en it" Above his %orkben&h there;s a &li++ing ro* an advertise*ent' GAt ?ord, Euality is >ob nu*ber one"G 6 had seen $ave;s Gbending sho%G several ti*es +reviously, but the de*onstration %as still a treat" Ater the hi&kory rail %as dra%knied to s+e&ii&ations, it %as stea*ed or 80 *inutes" $ave; s stea*er is si*ilar to the one des&ribed in &ha+ter 9" 46n a&t, $ave built it %hen he %as tea&hing at Country :orksho+s" $uring the stea*ing, he had 162 Green Woodworking
>ust enough ti*e to rive and shave a set o :indsor ba&k s+indles" :hen the stea*ing %as &o*+lete, $ave &la*+ed the bending >ig to the %orkben&h" =e also got out a sele&tion o +egs and %edges and t%o s*all C&la*+s" $ave +ut on &lean &otton gloves or handling the hot %ood, then &entered the rail on the bending >ig" A %edge %as +la&ed bet%een the rail and a +eg >ust above the a+e7 o the &urve" =e li*bered the ba&k se&tion o the rail by e7er&ising it several ti*es" :orking Eui&kly, one hal %as +egged
and %edged, and the other hal %as done a e% *o*ents later" (a&h elbo% bend %as li*bered, then &la*+ed to the bending or*" )he +eror*an&e took less than t%o *inutes" Ater the ba&k rail %as bent, $ave de&ided to do so*e lathe%ork" =is :indsor turnings are a +re&ise and &areully +ro+ortioned version o the late1th&entury ta+ered baluster style" =e uses &ardboard +atterns and ad>ustable &ali+ers to insure unior*ity %ithin a set" $ave had inished three legs %hen Susan &alled us or su++er" )he Euality o the turnings %as irst rate, but $ave is not a +arti&ularly ast turner" A +rodu&tion turner %ould have been inished" )hat evening, $ave returned to the sho+ to turn the ourth leg, three stret&hers, and t%o ar* stu*+s" At '80 the ne7t *orning, the Sa%yer household %oke u+ in unison %hen one youngster began &rying loudly" (ventually, the disturban&e ebbed, but 6 didn;t linger in bed long, be&ause the Sa%yers; unheated u+stairs doesn;t invite it" 6 Eui&kly dressed and re+aired to the %orksho+" $ave and the boys had been in the sho+ Gsin&e about 5'00 so Susan &ould slee+"G $ave %as busy shar+ening tools, getting ready to sha+e a &hair seat, and the boys %ere Euietly +laying %ith their +ost&ard &olle&tions" $ave said that these early *ornings are &o**on, and that on&e Susan gets u+ he oten takes a +rebreakast na+" $ave Sa%yer;s or*al edu&ation in&ludes a degree ro* @6) in *e&hani&al engineering" =e %orked or 6B@ or a %hile but GretiredG %hen he %as 2" Sa%yer dabbled %ith restoring old &ars, then s+ent hal a year in Bolivia %ith the Pea&e Cor+s Crat Progra*" =e then %orked or so*e A*ish ar*ers in Pennsylvania" )here in Lan&aster County, he *et $aniel ;=agan, a &rats+erson and ho*esteader %ho readily shared his +hiloso+hy o si*+le living and introdu&ed $ave to %ork ing %ood %ith hand tools" 6n 19<9, $ave returned to his native Ne% (ngland and began %orking %ood ull ti*e" 6n the ;.0s, $ave Sa%yer;s *ain +rodu&tion ite* %as a green%ood ladderba&k &hair %ith three slats and +osts %ith a ba&k bend at the *iddle rung under the seat" )he design is a &o+y o a &hair he on&e sa% in a store" =e also *ade G*ule earG &hairs, %hi&h %ere a &ross bet%een a shaved sti&k &hair and a :indsor" 6n addition, he *ade bent%ood hayorks, using a design ro* $aniel ;=agan, %ho learned ho% ro* a @ennonite
neighbor" And $ave +rodu&ed a ire%ood &arrier %hi&h he designed" )he ire%ood &arrier is the +ro>e&t at the end o &ha+ter 9" n&e $ave started *aking :indsor &hairs, he lost interest in his earlier %ork" :hen 6 visited the Sa%yers, there %asn;t a ladderba&k &hair in the house" )hey did have an interesting sele&tion o :indsors, in&luding one or t%o old ones and several *ade by &hair*aker riends" 4$ave esti*ated that there %ere several doFen &rats+eo+le *aking traditional :indsors" @y avorite %as a &hild;s :indsor, %hi&h $ave *ade" :hen he inished *aking this one, Susan Sa%yer said that $ave had arrived as a :indsor &hair *aker" 6t is a *aster+ie&e" $ave;s a++roa&h to &rat and design is to &areully %ork out all the details on +a+er and then get to %ork" )o igure the &o*+ound boring angles or his :indsors, he uses so*e Gtri&kio*etryG ro* his engineering ba&kground" -eine*ents are *ade as ne&essary he;s not +arti&ularly interested in ne% designs" But although $ave;s :indsors are traditional, he doesn;t *ake re+rodu&tions o a s+e&ii& antiEue &hair" =is a++roa&h has been to &o*bine outstanding eatures o dierent &hairs %ithin a +arti&ular style" Sa%yer *akes a ull line o :indsors, all on s+e&ial order" $ave *arkets e7&lusively by dire&t sales to &usto*ers" =e;s generally booked %ith orders si7 *onths to a year in advan&e" :hen 6 visited, $ave %as *aking a set o eight &hairs, in three styles, or a &usto*er in Colorado" $ave;s standard line o :indsor &hairs in&ludes side &hairs 4bo%ba&k and anba&k ar* &hairs 4&ontinuous ar*, sa&kba&k, &o*bba&k settees in any length and high &hairs or &hildren" +tions in&lude t%o styles o turnings, &arved knu&kles, &arved s&roll ears, ro&kers, and a bra&ed ba&k" 6n 195, Sa%yer &harged ro* 880 or a basi& bo%ba&k to .15 or a settee or t%o" @ost o $ave;s :indsors are +ainted %ith *ilk +aint, but he also *akes oil inished &hairs %ith butternut seats, &herry turnings, and oak ba&ks" (a&h &hair &o*es %ith a lieti*e guarantee to outlast either $ave or the srcinal +ur&haser" )he guarantee is si*+le' G6 anything goes %rong, 6;ll i7 it"G J
