^$^
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Classical Greece f DF78 .B6
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Bowra, C. M. NEW COLLEGE OF CALIFORNIA (SF)
DF 78 .B6 1898-1971 BoSra, C. M. Classical Greece f
#13161
1
BOBFIOWEH'SNAME_ DATE DUE
#13161
f
DF 178
B6
Bowraf C« M.
(Cecil Maarlce),
1898-
1971.
Classical Greece / by C. M. Bowra and the editors o± Time-Life Books* New York Timet inc«» cl965« 192 p» : ill* (some col») mapst plant ports. ; 28 cm. (Great ages of man) Bibliography: p. 186. Includes index. . • JV13161 Sec lass S :
——
Civilization To 146 B.C. 1. Greece Greece. I2. Art Pictorial works. Title ^^
—
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CL7ISSIC7IL
GREECE
Life
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GREAT AGES OF
MAN
A History of the World's Cultures
CMSSIOL GREECE by C.
M.
BOWRA and
The
Editors of
TIME-LIFE Books
TIME INCORPORATED, NEW YORK
C. M. Bowra is warden of Wadham College at Oxford, and a towUniverering figure in classical studies. He has held the vice-chancellorship of the academic post. Among his books are Tradition and Design in highest sity, Oxfords Experithe Iliad, Early Creek Elegists, Sophoclean Tragedy, as well as The Creek ence, which won him a wide audience. Sir Maurice has also translated Pindar's Pyth-
THE AUTHOR:
ian
Odes and been
The Oxford Book of Creek Verse
a co-editor of
in Translation.
Leonard Krieger, formerly Professor of History holds the post of University Professor at the University of Chicago. the author of The German Idea of Freedom and Politics of Discretion.
THE CONSULTING EDITOR: at Yale,
He
is
now
THE COVER:
This head
part of a statue of Poseidon that probably dates from It was found in the Aegean in the 1920s.
is
the middle of the Fifth Century B.C.
GREAT AGES OF MAN
BOOKS
TIME-LIFE
Harold C. Field
SERIES EDITOR:
Editorial Staff for Classical Greece:
Notman P Ross
Assistant to the Editor: Peter Meyerson
William ]av Cold
Text Editor: Betsy Frankel
Edward A Hamillo
Designer;
John Stanton
Chief Researcher: Carlotla Kerwin
Assistant Text Director: lerry Korn Assistaitt Art Director:
Norman Snyder
Staff Writer:
Beatrice T. Dobie
Researchers:
Arnold Holeywell
Assistant Chief of Research: Monica O.
Terry Drucker
Ho
Dori Watson,
Lilla
Zabriskie
Barbara Moir, Linda Wolfe
Rhett Austell
General Manager: Joseph C. Hazen Business Manager: John D.
Jr.
Color Director: Robert
McSweeney
Circulation Manager: Joan D.
L,
Young
Art Assistants: James D. Smith,
Manley
Wayne
R. Young,
David Wyland Picture Researchers: Margaret K. Goldsmith,
Joan T. Lynch
Copy
Staff;
Marian Gordon Goldman,
Rosalind Stubenberg, Dolores A.
Valuable aid
in
preparing this book was given by Doris
ham, Chief, Time
Inc.
O
Littles
Neil. Chief, Life Picture Library:
Bureau of Editorial Reference; Richard M. Clurman, Chief, Time-Life
Content Peck-
News
Service;
Ann Natanson and Joseph Pilcher (Rome), KatharineSachs (London), Elisabeth Kraemer (Bonn), Franz Spelman (Munich), Gertraud Lessing (Vienna) and Joseph Harriss (Paris).
Correspondents Helga Kohl (Athens),
Classical Greece
©
J965 by Time
Inc.
All rights reserved. Published simultaneously Library of Congress catalogue card
School and library distribution
(i.v
in
Canada.
number 65-17305.
Silver Burdetl
Company.
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION
CRADLE OF THE MODERN 1
2 3
4 5
Picture Essay:
SPIRIT
THE GREAT LEGACY
18
DARK AGE AND NEW DAWN Picture Essay:
OF
30
WAR AND A WANDERER
39
A CONFIDENT ARISTOCRACY Picture Essay:
48
THE GREEK HOMELAND
61
THE PERSIAN WARS Picture Essay:
Picture Essay:
68
A ZEST FOR LIVING
ATHENS
IN ITS
79
TIME OF GLORY
THE PERICLEAN EPOCH
105
GREEK AGAINST GREEK Picture Essay:
7 8
us
THE PANHELLENIC GAMES
A NEW TIME OF Picture Essay:
125
BRILLIANCE
i36
ENDURING THEATER
145
ALEXANDER THE GREAT Picture Essay:
i56
AFTERMATH OF EMPIRE
165
APPPENDIX
177
Chronologies, 177; The Olympian Family, 180; of Heroes, 182; Greeks Great and Famous, 184
BIBLIOGRAPHY,
INDEX and
lo
A
Gallery
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND CREDITS 186
Pronunciation Guide
188
NTRODUCTION Apart from
its
other claims to fame, the importance
assigned by Classical Greece to individual achieve-
ment assures
man. There were
among
place
a
it
the great ages of
earlier great ages,
but those peri-
human may be
interest.
For this reason, too, that study
salutary for our
to accept regimentation
own
society, all too prone
and nameless conformity.
The distinguished Commission on
Humani-
the
established in 1963 by three of the leading
ods were dominated for the most part by absolute
ties,
rulers of monolithic states; the truly creative indi-
scholarly organizations in the United States, has
viduals
who
Mesopota-
certainly existed in Egypt,
mia and Anatolia
are almost entirely
Classical Greece
was
different.
We know
names of more than 20,000 individuals ticipation
in
the heart of
civic
affairs.
or ph\^sicist, will not realize
name
each bearing the
of those
of
Each ostrakon
some outstanding
Cimon, offers
stage in their careers the their fellow citizens of
Pericles
and many
proof that
men were
aiming
at
at
some
who have gone
to
In other aspects of
we
new
must
live
generation of in
the individual stands out.
The
find that the begin-
all
fine pottery
made
in
and Fifth Centuries B.C. can be
assigned to some five hundred different masters,
history
signed their products.
emphasis on the individual man Greek
owes much of
its
past
the
men who
Man makes
to
'necessarily little
important contributions to the
achievement of these goals.
associated with individual men. Even in the crafts
this
the privilege
This book in the Time-Life series on the Great
Ages of
choice. Sir
sparkling and perpetual
His
Its
author
Greek
and
of Hellenism
following pages shows us Greece in freshness. In the picture essays that
ious aspects of the
his life to
literature, art
brilliant distillation
happy
a
is
Maurice Bowra has devoted
the contemplation of
To
.
one small corner for one
ety.
whom
.
stretch of time.'
nings of the various literary genres, of the schools
of
.
suspected by
maintain a balance between
life,
each
of philosophy, of the major artistic trends are
many
Human-
before him.
tyranny. These
personal ambition and the civic interest.
in the Sixth
his
to
been kin-
has
and obligation of interpreting
man—
ostraka remind us that the Athenians were ever
Athens
poten-
full
the institution of ostracism),
to
name
mindful of the need
his
contribution
fullest
scholars have therefore
ist
Aristides, Themistocles, others.
his
dled by the aspirations and accomplishments
ostraka (the potsherds, or pottery fragments, that
gave their
make
times unless his imagination
in
thousand
a
or
tial
their par-
Recent excavations
Athens have yielded over
Even the most gifted individual, whether poet
the
Athens
in
most of them recorded because of
alone,
stated:
anonymous.
all
soci-
on the
its
dewy
document
var-
Greek experience, even the most
assiduous reader of the current spate of books on
Greece
will discover
ing, imaginatively
much
that
deployed
to
is
new and
refresh-
bring out the essence
of Classical Greece.
HOMER Field Director,
American School of
A.
THOMPSON
Classical Studies at
Athens
*
1i
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At
ZACYNTHUS
ELIS
Olyrtipia.
CRETE
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
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Apollonia
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^^^^
For centuries Greece has exerted a peculiar enchant-
ment over the imaginations
who
men. The Romans,
of
incorporated Greece into their empire— and in
the process did not shrink from sacking
were deeply impressed by
it.
cities-
its
Young Romans were
sent to study at the university in Athens, and edu-
cated
Romans looked
to the
Greeks
as their masters
philosophy, science and the fine
in
the
Romans' confidence
in their
own
arts.
sion and their gift for government, they
was much
uneasily, that there
1
in
Despite
imperial misfelt, a little
thought which they could never hope
and
letters
art,
to
do as well
as the Greeks.
When
CRADLE OF THE
MODERN
the Italian Renaissance of the 15th Cen-
tury A.D. brought an intensified
ancient world,
SPIRIT
Rome
at first
behind the imposing poets ful
felt
Roman
and more
alluring.
Slowly past,
the
in
iaqade, scholars and
the presence of something
from the mists of the the
interest
held the attention. But
this
more power-
was disentangled
and the
full
majesty of
Greek performance was revealed. So great was
Greek prestige that Greek ideas on medicine,
as-
tronomy and geography were accepted with unquestioning faith birth of a
the
until
new
17th Century,
when
the
inaugurated the era
scientific spirit
of experiment and inquiry into
which we ourselves
have been born.
Even today, when we have discarded so many creeds and cosmologies, the Greek view of cites
and
exalts us.
life
ex-
Greek thought and Greek
as-
sumptions are closely woven into the fabric of our lives
almost without our knowing
reason alone
we
its
achievement.
own
origins,
No
and
for this
know
about
and the scope
the Greeks, to assess the value their
it,
are right to wish to
of
people can afford to neglect
and the modern world
is
far too
deeply indebted to Greece to accept in unthinking ingratitude
At
what
it
has inherited.
the center of the
Greek outlook
lay
an un-
shakable belief in the worth of the individual man. In centuries
when
large parts of the earth
east,
the Greeks were evolving their belief that a
man
must be respected not PALLAS ATHENA Was a goddess with of civilized
she
is
life
shown
in
and donor of
many
roles,
among
were
dominated by the absolute monarchies of the
as
the
omnipotent overlord, but for
instrument of an
his
own
sake.
They
others protectress
the indispensable olive tree. In this statue
her helmet, garbed as the defender of righteous causes.
sought
at all costs
to
be themselves, and in this
they were helped by the nature of their country.
EVOLVING STYLES Greek
in
art, are
male form, the central figure
in portraying the
shown
(1000-700 B.C.), on the
here. left,
They began with
the nearly abstract
went through the
monumental
stiff,
kind of figure (700-500 B.C.) in the center and finally reached the graceful naturalism of the statue (500-300 B.C.) at the right.
Geographically, Greece was in ancient times very
much what of the
it is
today: the southernmost extremity
A
huge Balkan mass.
land of hard limestone
mountains separated by deep
valleys,
is
it
cut
al-
two by the narrow divide of the Corinthian
most
in
Gulf.
To
the east the structure of the mainland
is
continued intermittently by islands, and the whole pattern
rounded
is
part of Crete,
south by the long ram-
off to the
which has been
called "the stepping-
stone of continents." Even including the islands,
Greece
a small country, smaller
is
Florida.
Moreover,
able to support
and yet
more than
in the history of
a
Yemen
than
this small area has
or
never been
few million inhabitants,
Western
civilization
it
has
played an enormous part.
The reason Mesopotamia,
is
GEOMETRIC PERIOD
partly geographical. In Egypt and
in the great
and the Euphrates,
it
riverlands of the Nile
was easy
large
to subject a
great Athenian statesman Pericles: "Each single one of our citizens, in all the manifold aspects of
population to a single ruler and to see that each
is
man performed an
of his
fied
allotted function in a vast, uni-
system. But in Greece, where every district was
men were
was impossible, and
forced to be not specialists in this or that
own
person, and do
This
own
in their
circles a
ize his full potential
The Greek
sibilities.
and
own
its
being, and within each
members were cognizant
its
gifted with the
climate, dry and exhilarating
most magical of
to action, while the sea,
skies, incited
which was always
developed
in its servants
hand and
eye.
an unusual
made them conscious
worth. Without this
both
human
honored
in a
hard school, but
of themselves
self-awareness
and
they
their
would
man must
be
worth and treated with
re-
experience: the belief that a
for his individual
spect just because he
in his
of
man
claimed for himself the
mind, to go his
The
own way
without
belief in
freedom
was sustained by
a
and nurtured by
a love for action,
This feeling as
to real-
within his society, to speak
interference from other men.
hand,
at
skill of
never have made their most important contribution to
what was
all
deep respect for personal honor,
among
the Greeks
something vague, but
it
may have
was deeply
felt,
started
and
matured into reasoned philosophy which long
Nature nursed the Greeks this
of their respon-
do
which he was capable,
and accomplishments. Each separate group was
to
liberty. Just
thought of being conquered, so
freedom
deeply aware of
moreover, with ex-
this,
what the Greeks meant by
is
as they detested the
profession but masters of a whole range of crafts
group
is
himself. In the words of the
life,
and owner
the rightful lord
ceptional grace and exceptional versatility."
separated from the next by mountains or the sea. central control of this kind
show himself
able to
shaped, and ethical
still
it
after
shapes, our own. Supported by
and psychological arguments,
was based
it
on convictions which we take so much
for granted
today that we can hardly imagine what efforts must
have been made
what
own
its
to establish
the
philosophy, or
absence meant outside Greece.
It
had
its
dangers, of course, especially the risk that in
regarded themselves as vastly superior in this respect to the Persians, who, utterly dependent on
whim, were
their king's
in the
Greek view no
better
than slaves.
From
the
first
Greek lawgivers stems the whole
majestic succession of the West's legal systems.
The Romans,
lawmakers
great
in their
own
right,
learned from the Greeks. In turn, the comprehensive codes of
modern
Gaius and Justinian gave
rise to
most
legal systems.
The belief in law emphasized and strengthened an ethnic pride which shaped the whole political
A Greek state consisted and of the lands around it which provided livelihood. Each state formed its own habits,
development of the Greeks. of a city ARCHAIC PERIOD
its
rules
asserting their owr\ claims tle
men would pay
too
lit-
attention to their neighbors' and reduce soci-
ety to anarchy.
And
indeed Greek states did suffer
gravely from internal dissensions. Nevertheless they survived as centers of order— because the Greek belief in
was inextricably associated with
liberty
the existence of law.
The Greeks notion of
when ages,
it.
consequence
as a
local loy-
were remarkably strong. But beyond this, the Greeks had a second loyalty, vaguer perhaps and not always paramount, but in the end irresistible.
Though they er,
they
felt
quarreled and fought with one anoth-
strongly that they were
who spoke some form
all
Greeks,
men
same language, wor-
of the
shiped the same gods and obeyed the same cus-
did not invent law or originate the
Codes of law existed
the Greeks were
and government;
alties
still
little
and the Mosaic Law of
in
Babylonia
better than sav-
Israel
is
also ancient.
toms—and
in all these respects they
saw themselves
as vastly superior to other races or nations.
they never created those of the
Though
truly national state such as
a
modern world, they presented
a strong
But Greek law, which emerged in the Seventh Cen-
contrast to the multinational empires of Babylonia
tury B.C., differed from these in several respects.
or Persia,
First,
was not intended
it
either of
to
carry out
the
an omnipotent monarch or of
Greek law aimed
entirely at
improving the
will
god;
a
lot
of
mortal humans. Second, while these earlier systems could be changed virtually at the will of a king or priesthood, Greek law
was usually based on some kind of popular consent and could be changed only by being referred to the people for their approval. a
Finally,
Greek law was expected
and property for a select
for
all
members
to
secure
life
of a society, not just
group of leaders or
priests.
The Greeks
which comprised
a large
number
of dif-
ferent peoples held together not because they shared a
common
culture or ideal but simply because they
were subjects of
despotic ruler.
a
Greeks were attacked by fought against him
to
Whenever
foreign
a
the
enemy, they
defend their Greek heritage
as well as their local liberties.
The Greeks' sense man's obligation gifts, led
the
them
to
of personal achievement, of a
make
the most of his natural
to give to the
same care and attention
structure of political
life.
works of
their
hands
that they gave to the
In the
Greek view, any-
thing worth doing was worth doing well, and the
remains of their humblest pots have
Even objects so
distinction.
masterpieces of
little
a
remarkable
utilitarian as coins are
relief
sculpture
gold or
in
silver.
We may
ask
why
so
much
of the Greeks' work,
which has survived the centuries by accident and therefore truly representative of
what they
The answer
so high a quality, so fine a design. partly that the
Greek
artisans
worked
is
did, has is
for specific
patrons instead of manufacturing wholesale for an
state)
ting
at
or grotesque
violent, gross
Instead
effects.
the
showed men
in the full strength of their lithe,
knew what they wanted and insisted on getThe Greeks wanted their arts and handi-
cular bodies,
women
anonymous
public.
The patrons (who included
it.
crafts to stand the acid tests of time
and
to
hoped
ion they
to
prolong their
own
influence into
drapery of their
finest clothes.
When
keep
their attraction for future generations; in this fash-
in the rippling
did,
it
Greek
art dealt
with animals, as
it
on
lions leaping
their
prey with savage mastery,
horses elegantly on the move. This art found
impose order on any disordered mass of material,
terial in
to leave things as
in its natural state.
Not content
they found them, they wished to
rearrange and shape them. But they employed restraint
in
this
process,
and the
result
has that
quality of balance and completeness which
we
call
justice to
was no
workmanship was
by something more meant
to
to
inspired and reinforced
exalted.
Greek sculpture was
be seen in public places, principally in
temples, and
had
What was
less true of
to perpetuate
The Greeks were
have
it
had
to
a nobility
be worthy of the gods.
and dignity, and yet
it
It
could
in
arts in
pected, they delighted in words.
able language,
and they made
the Greeks, as with
many
by
re-
it.
lacked inhibitions
They had
and
sight that
it
full
became almost
was created with
was accorded
use of
peoples, poetry
religion,
never aimed
who
that art
is
visible
at their
disposal a wonderfully subtle, expressive and adapt-
fore prose. Poetry, in fact,
art at its best
do
an or-
it
such as decorations
each case
something
a people
the gods were believed to be always at work. All
why Greek
to
speaking about themselves, and as might be ex-
not be too remote from everyday things, for in these
this explains
ma-
true of high sculpture
humbler
on pottery. The explanation
was intended
its
that to
felt
what he saw, he must impart
der and balance.
In the major arts, notably in sculpture, this sense of fine
the real world, but the artist
vealing what was most important in
classical.
often
displayed dogs alert to every scent and sound,
the future. In addition, they had a strong desire to
such as rock or clay
it
mus-
to
all
it.
With
came bea
second
the care and in-
the visual arts. Poets
SIGNATURE SEALS, used by wealthy men
of the Fifth
Century B.C.
endorsing documents, were tiny cari'ings, often of animals.
in
These
seals, originally
carved
impressions, represent (from
quartz but shoivn here in plaster
in
a charging bull, a resting heron,
left)
ewe
a race horse with broken reins, a stag on one knee, a
from the ground, and a leaping dolphin playing
The most
relevant today as
with which
cy.
We may
it
was when
it
was
it
to
it
it
for
is
its
were highly esteemed— a poet, said the philosopher
was "a
—and
light
and winged and holy thing"
they wrote about
sorts of subjects: farm-
all
man, any man, had
ing, local lore, the weather. If a
by arguing
technical
its
values.
something important
—which
in the early
song, for almost or
spoken
all
to say
he often said
it
in verse
days meant that he said
Greek poetry was
originally
it
in
sung
Poetry was the Greeks' immediate response to a
wide range of experience, and they invented or perfected
of exciting
and
is
to reflect this variety
many
we now know. They seem which
irresistible
of the poetic forms
have begun with the
to
objective storytelling in verse
tragic events.
They followed
this
home
its
ing force of people
who were
arts
and
tragedy and comedy, the er
and more
is
called lyric for this rea-
noon the Greeks invented both first
difficult relations
dealing with the dark-
between the gods and
men, the second viewing with derisive ribaldry
manner
of
continued
human to
foibles.
write
Even
in later years
charming poetry, though
strength had become diminished and less majestic.
its
all
they its
subjects
feel the liv-
fields in
of
the
which
physical
world excited their curiosity and led them to make spectacular scientific hypotheses. Before them, to
be sure,
much
complished
in
of a practical nature had been ac-
such
fields as
astronomy and engi-
neering by Egyptians and Babylonians.
unique contribution was
provide
to
eral principles,
to the lyre
we
and passion.
The nature
was sung
their high
it
were not the only creative
basis for these applied sciences.
At
pow-
immediacy and
eager to examine their
destinies with the utmost candor
The
gains our
it
imaginative thoughts with
with a more personal, more emotional poetry, which
son.
and
its
deals with
It
full, in all its
power, and behind
the Greeks excelled.
to music.
heroic epic,
but by presenting a situation in
an
but
skill,
for this side or for that
erful implications. Its extraordinary
directness drive
pow-
profound humanity,
precise issues in a universal way,
Socrates,
and
written.
first
to the extraordinary
human
wise appreciation of
attention not
literature,
as alive
is
it
presents issues of perennial urgen-
admire
what binds us
that
is
We cannot fail to respond er
Greek
striking quality of
poetry and prose alike,
arising
sea below.
in the
and
The Greeks' a
theoretical
They sought gen-
in the process
became not only
the founders of science but of philosophy (literally,
"love of knowledge").
fields
were closely
related,
which men could seek
To
the Greeks the
two
both being means by
to find out
more about the
nature of things, and both moving by argument
and proof from one hypothesis If
in
their
astronomy
practical
for navigation
way
to another.
the
Greeks
needed
and an understanding
of
THE OLYMPIAN GODS
this
in
processwn
from the
are,
left:
Persephone: Hermes; Aphrodite: Ares; Demeter with wheat sheaves: Hephaestus: Hera with scepter: Poseidon with his trident:
Athena with a spear: Zeus, chief of the gods, with Artemis with bow; and Apollo. The Creeks
his thunderbolt:
membership
revised the
this
of
list
pantheon
at
times.
weights and stresses for building, they strength-
ened and broadened
this technical
knowledge with
and general principles about the nature of
theories
matter and space and motion, which they expressed in
mathematics, especially in geometry. Then they
often reaped the benefits in other set a firm
would produce
a
it
and experiment. Fifth
saw
also
When
a theo-
the need for observation
medicine flowered in the
Century B.C. under the inspiration of the
great physician Hippocrates of Cos,
task the collection of data from
it
made
Greek doctor
mon among athletes, and head wounds— received in
set great store
to deal
The
spirit
made
wounds— especially
with war.
which inspired Greek researches
human
nature was also at work on
its first
end
the Greeks the
on the correct
to verifiable
first
actions,
into
and
it
true historians. Their ac-
Century
"What
fact;
Hecataeus of Miletus
write here," said
I
beginning of the Fifth
at the
what
B.C., "is the account of
I
thought
to
be true; for the stories of the Greeks [of other centuries] are
which deductions
could be drawn. Thus in the identification of diseases a
Greeks were able
with fractures and dislocations, which were com-
counts of past events gradually changed from leg-
seven-note scale.
While Greek science was developing on retical basis,
ciples of physiology, the
Pythagoras
fields:
foundation for music, for example, by
discovering the numerical ratios of the lengths of string that
on animals and learning something about the prin-
numerous, and
In pursuing truth for
were hampered by no were not
my opinion
in
own
its
theology. Since they
rigid
tied to creeds, they
scheme of
ridiculous."
sake the Greeks
were
free to ask ques-
Such
description of symptoms, and proceeded from that
tions about the
point to do what he could to effect a cure. Medicine
from being thought impious, were often regarded
much
was
of course very
tors
were much better
than
in
knowing what
had made illnesses
a great
at
to
in its infancy,
diagnosing
do
for
it,
but
a
and doccomplaint
at least
they
advance over the old days when
were thought
magic charms and the
to
be curable by amulets,
like.
In surgery the begin-
nings were primitive enough, but by experimenting
things.
inquiries, far
as a quasi-religious activity because they
the wonderful workings of the gods.
As
showed the phi-
losopher Xenophanes said, "The gods did not veal everything to
men
at the
as they seek in time, find a
something better." Thales,
thoroughly rational man,
tell
an eclipse
in
re-
beginning, but men,
who was
able to fore-
585 B.C., nevertheless insisted
> but equally on high occasions of festival and rejoic-
They thought
ing.
could ever hope
pect
them
to
more beautiful than
the gods far
men
to be,
and they did not ex-
human
follow the rules of
What counted was
their
behavior.
power.
men
Because the gods were the sources of power,
honored every kind of power and wished it
in their
own
This applied equally to war,
lives.
games and thought.
the arts, athletic
to display
and
of his divinely provided gifts
Greek did
If a
was making
well in any of these, he
a
proper use that extent
to
he was getting nearer to the gods. This
means when he
Aristotle
we can." Thus
mortal as far as that "all things are full of gods,"
and
this
was the
usual Greek attitude.
Thus Greek pily with to inspire
art
Greek
and Greek science
fitted in
religion; indeed, religion did
hap-
much
to
modern minds
below the standards demanded of
fall
vinity, they
had something impressive
They were
all
in
di-
common.
high degree embodiments of
to a
power, whether in the physical world or in the
mind
that
much like them as possible, humans must not attempt this
lest
they imagine that they were gods.
and sustain the poets and philosophers.
of man.
From them came
both visible and the mortals to
invisible,
make
everything,
literally
and
it
was the task of
the proper use of
what the
gods provided.
The Greeks took
all
the familiar steps to keep in
hymns and
sacrifices;
oracles; they
They
offered prayers and
they consulted
all
kinds of
had countless shrines containing im-
ages of the gods.
They hoped
that the gods
would
the characteristic
moderation, both in
Greeks zestfully
life
maxim "Nothing
in excess,"
Mean, the
Western Sea. They
felt
the gods' presence every-
where, especially in times of need such as battle.
not
attempting enough. Needless to say, they did not
always achieve the Mean, but
and
felt in
it
set its
mark on
it
to
was
themselves a driving strength
make
the
most
at
least
an
They which came
their civilization.
from the gods, and they knew that
it
was
their task
by seeking pleasure
of this, not
and sensation (though of course they enjoyed these as the
reward for
their efforts)
out to
an Elysium beyond the
much and
middle state between attempting too
be worthy of their
stantial ghosts to imagining
While the
arts.
desirability of the
it
to
varied from thinking that the dead were unsub-
and the
with the
tempered
set
death they
it
and they praised the
language of friendship. They had no very clear doclife after
eagerly,
every form of action, they
tried
lives to rational
Even on the subject of
knowing
too
Greek mixture of energy and
be kind to them, and they spoke of them in the
trines.
once eager
yet
This ambivalence proved of great value. From
came
ideal,
contact with their gods.
what
be im-
the Greeks stood in
to their gods, at
to be as
Though Greek gods might seem often to
an ambivalent relation
is
"We must
says:
make
the best of their natural gifts
human
cated themselves to noble thing fit
new and
to living in
toil,
and
nature, they dedito
creating some-
splendid, to keeping their bodies as
making order out of disorder, harmony with their fellow citizens.
as their minds, to
and
but by shaping their
and desirable ends. As the Greeks
THE GREAT LEGACY
"hiiure ages will wonder ai
us,
as the present age wonders at us now''
MNCiENT GREECE
/ M is
\ and
literary
left
Vanother. But
great.
It is,
some of the most magnificent works
monuments it is
of art
ever bequeathed by one civilization to
not mostly for these that the legacy of Greece
rather, because of the spirit they evoke, a spirit rooted in
the belief that
man is a free, indeed an
exalted, being. For thousands of
years older civilizations— Persian, Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian-
thought of
man
as a despised figure
despots. The Greeks picked is
full of
who
groveled before deities and
man up and set him on his
wonders," sang Sophocles, "but nothing
is
feet.
more wonderful
than man." The Greeks depicted their gods in idealized like the smiling
Apollo shown on the opposite page.
"The world
human
What
form,
the world
2,400 years later would think of the Greeks the Athenian statesman Pericles foretold (above) in his eloquent funeral oration
casualties of the Peloponnesian
on the
first
War. The picture essay beginning
here combines the proud affirmations of Pericles with photographs of
Greek masterpieces that sum up the everlasting Greek achievement.
THE SERENE SPIRIT OF GREECE shines from intellect.
It
was
this Apollo,
cast in bronze 2,400 years ago, lost
god of the
some 400
years later and found again under a Piraeus street only in 1959.
V
t
^
ORDER
IN
STONE
IS
shown
in the
columns of the temple at Lin-
das on the island of Rhodes. These columns, which grow narrower as they rise,
were designed by architects who knew the rules of
geometrical precision— and
"Our love of what is
when
to
change them
to please the eye.
beautiful does not lead to extravagance"
TO
ARCHITECTURE, as well as to the handcrafting of house-
hold utensils, classical Greece brought a great feeling for purity, elegance— and function.
These
qualities are clearly
stated in the strong Doric columns, the austerely
harmonious
steps and the delicately symmetrical vase shown on these pages.
An
unexpected lecturer on these matters was the old soldier
Xenophon, who, ment, wrote: .
.
in his delightful
"It is beautiful to see the footgear
garments sorted according
.
book on household manage-
to their use
.
.
.
ranged
in a
ranged with sense and symmetry." Beauty was above
When
the
King
of Bithynia offered to
poverished people of Cnidus les'
if
row
cooking pots arprice.
pay the debts of the im-
only they would sell him Praxite-
statue of Aphrodite, they spurned him. But a taste for beauty
must not be overindulged; the Greek rule must be enjoyed warned
that
in
that everything in life
moderation applied even here. Socrates
"when a man allows music
to play
upon him and
to
pour into his soul through the funnel of his ears those sweet and soft
WORKADAY
JUG, turned out
carry wine and olive oil to
world,
still
by endless thousands all
to
parts of the ancient
stands witness to the Creek love of beauty.
and melancholy
airs
... he becomes a feeble warrior.
'
"Where the rewards of valor are the greatest, there
you will find also
the best
and bravest spirits among
THE
GREEK regard for individual worth applied equally
and war— so
their
ganized on democratic
lines.
in peace
mand
men, explained
of 10,000
said, "If
anyone has
Athens elected
common
the people"
its
generals.
and
soldier
sidered the
a better
supreme
was
or-
army and then
his plans to his
plan to propose,
A
force
fighting
Xenophon, taking com-
let
man might walk
him do
to
so."
one war
a
War was conman— and not beneath the concern
ride to the next a general.
test of a
of the gods. Aeschylus, writing his
own
epitaph, ignored en-
during dramas and noted only the courage he displayed against the Persians.
Headlong bravery was the
of Greek fighters. But style in war
least that
was expected
was particularly admired. The
Greeks esteemed Dieneces the Spartan who, told that the enemy hosts at Thermopylae were so large their arrows would hide the sun, replied, "So
WARRIOR GODS march
much
into
the better,
we
shall fight in the shade."
combat against an enemy force composed
part of a frieze at Delphi telling
how
of giants.
This
is
imtnortal gods defeated mortals in a pitched battle.
jMPF'^^
'i
:
»;
^.
1
i;.
"^
•V.^J^^
^:--
'^^'^i^m..*-;
"V\le are free
but
and toleraut
in public affairs
to those
we
hi
our private
keep to the law.
.
.
.
lives;
We give our obedience
whom we put in positions of authority''
''Our love of the things of the
mind does
A
MAN
OF THE MIND,
exercise of all a
Ath-I.'llr .Irlinr.i
man's
,'/;-
,(.!/,
,i/
Ihll'iuiieas as
the
"vital p'owcrs n/oiii; the lines of excellence."
not
make us soft"
THE
GREEKS gave equal respect to mental and physical prow-
ess because they believed that the ideal life
would be one
spent in the pursuit of excellence in
The complete
man would or at
be equally active as
an
all
things.
athlete, philosopher, judge, poet
any other worthy pursuit. The philosopher Socrates once
worked
as an apprentice sculptor; the playwright Sophocles not only
served as a general but was also at different times imperial treasurer,
diplomat and
At
priest.
for the best poets
MEN OF ACTION, young
athletic festivals prizes
were also awarded
and the best rhapsodists, dancers and musicians.
riders easily
the Panathenaic procession in
keep their prartcing horses under control.
This frieze depicts
honor of the goddess Athena that took place once every four
'TT^'-^'m^^mm
^'^ar
<1'H"^# / •-\
years.
''Mighty indeed are the marks and monuments.. we have .
THEJOCKEY, urgiMj; on a horse that has that dates
from the
later period of
SCULPTURE was
long,
Greek
since fallen victim to the art.
It
the art form most favored
a logical reason.
They made monuments
commemorate victories,
ravages of time,
shows a tenseness foreign
is
a bronze
to the classical period.
by the Greeks, and to
left"
honor
for
their gods, to
to record religious rites— but
what they
always depicted was man. Sculptors combined selected features to produce the idealized
human
westernmost Mediterranean
figures that to India.
ranged from serene representations
have been found from the
Over
the centuries Greek art THE DELPHI CHARIOTEER, fashioned
like the charioteer (opposite) to
nervous, vital figures like the jockey (above).
No
matter what the
period,
illustrates
pressure, a quality
mood, the works
still
testify to the
Greek
belief in the
wonder
of
man.
in
bronze at the height of the classical
er
restraint
under
much sought
by the Greeks of ancient
aft-
times.
f^ '->
C>" /In
w
);a ^.
*^^V
»,
..'^,
%
The Greeks
of historical times,
which date from
about 750 B.C., believed themselves to be descended from a legendary race of heroes.
Men
of prodi-
gious physique and energy, these heroes sailed to the end of the world for a golden sheepskin, warred
against the Trojans for 10 years over a beautiful
woman, and one
of
them singlehandedly cleaned
incredibly filthy stables in a day. For ries
2 AND NEW DAWN
fiction,
they had some basis in
that
many
centu-
and
that these heroes
adventures were pure
their
we now know
but fact.
For nearly a century archeologists have been uncovering evidence of a rich civilization, centered at
Mycenae, that flourished between 1600
the city of
DARK AGE
assumed
scholars
and 1200 B.C.— and Mycenae was the home of Aga-
memnon,
the
King who
name
(the ancient
in legend led the
Achaeans
War. This long-lost Mycenaean world was ly a
development of
Minoan
Aegean from about 1600 lively,
a
version
clothes. Their
colors, intricate
homes, sometimes
elegant
five stories high,
terraces. Their palaces
system of plumbing (they even had
a
flush toilets)
unmatched
Victorian times. all
games (they
backgammon) and
of
had light-wells and setback contained
not
which dominated the 1400 B.C. The Mino-
to
pleasure-loving and sensuous
people— fond of bright played a
original-
a still older world, the brilliant
civilization of Crete
ans were
Trojan
for the Greeks) into the
Some
nicety until
for sanitary
of their engineering skills,
their cultural refinements,
if
were taken over
their Mycenaean heirs. The Mycenaeans themselves were
by
builders. Their palaces
were
ble citadels with walls 10 feet thick,
made
and some of
tombs were enormous beehive struc-
their royal
tures
spectacular
built within formida-
much
of stones weighing, sometimes, as
as 120 tons.
They were
also
immensely wealthy,
pecially in metals,
and most especially
Mycenaean tombs,
diggers have found death
es-
in gold. In
masks
and breastplates of gold; bronze swords and daggers; gold and silver drinking cups; gold rings and diadems; and thin sheets of gold used as funeral
wrappings dren.
for the bodies of
The tombs
also
two small royal
disclose
physical characteristics of these people. NOBLE LADIES OF MYCENAEAN GREECE
set Out in a chariot to attend a hunt.
Their era, 13 centuries before Christ, gloried in mighty deeds of war and
hunting and adorned
its
palaces with pictures of expeditions like this one.
taller
chil-
something of the
They were
and broader-faced than the Minoans; the
men were mustachioed and sometimes
bearded.
One —a
corpse had apparently suffered from gallstones
And
then, less than a century later, this vigor-
other had a fractured skull which had been neatly
ous, splendid civilization
trepanned— thus giving us the
It
earliest record of this
surgical operation in Europe.
Decisions of
a
court
his
were carried out by an officialdom consisting, in diminishing order, of military leaders, administrative officials, charioteers
and mayors of the group
surrounded the
of villages that
Archeologists
city.
have discovered the actual records, kept by this bureaucracy,
efficient
holdings, agricultural slaves,
horses,
pair wheels
of
chariots
bound with bronze,
land
assessments,
tax
and inventories
stores,
and chariot
bound with
silver,
parts
phered, also
a
B.C.,
Dark Age from
which survived only scattered legends and some unrewarding
artifacts.
The Dorians attacked and destroyed Mycenaean cities when they were weakened by war. The conquerors lived as squatters in burned-out
decayed
crafts
arms
tablets in a script
in
Mycenaean
effective)
icent
at
weapons made
cremation.
The
tightly organized
longshoremen, oarsmen, saddlers, shepherds, dry
the
car-
of iron; burial in magnif-
tombs was largely superseded by perfunctory
tally disintegrated
foresters,
lamentable speed. Finely worked
bronze were replaced by crude (but more
masons, bakers, cooks, woodcutters, messengers,
potters,
between 1200 and 750
Greek world passed through
vanished, the art of writing disappeared. Handi-
are goldsmiths, shipwrights,
cleaners, doctors, heralds,
of far
("one
one pair wheels
B by scholars) only recently decilist more than 100 Mycenaean occu-
Among them
end.
terrible
palaces but did not rebuild them. Record-keeping
unfit for service").
These records, inscribed on clay
to a
Greeks from the north, called Dori-
ans. For 450 years,
the
came
by successive invasions
obliterated
of
(called Linear
pations.
was
less civilized
Mycenaean king and
and lasted 10 years.
Helen,
the stolen princess,
diagnosis which suggests a rich diet— and an-
Mycenaean
by the Dorian
society
assault.
was
to-
Many
of
Mycenaeans became dispossessed, purposeless
wanderers.
To
this
chaos of moving people was
penters,
bowmakers, weavers, bath attendants and
added the movement of the conquerors themselves,
unguent
boilers.
but their travels were purposeful. Not content with
In
sum, the Mycenaeans were an accomplished
and enterprising people, worthy successors
to the
Minoans. But they were unlike the peaceful Minoans in
one important aspect:
baldly, brigandage
principal
a
business seems to have been
war— or,
to
Mycenaean put
it
more
and piracy. Military enterprises
took the Mycenaeans far from
home on adventurous
ravaging the Mycenaean
cities,
the Dorians pressed
southward and seized the Laconian
Greek mainland they nean Crete
to Crete, it
subjugating
was only
a
plain.
From
the
sailed across the Mediterrait
completely.
short voyage to
And from
Rhodes and
neighboring islands, which suffered a similar
its
fate.
This was the Dark Age of Greece. Although
a
missions 1,300 years before the birth of Christ. Ac-
few remnants of the old Mycenaean culture remained
cording to Hittite records— the Hittites controlled a
here and there— on the island of Cyprus; in the
powerful empire in Asia Minor from a stronghold
mountains of Arcadia; and
east of present-day
Ankara— marauding bands
Achaeans were harassing the coast of Asia Minor the middle of the 13th
Century B.C.
drawn-out expedition they
Troy
in the
On
said
clustered
in
Achaean world
one long-
was fought
Attica,
around the small town of Athens— most of the old
laid siege to the city of
war which legend
in
of
for
bility
fell
apart. People lost their old sta-
and order. They
lived as best
they could.
Brother was pitted against brother, children against parents, friend against friend.
One
of Greece's ear-
A TIME OF CRUMBLING EMPIRES Pharaoh Ramses pylon
at a
depicted on a stone
III,
Nile temple,
seen repelling
is
Egypt's attackers early in the 12th Century
when Dorian
B.C. This period,
invaders
were overrunning Greece, was elsewhere
marked by
the eclipse of great empires.
Egypt, despite Ramses' victories, slowly lost
mastery
its
Mediterranean,
the
in
and the Hittites were overthrown
Among
Asia
in
numerous small nations to rise and flourish in the power vacuum were Phoenicia, whose aggressive traders Minor.
the
Hebrew
colonized Carthage, and the
dom, which reached
apogee
its
kingthe
in
David and Solomon from 1005 925 B.C. India remained a checkerboard
reigns of to
of warring city states
produced
its
through an era that
Mahab-
vast epic poems, the
harata and the Ramayana. Until the fierce warriors of Assyria reached the peak of their
power
Century
in the Eighth
B.C.,
China under the Chou Dynasty was the only extensive empire
liest
and best-known poets, Hesiod,
lived at
very close of this period and described
it
with the hope that he could induce the Greeks
change
their
embodied
all
the
in detail to
ways. To Hesiod the Mycenaean age that
was beautiful and good. His own
In the
naean
centuries after the
first
each
civilization,
hamlets and farms, became
isted
was usually military
in effect a garrison
and
his captains.
brother will claim from brother the love
once claimed,
And
of the
Myce-
surrounding
its
separate social unit.
a
in origin:
governed by
a
little
order ex-
the city
was
commander and
Gradually borders became fixed along
natural boundary lines, and
No
fall
with
city,
Borders shifted constantly, and what
time was full of violence and brutality, intolerance indifference, stealing, cheating, lying:
in the ancient world.
fensible, the city
and
its
if
the lines were de-
surrounding countryside
survived to become an independent community, a
parents will quickly age, dishonored
city-state. Military
governments became hereditary
and shamed.
And men
will scorn
them and
bitter
words
considered to be descended from gods.
they'll say.
Hard-hearted, no longer god-fearing. They'll
their nurture, but
might
their
ravaging
wall.
men
head.
will break
through a city
Nowhere
community in
Greece,
A
king was
as well as its
however, did
kings claim actually to be gods, as some Asian kings did.
right they'll call;
And
the religious leader of his
secular
not repay
The cost of
monarchies. Kings ruled by divine right and were
Nor
did they
ence or absolute
demand
authority
claimed as their right.
that
the abject obedi-
Oriental
rulers
Along with
developing sense of civic independ-
a
Greeks began
ence, the
to acquire certain
uniform
they had subdued the neighboring settlements in the Laconian plain. Then, for a period of time, Spar-
became one of the brightest centers of the
cultural patterns that transcended local boundaries
ta
and
ture that flowered at the close of the
local
styles
They became change
in
dress,
decoration and speech.
willing to learn
and
their ideas
their
from one another,
ways
Sometimes they shared technical
to
of doing things.
sometimes
skills,
The Greeks' own name for themselves, HelDark Age. Greek pottery be-
tastes.
lenes, originated in the
gan
to take
on
a
distinctively Hellenic character,
despite regional variations.
mon
And
they shared
a
com-
language, so that despite their different dialects
From
they were intelligible to one another. tentative beginnings sprang the
were eventually
main features
Hellenic
define
to
these that
civilization—
cul-
Dark Age.
produced exquisite pottery, and was noted for festivals of
It
its
song and dance. But when military con-
cerns again became uppermost, these disappeared,
and Sparta, by reverted to
its
this
time a major Greek city-state,
pawns
of the state, rigidly controlled
death.
From seven onward
its
and
hardship
Home
without question.
The men
to
weapons but
accept
was
life
ate at a
from birth
children were trained
for war, learning not only to use
endure physical
existent.
became
earlier attitudes. Its citizens
to
discipline
practically non-
common
mess, could
the intellectual and political freedom, the sense of
not marry before the age of 20, and could not live
cultural unity.
with their wives (except surreptitiously) until the
Not
all
same fashion
of Greece reacted in the
to
the Dorian onslaught or survived the subsequent
Dark Age
same manner. The
in the
two of the most
moment. Strangely,
was
of great
at the outset, the first
was not
very important and the other isted in
pened
Mycenaean
to
early history of
influential city-states
may
not even have ex-
times. Nevertheless,
Athens and Sparta
in the
what hap-
Dark Age
set the
age of 30. After 30 they were permitted to have
Even during periods when the austere in outlook, and
Athens was able because
it
cities,
was destined
village, in
what may have been to
remain essentially Dorian
outlook thereafter. Athens held
and was able
a tiny
off the
to give refuge to fellow
fleeing the invaders. In the
crowded
Dorians
Mycenaeans
city
were pre-
served elements of the splendid past on which a glorious future
would some day be
built.
Centuries later Athens and Sparta represented
opposing philosophies political
When it
in
freedom against
Greek life— intellectual and stern, military discipline.
the Dorians settled at Sparta they organized
as a military
camp.
It
kept that character until
no im-
made
a
virtue of extreme
to fight off the
was on
a
natural
Dorian invaders
fortress,
rocky
the
Then refugees from the other Mycenaean among them the royal family of Pylos,
Golden Age of Greece— and paradoxically insured
site of
in
simplicity.
Acropolis.
Dorians on the
was
state
mediate danger, Sparta remained conservative and
stage for the roles they were to play in the later
the end of that great Age. Sparta, settled by the
a
household, but their children belonged to the state.
flocked to Athens and the surrounding countryside of Attica.
Soon the population grew too
large
comparatively limited space available. But
for the
Attica had several superb Piraeus, only five miles
harbors,
among them
from Athens, and
in
about
1100 B.C., emigration began. Greeks sailed out into the
Aegean
to find
new homes on
the
Aegean
islands
and on the western coast of Asia Minor. These emigre colonies of Greeks in and around the Aegean
came
to
The
be called Ionia.
first
of the Ionian colonies
were on the
is-
lands of Naxos, Chios and Samos, but others soon
followed on the mainland.
The
soil
was
rich,
the
coastline well provided with
and
harbors,
rivers
winding Maeander offered passage inland
like the
be strong and brave and noble and capable of
to
prodigious achievements.
They were
also lessons in
and expansion. The Greek colonists were
noble and ignoble conduct, and repositories of tales
not always welcomed by the native population, and
on the ways of the gods. Thus the bard imparted
for trade
newcomers
so the
themselves
fortified
in
walled
towns. Eventually these precautions stood them in
good stead,
menaced by
for as the colonies prospered they
the
Cimmerians and
the Lydians,
instruction while
he
gave
The legends
delight.
themselves were only a framework to which he
were
added extemporaneous elaboration, designed
to
who
the needs and temper of a specific audience.
Over
fit
had, one after the other, supplanted the Hittites
the years, succeeding generations of bards evolved a
Asia Minor. Despite these harassments the loni-
technique which depended heavily on a very large
in
ans were
home.
at
old
much If
they could not hope to re-create the
Mycenaean world, they were
fashion a Like
all
new
in Attica.
and
to
expatriates the lonians were extremely ties
and they spoke
nies
free
social
number all,
with the homeland. Their
a modified
Mycenaean
They kept
form of the
line-
dialect
the gods and ceremo-
systems that they had brought with
of characters
—and
a central hearth
with geo-
their pottery, elegantly decorated
metric patterns, was copied from the pottery in
Athens. Most important of
all,
made
the lonians pre-
served the epic songs and stories that had been
passed
The
down from Greek
antiquity.
epics were crucial to
Greek
civilization.
Not
There was,
first
much
whose names and
of
a cast
personalities
were
the same. There were also set descrip-
tions for certain recurring places
and events,
in-
cluding conventionalized figures of speech. Bards
used
a
huge stock
cally into verse:
of
phrases that
fell
automati-
"wine-dark sea," "long-shadowing
spear," "death that lays at length," "rosy-fingered
dawn," "brazen sky," "windy Troy."
The
them. Their houses were built on the traditional
Greek plan— one room surrounding
of standardized forms.
an established outline for each legend and
always
leaders included princes of ancient
spoken
least
at
one.
conscious of their
age,
countrymen
better off than their
epic
drew upon
several kinds of legends or
myths: some concerned with gods, others with gods
and men, and others with men alone. In the Dark
when bards first began to perfect them, myths way of answering hard questions about human nature and the universe for audiences unable to consider these matters scientifically. The myths made abstract ideas comprehensible by
Age,
offered a
only were they the chief relaxation for the Greeks in
presenting the ideas as they affected real people
the early period, but they also performed for pre-
caught
literate
Greeks
a
number
were
sential to their survival. Later, they
as a strong element in the art
and
Western world. For these reasons to stop here to
the
examine
Greek epics and
bards
To
in
some
to live
on
literature of the it
is
appropriate
detail the nature of
to discuss the greatest of the
primarily to explain religious matters, such as the
changes that occurred when one
The gods on Mount Olympus displaced by another.
is
set
of gods
was
substitution of the Greek
Minoan gods myth which tells
for the old
explained, for instance, by the
who composed them— Homer.
of the brutal struggle between Zeus, ruler of the
the Greeks, struggling to regain a lost glory,
Olympian
the epic songs were entertainment, inspiring history,
in recognizable events.
The myths concerned with gods were intended
of functions that were es-
reminders of a time
when
to be a
Greek was
gods, and his father Cronos; Zeus finally
overcomes his father and throws him into Tartarus, the ancient Hell.
GREEK ALPHABET LETTER
NAME OF LETTER ENGLISH TRANSLITERATION '^H^^VIa9^vl
A
K
A
M
kappa
lambda
mu
c,
k
1
m
more than
One
His patrons probably wanted no
his characters.
tales of
heroism, but he gave them a
whole view of the world, of the gods
at
their ap-
men and women pursuing their every mood from grim vengeance to
development
final
Mycenaean
times, but
destinies, of
enough
making
Behind every story
lands and rocky shores.
imagination
work, seeing humans as they
at
is
understanding
really are,
is-
his
why
they act as they do,
when they are with warmth and
portraying them with insight even bad, and
when
they are good,
Homer was
fitted for literature.
ill
new
the culmination of the
that flowered in Ionia, but he
spirit
body
in
new
plement
was
a
of the its
use
Bay
and bronze began
home
to
jewelry and
trinkets
still
its
busy
communal
earliest of these
afield,
they
gold
and
of
to
copy and
was the
and tempering
lives
religious rites.
One
festival of song,
games on the island of Delos,
A
in
their
of the
dance and
honor of Apollo.
more famous event was the great games held Olympia every four years to honor Zeus. All
far
at
Greece participated
in the
Olympian games. Each
city sent its best athletes to
compete
in wrestling,
foot racing, boxing, leaping, discus throwing, javelin
at Ischia,
an island
am
at the
entrance to the
Nestor's cup.
He who would drink from
this
cup
With an alphabet, many matters which were
memory
viously entrusted to
hurling and chariot racing, and each
man
gave
within his to
down
as literary
own
lifetime.
and provided
set
down
Writing made
much more
a
set
up
the people to read, and
conduct trade negotiations
much more effective
in writing it
possible
efficiently
means
of re-
cording history.
The Greek alphabet took them leading
to the
turn inspired the
several forms, one of
Etruscan alphabet, which in
Roman
alphabet that the Western
world uses today. But despite minor variations,
remained essentially the same down through long career,
a
fine
and
flexible
instrument.
it
its
With
writing and literature, and a promising renaissance in arts
To
spread
of their shared culture.
all
Homer's poetry was probably
Age
Greek people the games were one more case
square for
in the public
pre-
or limited to itemized
record-keeping could be written
of his best to honor himself, his city and his gods.
the
verse about love incised on a drinking
a
Persuasion of beautifully crowned Aphrodite.
Ionian colonies. Although the city-
easily, living
parts
all
examples of
still
kept their petty kings and autonomous
activity with
earliest
Shall be assailed by the subtle seductive
governments, the people themselves mingled freely
and
Admirably
spread rapidly to
documents. Laws were incised on stone and
Soon the Greek homeland began states
it
hint
carved ivory.
compete with
needs,
consonants.
body underneath. Temples
and merchants ventured farther
brought
good
tool,
bookkeeping but
acquired vowels to sup-
it
Greek world. One of the is
clumsy
of Naples:
/
were adorned with wooden sculptures, and as Greek sailors
many
a
for
The new alphabet was based
Phoenician
the
adapted to
direc-
movement: the draperies were
stylized, but there
and
was not the only man-
metalsmiths and woodcarvers moved in tions. Figurines in clay
was
it
lists
on that of Phoenicia, but
ifestation of that spirit. In the plastic arts, potters,
at the
for
cup found
gentle affection.
stronger: the appear-
ance of a Greek alphabet. Writing had existed in
pointed tasks, of
uproarious farce, of palaces and gardens, remote
Dark
at the close of the
Age made Greek unity even
and
crafts,
Ionia
emerged from the Dark
into the sunlight of Hellenism its
and began
to
message of beauty and refinement through-
out the Greek world.
IN
GENERAL COMBAT helmeted Warriors
OF The
fight at Troy, where,
Homer
reported, "showers of big stones battered the shields of the fighting men.
WAR AND A WANDERER
picture above and most of the other photographs in this essay are taken from
a frieze in grayish
seum
in Vienna.
covered
a
pock-marked sandstone stored
The
frieze,
it is
superimposed rows of low-relief carvings
on request, and the
Mu-
century ago on the walls of a tomb in Gjolbaschi, on modern-day Tur-
key's Mediterranean coast. Because
It is
in the Kunsthistorisches
dating from the early Fourth Century B.C., was dis-
it
too large for convenient display— its total
600
feet in
length— it
has rarely been photographed and even
most monumental attempt
to depict the
is
two
shown only
rrtore rarely
published.
mighty deeds of the warriors
who fought at the siege of Troy, ancient Ilion that Homer sings of in the Iliad. Its many panels also contain a scene of the homecoming of Odysseus which Homer recounts in the Odyssey. Heightening the spell that Homer's poems these stories in stone give visual form to major episodes from the
still
two
weave, epics.
sj»«:
^^^M
P^
^i^.:^
THE CLANGOROUS SIEGE OF A PROUD CITY The fighting around Troy's walls lasted ing years. The Iliad's time span is weeks is
for 10 grind-
scarcely
of the last year of that war. But this
an exciting story, ringing with the clash of ar-
mored and embattled men. For the Greeks who heard
it, it
expressed the heroic ideals of their
aristocratic era, freshly
and served
as
a
characters of the
his pride
first
own
emerged from the Dark Age,
document
religious
Olympian
high tragedy— the story of
by
six
poem
family. For
a great
man
that set all
time
the it
is
brought low
and anger. Achilles, the Greek warrior
who was incomparable
in battle,
the central figure
is
of this poem. After a heated quarrel with
Agamem-
non, Achilles, furiously angry, sulks in his tent
while the Trojans under Hector, son of Troy's King Priam, drive the Greeks
when
comes forth
to lead
the
There he slays Hector. clus.
away from Troy's
his dearest friend, Patroclus,
Then
A
is
walls.
But
killed, Achilles
invaders back to Troy. funeral
is
the sorrowing Achilles,
held for Patro-
moved
to
com-
passion by the mediation of the gods, gives Hector's
body
to Priam, to be buried as befits a fallen hero.
1^
tr.;
%..
^'•^'^'^
'mmmm
SINGLEHANDED BATTLE, two warriors clash. While it is not two figures, Homer told of the Trojan Hector using a sword, the Creek Achilles a spear, here eroded. IN
possible to identify these
MAN-TO-MAN COMBAT OF GREAT WARRIORS Armies maneuver and
But heroes
fight in the Iliad.
—the men whose bravery gives added dignity
mankind— are proved
against Patroclus, Achilles against Hector.
seldom speaks of ordinary is
to all
combat: Hector
in individual
soldiers;
Homer
his attention
focused on heroic figures, often on the losers.
The Greeks thought
victory glorious and a defeat
heroically endured only a shade less glorious. real goal
was not
victory, but fame.
accept death, but he
would remember. clus' death,
vows
ing his friend.
he
cries.
would so
The
could
die that the living
Achilles, sorrowing over Patroto
win fame
"Now may
"May
A man
they
I
know
for himself
win that
by aveng-
a glorious I
name!"
have been long
the battle! May I bring sobs and groansome wives of Troy and Dardania." And Hector, knowing he will die at Greek hands, takes
away from
ing to
comfort in the judgment of posterity. "Then
men
will
say in far distant generations to come,
they
sail
of a
along the shore, 'Yonder
man dead
long ago, a champion
Hector slew.' So
my
fame
will
is
as
the barrow
whom
famous
never be forgotten."
the Trojans hurl stones
DEFENDING THE WALLS,
who
on Creeks,
take cover under shields. In these melees the
Olympian
gods intervened, some favoring one side, some the other.
A ROLE FOR THE GODS The war began when
three goddesses— Hera,
Athena
and Aphrodite— quarreled over which was the est.
A
beauty contest was
set
fair-
with Paris of Troy
as judge. All three goddesses tried to bribe him, but
Aphrodite
won by promising him
the most beautiful
wife in the world. This promise obliged her to help Paris carry off the lovely Helen, wife of
laus of Sparta.
As
King Mene-
the Greeks sailed against Troy
to recover Helen, the other
gods took
sides.
Zeus,
chief of the gods, tried to keep his bickering family
out of the battle, but his wife Hera, the Greeks, put lulled
Zeus
who
favored
on her most subtle perfumes and
to sleep.
When
next Zeus looked at
the battlefield the Trojans had suffered heavy losses.
A
MOMENT OF
DESTINY comes for one soldier as another
grasps him by the hair and prepares to stab him. The Creeks
thought Zeus at such a
POSEIDON'S PERCH
moment weighed a man's
is
Mount
fate
on
scales.
Phengari, the highest point on
Samothrace, where he watched over Creek ships.
When
the
Trojans threatened, he rode his golden chariot to the rescue.
FLEEING THE CITY a Trojan wife after her husband. at its capture
razed,
Most men
(left) rides off
still
and women
and
the city
in
were slaughtered, the children
BACK AT HOME, Odysseus, disguised
city
was
enslaved.
as an old
beggar (below), and his son enter the banquet hall of
his
own
for his wife's
t,^^j0f)>ii-^mB'
house, where
wily
suitors
hand have long been ensconced.
-^^-^'i^fc^i^l^^'igt
AN EXCITING The Greeks won military
their
war with
men and statesmen
other ways.
They gave Troy
a
TALE OF DARING DEEDS
famous ruse
that
tells
a
gift— a
wooden horse
with Greeks hidden inside. While the Trojans
soldiers
in the
slept,
who had
devised the
horse trick, found the route 10 years long.
IV
i
^\i»
.. \iL\.
men
Homer
the
first
playfully
Odysseus
to
where he chatted with some old
war comrades. But he kill
who
into swine, then sent
the gates of Hades,
ev-
wooden
«»4»^Jir-^«k.;<«.^ '-tfof
cave of the Cyclops. Afterward, he had trou-
turned his
eryone started for home. But one among them, the ingenious Odysseus
rousing story of adventure. Odysseus
bles with the enchantress Circe
Greek
saw Helen reunited with Menelaus, and
a
reached the land of the Lotus Eaters, then got trapped
the Greeks crept out and opened the city's gates to the rest of their army. Masters at last, the
of his experiences in his second great poem, the
Odyssey,
often try to repeat in
finally got
men who had been
eating
home
up
in time to
his stores while
courting his presumed widow, the faithful Penelope.
'»'
\ tti
K
a
4%'A^tif9UJ Mf^'Mt j^tM>ufn&
«««
After the appearance of the Greek alphabet, sometime during the Eighth Century B.C., the Greeks
begin to speak to us in their
at last
own contem-
porary words. The evidence, after so long a time, is
naturally fragmentary and
lively, significant details
many
add
haphazard but
its
our knowledge in
to
areas.
The Greek economic
revival,
marked by
a
re-
surgence of fine craftsmanship and an expansion of foreign trade, soon introduced a
3
change
in the structure of
Greek
fundamental
life.
In almost
every state except Sparta and Thessaly the petty kings of tradition were deposed or reduced to ureheads. Sparta, with
A CONFIDENT
petuated
with
ARISTOCRACY
its
fig-
rigid conservatism, per-
ancient dual monarchy, and Thessaly,
its
agrarian society of widely separated land-
its
holders, kept
its
system of hereditary kings until
the Fifth Century B.C.
moved from
office for
er—even though,
Elsewhere, kings were re-
good reason— abuse of pow-
as sole repository of
custom and
bound
to
law, they had not been
to
conform
any
code.
Where
the kings were deprived of their power,
authority passed to the local aristocracy.
government by
a single ruler to
The new riors
rulers
who had
Thus
the
was made from government by
great step forward
group of men.
a
were the descendants of the warseized land and established estates
during the Dark Age.
Initially
only landowners
could be aristocrats; later some wealthy merchants
and manufacturers were admitted were
men
pursuits,
to the class.
They
of leisure, active in sports and outdoor if
only as part of their military training.
They were accustomed to country life, but not afraid to put to sea. They were versed in the social skills demanded by life in a small community. Taught from childhood
to take part in singing
dancing, they shared
common
and the
art of the
subscribed to a
them
to
a
interest in
and
music
spoken and sung word. And they
strict
code of conduct that required
be truthful, trustworthy, courteous (even
to enemies),
courageous, respectful of the rights of
others, generous with their possessions (as far as their A RUIN AT DELPHI magnificently evokes the search for splendor at the holy site.
Theodorus of Phocaea,
Built by the architect
round building, but what
it
was designed
for
this
was a
tholos,
or
has been tost to history.
means would
tion to cheat,
These
abundant
permit),
immune
and proud of the code
aristocrats
may have
to the
tempta-
itself.
lacked the super-
vitality of later Greeks,
but they never-
had a splendid energy. They excelled
theless
many like
members
enjoy
The
they did not
aristocracies,
secure enough to allow them to
a position
become
and geographical center of Greek
political
mean, and
of government.
its
came
polis
much more than merely of people
walls. In
it
who
total
of people
tradesmen and
men
sailors
mingled
now
like
was
small,
Corinth and
one
was
at
various kinds of
to
which the term
who governed
the polis regarded
themselves as superior beings, and associated mainly
with their
own
specially qualified
class.
They
believed themselves
by birth and breeding
to their
own
advantage
to
keep the city secure
and prosperous, they often showed great doing
so.
it
talent in
Nevertheless, there were repeated clashes
of interest
between the
aristocrats
and the common
commoners demanded and got a laws. The earliest of these codes
people. Finally the
written code of
date from the Seventh Century B.C., before the
word "democracy"
existed.
They
dealt mainly with
homicide, which had hitherto been settled by family
feud,
and with property ownership. They
dealt with contracts laid
down
and other
between two persons, and they
rules for the officials.
also
appointment of magistrates
Sometimes they even regulated
became
621 syn-
a
any
area.
of cabbage-stealing
person of his debtor— in effect enslaving the
to the
debtor. But Draco's code also introduced the idea of
and made
justifiable homicide,
distinction be-
a
tween premeditated and involuntary manslaughter.
Under
the aristocrats the polis acquired a
stable system of
came
government and the
Greek
differentiate the
to
Long
life
because of
Greeks from
their
after the aristocrats
its
man's existence ought ority
more
rich civic life
had
power, the polis remained the focus of
lost their
what
inspired view of
to be.
a
Because their superi-
supposedly came from the favor of the gods,
the aristocrats considered that they were "good"
men. But
them "good" was by no means an
for
exclusively or even predominantly ethical concept.
was an
Goodness, or
arete,
existed in
things.
all
A
intrinsic excellence that
good man, the poet Simoni-
des wrote, was "truly noble, in hands and feet and
mind, fashioned foursquare without blemish."
According
for the
task of looking after public affairs— and since
was
that "Draconian"
pre-
punishable by death, and gave a creditor the right
that
ac-
refers.
aristocrats
a
for extreme severity or cruelty in
foreign neighbors.
freely. Life
full of
civic activity, including that
"politics"
onym
and de-
as well. Farmers, craftsmen,
once varied and intimate,
The
rites
population included townsmen and coun-
trymen, and in maritime centers
Athens, seafaring
was so harsh
B.C.,
who
affairs discussed
tually lived within the walls of the polis its
pared for Athens by
business was transacted,
number
cided on. Although the
and
it,
lived inside
manufacturing was carried on, ceremonies and
were conducted, public
to
the seat
included the lands around
It
was the meeting-place and outside
The
polls, or city-state.
to be,
One of these codes, man named Draco in
the form of government.
Draco made the minor offense
overrefined.
was the
life
some
of
in
Un-
graces, but were not in the least effete.
or
to this ideal of
manhood, public hon-
and private honor were intimately
owed
related.
A man
to himself to display his best qualities
it
and
be recognized for them, and the praise he received for his actions
cess
was
was not only
a a
mark
of his success. But suc-
personal reward:
was an
it
owed his city. If a man died for his city's honor, he was a "good" man. And during his lifetime he was expected to keep its laws, do nothobligation he
ing to disgrace
havior
among
ancestry
and
it,
maintain a certain sobriety of be-
and be worthy
his
fellows,
his
upbringing.
"goodness," what are
now
In
this
of his
view
of
considered strictly moral
virtues were less important than the social ones,
and mattered only when moral
failure
brought
shame upon
man and
a
The
his class.
manhood was wide and
ideal of
not restrict "goodness" to a specific
man
havior, but simply expected a
aristocratic
generous.
did
It
of be-
field
every
to be in
The
this closely
were identified with per-
city's interests
sonal interests. This helps to explain
propensity for war. Although
because their
tially
cities'
men went
Greek
the
The
to display
in battle,
in itself.
war
of civic honor, they also
had economic causes. One
of the most persistent of the latter
and insoluble
nial
was the peren-
difficulty created
of land. In times of peace
by
shortage
population increased, this problem became acute.
to
was
essentially hand-to-
those qualities
man
it
and
no means
lavish.
were olive
oil,
most admired by
prowess not only gained him
his
their
was already being worked
And
could yield.
an opportunity
to his utmost, physically a
the available land
at best the
Then
fish,
Greek
now
as
diet
the
for all
was by
staple
foods
goat cheese, wine and bread.
Goats and sheep provided occasional meat, as well milk for cheese; and bees provided honey for
as
sweetening. There were also nuts and
was
in equal
and
his family.
figs,
as deli-
measure
a source of pride to himself
cacies.
Some
idea of the intensity of this
with such homely items as beans, peas, cabbage,
public pridefulness can be gotten from an epitaph a stone slab in a
It
honors
But otherwise the staples were rounded out
lettuce, lentils
A
tomb, dating from about 600
found on the island of Corcyra.
B.C.,
a
and prosperity, when the
admiration but also brought honor to his city and
on
but
was ennobling
rather because death in this form
Often, there was not enough food simply because
Thus war gave
fellows. His
any hope of
for
ini-
fighting
man
hand, taxing a mentally.
was not
reputations were at stake,
they also did so for personal gain and for personal satisfaction.
It
Although wars were ostensibly fought on points and personal honor were
civic
connected, an affront to one was an affront to the other.
existed.
heaven that they died so willingly
sense a man.
When
any
ful that
and
garlic.
possible solution to the need for
more land
was, of course, to seize a neighbor's. But this was
Whole populations might be
the courage in battle of a warrior felled by Ares,
not very satisfactory.
the god of war:
reduced to slavery, as the Spartans reduced their
Messenian neighbors, but they could not be wholly This
is
the
tomb of Arniadas. Him
eyed Ares destroyed as
he
obliterated— their labor was
flashing-
fought by
seized lands.
the
needed to farm
the
so they had to be fed. Because
war did not solve the problem of land and food,
ships at the streams of Aratthus, displaying the highest valor
And
the Greeks attempted an alternative. Capitalizing
amid the groans and shouts
on
of war.
their experience as
seamen and
their
knowl-
edge of trade, they organized parties of colonists
To
die in battle
to life, the right
when
a
was regarded
Greek died
as a fitting
end
and sent them abroad
to
settle
in distant
And
This relieved the drain on the Greek food supply,
in the defense of his city's
hon-
and also provided the homeland with new sources
name gained even greater dignity. He was mourned by his fellowmen, commemorated by a
The
public memorial and thenceforth held in the high-
continued unabated for two centuries.
or, his
est esteem.
about
Greeks
life after
lands.
to defy life's brevity.
way
in general
thought only vaguely
death, and most
men seemed doubt-
for the
produce and raw materials Greece lacked.
process,
begun
in
the Eighth Century
Greek colonization followed two main north and west.
To
B.C.,
directions,
the north, colonies were planted
first
along the northern Aegean
and
To
finally
then on the
littoral,
(now the Sea
shores of the Propontis
of Marmara),
on the Crimean shore of the Black Sea.
the west the Greeks
went
coast of Italy as far as the
and south-
into Sicily
up the western
ern Italy around 750 B.C., going
Bay
CAUL
of Naples. In about
BAY OF BISCAY
600 B.C., Ionian Greeks from the city of Phocaea in Asia Minor, seeing the advantages of the natural harbor at present-day Marseilles, founded a
ment
settle-
there called Massilia. East of Massilia, along
the coast
now famous
Heracles
Monoecus
as the French Riviera, ancient
Greek settlements were established
at
Adgssjlja
Nicaea, Her-
^^^^^ Nicaea
AphrodisiaJ'
Monoecus and Antipolis— present-day
acles
Monaco and
Nice,
BERIA
Antibes. Massilia conducted a flour-
"•tmporiae
raw
materials. Their business took
them up the Rhone River Gaul and
as far west as
proof of this exchange
found
at Vix,
;.;T5aguntum
to the inland regions of
One
Cornwall and Ireland. is
a
large
Tharrus*
•BALEARIC ISLANDS
bronze vessel,
SARDINIA
It is
a
famous and beauti-
example of archaic Greek craftsmanship, and „x--'-;:*«--
must have been ordered by some
local
high occasion, perhaps a wedding or
Compared
to the
king for a
relatively unimportant.
a funeral.
NUMIDIA
colonizing might
And
Greek
yet the
colonies were one of the most powerful
means of
spreading Greek civilization to other lands, though that
was not
their intention,
and though the
GREEK COLONIES
results <1
only became visible with the passage of time.
o
reached the region of the Etruscans in central
when height. The Italy
their
that fascinating civilization
language
arts
at its
origins of the Etruscans are a mystery,
evident that they
Greek
was
is
fell
scarcely understood, but
it
is
under the enchantment of the
and modeled much of
their
own
refined
sculpture and ceramics on Greek examples.
Far to the east in the Crimea, Greek colonists
EUBOEAN CORINTHIAN
k
a
MILESIAN
Greek wares passing up the western coast of Italy
Utica
Carthage
Greeks' achievements in other,
less tangible fields, their talent for
seem
and
Alalia
near Chatillon-sur-Seine, about 140
miles southeast of Paris. ful
CORSICA
Tarraco-'*""*(Tarragona)
ishing trade, bartering Greek manufactured products for Celtic
(Monai;a)y
•
MEGARAN ACHAEAN PHOCAEAN
OTHER
COLONIZERS ARE SHOWN THUS
I
CorinthI
GREECE IN 750 B.C. 13 GREEK-CONTROLLED COASTS PHOENICIAN-CONTROLLED COASTS e NON-GREEK CITIES
THE OUTWARD THRUST OF A CIVILIZATION THE GREAT AGE of Creek expansion tasted from 750
to
550 B.C.
in blue.
Expansion
Colonies were established along the coasts from Spain to the
towns and
Black Sea. Further Creek advances
cities
west were halted by the
to the
u>ell-estahlished colonies of the older Phoenician domain, shoion
cities
boxed on the
on the
map
to
the
of the
north was blocked by the fortified
Etruscan people of
map founded most
Italy.
identify the parent city of each of the
new
"^'S^r
SCYTHIA
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(larinio)
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^,
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,
MAGNA:-:,!,
(Trebaond)
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MACEDONIA
t
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•••Side
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k
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IVlEDITERRANEAN SEA aLeptis
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Euhesperides*
SCALE 100 1
I
200 I
300 Miles I
CYRENAICA
Tyre«0
A,
The Creek
of the colonies: symbols colonies.
THE COINS OF GREECE came from many far-flung colonies.
ship,
The one above, showing the ends of a
from Phaselis, famous for
is
its
seafarers.
came
were able
nomad Scyths
with the
in contact
though they had
common
httle in
to create for the
ful gold vessels that
Greek techniques
and,
al-
with them, they
Scythian market delight-
blended Scythian subjects with
in
raised relief.
Gradually, the Greeks took
full
advantage of the
natural resources of their adopted homes, which A SILVER PIECE from Abdera on the fringe of Greek world shows a seated griffin. Beyond
the
Abdera, the legends said, was the
griffins' land.
equaled or surpassed the native homeland
This was especially true in
Megara Hyblaea,
Selinus and
like Syracuse,
in wealth.
where colonies
Sicily,
from being provincial, had an astonishingly
far vital
sculpture by the mid-Sixth Century B.C. and one
who ranked among
poet, Stesichorus,
the best of
the age.
The
Greeks kept apart from the culture of
the indigenous peoples. Nonetheless, they
A SYRACUSE ens.
A
ISSUE celebrates triumph over
winged Victory drives a
reverse,
chariot.
Ath-
On
the
Persephone symbolizes abundant crops.
commonly
associate with Greece. Cultural
was not always the
aloof. Colonization
and
ness,
a detailed
this
is
was so
many Greek
common
in the
mountains, was cities.
a
the
was
a gifted poet
who
wrote frankly and freely
about his
life.
In fact Archilochus' frankness verged
on
and
his
satire,
for his
them
own
as
freedom on
leaders
little
disillusion.
the
reverse
is
feared
whom
he
liking or respect
and companions. He regarded
came from
illegitimate son of a slave, he
much
He
better than murderers. Perhaps
of his attitudes
his
some
background. As the
well-born adventurer and
had no rights
to paternal succession
a
and
plant.
Zeus-Ammon—Zeus's head
with the ram's horns of the Egyptian god
of
ochus, he came from the island of Paros, and he
fought, but he did not have
On
island
in the first part
and disliked the "Thracian dogs" against
A COIN OF CYRENE displays a silphium
man who
Seventh Century B.C. His name was Archil-
of the
symbol of Ahydos and other nearby
colonies. For
account of the Greek experience we are
Thasos and the mainland of Thrace
Troy. The eagle,
integ-
frequently a dangerous busifor
participated in the colonization of
the
a
chief reason for remaining
lucky to have the personal witness of
APOLLO'S HEAD adorns a coin from Abydos near
made
on many places that we do not
lasting impression
rity
home-
colonies remained extensions of the
land, for the
Ammon.
had
to
sword.
make
his
own way by
his skill
with the
THE SCALE OF VALUES of Athenian
Bitter,
disappointed, and understandably
erned by a stern sense of
gov-
Archilochus
reality,
re-
fused to be taken in by pretentious talk and was resolute in his desire to hurt. His
own
the truth, even
when
philosophy was simple and sane:
not rejoice too
when they go
tell
much when
go
things
it
Do and
well,
badly, do not lament. Paradoxically,
while he rejected exaggerated expressions of the old
Homeric values he
He
purest sense.
them
also personified
in
their
believed in living honorably, re-
garded any material benefit as
his
due,
earned
through personal worth, and took any slight as
Of one who had wronged him
deadly insult.
a
he
things. In fact they
through
error, before
first
and
trial
From
here.
left to
worked hard,
they achieved their
These came during the Sev-
true successes.
were sim-
aristocrats. Since the conditions of life
them was
ple, the art that reflected
not prevent
this did
it
also simple, but
from being noble and
begin to assert themselves, and the work
with the magical Greek
its
The Greek
many
is
infused
sense of form apa
rocky landscape
on the mind and
discipline
artist
A
molded by
pears, unconsciously
that imposes
light.
show
dis-
and balance
tinguished. Standards of proportion
it.
stiff
piece.
enth Century B.C., under the patronage of the
convention and he be cast ashore, naked and
shown
making beautiful
Painting and sculpture
May
is
not have an unerring and miraculous instinct for
wrote:
at
once
a
eye.
powerful
individual attempts to modify
worked
had
for a society that
and
some extent
with cold, at Salmydessus and seized
strong opinions about the
by Thracians (who will make him suf-
he had to cater to them. But within these limitations
may
eating the bread of slavery),
fer,
arts,
to
he also experimented and innovated. Looked
he be covered with shellfish in the surf,
the proper frame of reference, archaic
may
lively
lies
his teeth chatter like a dog's, as he
face
downwards by
the margin of
the waves.
yet he had few illusions about the efforts de-
manded by
life
and the paucity of
its
rewards:
and varied.
Greek
at in
art
is
ranges from life-size statues,
It
intended to honor the gods, or the
men and women
who sought
humble painted
pots
And
head of Athena,
coins, all displaying the
an obol, a drachma worth six obols, a double drachma and a four-drachma
right are: a half obol,
for
life at its
the gods'
domestic
most
favor,
use.
The
to
first
Greek
reflect
serious, the second at
its
most
re-
laxed and gay. But gaiety and seriousness often
overlapped. Statues were not required to be wholly
No man
gets
honor or glory of
solemn, nor was
his
it
out of order for a
common
drink-
countrymen once he be dead; rather
ing bowl to be decorated with dramatic or heroic
do we pursue the favor of the living
subjects.
while
we
worst
part.
the dead get ever the
live;
As
Bowl and statue could each combine and
altation far
ex-
delight.
back
as
Mycenaean times vases had been
decorated with paintings, and the art had survived,
Not
all
Greek colonists may have been
tive as Archilochus,
and determination
as percep-
but they shared his courage
in
setting about their task of
establishing themselves in a
new
land.
And
while
at a
much
lower
level,
through the Dark Age. But in
the Seventh Century B.C. the painting broke
Compositions became freer and more
human
and
they bent their efforts toward this pioneering work,
Before,
they also found time for
cessions had been painted
Contrary
to
artistic creativity.
common assumption
the Greeks did
away
from geometrical abstractions and stylized scenes.
straight lines,
figures
battles in
naturalistic.
and funeral pro-
formalized sets of
and the figure was no more impor-
tant than
Now, men and animals
surroundings.
its
and monsters became the main subjects of carefully thought-out designs.
new
color
New techniques
were invented,
schemes and new ways of applying paint
form devised.
to the clay
Drawing, tured with
at first hesitant
and inexperienced, ma-
astonishing speed
into
the
flawless,
expressive line which became the significant ele-
ment of
on the island
in all Greek, painting. Artists
Rhodes produced animated processions of
ani-
mals circling the body of a vase, and on Melos,
tumultuous scenes from myths. At Sparta, during the height of that city's
artistic
soon after
life,
600 B.C., vase paintings were delightfully diverse.
There are
dramatic epi-
fish in graceful patterns,
sodes from the past, scenes from everyday
Apollo rior
is
kills
home by
carried
tified as
life:
the great serpent. Python; a dead warhis comrades; a king (iden-
Arcesilas of Cyrene) watches the weighing
and packing of silphium,
a medicinal plant
much
prized in the ancient world. Continuously experi-
menting,
artists learned
to stress the
FUNCTIONAL DESIGN Was a mark of Greek
pottery.
were proved suitable they were seldom varied, perfected in Athens are
mouth
facilitate
to
lifting;
(3),
had two horizontal handles for
for carrying water,
The pitcher-shaped oinochoe (5)
was a
few basic shapes
was a two-handled drinking cup. The
a third handle, not visible here,
amphora
A
above. The krater (1) had a wide
mixing wine and water, the staple Greek
beverage. The kylix (2)
hydria
shown
Once forms
(4)
was
made pouring
the standard wine jug.
large urn for storing supplies.
established the Mediterranean
The
supremacy of Atheniatj
potters.
to use
empty space
how
compose
to
men and women into a continuous prohow to mass them without crowding. Even
groups of cession,
the vase itself
became an element of the design,
the artist adapted his subject to
fit
its
as
particular
curves and protuberances.
easy.
Such vases
how
contours of a figure,
In sculpture, development
came
and had
later
further to go. Small figurines in clay or bronze pro-
vided a beginning in the Dark Age.
And
then, in
the Seventh Century B.C., larger figures appeared, in
wood, limestone, marble and bronze. The
earliest
Greek monumental sculpture obviously owed great deal to Egyptian example.
with upright figures of naked
women,
life-size
and carved
have one foot forward and their sides.
The women
men and
in the round.
their
a
The Greeks began clothed
The men
arms hang down
are heavily draped in
looks, in the earliest examples, like
mere
at
what
layers of
cloth.
But the Egyptian stiffness
behind with
is left
known
itself is
only through isolated fragments, but
remarkable speed. The male form becomes more
the surviving words enchant the ear with their ef-
engaging, mainly through the balance of
fortless,
and the treatment of form gains and more
And
muscles.
its
its
become
in grace as its draperies
limbs
the female lighter
forms.
ment
body beneath.
delicate, hinting at the
But sculpture was not confined
to figures in the
dancing rhythms. poetry had
Lyric It
many
uses and
in public affairs.
active in the
B.C.,
ring military songs, exhorting his
the architectural elements of temples:
battle
the
tri-
war. In Athens another poet, Solon,
on the band between the roof and columns, known
about 640 to 560 B.C., preached
which
instances included
in certain
rectangles called metopes, spaced at intervals. Each
shapes— triangle, band, rectangle— raised
of these
special design problems.
would take
a full
The pediment,
human
else
at its base.
The
frieze
had
And
be
a
continuous pat-
crowded or busy with
tern but could not be too detail.
for the acute angles
to
the metopes had to have a composition
that neatly filled the rigid confines of a rectangle.
Not
all
of these problems were solved at once,
but the principal ones were under control by the
end of the Sixth Century B.C. By
Greek for
artist
form
had learned
to suit the
to balance his
work became
richer in detail
ical line in the
the Greeks
As
vase paintings cannot,
knew about
the
human
the visual arts progressed
The impersonal
timents, gave
way
to a
epic,
from
lived
philosophy of so-
of his reforms enacted
when he became
dance— for
lyric
time Sparta was of
a
center of such festivals, and one
most famous poets was
its
who,
poetry was composed in the form
works— combining music, poetry and performance at civic festivals. At one
late in the
for choruses of
a
man named Alcman
Seventh Century B.C., wrote
lyrics
young Spartan women. His poems
are wonderfully limpid
and gay, entirely suited
to
his performers:
time the
parts.
Look, beside
my
me
sings
my
friend,
cousin, of the ankles small:
Agido and she commend
His
alike our ceremonial.
Immortals,
econom-
who
possess the end
of every action, hear their call
how much
with favor, as their voices blend!
figure.
from rude begin-
nings to majestic maturity, poetry also evolved forms.
choral
and more dramatic.
the sculptural details reveal, as the
some
Sometimes of
his feeling
component
who
to
glories of
a leader of the state.
requirements of a severe frame.
He knew how
And
this
to discipline
stir-
reform to a city torn by dissension— and actual-
ly got
for example,
figure in the center, but
was required
something
cial
a
wrote
countrymen
and indoctrinating them with the
angular space under the roof, called the pediment;
as the frieze,
many
The Spartan poet Tyrtaeus,
mid-Seventh Century
round. Carved decorations also began to appear on in
took
could, for instance, be a powerful instru-
with
its
new
heroic sen-
poetry whose sentiments
Some
of the best of the lyric
by poets about themselves highest point of
this
poems were written
for their friends.
The
personal lyric poetry was
were often quite personal and whose subject matter
reached about 600 B.C. on the island of Lesbos in
was often current
the
of lyric song, of
events. This
poems sung
of the flute or the lyre.
was the golden age
work
of
two
poets, a
man and
a
woman. The
accompaniment
thoroughly masculine Alcaeus wrote about politics
Sometimes the performers
and war and the pleasures of wine-drinking. His
to the
were individuals, sometimes choruses. The music
friend
Sappho wrote about her
feelings
for
the
CORINTHIAN
young
girls
Her touch
On
who formed
her circle of acquaintances.
intimate, personal:
is
the black earth, say some, the
thing most lovely Is
a host of horsemen, or some, foot soldiers.
Others say of ships, but !— whatsoever
Anyone
loveth.