J
J
ro(i"es 163
APP$#DI2 A
'aking a 1a!ing .orse @ost o the &lasses at Country :orksho+s reEuire a shaving horse or ea&h student" =aving built over a doFen, 6;ve designed a shaving horse that %orks %ell and is airly si*+le to *ake" )his shaving horse holds u+ under heavy
and ash are e7&ellent" @ost lu*beryards sell yello% +ine or utility &onstru&tion, su&h as base*ent stair%ays" A no*inal 2 7 10 is a&tually 112 in&hes thi&k and 912 in&hes %ide" Pere&t"
use, and it &an be +artially broken do%n or storage or trans+orting" )he design is si*ilar to one that 6 used at the sho+ o *y S%iss &oo+erage tea&her, -uedi ohler" Beore dis&ussing the &onstru&tion, 6 %ant to e*+hasiFe that you &an easily *ake *odii&ations to suit your needs and your +hysi&al siFe" )he e7a&t di*ensions o *ost +arts are not +arti&ularly i*+ortant" Hou should be able to use lo&ally available *aterials, in&luding so*e 6 haven;t suggested" ?inally, i you %ant to *ake a dierent ty+e o shaving horse3or instan&e, one using a rusti& he%ed bea*, a threelegged version, or an (nglishstyle bodger;s horse3go ahead" ?ine %ood%orking &an be done using any variation" A shaving horse &onsists o t%o units, the s%inging ar* and the ben&h" )he ar* has a head at the u++er end and a treadle at the lo%er end 46;ve *ade u+ these na*es they;re not oi&ial" )he ben&h in&ludes an angled bridge, su++orted by a riser" Hou;ll need to *ake our legs, t%o
6 used to *ake the large *ortises or the s%inging ar* by boring and &ho++ing, but 6 no% use an ele&tri& saber sa% or this >ob" =ere;s ho% to do it the traditional %ay' Begin the large *ortise or the s%inging ar* by lightly indenting the *ortise outline %ith a 1 to 2in&h &hisel" 4)his +revents grain tearout %hen you begin boring" )hen bore t%o ro%s o 1in&h holes %ithin the *ortise area, staying 1 in&h inside the outlines" )he holes &an overla+" )o avoid grain tearout as the auger e7its, bore ro* both sides o the +lank" !se a &hisel and a ha**er or *allet to &lean u+ the *ortise" Pre&ise &hisel%ork isn;t reEuired sin&e the *ortise is oversiFed by 1 in&h" !se the 1in&h auger to bore the leg *ortises" )o +revent tearout, bore ro* both sides o the +lank or into a s&ra+ board" )he end s+lay angle and the side &ant angle are both 18O ro* verti&al" )he ben&h is narro %ed to . in&hes at the &enter so that you don;t have to s+read your legs around the ull +lank to rea&h the treadle" )his detail is
large %edges 4used4driven to se&ure and treadle, our s*all %edges intothe thehead leg tenons" Hou;lland also need si7 2in&h %ood s&re%s, a bolt or rod or the +ivot, and %hite or yello% glue" Beore building the ben&h, you should be a*iliar %ith boring and tenoning *ethods, &overed in &ha+ter , and %etdry >oinery, dis&ussed in &ha+ter 10" 6n the +lans, the +lank used or the ben&h is <0 in&hes long" )his is a bit short" 6 +reer a ull <oot ben&h, be&ause 6 o&&asionally sit near the end to %ork on long *aterials" Also, e7tra length at the seat end is useul or &ar+entry or as a su++ort or a horiFontal three+egand %edge holding syste* used or boring or *ortise %ork" Hou *ay %ant to *ake a shorter ben&h to it in a s*all sho+ or or trans+orting" )he +ra&ti&al *ini*u* length is about 5 in&hes" Shorten the seat se&tion, not the bridge" )he ben&h, bridge, and riser &an be *ade o any strong, light%eight %ood" Hello% +ine, $ouglas ir,
o+tional" &utouts &an beby *ade %ith%ith a bo% sa%, saber sa%, or by)he he%ing ollo%ed shaving a dra%knie" )he bridge and riser are *ade ro* no*i nal 2 7 < lu*ber" Hou *ay %ant to lengthen the riser by an in&h or so 3+arti&ularly i you;re long bodied, or i the ben&h has a shortened seat" ne i*+ort ant di*ension is the length o %orking sura&e on the bridg e %hen the head is lo%ered" )his should be at least in&hes other%ise, the +ie&e being shaved tends to loosen by +ushing u+%ard against the head" 4)his ha++ens be&ause the ront edge o the bridge a&ts as a ul&ru* %hen +ressure is +ut on the unsu++orted end o the %ood being shaved" Basket *akers %ho %ork long, thin *aterial should &onsider lengthening the bridge an additional < to 10 in&hes" )he +ivot hole in the side o the bridge is 91< in&h in dia*eter" )o avoid tearout, bore the hole ro* both sides o the +lank beore &ho++ing out the ar*
164 Green Woodworking
-1u& head- shaving horse. ?n this one, the seat !ould &e a little longer.