Within the compass of
mood can
many
shift
single
a
times, but
from the heart and
straight
For the Greeks for getting to
lyric it
true
is
poem
the
always speaks
and human.
was an incomparable medium
it
know
own
their
But they were also getting
to
emotions.
know
themselves
in
another way, and through another medium. Greek religion, as
it
revealed in poetry, always encour-
is
aged inquiry into the nature of things. Curiosity
was pleasing
to the
gods because curiosity made the
known
gods' marvelous works
had
done much
in their time
to
men. The myths
to explain the
world
to
now something more was needed. And so sci-
unsophisticated people, but factual
and more precise
ence and philosophy were born. As early as the Sixth Century B.C., Ionian Greeks were seeking THREE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES of Greece's temples and their principal parts are illustrated above. The letters indicate: (A) the steps
and
stylobate, or platform, of the temple; (B) the fluted
shaft; (C) the cushion (echinus)
which together form the
column
and rectangular block (abacus)
capital;
(D) the architrave, which per-
forms the function of a beam; (E) the plain or sculptured metope tablets; (F) the projecting frieze,
and channeled triglyph
tablets;
and
(1)
the pediment, or sculptured gable, between
the sloping roof surfaces.
an Ionic column
(left)
At
(L) the plinth, or
are
shown
the voluted capital of
and the acanthus-leafed
rinthian style (right); (K) the
style temples.
(J)
capital of the
molded bases of the two
supporting block of stone, used
Some temples combined
in
primal substance, a single basic material from
which, they reasoned,
styles;
some
Co-
all
developed. Three men,
and
all
of
all
it.
was
that
was
a
colorless
it
was
some
thought
them from Miletus,
of
Thales thought that the basic
material it
other things must have
them astronomers and mathematicians,
had theories about
(C) the
comprising the metope and triglyph tablets; (H) the pro-
jecting cornice;
a
a
clear liquid;
Anaximenes thought
gas;
and Anaximander
indeterminate
substance,
boundless and imperishable. At the same time an-
and
Ionic-
features of different styles.
other group of men, also lonians, were speculating
on the nature of
life
itself.
They were seeking
a
single, unifying principle that
what they
things are
One
Heraclitus,
who
lived in
Ephesus. Heraclitus believed that the essential condition of
life
was "flux"— that nothing was abso-
everything changed.
lute,
who was
Pythagoras,
born on Samos but lived most of
Greek colony of Croton
his life
the
in
in Italy, believed that the
universe was ordered by a harmonious system of
numbers.
sum
One
of his concepts has
come down
to us
Pythagorean theorem, which proves that the
as the
two shorter
of the squares of the
right-angled triangle
long side.
The
is
equal to the square of the
his
was
home
in
Persian invasion and settled at Elea in
Ionia
by
Italy.
Xenophanes founded
which taught
a philosophical school
that the universe
supreme, divine being
single,
sides of a
third of these early philosophers
Xenophanes, who was driven from a
was ordered by
who
a
operated through
thought alone. scientists
and philosophers
attached the utmost importance to their work, and did not hesitate to reject the old
gods
if
ories,
the
they
myths were
to take
its
at the
dawn
very
place. call
Their
scientific.
of science, they operated
by flashes of insight and inspired guesses.
Nevertheless some of their conclusions are astonishing.
Anaximander,
world was but one
for instance, claimed that the
in
an unending succession of
worlds; and Xenophanes declared that inally
come out
of the sea,
man had
and produced
orig-
fossils as
To
rich, de-
manding land and power. They enjoyed occasional successes but these seldom produced any lasting victory.
Consequently Greece was continually
dis-
turbed by
civil strife.
were so
odds that the government became pow-
erless,
at
leaving the
man
scrupulous take over. least
Sometimes the two factions
way
Such men, known
some
some
clear for
to force his
way
able or un-
the top and
to
as tyrants,
The
sort of equilibrium.
produced
best of
at
them
even tried to conciliate the warring factions. Tyrants frequently
and
made concessions
in return
keep themselves
in
to
the
poorer
counted on their support to
power.
In reality, tyrannies were extensions of the aris-
Under them the
tocratic system.
And
befori',
city-state gained
enabling
it
to resist
because power was concentrated in one
man's hands, public works and enterprises could be undertaken on
a scale
that
would otherwise have
been impossible. Some tyrants, tal
it
is
true,
were bru-
and unjust and gave "tyrant" the unpleasant
connotation icent
it
has today. But others were benef-
and law-abiding. The tyrants epitomized the
spirit of a
flected
its
vigorous but divided society. tastes
and temperament, and
They their
re-
un-
usual power gave them unusual opportunities to display
its
salient traits in action.
During the Seventh and Sixth Centuries B.C.
evidence. the aristocratic
knowledge gave
the
was
it
poor were regularly on the very edge
attack.
they had to discredit an old myth,
for
and slaves
and naturally turned on the
some divine governance
methods were not what we should
largely
Many of the of starvation,
believed in
new one
yet
often hard indeed.
even greater unity than
If
And
truth.
was pleasant
Life
conflict.
aristocrats, but for the peasants
variance with their the-
they created a
Working
by persistent
at
still
of the world.
myths about the
between
distinction
and the love of
apparently enlightened society was troubled
this
classes,
Although these early
They made no
of fine arts.
the love of beauty
men was
of these
would explain why
are.
as
elite,
much
the pursuit of scientific
pleasure as the enjoyment
most
city-states
conformed
tern of aristocratic
life.
to
this
But one
changing patcity
eventually
moved beyond
the pattern,
and one never turned
And
back on the aristocratic ways.
its
two
again,
the
Although Sparta had not last very long and tan institutions.
it
a cultural flowering,
it
did
did not alter the old Spar-
Remnants
of the city's period of
was expelled by
B.C., Hippias
who had gone
nobles
were Athens and Sparta.
cities
chus, the younger son, was murdered, and in 510
time in
The
office.
exiles
was not welcome
to Sparta.
introduced coinage to the entire Greek simplifying
world, thereby
Sparta
structure,
refused
cumbersome
tinued to use
ways was based
to its old
and
serfs.
were automatically members of the As-
monetary
up commerce
remain an agra-
serf labor.
even
It
continued
in peace. Its fidelity
on
partly
fear:
Spartan
their slaves
Consequently they insisted on maintain-
camp
ing their old
Greek
discipline and, unlike
B.C.
it
to the general pattern.
was governed by
Though
tus.
He was
in
the
latter
it
strengthened
became,
political
them
power, but in both instances he
encouraged drama and,
years of his rule, commissioned of
a
the
Athens
with Ionia, giving the city
Aegean
his
and Hipparchus, but they lacked and
talents. In
felt
a
miraculous
in
Then, inflamed by
off.
514 B.C., Hippar-
their
new
belief
in
ritory of
Oropus on
their
northern coast and ac-
quire the rich plain of Chalcis across the strait at also attacked
in full
the
island
view of Athens
Gulf, but they failed to subdue
in
of
Aegina,
the Saronic
it.
Nevertheless, the Athenians were obviously on the move.
Once but
a
single state
among many, now began
with no special pre-eminence, Athens the career which
and
influential
results a
area.
he died, Peisistratus was succeeded by
their father's tact
ulti-
themselves, the Athenians went on to annex the ter-
lies
ties
democracy
Troubled by these developments, the Spartans
They
its
full
contained the mechanics for
it
freedom the Athenians
which
text
was not the
surge of confidence and strength.
Aulis.
his leadership
If it
mately becoming one. With their newly acquired
factions
greater influence in the
sons, Hippias
later
and did
and the Odyssey. Under
When
freedom of speech.
when opposition
learned body to prepare a definitive Iliad
527
a gifted tyrant, Peisistra-
art of poetry,
power and
equality before the laws, equality of
to return. Peisistratus beautified the city,
supported the
Athenians
affairs.
claimed with justice that their government offered
to liberalize the land laws,
exiled twice
briefly regained
managed
to
himself an aristocrat, he rose to power
by promising so.
From 561
say in public
a
adult male
all
506 B.C. invaded Attica, but the Athenians drove
For a greater part of this same period Athens
conformed
sembly and had
any other
remained a military community.
city,
of a noble family active in Athenian
citizens
were heavily outnumbered by
citizens
member
conform and con-
scale, preferring to
to practice the arts of war,
a
re-
who
Under the new constitution
iron rods as
dependent on
rian society,
was
was
a brilliant reformer, Cleisthenes,
politics.
exchange. Sparta refused to take
on any serious
modeled by
whole economic
the to
the Athenian constitution
In 507 B.C.
taste.
to a revo-
lutionary change that
in fact the
would
its
overthrow of Hippias led
they can be seen in painted pots and carved ivories.
But Sparta stood obdurately outside the main cur-
when Lydia
that the tyranny
be succeeded by a government more to
But
economic change. In the Seventh Century,
group of Athenian
were helped by Sparta,
which undoubtedly thought
grace and elegance continued into the Sixth Century;
rents of
a
into exile during his father's
was
power
were not
to
to
make
in the
it
the most energetic
Greek world. The
full
appear immediately because, for
dramatic and crowded interval, one urgent prob-
lem occupied the attention alike of Athens, Sparta
and most other Greek the Persian Wars.
cities:
they had to survive
THE LIGHT OF GREECE, which seems on the Argive plain. The wall
is
to be brighter
and more lustrous than Ught elsewhere,
part of ancient Mycenae, where the war against Troy
slants
down
was planned.
THE GREEK HOMELAND The hard, clear Greek light, playing on glittering water, bright white limestone and bare brown earth, impresses every new beholder. This clarity, admirers of the Greeks suggest,
may have determined
the hard, direct quality of
Greek thought. And
infuses an essentially harsh landscape with glowing beauty. is
a stiff
300-mile-long finger pointing southeast into the seas.
the lives of the people were shaped
by
their
slopes, in the dry valleys, along the gulfs
the or
mountain winters were
bitter,
summer, the Greek found joy
in
it
The Greek mainland
On
this peninsula
dwelling places: on rugged mountain islands. The climate tested them: summers hot and dusty. But winter
and on
the lowland
spending as much time as possible out of doors.
A BOUNCY HUNTER
him and
his
Strides
homeward with
dog dancing ahead on a
lead.
his kill slung
behind
His weapons were spears,
nets, foot-snares, javelins and, infrequently, the
bow and
arrow.
THE ROUGH HIGHLANDS Although walled tains, plains
in separate
and
seas, the
communities by mounGreeks were never
far
from one another; no man
in
Greece stood more
than 60 miles from the
Of
the three areas, the
sea.
mountains and barren regions, covering three quarters of the country, offered poorest fare.
ridges
Fifth
Century
B.C., the slopes
had few
The country's bones showed. Lack the mountains lings
Once
these
were covered with scrub forests but by the trees left.
of moisture in
and the fondness of goats
had produced
a sparse Greece.
for sap-
The highlands
offered aromatic plants for honeybees (important in a sugarless land);
wolves and lions
(if
and summer grazing
hunting for hare, lynx, bear, only to protect the flocks); for
sheep and goats, which
were the source of Greek cloaks and Greek cheeses.
A TUMBLING COUNTRYSIDE, Greece's mountains (above) helped the city-states to develop independently of
Arakhnaions
in the
one another. These heights, the
Peloponnesus, sepamted Epidaurus from Argos.
A FOUNTAIN OF ROCKS, the grotesque
pillars of
by ages of wind and water, range from 85 believed that they were rocks flung
to
Meteora (below), sculptured
300
down on
feet high. Ancierjt
Greeks
the earth by angry gods.
A ROADSIDE COPSE is
filled
in the
moiouaiti>
iyi'ix
between Sparta and Kalamata
with cypresses and small growth. In
this area, a
ground, Spartans abandoned children deemed too weak
to
famous hunting become soldiers.
VENERABLE GROVES of gnarled-trunk a spectacular
their leaves flash
from silvery grey
as the dry
summer wind
ON THESSALYS (below).
olive
show when
trees (left) offer
to
white
rustles the branches.
PLAINS sheep graze
in
peace
These animals, whose wool pro-
vided essential
warm
clothing,
were often
covered with skins to keep their fleece
soft.
THE FRUITFUL VALLEYS Between the mountains were though they made up land, their soil
less
fertile
pockets. Al-
than a quarter of
was deep and
level.
all
the
Here grew the
"Mediterranean triad": grain; grapes for wine, the
Greek drink much
whose
oil
was the
in
demand
butter, soap
overseas; and olives,
and lamp
fuel of an-
tiquity. Large-scale olive
growing was
men. Only they had the
capital to wait the 16 years
until a tree
left to
gentle-
matured and only they had the patience needed to bring it to peak production.
for the 40 years
After that
a
man
could
sit
back and enjoy himself. A SACRIFICIAL CALF
IS
supply of meat came
^JBS!*""^~'
carrtea to a shrine. in the
I
he Creeks' meager
main from such votive
offerings.
A BROAD THOROUGHFARE TO THE WORLD Living on a peninsula, the Greeks came early to the sea.
They panned
it
for salt, then set sail
upon
it
in
night and stayed ashore in the winter.
They
talked
nervously of being caught between the rock of Scylla
boats to catch tunny, mullet, anchovies and sardines,
and the whirlpool of Charybdis
develop trade routes to the Greek islands and the
end has
mainland of Asia Minor, drive the Phoenicians away
Marseilles discovered the Tin Islands (presumably
and defeat the Persians. They found courses through
England, whose mines in Cornwall were
the
windy raceways
of the Dardanelles and Bos-
it
off Italy's boot. Leg-
that an adventurous
source of tin until the
last
Greek
sailor
from
a principal
century). But the prudent
porus to the Black Sea, routes that do not differ
Greeks, awed by Carthaginian strength in the west-
much from modern sailing directions. They remained
ern Mediterranean and the Atlantic, never challenged
cautious seamen; they sailed by day, anchored by
the
North Africans' long supremacy
in the tin trade.
HOME WATERS OF THE is
tors to
CREEKS, the Aegean Sea
dotted with islands and headlands. Naviga-
moved from one
to the next,
always trying
keep some familiar piece of land
in sight.
LORD OF WIND AND WAVES, Poseidon, god of the sea, lifts a balancing hand as he prepares to
throw a
trident.
on the water
The Greeks believed
that
their fate rested with Poseidon.
While the young Greek culture gathered strength
and assurance, another also
expanding
their insistence
submitted to
its
was
culture, to the east,
power. Unlike the Greeks, with
on individual freedom, the Persians
a ruler
Greeks were soon
whose power was
to be challenged
absolute.
The
by the Persian
autocracy, and to learn that freedom, to be preserved,
must sometimes be
curtailed.
was
It
a lesson
they learned slowly, and on occasion the fate of
Western
4
For
hung upon the outcome among Greek city-states.
civilization
petty disputes
many
centuries the Greek colonial cities on
the coast of Asia
THE PERSIAN WARS
of
Minor had very
the great states to the east.
little
trouble with
The power
of Babylonia
and Assyria never reached that half of the Seventh
Century
far west. In the first
B.C., however, a Lyd-
ian king, Gyges, attacked the
Greek
the
in
cities
course of expanding his inland kingdom to the
Lydian kings allowed them autonomy,
coast. Later
but not complete freedom from Lydian last of the
Lydian kings, Croesus,
self the richest
monarch of
his country's gold
He
greatly.
Apollo
at
his time
deposits,
home
In 546 B.C., Croesus
by exploiting
famous shrine of and the
of a revered oracle
most venerable sanctuary
The
admired the Greeks
sent royal gifts to the
Delphi,
rule.
who made him-
in Greece.
was attacked and defeated
by Cyrus the Great, King of
Persia.
Cyrus had
al-
ready combined Persia, Media and Assyria into one vast dominion. Croesus tried to stop him, and ex-
pected to succeed, because the Delphic oracle had told
him
that he
He assumed
would "destroy
that the empire
instead, he destroyed his is
said to
a great
empire."
meant was Cyrus', but
own. Afterwards Croesus
"No one
have commented sadly,
ish as to prefer to peace war, in
is
so fool-
which, instead of
sons burying their fathers, fathers bury their sons.
But the gods willed
it
so."
After conquering the Lydians, Cyrus marched his well-trained
army
to the coast
and subdued
all
of
the major Ionian colonies except the island of Sa-
mos, which held out under the determined leadership of
its
tyrant, Polycrates. Polycrates
piratical control of the sea IN
A COUNCIL OF
WAR
the arts. Persia's
King Darius, on the throne, decides
vade Greece. This work was made by a Creek
artist
in
plundered friend and foe
alike,
but
to in-
southern Italy
about 325 B.C. Above Darius are gods: below, Persians bringing
He
combined
with lavish patronage of
tribute.
then returned his friends' property— on the theory that they
would be more grateful than
if
they had
been spared in the in engineering
first
place.
to be built for his harbor
through
mountain
a
was no match
He was
also a pioneer
works, commissioning a breakwater
and
dug
a tunnel to be
for his water supply.
for the Persians,
who
lured
But he
him
to
the Asian mainland in 520 B.C. and crucified him.
Darius
I,
who had
the year before,
The
succeeded to the Persian throne
was now master
of
Persians did not allow their
retain their
autonomy. They made
Ionia.
all
new
subjects to
local tyrants sub-
ordinate to Persian provincial governors, called satraps,
and forced the lonians
military service.
The Greeks
the Aegean, did very
Sparta did
make
little
their
pay tribute and do
to halt the subjugation.
a gesture:
Persians, protesting
to
of the mainland, across
it
sent envoys to the
actions
and reminding
A SOLDIER'S GEAR included
Greek
that Sparta claimed the right to protect cities.
But
it
failed to follow
with effective action. The other
up
all
the protest
on the Greek
cities
mainland did not even protest. For a time the lonians submitted to the Persian regime, even though they did not take kindly
to.it.
But in 499 B.C., they revolted. This time Athens
and
sent 20 shiploads of soldiers to help, the island of Euboea, sent five.
Eretria,
on
The lonians began
promisingly enough by advancing inland to the city of Sardis
and burning
it.
After this
however, the Athenian and Eretrian
home, and the lonians were
initial
sally,
allies
went
left to their
own
re-
sources. For a while they stubbornly struggled alone, but ultimately the revolt collapsed.
engagement was
a
The
on
final
naval battle off the island of
Lade, near Miletus, in which, according to the historian Herodotus, a fleet of 353 Ionian ships
overwhelmed by
a fleet of
of Persia— but Herodotus
600 ships
may have
was
in the service
exaggerated the
latter figure.
To
chastise the Greeks for this uprising the Per-
sians sacked
part of
its
and burned Miletus, and transplanted
population to the mouth of the Tigris
things useful or merely cumber-
of dyed horsehair, restricted both side vision
and hearing but
protected the head. The bronze tip of the battering ram with the
ram's head cast on walls,
them
many
some. The bronze helmet (above), usually adorned with a crest
though
it
it
(below) was meant for use against city
seldom succeeded. The short sword and the lance
whose metal point
is
shown
at right
were the principal weapons.
River on the Persian Gulf, more than a thousand miles away.
was
It
a
blow
terrible
to the Greeks.
Miletus had been the richest and most brilliant of the Ionian cities, with
more than 60 colonies of
own, ranging from the Adriatic Shortly after
its
poet Phrynichus turned
bitterly that the
drachmas
From
the Athenian
story into a tragedy.
its
The Capture of Miletus,
wept so
when
destruction,
Athenian audience
his
pervised these roads, an
playwright was fined 1,000
for depressing them.
had followed the
fail to
note the desertion of the Greek mainland
troops after Sardis.
On
weakness, as well as his tion of the to him.
the basis of this
own
show
of
strength, the subjec-
Greeks must have seemed
a small affair
Darius was the sole ruler of a vast empire
the "King's
Mardonius then,
if
to
move
his first
Greek mainland. He sent
subdue Thrace and Macedonia, and
possible, to
move southward
wrecked
into the
now
demanding
to return
sent heralds to
their
first
home.
Greek
the
all
submission and token
"earth and water."
Some
Greek part of
rounding Mt. Athos
his ships
Macedonia and had Darius
men
of his son-in-law
peninsula. Mardonius accomplished the
in
against
a large force of
and ships under the leadership
course of the whole Ionian revolt, and probably did not
made
In 492 B.C., Darius
the
his task, but
his capital at Susa, Darius
official called
Eye."
its
to the Hellespont.
was the man who su-
functionaries in Darius' court
states,
of
gifts
states complied, but not
Athens and Sparta. According
to
Herodotus the
Athenians threw the Persian heralds gesting that they collect their
own
in a pit, sug-
and Spar-
earth,
;
which extended from Egypt
to India,
and from the
Persian Gulf to the Black Sea, an area of more than
two million square
miles.
The
ruins of the royal
ta
threw them into
their
own
a well, suggesting they collect
water. But although the two states re-
jected the Persian
demands, they did nothing
to
Athens was busy working
palace at Persepolis display his image in relief over
forestall Persian action.
the doorways, proclaiming his omnipotence under
out the problems of a democratic form of govern-
the protection of
Ahura Mazda,
the chief Persian
god. Sculptured processions of soldiers, tributaries
and slaves march
in
officials,
friezes along the
palace stairways, acknowledging their subservience
him
to
as the Great King.
casting covetous eyes on its
In 490 B.C., Darius struck again.
with a
He was a shrewd and aggressive leader, astute money matters and interested in engineering. His
equipped army; they sailed
for,
says
Herodotus, "Darius looked to making a gain in everything." coin that
He
gave his name to the daric, the gold
was the
basis of his currency,
ported his national
He and
built a canal built a
his armies.
economy by
fixed yearly taxes.
between the Nile and the Red Sea,
network of roads
One
and he sup-
for the
movement
of
of these highways, the Royal Road,
ran 1,500 miles from Susa, near the Persian Gulf, to Sardis, near the Aegean.
One
of the
most important
literally of
He
of 600 ships and a large and
fleet
for the
to
march
Athens. But they held their ships
shore, in case
it
became necessary
attack Athens through
its
to sail
the
successful instance of hurried, ning, they decided
on
a
off-
around and
port of Phaleron.
enemy on their own soil suddenly awoke to their danger. In With
well-
bay of Mara-
thon, intending to land their troops and to
overland
two
sent
and Artaphernes, across the Aegean
Darius was more than an Oriental despot, how-
contemporaries called him "The Huckster,"
neighbors.
its
two kings, was almost
two minds about the Persian menace.
generals, Datis
ever. in
ment—and
Sparta, with
the Athenians a
remarkably
last-minute plan-
strategy and tactics that
turned out to be flawless. Most of the credit for these plans eral
named
must go
to
Miltiades,
an able and determined gen-
who had been
the governor
THRACE MACEDONIA ILLYRIA
IONIAN THE PERSIAN WARS PERSIAN EMPIRE 497
B.C.
PERSIAN RECONQUESTS 496-493 B.C PERSIAN RECONQUESTS,
MARDONIUS- CAMPAIGN 492 PRO- PERSIAN
B y/
B.C.
AND
NEUTRAL STATES 491-479 ALLIED GREEKS MAIN BATTLES
B.C.
THE EBB AND FLOW OF BATTLE THE GREAT CONFLICT between Creeks and battles
Persians,
whose main
and campaigns are outlined on the map above, involved
most of the peoples of the Near tions across the Hellespont,
East.
When
Xerxes led his forma-
Herodotus says, they included not
only his Medes and Persians armored in iron scales but also other troops variously attired: Assyrians
who wore
brass helmets and
painted their bodies half chalk, half vermilion. The Indians in the line of
march wore cotton dresses and
while the Scyths were clad in trousers and
carried tall,
bows
fought with bows, daggers and battle axes. The Thracians dressed in
long cloaks of
the
army was
many
the
colors.
But the most spectacular unit
Ten Thousand,
a
sometimes called the Immortals because when one
opians with helmets made of horses' scalps, and curly-haired
was immediately replaced by another. They marched
who
dressed in leopard and lion skins and
in
body of picked Persians
Moschians who wore wooden ones; straight-haired eastern Ethiwestern Ethiopians
of cane,
pointed caps and
fell in battle
he
glittering
with gold decorations and were followed by servants and women.
had firsthand
of a Thracian city and, as such,
quaintance with Persian battle
his fellow generals not to wait for the Persians to
and march imme-
attack, but to take the offensive
partly to save as
succeeded to
of the countryside as pos-
his father's plan. For years a slave stood beside
hemmed
a plain
to thwart
in
pos-
advance
for a distance,
Herodotus says, of
new
a
by mountains
took the initiative and ordered
his infantry to
was
who
much
sea, Miltiades
It
Egypt. But Darius' son Xerxes,
re-
a revolt in
was determined
pursue
to
him
dinner and whispered, "Master, remember the
at
Athenians." Xerxes' preparations were even more
At Marathon,
mile."
from the death of Darius, and
the throne in 485 B.C.,
sible traitors.
and
was occupied with other matters— changes
sulting
Marathon. His purpose was
from devastation, and partly
sible
Persia
at
meet them
diately to
For the next 10 years the Greeks had a respite;
ac-
He persuaded
tactics.
run and in close order
at a
under
a "little
a
thorough than his
dug through
the neck of
theMt. Athos peninsula, where the ships of
his fa-
had been wrecked.
ther's first expedition
Athens, meanwhile, was embroiled in internal
Greeks, and ap-
tactic for the
father's. In a prodigious feat for
the time, he had a canal
among
parently astounded the Persians, who, according to
squabbles
Herodotus, "when they saw the Greeks coming on
forays against the neighboring island of Aegina,
speed," without the support of horsemen or
then the strongest naval power in Greece. Gradual-
at
archers,
"made ready
seemed
to
them
their senses,
them, although
to receive
it
Athenians were bereft of
that the
and bent upon
own
their
destruction."
But the onslaught was more than the Persians could deal with. sea.
They
fell
back
to their ships or into the
Herodotus claims that Marathon cost the Per-
sians 6,400
men
to the
news
of the victory,
and hurried
by ship.
When
his
army back
now advancing on
the Persians rounded
to
Phaleron
Cape Sunium
and neared the shore they found him holding such a
commanding
them
position that
it
more people acquired voting
as
power
of the popular
was impossible
for
Assembly
in military
and the
rights
pow-
increased, the
one
er of the aristocracy faded. Finally
man
of the
people became the leading voice in the Athenian de-
mocracy. Themistocles was the personification of
Vehement and im-
the vigorous Athenian spirit.
petuous as
Athenians' 192.
Miltiades dispatched a runner to Athens with the
meet the Persian forces
ly,
and
political leaders,
a youth,
quick to learn, and with
bent for action and public
model of
a politician
young man he suade a
hand and
I
and apparently knew
top."
know how
raise
it
And
strong
a
he was the very
said, "I shall enter politics
my way to the
harp, but
affairs,
later: "I
to take a
As
it.
a
and per-
cannot tune
modest
city in
to greatness."
sailed
Themistocles thought that the future of Athens
home. The runner meanwhile had run nonstop the
lay in sea power, a notion that naturally got strong
whole distance from Marathon
support from those elements of the population that
to
to land,
gasp out
ous!" and
and so they withdrew and
his message,
fall
dead.
"We
to
Athens, 22 miles,
have been
To Athenians
the victory
so astonishing that they could only explain
suming side.
that gods
The dead
of
the battle, and
high honor
all
it
its
their lives.
still
was
by
and heroes had fought on
as-
their
lived
by
seafaring.
As
far
back
as 493 B.C. he
had
new harbor
for
conceived the idea of building a
Athens
at Piraeus,
which was much
than the existing harbor
easier to fortify
at Phaleron. In fact
he had
in a great
already started to build a protective wall around Pi-
stands at the
raeus before the Persian attack. After the Persian
Marathon were buried
commemorative mound, which site of
victori-
veterans were held
in
retreat he
when
persuaded the Assembly to finish
a rich vein of silver
it.
was discovered
Then, in
the
Then far-seeing Zeus grants
southern part of Attica, he also persuaded the As-
sembly
to
just before
Thanks
Xerxes began to move to
crisis.
any other Greek
it
was
to Sparta, rather
than Athens, that the Greeks turned for leadership against Xerxes. In 481 B.C., at Sparta's invitation, representatives of
Greek
the
all
met and
states
agreed to terminate their feuds in the interest of their
common danger.
Calling themselves the League
of the Greeks, they gave Sparta authority over their forces.
At
all
troops at the Isthmus of Corinth, the narrow
its
neck of land that of Greece.
But
Peloponnesus
joins the
to the rest
plan was rejected because
this
it
would have abandoned central and northern Greece to the
enemy, and thereby exposed Athens directly
to the Persians.
to
make
a stand near the
northern border of Thessaly, but this protected in the rear. the
narrow pass
at
left
them un-
So they withdrew instead
to
Thermopylae, on the southern
border of Thessaly— a wise military move, but foolish politically.
was
fense
Thinking
abandoned,
itself
northern Greece submitted
all
of
make this mean that de"wooden walls" might might mean the hulls of ships. to
possible, although
mean a palisade or The two states still
disagreed on policy, however.
Sparta continued to press for
a
defense confined to
and Athens had
the Peloponnesus,
to
force
the
Spartan generals to change their minds by threatening to withdraw the Athenian
fleet.
Xerxes had been proceeding toward Europe with
Herodotus puts
a fighting force that
at a staggering
2,641,610 men, supported by 1,207 warships
total of
and 3,000 smaller
Most modern
vessels.
think, however, that the
Persian
historians
army probably
numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 combat and
troops,
The Greeks then decided
wall continue for
children.
Athens and Sparta chose
the League considered massing
first
and thy
thee
state for the
Yet such was the reputation of Spar-
military matters that
ta in
wooden
Safe shall the
480 B.C.
Themistocles' advice, Athens was far
better prepared than
coming
in
this to the
prayers of Athena;
expand the navy. This was accomplished
navy probably consisted of 700
its
When
800 warships.
to
he reached the Hellespont,
Xerxes ordered his engineers
to build
him
but
it
At
says Herodo-
tus,
Xerxes was
tore apart in a storm. ".
.
.
this,
a bridge,
wrath, and straightway
full of
gave orders that the Hellespont should receive 300
and that
lashes,
a pair of fetters
should be cast into
enemy, and
this
in turn aroused the defeatist elements within
the
branders take their irons and therewith brand the
Greek ranks. These elements
felt that effective
re-
Hellespont.
sistance to Xerxes' army, with
its
of
manpower and
to the
materials,
enormous reserves
was impossible. They
it
...
who
have even heard
I
It
is
it
certain that he
scourged the waters
them
.
.
.
said, that
he bade the
commanded
to utter, as
those
they lashed
barbarian and wicked words ... he like-
commanded
thought that the wisest course was to make peace
wise
on the best terms they could
should lose their heads." Other overseers were
get,
and claimed sup-
port for their views in the utterances of the Delphic oracle, a
profound influence on temporal as well as
spiritual affairs.
The
oracle
hopeless, and
first
to
work on
a
that the overseers of the
second
they succeeded.
One
set of bridges,
that resistance
warned Athens and Sparta
would be destroyed.
A
harsh, but ambiguous:
was
that they
second response was
less
over
on
a
they spanned something
mile and a quarter.
either side with
set
this time
bridge had 314 boats lashed
together, the other 360;
announced
and
work
The roadway was
lined
bulwarks that hid the sea from
view so that the horses and beasts of burden would not take fright.
After he had crossed the Hellespont, Xerxes ad-
vanced into Greece by the
marching
for the
most part
classic
invasion route,
parallel to the shore, so
and
that the Persian ships could provide support
When
supplies.
he reached Thermopylae, then a
narrow, 50-foot-wide defile between the mountains
and the sea (but now broadened by by
river to a plain that
wide), Xerxes
is
in
some
from
silt
a
near-
places three miles
met an advance force of the Greek
army. Three hundred Spartan warriors had marched north under their king, Leonidas, expecting the rest of their allies to follow at the conclusion of the
Olympic Games, which took
En
place at the
same
time.
had picked up more than 6,000
route, Leonidas
additional men, so that
by the time he reached
was some
destination his full strength
his
7,000.
For four days Xerxes waited, while the long line
marched
into posi-
this period
he sent a
of Persian cavalry and infantry tion at
Thermopylae. During
spy
observe the enemy
to
says, laughed in disdain
camp and, Herodotus when the spy reported that
the Spartans spent their time doing gymnastic exercises
and combing
their long hair.
But one of
He
Xerxes' advisers corrected his impression. plained to Xerxes that
Spartans to
adorn
"when
it
was
in fact the Persians
kingdom and town
.
.
."
were about
in Greece,
ex-
custom among the
they are about to hazard their
heads with care
their
a
and
told
to face
lives,
him
that
the "first
and with the bravest
men."
On
the fifth and sixth days after he had arrived
at the pass,
Xerxes attacked. Making no headway,
he "leaped three times from his throne in agony for his
army." But from
different turn
cent character of XERXES' BRIDGES over the Hellespont are showri in a drawing based on research by modern military experts. The boats are pentekoniers, or 50-
oared galleys. They were anchored fore and aft and lashed in line 9 to 11
less
odds.
A
way through
this point on, the battle
took a
and acquired the desperate, magnifiall
Greek
heroic struggles against hopetraitor
showed
the Persians a
them
to strike
Responding
swiftly,
the mountains, enabling
Greeks from the
feet apart.
at the
bles
Leonidas sent the main body of the Greek army
Roadways were made of thick planks resting on large casuspended from the boats and covered with straw matting and dirt.
rear.
back
to safety,
but with his
own 300
While Xerxes, moving according
Spartans and a
took
to plan,
picked group of aUies, determined to hold the pass.
Athens, Themistocles was engaged in
He attacked and was killed almost instantly. "And now there arose," says Herodotus, "a fierce struggle
nipulations designed to bring the Greek navy into
between the Persians and the Lacedaemonians over
nesian commanders wanted the Greek ships to be
the
body of Leonidas,
in
which the Greeks four
combat with the Persian
moved
to the
fleet.
Most
political
of the Pelopon-
western end of the Saronic Gulf, just
times drove back the enemy, and at last by their
offshore from the Isthmus, where their
great bravery succeeded in bearing off the body."
gathered. But Themistocles
The Greeks fought
the fleet at Salamis
were
left
with nothing but a hillock. Here, says He-
rodotus, "they defended themselves to the as
.
last,
such
had swords using them, and the others
still
sisting with their
ans
end
on, leaderless, but in the
.
.
hands and
teeth;
till
re-
the barbari-
overwhelmed and buried the remnant
left
taken, Xerxes
central Greece unopposed, toward
city,
moved
across
Athens and the
however, the Greek armies
re-
turned to their original scheme— to fortify themselves at the Corinthian Isthmus. Left at the
of the Persians,
Athens had
mistocles ordered the
sent to Aegina, Salamis
and recruited for the
plans.
all
mercy The-
to be evacuated.
women and
children to be
and Troezen
for
safety,
men now had new
the remaining able-bodied
Greek navy,
He proposed
and so compel them
for to
which he
engage the enemy
to retire
"many
that the
keep
to
narrow channel from
far
narrowness of the
tactical
advantage, but
he also had another motive in choosing
it.
He was
anxious to stop the Persians before they penetrated
could be defeated
at a
might be forced to
If
the Persian fleet
point close to Athens, Xerxes
retire
from that
city as well.
Themistocles finally got the Greek commanders to agree to his plan,
into attacking him. to the Persians
and then duped the Persians
He
with
secretly sent a trusted slave a
message pretending sym-
pathy and warning them that the Greek frightened and meant to run ing.
fleet
away without
was
fight-
Xerxes responded to this as Themistocles had
hoped he would: he closed and the
battle of Salamis
in
on the Greek
fleet,
was begun. In some ways
sea,
Salamis anticipated Sir Francis Drake's famous rout
Athenian evac-
of the Spanish Armada, nearly 21 centuries later. The Persian ships greatly outnumbered the Greek,
at
by land.
In the general confusion of the
He thought
channel would give him a
second phase of the war. Instead of preparing to defend that
fight in the
too deeply into Greek waters.
beneath showers of missile weapons."
With Thermopylae
and
army was
was determined
between the island and the mainland, not Athens.
ma-
desirous to be carried along with their masters that
this. They could move easily in the narrow waters, got in each other's way and lost whatever unity of command they might have had. The Greek ships, on the other hand, though fewer in number, were better manned
had kept them; among which
and managed, smaller and easier
uation, Plutarch writes,
old men, by reason
of their great age, were left behind; and even the
tame domestic animals could not be seen without
some
pity,
running about the town and howling, as
is
it
reported that
but they were actually hampered by not
Xanthippus, the father of Pericles, had a dog that
in
would not endure
among
the sea, and
came
swam
to stay behind,
along by the galley's side
to the island of Salamis,
away and
died."
but leaped into till
he
where he fainted
to
maneuver, and
addition were fitted with rams. the
Persians,
them against each
They darted
harrying them and driving
other.
Then, with the help of
a
favoring wind, they forced them to retreat, sailing
around them, as they went,
to pick off stragglers.
VITAL
For the Persians
it
was an enormous
was choked with
sea
rout.
NEW CREEDS
The
the wreckage of ships and
slaughtered men, and the coast was piled high with
From
dead.
sitting
on
the shore, Xerxes watched the carnage,
Herodotus
a throne at the water's edge.
says that he had kind words for only one person,
woman. Queen Artemisia
a
come with her
five
of Halicarnassus
Greeks, "notwithstanding that she was a
now
says Herodotus. "She had yet her brave spirit to the war, .
a
woman,"
son grown up,
and manly daring sent her forth
when no need
required her to adventure.
which she furnished
the five triremes
.
.
had
warships to fight against the
When
to the
the Persians
Greece
Persians were, next to the Sidonian, the most fa-
mous
ships in the
She likewise gave
fleet.
first
attacked mainland
492 B.C. the philosopher Con-
fucius (above)
Xerxes
to
in
was teaching
in China.
A
dedicated reformer, he urged a return to
When
the moral standards of an earlier epoch.
Xerxes saw that some of the best fighting on his
His doctrine was one of several great creeds
was being done by Artemisia, he
which arose almost simultaneously and
sounder counsel than any of
side at Salamis said,
his other allies."
"My men have become women,
and
won
my women
millions of followers in the East.
Persia itself, administering
men."
territories
its
and intermittently warring with the Greeks,
After Salamis, Xerxes went home, taking a large
was being converted
—Zoroastrianism.
part of his troops with him. But he left a sizable,
the teacher Zoroaster,
well-trained force with Mardonius, with orders to retreat north into
Thessaly for the winter and
turn to the attack in the spring.
to
another
new
creed
Based on the beliefs of this
esoteric
reli-
gion outlasted the Persian Empire and gave
re-
wide currency
When Mardonius
to
such momentous con-
cepts as a day of judgment and the
started south to fell
renew the
fight, the
Greeks again
pervasive struggle between good and
into disagreement over the proper measures of
A
defense. Athens asked for help from the Pelopon-
nesian generals, that
who once more
Athens once more had
from the war.
Finally,
after
was
Chinese philosopher, Lao Tzu. Partly rupting China late in the
Megara
Chou Dynasty,
Lao Tzu taught that man's salvation lay
and Plataea added
their pleas to those of
Athens,
renouncing society and retiring into
the generals acceded. While they had argued, the
Persians had
moved from Thessaly through
der
a
the
In India, where the great
Spartan general, Pausanias,
where he took up
a
Mardonius back
the
position
rifices,
Greeks
into Boeotia,
near Plataea.
The
Greeks followed and encamped near him. Mardon-
little
but
obscure ritual and the need for costly sac-
combined force of some 100,000 men un-
north, driving
mass of the
people found in their religion
them
moved
in
a life
of solitary contemplation.
Boeotia
to the borders of Attica.
With
in
reaction to the feudal wars that were dis-
withdraw
the cities of
third creed spreading at this time
born of the teachings of a semilegendary
procrastinated, so
to threaten to
all-
evil.
of
I
life
Gautama Buddha
arose
to
offer
the comforts of a gentle philosophy
ruled by compassion and self-denial.
waited for them to attack, planning to counter-
ius
attack with his cavalry and destroy them. In the
meantime he hoped
would reveal
that the waiting
cracks and dissensions in the Greek ranks. Both
mortal enemies. In 472 B.C. the dramatist Aeschy-
spirit— in the majestic poetry of
when both seemed likely to be realized. But the actual conflict, when it came, was almost accidental and
outcome,
tainly unforeseen.
Mardonius
to
a
new Greek
The Persians:
Behold
cer-
Greek
shift
vengeance, and remember
Remember Athens:
henceforth
let
not
pride.
and attacked, but Pausa-
men and fought back with
this
Greece,
was
least,
Mardonius mistook
of position for a retreat,
nias rallied his
at
themes of Greek
tragic
theater to honor the victors— and the
moments
calculations were sound, and there were
its
from the usual
lus departed
skill
Her present
and
state disdaining, strive to
grasp
his
main
Another's, and her treasured happiness
infantry force was slaughtered; the rest of his
army
Shed on the ground: such insolent
courage. Mardonius himself
northward as
retreated
On
the very
was
fast as
attempts
could.
same day, according
the remainder of the Persian stroyed.
it
killed,
to
Awake
Herodotus,
navy was
also
Greek ships followed the Persians
temperate thoughts.
into the
With words of well placed counsel teach
harbor of Mycale, on the coast of Asia Minor, where they had beached their ships.
the vengeance of offended Jove.
But you, whose age demands more
de-
his
The Greeks went
To
ashore, defeated the Persians and burned the Per-
youth
ci4rb that pride,
calls
which from the gods
down
sian ships. Destruction on his head.
By any standards Persia
the victory of the Greeks over
No
was an astonishing achievement.
other
people, faced with the full weight of Persian military strength,
the Greeks
had done anything
had done
Spartan forces were of the
though
first
strictly professional;
all
as the navy,
of ordinary citizens. Also, the
never arrived at
mon
under handicaps. Only the
it
Greek army, as well
composed
to equal it— and
the
a truly unified
members
the rest
was
largely
Greeks had
course of action. Al-
the centuries
that
victories. In
have passed since Marathon,
Thermopylae and Salamis, the names of these epochal battles
have become synonymous with man's un-
ending quest early 19th
to
be
free.