*ortise" Sa% a 15O %edge ro* the lo%er ront edge o the bridge the base o the %edge is 8 in&h thi&k" )he ste+ and &utout at the %orking end o the bridge is an o+tion or dra%knie %ork using a breast bib" )he legs are *ade ro* a ring+orous hard%ood, su&h as oak, ash, hi&kory, or lo&ust" Hou &an also turn the legs at a lathe, using >ust about any hard%ood" :ith 20in&h legs, the ben&h %ill be 1 in&hes high" )his is an average ben&h height" 6 you;re taller than < eet, lengthen the legs about 2 in&hes" Hou &an al%ays &ut the legs do%n" )he leg ta+er sho%n in the +lans is an aestheti& o+tion" Legs &an also be straight &ylinders or o&tagonal in se&tion" 6 you sha+e the legs ro* green %ood, oversiFe the tenons by 11< in&h" )he legs *ust be dry35 to 10 +er&ent *"&" %hen the tenons are itted" )he tenons are 2
)he our 1in&h%ide %edges or the leg tenons &an be shaved ro* dry rived sto&k or sa%ed ro* a 1in&h board" )hey are 2 in&hes long, ta+ering in thi&kne ss ro* 81< to 11< in&h" )he s%inging ar*, head, and larger %edges are oten oak, but any hard s+e&ies is suitable" :here %e live, %ood o the s+e&iied thi&kness is available at lo&al sa%*ills" 6 you &an;t ind so*ething this thi&k, you &an la*inate sto&k thi&knesses +laned to 8 to . in&h" !se a double thi&kness or the ar* and a tri+le thi&kness or the head" )he thi&kness o your *aterial *ay reEuire altering the %idth o the *ortises through the ben&h and bridge" !se a sliding bevel and a sEuare to lay out the tenons at ea&h end o the ar*" )he tenons are *ade %ith a hand ri+sa% and a &ross&ut sa%" !se a 91<in&h auger to bore
in&hes long and 1 in&h in dia*eter" Sa% 112in& hdee+ kers or the tenon %edges oriented tangentially to the gro%th rings"
the bolt +ivot holes in the ar*" )he oset hole lo&ations, 1 12 in&hes ro* the near edge, &ause the ar* to o+en auto*ati&ally %hen the oot treadle is released" -aking a having 'orse 165
Wedge 'ead
+ridge iser +enh Ar%
read"e eg 1 1/2" S 20
Wedge
Plans for a du& head shaving horse
Wedge
iser
'ead
+ridge Ar%
166 Green Woodworking
?ff!enter %ivot holes !ause the head to o%en autoati!ally.
>oint" )he bridge and riser add &onsiderable stiness to the ben&h" )he legs should be oriented so that the %edge slots are +er+endi&ular to the length o the ben&h" Put glue on the tenons, and ha**er the legs ho*e against the tenon shoulders" /lue the %edges and ha**er the* tightly into the slots" !se a &hisel to re*ove e7tra %edge *aterial and the +rotruding ends o the tenons" Leveling the ben&h is des&ribed at the end o &ha+ter 10"
)he %edge *ortises in the teno ns are 1 in&h %ide" @ake the *ortises 11 in&hes high at the entran&e, ta+ering to 1 in&h at the e7it" Lo&ate the base o the *ortises 11< in&h under the outer +lane o the head and treadle" Bore and &ho+ the *ortise through the head beore sha+ing it" )he lo%er holding sura&e o the head is slightly rounded to in&rease the ri&tion area %hen the head is &losed" )he %edges that se&ure the head and treadle are sa%ed ro* 1in&hthi&k hard%ood" @ake the* in&hes long, %ith the heigh t ta+ering ro* 11 in&hes to 8 in&h" ?or the +ivot, 6 like a 12 7 in&h bolt, %ith the
:hen asse*bling the ar*, don;t or&e the head or treadle over the tenons" 6 the it is tight, lo&ate the +roble* and i7 it" ?or&ing %ill &ause these +arts to s+lit" ?or the sa*e reason, the %edges should be slightly loose at the sides o the tenons" 6 use an ordinary ha**er to tighten or loosen these re*ovable %edges"
threaded end ha&ksa%ed o" Asse*bly is straightor%ard" )he bridge and riser are atta&hed to the ben&h +lank %ith &ountersunk %ood s&re%s" !se t%o s&re%s at ea&h -aking a having 'orse 167
APP(N$6 B
5ark 1eating ?or the seating o a +ostandrung &hair or stool, 6 +reer to use the inner bark 4or &ast3 ro* hi&kory" 6t;s a natural iber ro* trees that gro% in our %oods" But *ore i*+ortant, hi&kory bast is beautiul to look at and very strong" 6 it
&hunks" :hen you begin to shave into the +ul+y inner bark, you;ll noti&e a netlike +attern o interlo&king veins" As you shave dee+er, the veins get thinner i you take a knie and &ut straight a&ross the veins, you;ll see that they or* a GJG
isn;t abused, a hi&kory bast seat should last or de&ades" ther natural seating *aterials that are attra&tive in&lude %hite oak s+lits and ash s+lints, rush, and sea grass" !sable bark s+e&ies that 6 haven;t tried in&lude +e&an, sy&a*ore, bla&k %illo%, +a+er bir&h, linden, and tuli+ +o+lar" )he Shakers; &hairs used dyed &otton ta+es3 Euite handso*e" Basketry su++ly sho+s sell so*e o these *aterials3but never bark3as %ell as s+lit reed and +a+er ibers" Leather and ra%hide &an also be used, in stri+s or as a single sheet" =i&kory bark +eels *ost easily in late s+ring and the irst *onth o su**er" Bast &an be +eeled ro* any ty+e o hi&kory, and a si*ilar *aterial &an be taken ro* +e&an" 6 +reer to %ork %ith a tree bet%een < and 10 in&hes in dia*eter" Bark ro* larger trees &an be used, but the tough outer bark is hard to re*ove" )ry to ind a hi&kory that;s relatively ree o knots belo% the *a>or bran&hes" )all trees %ith *ini*al ta+er yield the *ost bast"
in &ross se&tion" )he ob>e&tive is to sto+ shaving >ust beore the botto* o the J disa++ears" )he re*aining bast should be &lose to the right thi&kness or +eeling and %eaving into a &hair seat" :hen you shave the +ul+y *aterial, a residue tends to sti&k to the edge o your dra%knie" )o get this stu o, di+ the dra%knie into a bu&ket o %ater as it a&&u*ulates" Be sure that your dra%knie is shar+, or the bast %ill tear instead o &ut" 6 you have to leave a shaved +ole3or lun&h or overnight3irst dren&h it %ith %ater" !se a hose or a dri++ing%et s&rub brush" )hen &over the +ole %ith %et burla+ or tar+s" n&e the outer bark is re*oved, rotate the sa+ling so that the ni&est, &learest se&tion a&es u+" Cut the stri+s using a shar+ knie %ith a short blade" )he +en blade in a good +o&ketknie %orks %ell" @ake a knie &ut the ull length o the +ole, and as straight as +ossible" Cut all the
Hou &an +eel bark a elled tree in the %oods, but 6 +reer to drag +olesro* ho*e" Peeling hi&kory is ti*e &onsu*ing %orking a 80oot +ole &an take *ost o a day" )%enty eet is an average length" $on;t &ross&ut the sa+ling into shorter lengths" :eaving is *u&h aster %hen you don;t have to *ake *any s+li&es" )he letover %ood is oten good or &hair +arts anything else be&o*es irstrate ire%ood" 6t;s best to %ork in a shady area, %here intense sun %on;t dry out the bast too Eui&kly" Hour %orksho+ %ill do i you don;t *ind getting the loor %et" $ave Sa%yer has &onvin&ed *e that it;s %orth rigging u+ so*e +ro+s to su++ort hi&kory +oles horiFontally at &hest height beore +eeling the*" Hou &an use a +air o sa%horses, but leaning over a +ole or hours at a ti*e is hard on the ba&k" ?irst shave o the hard outer bark %ith a dra%knie" Hou;ll be a*aFed at ho% tough this stu is, es+e&ially
%ay do%n to the %ood" )ry to avoid *aking t%o +asses" 6 you %ander o the srcinal &ut, %hi&h is easy due to the &riss&ross +attern o the ibers, you;ll get raFFled edges" @ake a se&ond knie &ut +arallel to the irst one and about 8 in&h to one side" 46 you %ant very narro% stri+s, &ut the* later ro* the srcinal stri+ %ith s&issors or s*all tin sni+s" Start +eeling ro* either end o the +ole" )o get started, sli+ your knie blade under the bark" Hou *ay dis&over that the bast is too thi&k be&ause you didn;t shave o enough +ul+y *aterial" 6 so, do so*e *ore shaving but, or no%, &onine it to the area %here you;re +eeling the irst stri+" )o a &ertain e7tent, thin bast stri+s are a&tually stronger than thi&k ones, %hi&h tend to be brittle" )hin stri+s also tie and %eave *u&h *ore easily than thi&ker stri+s" A thi&kness o 11< in&h is about right" :ith so*e hi&kory bast, you &an subdivide a stri+ into t%o layers or a double yield" )he te&h
to%ard the butt end" 6t &o*es o in 168 Green Woodworking
Peeling hi!kory &ast. First, the outer &ark is reoved with a drawknife.
niEue is the sa*e as that used in *aking %hite oak basketry s+lits, des&ribed in &ha+ter <" ur hi&kory bast %on;t do this, but $ave Sa%yer says he oten subdivides hi&kory bast &olle&ted in Ne% (ngland" )ry it" Ater +eeling a stri+, &oil it u+ %ith the inner side a&ing out and tie it %ith a bark s&ra+ or string" 6 you;re not going to use the bast i**ediately, +revent *old or*ation by hanging &oils in a draty shelter to dry" $ry &oils &an be ke+t indeinitely" Dust soak the bark or about 80 *inutes and it;s ready to %ork %ith again" Beore +eeling *ore stri+s, observe the e7+osed edge o the bark %here the irst stri+ %as +eeled" )his is a good ti*e to do so*e *ore shaving to the &orre&t thi&kness" As you &ontinue +eeling, so*e stri+s %ill run into knots" Hou &an in&lude knots less than 1 in&h a&ross in the stri+" S*all holes don;t a++re&iably %eaken the bast" Be&ause a +ole ta+ers, so*e stri+s %ill ter*inate beore rea&hing the ti+ end" :ith oresight, it;s oten +ossible to end stri+s at a large knot or other dee&t" Weaving :eaving &hair seating %ith hi&kory bast is basi&ally the sa*e as using other stri+ *aterials" ne dieren&e is that hi&kory bast &an be tied %ith a sheet bend knot" 4See illustration on +age 1.0" Less le7ible seating is s+li&ed by &utting t%o +airs o
not&hes on the sides o the *aterial, then tying the overla+s %ith strong thread" Cotton ta+e is s+li&ed %ith an overla+ ta&ked by a e% stit&hes" )he &hair ra*e should be inished3%ith so*ething like tung oil3beore %eaving the seat" =i&kory bark is used %ith the srcinal inner sura&e a&ing do%n" :ra+ a e% loo+s o seating *aterial around a ba&k +ost " )hen beg in the war&8 a series o +arallel %indings" :ra+ the bark around the ront and ba&k rungs" $on;t %ra+ the %ar+ too tightly around the rungs as the seat is %oven, it %ill tighten u+" @ake any ne&essary s+li&es on the seat botto*" )he %ar+ is &o*+lete %hen you;ve illed in the ba&k and the ront rungs" 6 you;re seating a &hair %ith a tra+eFoidsha+ed ra*e, there %ill be t%o narro% triangles let ste+" o+en at ea&h side" )hese GearsG are %oven later, as the last :ra+ the end o the %ar+ under the ba&k +ost and then u+ over the ad>a&ent side rung" ?or a neat >ob, use a s&issors to redu&e the %idth o the *aterial %here it %ra+s around the +ost" Continue by %eaving the weft a&ross the %ar+" Bark and si*ilar *aterials are usually %oven in a herringbone +attern" :ith Shaker ta+e, %eave a &he&kerboard3a herringbone %ill &o*e out too loose" )o begin a herringbone %eave, &ross over t%o %ar+s, then go under t%o %ar+s and re+eat" :hen you start the se&ond round, &ross over one %ar+,
+ark eating 169
then under t%o, over t%o, and so orth" ?or the third round, go under t%o, then over t%o" -ound our begins under one, then over t%o" )his +ro&ess re+eats beginning %ith round ive" )he botto* side o the seat &an be %oven in a large &he&kerboard +attern" ?or the irst t%o rounds, start over t%o, then under t%o" ?or rounds three and our, start under t%o, then over t%o" As you %eave, be sure to +ull the %et tightly against +revious rounds3it %ill tend to +oo&h out%ard in the *iddle, but this *ust be &orre&ted" )he last e% rounds are a &hallenge to %eave as the &onstru&tion %ill be very tight" A kit&hen butter knie is useul or guiding and tu&king the bark under the %ar+" !se s*all s&ra+s o bast to ill in the side triangles" )hey %ill stien and stay in +la&e ater the bark dries" :hen the %et is &o*+lete, %eave the beginning o the %ar+3the end srcinally %ra++ed around the ba&k +ost3into the botto* o the seat" =i&kory bark is dull gray bro%n %hen ne% and takes on a beautiul +atina %ith use" Sheet &end or weaver*s knot, used to s%li!e hi!kory &ast seating
'eginning the war%. The tied offend is woven into the &otto of the seat after the weft is !o%lete.