Century of
a
Lord Byron, writing
in the
Greece then under another
com-
Asian power, the Ottoman Empire, put into one
state
stanza the feelings evoked, more than two millennia later,
In view of the odds against them,
it
is
prising that the Greeks were filled with pride, self-
that in their minds, their actions
and
their litera-
epic proportions.
in noble epitaphs.
by one of these
battles:
not sur-
confidence and patriotism at their achievement, and
were celebrated
was not contemporary Greeks alone who
own
its
in matters of policy.
war assumed
it
of the League had a
aim, each put the interests of
ture, the
But
were stirred and inspired by the Greek
The dead
Those who had
not supported the Greek cause were regarded as
The mountains look on Marathon—
And Marathon looks on the sea; And musing there an hour alone, I
dream'd that Greece might
still
be free;
For standing on the Persians' grave, I
could not deem myself a slave.
A TENDER LOVf child. It is
tliat
Warm,- J nun:
'
',
•
.i
.!,
jl
t
'.i
r,\
r,
Jr^filr
taken from a tomhitone whose ptoignant inscription
ill,:
tells
!ini: Jr., }i
i-.
..Iinwn tu
,i
y-jotiping of
grandmother and
of the grandmother's happiness at having held the child.
A ZEST FOR LIVING In pleasure-loving
Athens the routine of
fJaily life
was
as simple as in stern
and
authoritarian Sparta, but the Athenians brought to their every activity a sense of
excitement unparalleled elsewhere. Every day these zestful people were up with the sun and to their work. Philosophers paced
heeding the clatter of trade
in the
walkways talking
markets and
trials in
to students,
un-
the law courts nearby.
Like most Greeks the Athenians professed to love leisure— and in truth there was
always time for good talk and,
was
a
at
the end of day, a rousing
banquet— but
it
complaint elsewhere in Greece that the Athenians were "by nature incapa-
ble of either living a quiet
life
themselves or of allowing anyone else to do so."
TOYS FOR BOYS included rines, like this
terra-cotta
"destined for the beguiling of
0W^ 'J ^-«»<'
figu-
one of a boy riding a goose, little
children."
^
'^,
V i
~t^S2i
FOR THE VERY YOUNG, there was a two-wheeled
cart to putt about, here
shown
in a
vase painting. Besides these, there were also simple wheels attached to long poles that were "horses." Toys were
sometimes homemade or the product of smalt shops.
TOYS FOR GIRLS included girls,
who were
dolls.
Many Greek
married off as early as 14, of-
ten played with toys until their weddirig day.
THE GOLDEN YEARS OF GROWING UP A Greek child grew up in an survived his
first
enchanting world— if he
fortnight. For 10 days after birth the
father could inspect the baby,
and
formed or weak, he could order
it
if
he found
to
the
ders appeared. In addition to the playthings
on these pages, there were terra-cotta tots.
de-
be exposed in
some public place to die. Once he approved,
pebbles in them for
it
won-
shown
rattles
with
For older children, there were
swings, seesaws, kites, balls and
all
manner
During the early years the mother was task
was to provide a life free of sorrow,
in the first three years,
ment in the second
and
three.
The
girls
The boys were
stayed at
Her
and pain
and amuse-
the golden era ended.
After their sixth birthday boys and rated.
fear
full of sports
Then
of games.
in charge.
girls
home with
were sepa-
their mothers.
sent to school to learn to be men.
ROLLING THE HOOP Was a favorite sport for Greece. Hoops,
made
of iron, often
a glittering display and a
tinkling
had
bells
sound
boys
as
the
ancient
in
and rings
to
hoop
make rolled.
fr'".:
'>5j!?%'
LONG SEASONS OF STRIVING FOR EXCELLENCE After they
left
the freedom of the nursery, Athe-
nian children were strictly reared. Plato recorded
"Mother and nurse and father
Protagoras' words:
and tutor are vying with one another about the im-
provement of the child understand what
is
and blows,
wood." From
their
soon as ever he
being said to him
is
able to
...
If
he
is
straightened by
like a piece of
bent or warped
obeys, well and good; threats
as
if
not, he
seventh to 18th years, boys
at-
tended private schools, often under the guard of a slave. In daily classes,
streets licly
sometimes held
in the
open
by harassed schoolmasters who were pub-
disdained and often unpaid, students learned
reading, writing, arithmetic, poetry adoxically, these institutions
and music. Par-
came
into
existence
because the law required parents to educate their sons but did not require the state to provide schools
—and
they became the best in the classical world.
A BOY FISHERMAN line (right).
IS
intently playing a fish that
He may have been
is
nibbling on his
playing hooky from the classroom,
but an overflowing creel might well calm his displeased parents.
IN
THE CLASSRCX3M two scholars (below),
teachers, learn to play the pipes
the pedagogue,
and
in front of their seated
to write.
At
the right sits
an elderly slave who brings the student
to school.
KVv,
'M
V
---^T^;
m !;
:
I
V
A SIMPLE MEAL. s«c/i
as might have been pre-
pared by the wife of a humble Athenian 2,400 years ago,
displayed on the opposite page.
is
The tableware and
utensils date
from the
Century B.C. Spread out are
leeks,
Fifth
olives,
cheese, fish, bread, drinking mugs, flasks for oil
and vinegar, and a stone grinder
round bowl. the Acropolis.
High
in
Athenians usually ate
and
or no breakfast, a light lunch late
afternoon,
in
background
the
consumed
a is
little
then, in
a heavier dinner.
-'./%.
"^^^
THE QUIET LIVES OF WIVES AND MOTHERS Athenian society was organized pre-eminently man's world.
Women
were expected
as a
to prepare the
meals, run their households— and stay out of sight.
Fathers arranged
marriages
for
their
adolescent
daughters. Thereafter, wives came under total con-
much male home and being silent. The playwright Menander told them, "The loom is women's work and not debate." When their trol of their
husbands. They received
advice on the subject of staying
husbands entertained guests remained in
their
own
at
dinner the
women
quarters on the second floor,
anointing their bodies with fragrant essences and
sweet-scented traffic
oils,
entertain every
guests
Thus
dreamily watching the street
through the windows. But husbands did not
man and
night,
and when there were no
wife shared each other's company.
the segregated relationship ordained
ciety melted into the family love
again
A
is
that again
so-
and
pictured in vase painting and sculpture.
WOMAN WITH MIRROR, shown at right, is
Among
by
inspecting her makeup.
the various cosmetics used during this period were scents,
white lead to whiten skin and alkanet root to redden the cheeks.
i^'
.^
ij««i.«...tf««».«««««.»t.ii
-rm^j ta
.'a.<( «.
WORKING ON A STATUE, AM WEAVING AT HOME, two Women at a loom (above) pass the shuttle. Most homes were small workshops, where household necessities were produced from raw materials.
MEASURING
for a sandal, a
shoemaker (below) places
customer's foot on the leather and cuts the
doors and
in
summer many Creeks went
sole.
his In-
barefoot.
artist
ure of Heracles with thick
wax
(below) colors a pair\t.
Nearly
all
fig-
the
sculpture of ancient Greece was originally painted.
IN
A BUTCHER'S SHOP,
boy holds a quarter of beef as the butcher (above)
fl
BUSY COMMERCE Athens bustled. rare
marketplace, where odors of
swarmed with
little
shops.
The
people.
largest
Its streets
were
full
factory in the Greek
world was probably Cephalus' arsenal, with 120 slaves,
though there were mines which used more.
But the average business was
likely to
employ not
more than a half-dozen slaves, and in these shops
men and
slaves
worked
Meat was a luxury and
IN
perfumes mingled with those of the day's catch
of fish,
of
Its
cuts.
free
together. Athenians of Per-
it
was seldom
eaten, save on festive occasions.
A CLASSICAL CITY icles'
a
day saw nothing despicable
in
work, providing
demean the human spirit by limiting man's freedom. The great Solon had required
that
it
did not
fathers to teach their sons a trade, and skilled artisans gloried in the
nous
toil,
name
"lord of the hand"; monoto-
however, they considered
fit
only for the
lower orders. Athenian craftsmen of course
benches
to attend the
as ready to stop
left their
Assembly. But they were
whenever they were
just
tired or bored.
THE GREEK PLOWMAN Was badly served by Despite
its
the earth.
MERCHANT
iron share
To
finish
and
his
up he had
his simple
own hard work, to
it
plow
(above).
scarcely turned
put his back into swinging a pick.
SHIPS had capacious hulls for cargo, steering
oars
and
loading ladders (right). These vessels sailed only in favoring winds.
But roads were so few and so bad that ships offered the easiest
travel.
A MERCHANT, assisted by two boys (above), adds a bring his scales into balance.
little
Besides his commodities
weight the
to
trader
overseas peddled an invisible export— Greece's language and culture.
VITAL Greek agriculture changed antiquity.
little
Knowing nothing
Greeks sowed
WORK ON LAND AND in
the course of
of crop rotation, the
their fields in one-year-harvest, next-
year-fallow cycles.
They
persisted in reaping
wheat
wool) that, added to the manufacture of the (pottery and jewelry), could be traded the Mediterranean
with a sickle for want of a scythe and threshing
to
grains
how
to drain
swamps and
was the Greek farmer
but they did learn
terrace hillsides.
able to feed
all
Never
of Greece,
but he produced things (wine and olive
oil
and
and Black Sea
France and Ireland that
in
were always
the
west.
needed,
all
areas.
merchants wandered from the Crimea
grain by driving cattle over
it,
SEA cities
around
Greek
in the east
Besides
they
the
brought
back many good things: cheese and pork from Sicily,
glass
rugs from Carthage, ivory from Ethiopia,
from Egypt and perfumes from
far
Araby.
ATTHESTARJ and
ui
xiAKii
:i,uests recline
listen to a flute-girl play.
on couches,
sitig
the
Later the guests will sing
Piicciri to Dioiix/iiis,
AT THE END OF A PARTY, a wine-laden husband comes home. He with the butt end of his torch, while his young wife, lamp
giver of wine,
more frivolous songs
in
is
hammering
to
at the
the flute.
doorway
hand, fearfully trembles within.
AFTER THE DAY'S
WORK-A BANQUET
At Athenian banquets, guests concentrated on the
tainers—dancing
food; the sparkhng conversations were a feature of
set the
the
symposium,
or drinking session that followed.
Here the most important chosen by
lot
or a
man was
throw of the
charge of everything.
He
decided
would be mixed with the wine,
girls,
acrobats and magicians— and
guests to entertaining one another.
sym-
man
comb
brain-crunching riddles, but
who took how much water
posiarchs would assign a bald-headed
called in the enter-
sym-
intellectual
the symposiarch, dice,
A
posiarch like the philosopher Socrates might pose less
his hair, a stutterer to orate or
race
round the room with the
to
an ardent fellow
flute-girl in his
to
arms.
IN
RAPT ADMIRATION youths watch a dancing girl perform. As wine flowed more freely, a girl was sometimes auctioned off
the to
a guest to become his property for the rest of the evening.
The left
great victory of the Creeks over the Persians
Sparta the most important power
spite of
its
planning of the war,
its
all
Marathon and Salamis, came
fine
its
yet, for the next
50 years, Athens counted for in
Greek
and Sparta
life,
in
in
of the Persians
431 B.C., Athens displayed a phenomenal
vitality. This,
The major
in
was the Athenian Golden
fact,
in the history of
man.
strength and inspiration for this de-
velopment was Athens' democratic form of government, the
OF GLORY
al-
for al-
479 B.C. until the outbreak of the Peloponnesian
War
TIME
at
And
most everything
Age, without parallel
IN ITS
showing
second best.
off
most nothing. From the retirement
ATHENS
the
in
troops had fought well and
courageously. Athens, for
5
in Greece. In
and shortcomings
hesitations
first
true
most precise and
democracy
history.
in
sense of
literal
the
In
word, the
the
Athenians governed themselves. The process begun
by Cleisthenes
in
507 B.C. with constitutional
forms was completed by Ephialtes
in
Ephialtes stripped the aristocrats of
re-
462-461 B.C. their
all
pow-
ers except for certain judicial functions in matters
of homicide, and certain religious duties. For this act the nobles
murdered Ephialtes, but
his
democ-
racy survived. Thereafter, no political body stood
above the popular Assembly.
The Athenian Assembly was open
to
free
all
male citizens of adult age, regardless of income or class.
It
met 40 times
a
usually at a place
year,
called the Pnyx, a natural amphitheater
on one of
the hills west of the Acropolis. In theory,
any mem-
ber of the
Assembly could speak about anything,
providing he could
command an was
practical reasons, there
This was prepared by
a
audience. But for
an
also
men, 50 from each of the 10 Attic chosen by
lot
from
a
tribes.
volunteers,
a list of
agenda.
They were all
of
The Council was
citizens over the age of 30.
way
official
Council composed of 500
check on the Assembly;
deliberations easier. Council
it
them in
no
simply made
its
members were always
paid for their services and served for
an interval they might serve
a
a year.
After
second year, but
they could never serve for more than two.
Within the Council was A
DOORWAY DOWN THE
a smaller,
of 50 men, called the Prytany, CENTURIES
IS
Set in the Walls of
inner council
which met every day
the Parthenon.
Through the doorway may be seen the section of modern Athens in which is located the Agora of classical times. In the distance are the Attic hills.
and
in
effect
administered
the
government. The
composition of the Prytany changed 10 times
a
and
year,
its
chairmanship, the chief executive po-
Athens, changed every day. In theory no
sition of
man remained
one
in
power long enough
to en-
trench himself. But in reality this opportunity was
open
to
one class of men: the 10 generals of the
armed forces who were elected
Assembly and served
from the
directly
A
for a year's term.
general
could be re-elected any number of times. Inevitably the generals played a large and sometimes continu-
ing role in nonmilitary affairs.
Unlike representative democracies or republics,
which one man
in
Athens was for himself.
when
exist
a true
Such
a
elected
is
speak for many,
system of government can only
population
a
to
democracy: every citizen spoke
is
small and
intensely
civic-minded, and Athens met both these conditions.
Every Athenian citizen had the right
ticipate in the public life of his city,
and
followed that he should have a voice in
that reason
was
true
a
slavery.
daily domestic chores
logically
its
govern-
why Athens
ment. But there was another reason could afford to be
to par-
it
democracy. Ironically,
With
slaves to handle the
and the routine work of com-
merce and manufacturing, Athenian citizens were free to give their time to public affairs.
They could
not only attend and vote in the Assembly, but also
assume public posts from time It
to time.
has been estimated that the slave population
of Attica total
around 430 B.C. was about 115,000
population of 315,000.
tractor
A
rich
in a
mine con-
might employ as many as 1,000 slaves
several mines,
and the
in
largest household, about 20.
Athenian slaves were born of other
slaves, or ac-
quired by piracy, or bought as captives taken in war.
Many
They
had, of course, no political rights, but their lot
in ter
of
them were not of Greek
general was no worse and sometimes
it
origin.
was
The
life
of a slave
who worked
Creek homes.
but drawings such as those above can be
bet-
in the mines,
where conditions were most unhealthy, was wretched
made
has survived,
Little
of
frorrj
vase paintings. The
it
throne (top) was a seat of honor on state occasions. Just below, separated by a stool, are couches used both for sleeping
than that of slaves in other parts of the ancient
world.
SPARSE, SIMPLE FURNITURE graced
less chair, or
klismos (bottom), was the
couch seats were made of leather or
and
reclining at meals.
common
fiber cords,
The arm-
seating place. Chair and
on top of which cushions
were placed. The Creeks also had chests and three-legged dining
tables.
indeed, but slaves sometimes received wages, as well
degree of importance in the real world. Attic grave-
as their
keep, and sometimes their owners freed
stones and funeral vases, in fact, portray scenes of
A
few Athenians of independent mind recog-
domestic
them.
nized that slavery was in
playwright Euripides,
who
One was
bad.
itself
the
more
wrote:
touching and
are
that
life
to
Public
That thing of
evil,
by
its
Forcing submission from
No man
than the provision of food and children.
it
may have been off bounds to a woman, home she was far more than a
life
should yield
nature
man
servant.
evil,
to
what
As
the head of an operation
which
in
to.
of considerable responsibility.
Aristotle, a century later, attempted to justify slav-
men became
ery by claiming that certain
because of their natural disposition to be
however,
failed to explain,
become
did not eventually
why
slaves servile.
men
servile
all
The home
itself
women in many
aristocratic age
had mixed freely with men, taking part
public functions, although not in government. In
woman's
Periclean Athens, however, a
home, and her main
theoretically in the ligation
was
keep
to
women
Pericles advised
be anonymous: is
silent.
". .
.
you or
less
a
her
home was
by men, whether they But theory does
not seem to have jibed with practice and there
is
a
and
enough
thereafter,
in
the
dramatic action. Antigone, in Sophocles' play about her, motivates the entire action
by insisting on giv-
ing her brother a proper burial in defiance of tem-
And
poral authority.
comedy, uses force If
thoroughly
Athens and Sparta
women
in the
ment
a
Lysistrata, in Aristophanes'
to
feminine
make
tactic
to
could be assigned roles of such stature
for thinking that they
is
wife for
went out and
as he
from the marketplace, he saluted
and
"
Having discovered of liberty
the
meaning and advantages
and democracy, the Athenians had
a pas-
sionate desire to impart their discoveries to others. In fact they
saw themselves
as charged with
an
exalted mission to do so, and the situation in Greece
sulting
from
only
minor part
first
a
gave them excellent oppor-
Despite Sparta's enormous prestige, its
wartime successes, that in
Greek
political
re-
city played
life.
From
a
feeble attempt at political leadership, the citv's
rulers quickly
fell
to quarreling internally— aristo-
crats against ambitious kings. Finally Sparta con-
fined itself to a kind of isolationism, devoting
its
energies exclusively to maintaining the Spartan do-
peace.
world of imagination, there
to divorce his
according to the later writer
tunities.
major importance
said
is
and
after the Persian retreat
a place of
influential
life.
nian drama, both tragedy and comedy, frequently
women
was even more
center of Athenian intellectual
evidence of the facts being quite otherwise. Athe-
gives
rare occa-
Plutarch, "every day, both as he in
at
On
to write his speeches,
Pericles loved her her,
kissed her.
woman
position
have helped Pericles
man
than
and wore was produced
Aspasia, the mistress of Pericles,
came
that they should aspire to
criticizing you."
to
woman's
this.
social ob-
the greatest glory of a
to be least talked about
are praising
No
was
place
ate
home, under the wife's supervision. sions a
was
uncom-
design— but almost everything that an
plicated in
Athenian family
than
slaves.
second group of underprivileged people in
Athens was women. In the
some
respects resembled a factory, a wife had a position
physically simple— austerely furnished and
A
much
but within her
Slavery,
He
and
noble,
strongly suggest that Athenian marriage had
some argu-
must have enjoyed
a
main
in the
This
left
Peloponnesus.
Athens
of Greece, and
it
free to take over the leadership
moved
to
do
so.
During the winter
A FABULIST AND HIS FOX chat cup. This
famous
of 478-477 B.C.
a drawing on the bottom of a
in
Aesop, a onetime slave who, legend says, wrote the
is
But today scholars doubt that Aesop ever
fables.
proposed the formation of
it
lived.
a
league of Greek states for the purpose of harrying the Persians
and protecting themselves from Per-
sian reprisals.
The Delian League,
included the Greek
called,
most of the Aegean
as
islands,
came
it
be
to
Asia Minor,
of
cities
some towns on
the
Propontis and in Thrace, and most of the island of
Euboea— in other words, most of the Greek states in It numbered at its height
or about the Aegean.
somewhere between 250 and 300 members. Each member of the League agreed ships, not,
if
it
was
enough
rich
money toward
to
do
to contribute
so, or,
the building
if
ships
of
Athens would provide. The amount of
was
it
which
this contri-
bution was fixed according to each member's
re-
sources by Aristides, whose fairness caused him to
strong and united. Accordingly Athens thought that
become widely known
any
as
"Aristides the Just.
"
At
one performance of Aeschylus' play Seven against Thebes, the
line,
"modest and
and good and
just
reverent" was taken by the audience to refer to him,
and
at its recital
they broke into cheers.
state
belong
to
which benefited from the League ought
to
which threatened
to
it,
and that any
leave the League earlier, the city of join,
state
was guilty of treachery. When, Carystus, on Euboea, refused to
had been attacked and forced
it
to
the sacred
when
the islands of
island of Delos, site of a major shrine to Apollo.
leave,
Athens not only compelled them
Delos was also the meeting place for the League's
but
The League's treasury was kept on
council. Each
member had an
council, but right
nated.
It
equal voice in this
from the beginning Athens domi-
was willing
to
shoulder the heaviest bur-
dens, and the allies were willing
Athens was
thus, to
tress of the
Aegean.
With newed
all
intents
so.
re-
Under Cimon,
liberated the provinces of Caria
and Lycia on the southern coast
of Asia
Minor and
brought them into the League. In about 468 B.C.
new Eurymedon
destroyed the
Persian
in the
River, a fleet
fleet as
built for a fresh invasion of the
it
it
lay at anchor
it
And to
to stay in,
them by making them
tributary
threat of secession could indeed be con-
sidered a disloyal act, a breach of a solemn pledge.
But the
was
real
reason for Athens' punitive measures
a belief in the value of the
itself,
quite apart from
its
Ultimately, resulted in
States
its
League
to
Athens
original value as a mil-
Athens' dominance of the
becoming the
Lesbos and Samos.
these:
Chios,
tribute
and were reduced
often found their affairs ficials
convinced Athens of the need to keep
it
to
rank
there were only three of
time,
Aegean. This im-
League
ruler of the League.
which contributed ships continued
as equals, but in
which Xerxes had
portant victory not only justified the League's existence;
The
so.
tried
itary alliance.
Athens soon
the offensive against Persia. it
it
and purposes, mis-
the League for support,
son of Miltiades,
have
to
punished
states.
do
Naxos and Thasos
The
rest
to a lower station.
paid
They
managed by Athenian
of-
supported by an Athenian garrison, and in
addition to paying tribute, had to contribute soldiers.
Athens claimed
final
jurisdiction
over
all
criminal cases— even in those states ostensibly equals. ter,
its
any mat-
also reserved the right to settle
It
such as conspiracy or treason, that threatened
the safety of the League. In 454-453 B.C.
insisted
it
on transferring the League treasury from Delos Athens, where
it
was completely
the Athenians. Finally, lies
at the disposal of
demanded
it
to
that
the al-
all
use Athenian coinage and the Athenian system
of weights and measures. In
there
all this,
advantage
meant
An
members.
A
or civil disorders.
raids
Athenian from
state
central
court
that certain legal policies were identical for
all states.
tage in
A
single coinage
commerce. In
than before. This bound them to Athens,
was
of obvious advan-
Athenian coins,
the
fact,
stamped with the head of Athena on one
and
side
relinquished control and the local aristocrats
re-
gained their power, they would exact
re-
when
it
might have been safe
few
throw
to
For a while, after the Empire was formed, the to
have
felt
that nothing could
withstand them. Their ships made them masters of the
Aegean and
and gave them and
the coasts beyond.
Trade prospered both financial
sufficient resources,
industrial, to
wage war on an extensive
of
Megara
into the a large
Empire
who had
Egyptian king In 458 B.C.
Persians.
two
at its
own
rebelled against the
they attacked Aegina and,
after
however, the League was no longer
the League. In 457 B.C. they conquered
but an empire ruled from Athens.
ing after
its allies'
be look-
to
welfare and safety, and in fact
it
a
fleet
was
the
maintained
high level of preparedness and
effi-
in battle
Athenian
ciency, the Athenian Empire
was
safe
from Persian
attack, as the victory at the
Eurymedon had
umphantly showed.
also safe
the
It
was
from
so
pirates,
immemorial pests of the Aegean, many of
were
now
tri-
whom
eliminated (their stronghold on the rocky
island of Scyros, for instance,
was
cleared in 474-
Furthermore,
rangements of
in interfering its allies,
with the internal
Athens
in
many
government not unlike
own. The dispossessed
aristocrats
and were
ar-
cases es-
tablished a democratic
terly
names
complained
its
bit-
a potential source of trouble, but the
majority of the people were probably better off po-
inkling
of
of Boe-
multi-
the
of citizens
from
a single tribe
who
fell
"In
Cy-
during one year, 459-458 B.C.,
prus, in Egypt, in Phoenicia, at fialieis, in Aegina, at
Megara.
"
This policy of aggression was not entirely successful, but considering the
marvel
is
that
it
in
number
was successful
campaign against Persia and ended
473 B.C.).
Some
join
to
it
all
memorial, raised during this period, recording
As long
at a
Thebes.
compelling
it,
Athenian enterprises can be gotten from
plicity of
frequently was.
as the
years, captured
otia except
Athens claimed
In ruling that empire,
and
request,
expedition to Egypt in support of
ens than on the vulnerable island of Delos. Clearly, confederacy,
scale.
In 459 B.C. they incorporated the neighboring state
a local
a
Athen-
off the
did.
Athenians seemed
currencies throughout the eastern Mediterranean. certainly far safer in Ath-
bloody
counts for the remarkable loyalty to the Empire. Even
dispatched
was
a
venge. This more than anything else probably ac-
her owl on the other, were the most respected of
Finally, the treasury
wounded pride at being deprived of their knew that if Athens
independence. Also they
ian yoke,
some outlying
garrison might protect hostile
local
was some reason, and even some
the League
to
litically
despite their
of fronts, the
at all.
destruction of their ships. Boeotia
come
and then to ruin
though after a
its
six years
complete disaster, with the surrender
of the Egyptians and their Athenian
years,
The Egyptian
some
lasted for
if
lost. it
allies,
and the
was held
for 10
Athens would certainly have
had continued
this policy,
even
gains remained substantial. Fortunately,
decade of aggression
it
settled
down
to
con-
RECORDS OF ANTIQUITY were scratched on stone and pottery large piece
below records the
confiscated after their conviction for left is
right are tokens used to select
—with
solidate
open
to
who more Athens
the spirit of
in
its
had
uncle), Pericles
a
aristocrat
family
pro-democratic
and
democracy
An was
(the
his great-
philosophy that embraced empire.
Personally
aloof,
choosing his friends from the leading thinkers of his day,
he was nevertheless popular with
men. He owed ity in the
many
his position of influence to his abil-
Assembly, where he was
speaker and
most
effective
"the eyesore of
instance,
for
a
memorable phrases. He
coiner of
a
called Aegina,
the
Piraeus," and in a funeral oration for the dead of the Peloponnesian
youth;
its
War
as
is
it
spring." But bly's trust
what
was
said that
won
truly
his foresight
to lead the
"The
city has lost
though the year had
ning Athenian policy.
came
lost
and
its
Assem-
Pericles the
initiative in plan-
time
Pericles
actually
democracy, even though
officially
In
he remained an annually elected general. Pericles
had
a
dream
for
Athens. By 443 B.C. his
main opponents were discredited and he was pursue in
it.
He proposed
to
more than one sense of
free to
make Athens a great city the word. He was not an
advocate of wide expansion on the mainland, having tried this unsuccessfully,
but he was determined to
enlarge the maritime empire, and he encouraged liances favorable to trade
the
Greek world. In
al-
on the farther fringes of
fact Pericles himself visited the
Black Sea for this purpose,
in
command
of
an im-
posing squadron.
He
also believed that the glory of
be revealed in visible form. insight and
It
is
Athens should
to his inspiration,
powers of persuasion that we owe the
great buildings on the Acropolis, tial
it.
To the
public service, jurors' ballots
hubs (not guilty) and hollow hubs (guilty)— are seen at
whose substan-
remains are evocations of their grandeur
Pericles' time. In
.pfj:
man embodies
heyday.
constitutional reformer Cleisthenes
both
lot for
the bottom
right.
name
associated with the
is
than any other
traditionally
a
At
others,
it.
This ensuing period
from
solid
men by
religious rites.
name scratched on
and
winnings and see what other kinds of
its
activity lay
of Pericles,
mocking
a ballot for ostracism with Pericles'
The
shards.
sale of the property of Alcibiades
in
480 B.C. the Persians had com-
I
/ t'm":^ V^^"^'
/i.'-;t'-J^
h
'1^1/
:7j
A A An
f<
JURORS BALLOTS
pletely devastated
from
and the Athe-
Acropolis,
the
had subsequently incorporated
nians
debris
the
temples and statues into the city's
its
built foundations
and
its
new
So
walls.
re-
Pericles
began from scratch. He employed the very best
and
architects
project his
money
for
the great gateway to the holy
and public meeting place;
with
its
Athens— strength
spirit of
near Athens, which changes
it is
Mount
marble, quarried from
changing
Its
unusual mixture of Doric and Ionic
its
tempered by grace. Like the Parthenon
color
its
made
of
Pentelicus
with
the
varying from gold and honey to rose
light,
radiantly beautiful Parthenon
was the
spir-
Athens. Unlike some Greek temples,
itual center of
served only one divinity, the goddess Athena, creative
and active intelligence and the
guardian deity of Athens. The whole plan was sub-
The Parthenon was begun
ordinated to her worship. in
447 B.C. and finished
was its
in
432 B.C.
"master of works
Ictinus, its
"
Its
architect
Callicrates,
and
decorations were designed and supervised by the
sculptor Phidias.
It
one of the largest known
is
Greek temples, and although simple, the simplicity
ingenious adaptations tapering its hill
it
when is
is
its
main outlines
carefully contrived.
make
lines look straight or
in fact they are neither.
visible
are
Many
Standing on
from miles around, especially
from the sea— ships crossing the Saronic Gulf saw from
image on coins and gems,
its
no long-
carried off to Constantinople in the
was destroyed by
it
later,
A
that remains
it
metalwork and
in
is
in
smaller copies in marble.
large part of the sculpture
the building does survive,
most of the
frieze
and
(originally there
were
have done
but
it
all,
a
from the exterior of
however— the pediments, number
92). Phidias is
it
done
the
of
metopes
cannot possibly
in his style
and
is
obviously of his design. The metopes portray vari-
ous conflicts between
men and
their enemies,
instance the Centaurs, half-man, half-horse,
for
whose
defeat signifies the triumph of order over barbarism.
and gray.
spirit of
was
sometime between the Sixth Century and 10th
fire
stern majesty
dominates, the entrance.
still
columns, catches the very
it
clothing, ivory for her flesh. But the statue
Century A. D. The only record of
dominated, and
The
gold and ivory— gold for the goddess'
Century A.D., where
grants of
places of the Acropolis, functioning also as an art
a local
in
late Fifth
The Propylaea was
style,
and covered
unflagging support by persuading
make annual
wood
statue of Athena, 40 feet high, fashioned of
It
to
inside in
monumental
Phidias'
er exists.
time,
his
the cost.
gallery
shadowy sanctuary was
the
and gave the
of
artists
own
Assembly
the
symbol of temporal authority. Standing
afar, the
it
manifest evidence of Athenian wealth
and power.
frieze encircling the building depicts the color-
ful
procession
climaxing
Athena's
a
solemn and
a holiday.
mal,
also a
happy occasion,
it.
All of
old,
them
this.
It
was
a
much
sacred shrine as well as
is
also caught
watchful and friendly gods.
end of the temple the huge triangular
pediments were
filled
with sculptures. At the east-
ern end the birth of Athena, goddess of intelligence, expresses
marvelous
part
magnificent celebration, mind-
ful of the presence of
either
children,
shown taking
are distinctly themselves, infinitely
in the spirit of a
At
is
holy day and
men and women and
varied and individual, but each one
up
a
It
Every kind of creature— human and ani-
young and
horses and cattle and sheep— is in
the
festival,
Great Panathenaea, held every fourth year.
a
Olympus. At
wisdom and
what the emergence
power meant
to the
of
so
dreaming gods of
the western end, the struggle between
Athena and the sea god Poseidon
For Athenians, however, the Parthenon was
more than
The
for
supremacy
symbolizes the goddess' successful domination of the city's religious
life,
and the
city's
domination
and grave-to-be of
of the sea, cradle
The sculptures
parable peak of Greek in the great
PERICLES
ON DEMOCRACY
of
Zeus
Olympia, gifted
at
the
[n the winter of
War
431-430 B.C., with the Pelo-
made
begun, Pericles
Athens. Below are two stirring
to extol
passages translated by the scholar Rex Warner.
"Our
constitution is
democracy
called a
is
in the
hands not of
minority but of the whole people.
everyone
is
equal before the law;
a question of putting
a
When
when
bility,
what counts
a particular class,
is
not membership of
but the actual ability
which the man possesses. "Here each individual
own
only in his
affairs
of the state as well that a tics is
and their
Parthenon
of the
is
human
body. But the
art
more varied
altogether a finer,
achievement. The sculptures are set high on the building, well above eye level, in their execution.
on the pediments are
figures
dominant pattern,
is
of the great
and delicately
as firmly
And though
carved as the fronts. has
and yet nothing
The backs
each sculpture to
the central
composition, even the smallest detail
is
worked out
with
the
a
relating
it
not
interested
is
but in the affairs
... we do not say
that he has
no business here
all.
And
another point where
.
.
.
this is
from other people.
ble at the
We
same time of taking
of estimating
at
are caparisks
and
them beforehand. Others
brave out of ignorance; and,
are
when they
stop to think, they begin to fear. But the
man who brave
is
what
terrible,
he
can most truly be accounted
who
best
sweet in
knows
the
is
to
meet what
is
to
come."
is
for
revealing
and variety are every-
not a single trace of sur-
prise for surprise's sake, or of
ingenuity reduced
merely ingenious. The sculptures of the Par-
thenon, combining the old aristocratic appreciation for fine
craftsmanship with the vigor and confi-
dence of the
new democracy,
Periclean Athens. For
few
a
are the essence of
brief years
perfect
a
new—
equilibrium existed between the old and the
and the genius of Phidias, supported by gave
it
The
Pericles,
visible form.
lofty vision
embodied
in
Parthenon's
the
sculpture was matched by the development of a no
The
less lofty poetry.
chief
form of
this
was
tragic
drama, but Greek tragedy differed from modern tragedy in
many ways. To
ligious rite,
and of what
life
appreciation
begin with,
it
was
a re-
meaning
and then goes out undeterred
is
sensitive
where present, but there
to the
man who takes no interest in polia man who minds his own business;
differ
a
stroke. Invention, originality
"
we say
of
art
and action through
it
one person before
another in positions of public responsi-
we
had freed themarchaic
of
a question of settling private disputes,
it is
is
life
intimate knowledge of the
skimped because power
earlier,
his funeral
oration. Instead of praising only the dead, he
chose
artists
limitations
achieved the effect of ponnesian
Nearly 20 years
art.
metopes and pediments of the temple
from
selves
glories.
its
of the Parthenon are the incom-
performed
at
annual festivals
the
in
Theater of Dionysus for the whole population.
Its
theme was the relationship between men and the gods, and illustrated
its plot,
some
the profundity of
usually
drawn from
heroic myth,
particular problem or lesson. But its
purpose did not exclude sharp
delineation of character or intense dramatic
mo-
merits.
The
plays themselves were short, although
sometimes
were
trilogies
performed and
A
spent whole days in the theater.
performance was devoted
mented on the action
people
large part of the
to the chorus,
at intervals
which com-
throughout the
drama. The actors wore masks, often representing the character's
mood
Century B.C. whose work has survived
part— Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. All
in
this
One
be.
his treatment of
is
pus Rex. Sophocles makes him headstrong young
man who
his er.
is
of the best ex-
Oedipus
a
in
Oedi-
good-hearted but
own
his
kills
father
and marries
his father,
mother without realizing that she
When
compas-
however
moth-
his
is
he discovers what he has done, he blinds
himself in a paroxysm of horror and remorse. Euripides, the last of the three great tragedians,
but they differed markedly from each oth-
belongs to a somewhat later generation of Creek
who
Aeschylus, the poet
er.
may
deluded or broken they
amples of
lies in his
for his characters,
and Lenaean
three wrote plays for the Dionysiac festivals,
His power
exalt.
sympathy
sion, in his
without knowing that he
as well as his role.
There were three great masters of Greek tragedy in the Fifth
can redeem and
power and grandeur,
best evokes Athenian
deeply concerned with the
is
moral issues that power and grandeur
raise.
He
ex-
thought, and
sions and
is
a
is
and unsatisfied
more troubled, questioning
far
spirit.
He comes
a less certain
no clear conclu-
to
craftsman, but he has mo-
amines the dangers of overweening arrogance, the
ments of astonishing insight into human character.
ancient rule of blood for blood, the inevitability of
Sophocles reportedly said of him
the misuse of power. His conclusions are his
own,
often breaking with traditional concepts. His characters
are
recognizable
though they move
human
in a theatrical
ited passions, personal
individuals
even
world of uninhib-
magnificence and unfailing
splendor of speech.
Among
the most
men
as they are,
they ought to be.
"
that,
and of himself, Euripides
is
"He
paint
"I
also the
paints
men
most
as
direct
of the three in his questioning of established be-
Where Aeschylus and Sophocles merely sugways may be wrong, Euripides
liefs.
gest that the old criticizes
memorable
"
them
And
boldly.
yet, skeptic
though he
of Aeschylus' plays
is,
he treats passion and grief with moving lyricism.
are the three concerned with the story of Orestes,
In
The Trojan Women, Andromache, the Trojan
Agamemnon, the conqueror of Troy. The tnlogy—Agamemnon, Choephoroe and Eumenides
princess, relinquishes her small son to be killed
son of
—tells the story of Orestes'
murder of
the Greeks with these words:
his mother,
Clytaemnestra, for her murder of his father. For his
crime Orestes
is
pursued by the Furies until
Athena, taking pity on him, prevails upon the Furies to
"Thou
little
That curlest
thing in
my
arms, what sweet
scents chng,
become Eumenides— Kindly Ones— and serve
All round thy neck! Beloved; can
it
he
her as subsidiary goddesses.
Sophocles works
in a different
chylus argues for and
Sophocles
and
treats
is
its
ways
them with awe and reverence. He examview of some problem and from
central truth.
All nothing, that this
bosom cradled
And
weary nights where-
of the gods,
content to accept them as they are,
ines the accepted
draws
justifies the
way. Where Aes-
To Sophocles, any
it
violation
of the cosmic order creates suffering, but suffering
fostered; all the
thee
through I
watched upon thy sickness,
till I
greio
Wasted with watching? Kiss me. This one time;
Not ever climb
again. Put
up thine arms, and
by
About my neck: now, lips.
.
.
losophers, scientists, poets and prominent citizens
kiss me, lips to
—and whose fun
.
O, ye have found an anguish that outstrips
Greek tragedy
not tragic in one
is
and
modern sense
—it does not always end unhappily. Sometimes
it
ends with the healing of wounds and the restoration of
harmony
tensely
and
broken world. But
to a
relentlessly serious.
it
in-
is
can be wry and
It
but never purely comic. There are no mo-
ments of lowered tension— everything the highest pitch.
Even
if
erything that precedes
there
it
happy end,
a
is
played
is
ev-
dark and anxious.
is
at
It
presents man's position before the gods as uncer-
and dangerous— and the gods as
tain, fragile
ines-
Christianity has alleviated life
which was
much
of
the
tragic
Greek thought—
implicit in
the assumption that the gods were inscrutable and
inexorable in their dealings with men. But
thought
still
retains the
ceptance of his
Greek
belief that
modern
man's ac-
no matter how intolerable that
fate,
his characters, vitality.
very
spirit of song.
He
Athens. ly,
when
the
how
they
may
how
they
be borne.
Attic comedy, in every other respect the antithesis
of tragedy, also
also
performed
at
had a
He wrote
a
religious origin
festival of
tragedy offered release from
life's
and was
Dionysus. Where mysteries in pity
with Sparta. Yet he does
it
dalous malice. If
Greek tragedy shows the Athenians' depth of
Greek comedy shows
their ability
er afraid of the truth,
disreputable set. It
it
nor obscenity, and two of
its
early masters, Crati-
nus and Eupolis, both largely concerned with tics,
were uninhibited
caricaturists.
of the writers of Attic
who made fun
libel
poli-
But the greatest
comedy was Aristophanes,
equally of politicians, generals, phi-
and death, almost
helps to explain
to hold their
no matter how undignified or
was, and this was an incalculable as-
own
why
the Athenians were able
even when
for so long,
their star
Part of their strength indubitably
laugh
at
themselves.
Because Periclean Athens was the intellectual naturally
drew from other
center of Greece,
it
men who knew
that their intellectual gifts
be welcomed and honored there.
Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, Pericles.
a
Among them was
personal friend of
He
believed that
it
was an organized
to a living
and that the force which moved
it
process similar to that of the mind.
Athens tus of
cities
would
Anaxagoras had an interesting theory about
system of matter, comparable
were restrained by laws neither of
life
to face
any situation with lightheartedness. They were nev-
heart-easing ridicule and rollicking mirth.
prac-
for
free-
without solemnity, pack-
the universe.
titioners
and does so
ing his messages between riotous jokes and scan-
and understanding, comedy offered the release of Its
after the death
shadows were deepening
but he also puts forward intelligent ideas about
their ability to
exposes them and shows
however,
uniting the Athenian Empire or coming to terms
was
happen, and
at his funniest,
ridicules public affairs
provides no explicit answers for the sufferings of it
Even
afraid of expressing them.
of Pericles,
declining.
humanity, but
burst
life,
Aristophanes had serious intentions, and was not
was
may
taken straight from
His choral lyrics are winged with the
with
seem, can be ennobling. Greek tragedy
fate
indecent,
imaginative.
thought on the fundamental issues of
capable, never far away.
view of
audacious,
ribald,
all,
Aristophanes' situations are brilliantly absurd,
All tortures of the East, ye gentle Creeks!"
ironic,
is
reckless and, above
was It
organism, a
mental
was
also in
that the views of the philosopher
Democri-
Abdera slowly found recognition. His atomic
theory differs in every detail from modern theories,
but does at least use similar terminology:
it
says
that the primary substance of things consists of indivisible units
Among
it
calls
atoms.
the greatest of these Athenian visitors
was Herodotus
of Halicarnassus.