This stool is re!tangular. ?n a !hair, the seat is a tra%eDoid. The war% leaves two sall o%en triangles at the sides. These are filled in after weaving the weft.
170 Green Woodworking
Weaving the weft with a herring&one %attern
The &otto side, whi!h has all the s%li!es, !an &e woven in a !he!ker&oard %attern. This one is over three and under three.
Bark Seating 1.1
/y daughter, Ai, in a white oak ha%er ade &y 1arry Wood
172 Green Woodworking
A )P6CAL B6BL6/-AP=H
Cultural ,ers&ectives Adney, (d%ard )a++an, and =o%ard 6" Cha+elle" The 'ark "anoes and Skin 'oats of North Ae ri!a. 19<" -e+rint" :ashington, $"C"' S*ithsonian 6nstitution Press, 198" Andre%s, (d%ard $e**ing, and ?aith Andre%s" Shaker Furniture.
-e+rint" Ne% Hork' $over Publi&ations,198." 6n&", 19<"
$avidson, Susan D" GerBent Bo7es"G Fine Woodworking 4 190 @ay Dune" -e+rinted in ?ine Woodworking on 'ending Wood. Ne%to%n, Conn"' )aunton Press, 195" (aton, Allen =" +andi!rafts of the Southern +ighlands. Ne% Hork' -ussel Sage ?oundation, 198." (dlin, =erbert L" Woodland "rafts in 'ritain. 199" -e+rint" $evon, (ngland' $avid K Charles, 19." /ilbertson, $onald (", and Da*es ?" -i&hards, Dr" A Treasury of Norwegian Folk Art in Aeri!a.
Calla%ay, @inn"' @a+lelag, 19.5" Denkins, D" /eraint" Traditional "ountry "raftsen. London' -outledge and egan Paul, 19<5" ilby, enneth" The "oo%er and +is Trade. London' Dohn Baker, 19.1" Langsner, $re%, and Louise Langsner" +andade. Ne% Hork' =ar*ony Books, 19." Sloane, (ri&" 1iary of an 4arly Aeri!an 'oy. Ne% Hork' ?unk K :agnalls, 19<5" VVVVVVVVVV" A )everen!e for Wood. Ne% Hork' ?unk K :agnalls, 19<5" S+rigg, Dune" Shaker 1esign. Ne% Hork' :" :" Norton K Co*+any in asso&iation %ith the :hitney @useu* o Art, 19<" Ste%art, =illary" "edar. Jan&ouver' $ouglas K @&lntyre, 198" Sturt, /eorge" The Wheelwright*s Sho%. 1928" -e+rint" Ca*bridge' Ca*bridge !niversity Press, 19." Jiires, A. Woodworking in 4stonia. Derusale*, 6srael' 6srael Progra* or S&ientii& )ranslations :ashington'
:etherbee, @artha, and Nathan )aylor" 0egend of the 'ushwha!ker 'asket. Sanbornton, N"="' @artha :etherbee Basket Sho+, 19<" :igginton, (liot, ed" The Fofire 'ook ol. . Ne% Hork' $oubleday K Co*+any, 19.2" :illia*s, Christo+her" "raftsen of Ne!essity. Ne% Hork' -ando* =ouse, 19."
Greenwood Crafts 0How+To Books1 Abbott, @ike" Green Woodwork. (ast Susse7, (ngland' )he /uild o @aster Crats*en, 199" Ale7ander, Dohn $", Dr" /ake a "hair Fro a Tree. Ne%to%n, Conn"' )aunton Press, 19." -e+rint' @endha*, Ne% Dersey' )he Astragal Press, 199" Bro%n, Dohn" Welsh Sti!k "hairs. ?ishguard, :ales' Aber&astle Publi&ations, 1990 4and ?resno, Caliornia' Linden Publishing" $unbar, @i&hael" /ake a Windsor "hair with /i!hael 1un&ar. Ne%to%n, Conn"' )aunton Press, 19" =art, Carol, and $an =art" Natural 'asketry. Ne% Hork' :atson/u+till Publi&ations, 19." Langsner, $re%" "ountry Wood!raft. (**aus, Pa"' -odale Press, 19." VVVVVVVVVV" G@aking :ooden Bu&kets"G Fine Woodworking 4198 @ayDune" -e+rinted in Fine Woodworking on 'ending Wood. Ne%to%n, Conn"' )aunton Press, 195" La%, -a&hel Nash, and Cynthia :" )aylor" A%%ala!hian White ?ak 'asketry. no7ville, )ennessee' !niversity o )ennessee Press, 1991" @astelli, -i&k" G/reen :ood%orking"G Fine Woodworking 4192 @ar" A+r" -e+rinted in Fine Woodworking on "hairs and 'eds . Ne%to%n, Conn"' )aunton Press, 19<" SundEvist, :ille" Swedish "arving Te!hni>ues. Ne%to%n, Conne&ti&ut' )he )aunton Press, 1990"
S*ithsonian 6nstitution Press and the National S&ien&e ?oundation, 19<9" +i&"iogra!h, 173
!nderhill, -oy" The Woodwright*s Sho%. Cha+el =ill, N"C"' !niversity o North Carolina Press, 191" Jaillan&ourt, =enri" /aking the Attikaek Snow shoe. /reenville, N"="' )he )rust or Native A*eri&an Cultures and Crats, 19." :right, $orothy" 'askets and 'asketry. 195" $evon, (ngland' $avid K Charles, 19."
Green Woodworking Materials
@iller, :arren" "ross!ut Saw /anual. :ashington, $"C"' !"S" $e+art*ent o Agri&ulture, 19.." 4Available or 1 ro* /overn*ent Printing i&e, $o&u*ents $e+art*ent, :ashington, $"C" 20029285 order sto&k no" 0010010081" Sala*an, -" A" 1i!tionary of Woodworking Tools. -e+rint 3Ne%to%n, Conne&ti&ut )he )aunton Press, 1990" Sloane, (ri&" A /useu of 4arly Aeri!an Tools. Ne% Hork' ?unk K :agnalls, 19<" :eygers, Ale7ander /" The /aking of To ols. Ne% Hork' Jan Nostrand -einhold Co*+any, 19.8"
Bro%n, :illia* =" The "onversion and Seasoning of Wood. ?resno' Caliornia' Linden Publishing, 199" $ent, $" $ouglas" Professional Ti&er Falling Beaverton, reg"' $" $ouglas $ent, 19." /ordon, D" (" The New S!ien!e of Strong /aterials. Ne% Hork' :alker and Co*+any, 19<" =art, Carol" GBasket :illo%"G Threads 419< ?eb"@ar" =oadley, -" Bru&e" Understanding Wood. Ne%to%n, Conn"' )aunton Press, 190" " 8dentifying Wood. Ne%to%n, Conne& ti&ut' )he )aunton Press, 1990" Little, (lbert L" The Audu& on So!iety Field Guide to North Aeri!an Trees34astern )egion. Ne% Hork' Alred A" no+, 190" VVVVVVVVV" The Audu&on So!iety Field Guide to North AlredAeri!an A" no+,Trees 190"3 Western )egion. Ne% Hork'
!"S" $e+art*ent o Agri&ulture" Pro%erties, Sele!tion, and Suita&ility of Woods for Woodworking. @adison, :is"' ?orest Produ&ts Laboratory, n"d" !"S" $e+art*ent o Agri&ulture" Silvi!s of Forest Trees of the United States. :ashington, $"C"' /overn*ent Printing i&e, 19<5" 4rder Agri&ulture =andbook No" 2.1"
Green Woodworking Tools /ood*an, :" L" The +istory of Woodworking Tools.London' /" Bell and Sons, 19<2" =all, :alter" 'arna!le Par%*s "hain Saw Guide. (**aus, Pa"' -odale Press, 19.." and 1evi!es for "o%%i!e "rafts. London' La*bert, ?" Tools (vans Broth ers, 195." 174 Green Woodworking
Green Woodworking ideos 'eaver Tail Snowshoes. /reenville, Ne% =a*+shire' )he
)rust or Native A*eri&an Cultures and Crats" 'uilding an Algon>uin 'ir!h&ark "anoe. /reenville, Ne%
=a*+shire' )he )rust or Native A*eri&an Cultures and Crats" "arving Swedish Woodenware. Ne%to%n, Conne&ti&ut' )he )aunton Press" Chair*aker" :hitesburg, entu&ky' A++alsho+" +and "arved. :hitesburg, entu&ky' A++alsho+" Swiss "oo%erage Two 1ays in the Worksho% of )eudi #ohler. @arshall, North Carolina' Country
:orksho+s" The "oo%er*s "raft. :illia*sburg, Jirginia' Colonial
:illia*sburg" Traditional New 4ngland 'asketaking.
Conne&ti&ut' Brookield Crat Center"
Brookield,
Page nu*bers in itali! indi&ate tables" Page nu*bers in boldfaceindi&ate illustrations and +hotogra+hs"
A AdFe, 12, 1, <<, <., <9, <.0, .1, .2 Alder, 29, 0 Ale7ander, Dohn, 15.159 A++le, 0, <1 Ash, 15, 29, .<, 122, 180, 1<, 1<5, 1< Auger bit, 12, 10.10, 112, 11, 122, 129 A7e, 9, 12, 18, 1., 1, 8, , 50, <1, <<<, .., 2 ben&h, <<, <., <, .0, ., 1 broad, << +olled, .<, 1.. shar+ening, <.0 te&hniEues %ith, .0.1