Herodotus was
the "father of history," author of the great
To
the Persian Wars.
collect
book on
information for
it
he .^
Greek world and
traveled widely through the
into
Egypt, Babylonia, Syria and southern Scythia. Ev-
erywhere he asked questions and noted the answers. Herodotus' sympathies are with Athens but he
remarkably
He sees
and even generous,
the whole
but
life,
fair,
at the
war
an epic event, larger than
as
same time he
actual participants and
is
to the Persians.
its
concerned with
is
factual background.
includes details on
many
interest but are not
immediately related
its
He
matters which caught his to the
war,
and on past events that happened outside Greece, notably in Asia and Egypt.
He
is
also deeply inter-
ested in personalities, in individual men, and he
them with
writes of
makes him
a
delighted observation that
the father, not just of history, but of
other social sciences too.
Herodotus did his best
Sometimes he are
failed, or got
minor compared
fort.
Many
to it
to the
discover
the
thoroughness of his
times he gives
firsthand
leaving the reader to
make up
writes with great force, humor, liness. In style
and
spirit
his
ef-
information
from actual witnesses, or gives both sides of ry,
truth.
wrong, but the lapses
own
a sto-
mind.
sympathy and
He
live-
he blends Ionia with Ath-
ens; he treats history as both an art
on one side recalling the poetic
and
spirit of
a science,
Homer, on
the other invoking the scientific temper of his age.
During
this
into a science.
same period medicine
The development
Hippocrates of Cos, the
first
a
common body
a
a
school of medi-
adhered to
medical doctrine. They followed accepted
also developed
associated with
and most famous of
group of physicians who formed cine, in the sense that they
is
a
common
of knowledge,
common practices,
exchanged
jMt--K-
new
one another, developed
ideas with
from estabhshed discoveries and worked
theories
on
strictly
Hippocrates stressed the im-
scientific principles.
portance of careful observation and classification,
and believed that part of the
was impossible
it
understand
to
human body without understanding
a
the
whole. With this knowledge, said Hippocrates,
a
fear
and alarm
empire, often at the ex-
its
pense of unwilling victims, and
at
that aristocratic
same time
the
promoting democracy with missionary
opment
They saw
other Greek states.
to
Athens busily extending
zeal, a devel-
governments viewed with
shocked disapproval. This anti-Athenian point of view
is
expressed in the work of the poet Pindar of
doctor could proceed to diagnosis, and diagnosis
Thebes, whose patrons were rich aristocrats and ty-
was the
rants. Aegina,
The
central point of Hippocratic doctrine.
science of medicine affected
When
the Fifth Century. sor,
thought
all
in
Herodotus' great succes-
Thucydides, wrote The Peloponnesian War, he
examined the causes of the war
an almost
in
clinical
spirit.
Like a good scientist, Thucydides was deter-
mined
to find the truth.
where Pindar had many
and
friends,
from
Boeotia, his native land, had both suffered
Athens' compulsive expansion. Consequently,
al-
though Pindar had begun by being well disposed Athens, he ended by regarding
and disapproval. He
trust
its
to
actions with dis-
criticized the
Athenian
spirit for
destroying the sense of inner peace which
ences of one generation were relevant to those of
was one
of the chief blessings of
another, and that later generations could therefore
city as
learn
from
He
believed that the experi-
their predecessors.
Consequently he of-
ten stopped to analyze a specific occurrence in terms of
its
more general problem. Al-
application to a
though
his
conception of history
political, largely
human
is
almost purely
lacking in Herodotus' concern with
Thucydides
personalities,
extremely perceptive. Also, he
moral conclusions.
No
is
in his
own way
not afraid to
Thucydides sense of
its
tells
And
plicated,
it is
for all his
pitfalls of
self-control,
the story of an event with a full
drama:
ments of tragedy.
he
civil strife.
one has delineated more clearly the
unrestrained power.
draw
one has better described the
corruption of standards that comes from
No
is
If
risks, its
its
his
language
not intentionally so.
tries to state his
ugliness, is
ele-
its
sometimes com-
He
is
serious,
and
thoughts exactly, including the
emotion which colors them. Not until modern times
and were routed by them.
the gods,
many Greeks were
Like Pindar,
ens' insatiable activity,
its
troubled by Ath-
unexpected interference they
in distant places, its refusal to leave things as
were.
The Greek
emergence of
them
of their
a
deeply resented the
aristocrats
power which was
own power and
likely to deprive
But they
privilege.
re-
sented no less the Athenian state of mind, which
seemed
to
them the
were willing only
let
to let
them go
antithesis of their
Athens go
theirs,
but
its
own. They
own way
this,
if it
they feared,
would
was
it
not prepared to do. Fearing what Athens stood
they failed completely to compete with
scope of
its
it
in the
for,
wide
achievements. Neither in the fine arts
and dominating, and very few historians of
gin to rival Athens. Indeed they seemed rather to
regard for what they
er,
own ruin. Athens, he said, was like Bellerophon, who tried to scale the sky on the winged horse, Pegasus. It was like the Giants, who revolted against its
nor in science did the established aristocracies be-
a respect for truth so
any time have treated events with so passionate
As
the
pow-
has any historian erful
shown
He saw
life.
an example of that self-pride which breeds
a result
mean
in the lives of
of this explosion of energy
Athens had become, by 460
B.C.,
a
have stuck where they were, and avoided new de-
men.
velopments. Inevitably,
and pow-
tions
an object of
was bound
the long
to
a conflict in
come, and
when
the it
two posi-
came,
and deadly Peloponnesian War.
it
was
THE CITY'S FIRST CITIZEN, austere his
war helmet. He dominated
aristocrat, soldier, orator
and statesman, was
Pericles,
the affairs of the city, cultural center of Greece, from
shown above
460
until
in
429 B.C.
THE PERICLEAN EPOCH Greece's Golden
Age glowed
brightest in
Athens
for the 30 years
it
had the
lead-
shown above. His city, of some 150,000 inhabitants, had two cores. One was made up of the great marketplace called the Agora and adjacent Pnyx Hill. The center of trade, schools and law ership of the political genius
courts, the
Agora
whose bust
is
also harbored the offices of the world's first democratic gov-
ernment; the Assembly met on Pnyx
Hill.
The second
core
was the grouping
marbled temples, among them buildings the world has ever since counted
most beautiful, on top of the Acropolis, city.
The two Athenses— the
a
rocky
city of creativity
hill
of its
which was the heart of the
below and the one of beauty on the
heights— made sober fact of Pericles' boast: "Our city
"
is
an education to Greece.
-T-l_l
r
C IT^V O F DF R
I
r^
I
FQ
"^^^
drawing on these pages shows the Athens Pericles
or helped plan. Rising
above the
Acropolis, with the structures
rest of the city
whose ruins
the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the temple of
still
is
built
the rocky
inspire
men:
Athena Nike and
the Erechtheum. Originally the Acropolis constituted the entire
fortified city,
but
spread
down
1.
Unfinished Temple ot Zeus
2.
Unfinished law courls
3.
Painted Sloa
stood stoas, or open-sided markets, where the philosophers
4.
Stoa of the
taught; the Bouleuterion, where the
5. Altar of the
in war,
it
was
it
rebuilt.
into the valleys. Destroyed
Great walls enclosed
it.
In the
Agora
500-man council met;
the
mint; courts; and the Strategeion, or military headquarters.
Herms Twelve Gods
6.
Stoa of Zeus with his statue
7.
Temple
8.
Bouleuterion
9.
Monument
of Hephaestus
of the
Eponymous Heroes
13. Heliaia law cour 14.
South Stoa
IS
Southeast Fount
15.
Mint
17. Panathenaic (est 18.
Pnyx
19.
Areopagus
20.
Temple
21.
Propylaea
of
Alher
a
Nike
10. Tholes (administrative headquarters)
22. Statue of Athena Promacho
11. Strategeion
23.
12. Southwest Fountain
House
Erechtheum
24. Parthenon
THE SPEAKERS PODIUM On Pnyx that seated 18,000.
Hill faced a natural hillside
To ensure adequate attendance
ing, police with long ropes
dipped
at a dull
wet paint herded citizens
in
amphitheater
Assembly meetto
Pnyx
Hill.
AN
EARLY ROSTRUM OF DEMOCRACY r^: ^mi'mm, mm
Athens was
a
talkative town.
orators; Pericles
became
its
was ruled by
It
leader because he
Ecclesia, or
Assembly
of
all citizens,
^
^
«^
ai.
was
the best orator. All major decisions were reached
by the
m^
its
i^w
which
-^
'
f*
>*«i»to
•
•*» ttani
'•=»
^—
^^ ^^
.
M^.
•»,
—
{» ZT ZT ZI ^^
^.
usually met about 40 times a year in the amphitheater dominated by the rostrum
In addition, there
chosen by
lot.
was the Boule,
The Boule met
a
shown
above.
500-man council
daily,
with a sub-
committee available day and night, making decisions that were pressing and preparing the agenda for the Ecclesia.
Among
Assembly during
public service, thus for the poor;
Persians:
decisions reached in the
the golden era:
making
to reconstruct
and the
to
pay
fees
for
office-holding possible A •KLEROTERION" was used
temples destroyed by
fateful decision to fight Sparta.
of
which
balls
is
to select nirors. blots in the device,
a
fragment
seen above, held individual volunteers' names. Black and white
were dropped down a tube (not shown)
to select jurors
by groups.
ORATING HORSEMAN,
like
most Athenians a man of strong mind, gives the crowd a few words while waiting
to ride in procession to the Acropoli:
:^-^^ K!'-x-iezt
SHRINE TO THE BEGINNINGS OF A GREAT CITY Wishing
to enclose in
splendor the sacred
sites of
the fables concerning the beginnings of Athens, the city architects
produced the Erechtheum.
It
is
on
well of sea water, and the well
was the gnarled
Athena gave the
the north side of the Acropolis, where once stood
test
what Homer
says the
called "the strong
us," a legendary king.
theum
is
the
of Athens.
tomb
Under
house of Erechthe-
a corner of the Erech-
of Cecrops, mythical
The building contained
first
King
the gifts that the
gods Poseidon and Athena gave the city in a contest to
win
its
devotion. There were the marks of the
fiery trident
which Poseidon used
to strike
open
a
life
left in
front
is
a cast of the original,
now
in the British
Museum.
city
In
a"
again after they
all
true Athenians.
left.
To encompass
became
Legend
all
it is
one of which
is
built
shown
one another. Yet
it
It
is
not
on two
levels;
at left,
bear no relation to
its
porches,
breathes Ionic grace and charm.
PANATHENAIC PROCESSION, paraders en
route to the Acropolis
carry jars of water, perhaps for sacrificial gifts. statue of
of these
most unusual tem-
a
ple in this land of rectangular temples.
wooden
which
destroyed by the Persians, sprang to
symmetrical;
the
courtyard
time,
all
and thereby won both the con-
and the hearts of tree,
itself.
olive tree of
things the Erechtheum
IN
PORCH OF THE MAIDENS On the Erechtheum has four original columns. The background figure has a modern head: the second from
first
Athena
that
was housed
Their goal was
in the
Erechtheum.
ATHENA'S TEMPLE Three mighty talents collaborated on the Parthenon —Phidias, sculptor and general director; and Ictinus
and
Callicrates, architects. Their greatest achieve-
ment, perhaps the greatest architectural work of antiquity, it is it
is
was
this
temple
to
columned rectangle
a
an extraordinary
in
Athena. In appearance Doric
style. In reality
series of refinements
that,
taken together, produce optical harmony: horizontal lines
curve in the middle; the columns bulge in
the center, taper at the top and lean slightly in-
ward; flutings diminish in the
Plutarch,
when
in
width as they
marble gives the structure
who
first
saw
a
rise.
Iron
golden glow.
the Acropolis'
buildings
they were 500 years old, claimed they must
have been "venerable as soon as they were
CEREMONIAL RIDER clothes to
make
built."
of the Panathenaic procession wears his best
a splendid show.
He
is
wearing a Thracian riding
hat with ear coverings, while his cloak and tunic are Athenian.
'
^. j
.
.'•:.J^>^
\t'^'
THE HISTORIC PARTHENON, although its
builders
hoped
to
a ruin,
still
clearl\/
shows what
achieve more than 2,400 years ago. For nearly 900
s^^^M''i.;|?^':MPi4^jtf ilis :
^s^
««2
?:.-
yr.n.
,(
uw.
.,
tcnplc
AtUcu. ,or nearly 1.000 y,.„. a Cnr,.tu,u Moslem rr^os.ue. Then, m 1687. the Venetian
to
church, for 200 years a
.>-
:>^, forces besiegmg the lurks o„ the
phded a powder magazir,e,
AcropoUs dropped a
shell that ex-
thus destroying the inside of the Parthenon.
THE TEMPLED GODDESS
ADORED BY ATHENS Religious ceremonies and public worship were held
outside the temples; the interiors were for
at altars
private prayers. Here in a majestic half light one
might come face to face with an awesome divinity.
Changing shadows could impart human expressions to the statue.
what the
Today no man knows
interior of the
Parthenon looked
exactly
like.
model shown here was constructed especially this
book on the
ship.
It
basis of the best
modern
The for
scholar-
remains, however, an informed guess. There
were two rooms
inside. In
one stood the statue of
Athena the Virgin, made by Phidias ivory around
a
wooden
in gold
In a second
core.
and
room,
there were other treasures of the temple: the Persian
Xerxes' silver-footed throne, for instance, on which
he had sat and watched his forces defeated by the
Athenian
fleet
But nothing was more
at Salamis.
important than the statue. Thus
wished ias,
to strike at
they accused the
gold given to him to plates
when
him through
Pericles' foes
friend Phid-
his
artist of stealing
make
some
were removable Phidias was able
them down, weigh them and prove was
still
fied.
They next accused
there.
But
their
of the
the statue. Since the gold
that
all
to
take
the gold
enemies were not
satis-
Phidias of sacrilege in carv-
ing pictures of himself and of Pericles on Athena's shield. Pericles
stood by him to the end.
Fortu-
nately most of his great works had been completed
when
the attack came. Pericles continued in his post
as a general for a (
)M
A KAiN\ i'\i
tiir
I'liiiit^
•itui
few more years
until his death.
walls of the south side of the
Parthenon stand desolate. The north and south walls were blank.
The temple received
its
light
from doors facing east and west.
THE GODDESS ATHENA
sumptuous
On
is
shown
robes. In her right
her helmet
was
a Sphinx
in
hand
is
this
reconstruction
clad
in
a statue of Nike, or Victory.
and on her breast an ivory Medusa.
1
1
Along with
display
incredible
its
matters relating to the mind and
Athens was and
trade
also busily
engaged
political influence.
its
now
began
it
to cast
its
The Greek
which had hitherto maintained
states,
now drawn
were
GREEK AGAINST GREEK
expanding
in
covetous eyes on
neighbors on the mainland.
a precarious balance of
6
in
Periclean
had firmly estab-
It
lished itself as a sea power;
energy
of
spirit,
power among themselves,
into one of
or Sparta's— and soon
War began
Peloponnesian
two camps— Athens'
war became
inevitable.
and
in 431 B.C.
The
lasted,
with one brief interval of peace, until 404 B.C. It
was
ended
long war, bitter and demoralizing, and
a
for
Athens
and even
it,
And
in disaster.
after its end,
the wellspring of
Greek
it
yet all through
Athens continued and
intellectual
to be
artistic
producing playwrights and philosophers whose
life,
contributions were different in spirit from
those
of the age of Pericles, but every bit as extraordinary.
At
war
the outbreak of the
was divided
in two.
in
431 B.C., Greece
The Spartan
Alliance took in
most of the Peloponnesus, the Isthmus of Corinth, and Megara. The Athenian Empire embraced the islands of the
Aegean and the coast
of Asia Minor.
Sparta was conservative, aristocratic, resolute in
its
determination to maintain the existing state of af-
Athens was aggressively democratic, even
fairs.
olutionary, and determined to spread
new one
The war was
places.
in principle.
It
to history, largely
also
it
in his
therefore an important
became an important one
through the
the historian Thucydides,
count of
it
eyewitness accounts of
tails
at
the
it.
its
battle sites.
ings with scientific care
book,
same
a
superb ac-
book The Peloponnesian War.
took notes on
documents and
one man,
effort of
who wrote
Thucydides himself participated through
rev-
gospel to
its
time,
in the war,
and
events, and examined
He
set
down
his find-
and detachment, but is
all
Afterward he collected
full
of
his
revealing de-
about personalities and intelligent interpreta-
tions of the issues over
which each engagement
was fought. Although the war's underlying cause was Sparta's
led
MARCHING TO WAR,
deep distrust of Athens, the incidents which
up
to its
outbreak were, as so often happens,
a soWier on a Sixth Century B.C. wine-and-water mix-
ing howl found at Vix, France,
is
protected by a knee-to-neck round shield,
bronze greaves around his legs and a helmet equipped with cheek guards.
quite trivial.
One
of Sparta's
leading
allies
was
Corinth, a commercial and colonial power whose
m WAR
OF THE BROTHERS
THE GREAT CAMPAIGNS
shown on
are tics
the map.
of the Pelopotinesiaii
Many
were employed. Besieging Plataea, the Spar-
tans tried to build a
mound from which
archers could shoot over the walls.
tunneled the
to the
bottom as
When
mound and removed
fast as the
the walls.
a circle, sailed
At sea
the dirt
Spartans put
the Spartans brought
up
the Spartans
their
The Plataeans
it
on
from top.
battering rams the
Plataeans lassoed them and pulled
them
inside
drew up 47 ships
in
prows outward. Twenty Athenian ships
around and around them, forcing them into
an ever smaller all
War
unconventional tac-
circle until the
Spartan ships were
entangled and easy prey. At Delium the Boe-
otians, Sparta's allies, coals, a
used a cauldron of burning
hollowed-out tree and a belloivs
to
make
a
flamethrower that destroyed the defensive walls.
ASIA
MINOR
IONIAN SEA PYLOS SPHACTERIA 425 BC.
MODES Revolt, 411 B.C.
and
tried
and fined him
for
misuse of public funds.
Not long afterward, however, they
re-elected him,
realizing that, whatever his failings, he
One
best leader they had.
His death, by plague,
is
was the
year later Pericles died.
described by Plutarch as
called himself "the people's
Athenians agreed with
all
Thucydides
himself.
and quiet people would be more evil
with various changes and alterations, leisurely, by
of others."
and
little,
faculties of his soul."
For Athens, the loss was tragic.
The men who succeeded Assembly ment.
rivaled
One
Nicias,
him
by the
rich
and respectable
to sue Sparta for peace; the other,
under the violent demagogue Cleon, wanted tinue fighting. Nicias
who was sometimes buy
to
con-
was an honest but timid man
accused of using his wealth to
the Athenians' favor.
He
doings and
less
likely to notice his
likely to believe
his slander
the Athenian cause in a constant state of turmoil,
ments the
in
two days.
On
angry debates.
Assembly reversed
itself
at least
one occasion
within the space of
In 428 B.C., Mytilene,
on the island of
Lesbos, tried unsuccessfully to bolt the Athenian
Empire.
To punish
the city for this act of disloyal-
Cleon persuaded the Assembly
ty
for
its
to
whole adult male population.
vote death
A
ship was
gymnastic games, and
out, but the next day, over Cleon's angry protests,
more sumptuous and more
known
in his or in
former ages." Cleon was the son of a tanner and risen to
opposed
sent to the Athenian fleet with orders to carry this
splendid than had ever been
had
he
sponsored, says Plu-
tarch, "dramatic exhibitions,
other public shows,
evaluation of
that
disagreeing over policy and exposing their disagree-
Pericles as leaders of the
neither in authority nor judg-
faction, led
wanted
own
Between them, Nicias and Cleon kept Athens and
wasting the strength of his body,
and undermining the noble
suggests
peace because "he thought that in a time of peace
being "a dull and lingering distemper, attended
little
watchdog," but not
his
power during the war through
a
com-
bination of shrewdness, daring and eloquence.
He
the a
Assembly countermanded the order and sent
second ship, which, by exerting
fort, arrived
On in the
ahead of the
first
a
prodigious ef-
one.
another occasion Nicias called Cleon's bluff
handling of the blockade of the island of
Sphacteria, offshore from the Spartan seaport of Pylos.
Athenian forces had occupied Pylos
B.C. but a contingent of Spartans
in
425
many months
The
when
Cleon, in the Assembly, contemptuously an-
had dragged on
nounced that Athenian
if
for
he had been in
command
of the
have taken the island
forces, he could
command over make good on his
handily. Piqued, Nicias turned the
him, and demanded that he
to
claim.
Cleon
sailed off,
tried to renege,
but could not, so he
with a parting promise to accomplish his
task within 20 days.
To
he was also feared.
A
held Sphac-
still
teria.
siege
vigorous patriot and was loved and admired. But
everyone's surprise, he did.
spirit of recklessness, of
an extreme representative,
Added
to
it
was
a
new
Thucydides, "War
them
of the
wants,
it
is
power
which Alcibiades was
now
pervaded Athens.
a stern teacher;
depriving
in
of easily satisfying their daily
brings most people's minds
level of their actual circumstances."
down
ens nor Sparta any longer allowed considerations
way
of decency and honor to stand in the sible
when
advantage. In 427 B.C.,
captured the city of Plataea, an Athenian
put to death
seemed
a
good time
to
all
who
the people
winter of 416-415 B.C.,
when
of pos-
the Spartans
unprecedented event in Greek history. it
to the
Neither Ath-
The Spartans on Sphacteria surrendered, an almost
To many Athenians
words of
ruthlessness. In the
ally,
they
surrendered. In the the island of Melos
stop the war altogether— while Athens was ahead
refused to join the Athenian Empire, Athens killed
and could exact favorable terms. But Cleon,
all
flated
by
struggle.
ground.
his success,
was defeated
first
at
at
Delium
Amphipolis
Cleon himself was
422 B.C.
in-
on continuing the
Almost immediately, Athens began It
424 B.C., and then
in
insisted
in
men
of military age
and enslaved the
rest of the
inhabitants.
But not everyone was callous about such
to lose
acts.
Women,
in Boeotia
In 415 B.C., Euripides produced his Trojan
Thrace
dramatizing the injustices and horrors of war. In
in
killed in the battle at
it,
Hecuba, the captured Trojan queen, says:
Amphipolis, and so was the Spartan general, Brasidas, a
man
so personable that even his enemies ad-
Who am
mired him. Thucydides says that the recollection of his gallantry and
wisdom was
pro-Spartan feeling
in creating
allies later in
felt
little
gains, while at
ure a
new
to
Athenian
kinsman of
up
Athens
made bold
a
sit
Weeping alone
signed, but the
A
allies
before,
home,
for her dead;
low and bruised head.
And
the glory struck therefrom.
younger, more confident
plans.
They were
politics, the
Pericles. Alcibiades
in Pericles'
I
Yea, in the dust of it?
had been defrauded of legitimate
that they
generation
was
chance of being kept. Sparta's
that
A slave that men drive A woman that hath no
the Athenian
the war.
In 421 B.C. a peace treaty
peace had
the chief factor
among
I
Here at a Greek king's door,
young
led
by
a fig-
Alcibiades,
had been brought
household, but he was a very differ-
In 419 B.C. Alcibiades undertook a sive against Sparta
new
offen-
on the pretext that Sparta had
not carried out the obligations of the peace treaty.
The climax
of this
campaign came
a
year
later,
ent sort of man. Unusually gifted in looks, intelli-
when, despite careful preparations, the Athenians
gence and wealth, he was also ambitious, insolent
and
and extravagant. As long
tans at Mantinea. But the collapse of this venture
as his personal ambitions
coincided with Athens' gain, he was accounted a
their allies
were soundly defeated by the Spar-
did not wholly discredit Alcibiades.
He continued
to
control a powerful,
if
extreme, element of public
opinion, and soon had devised other, more ingenious plans. attack, he
proposed
If
Sparta could not be defeated by frontal
would destroy
by other means. He
it
Sparta alone for the time being
to leave
and strengthen Athens by incorporating the Greek colonies in the west, notably in Sicily, into the pire. If this
financial
backbone of the Spartan Alliance, would
be mortally stricken and Sicily's rich yield of crops
and
cattle
would
fall to
Athens. In addition Sicilian
new
source of troops
But even more glittering prizes
for military service.
may have
a
bewitched the Athenian imagination—
across the narrow strait from Sicily
was the
rich
changing his allegiance, gave advice
lightly
After a slow
city of
Syracuse and, on the pretext of pro-
tecting neighboring Sicilian cities
from Syracusan
tyranny, a large-scale expedition was launched.
point of cutting
exalted ambitions of an admiring
crowd of well-
wishers. Thucydides says that "almost the entire
rival of a
tation at the
same
hope and
full of
thinking, too, of those
they might never see again."
torical events
doomed
which seem
to disaster.
a success,
No
and every
of those his-
in retrospect to
effort
have been
was spared
effort failed.
two of the most important men
in
It
to
was
make led
by
Athens, Nicias
and Alcibiades, and one of the best Athenian generals,
Lamachus. Actually, Nicias had opposed the
project in the
drawback
Assembly and
in
one sense was
a
and seemed on the as well.
But then two
ar-
Spartan general, Gylippus, sent on the
.
us,
.
.
or
has come for you to decide else
to
send out another
both naval and military, as big as the
first,
with large sums of money, and also someone to lieve
me
of the
neys has made
command,
me
grew even
the situation
more menacing. The Athenian army, unable surround Syracuse or breach
to
encamped
led
in a low-lying,
fever,
re-
as a disease of the kid-
unfit for service."
In the year 413 B.C.,
and
its
was
area.
The troops
illness
worsened.
marshy
Nicias'
either
defenses,
the requested reinforcements finally arrived,
by Demosthenes, they were too
late;
they sailed
into the harbor only to find themselves in danger of being trapped.
The Syracusan expedition was one
it
lamen-
time, thinking of the conquests
made and
that might be
whom
full of
sea,
by land
the end of 414 B.C. he sent a message to
contracted
.
off
it
Athens: "The time
When
.
the Athenians succeeded in
advice of Alcibiades. Nicias was deeply discouraged.
Toward
population of Athens, citizens and foreigners, went .
at
to the
and the hopes of Syracuse were revived by the
down
to Piraeus
images
events spoiled their chances. Lamachus was killed
It
from Piraeus, carrying the vast hopes and
sailed
start,
blockading Syracuse by
force,
was the
stand
to
Spartans which was to do severe harm to Athens.
whole trade of the western Mediterranean.
campaign
home
against
Athens, Alcibiades instead defected to Sparta and,
either to recall
objective of the Sicilian
of sacrilege
act
god Hermes. Knowing what awaited him
of the
Phoenician city of Carthage, which controlled the
The immediate
he was ordered
Sicily,
for a gross
trial
Em-
could be done, Corinthian trade, the
manpower would provide
upon reaching
They should have withdrawn
as
swiftly as possible, but Nicias delayed because the
moon was
in eclipse
moving
such a time. Thucydides remarks that he
at
and he was superstitious about
"was rather over-inclined
to divination
and such
things."
By the
the time Nicias did give the order to move,
Athenian cause was hopeless. The Greek ships
were unable
to
break out of the harbor, and the
gift for dar-
army, trying to retreat southward by land, was too
ing enterprise. Alcibiades could have supplied the
disorganized and demoralized to fend off the Syr-
imagination and initiative which Nicias lacked but.
acusans. Nicias and Demosthenes surrendered and
to the
expedition— he had no
SHIPS OF THE LINE in Creek
one of which
is
shown
were the triremes,
fleets
view below and
in a side
in
cutout on the opposite page. They carried 170 row-
on three banks of 14-foot
ers
and 10
oars,
30
18 soldiers. Their chief
to
was a metal-tipped ram
were put
to hole
A
to death.
became house
deck crew
in the
weapon
in battle
and sink enemy
ships.
fortunate few of their troops
slaves, but
the rest were put into
Sicilian stone quarries, where, according to
dides, "they
where
.
.
.
were crowded together in
they suffered
trast,
came on
change
and then,
air;
in
con-
brought disease among them.
in temperature
it
necessary for them to do
everything on the same spot;
were the bodies
pit,
autumnal nights, and the
the cold
Lack of space made
narrow
and besides there
heaped together on top of one
all
another ... so that the smell was insupportable .
.
were on an enormous
their sufferings
.
their losses were, as they say,
scale;
army, navy,
total;
everything was destroyed, and, out of many, only
in Sparta,
and serve city's
was actually allowed
as general, but
he failed to
to return fulfill
the
hopes for strong and effective leadership, and
was not
from the heat of the
first
sun and the closeness of the
a
Thucy-
welcome
re-elected.
Despite these vacillations, Athens might have
One was
continued the war but for three setbacks. the defection of
many of
the Athenian
ing Chios, Miletus, Mytilene, to the
Spartan side
in
and Greek
among
Persia;
412-411 B.C. The second was
tradition, to
for
ample funds. The
Athens was Sparta's decision
and oppose Athens
few returned."
The
end,
own
its
form an
when
it
princi-
alliance with
other advantages, this
plied Sparta with
includ-
Rhodes and Abydos,
Sparta's decision, in defiance of ples
allies,
move sup-
third calamity
to build
a fleet
at sea.
came, was sudden. The Atheni-
Yet such was the resilience of the Athenian spir-
an
and the strength of
Thrace, was caught off guard and destroyed by the
it,
its
naval power, that
were
built,
new crews
Black Sea and
At
trained,
its vital
wonder
conships
and the routes
to the
grain ports were kept open.
same time Athens was
the
it
New
tinued to fight for another 10 years.
sufficiently
self-
fleet,
Spartan
waiting in the harbor of Aegospotami, in
fleet,
under Lysander, while the Athenian
crews were ashore eating a meal. The news reached
Athens on
a
that night
no man
day
in late
summer, 405
slept."
B.C.,
and "on
Faced by starvation and
critical
to
something might be wrong
stymied by fruitless negotiations, Athens surren-
with
democratic system of government, and for
dered to Lysander in April 404 B.C. By the terms
its
a short time
it
if
experimented with more traditional
forms.
From June
stance,
it
to
September, 411 B.C., for
in-
placed the entire administration, including
control of
money
matters, in the hands of an ap-
pointed Council of 400 men, 40 from each of the 10 Attic
tribes.
Other experiments followed, but
none of them inspired confidence, and eventually full
democracy was
most
a year,
restored.
At one
point, for al-
the traitorous Alcibiades, no longer
of peace
it
its fleet,
agreed to pull
lost all its foreign possessions, forfeited
down
the walls of Piraeus
and the Long Walls between Piraeus and Athens, and pledged
itself to
become an
ally of Sparta.
For Athens the war had been a total war.
The
lands had been invaded and devastated, and the fighting had reached the very walls of
Men
of mature years had been called
service;
up
the city. for active
communication other than by sea had been
end he even gave
scanty and perilous; food, never abundant, had of-
vice. In the
ten been scarce.
enchanting spoof of poetry, was written to soften
Yet despite the huge drain on sources, the city never
physical re-
its its
interest in the
During the worst phases of the war Athens
arts.
two of the
raised lis,
abandoned
the
little
loveliest
temple
to
temples on the Acropo-
Athena Nike and the Erech-
the
blow
by forcing infusing
sense
it
wrote his masterpiece, Oedipus Rex, and in the
life.
war he comforted the Athenian
people with the message of his at Colonus.
Oedipus
in this play
fered long for his misdeeds, but
is
old
and has suf-
finally
is
permitted
him some mem-
peace. Sophocles gave
to die in
Oedipus
last play,
orable and reassuring lines:
but
many
others to
their arrogance to extremes: the to these things slowly.
those
who put
off
But they attend
God and
the product of physical hardship,
Athens
of inquiry, but the
"
termed
democracy
"an
and Athens, although
both of which are deeply compassion-
and understanding— inspired, no doubt, by the
experience of Athens.
and morality,
his
made fun
ebullient of the
comedies.
In
war party and
in
it
acknowledged
eventually threw
it
substituted a belief in "might
right" and twisted the old concept of per-
sense of honor, people no longer be-
a
fine
to pro-
Acharnians
he
Birds he ridi-
culed the heady fancies current at the time of the
their
behavior with
words. The old love of serious argument was
debased into ingenious dispute, by which the most despicable actions were
The
made
to
appear excellent.
old admiration for intellectual prowess degen-
erated into
During the war Aristophanes continued duce
day cared
out, tended to agree with him. For the old re-
Lacking
were written during the war, including Heracles
ate
prolonged
sonal honor into personal advancement.
turn to madness!
Fifteen of the 19 surviving plays of Euripides
Electra,
a
of Alcibiades'
haved honorably but masked
and
of the spiritual
more about authority than freedom. Alcibiades
makes
to
strife
war. Pericles had been proud of Athens' free spirit
ligion
gods attend
was
it
During the long years of
erosion that inevitably accompanies
him
grow hard and push
spirit
matters and
and corrupt crept into Athenian
was much more the product
himself
For every nation that lives peaceably, there
it.
sinister
Partly it
folly,
will be
many
with courage and nobility. In another
it
degraded
something
deeply into
to look
it
defeat seemed imminent.
war enriched the Athenian
In one sense the
theum. In the very midst of the plague Sophocles
closing days of the
when
of defeat
comfort. Frogs, an
it
a
respect for a certain kind of crafti-
ness, the ability to
means came
to
views happened Sophists.
A
advance
a
cause by whatever
mind. The chief exponents of these to be
among
a
group of men called
Sophist was simply a traveling teacher
invasion of Syracuse. Despite his irreverence Aris-
and the doctrine he expounded was very much
tophanes loved his city and often gave
own, often quite unlike any other Sophist's.
it
wise ad-
his
Many
preached— a meth-
of them, however, practiced— and
od of argument based on clever, specious reasoning.
much
But they were very
in
demand, because
regard for law and order. In less than a year the
people of Athens rose, deposed the Thirty and
drove them from the
they were thought to purvey the latest ideas and to
equip their students for success in pubHc Hfe.
Thrasymachus, by force was
Sophists,
all
taught that rule
law of nature, had
a
a considerable
men around
vogue among the young
Not
who
for instance,
however
were concerned only with matters of worldly suc-
Some
cess.
them were
of
The
victory had given
tunity to unite, at long
entirely serious, true de-
an unparalleled oppor-
it
the
last,
Greek
city-states.
But Spartan misrule soon had Greece more divided than ever.
Alcibiades.
adroit their arguments,
city.
Elsewhere Sparta's policies were equally inept.
thority at
used to
Its
kings, accustomed to absolute au-
home, did not know how
being
own
their
men
to treat
masters.
generals,
Its
by
trained only for war, were quickly corrupted
new
scendants of an older generation of scientists and
the prospects of gain in their
philosophers whose goal had been knowledge. Pro-
rison
tagoras, pondering the nature of the gods, carried
brutal and bloodthirsty and incompetent. Sparta's
than any previous Greek
his speculations further
by concluding:
"I
cannot
know
that
they
exist,
nor yet that they do not exist." For this "impiety" Protagoras was forced to afraid of
imagined them
Men
Athens.
flee
such radical notions; they
were
war dragged on and Athens needed whatever moral strength It
it
could muster.
piety,"
who
new
inspired the flowering of a
until a generation later.
from the immediate it
of "im-
phi-
Athens. But that was not to happen
in
Athens had
first to
effects of the war,
recover
which
economically exhausted and torn by
left
political
problems. political
difficulties
stemmed
from Sparta's bungling attempts
government favorable gave
its
cratic
element
a ruling
to
Spartan
to
ideas.
in
at the Battle of Leuctra
under
a gifted
general
At Athens, with rants, a city
was de-
removed from power by the defeat by
of
its
Theban army
a
named Epaminondas.
the departure of the Thirty
Ty-
measure of democracy was restored and the
began
to
mend
its
shattered economic its
The
life.
treasury and
it
could no longer, as in former times, draw upon the treasury of the Delian League. Athenian markets in the
Mediterranean had been encroached upon by
from other countries not involved
traders
the
in
war. In the port cities of Sicily and Italy, for ex-
ample, Athenian ships
now had
large
in the
Black Sea area was
a
began
to concentrate its
install
Sparta
support to the conservative, antidemoin
Athenian
council of 30
ferred to in
politics,
and appointed
men who were
Athenian history
as
afterward
the Thirty
re-
Ty-
rants. Instead of governing, the Thirty spent their
time persecuting their old opponents, the democrats.
army
it
were
to share their
com-
merce with ships from Carthage. But Athens' trade
Athens' part
governments
expenses of the war had emptied
was Socrates, another Sophist accused
losophy
local
Its
gains were quickly spent. In 371 B.C. cisively
may even have
downright harmful while the
to be
commanders.
positions as gar-
They
confiscated property and
an appalling number of
men
to death,
condemned with
little
still
ports as distant as the Crimea.
was of
sufficiently
its
and
intact,
it
now
shipping there, calling on
prosperous
to
By 370 B.C. Athens
attempt
a restoration
Empire. At best the attempt was successful
only in part and by 360 B.C. had clearly failed, but the city
had obviously recovered enough
become again the
"school of Hellas." In this Pericles' its
vitality to
spiritual center of Greece,
new phase
the
the
Athens
of
day was replaced by an Athens that took
attitudes from the ideas of Socrates.
D
THE DISCUS THROWER holds used for throwirjg. Then a
the plate-shaped weight
flat
palm outward. At
first
a discus was any object
disk was used. Stone disks weighed about 15, metal ones 3 to 9 pounds.
THE PANHELLENIC GAMES Scarcely a city failed to stage games in honor of the gods, but the attention of all
Greece was attracted by the four great Panhellenic
Games
at
Olympia and
and the Nemean Games
the Pythian in Argolis
Games
at Delphi,
festivals:
and the Isthmian Games
every two years. These drew athletes from
all
the
at
parts of Greece.
Corinth, each held
They competed
individuals, not as teams (though their cities gloried in their victories),
vently amateur basis.
Wars were put
violating the sacred truce of the
aside for the
Olympic
both held every four years;
Games; Sparta was
Olympic Games during
on
as
a fer-
fined for
the Peloponnesian
War.
IN
A PRE-GAME CEREMONY fl pig, IS formally slaughtered as a sacriThen the athletes swore they had trained hard for 10 months.
fice.
THE OLYMPIC GLADE Greatest of the Panhellenic pics, held at
Games were
Palaestra, or training area, stand. a
town but
the
Olym-
Olympia, where the mute ruins of the
Olympia was not
grouping of temples and arenas
a
the fields. People
came
to
it
from
all
in
parts of Greece
and since there were no permanent houses, they set
up
and
tents
politics; often
ranged ers
at the
Among them
slept in the open.
were leaders from
all
the cities
who
talked high
peace treaties or alliances were ar-
Games. Also present were horse
deal-
and shouting vendors of wineskins and food,
amulets and votive offerings, for this was not only a religious occasion
but also a
fair.
The crowds
flowed to the stadium to see running and jumping events, discus and javelin throwing.
They went
to
the hippodrome, or race course, for the horseback
and chariot altar of tling.
races.
An open
Zeus was the arena
space in front of the for
boxing and wres-
Elsewhere in the forest of altars and statues
could be found artists and poets come to entertain or sell their wares,
and
at night, there
was
feasting.
AT THE TRAINING AREA of Olympia, wind-stirred flowers evoke
the
:F^ jm0: jat-v*^; m^}^:^
H"-"
/
*
L
.^tt
M
4J
*"^J
«».fW
ghosts of multitudes of people. Here the judges gathered to watch the athletes go through their final preparation before participating
in the actual
games.
THE CHARIOTEER was one of the few clothed athletes. Because the victor's crown went not to the driver but to the
owner of
the chariot
and
horses, rich
men
sometimes entered as many as seven chariots
avid for honors in the
same
THE STARTING SLAB at Olympia (below), divided to give each runner four feet of lateral room, accommodated 20 men. The racers,
who wore no
according
to
shoes, lined
up by positioning
their feet
the grooves that are cut into the stone slab.
ipmn
race.
RUNNERS AND CHARIOT RACING Racing— foot racing from such
starting blocks as
various intervals calculated to bring
all
the chariots
The distance was
the one at the far left and chariot racing behind
into a line at the start of the race.
such steeds as those above— was the essence of the
nearly nine miles, or 12 double laps back and forth
Games. The opening spectacle of the Olympics was
between two posts
a
four-horse chariot race.
lined
up
As many
The ropes
its
ground. Since swinging
four galloping horses around a stone post sent the
prow-shaped
chariots skidding wildly, the races were run off in
in the stalls of a triangular,
starting gate with
in the
as 40 chariots
apex facing down the course.
freeing the contestants to run dropped at
a dust
storm of
Very few
collisions,
starters
managed
spills
to
and upendings.
finish
the course.
IN
WAR GEAR
citizen warriors
compete
in
a special race that
many Creek
spectators apparently considered comic. But the event was, nonetheless, very
popular and 25 shields were on hand at Olympia for the use of the contestants.
A
FIERCE
COMPETITIVE SPIRIT Competition all
Olympia was
at
fierce.
Jockeys rode
out without saddle or stirrups. Jumpers carried
weights
in their
hands which they swung
forward impetus. The pankration was tion
a
to gain
combina-
boxing and wrestling, kicking and strangling
fight to the finish
with nothing barred save goug-
ing and biting. Breaking an opponent's fingers also
condemned. Save
were contested
in rare instances the
in the nude.
seemed the natural way
To
the Greeks nudity
to exercise— and
pride in physical fitness and
was
games
shame
at
it
fostered
being flabby.
A BOXING TRIUMPH comes when the victor gets head and the
loser,
left,
EVENTS OF THE PENTATHLON, depicted on the cup
round athletes sport.
Among
who
could do well in a series of
the pentathletes
shown
raises a finger to
at the left,
in
were designed
five contests, rather
a crack to the
acknowledge
to
defeat.
choose
all-
than specialists in one
here stands a trainer holding a baton in his hand.
IN
AN ANCIENT BALL CAME, each side tries to force the other back its own goal line. A favorite sport of youths in their late teens,
over
PASTIMES Training was grinding work. that the
Greek word
for
It is
not happenstance
English word "agony." But there were periods of
idle
moment
and dog
at the training
fights like the
one
Men
might use an
school betting on cat at
had aspects of modern rugby. But
for the
this sport
was recreation
Creeks and was not one of their more serious games.
AND AMUSEMENTS
pubHc games became the
rehef from the endless practice.
it
the right, or they
must now be guessed
at, for
dence about them than crooked sticks
in
or a picture of a to catch
made
a
ball.
what looks
man on
there
is
a picture of like a
no other
evi-
two men with
hockey
face-off,
another's shoulders trying
These were pastimes that never
the Olympics,
where there were no team con-
could get up a vigorous ball game (above). Greek
tests—perhaps because the Greek temperament was
no end of games whose exact nature
too hotly competitive for the cooperation required.
art pictures
ANIMAL FIGHTS, such
as the one being
promoted
in
the picture above, provided
amusement and an occasion
for
gambUng
in
gymnasiums.
THE WINNERS' AWARDS Winners
at the great
Games
Panhellenic
only garlands— wild olive leaves
at
received
the Olympics,
Games at Corinth, Games at Delphi, and parsley Nemean Games in Argolis. Lesser festivals
pine needles at the Isthmian laurel at the at the
Pythian
gave valuable prizes: 100 vases of olive
to the
oil
chariot race winner at Athens, cloaks at Pellene, shields at Argos. But there were other benefits as well. In their victors.
special
home
cities statues
were erected
to
At times the hero was welcomed through a hole knocked in the city's walls. He was pa-
raded in triumph through the streets, and poems in his praise
were sung
in public places.
enthusiastic city might give all
public spectacles,
tion
and give him
Games,
is
laurel,
awarded winners
re-created over a similar stone wreath
theater of Dionysus in Athens.
Laurel
was sacred
THE VICTORS PRIZE such as side
this
one.
at
Delphi's
now to
in
the
Apollo.
at Athens' games was olive oil, in amphorae The vase has a picture of Athena on one
and a picture of the game
it
was given
for
on the other.
especially seats to
make him exempt from
free meals.
where, too, he was given
THE VICTORS GARLAND of
An
him front-row
a
taxa-
And in Athens, and else-
good round sum
in cash.
A YOUTHFUL WINNER of the games
is
shown
in this
bronze wearing a
fillet,
or hand,
around
his head. This
band
will serve to
support the garland.
1%
After 404 B.C., Athens never regained the glory of
Age because much
the Periclean
from
were now,
beliefs that
To Athenians
eroded.
not dead,
by Sparta had tarnished
when
during the period
at
least
a life spent in the service of
had once seemed
their city-state feat
of that glory arose
if
but the de-
ideal,
that ideal. For a time,
the Sophists
over Athenian intellectual
life,
sway
held
some men aspired
to
nothing except getting ahead in the world. Then
and gave Athens
the ideas of Socrates took hold
7
new
spiritual concern. In the Socratic view, a
conscience was the
demands
a
man's
guide to right conduct than
a better
An
of society.
Athens with
this belief
could not hope to return to the golden days of
A NEW TIME
Pericles,
but
accomplishments
its
followed the war,
OF BRILLIANCE
ishing. In Plato
the
in the
less glorious, are
if
and Aristotle
it
century that
no
aston-
less
produced two of
most extraordinary thinkers who ever lived—
the Platonic and Aristotelian systems of thought
underlie
much
of
Western philosophy. Fourth Cen-
tury Athens also raised oratory to a fine
art;
public
speakers gave their discourses the brilliance and
an
style that
had lavished on drama and
earlier age
poetry.
Socrates was the
exponent
first
Greece of
in
a
morality based on the demands of individual con-
demands
science rather than the
of the state. His
teaching took the form of relentless questioning.
The
method was based on
Socratic
pitiless
nation and skepticism, a combination
have doomed
his
search
truth
for
nothing can be accepted as true,
And
be found? intentions
posed
to
yet
to
how
the
of
theories
may
failure.
If
can truth
seriousness of Socrates'
the
beyond question. He was
is
exami-
that
totally op-
power and expediency
current at the time; he had no personal ambition,
money
refused to take
order his
own
life
for his teaching,
along the simplest of
he was deeply religious, and although he
said very
little
about his
beliefs,
they played
Socrates'
ruthless
inquisitions
the city's old self-assurance. to
generations
"Venus de Milo" because
it
is
was found
a statue of Aphrodite,
known
a large
life.
of
Athenian attitudes may have helped
the
tried to
lines. In his
own way
part in his
MOST LOVELY OF WOMEN
and
Athenian public thought
traditional
to
undermine
One segment
this to be so,
and
of the
felt
that
as
at Melos. After the Peloponnesian
War, though some arts declined, sculpture flourished for over 300 years.
his teachings officially
were dangerous. In 399 B.C. he was
accused of introducing strange gods and
corrupting the young, and brought to
Socra-
trial.
might have saved himself by recanting, or con-
tes
ceding that he had been at fault, but he refused.
On
by de-
the contrary, he antagonized his judges
fending his actions in a speech which they regarded as arrogant:
Athenians,
own
sake
.
am
I
.
sin against the
am
not going
argue for
my
may
not
to
hut for yours, that you
.
God by condemning me, who if you kill me you will
his gift to you. For
not easily find a successor to me, who,
may
if
and
a sort of gadfly, given to the state by God; the state
and noble steed who
a great
is
1
am
use such a ludicrous figure of speech,
is
tardy in his motions owing to his very size,
and requires
to be stirred into
God
gadfly which
and
all
day long and
fastening
you
am
that
am
in all places
always
upon you, arousing and persuading
and reproaching you. You another
I
life.
has attached to the state,
like
will not easily find
me, and therefore
1
would advise
to spare me.
Athens, condemning him to death, ordered him
hemlock. As the poison was taking effect
to drink
Socrates sat and talked quietly with a group of his friends.
who
The
talk
was recorded by
his pupil Plato,
hailed Socrates as "the wisest
and best man" who ever Plato set
down
all
and most and
lived, a saint
he could remember of Socrates'
teaching (Socrates himself never wrote a
and
his
own
by Socrates'
long and productive passion
for
truth,
When
is
not worth living.
his
was shaped
THE SPARTAN WARRIOR, shown
in
his cloak
its
own
without
to
enlist
Socrates died, Plato was 30 and seemed life.
He was born
Athenian aristocracy and was thoroughly
schooled in music, mathematics and
letters.
The
by
and helmet, dominated Greece
life
in a
harsh military
commu-
Spartan was the best infantryman of his time. But rigid rule brought
nity, the
uncomprolife
"
destined for a career in public into the
thing),
after the defeat of Athens. Disciplined
life
mising morality and his belief that "a inquiry
just
a martyr.
weaknesses. The warrior caste gradually dwindled; the city refused
new blood and Sparta shrank from
strength
to
insignificance.
death of his teacher scarred his the course of his
life.
When
to travel abroad. city
and
spirit
For a time he
about 385 B.C., he founded a school
Academy), where he taught
as the
Socrates:
durance
he returned to his native
garden called Academus (the school became
noble, certainly.
And you would
is
say that a wise en-
good and noble?
also
Laches: Very noble.
the
in
Most
Laches:
altered
Athens
left
what would you say of
Socrates: But
known
ish
until his death
endurance?
a fool-
not that, on the other hand,
Is
regarded as evil and hurtful?
to be
in 347.
Along with many
was much
Laches: True.
day Plato
intellectuals of his
in
He
especially geometry. to
believed that
any system of thought, and he mathematician. In
self a
more than assign ideas
this,
him
fact,
Plato
was
it
basic
liked to call him-
that
is
it
lowers of the Sixth Century philosopher
to fight,
is willitjg
fewer and inferior men
will be
hard to
pose that he has also advantages of position;
fol-
—would you say
of such a one
some man
opposing army
in the
dures and remains at his post, Laches:
mathematical
systems
believe that the entire universe
upon numerical
relationships.
struse ideas that Plato into his
Plato
some matter cussion
which
in
written dia-
group of people discusses
The
disin
follows a skillfully concealed
it
plan. Socrates
often the leading character, be-
much
as he
behaved
in
is
in the
should say
.
.
is
the braver?
the latter, Socrates.
.
is
a foolish endur-
ance?
tone, but in fact
having
that he, or
Laches: That
true.
is
The Dialogues cannot
possibly be actual records
of Socrates' conversations, but undoubtedly they
of far-reaching importance.
is
.
who
was these ab-
It
always natural and conversational
is
.
to
borrowed and incorporated
a
I
Socrates: But, surely, this
the
was constructed
own philosophical system. set down his philosophy
logues, in each of
and
He had come
.
opposite circumstances to these and yet en-
who had
formulated the Pythagorean theorem every school-
mystical meanings of numbers.
cal-
will help him,
against him than there are with him; and sup-
boy knows. Pythagoras' investigations had been concerned with
endures
and wisely
and knows that others
and that there
took his mathematical
from the writings of the Pythagoreans,
war, and
culates
he was a great deal
much more
so
label.
a
who
Socrates: Take the case of one
interested in the science of mathematics,
life.
He
subjects
are developments of his ideas
and methods. And the
message of the early Dialogues Socratic. Later on,
own
ideas, he
when
continued
and even continued It is
his
thoughts
He
also
undoubtedly
to
use the dialogue form
spokesman.
to use Socrates as a
characteristic of
down
is
Plato began to express his
him
that he should
in this indirect
have
set
way, and he did
ideas to keen analysis, reveals cracks and flaws in
it
the reasoning of his colleagues, and reduces his
only be found by arduous search, and could never
for a reason.
believed that the truth could
for
be presented as dogma. In their slow and careful
the purpose of discovering the truth. In one dia-
exploration of philosophical problems from more
logue, for instance, Plato has Socrates question a
than one point of view, the Dialogues dramatize
opponents
character
to
impotence— but always, and only,
named Laches on
the nature of courage:
this search
truth. Socrates:
I
am
sure, Laches, that
you would
consider courage to be a very noble quality.
and show how
They were
difficult
it
search: the self-questioning that goes
man when
he
is
is
to find the
also intended to illustrate another
on within
a
troubled by large and fundamental
issues. Plato may have used the dialogue form— so human and lively and dramatic— as an outlet for his own inner struggles, turning those struggles into
drama
a literary
in
which the chief events
his actual philosophy
—that
is,
are ideas.
also allowed Plato to express both
The dialogue
and
his philosophical attitude
both a body of ideas and a method of
ar-
riving at them. Deeply involved in his search for truth, Plato
the
may have
believed that the
method was
more important of the two, but the scope and
multiplicity of things perceived
merely "appearance"; a
world of Forms, or Ideas.
templation, though
arts.
many
Plato expanded and revised
of his
trine
was
a consistent, highly organized
lived.
liking for the time in
he aimed at an ideal quite remote from
complishments of men
to reality.
which he
a source of
tocles
and
Pericles
meant nothing
to
it.
The
ac-
and Themis-
like Miltiades
him; they had
with harbors and dockyards and walls
"filled the city
known
more im-
too
removed from the world
consummate
a
he wanted poetry excluded from his ideal
because
system of
Far from wishing to revive Periclean Athens,
be
far
words, and responded more than he liked
represented an imperfect approach
it
At the same time no
was
Although he himself was
to poetry,
state
thought. Plato had
it
high a value. Plato attacked the fine
set so
He thought them
artist in
but right from the start his philosophical doc-
may sometimes
it
portant than the world of the senses on which the
Greeks
achievement for one man. During the course of his life
world, was
the Form, or Idea,
meaning and substance.
through intuition. In either case
of Ideas.
ideas,
it
It is
This world of Forms must be sought through con-
quality of his actual philosophy are an astonishing
long
which gives
of a thing
by the senses was
reality, the "real"
much
that lay
ment.
He
stories of
that he rejected the senses as
Plato believed that
truth,
beyond the scope of
insisted that there
was
there
rational argu-
was truth
in the old
rewards and punishments after death for
actions done in
and he made these rewards and
life,
punishments the cornerstone of
Thus
system of mor-
his
by
and tributes instead of with righteousness and tem-
ality.
perance." Even their political ideas seemed to him
mystical sense of another world. Plato himself at-
false, for
he believed not in political liberty, but in
order. In his Republic,
down
his notions of
and
what
Laws, he set
later, his
a state
ought
to be.
He
believed in government by a wise few, especially trained for the task, an intellectual and moral
These "philosopher-kings
'
philosophy
is
tached these beliefs to monotheism. sist
on monotheism
that the religious
life
in others, but
was
fortified
He
a
did not in-
he did believe
a necessary
foundation to
morality and law. Plato's strength lies in this
elite.
would be educated from
his rational
ticism and logic.
Once
his
combination of mys-
assumptions are granted,
childhood until the age of 35, by which time they
everything seems to follow from them. Yet this
would be
method
fit
to
govern the
ideal education in detail,
state. Plato
described this
and went on
to lay
down
the laws and the administrative structure of
his
ideal state.
These
phy
that
was
at
were based on
a philoso-
once penetrating and all-embracing.
Like other mathematicians of his day Plato believed that
all
the eye,
applied to the physical universe. to
political notions
matter,
however various
was governed by
a
it
appeared to
few basic laws. The
of assumption and deduction, so entirely
right in mathematics, runs into trouble
show
When
that the physical world, too,
certain rules, he dealt a cruel Plato, these rules
were God-given.
great artificer. Physical plained, not
blow
by looking
when
is
must obey
to science.
To
God was
the
phenomena were at
it
Plato set out
to be ex-
them, but by speculating
on why God had made them
so.
Thus
Plato ignored
A NEW POWER BORN
IN BATTLE
greatest gift in order to save the Republic.
A young
soldier,
Marcus Curtius, declared was Roman cour-
that
Rome's chief
age.
Then, on horseback, he plunged into
a
asset
deep chasm that had opened up
Forum. The moment of picted in the relief at
in the
his sacrifice
de-
is
left.
In a series of local
wars the Romans
pushed outward from the Tiber. At
Rome imposed
first
on
treaties of alliance
its
vanquished neighbors, becoming the leader
and the chief beneficiary of the Latin
League. Inevitably this arrangement proIn the
mid-Fourth Century B.C.,
Mace-
as
But
in
dominance
new power was emerging— Rome.
feated and subjugated
Tales of
and early history of the na-
tion
which began
According required
to
on the Tiber.
as a city
one legend, the Romans were
by the gods
to
the need for observation and experiment the basis of science. In rejecting
all
accomplishments, he even rejected
their
sacrifice
which
is
of Athens' past
suc-
its scientific
With litical
fend
in Greece,
local rivals
all
system,
Rome its
his
de-
finally
former
allies.
absorbed into
Rome was now
its
po-
free to de-
against other enemies.
interests
its
The new wars
338 B.C., the very
Macedon confirmed
the neighboring peninsula of Italy another
the legends
that followed
made Rome
master of the whole peninsula by 265 B.C.
He
for disorder.
turned men's attention
the world of the senses
and the
life
away from
of action to a
transcendent, invisible, abstract world. This was in-
deed a revolution.
cesses.
In the end Plato's
main conclusions seem wrong.
His ideal state was not only impossible
to realize,
knew, but was based on postulates that ran
counter to
revolts.
year that Philip of
bloody battles and lofty heroism dominate
as he
voked
donia was gaining supremacy in Greece, on
human
nature.
The
Athens
collapse of
had so frightened him that he was prepared
to
im-
order even on the activities of the mind,
pose
a rigid
and
this carried order too far.
Plato's philosophical
work was continued, and often
Plato's
and contradicted, by girus in Plato's
Macedonia
Academy.
In
Aristotle, at the
volume
were even
his writings all
of
them were,
speaking, his own. Parts of Aristotle's work
were done by assistants working under
system and marvelous lan-
Sta-
age of 17 to study at
greater than Plato's, although not strictly
criticized
who came from
his guid-
ance, but his personality dominates every piece of
guage make him one of the most gifted men who
writing that bears his name. Even the literary char-
ever lived. Nothing was beyond the reach of his
acteristics of
subtle, discriminating intellect.
But he represented
the antithesis of almost everything that had
Greece great. He believed that action was
portant than thought, that personal success in
had no value, that
political liberty
was
a
made
less
fancy
im-
itself
name
these
writings
are
Aristotle's
own.
Unlike Plato's elegant dialogues, Aristotle's mature writing
is
shaped into closely reasoned
which concern clarity
for style or phrasing
is
treatises in
sacrificed to
and conciseness of thought.
Aristotle
was
rightly called
by the poet Dante
"the master of them that know." Almost no branch of
knowledge seems
an experimental
have been alien
to
approach
sentially his
a
him. Es-
Although he took the
scientist.
whole world of knowledge as look remained scientific.
to
knowledge was that of
to all
his
Plato
If
domain, his out-
was fundamentally
mathematician, Aristotle was fundamentally a
ologist. Plato rejected the senses as
bi-
being untrust-
worthy; Aristotle accepted them as one of the most important sources of knowledge and as the means for discovering the laws that
govern the physical
world. Aristotle
enormously advanced the inquiries of
the scientists
who had
preceded him.
human
logic, to
his deepest strength as a philosopher: his tolerance
to
human
society and
behavior, and even to the art of words in rhetoric
and poetry. In each case he
first
collected
and
ar-
ranged the evidence; then drew up distinctions and classifications;
and
finally
proceeded to general con-
and wisdom,
He
believed in both ex-
periment and theory, and his whole work
by
common
in-
from the behavior of animals
the conviction that
both
The
than Aristotle's.
reject
human
societies Aristotle did not
Athens' recent past. Instead, he
what was good and bad
in
it
tried to see
by analyzing the na-
ture of political constitutions, describing both their
strengths and weaknesses.
He was profoundly hu-
man,
a trait not
ings,
but fully exposed in his Ethics. This treatise
combined the good
always visible
Aristotle's
life
generous conception of
with the personal morality introduced
by Socrates and the had brought
own
in his scientific writ-
intellectual virtues
to the fore.
To
which Plato
Aristotle, the goal of
every action was happiness, but not necessarily
it
in
ultimately intelligible and
is
divine.
influence of both Plato and Aristotle has
has been said that some
It
every age some
men follow a system
which everything
of thought
worked out from abstract
is
principles
by stern
system
which everything
in
men
and others Aristotelians: that
are born Platonists,
in
In examining
human and
been incalculable.
is,
other
of existence,
level
to the rules of correct
thinking, a universe that rewards inquirers with
sense so cool and balanced that
a
angry or absurd prejudices.
inherited his sense of a single uni-
verse that encompasses every
often seems impossible to conceive of an approach
spired it
is
his lack of
Modern man has
clusions that were always balanced, perceptive and well supported by evidence.
use of one's
and devised
and animals.
Later he took a similar approach to weather,
metaphysics and
full
essential nature. In defining this goal he displayed
the biological structure of living things classifications for all kinds of plants
came from the
pleasure. Happiness
He examined
logic,
while other
men
examined
is
follow a in detail
and conclusions are drawn cautiously. Plato has
ways been
a
al-
philosopher for mystics, and a political
guide for advocates of unity and order.
He
provided
the foundations of a philosophy which, in different
forms, infused religious thought for several centuries
and eventually passed
it still
into Christianity,
exerts an influence.
his political ideas passed
an thinkers, where,
in a
on
By to
a
where
roundabout route
modern
authoritari-
debased form, they too
exert an influence. Aristotle laid
down
on which science was pursued
for centuries.
still
the principles
When
APHALANXSECTION, a 256-fria«S(juflre,rowW/i^fif a/one
or as part
of a full phalanx of several thousarjds. In battle the five front
ranks extended their spears. Those behind rested theirs on the
men II
providing a bristling barrier against arrows. Philip
in front,
used these troops
to
prepare the
way
for
cavalry charges.
ans had fought against the Greeks in the Persian
Wars, and
ceeded
to the
make
to
civilization
In 359 B.C., Philip
trifling.
Greek
all
He began
lands.
moved south
into Thessaly
east into Thrace.
By
exploiting the mines of
which yielded him 1,000
Pangaeum
in Thrace,
talents of gold a year (the
equivalent of eight million dollars today),
amassed enough money
Arab
him It
Arab scholars
phalanx formation— a
North
Africa, Sicily
and Spain
re-
to create
the foremost military
was
world preserved them. In the 13th Century A.D., in
a
moving
and armed with spears 14
ern times.
in
In one way, however, both Plato and Aristotle
were failures as
way
Neither of them saw
theorists.
out of the political tangle
left in
a
Greece by the
By 352
made
the center of
it
losophers. Dionysius' empire hardly survived the
for leadership against this
creator,
have thought
it
and Plato and Aristotle may
an eccentric and unnatural enter-
which could never be maintained. Yet
prise
in the
to
life.
same
northern frontier—
Macedonia stood tion to the
in a
Greek descent, aspired sense. rule
somewhat ambiguous
to
But they ruled over
was
force
brought
Greek world.
Its
kings,
rela-
who were
of
be Greeks in the fullest a
mixed people, and
despotic, not democratic.
their
The Macedoni-
threat, they looked its
feelings
much power and eloquence by a new generation of men who brought to speechmaking the
not in Greece proper, but on
its
reli-
anywhere
toward Philip. Athenian policy was discussed with
orators,
Macedonia.
new
Athens. But Athens was divided in
middle of the century the situation began to change,
in
him
six or
Greek
Insofar as the Greeks looked
gious
its
to
it
all,
march on Delphi, whose sacred
to
ern Italy, but this feat impressed neither of the phi-
death of
he tied
had reached Thermopylae, and
B.C., he
shrine of Apollo
and south-
force,
seven wives.
Fourth
had
in Sicily
by military
alliances in marriage. Philip had, in
was preparing
empire
en-
and
domains. Sometimes, instead of
to his
a state
Century B.C. one Greek, Dionysius of Syracuse, built a substantial
He
states,
while they fought each other he increased his forces
and added
by
for a civi-
talent.
couraged dissension among the Greek
unity of the Greek states; both assumed that the
was the only possible center
new
body of men
feet long. Philip's skill
diplomacy matched his military
annexing
lized, Hellenic life. In the first years of the
of his time.
sometimes 16 ranks deep,
in close order,
Peloponnesian War; neither was interested in the
city-state
commander
solid yet flexible
turned them to the West, where they formed the
mod-
Philip
an army that made
professional army, trained to fight in a
groundwork
for the resurgence of science in
suc-
his control into the outlying regions
of Macedonia, then he
these principles were forgotten in Europe, the
II
throne of Macedonia, and determined
himself master of
by extending and
Greek
their contribution to
had hitherto been
who
and
skill
to poetry.
which an
One
side
earlier generation
was
led
by
had
Isocrates,
held that the real danger to Athens was the
Persians,
still
sporadically active across the Aegean.
In 346 B.C., Isocrates appealed to Philip to unite
the Greeks and take the offensive against Persia.
But
in the
war of words he was outclassed by
a
master of oratory, Demosthenes, the greatest of
all
Greek speakers.
Demosthenes had no humor, no
of
lightness
touch, but he had extraordinary oratorical power.
Appealing
to his
who meant
to
countrymen
the tyrant
to resist
overwhelm them, he mounted
a
erful case against Philip, driving each point
may have
with relentless force. Demosthenes
for
it
him.
to
argument and persuasion fight for
upon
their
used
to
make
In the
liberty.
the
Philip,
He
first
was harsh
Although there
treated
by
mosthenes
talks
big
.
cannot
he
.
.
rest
with what he has conquered; he
cause, but
content
men
It
like
us,
while
we
When, Athenians, action?
What
sit idle
are
you
you are compelled, are
we
For
my own
to
I
I
powers of eloquence
and impossible not
clear that the
to
a lost
system he was strugtime and was
its
few others saw,
He was
that Greece
for?
Until
and he alone, could unify the Greek
But
what
he succeeded
happening now?
in
doing
so.
was
confident that he,
waiting
is
to
impossible not to admire De-
ready for political unity.
He had
and
city-states,
achieved what
theretofore had scarcely been thought possible, ex-
think that for a free peo-
cept as the loosest kind of alliance. Having united
ple there can be no greater compulsion than
shame
all their
is
presume.
think of what part
is
Philip saw, as
and do nothing.
you take the necessary
will
It
has seen him largely through
for his patriotism,
it
cul-
fated to be absorbed in a larger system.
taking in more, everywhere casting his net
round
its
his capacity
Demosthenes, who feared and
gling to perpetuate had outlived
always
is
no question of
sympathize with him as the gallant leader of
no choice of action or inaction; he blusters
and
is
and bribery, Philip has been badly
posterity.
denounce him.
you
as the cen-
Hellenism and profoundly respected
ter of
hated him and used
fellow's insolence has soared: he leaves
Ath-
to
questionable stran-
Greek world, Philip looked upon Atheos
for chicanery
which the
to
A
was occasioned by sentiment.
the eyes of
Observe, Athenians, the height
Thebes but generous
good part of that generosity
a
ger from the semibarbarian fringes of the civilized
of his attacks
harangues the Athenians:
his military leadership in the
to
Undoubtedly
ture.
Demosthenes
all
and confederated
In the peace treaties that followed this brief war,
the Athenians
Philippic,"
"First
most of them under
ens.
lacked
city-states at Corinth
League of Corinth.
home
his gifts of
all
Greek
Philip
ardor of his love for the city. Athens
in the
meant everything
After this victory Philip called a congress of
the
pow-
Athens' mission, but he made up
Pericles' sense of
tia.
Greece, Philip prepared for even further exploits—
for their position.
the conquest of Persia. But just as he
was on the
verge of attacking the Persian Empire, he was struck
Demosthenes' insight into accurate, but only
prehend
Philip's
up
Philip's intentions
to a point.
He
was
could not com-
grand plan, but he did foresee his
moves, and made carefully considered and practicable proposals to counter them.
and eloquent argument he got
Through constant his
oppose Philip and persuaded Thebes in the struggle.
But
in
the
countrymen to join
summer
to
Athens
of 338 B.C.,
Philip routed the allied force at Chaeronea in Boeo-
down. In 336
B.C., in the midst of a feast celebrat-
ing the marriage of a daughter, Philip dered.
The murderer may have been
or possibly an agent of Philip's pias. In
any
case,
it
first
wife,
Olym-
Olympias' son Alexander
succeeded to his father's throne,
As
was mur-
a Persian agent,
at
now
the age of 20.
turned out, Alexander was to outstrip his
markable father in the
in military skill, in
range of his ambitions.
re-
diplomacy and
THE ORCHESTRA
(or diliuing floor)
ill
C
the base of an altar
ENDURING THEATER Of
the hundreds of Greek plays
full,
but
it
is
clear
from
greatest achievements in the
drama
are obscure, but
whose
this small
it
titles
are
still
known, only 45 survive
whole history of
theater.
The
Greek theater came
to deal
behaved
in
this choral
in
beginning,
with profound subjects. The tragedies examined
the nature of evil in an effort to edify the spirits
origins of Hellenic
probably began with dances and songs performed
honor of the god Dionysus. Gradually developing from the
in
remnant that Greek drama ranks among the
mind by showing how
the presence of evil.
Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, this
In
the
art
expression, offering a powerful and profound
tragedies
of
form achieved vision
of
great and heroic
the its
playwrights
most exalted
man's inner nature.
Ih
^
I
V
!^
wn
LORD OF THE PLAYS In the beginning Greek theater
matic story
telling;
was
it
was more than dra-
a religious rite
honoring
Dionysus. Youngest of the gods, Dionysus was the lord of the
good
and giver of wine. In his
life
manifestations he was the god of revelry. his followers
were women, called maenads. Intox-
maenads raced through
icated with wine, the
woods as the
at
first
Among
night in
drama grew
torchlit in
his
orgiastic
revels.
name and took on
the
But its
various forms, Dionysus became a more serious figure.
sus,
Perhaps because goats were sacred
to
Diony-
perhaps because goats were prizes for the best A PRANCING
plays, the highest called tragedy,
form of the plays came
which
in
to
be
Greek means "goat song."
MAENAD
carries a staff believe,
ATTHE GRAPE
wears a snake as headdress and
and leopard
began
in
ecstatic
his grapevine
(left)
flaunts
two symbols:
and drinking cup. Other symbols— the ivy crown,
the panther-skin cloak— stress his role as god of wild
things.
many rites.
The
PRESS Dionysiaii satyrs marked by horses
ears (above) preside over the
THE INVENTOR OF WINE, Dionysus
art of acting,
dancing of Dionysian
cub.
up more grapes
to
making
of the wine.
tails
One
and
brings
be pressed beneath the other's dancing
feet.
^^B
A GLORIOUS SETTING FOR MAJESTIC The
DRAMA
theaters were outdoor auditoriums
where large
audiences sat upon stone benches. Starting time
was daybreak. Often the
citizens
would
sit
through
three tragedies, a satyr play (a grotesque tragicomic
play with actors wearing horses'
and
a
tails
and
ears)
comedy. The theater was considered part of
Greek's education, and everyone was encouraged
a to
come. The admission charge would be refunded to playgoers
who
could not afford
it,
ask to be reimbursed for the loss of In
Athens during drama
and they could a
day's wages.
festivals all business
was
suspended, the law courts were closed and prisoners
were released from
jail.
Even women, barred from
most public events, were welcomed
THE SEAT OF HONOR
in
priest of Dionysus.
Other
seats.
skeuioii (a colonnade that eventually {or scene building),
became the stage) and the skene which was both dressing hut and stage backdrop.
Then came
at the theater.
Athens' theater was reserved for the high
officials,
priests claimed
50 of the 67 front-row
guests of honor and ordinary citizens.
0k. A
MAKER OF COMEDIES,
ble inspecting actors'
1
ihf table are other
the playwright
masks.
masks
He
for a
Menander
holds the
is
mask
shown
in
mar-
of a youth.
On
young woman and older man.
EARLY TRICKS OF THE STAGE Greek theaters were so
large that
it
was hard
to
head;
funnel-shaped mouths
communicate moods and
feelings to distant spec-
acted as
Masks were used
that instantly identified
was
tators.
the character as old or young,
py or
man
or
woman, hap-
sad. Further to create a larger-than-life ap-
megaphones
a rolling
to
the
in
direct
machine— in Greek, from which came
masks with calm expressions on one
side to
change moods with one swift movement of his
A
derrick per-
mitted actors playing gods to arrive on the stage
pearance, the actor was equipped with thick-soled
vices:
that
contrivance that was used to simulate
indoor scenes in the outdoor theater.
boots and robes with sleeves. There were other de-
and angry ones on the other, allowing the actor
masks
project the voice. There
from the heavens.
It
was
called
mechane—
the Latin deus
ex machiua, or "god from the machine," a phrase still
used to
mean any
artificial or
miraculous event
introduced into a story to help solve a plot
difficulty.
MASKS FOR TRAGEDY represent King Priam of Troy and a youth. These are terra-cotta made of linen and plaster, once used by Creek actors.
copies of masks, probably
FROZEN EMOTIONS are etched on helped actors submerge their
the faces of a devilish satyr
own
personalities in
the
and a buffoon. Masks
characters that they played.
Li*'!!?
V
m"
«i
COMEDY, TRAGEDY AND A WREATH OF IVY Two
forms of Greek drama, comedy and tragedy,
came
to domir\ate the
Dionysian theater, ahhough
the other dramatic forms, the dithyramb (or to
hymn
Dionysus) and satyr play, never died. In Athens
two
festivals
were devoted each year
and tragedy. The City Dionysia
to
comedy March-
festival, in
April, centered
on tragedy. The Lenaea
named
Greek month (January-February)
the
for
festival,
traditionally reserved for celebrating weddings,
was
devoted chiefly to comedies. The playwrights submitted their work to an chon. to the
If
official
known
as the Ar-
Archon approved he "gave
the
poet— i.e., assured him that
his
a chorus"
work would
be performed. Competition was fierce and even a
cho-
was assigned
to a
famous writers were, on occasion, "refused rus."
The
choregus
successful dramatist rich
(a
citizen
choregus then chose a
to
flute player
proceeded with the staging.
openhanded,
a lavish
pay the
If
and
costs). a
the choregus
judged the plays, and the
winners were awarded the Dionysiac wreath of
ROWDY FUN two
tattered
drunks
was
production emerged. At each
festival a jury of citizens
tN
The
chorus and
(left),
wearing grotesque cos-
ivy.
IN
SOLEMN THOUGHT Melpomene, Muse
of tragedy, contemplates
tumes and masks, hold each other up. Marked by an earthy
a theatrical mask. This terra-cotta figurine was found at Tanagra,
humor, comedies were often trenchant pieces of
near Athens, which was the center of the best of Creek drama.
social criticism.
153
THE SPIRIT OF GREEK DRAMA, representing not a scene from any one play but a mood that expresses them
Athens by
its
all,
re-created in
is
National Theatre group and Creek
Army
soldiers.
A FLOURISHING THEATER ZOOO YEARS OLD With
the emergence of
West, Greek drama was
Roman some
Rome all
as mistress of the
but forgotten— save by
playwrights. Then, 16 centuries after Christ,
of the plays were printed for the
Greek drama began tine scholars
and
tragedy with
its
ets translated
a
time.
first
remarkable recovery. Floren-
artists,
trying to re-create
Greek
choruses, created grand opera. Po-
or adapted the ancient
Greek into
German and English. Now, there few countries in the West where Greek drama
rolling French,
are in
In
some form cannot be seen and heard every year. America it is regularly presented in Greek on
some
college campuses. In translation the plays ap-
pear in professional theaters in
New
York and
else-
where, and modern playwrights have experimented
with masks and choruses in their
drama has become
part of every
own
plays.
Greek
man's education.
THETROJAN WOMEN," in a its
1964
New
women
Euripides' tragedy of 415 B.C.,
is
shown below
York production. Before the walls of the burning
are being given to the
victors
to
serve as
city
their slaves.
"'
J'.
; •^^*^;
When
Philip of
Macedon
died in 336 B.C., his son
Alexander came into an impressive inheritance. Un-
much more
der Philip's rule Greece was politically stable than
had ever been. He had successfully
it
united in the League of Corinth
all
the city-states
except Sparta and he had shrewdly permitted the
members
League's
Few
of the
Greek
much of
to retain
states
autonomy.
their
had Macedonian garrisons,
and no tribute was exacted. Philip had
insisted
only that the states undertake not to fight
8
among
themselves and not to overthrow the government in
power
at the
time the peace treaties were signed.
young
Philip had learned to admire Greece as a
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
man, when he was
He longed and to make
hostage at Thebes.
a
to be a Hellene, to lead the Hellenes,
his
own
people Hellenic.
Even
so, the
dom was
the
whom
Greeks, to
first
individual free-
of faith, found Philip's
article
control hard to accept. Political stability, however desirable, did not justify the loss of their right to
conduct their
own
affairs.
Consequently they could
never truly sympathize with the goal of Philip's
Alexander dreamed of
heir.
whole world that
a
would be confederated— and he came incredibly to achieving that
led
ly,
the
to
which was
close
dream. His near success, ironical-
ultimate downfall of
his cultural
homeland,
the
just as
it
country
had been
his father's.
When
Alexander ascended the throne
of 20, Macedonia's
and
power was so firmly
Philip's policy of
world needed only left off.
He
to pick
his father's
for organization, he ality.
dream
his
up where
did so, but in his
Alexander had
age
expansion so well developed,
young king with
that the
at the
established,
had
a
of a unified
his father
had
own way. Though
ambition and capacity very different person-
Philip had been a cautious, patient, often de-
vious man; he had never struck without careful planning.
The youthful, headstrong Alexander
to settle
problems by immediate action. Making
liked
decisions with great speed, he took extraordinary risks; his sheer force
and drive overcame the
His favorite book was the
Iliad.
risks.
Alexander saw
himself as a second Achilles, and not entirely with-
out LEADING THE CHARGE, Alexander the Great, ardent and brave, Persians. field
A
"monster of celerity," the Macedonian was
cheering his formations forward. In
many
all
fights
battles he suffered
justice. If
ever a
man was worthy
to
be classed
the
over the battle-
wounds.
with the heroes of Greek legend, Alexander was that
man. He was heroic
in
his
physique,
his
strength, his courage, in his unflagging endurance
and tle
his
and
gifts
unconquerable his confident
will,
in his delight in bat-
assumption that he possessed
He was no
denied to other men.
and
the strength of his affections
Assembly quickly congratulated Alexander, and Greek
loyalties, in his
remained Macedonian
tion of Sparta,
Alexander
less heroic in
the
with the continuing solitary excep-
states,
now
allies.
took on a project that Philip had
planned but never carried out: an invasion of PerSolid political reasons led
him
unrestrained relaxations, in his generosity to his
sia.
enemies and his sudden outbursts of furious pas-
For a century Persia had interfered increasingly in
sion.
And
devoted
were mainly
Greek
affairs
and had constantly oppressed the
he handled the political prob-
Greek
cities in
Asia Minor. There was always the
although his
to warfare,
to this decision.
and
life
talents
lems created by his military conquests with brilliant
dangerous possibility
originality.
might step up
under
that,
a
strong king,
it
troublemaking and once again
its
The
actively take the offensive against Greece. Alexan-
philosopher imbued his young pupil with a love of
der had personal reasons for the invasion, too. Avid
was Alexander's boyhood
Aristotle
Greek
art
and poetry, and
instilled in
teacher.
him
philosophy and science. In
interest in
a lasting later
life
Alexander had philosophers accompany him on
campaigns
to advise
him on
political matters.
totle's
mineralogist and a meteorologist.
own
Of
Aris-
particular philosophical bent, Alexander
retained almost no trace.
It
paradox that
a
is
a
youthful prince from a semibarbarian state should
and
for identification with Greece,
better
way
by attacking Greece's ancient
His
military retinue also included geographers, botanists, a
for glory
young King knew no In
some ways
taking.
mous
It
the invasion
distance from
the
win both than
foe.
was
army
required a large
to
a reckless
to
under-
move an
enor-
supply bases, through an
its
unfamiliar country, against a power incalculably rich
money and men. Furthermore,
in
Persia
was gov-
erned by a patriotic and devoted military caste that
show
was eager
to
the whole world, while his wise and sophisticated
enemy
had weaknesses. The Achaemenid dyn-
teacher took the narrow view that the city-state
asty,
was the ultimate unit of
Darius
have conceived of
Within
a
a political
system that embraced
civilization.
accession Alexander ex-
year of his
tended his dominions northward to the Danube River and westward to the Adriatic Sea.
He
then
also
in
I
But the
war.
which had produced the formidable
figures of
and Xerxes, had suffered the usual
hereditary despotisms. III,
prowess
its
had come
to
The
current
fate of
King, Darius
murder
the throne through the
He was no leader— in brave man. The best of his
he
of his predecessor.
fact,
turned his attention to Greece, where Thebes and
was not even
generals
Athens were threatening
and satraps might have been able
ander put
down
B.C. Then, to punish the city for as treachery, he
had
its
League. Alex-
to bolt the
the insurrection in
Thebes
in
335
what he regarded
inhabitants slaughtered or
sold into slavery and razed
all
of
its
buildings ex-
for his
a
quarter.
Many
and were unlikely
age lesson of Thebes brought results.
The
sav-
The Athenian
chance.
of the Empire's subject peoples had
Pindar himself was dead long since, but Alexander
a Hellene.
a
Alexander could also count on help from another
no loyalty or affection
revered him and was eager to prove that even a
compensate
hierarchy of the Empire did not give them
cept for temples— and the house of Pindar the poet.
Macedonian conqueror could be
to
shortcomings, but the rigidly structured
their
Persian
rulers
an invading army. In
Greek mercenary army had dem-
401-400 B.C.
a
onstrated just
how
move
for
to resist
easy
across Persia.
it
was
for foreign troops to
The mercenaries were
in
the
^
service of Cyrus, a rebellious Persian Prince. Seek-
ing the throne of his brother, Artaxerxes -j-i
led his
Euphrates River. There he was
tar as the
were
and the Greeks
Athenian, Xenophon, in a
Cyrus
II,
10,000 Greeks toward Babylon and got as
later
A
leaderless.
left
killed,
young
wrote of their retreat
famous book. Anabasis. Harassed by enemy
attacks, plagued
by bad weather and hampered by
made
unfamiliar terrain, they
most 1,300 miles,
The
their
way
back,
al-
to the Black Sea.
Persians had
been unable to destroy the
Greek mercenaries of Cyrus. Alexander, with
his far
stronger army, had good reason to believe that he
could win. In 334 B.C. he crossed the Hellespont,
which Xerxes had crossed
in the opposite direction
nearly a century and a half before. Soon afterward
he defeated the Persian forces gathered to meet him
on the Asian
side at the River Granicus.
spoils of this victory he sent
armor back
to
From
the
300 suits of Persian
Athens. With them went the mes-
sage, "Alexander, the son of Philip,
except the Spartans, have
won
and the Greeks,
this spoil
from the
barbarians of Asia," thus expressing in one brief
and self-assured sentence sians, his
his
contempt
even greater contempt
for the Per-
for the Spartans,
and his conviction that he was furthering FROM A PERSIAN PALACE comes
this relief of a
the Emperor. Part of a panel
on a stairway
depicted for ordinary people
who were
what went on
whim
there.
in
camel
being,
led in
of lovely Thais,
who was
it
not allowed to enter the Audience Hall
Alexander burned the palace, legends say,
a
Greek
tribute to
Darius' palace at Persepolis,
to satisfy a
the mistress of one of his generals, Ptolemy.
cause.
As
the campaign progressed, Alexander's
plan
expanded. Originally his purpose had been simply to destroy the Persian
army. Before long he had
decided to take over the whole Persian Empire.
he went on to achieve gle battle.