B Bark, , , .< Bark &ontainers, . Bark seating, 1<1.1 Basketry, 9, 1, 15, 1, 19, 28, 29, 1, 8, ., <, 92, 11., 1819 Bass%ood, 8 Bee&h, 1, <1, .. Ben&h stone, 5058, 5, .0, 9, 99 Bendability o %ood, &o*+arative, ;< Bending, 12, 11.125 Billet, 5, 2, <, 92, 100, 101, 102, 120, 180, 181 Bir&h, 18, <1, 122 Bit" See Auger bit ?orstner bit @ortising bit Po%erBore bit S+oon bit )%ist bit Bla&k ash, 11 Bla&k gu*, .< Bla&k lo&ust, 12, 82 Bla&k %alnut, 18, 15< Bla&k %illo%, 1< Body *e&hani&s, 58, .0.1 Bole, <1 Boring, 95, 10.11<, 12, 125, 129, 182, 188, 18, 1<5 horiFontal, 110, 111, ((+ rung *ortises, (+9 tools or, 10.110 Bo%ls, 155, 15< Bra&e, 9, 108, 10., 10, 111, 122, 180 Brake, 1<, .<, .., 8, < Breast bib, (48 102, 1<5 Bu&kets, 11., 120 Bu&keye, , .1, .8 Butternut, .1, 15<
6N$( c Ca*biu*, 81, 82, 8, 5 Canoes, 18, , <<, 95, 11., 150158 Carving, 50, 12 Catal+a, .1 Cedar, 12, 82, 8, 0, 11. Cedar bast, . Chairs, 115, 1, 20, 5, <, 92, 102, 10., 110, 11., 120, 12, 15.159
(l*, 80, , ., .<, 122 (Euilibriu* *oisture &ontent, 2 (u&aly+tus, 29
? ?elling" See Logging ?iber saturation +oint, 81 ?ilbert, 0 ?ile, <9.0, 9. ?ire%ood &arrier *aking, 122125
&orre&ting *istakes ladderba&k, 1, 20, in, 28,18 2, 8., , , 92, 111, 11., 119, 12<, 12., 159 >igging +ost o, (44 li*bering +ost o, (4( siting &o*+ound angles o s+indle o, ((( :indsor, 12, 18, 19, 28, <<, 92, 10., 11., 11, 120, 12<, 12, 129,180, 1<01<8 Cherry, 15< Chestnut, 12, 8 Chests, 159 Chisel, 50, 9, 108, 10, 11, 1< Club, .., 8, 9 *aking, 1 s+litting, .<, .. Co*+ound angles boring, 110111, ((+ siting, or &hair s+indle, ((( *easuring, 110, ((4 Conier, 18, 19, 29, 82, 88, , < Coo+erage, 18, 19, 28 Coo+ered &ontainer, knie%ork %ith, 9 Co++i&ing, 15, 29, 1 Cylinder
(4+8 (4;8 (49 bit, 10,+lans 12, or, 129, 185 ?reedo*?orstner o dry %ood ro* odor and taste, ;6 ?roe, 9, .<, .., 8, , <, 9 *aking o, 0 using, 8<
boring, 11 shaving, 100102, (( Cy+ress, 82
=ard%ood, 29, 80, 8., , , .1, .<, .., 92, 100, 101, 122, 12., 182, 1<5 =at&het, 8, <0, <<, <., 2, 90 broad, 9, ., <, 9, 102 =ayorks, 1., 119 =eart%ood, 82, ;=, <1, 2, , <, 180 =e%ing, <<.5 =i&kory, <, 18, 15, 29, 82, 2, .<, .., <, 122, 180 1<5, 1< =i&kory bark, 1<1.0 =i&kory bast, , ., 1<, 1<9 =ollo%ing, (4 =olly, 29, <1 =oning, 50, 525, 999 a7es and adFes, <<9 =oo+ing o %ooden bu&kets, 120 =ornbea*, .<, .. =urdles, garden, 991
D $e&ay delaying, 8 resistan&e o %ood to, 82, ;= $e&iduous trees, 29, 82 $ierential shrinkage, 9, 12, 2, ((8 12 $og%ood, <1, .., 1 $ouglas ir, 1< $o%el, 1010<, 185 $ra%knie, 9, 12, 1<, 50, 52, ., 1, <, , 9, 90, 92, 9, 95100, 102, 11, 11<, 122, 128, 180, 1<0, 1< $rilling" See Boring $rying *ethods, 129180
G /lue, 12125, 180, 18<, 18., 1<, 1<. /lut, .<.., 2, 9 *aking, 1 /ouge, 50, <2, <5, .1, .8, ., 15< shar+ening, <5, <5 /ro%th rate o trees, 82, 2, 11
H =a&kberry, .<, 122 =a**er, 9, 11, 11<, 125, 180, 1< =ard *a+le, 29, <1 =ardness o %ood, &o*+arative, +;
6
6nshave, 9, 99100
.
(astern %hite +ine, 8 (dge tool, 50, 95
Dig, 11119, 121, 128 Digging o ladderba&k +ost, (44 Doinery, 12<12
6nde7 1.5
er, 11., 128 iln, 181 nie, 1, 180" See also nie%ork blo&k, 95 &arving, 50, 11, 12 te&hniEues or *aking, 5, 59 &rooked, 9., 9. ?rost, 50, 5 hollo%ing, 9 sloyd, 50, 58 nie%ork,<5, 998 9<8 5. nots, 82, 8., , .<, 1, , <, 11, 180
Lar&h, 29 Lashing, 8 La%, -a&hel Nash, 1815 Leveling, 18. Li*bering, 11., 120, 12 ladderba&k +ost, (4( Li*bs, 12, 8, 8, , <1, .<, .. Linden, 29, 8, , ., , .1, 1< Lo&ust, .<, 1<5 Log building, 151< Logging, 8.0, 89 Logs, .<, 9 buying, 0 riving, 25, 2, 8, , . See also -iving sele&ting, 8.