Of
all
this
aim without losing
And
a sin-
the great generals of the ancient
world, Alexander was surely the greatest.
He
pos-
sessed an almost clairvoyant insight into strategy
and was
a
consummately resourceful
Napoleon, he believed
tactician. Like
in swiftness of
movement,
but he could be patient too, as he showed in his long siege of the formidable fortress of Tyre.
He was enormously
skillful at dealing
with un-
Alexander's goal at the start of the Persian in-
familiar tactics of warfare, such as the use of char-
armed with scythes, elephants deployed
iots
in
vasion was the destruction of the Persian army.
and evasive, encircling movements by nomad
If
he thought of the Empire
horsemen. Sometimes he got unexpected help from
it
simply as
battle,
who was
enemy. Darius,
the
cruel as well as
cow-
did
em-
up
ardly, treated prisoners with a harshness that
the
bittered
Macedonian
Darius
victories
from the
fled
two major
333 B.C. and Gaugamela
battles, at Issus in
B.C.,
In
soldiers.
field.
in
331
With these two
Alexander broke the main Persian
resist-
ance and in the autumn of 331 B.C. he entered Babylon, the winter capital of the Persian kings. In
December
of the
same year he entered the summer
capital at Susa.
From Susa he went on
monial capital
at
Persepolis.
Here he collected
treasure so vast, says Plutarch, that
mules and 5,000 camels Persepolis, Alexander
King
the Great
clear. Possibly
in a it
fit
remove
it
was
at last
it.
a
took 20,000
it
Before leaving
burned the huge palace of have never been
for reasons that a
whim, possibly he did
drunken excitement,
of
to signify
had
to
to the cere-
it
or possibly he did
that the Persian invasion of Greece
been avenged.
Alexander already considered himself King of
Darius was
of 330 B.C., Alexander
him.
He had
still
was
in
and more
govern
without also governing it
effectively he
the Greek world.
was
statecraft as he
menid
kings.
the Great
Now,
King of
at last,
He
gious and social customs.
many
permitted each country to keep
Hellenic ideas.
Greek
of the
number
a
The most important one was
He was
city-state.
name and among
of
that
with his
liberal
the cities he founded were
no
fewer than 16 Alexandrias. Most of them were built
from the foundation up. The one was the Egyptian
As
his
city
first
and most famous
which became,
century
a
center of the Hellenistic world.
Empire grew Alexander saw
Somehow
that
Asia
he had to bring Persians and
Greeks together into
a
he married a Sogdian Princess, Roxane. Alex-
ander does not seem to have cared
much
"he was wont
sensible that he
was mortal;
as
much
Alexander was
frailty
officially
and imbecility
of
human
for
wom-
say that
to
sleep and the act of generation chiefly
that weariness and pleasure proceed
he headed
327 B.C.,
In
single unit.
partly for political reasons, but perhaps also for
cemetery of the Achae-
role
reli-
extent,
national institu-
its
At the same time he introduced
tions.
local
some
even, to
Greece.
sent back to Persepo-
new
at
summer
in pursuit of
came upon Darius' body near
Persia. In his
with
it
skillful
Since his main concern was to keep the Empire
en. Plutarch writes that
for burial in the royal
to be as
functioning, Alexander tolerated
resentment of his mismanagement of the Persian
lis
and that
it,
merge
to
at military matters.
love,
it
had
He proved
when the Persian leader was suddenly slain by his own men, finally brought to rebellion by their long
Hecatompylos, and ordered
more
could not be administered simply as a colony of
almost caught up with his quarry
defense. Alexander
setting
he saw that he could not hold
territory,
the Empire to
beyond
control
establish his
question
at large. In the
marched north
to
Consequently he
military garrisons. But as he took over
later, the
Persia, but his right to the throne
as long as
little
he thought of
at all,
a source of wealth.
made him to say,
as
from the same nature.
"
Three
years after his marriage to Roxane, he married the
east to take possession of the remaining Persian
elder daughter of Darius in a purely political union.
provinces. After two years he reached and subdued
This wedding was
Bactria and Sogdiana;
he
now
controlled
lands that had belonged to Darius.
all
the
time,
a
communal
affair: at
on Alexander's order, 80 of
officers
married 80 Persian
girls
the
same
his top-ranking
of
noble birth.
Further
consolidate
to
Empire
his
drafted Persian cavalry into his
Alexander
own army and
or-
dered 30,000 Persian boys to be trained in Mace-
donian combat techniques. for himself
and
He adopted
Persian dress
time even tried to get his
for a
soldiers to follow the Persian
custom of prostration
before the King. But his Macedonian captains were
They
affronted by this.
felt
that
it
implied worship,
and they did not think that Alexander was
Once Alexander
Macedonian captains and urged them whole world as their brothers.
a god.
called together his Persian
their
home and
all
to
and
regard the
good men
as
This was not a plea for the brother-
hood of man. That
idea
Alexander
the phi-
left to
who made it a His own vision of
They
he was setting himself above them,
felt that
spoiling the old sense of comradeship-in-arms
which
had once characterized the Macedonian army. They treatment of the
resented his
Persians
their
as
which obliterated the age-old distinctions
equals,
between Greeks and barbarians. They were
dis-
mayed when he put Greeks under the command of Persians, and made Persians governors. More than once, Alexander was faced with conspiracy.
He
could never be sure that forces
govern occupied
cities
would not
left
revolt.
behind
He
never rule out the danger of assassination. yet he held his
enormous Empire
to
could
And
together.
After he had taken over the provinces of Bactria his conquest of the Per-
losophers of the next generation,
and Sogdiana, completing
cardinal point of their teaching.
sian Empire, Alexander turned south and headed
brotherhood was inspired by simple
ex-
political
pediency: he saw that he could not hold the Empire
without granting
He wanted
people some rights and powers.
its
his Persian captains to feel
that they
were the equals of the Macedonians and wanted the
Macedonians
Possibly
was
it
also
prompted Alexander to
be regarded as
a
to
political
announce
expediency that he
representative of
that
wished gods.
the
Quasi-divinity gave him a status that transcended his dual role as leader of the Persia.
The
Greeks and King of
Persians agreed to his wish willingly
enough; they were accustomed
to associating
with gods. The Greeks, however, scoffed idea.
gods,
was almost unheard of
himself. Divinity
man by Most
for a
the
at
his
as
to deify a
of Alexander's ideas for consolidating the little
impression
Macedonian companions. They were
fit
their
no sympathy
own
sol-
His concept of empire
crude ambitions and they had
for his desire to
two centuries
govern responsibly.
before, in the reign
the Persian Empire had included part
of that subcontinent. Determined to recapture
Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush mountains,
lowed the Kabul River down
it,
fol-
the Indus River
to
Hydaspes River. At
the
to
the Hydaspes, near a place
fought one of the most
now
called Jhelum, he
difficult battles of his entire
opponent was the Indian King, Porus,
career. His
whose army was several times
larger
ander's and superbly trained.
included war ele-
It
than Alex-
phants, and the huge beasts reduced Alexander's striking
power because
horses would not go
his
near them. By feinting a series of attacks and finally attacking from an unexpected quarter, Alexander
One of the casualties of battle, howown horse, Bucephalus. Alexander him as a boy of 12 by riding him when could. He founded a city in his memory
defeated Porus. ever,
was
had earned
others.
diers, not political scientists.
did not
man
was an honor bestowed on
Greek and Persian peoples made on
kings
Although they sometimes recognized men it
I,
and crossed overland
accept this equality.
to
into India. Nearly
of Darius
his
no one
else
on the
site of the battle,
From
the
naming
it
Bucephala.
Hydaspes Alexander advanced deeper
into India. Like
most men of
that the Indian continent jutting eastward,
and
that
his time he believed
was its
a
small peninsula
uttermost extremity
was washed by the body
of water, called simply
Ocean, that encircled the world.
Ocean and explore
reach
campaign. With
it
He
expected
to
as the climax of his long
mind he had brought with
this in
him rowers and shipwrights from Phoenicia, Cyand Egypt, and had even chosen
prus, Caria
boyhood friend named Nearchus. But
admiral, a
._
his troops
had other
ideas.
of the Persian campaigns, but not of
They had heard rumors
India.
fierce warriors
^^
an invasion of
"t ^P-*-
of vast deserts
and
334
AlCiAN-?,ry\
'Athens / M,le.us/Sa«)is
.
-r-^4 '"
"
Xy
/I
and great armies of elephants lying
R.
B.C.
Captured 334 S C. *i,^ ;, Halijcarnassus*^ _,!'|.'y| Captured 3J*B.C. \t^J
ahead. Besides, they were tired and yearned for home.
'2^
a / CRAWmS
V^UiSPCtnf
see the point
They could
'^^Or-
BLACK SBA
his
^ ~V,_^
->>n^.V-ASIaV^^^INOR
^'
I
,,.•
.
•>, t-.
'"
CAUCAMELA
'
331 B.C.
CRETE
They refused
to
march.
Alexander waited three days
When
minds.
their
would
them
for
to
change
he was convinced that they
home.
not, he agreed to start
On
the banks
of the River Hyphasis, he erected 12 altars to the
gods of Olympus, in gratitude for granting him so
many
victories
Then he divided
world's end.
the Persian Gulf.
A
in-
The
ALEXANDER'S ROUTE
X
rest
I
of the army, under Alexander, returned through the
Much
Iran.
desert.
route
of this
The heat was
now
lay
Baluchistan and
—
through scorching
so intense that the
army had o
to
march
For
at night.
a stretch of
%
EGYPT
second group went
a northerly route.
southern regions of what are
Amman
Indian
structions to explore the coastline of the
back by land, following
Oracle of
troops, sending
his
one group back by ship, under Nearchus, with
Ocean and
Siwa Visited the
and leading him within reach of the
MAIN BATTLES MACEDONIA IN
V'^, 336 B.C.
ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE
RED
ALEXANDERS
SEA
ALLIES
ALEXANDER'S ROUTE TO AND
FROM INDIA 334-323 B.C. CITIES FOUNDED BY ALEXANDER
200 miles, the
guides lost their way. Food supplies ran low and
had
the baggage animals
der brought his ships. foot,
He
to be slaughtered.
army through and shared
Alexanits
and refused water when there was not enough
In the spring of
and began almost
323 B.C. he reached Babylon,
at
once
to
regroup his army and
plan an invasion of Arabia. But in June
ney
had
The
THE EPOCHAL CAMPAIGN that Alexander began that took
him
11 years to complete
(On entering Asia he made pal aim: he left the army
for everyone.
struck him.
THE STEPS OF A MIGHTY CONQUEROR
hard-
sent his horse to the rear and went on
efforts
undermined
fever
and privations of the jourhis
hitherto
magnificent
is
in
334 B.C. and
traced on the
map
above.
a personal detour from his princito
visit
the exploits of his hero, Achilles.)
Troy, legendary scene
He began with
a mixed
of
Ma-
cedonian-Creek force of 30,000 infantrymen and 5,000 cavalry,
a
of
which the most important were the 2,000 "Companions."
The infantry included heavily armed spear and shield
and
lightly
armed
.f..;j^
^^^l^j^j^f^^i^'"^ .*«.-^'*W^
javelin throwers
and
archers.
carriers,
There was
al-
so a siege train equipped with portable towers and rams on wheels.
He grew rapidly worse, and soon could no One by one his captains filed past
health.
longer speak.
he was unable to do more than
his bed;
hand and make
'ir^Z
ARAL SEA
a sign
On
with his eyes.
With SOGDIANA
tj Alexandria Eschata
Em-
his death the political structure of his
own
conquests reverted to their
(ieninabad)
his
of June, 323 B.C., not yet 33 years old, he died.
The Indian
pire disintegrated almost immediately. Maracanda (Samarkand)
lift
the 13th
and Alex-
rulers,
ander's generals, grabbing for power, soon divided
what was
Bokhara* Winter 328-327 B.C.
Persia Bactra-Zariaspa
•;
326
^
ARACHOSIA HYDRAOTIS 325 Alexandria Arachosiae
B.C.
j R.h
^,
Macedon.
states,
of wounded
^"^1
two new
alliances,
(Uch)
INDIA
beyond
on
his rule,
own membership.
its
and they followed
some of
city-state
and adopted the Greek language
uJinte'^i^^
INDIAN OCEAN
at least
They modeled
their cities
titles
and
his
on the Greek the
as
They even appropriat-
attributes,
and stamped
with his image.
In Bactria 300 Mile
authority or
patterns.
their coins
200
much
Alexander's successors in Asia claimed to carry
ed Alexander's
SCALE
city-
Achaean
the Aetolian and
lingua franca of their world.
100
apart.
fell
while most of the other states joined in one
influence
Alexandria
i
League of Corinth
Leagues, neither of which had
Opiana
BALUCHISTAN
Antigonus, became King of
Alexander
Alexandria.o'^AIexandrla
BALUCHISTAN DES[RT
a third,
In Greece the
Athens and Sparta were again independent
hyphasis r
X^
(Kandahar)
(Colashkerd)
Egypt; and
R.
B.C.
GANDHARA//"^.
n/ >'
"S
TJ^Nicaea
Alexandria
ni>o (Chazni)
in
HYDASP£S ,./kBU1 «,
.
j„
ad Caucasunn ,o'
One, named Seleucus, seized most of
Ptolemy, established the dynasty of the Ptolemies
'
Alexandria
"t-
BACTRIA
BADAKHSHAN
left.
and formed the Seleucid Empire; another,
and India petty
rulers for
many
turies claimed to be his direct descendants.
cen-
The
In-
dian King Chandragupta saw in Alexander's success the possibility of uniting India under a single
archy.
The Mirs
horses were
of
Badakhshan believed
descended
mon-
that their
from Alexander's
horse,
Bucephalus. Greek
art influenced the art of all of
western Asia and
left
an enduring mark on the
sculpture of the Gandhara school in India. Greek
design infiltrated Persian design, and from
moved
to the Far East.
there
Objects showing Greek in-
fluence have been found at the western end of the
Great Wall of China. Several hundred years after Alexander's death,
Roman
legions pushing into the
eastern Mediterranean and Asia found the residue of his system
working and learned from
still
some
it
of the arts of ruling an empire.
but
Alexander himself was barely dead when he be-
came
the subject of a romantic legend.
his life
was
retold
The
story of
throughout the inhabited world.
For scope and variety
it
has almost no parallel.
There are more than 80 versions, written languages and ranging from Britain
24
in
Malaya. In
to
one version his conquests take him westward
Rome and
to
Carthage, and then through the Pillars
of Heracles to the Western Ocean. In another he
made siah.
tale
comes
to the
more
broadened the Greeks' outlook— and
still
when Napoleon invaded
part of Islamic
Egypt. Bedouin
cultural
life.
Classical Hellenism
was modified by
Asian influences and became Hellenistic. In
form Greece influenced Rome, Egypt
Greek
areas of Asia, but brilliance
and
zest of
and reached
heyday
its
to
Dark Age
the
in
in Periclean
and virtues of an
the elegances
all
ciety,
a sunset.
was nonetheless
it
The Greeks had achieved
their
marvelous
aristocratic so-
For a time events seemed to prove them right. But
The
ple could
way,
too. Like the
for action les
do what they
did.
Alexander began
Greeks he loved action and lived
above everything. Just as Homer's Achil-
preferred a short and glorious
inglorious one, so Alexander
temperament Greek
this
spirit,
improvisation,
its
its
love of effort,
to
realize
a
his
own
He embodied its
full
the
capacity for
adaptation of ideals to
unconquerable urge
long and
was driven by
to a similar destiny.
with
life to a
regained
its
its
to turn against
was broken; the
too.
itself;
creative impulse
of endeavor.
its field
ever a people changed the face of the world,
was the Greeks
B.C. Without
are,
gifts of the spirit
certainly
Fifth Centuries
man
much
different
poorer in the
and the imagination. They exploit-
ed the whole range of
an ideal of
and
of the Sixth
them we should indeed be
from what we
that
human
nature and created
had never existed
form before and was perhaps never so fully again. There
to
in so full a
be realized
was almost no sphere
of
life
the
accomplishment they attempted that they did not
life
for
perform
maintained
began
to fail.
failed
which the Greeks did not touch and transform, no
After Alexander, Greece was never the same. Poit
If
Greece
of
rest
reality, its
individual.
litically
fine intelligence
the old fortitude
it
the
failure,
its
narrowed
successes by concentrating their powers on certain
accepted ends, and by assuming that no other peo-
un-
thought that nobody could withstand them.
With
long day of classical Greece, but
its
doing. Athenians, maintaining in their democracy
carnated. a splendid sunset to the
Athens
which had carried Greece
another was in the end
Athens attempted too much, and so had
made
the
with the Peloponnesian War.
to decline
from one success
lost
morning and noon.
its
The long process which began of Ionia
had
civilization
this
and large
tribesmen thought that Napoleon was Iskander rein-
Alexander's career
same
the
at
time introduced essentially alien ideas into their
inspired confidence
Land of Darkness. As Iskan-
homogeneous.
Greek trade inevitably
to
The
China and part of Russia,
influence
its
had ever been,
it
diffuse and less
of Asia
has him going on from India
dary heroes of Islam and was folklore
also
began
a
two-horned," he became one of the legen-
der, "the
was
first
to cross Tibet, part of
until he
it
Mes-
prophecy, precedes the coming of
The Persian
Alexander was wider than
The opening
is
the ruler of a world-kingdom that, according
to Biblical
was conquered by Rome. Culturally after
independence, but
it
never
former power and after two centuries
at
the highest level.
have had longer record of what self
and
in the
histories,
Other peoples may
but none
man can do when
left
so rich a
he believes in him-
world into which he
is
born.
'»>''
''^wii A
CAVALRYMAN
IN
I
BATTLE appears on a coin issued by Macedonia's dependency, Paeonia. Paeonia fur-
nished contingents of horsemen to the armies with which Alexander established the Hellenistic world.
AFTERMATH OF EMPIRE Alexander multiplied the Greek world fourfold— and paradoxically made the earth a smaller place.
When
his
troops reached India, they effectively ended
Persian control of the profitable trade routes to the Orient. Alexander put into circulation the gold hoard heaped ternational trade.
freeing
He
instituted a
commerce from ancient
up by Darius, and thus further stimulated uniform coinage for
regional restrictions.
tiny city-states to share in the
new
affluence.
his
in-
vast domain, thus
The Greeks came from
their
In the 300 years that followed
Alexander's death in 323 B.C., they created a different era— the Hellenistic age
—that extended the influence of that remarkable
man
for
many more
centuries.
Hi
A SHIFT TO REALISM Greek
art in the Hellenistic period
changed with the
changing character of the people. The detachment of classical sculpture gave
human emotions of
anatomy and
a
way
to
an exploration of
that utilized a greater
matter. Art, once a religious exercise, business. statues
The new
for
their
cities in
temples and
fl
in a
is
finding release from her cares
bout of drinking. Classical sculpture had
preferred to portray beautiful
laOCOOn and
young women.
his sons, a powerful study of
was done by three sculptors. The famshown in the death grip of serpents sent
terror, ily is
by the gods as punishment after Laocoon urged the Trojans not to touch
the
wooden
horse.
became big
Egypt and Syria wanted
AN OLD WOMAN 15 Roman copy of a Hellenistic work showing a very real and wrinkled
woman who
knowledge
wider range of acceptable subject
streets.
Not only
IN
ART
kings and generals but rich merchants bought marble replicas of themselves. profits of its sculpture.
Athens boomed on the
Athenian sculptors turned
out both original work and
fair
copies of old statues.
Boatloads of artwork were shipped to
all
the Mediterranean. Eventually factories
up near sale.
parts of
were
set
the quarries to turn out statues whole-
Even
so,
supply never kept up with demand.
NEW, ORNATE CITIES No
matter where they were situated, the
of the Hellenistic world were ture, language, cite
new
Greek— in
cities
architec-
law and entertainment. Palmyra,
one example, was transformed from
a
to
caravan
stop in arid central Syria into a thriving city with a
marketplace,
a senate, a theater,
shops and
fine
dwellings. Here, as elsewhere in Hellenistic cities, the austerity of Doric and Ionic
more elaborate Corinthian
was replaced by the
style.
These towns,
laid
out in carefully planned grids wherever the terrain permitted, had more libraries, parks, gardens and A STUMP or A COLUMN from the temple of Apollo
at
Didyma shows
the search for the ornate in Hellenistic architecture. In place of
a severe Ionic base, there
is
palaces than the cities of Greece.
They had
great
temples too, but often to gods strange to Greece.
a foundation of intricate carvings.
In the twilight of classical Greece,
some Greeks
turned to philosophy, others to Egyptian and Near Eastern deities— housed in temples of Greek design. A FUSION OF STYLES on a sarcophagus of the Second Century A.D. combines a Greek treatment of face and figure with an Eastern sumptuousness
in the
sculptured wreaths and bunches of grapes.
i^^Bii
A STREET IN
PALMYRA
IS
lined with
columns that
in classical
Greece might have been considered too grand for anything
less
than an important temple.
^^-
>
-.
r \f^ /
y
ALEXANDERS CAMPING GROUND
modern Afghanistan,
at Bactra, in
is
near a camel caravan route.
He spent two
winters there en route to India.
GREECE IN ASIA The long reach
of Hellenistic influence
more dramatically evident than
is
Greeks ruled there only intermittently, Alexander, then again
dhara— a region now
—a
a
century
later.
in Pakistan
nowhere
ancient India.
in
first
But
in
under
Gan-
and Afghanistan
school of religious art arose that was Hellen-
istic in
technique and
seven centuries.
It
is
sentation of the Lord in this school. It
was
style.
It
flourished for about
possible that the
Buddha
a figure like the
modeled on the Greek god Apollo. thought
it
repugnant
the Buddha's image
first
human form
in
to depict the
repre-
arose
one opposite,
Earlier
Buddhists
Buddha, but soon
was embedded
in the religion.
HANDMAIDENSOF THE QUEEN A HEAD OF BUDDHA, made Apollo topped by the
in
hump
Buddha's special brain. The
Candhara,
is
a modified head of
traditionally said
bump
is
to
contain
the
covered with a topknot.
III
a
Cuhihanm
carving are in attend-
ance at the birth of the Buddha. The modeling of the costumes echoes the skillful handling of draperies by Greek sculptors.
'^t.-,-;-
'*
m..
^*'r^<^\
A SHATTERED ATHENA, the proud patron of the
most
Creek
civilized aspects of
on the ground
(left).
life,
lies
The work, which was
discovered at Side in southern Turkey, was part of a
Hellenistic
theater's
decoration.
INTACT COLUMNS of the ruined Temple of the Olympian Zeus in Athens, the largest Hellenistic shrine built in
stand today as soaring
European Greece, testaments
to
the
aspiration that filled the hearts of Creeks.
FINAL ACTS
ON A CHANGING STAGE
Athens, the center of classical Greece's most glori-
Epicurus taught their differing philosophies
ously vibrant days, found a different role in the
generations.
Hellenistic world. tiny
was decided
No
longer a sea power,
at times
by Macedonia,
des-
its
at
other
times by Egypt. Athens' intellectual leadership was
challenged by Alexandria, with
and
its
its
large library. Nevertheless,
new Museum
Athens was
still
with
new
Hellenistic
buildings.
Rome,
Not
to
new
Athens
leading families of Egypt,
sent their children to be educated at Athens.
until Justinian closed the
Athenian schools 500
years after the birth of Christ did the statues bethe city to crumble. But by then
revered as the fount of Greek thought and learning.
gin to
was more than
Zeno and
beautified
Syria and Macedonia, and later the upstarts from
There Philemon wrote his plays. The school of Aristotle flourished under Theophrastus.
The
kings
fall,
a city.
It
Athens
had become the expres-
sion of an intellectual freedom that will never die.
"Fidure ages will wonder at
us,
!^^
>'^-
i
as the present age wonders at us now''
APPENDIX Greece
^^H
AD
GREAT AGES OF WESTERN
100
1200
X300
CIVILIZATION
1400
The
chart at right
is
designed to show the
duration of the Greek culture that forms
Exploration
the subject matter of this volume, and to
Colonization
relate this culture to other cultures of the
Western world that are considered major group of volumes of
comprehensive
which
this chart
world is
one
A
chronology— from
excerpted— appears
the introductory booklet
Comparison
in
this series.
to
this
in
series.
of the chart seen here with
the world chronology will relate the great
ages of Western civilization to important cultures in other parts of the world,
some
of which are the subject of other volumes in the series.
On
the next two pages
is
a table of the
important events which took place in Greece
during the period covered by
this
book.
and
_____
SHI
Renaissa
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THE OLYMPIAN FAMILY
Titans, led
Greek belief, there was a great void From Chaos ultimately issued forth the Elder Gods, or by Cronos. Cronos' son Zeus led the next generation of
deities— the
Olympians— the gods worshiped by
In the beginning, according to
called Chaos.
the
Golden Age
the Greeks through
of their history. Listed here are the chief
Olympians.
loorsbiped her, sprang full
grown from
the
forehead of Zeus. In earliest times Athena was depicted as a young girl, but as Athens, her favorite city, aged, so did the goddess.
Eventually she was shown as a matronly
the intellect,
She was said in
womanly
ment
when
blow on
win
and the gentle arts of living. have invented the flute, but
to
fashion she scorned this instru-
how
after seeing
looked
at
it.
disfigured
ARTEMIS,
fig-
under whose protection flourished all that was most valued in civilized Athens:
ure,
her face
she puffed out her cheeks to
Although she helped the Creeks
Troy, she took vengeance on those
heroes who failed to pay her appropriate homage. She established the rule of law,
virgin goddess of
moon, twin sister of Apollo, mighty huntress and "rainer of arrows," was the guardian of cities, of young animals and of women of all ages. To her women prayed for easy childbirth and she was the midwife at the
the birth of her
own
twin brother, .Apollo.
She could be harsh: she blocked the passage of the Creek army to Troy because Agamemnon boasted he was a better shot than she was, and
demanded
the sacrifice of his
ter.
But some say she spared the
love
and beauty, presided,
daugh-
girl's
life.
even the concept of mercy, in the trial that freed Orestes from the dread Furies after he had murdered his mother at Apollo's orders.
ZEUS, pus, king of gods er,
sixth child of
was
ruler of
Mount Olym-
to
Some say
that her gift of the olive tree
mankind won her
the devotion of Athens.
and men, god of the weathCronos and his wife Rhea,
have been eaten by
his father, as were and sisters. But his motiier hid him and fed Cronos a stone instead. Grown up, Zeus then fed Cronos an emetic and he coughed up his sons and daughters. They joined Zeus against the elder gods. Using to
his brothers
lightning stolen from their elders, the rebel
children
won
the battle
and the universe.
APHRODITE, APOLLO, god patron of
truth,
archery,
of the sun
music,
and
medicine
and prophecy, was the most majestic of the Olympians. This son of Zeus is associated with the basic Creek precepts: self"
PALLAS ATHENA,
virgin pa-
and "Nothing
"Know
in excess." In
thy-
Delphi he
tron of the household crafts, goddess of wis-
established the oracle, an order of prophets that gave advice to Creece, both good and
dom and
had,
protectress in
war
of those
who
and prophecies, both
clear
and murky.
the goddess of
the poet Hesiod
and tricks: sweet and caresses." Wherever
said, over "girlish babble,
rapture, embraces
she walked flowers sprang up, and sparrows
and doves flew about
her. To Ares, her lover, among them Fear had the power to beguile even wise gods and often placed tempta-
she bore several children,
and
Terror. But she
tion in the path of Zeus,
making him forget and his bride."
"the love of Hera, his sister
guardian of wayfarers, celebrated on the day he was born by stealing Apollo's cattle. He
confused his pursuers with an ingeniously trail. Caught, he protested that
devised false
he was too young for stealing. Perhaps
tongue
in
cheek, this trickster
witli
was named
god not only of commerce and the marketplace, but of orators and writers as well.
HERA,
O^
protectress of marriage,
married women, children and the home, was both Zens's wife and his sister, one of those coughed up by Cronos. Some tales say that
ARES, god ly
of war, appropriate-
symbolized by the vulture, was detested
Zeus courted her for 300 years before she would marry him. Hera wanders through
by Zeus and Hera, his mother and father,
the stories of the gods, always a
betrayed
started increased the population of the un-
Zeus loved them.
derworld. Ares embarrassed the other gods
wife, torturing girls because
but was liked by Hades, for the wars Ares
when he and Aphrodite were caught rendezvous by
who
her
husband,
in
a
Hephaestus,
trapped the lovers with a nearly invis-
ible net.
But Ares, although a persistent war-
was not a very successful one. He was captured by giants and wounded thrice by Heracles and once by Diomedes. As a symbol of war, of its evil, its suffering and its sorrow, he was held in awe by the Creeks but he was never an object of adoration. rior,
POSEIDON, god
of the sea
and
earthquakes, and giver of horses to man, had a palace built "of gleaming gold," Homer says,
deep
in
the
Aegean
Sea.
The Creeks
were thankful for the horse but they were always wary of the treacherous seas. And so they prayed to Poseidon to "be kindly in
heart and help those
DEMETER, giver of grain and
fruit,
who voyage
in
ships."
goddess of crops,
withheld her gifts
when Zeus permitted Hades
to
carry
off
her daughter Persephone to the underworld.
Famine spread until a compromise could be reached; Persephone would spend only one the underworld. Then and crops flourished anew.
third of the year in
Demeter
relented,
HEPHAESTUS, god artisans, was, according to
pelled from
DIONYSUS, god
HERMES, senger cattle,
to
Zeus's son and mes-
and and mischief-makers, and
mortals, protector of flocks
of thieves
of the vine
and fertility, of the joyous life and hospitality was the son of Zeus by a mortal mother. Jealous Hera destroyed his mother and drove him mad. He wandered the earth accompanied by satyrs and maenads. A symbol of revelry, he
at times
gave Creece the
gift of
man's blessing, at others
wine—
his
ruin.
Olympus by
of
fire
and
one legend, ex-
his
own mother,
Hera, in disgust at his lameness. From his forges first
came many marvels, among them
the
whom
the
mortal woman. Pandora, into
gods breathed
life.
On Olympus
he built
himself a magnificent, shining, bronze palace staffed by
many mechanical
Athens, a discerning city
manship, held him
in
in
servants.
matters of work-
the highest esteem.
A GALLERY OF HEROES The heroes
of
Greek mythology,
mortals, but special mortals,
from the gods, were
as distinguished
some of
whom
claimed descent from the
gods; their feats were chronicled in tales and depicted in works of art that expressed thors, artists
Greek views
of life
and human conduct. To
and composers find inspiration
this
day au-
in stories of the heroes.
Highlights from the lives of some of the most famous of them follow.
killed
OEDIPUS, journeying man in a scuffle. He
an old
to
Thebes,
then chal-
lenged the Sphinx, a monster which ate
passersby
What
two
ing,
gave thanks for
their deliverance
and heard
a voice ordering them to throw the bones of their
mother over
their shoulders.
At
first
Then Deucalion realized the was their mother and her bones were The boulders they threw turned into
they refused. earth
stones.
human
who
beings
repopulated the world.
who at
noonday and
morn-
three in the eve-
ning? Oedipus' correct answer: Man, first
alt
could not solve this riddle;
creature goes on four feet in the
who
must use
crawls, then walks, finally
a
Oedipus was rewarded with the hand oflocasta, widowed Queen of Thebes. It had been prophesied that Oedipus would murder his father and marry his mother, and the prophecy had now come true— for Jocasta was his mother, and the man he had slain was her former husband and Oedipus' father. When focasta and Oedipus discovered their horrible sin, she killed herself. Oedipus put out his eyes and wandered throughout Greece, prey to the Furies. Athens finally sheltered him and he died there, promising that his body would save the city from harm. cane.
lO was loved by Zeus; he turned her into a heifer to hide her from his wife Hera. Hera, undeceived, put the calf under the guard of hundred-eyed Argus. lo escaped,
but Hera pursued her with a gadfly until
Zeus restored her to human form. Later they had a son who started the line of Heracles.
HERACLES was to
complete
in
atonement
given 12 tasks
for a crime
com-
mitted by his father. In turn Heracles: (1)
choked
to
Nemea; (3)
ing
death the "invulnerable" lion of
(2) killed the
nine-headed Hydra;
captured a golden-horned stag after chasit
for a year; (4) trapped a great boar
running
it
to
rivers to flush out the befouled bles; (6)
drove away
Augean
sta-
the voracious Stym-
pjhalian birds and, as they flew up, shot
dowri with his
by
bow and arrow;
(7)
them
captured
wife, were the sole survivors of
the
his
flood
tempting
to forestall the
boy would one day
kill
cued arid when he grew up went
set
up
tar
and Ceuta);
the Pillars of Heracles (11) held
(now Gibral-
the couple
land
up the sky while
turned to stone. With the help of the gods Perseus killed Medusa, one of the Corgons, and carried away her head. He freed Andromeda, a princess threatened by a man-eating
mother's insistent suitor
receded
to the
body scales, and hair made of twisting snakes,
Hesperides, then tricked Atlas into resum-
the waters
at-
res-
were so ugly that those who looked upon them
wicked. The pair floated on the waters in a
which they had stocked with pro-
was
man-eating mares of Diomedes; (9) asked for and got the girdle of Hippolyta, Queen of the Amazons; (10) stole the cattle of Geryon,
sea serpent,
As
cast
of the Corgons. These creatures with wings,
he sent Atlas to find the golden apples of the
large chest
was
who was
prophecy that the
him. Perseus
with which Zeus destroyed a world grown
visions.
as a child,
into the sea by his grandfather,
the savage hull of Minos; (8) ensnared the
a three-bodied mor^ster and, in the process,
DEUCALION and PYRRHA,
PERSEUS,
exhaustion; (5) diverted two
ing the burden of the heavens; (12) captured
Cerberus, the
three-headed dog of Hades.
and wed
Next he turned his stone by displaying Medusa's head—and fulfilled the prophecy by accidentally killing his grandfather. her.
to
of the Golden Fleece of a fabled ram. After
many adventures— fighting Harpies, skillfully avoiding battle with Amazons— the heroes, called the Argonauts, reached Colchis
on the
Black Sea. Jason seized the Golden Fleece
and
fled,
accompanied by the sorceress MeKing of Colchis, fason
dea, daughter of the
and Medea lived happily together until Jason left her to marry Creusa. Medea murdered
own children and took drawn by dragons. Jason, distraught, went wandering. One day he lay Creusa, then killed her flight in a chariot
down
in the
shade of the "Argo," his old ship, fell on him.
and died when the rotted prow
CADMUS, commanded by
BELLEROPHON was
Apol-
found the city of Thebes, first had to slay the guardian of the site, a dragon which killed alt of his companions. To people his lo to
ordered to
the Chimaera, a fire-breathing
kill
which had a
lion's head, the
arid a slithering
snake for a
monster body of a goat tail.
Mounted
in-
on Pegasus, the winged horse, Bellerophon
They sprouted armed
soared above the Chimaera, weakened her
men who fought each other until only five remained; with these Cadmus founded Thebes.
with arrows and finished her off by pouring molten lead down her throat. Later Bellero-
city,
he planted the dragon's teeth, as
structed by Athena.
phon angered
the gods by trying to fly on
Pegasus
them
to join
in their
sacred enclosure
on Mount Olympus. But the horse threw
him and left him to wander the pled and blind, and despised by
THESEUS, kinsman and
earth, crip-
the deities.
of Heracles
his rival for heroic honors, cleared the
roads into Athens of bandits and penetrated the Cretan labyrinth to
kill
the
half-bull,
half-human Minotaur. As King of Athens, he fought Thebes, married an Amazon princess
and
also sailed on the
of the Golden Fleece. er
EUROPA, gathering flowers in
sister of
Cadmus,
when Zeus appeared
to
ivas
her
Argonauts
terrible
in the
"Argo"
He took
in
search
part with oth-
Calydonian Hunt for a
boar and battled the Centaurs. Ulti-
mately, he united Attica into a single state.
the form of a beautiful bull with a silver
circle
on his brow and horns like the moon's Persuaded to mount, she crossed
crescent.
became his bride and mother of famous sons, and eventually
the sea on Zeus's back, the
gave her name
to
the continent of Europe.
THE HEROES AT TROY:
Achil-
Greek warriors and of the line of Zeus, was known for his implacable fury. But he learned in battle that "life les,
greatest of the
is all
sorrow," and showed a new compassion
by allowing his
ATALANTA,
famed for his shrewdness, invented
them up, he passed her and so won the
Horse that
part in the heroes' hunt for
suitors
She offered
who
to
marry
could beat her
in
a
would kill. Daring Hippomenes won her hand by carrying three golden apples into the race. Whenever Atafoot race: the losers she
I
AbON and his band
of heroes,
Heracles, Orpheus, Castor
"Argo"
in
and
search
an honorable
lanta took the lead, he threw a golden ap-
women, took
the Calydonian boar.
Pollux, sailed in the ship
Hector,
ple in front of her; as she stopped to pick
of
any of her
among them
foe.
and beauty second only to Achilles, realized that he had behaved ignobly toward his friends and ended bis life; Agamemnon, commander of the Greeks and brother-in-law of Helen, over whom the war was fought, was killed by his own wife Clytaemnestra for having sacrificed their daughter to Artemis: Odysseus, King of Ithaca, and
most adventurous
race.
burial; Ajax, in valor
finally
won
the Trojan
victory for the Greeks.
GREEKS GREAT
AND FAMOUS
SOLON (c.MO-c.SdO)
Reformer whose legal code, with its opposition to tyranny and injustice, laid the constitutional
men and womWestern civilization. Of
foundations of Athenian democracy,
Classical Greece produced literally hundreds of
en
who made
this
lasting contributions to
number, 62 of the greatest are
(C.528-CA62)
identified briefly below. In
keeping with the Greek ideal of all-around excellence,
were outstanding is
in several fields,
classified only according to his
of birth
THEMISTOCLES
Athenian statesman and commander whose advocacy of sea power and national unity made him the chief architect of victory over Persia.
many
but for convenience each
major
activity.
Most
dates
and death are approximate. All of the dates are B.C.
ORATORS AND SOPHISTS ANTIPHON (€.480-411)
Politician, professional
speech-writer and one
of the earliest great Athenian orators.
STATESMEN AND LEADERS DEMOSTHENES ALCIBIADES (c. 450-404)
Gifted Athenian politician-general that
"democracy
acknowledged
is
who
averred
folly."
(384-322)
He
ALEXANDER THE GREAT (356-323)
Successor to his father, Philip don. Alexander launched
conquest that spread his
a
II,
King
Mace-
of
13-year career of
GORCIAS 483-376)
Empire— and Greek
culture— around the eastern rim of the Mediterranean, through Asia Minor and into India.
ISOCRATES (436-338)
CIMON (C.512-499J
Conservative Athenian politician
commander
cessful
in the
and war against
a
won fame
for
powerful speeches warning Athens against
King Philip
(c.
implacable oppo-
nent of the rising Macedonians, he his
turned traitor during the Peloponnesian War.
An
Greatest of Greek orators.
of
II
Macedon.
Prose stylist and noted
member
of the Sophists,
group of professional instructors who taught public speaking and the art of successful living.
a
Influential speech-writer al
famous
and teacher of sever-
orators.
suc-
LYSIAS
Persia.
Speech-writer noted for his simple, vivid
style.
(C.4S9-C380)
CLEISTHENES
Brilliant
(Sixth Century)
ocratic
who
statesman
government
in
revolutionized
dem-
PROTAGORAS
Athens.
Earliest
and best known of the Sophists.
(C.485-C.4U)
CLEON (fifth
Century)
EPAMINONDAS (c.418-362)
EPHIALTES (Fifth
Century)
LEONIDAS (fifth
Century)
LVSANDER (fifth
Successor to Pericles as leader of Athens.
Century)
MILTIADES (c.550-489)
NICIAS (c.470-413)
Illustrious
Theban soldier-statesman who
per-
POETS
manently destroyed the power of Sparta. Athenian statesman responsible
for
major dem-
ocratic reforms.
AESCHYLUS (c.525-456)
King of Sparta and heroic commander of the soldiers who were wiped out by Xerxes' Persians at Thermopylae in 480 B.C. Spartan
ALCAEUS
defeated
ALCMAN (Seventh Century)
Athenian general, renowned for his victory over the Persians at Marathon in 490 B.C.
(Seventh Century)
the Athenian fleet at
who
Aegospotami
in
Prominent statesman-general who led Athens' campaign against the Syracusans in Sicily.
(Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles). His are dignified, sonorous
and philosophic.
Lyric poet of Mytilene
on the island
works
of Lesbos.
(Sixth Century)
405 B.C.
Spartan general and statesman
AND HISTORIANS
Oldest of the three Greek masters of tragedy
ARCHILOCHUS
ARISTOPHANES (c.450-c.385)
Spartan poet, considered the inventor of love poetry. He wrote in simple meters, with easy charm. Satirical poet
much admired
for his verbal
and
metrical originality.
Athenian genius of comedy. His plays are highendlessly
spirited,
and
inventive
laced
with
scathing attacks on his contemporaries.
PEISISTRATUS (c.605-527)
Athenian tyrant who patronized the arts, beautified the city and promoted its power.
BACCHYLIDES (Fifth
PERICLES (c.495-429)
II
OF
MACEDON (382-336)
Versatile lyric poet noted
narrative
for
his
clarity
and
skill.
Statesman, orator and general, considered the all Athenians. He brought Athens peak of power, and, through democratic reforms and public works, transformed the city.
greatest of to
PHILIP
Century)
its
King of Macedon, who, with military genius and masterful diplomacy, took control of all the city-states of Greece.