@agnolia, @allet, 11<, 180, 18<, 1< @a+le, <, <, 11 @atto&k, 1 @aul, 9, 18, 8, .<, .., 9 @oisture &ontent o %ood, 81, 18, 12<12. &he&king or, 12 @ortise, 95, 9., 10810<, 10., 1111<, 125, 12<12., 12, 129, 181, 182, 185, 18<, 18., 18, 1<, 1<. @ortising bit, 129
E Non+orous %ood, 80 Northern %hite +ine, 8
ak, <, .<, .., 12, 180, 1<5 live, 0 regon ash, 0 regon %hite oak, 0 sage orange, .<
176 Green Woodworking
Pa+er bir&h, , .1, 1< Pear, 0, <1 Pe&an, 0, 1< Persi**on, 0, <1, .. Plane, .1 Polishing, 50, 5 a7e and adFe, < Po+lar, 29 Porous %oods, 29 Postandrung stool, 1< *aking, 18018 +lans or, ;; Po%erBore bit, 10, 122, 12, 129, 182, 185
-ake, 12< *aking, 10210< -ay +lane, 2, 101 -ea*er, 12 -ea*ing, 10. -ed &edar, .< -ed oak, 15, 82, 122, 180, 159 -ed%ood, 12, 82 -hododendron, 29, <1 -iving, 12, .<91, 2, 8, , 5, ., 12, 181 &o*+arative Euality o %ood or,;6 tools or, .<.9 -oots, , .<, .., 1 -osse, $irk, 1515<
Saddling, 12 Saety guidelines, 9, 1., 8, 0, 5, <<9, , 9< Sa+ling, 18, 8, 8, , 5, <1, .., 1, 8, <, 11, 1< Sa+%ood, 82, <1, 2, , <, 180 Sa%, 12, 1., 8, 50, <0, <1, <2, 1, 9, 108, 11, 122, 180, 15< Sa%yer, $ave, 1<01<8 S&ra+er, 1, . Sha+ing, 5058 a7es and adFes, < round tenons, (4= Shar+ening o tools, 505, 5, <.0, ., 95100, 109 Shaving, 9210<, 100, 181182 Shaving horse, 1<, 92, 95, 100, 108, 10, 11, 122, 180 *aking, 1<1<. +lans or, (<< Ske%ing, 102 Sledgeha**er, .<.. S*ooth %illo%, Sno%shoes, 11., 11, 152 Sotness o %ood, &o*+arative, ;<
Sot%ood, 29, 80, 8., .1, .5, .<, 92 S+okeshave, 9, 12, 1<, 50, .1, ., 92, 9 95, 99, 100, 102, 108, 10, 11, 122, 128, 125, 12, 180, 18<, 18, 15< S+oon bit, 10. S+oon *aking, <0<, <0 S+ru&e, 8 Stea*er, 119120, 122, 12 Stea*ing or bending %ood, 121, 12 Storage o %ood, 18 Straightening, 11. S%eet bir&h, 18 Sy&a*ore, <1, 1<
)e*+ering, 9. )enon, 125, 12<, 12., 12, 129, 182, 18< 18., 18, 1<5, 1<. *ethods o sha+ing, (4= )i*ber ra*ing, 151<, 8 )ools, 9" See also individual naes of tools
or boring, 92 or riving, .<.9 shar+ening o, 505, 95100 )oughness o %ood, &o*+arative, ;= )restles, 1111<, ((9 )roughs he%ing, .8, .5 )uli+ +o+lar, , 5, 1< )%ist bit, 10
Jaillan&ourt, =enri, 150158 Jise, 9, 92, 95, 9<, 102, 111, 11, 181, 182, 185, 18.
:alnut, 0, .1, 122 w :ater tu+elo, .1 :eaving o seating, 1<91.1 :edge, 9, 1, .<, ., 2, 8, 9, 9< :estern &edar, :estern %oods, 1 :etherbee, @artha, 1<19 :hetting" See =oning :hite ash, 11 :hite bir&h, 11 :hite oak, 12, 15, 29, 82, 8., 2, .<, <, 122, 180, 1<, 1<9 :hittling" See nie%ork :ild &herry, 29 :illo%, 1, , .,
Hello% bir&h, 11 Hello% &edar, .< Hello% +ine, 1< Hello% +o+lar, , .1
"elated Titles /ro7 Lark 5ooks /aking )usti! Furniture
The "hairaker*s Worksho%
The Tradition, S%irit, and Te!hni>ue
+and!rafting Windsor and
with 1oDens of ProEe!t 8deas
Postand)ung "hairs
By $aniel @a&k
By $re% Langsner
1<0 +ages, Pa+erba&k, .0 &olor +ages, 1"95
80 +ages, =ardbound, 52 &olor +lates, 8"95
4Can' 2<"95 6SBN' 1.8.12
4Can' 9"95 6SBN' 1.8.85 4$istributed by -ando* =ouse
The )usti! Furniture "o%anion Traditions, Te!hni>ues and 8ns%irations
'uilding Fen!es and Gates +ow to 1esign K 'uild The Fro the
By $aniel @a&k
Ground U%
1 +ages, =ardbound, 1.0 &olor +lates, 2<"95 4Can' 8."95 6SBN' 098.2.9.<
By -i&hard ?reudenberger
"aner*s +and&ook
1 +ages, Pa+erba&k, <0 &olor +lates, 1<"95 4Can' 28"95 6SBN' 1.8... 4$istributed by -ando* =ouse
A 1es!ri%tive Guide With Ste%'ySte% Photogra%hs To )estoring "ane, )ush, S%lint, 1anish "ord, )awhide, and Wi!ker Furniture
By Bru&e :" @iller and Di* :idess 1 +ages, Pa+erba&k, &olor +ages, 1"95 4Can' 2<"95 6SBN' 098.2. <0.
For a free !atalog of our !o%lete line of distin!tive !raft &ooks, write to 0ark 'ooks, =7 "ollege St. Asheville, N" :997. ?r, in the !ontinental U.S. and "anada, !all 977:9<;;99. ?r eail us at larkailLlark&ooks. !o.
Lark 5ooks Printed in the !"S" %%%"larkbooks"&o*
Woodworking >(3?=9
Can" 2."95 Learn to *ake a +ostandrung stool %ith a %oven seat, a +air o light %eight trestles, a bent%ood ire%ood &arrier, handso*e he%n bo%ls, and even a +ra&ti&al %ooden rake, using the ti*eless te&hniEues o %orking green %ood %ith hand tools" 6nstead o the nerve>angling noise and noseti&kling dust o +o%er tools, you;ll use *aul and roe, broad a7e and adFe, dra%knie and &arving knie to &reate handso*e and servi&eable +ie&es to use and dis+lay" A &on&luding se&tion +roiles a sele&tion o &onte*+orary %orkers o green %ood" A leading e7+onent o green %ood %orking, $re% Langsner is the dire&tor o Country :orksho+s, a s&hool or traditional %ood%orking in rural North Carolina" =e is the author o three +revious %ood%orking books" -+is s%are, wise tet is reinfor!ed &y good %hotogra%hs...Then there are the %rodu!ts utensils, &askets, !hairs. Mu.3:hole (arth -evie% ?ront
and ba&k &over +hotogra+hs by (van Bra&ken 6SBN 098.2.2 90000 T
((9 ?Ob@fl
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Lark 5ooks