EURIPIDES
Least orthodox and most realistic of the three
(c.485-c.406)
great tragic playwrights. His plays express his radical views of morality
HERODOTUS (c.484-e. 424)
Author
of a discursive
the Persian Wars, historical
work
of
and
religion.
and humane account of
which is considered the Western civilization.
first
HESIOD (Ei
Author farm
of
life,
Works and Days, a poetic account of and The Theogony, a rich collection
PRAXITELES (fourthCentiiry)
Celebrated Greek sculptor
who
excelled at repre-
senting emotion, with grace and relaxed strength.
of religious lore.
SCOPAS
HOMtR (Eighth CeiiUiry)
The
giant of epic poetry,
and Odyssey. Almost nothing life: it is believed that he was ble birth
MENANDER (C.342-C.291)
author of the
who
lived in Asia
known
is
Iliad
(fourthCentiiry)
is
in Paros, a leader in por-
traying strong emotion and vigorous action.
of his
Greek of hum-
a
Minor.
PHILOSOPHERS AND SCIENTISTS
Leading exponent of latter-day Greek comedy.
He
Renowned sculptor born
considered the father of the modern com-
ANAXAGORAS
edy of manners.
(C.500-C.428J
PINDAR
Supreme Greek
(518-4JS)
revered that
lyric poet.
His
memory was
when Alexander
the
so
telligence
composed of an
was
Great
who maintained that a supreme inimposed a purposeful order on the physical world. He believed that matter was Philosopher
infinite variety of tiny particles.
sacking Thebes he spared Pindar's home.
ANAXIMANDER SAPPHO (Sixth Century)
Poet of Lesbos so admired for her lyricism that the Greeks called her "the
(610-C.547)
Tenth Muse."
ter
(c.556-468)
limitless quantity.
(c.
496-406)
(C.460-C.400)
ARISTOTLE
elegies in praise of fallen heroes.
TYRTAEUS
tion
terrible stress.
and
all
ponnesian War, in which he served as
a general.
DEMOCRITUS
Elegiac poet of Sparta.
His poems
reputedly
EMPEDOCLES
Tomb
a
a
mer-
HERACLITUS (C.535-C.475)
Persian military unit.
AND ARCHITECTS
Century)
Master builder who helped design the Parthenon and the Temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis.
ICTINUS
Chief architect of his day, associated with Peri-
scientific
method.
Philosopher whose atomic theory declared that things are
all
composed of invisible and and of empty space.
inde-
Philosopher
who held
that matter
of four elements— fire,
air,
was composed
water and earth.
cles'
Famed physician and medical
and frequent
429-347)
(c
Towering philosopher who, influenced by teacher, Socrates, believed in ideas, the greatest of idealistic
styles,
his
the existence of
which was goodness. This
system inspired countless
whose approach was
intuitive
later
think-
and subjective.
portraitist
of Alexander the Great. His figure studies set
two new
held that logic-and not
physical truth.
he designed the great Parthenon.
favorite sculptor
who
Radical thinker
sensory experience— was the only criterion of
ers
The
teacher, an early
advocate of sound diet and proper hygiene.
PARMENIDES
master plan to beautify Athens. With Cal-
licrates
Thinker who held that the basic condition of life was change and the basic element was fire.
(Fifth Century)
PLATO
LYSIPPUS
His approach made him
modern
Historian and biographer. His finest work, the
Anabasis, was based on his experience as
ARTISTS
(FoiirthCentnryj
system on direct observa-
logic.
strict
roused Spartan soldiers to victory after their
(C.460-C.377)
(FifthCenturyj
Be-
structible particles,
HIPPOCRATES
(Fifth
it.
Historian famed for his chronicle of the Pelo-
cenary in
CALLICRATES
to
theory must follow demonstra-
ble fact, he based his
lieving that
(C.493-C.433)
(C.430-C.354)
in space.
opposed
that of his teacher Plato, but
tions reacting to situations of
defeat in the battle of the Boar's
XENOPHON
pioneered the conception
Creator of a philosophy as vastly influential as
Most perceptive of the great tragic dramatists. His dramas present characters of noble inten-
(C.460-C.370)
(Seventh Century)
He
body suspended
the father of the
THUCYDIDES
mat-
all
Lyric poet of Ceos, famed for his dirges and his
(384-322)
SOPHOCLES
held that
consisted of an imperishable substance of
of the earth as a
SIMONIDES
who
Philosopher-astronomer
one emphasizing extreme mus-
PYTHAGORAS (Sixth Century)
Mathematician who sought to explain the natureof all things in mathematical terms.
cularity, the other featuring elongated bodies.
SOCRATES
MYRON (FifthCenturyj
Sculptor famed for his bronzes of performing athletes
(469-399)
Powerful thinker and teacher, immortalized by his refusal to save his own life at the price of repudiating his beliefs. His great contribution
and his realistic statues of animals.
was his serious inquiry
er.
PHIDIAS
Designer of the Parthenon sculptures, consid-
190-C-J27;
ered the greatest artist of the classical period.
THALES (C.640-C.546)
POLYCLITUS (FifthCentury)
Sculptor whose statues were said to epitomize the
Greek concept
(FifthCentiiry)
Realistic painter
known Western
Earliest
philosopher.
He
assert-
ed that the physical world was composed of one basic material, a clear liquid.
of physical perfection.
ZENO OF POLYCNOTUS
into questionsof morality.
who
introduced such
new
ef-
fects as the rendering of transparent draperies.
(Fifth
ELEA
Century)
A
pupil of Parmenides
logical
method
in
who
an attempt
used his teacher's to
prove that space
and motion are figments of the imagination.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
These books were selected during the preparation of the
ume
An
i
and aulhorily, and for their usefuln seeking additional information on specific poii
for their interest
to readers
GENERAL HISTORY
in
Bury,
|.
B.,
A,.
A
Modern
History of Greece.
The Cambridge Ancient History.
table in both
editions,
danger
I
(i)
hard cover ar,d
aoailabilil^
s
only
paperback.
Robertson, Martin, Creek Painting. Skira, World Publishing Co,, 1959 Schoder. Raymond V SI Masterpieces of Creek Art New York ,
The Creek TyraiKs, Hilliiry. 1050 Bolsford, G, W.. and C. A, Robinson Jr.. Hellenic •Burn, A. R., Pericles and Athens. Macmillan. 1010. Burn, A. R., Persia and the Creeks. St, Martin's Press, •Andrcwes.
Omar
asterisk
paperback
Graphic
,
Society,
I960. Hislori/
(4lh ed
1
Matmiilan.
LITERATURE
19t>2
Library, 1937
The Persian Empire and
Vol, IV.
the kVfsl
Man
•Hadas. Moses. A History of Creek Literature Columbia Univcrsitv Press. 1950, (Homer, Tfie Odyssey. Transl, by Rouse, Mentor Books, 1964,
WH.D
1926,
TheCamhridge Ancient J. M,, The Crfeifs
Cook,
V.Athens 478-401 B.C. Macmillan, loz7 and the East. Praeger, 1963,
History. \o\. in Ionia
Gomme. A, W., Greece. Oxford Hammond. N,G.L.. A History
Richmond, ed,. Creek Lyrics. University of Chicago Press. I960 Lattimore. Richmond, ed,. The Iliad of Homer. University of Chicago Press. 1961 •Latlimore. Richmond, ed,, Tfie Oifes of Pindar. University of Chicago Prt •Latlimore,
University Press. 1945, of Greece to 322
B.C. Oxford University Press, East. David McKay, loo4 by George Rawlinson (The Creek Hist:
tMurray, Gilbert. The
/?ise of (fic
Greek Epic Oxford University
Press. 1960.
Haywood, Richard M., Ancient Greece and the Near Herodotus, Vol.
1.),
he Persian Wars.
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Random House,
Transl.
THEATER
1042,
nie Greeks. Penguin Books. 1963. Payne. Robert. Ancient Greece. Norton. 1964.
tKitto, H.D.F.,
Plutarch. Tlie Lives o/
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NoWe
Crecioris
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and Romans. Transl, by lohn Drydcn
Mod
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Margarete, Tfie
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Oklahoma
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Drj
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Chicago
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iity
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Creek Tragedy. Doubleday. 1954, (Norwood, Gilbert. Creek Comedy. Hill & Wang. 1963. tNorwood. Gilbert, Greek Tragedy. Hill & Wang, I960 Oates. Whitney J and Eugene O Ncill |r eds Tl Random House. 1938 tKitto. H.D.F.,
,
tThucydides. T)ic Peloponnesian War. Transl. by Rex Warner, Penguin VVoodhead, A. The Creeks in the West. Praeger, 19t>2 Zimmern. Alfred E The Creek Commonwealth Modern Library. 1956.
C
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ECONOMICS, SOCIOLOGY AND CULTURE SCIENCE Bonna
Andri
ek Civilization. 3 vols. Macmillan. 1957-loo3 Bowra. C. M,. The Creek Experience. World Publishing Co.. 1957 Durant. Will. The Life of Greece. Simon and Schuster. 1939. tHamilton. Edith. The Greek Way. Norton, 1930. Michell. H,. The Economics of Ancient Greece. Barnes & Noble. 1957. Payne. Robert. Tlie Splendor of Greece Harper &. Row, 1960. tStobarl. J. C. The Glory that was Greece (3rd ed,). Grove Press. 1962, Joutain.].. The Economic Life of the Ancient World Barnes & Noble Turner. Ralph. J7if Great Cultural Lraditions. 2 vols McGraw-Hill Quennell, Mariorie and C H B Everyday Things m .-incienl Cre
Cohen. M. R. and
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Drabkin.
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AND MYTHOLOGY
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ART, ARCHITECTURE
•Hamilton, Edith, Mythology. Little, Brown, 1 = 42 Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology Putnam, 1959
AND ARCHEOLOGY
tNilsson, Martin
tAnas. Paolo E.. and Max Hirmer. A History of 1000 Years of Creek V, Patntins Harry N-Abrams, 19t,2. Berve, Helmut, Gottfried Cruben and Max Hirmer. Creek Temples. Theaitres and ijfirine>. Harry N Abrams, 19o2, Bieber. Margarele. The Sculpture 0/ (lie Hellenistic Age. Columbia Universil 1961.
Dinsmoor. William B.. The Architecture of Ancient Greece. Gardner. Helen. Art Through the Ages (4th ed.). Harcourl. Brace Lawrence. A. W,. Greek Architecture. Penguin Books. 1957, Lullies.
ATHLETICS Gardiner. E
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Gardiner, E
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& Row.
AND
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FESTIVALS
/IncieiK World. Oxford University Press. 1930 Creek Athletic Sports and Festivals Macmillan. 1910 Gardiner. E N,. Olympia: its History and Remains. Oxford University Press, 1925 .
/lt/i/c(ics of Ifie
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London. Batsfor World, lo.so
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Max Hirmer. Creek Sculpture. Harry N, Abrams. 19o0 The Creek Stones Speak. St. Martins Press. 1962 M. A.. Archaic Creek Art Oxford University Press. 1949. Gisela M. A.. A Handbook of Creek Art Phaidon. 1960. Gisela M. A.. Sc«/l>(ure and Sculptors of (tie Creeks Yale Universil Paul.
Richter. Gisela
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tBurn, A, R Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Empire. Collier, 1962. Lamb. Harold, .4/exaMifer of Moce^fou. Doubleday, 194o ,
VI. Macedon 401 301 BC. Macmillan, 1927. Robinson. C. A. Jr., Alexander the Great E, P Dutton, 1947 W,, Alexander the Great. Vols, and II. Beacon Press. 1956. Tarn. The Creeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge University Press, 1951 •Tarn, and G T. Griffith, Hellenistic Civilizalion. St. Martin s Press. Till-
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF QUOTATIONS from Herodotus' The Persian War: are from Tfie Greek Historians Vol I. Random House. 1942. Translation by George Rav linson. All quotations from Thucydides' Tfie Peloponnesian War are from the translation by Rex Warner, Penguin Books, 1961.
All quotations
Otfier (jMofations; 33: Hesiod; from Tfie
Oxford Book of Creek Verse Transfalion, Oxford University by lack Lindsay, p, 39; Home Tfie Iliad: translation by WH.D, Rouse. Mentor Books, 19o2, by arrangement with Thi as Nelson and Sons, Ltd,, 1938, p. 43: Ibid. p. 55: Archilochus: first quotation from fie Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. IV. rfie fersinn Empire and the West. Macmillan. 192o quoti frc Creek Civilization: From the Iliad to the Parthenon, by Andre I ird. Ma, 1957. p.
Press, 1944. Translation
1
p 57 Alcman: from The Oxford Book of Greek Verse in Translation. Trainslation by Gilbert Highet. p. 78: Aeschylus, Tfie Persians: from The Complete Creek Dra
Random House.
1938, Translation by Robert Potter, p. 95: Euripides: from Way, by Edith Hamilton. Mentor Books, 1963, by arrangement with W, W, Noi Trofan Women: from Tfie Complete Creek Drai Translation by Gilbert Murray, p, 123: Sophocles. Oedipus at Colonus: from plele Greek Tragedies, Vol, III (Sophocles I). Modern Library. Translation Fitzgerald, copyrighted 1941 by Harcourt. Brace & World, p. 144: Demosthc Philippic' from Demostfienes I. The Loeb Classical Library. Harvard Univei 1954, Translation by I, H, Vince, 1942- p. 101: Euripides, Tfie
:
Studies at Ath. ns; Homer A. Thompson, Field Director. |ohn Travlos, Tliompson, Poly Demoulini and Lucy Talcott, Agora Excavations. Athens, Christos Karou/os. General Ephor of Antiquities, Athens; Semni Karou/ou. General Ephor of Antiquitiies. Athens. Nikolaos Plalon. Director. Acropolis Museum. Athens. Vasileios Callipolitis, Director, Barbara Philippaki and Maria Pelropoulakou. National Archaeological Museum. Athens, Emil Kun/c. Director, and Gerhard Neumann. German Archaeological Institute, Athens. Mario Morelti. Superintendent, and Giovanni Classical
Dorothy Burr
.
Museo Nazionale di Villa Ciul ia. Rome; Alfonso de Franciscis and Giuseppe Maggi. Musco Naiionale. Naples. Ermiilia Speyer. Vatican Galleries and Museums; Nina Longobardi and Ernest Nash. Ameiican Academy. Rome; Theodor Kraus, Istituto Scichilone.
PICTURE CREDITS -Poseidon, bronze, ca, 400 B,C al
Ml iseum. Athens (Gjon
les
(si
The sources
for the
low. Descriptive
no
identified as Zeus). National Archaeologi-
Mili).
1: 10-Athena, bronze, ca, 350 B,C Piraeus Museum (Roloff Beny) 12-Attii GeoB.C. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Rogers Fund. IIH 13Kouros (youth), marble. 7th c. B-C-. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Fletcher Fund. 1932. Hermes by Praxiteles, marble, ca, 325 BC Olympia Museum (Nic Stournaras), 14. 15Gems. impressions. 5th c, BC Museum of Fine Arts. Boston (John McQuade) If. 17OlvmpianCods. marble, possiblv 1st c BC South Italy, Walters Art Gallerv Baltimore loApollo. bronze, ca. 530 B C. National Archaeological Museum. Athens (Carlo Bavagnoli). 20-Amphora.clay.5thc.B,C-, Agora Museum in the Stoa of Attalos. Athens (G|on Mili), 21Temple of Athena. Lindos. Rhodes. 4th c. BC portico, ca. 200 BC, (Sante Forlano), 22, 23SiphnianTreasury, Delphi, marble frieze, ca, 525 BC. Delphi Museum (Gjon Mili), 24-Nike ofSamothrace (Winged Victory), marble, ca, 200 BC. Louvre Museum. Paris (Gjon Mili), 25-Stele. Law against Tyranny. 330 BC marble. Agora Museum. Athens (Gjon Mili), 2t>, 27-Aristotle. Roman copy of 4th c. original. Museo Nazionale delle Terme. Rome (G|on Mili)-Parthenon frieze, marble, completed 432 B.C. British Museum. London (G|on Mill) 28-|ockey. bronze, ca. 150 B.C.. National Archaeological Museum. Athens (Stephanos Papa29-Charioteer. dopoulos). bronze, ca. 470 B.C.. Delphi Museum (George Hoyningen-Huene from Rapho-Guillumelte: flexichrome by Peter Bitlisian),
CKAPTER
,
metric vase, detail. 8th c
,
,
.
.
BC
CHAPTER 2: 30-Wall painting, Tiryus. 13th c. B.C.. National Archaeological Museum. Athens (Stephanos Papadopoulos). 33-Temple of Ramses III. 12th c, BC Medinet Habu, Egypt (Eliot Elisofon), 36-Etruscan Bucchero vase, 7th c, BC, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund, 1924 (Eric Schaal), 39 through 47 (except 41 and 44 below)-Sandstone frieze from Gjolbaschi, ca, 400 BC Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (Erich Lessing from Magnum) 41-Walls of Troy (Ara Guler), 44-Samothrace (Roloff Beny) .
,
CHAnTER3: 4
BC (Gjon Mill), 54. 55-Silver stater from Phaselis. 520-492 B C -silver tetradrachma. Syracuse, ca, 390 BC -silver tetradrachma, Cyrene, ca, 435-375 490-450 B C Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (John McQuade) Maria Lazzarro t>l-Richard Meek 02, D3-Richard Meek ex-
,ca,
400
na. Abdera. ca. OS. 1
,d
ca,
,
Archaeologico Germanico, Rome; Denys Haynes, Keeper of Creek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. London. Gerhard R. Meyer. Director, and Elisabeth Rhode, Antikenabteilung. Slaatliche Museen. East Berlin; Norbert Kunisch. Antikcnableilung. Staatliche Muscen. West Berlin. Erwin M, Auer. Kunsthistorisches Museum. Vienna. Antikensammlungen. Prin/ Carl Palais. Munich. The Rev, Raymond V, Schoder. S,i,, Loyola University. Chicago. Phillip Bacon. Professor of Geography. Teachers College. Columbia University. Paul P Vouras, Associate Professor of Geography, and Livio C Stecchini. Assistant Professor of History. Paterson State College; Colonel |ohn R, Elling. Acting Deputy Head. Department of Military Art and Engineering, and Frederick P Todd. Director of the Museum. United States Military Academy, West Point; and Judy Higgins.
in this
hook
me
set forth be-
irksofarlare included. Credits to ri^ht are separated by semi-
colons, from top to bottom
b\/
dasht
which follow a descriptive note appei c. for century and ca
viations include
Phototiraphei
INDEX
MAPS All
IN THIS
9o. shrine at Delphi. o9. 143. 180; temple al Didyma. ^168 Apollonia (ap 6-16'ni.a) (on Adriatic Sea), map 53. map 119 Apollonia (on Black Sea), map 9. map 53
VOLUME
maps bv David Greenspan
map
Arabia,
Land of the Greeks
The Persian Wars
8-9
53.
map
Arakhnaions
Greek Colonics
118-119
Alliances in 431 B.C.
52-53
Archilochus
32
(ar-kii'o-kiis). 54-55.
map
coin, '54 (a-bi'dos).
53.
com, *54. Academy, the, 139, 141 Acarnania (ak er-na'ni'fl). map 8; Peloponncsian War, map 119 Achaea (a-ke'rt). map 8. map 53; 71:
Mycenaean
in
Achaean League, 163 Achaemenid dynasty,
Empire
m
158, loO
loI-lo2,
s
Minoan.
map 72
Arlnrs 101, 149 151
74,
expansion
Marrdonlan
118-119, 121 Alphabet, Creek, table 36-37, 38, 49
map
Ambracia (am-bra'shi-o). map
,37
(ad-r
Adriatic Sea,
map
8
158,
to,
lo2
(e-je'an) islands: in
Empire. 117.
map
League
League of the Greeks, map 72, 78; Spartan Confederacy, 117, map
158, 163:
Athenian
3
8,
map
53,
119; colonization of,
map
i-mis'iis),
34-35: in Delian League, 96. See also
Oracleof,
at
Cleisthenes. 60. 93; daily
Arginusae
(ar (i-nu'se), battle of,
Argolis (ar'go-lis),
Games
in,
1
colonization of northern shore. 52,
19;
map
53, Persian
War
fleet
movements,
71. mop 72 Aegina (e-ji'no). map 8. map 72, 76. 98. Athenian aggression against. 60. 73. 97. 104; in Delian League. 97
Aegospotami legds-pot'a-mi). destruction of Athenian fleet at. map 119. 122 Aeolia
(e-6'li-
Aeschylus
map
9:
Persians
in.
map 72
(es'ki-liis or, esp. Hnt.. es'-l.
22, 101. 145. Oresleia
(Agamemnon;
Choephoroe: Eumenidei), 101; The Per:
Aesop
IS,
map
Aeotolia
(e-to'li-a),
map 8; in map 119
Peloponncsian War, Aetolian League. 163
Agamemnon (aga-mcm'nonl.
31. 3d,
41, 101. 180. 183
Ag,amemnon. Aeschylus, 101 Agora (ag'6-ra). Athens. "92. 105. "lOo-lO? Agriculture, 49, 51, 60. '64-65, '88. 89
Agrigentum
map
(ag-ri-jen'tiim),
map
118 Ahura Mazda. 71 53,
Amphipolis (am-fip'o-lis), map oi, map 119,120
lt.2;
Aiax(a'iaks). 36-37, 183
8, battle
Amphora, *56 Anabasis (a-nab'a-sis). Xenophon, 159 Anaxagoras (an ak-sag'o-ras). 102. 185
Anaximander (a-nak
si-man'der). 58. 59.
185
Anaximenes (an ak-sim'cnezl. 58
map
lo2 Andromache (androm'a-ke), 101 Andromeda (androm'l-da), 37, 182 Ancyra(an-sir'ol,
Andros Animal
(an'dros),
8,
fights,
Animals:
50. education in. '82-83. 123-124. 138.
119
Nemean
of.
Argonauts, 183
Argos
(ar'gos).
map
map
8
8, 62.
map
71.
map
election of. 22. 94:
women.
legends. 111, 183: Peisistratus. 60. in
Peloponncsian War. 117-122.
husbandry. 51.
62
117. in Persian Wars. 71-74.
73, 93, 97
and economic revival War. 124; population
99-100, 111, 114, 123, 124, 180, 181. sciences. 102-104. 141. 142: slavery.
influenceon.l63.^170-171;andreligion,
Aphrodisias (af-ro-dizl-as), map 52 Aphrodite (afro-di'te), '16-17, 20. 44. 180. 181: of Melos. '136 Apollo (a-pol'6). 'Ib-l?. 18. 38. 56. 134. 18C. 181. 183. Buddha modeled after. 170. 171; on coin. '54. of Piraeus. 19: shrine and festival at Delos, 38,
women
of, 85.
95
awards. '134-135, training, '126-127. 132. See also Sports Athos. Mt. (ath'os). 71. map 72. 73 Atlas (at'las). 182
Atomic theory
9;
159,
map
Attica (an-kfl).
map
1
94; silver mine,
s
invasion of,
19;
of.
Creek trade with. 66:
Greek
34-35.
map
8, 32, 34,
map
119;
map
72, 76, 77. population figures (430 B.C.).
Achaean warfare on
colonization on coast
map
hills of. '92; Persian invasions of.
162, Athenian domination of
coast of. 96. 117.
of Democritus. 102-103
Attic tribes. 93. 122
Asclepius(as-kle'pi.us).^103
69;
52
117. 122. 124. 167. vase designs. '56; Athletics. 17, 38. 49, '125. 126. '128-131.
14-15. 17. 18. 28, 99, 166. See also
Music; Painting; Pottery; Sculpture Artaphernes. 71 Artaxerxes II. King of Persia. 159 Artemis (ar'te-misl. *16-17. 180. 183 Artemisia (a te-miz'i-a). 77
Antiphon(an'ti-f6n), 184
map
153. Thirty Tyrants, 124: trade. 97. 98.
Architecture: Crafts; Frieze. Literature;
coast of. 32; Alexander
Antipolis (an-tip'O'lis),
degeneration due to Peloponnesian War. 123-124. 137; theater. 100-102, '149,
99-100, •110-115; Egyptian
•166-169. •172-173. in Ionia. 36, main periods, •12-13, oriental. Hellenistic
figure. 105;
94-95; Solon s reforms. 57; spiritual
influence. 56-57. geometric style. ^12. colonies. 54-55; Hellenistic.
Peloponnesian
after
post-Periclean culture. 117, 123-124, 137-142; religious beliefs and rites,
of aristocratic era. 55-58: classical. ^13.
map
72.
philosophy, 123-124, 137-142. political
^26. 95. 137.
Antibes. Greek origin, map 52 Antigone (an-tig'o-ne), Sophocles. 95 Antigonus (an-tig'o-niis), King of Macedon, 163
map
70-77, and Philip of Macedon. 143-144,
158; Elfiics, 142, scientific approach of, 142. quoted. 17.26 Armor. ^39-40. '70. '116. '139 See also
Asia Minor,
map
118-119; Periclean. 95. 98-104. '105-115.
Athens and Aegean,
Creek
of.
'173;
period. 11. 173; layout of, 105. '106-107;
95; science
sociopolitical
141-143, 173, 185; Alexander's teacher.
in
in. 167.
influence during and after Hellenistic
Aristophanes (ar istof'a-nSz), 102, 123. 184; Acharnians, 123. Birds, 123; Frogs, 123: Lysistrata, 95; quoted, 25 '1).
Golden Age
93-105; Hellenistic art
Aristocrats. 49-51, 55; decline of influence
Aristotle (arls-tot
119. 124;
149,153(sfealsoCilyDiony5ia,Lenaean Panathenaic festival); generals,
festival:
antagonism toward democratic Athens. 104. 117-118 Aristocratic era. 41. 49-o0. art and Aristocracies. 49-51,59. 117.
52-53; role of
Empire
of, 97.
map
(499 B.C.), 70, festivals, 99, 100-101,
119. 134 Aristides(ar'is-ti'dez). 96
>72
in art, 14, 56,
campaign
97-98, 104. 117, 118.
expansionism. 60, 95-97. 98, 104. 117-118; expeditionary force to Ionia
'133
62. •64-65; wild.
78
(e'sdp), '96
life and work. 79, '80-91; during Dark Age. 32. 34; and Delian League. 96-97; democratic government. '25. 60. 73. 93-94. 97. 108. 117.122.124. Draconian code of law.
173. Egyptian
map
and
^92. 98-100. •110-115,
149. 153: coins. '55. 97; constitution of
125, 134
14. 28. *29,
Aegean Sea, map 8-9, "66-67, map 162, Athenian domination of, 96, 97, 117. map
map
in.
123. classical drama. 100-102. 120. 123.
Art. 14. 18. *19-29; archaic. •IS. 55. 100;
53
Siwa,
of
Archon (ar'kon). 153 Areopagus (ar-e-op'a-gus). Athens.
architecture
Weapons
119
162;
aristocratic era. 50. 60: classical art
of. in
90-97, 124: League of Corinth, 144, 157,
158.
Mycenaean. 31; Parthenon. ^92. 99. •112-115. temple elements. 57. '5»: tholos. ^48. '106-107 Architrave. *58
conditions. 49-51.59
162-163
163, Aetolian League, 163; Delian
(fl-krop'o-lis), 34, '84, 93,
(ak'te),
map
s ally.
Greeks toward. 104. 117-118.
literature. 55-58; colonization. 51-55.
loO,
map
Alexander
and philosophy. 58-59;
Alliances of city-states Achaean League,
hero, 157, 162
Aegospotami.
163. 164. 173. age of tyrants. 60;
map
162, 173
at
'84. ^92. 93-104. •lOS-llS.
8.
alphabet. 36. antagonism of other
157-158, l60; political skill, 158, 160-161; quasi-divinily. 161
map
map
Erechlheum.^llO. 111. 123;
144, 158, I59-I0O; personality,
Alexandria, cities founded by Alexander,
98-100, 105, •106-107, 'IIO-IIS, 123
Aegean
map 162-lo3, 165, map lo3; legends,
loO-lol,
Alexandria, Egypt, 160,
(n-kar'ni-anz). Aristoph-
Alexander
s
of.
lo2-lo3, death, 163:
lo4, marriages, loO, as military leader,
Achilles (o-kil'ez), 37, 41. 43, 164, 183,
Acte
map
in India,
anes, 123
Acropolis
Alcman(alk'man).57. 184 Alexander the Great, 144, '156, 157-lo3, lo5, 184, aims of. 157. 158. 159, army of. 162; campaigns of. 159-160. 161. map lo2-l63. at Baclra, *171: cities founded by, 160,
civilization, 31-32, in
Peloponncsian War, map 119, Persian Wars, map 72 Achaean colonies, map 52-53
Acharnians
map
72. 76; loss at
Hellenistic. •168-169. ^173; Ionic. *58.
Argive plain, •ol
122. 124. 184.
map 9. map map 119. 122
Abydos
sibi'a-dez), 98. 120-121,
(al
in
119, 122, triremes, '122-123
Athens,
Ares (a'rez). •16-17, 51, 180, 181 Arete (ar'e-te) (goodness), 50-51
Alcaeus(al-se'iis).57. 184
map
Syracuse. 121-122: loss
•106-107
map 52
Alcestis(alses'tis).37
Alcibiades
on coins, ^55. of Phidias (Parthenos). 99. 114. •US; Promachos.
battle of Salamis.
31;
Alalia (a-laH-a).
(d-the'na). •lO. ^16-17, 44. 101.
•172. 180, 183;
184
Corinthian. •SB, 168. "169. •173; Doric. 20. ^21. •Sa. •112-115, 168;
reflect the
•110. 111. 168; orders, •SS;
Abacus (architectural element!. 'SS Abdera (ab-der'fl), map 9, map 53.
Athena
Architecture. 20; Acropolis, 96-99. •106-107. •IIO. 111. •112-115, 123;
changes in terrain and coastline worked by wind and wave action. The most familiar form of old place names has been used-Greek. Latin or an Anglicized version
These maps of the ancient world do not
8.
Arcesilas(arses'i-las).56
162-163
Alexander's Route
map
11. 15. 17
Atalanta(ala-lan'ta). 183
•106-107; standing and worship of. Athens. 27.99. 111.114 Athena Nike temple. '106-107. 123 Athenian fleet. 73-74. 96. 97. 118; in
*62-63
(
Arcadia (ar-ka'di-a).
Astronomy.
Creek trade
162;
with. 89
72-73
Assyrians, in Persian army. 72
map
72, 73-74: Spartan
invasion of (506 B.C.). 60: Spartan invasions during Peloponnesian War. 118: unification. 183 Aulis (o'lis). 60 Aulon (ol'on). map 53 Axius River (ak'si-iis). map 8
53.
Hittite
Empire. 32, 33. 35; Lydian expansion. 69; Persian annexation of. 69-70. map
71 Aspasia (as-pa'shi-a), 95 Assembly, Athenian, 60. 73. 87. 93. 108. 119. speaker s podium, •loa Assyria. 69. map 162. comparisons with Greece. 18: Empire. 33
add,:
B Babylon, map Io2. Alexander Babylonia. 13. 15. 69. map 162
in.
160. 162
Bacchylides (ba-kill-dez). 164 Bactra (Zariaspa).
stay
at,
ofa.
map
163:
Alexanders
'171
ind.
silc-nt.
aker.
Alexander in, loO, Ipl. nuip games. 'Ul-UJ
Bactria. Ball
lt>3
Baluchistan Deserl, Alexanaet m. 102,
map lo3 Banquets. Athenian. •PO-'Jl (Bar'kii).
Cimon Circe
Biriis.
Aristophanes. 123
(bi-thin'i-ii). 20. map 53 Black Sea. map 0. oo. map 162; extension of Persian Empire to. 71. map 72; Greek colonization and trade. 52. mtip
map
Athenian Peloponnesian
8;
aggression. «7. 104. in
War. map 119. 120. Persian invasions o(,
map
72. 77; Philip of
Macedon
in. 144 Bokhara,
map 163 Bosporus, map 9, map
map
53, 06.
lo2
Boule (bob'le) (Council of 500). 93, 107. 108 Athe; Bouleuterion (boblu-t •106-107 Boxing. 38. 126, '131 .
53; coin. •54
comparisons with Greece. 12. 15. 18; Greek trade with. 64. 89; Hellenistic influences. 164. 167; influence on early
(sith'er-a).
{siz^•klis).
69
Persia,
map 6 map 9. map
Creek art, 56-57; Iskander legend, 164; under Persian rule. 71, 73, 97; Ptolemaic
53
dynasty, 163 Elca (e'le-o).
founded by Alexander. loO. map 162-163; Hellenistic. 163, 168, See a/so
City-state
D
Ekclta
(s), 13.
at
banquets. 90. ^91.
festivals. 34. 38. 57. 145.
50, 62, 124. 143. 163.
development and early
history.
Wars,
•U?
Dante, on Aristotle. 142
Danube
Aristotle and. 142. 158; decline. 137.
at
map
River,
expansion
to.
map
158.
lo2
Daphnae. map 53 Dardanelles. 66
o9, 74, 7o. 77, 78. introduced to lands
Darius
conquered by Alexander. loO, lo3, Plato and. 140. 142. under tyrants. 59-0O, See also Alliances of city-states
Darius
Kingof
1,
Persia, "68,70-71,73,
158. l6l
King
III.
Dark Age
of Persia. 158. 160. 165
of Greece. 32-38. 49. arts
and
Class war: aristocratic era, 59, 60; in
crafts. 32. 55. 56; cultural revival at
Athens. 00. 93. 124 Cleiithcnes (klis'thl-nez). 60, 93, 98. 134 Cleon (kle'on). 119-120. 184
close of. 38; emigration. 34-35; epic
EphesUb(efe-si(S).
Datis. 71
David. King of
Clytaemnestra(kli te'm-ncs'tra),36, 101,
Deforestation, 62
"39-47, 60 Epicurus (epl-kii-rus), 173
Delian League. 96-97. 121
Epidamnus
Israel,
33
map
Brasidas (brasl-das), 120
Coinage: introduction of, 00; unified in Alexander s Empire, lo5, unified in Delian League, 97
Deles (df'los). map 8; center of Delian League. 96. 97; festival of Apollo, 38 Delphi (del'fi), map 8, 143; frieze at. "22-23, oracle, 69, 74, 180; Pvthian Games, 125, 134; tholos. "48
of.
•28-29. 31. 32. 38. 56. "70
Burial.
Mycenaean (Achaean),
map
53. 183
Colonization: of Aegean (Ionia). 34-35; other Mediterranean. 51-55. map 52-53
31
Columns: Corinthian.
Butcher's shop, *S7
map 53 Byron. George Gordon. Lord. 78 Byzantium, map 9. map 53, map 119
*58. '169. '173;
Doric. 20. ^21. "58. •112-114; Hellenistic
Byblos,
(kad'mus). 183
map 53 Camarina (kam-a-rin'ij). map 118 Cape Sunium (sunl-iim). map 72.
73
Caria (karl-a).
map
9.
map
53,
map
119; liberation by Athens, 96
map
Carpathos (kar'pa-thds), Carthage. 33.
map
52. 66. 89.
9
map
118.
121.124 Carystus (ka-rls'tiis). 96 Castor (kas'ter). 183
Catana
(kat'a-na).
map
Cavalry. Alexander
s.
118
I6l. lo2. *165
Cecrops (se'krops). Ill Celtic trade, 52
Centaurs, 99. 183
Cephalonia (sefa-16'ni-a(, map 8. map 119 Cephalus (sefa-lus). arsenal of. 87 Chaeronea |ker o-ne'a). battle of, 144 Chalcedon (chal-sed'dn), map 9. map 53 Chalcidian alphabet, '30
map
Chalcidice (kil-sid'i-se),
map 72 Chalcis(kal'sis). map 8; invasion
8,
Persian
60
Chandragupta, Indian King. 163 Chaos, 180
•US-UO
Chariot racing, 38. 126. Charioteer, Delphi, ^29
Chersonesus Heracleotica (cher-55nes'lls her-a-kle-ofi-ka),
map
53
Children, upbringing of. •80-83;
abandonment
of weak, o3, 80, in
Sparta, 34
Chimaera(ki-mer'a), 183 China, 33,77, 163
Chios (ki'os), map 9, 34; in Athenian Empire, map 119; in Delian League, 96; under Persian rule, map 72; revolt against Athens. 122 Choephoroe (ko-ef'o-roy), Aeschylus, 101 Choregus (ko-re'gtis), 153
J
72
Ethics, Aristotle. 142
Greek trade with, 89
interruptions of. in Athens, 122, 124,
Ethiopians, in Persian army. 72
Elruna, 52,
sculpture. "25; spreading outside Athens. 97, 104. 117; in warfare. 22
Euboea
relief
Corcyra
Demosthenes
(kor-sir'a) (island),
map
map
8.51,
Corcyra (Corfu), map 53, map 1 19 Corinth (korlnth). map 8. 50. map 53, Isthmian Games at. 125, 134: member of Spartan Alliance, 117-118. map 11°, 121 Corinth. Isthmus of: defense in Persian Wars, map 72. 74. 70. Spartan domain, 117. 118, map 119 Corinth. League of. 144. 157. 158, 103 Corinthian architecture. ^58. I08. •loO. •173 Corinthian colonies, map 52-53. 118 Corinthian Gulf, map 8. 12 Corsica, map 52 Cos (kos). map 9; school of medicine. 103-104
Dia/ojMCs, Plato, 138-140 (didl-ma).
Eupolis(u'po-hs). 102
Temple
of Apollo. "168
£/ec(ra, 123; Heracles. 123;
o-mc'dez). 181. 182
Dionysus
Eurymedon River
97
(ii-rim'e-diJn). 96.
(dio-ni'siis), 90. 100, 145. "146.
147, 149.181; hymn to, 153 Discus throwing, 38, ^125, 12o Dithyramb, 153 (do-do'na).
map
Dark
Doriscus (dor-is'kus), Drachma, coin. *55
8
Family
8. 12.
map
53,
map
life.
"79: Athenian, "84. 85. '90.
95. Spartan. 34. See also Children;
125. 134; Spartan. 34. 57
Ecclesia, 108, See also
Echinus (e-ki'nus). "58
53
(Argolis). 125, 134;
and
fishing. 51. 66. "83
Food, "84. "87. 95; imports. 64. 89:
Currency, See Coinage; Coins Cyclades (sik'la-dez). map 8. map 72 Cyclops (si'klops). 47
map
Nemean
126. 145. 149. 153; Pythian (Delphi).
Fish
Cumae(ku'me). map53
8
101. 153;
arts at. 27. 34. 38. 57. 100-101. 102.
Ecbatana,
map
(Athens). 153; at Delos. 38; Dionysiac. 100-101. 102. 149. 153; Isthmian
Olympic. 38, 75, 125, •126-131, 132, 134; Panathenaea (Athens). •26-27. 99. •106-107. "111-112. 134; performing
100-102, 123 Drawing, art of. 50 Dress, See Clothing
53;
Cyprus. 32. map 5i. map lo2 Cyrenaica (sir enalka). map l62. Greek
Farming. 51. "64-65. "88. 89 Festivals and games. 27. 38. 125. •126-131. •134-135; athletics at. 38, 125. 126. "128-131. 132; awards. •134-135. 147. 153; City Dionysia
(Corinth). 125, 134: Lenaean (Athens).
revival. •154-155; religious
Cronos (kro'nos). 35. 180. 181 Croton (kro't'n). map 53
(si-len'e),
8
origin of. 100. 145. 147; subject matter.
162,
civilization, 31
map
map
map 72
Draco (dra'ko). and Draconian code, 50 Drama. Greek, 15, oO, 95. 100-102, 120, 123, 145-155; forms of, 100. 153;
modern
Crimea: Greek colonization. 52. trade with. 64, 89. 124 Criminal law, early, 50 Croesus. Kingof Lydia. 69
un
slavery.
EurotasRiver(a-riVlas).map8
143
Doris (dorls) (mainland), Doris (colony), map 9
Dorian invasion, 32; in legend, 183;
charity: old. olwy, orb. odd. connect: food. cQbe.
on
The, 101-102. 120.
Europa, 183
Dionysius (di'6-nish'i-Ms). of Syracuse.
Doric architecture. 20. "21. •58, •112-115,
Cremation. 32
colonization,
Women,
"154-155
Dionysiac festivals, 100-101, 102, 147, 149. 153
Dorian invasions. 32. 33, 34
Age. 32, 55, Ionian. 38; Mycenaean. 31 55- See also Pottery
Cyllene. Mt,
Euripides (u-rlp'i-dez). 101. 145. 184: 95; Trojan
(di
Greek
53; and
Women
Crafts. 13-14. 20, 49. 55. "SO. 87;
map
map
Diomedes
Dodona
Council of 400. Athens. 122 Council of 500. Athens. 93, 107. 108 Courts, See Juries. Law courts
Minoan
8.
Dieneces (di-en'c-sez). 22
Cosmetics. 85
Crete,
53, alphabet, 38;
map
Euhesperides (ij-hes-perT-dez). map 53 Eumeriides lumenl-dez). Aeschylus. 101 Euphrates River. 12. 159. map 162
(the orator). 144. 184
Deucalion (da.ka-li«n). 182
Didyma
(ij-be'a),
War, map 119; in Persian Wars, map 72 Euboean colonies, map 52-53
Deus ex machina, 151
119
map
influence on art of, 52
Delian League, 9o: in Peloponnesian
Democritus (de-mok'ri-tiis). 102. 185 Demosthenes (de-mos'the'-nez) (the general). 121
Creusa(kre-ij'sa). 183
Charybdis(karib'dis),66
Wai
expeditionary force 70; in Persian
BC),
Pericles on, 100; popular consent, 13.
Cratinus(kra-ti'nus).102
of.
Demeter (de-mc'tetl, •16-17, 36, 181 Democracy. 25. 93-94. 108; Alcibiades on.
Ill
(e-rck'thiis).
(e-re'tri-ii):
to Ionia (499
Maidens), "110
118,
Capital (architectural element). •58
Erechlheus Eretria
Propylaea, 99. sculptured (Porch of the
on. 100 Confucius, '77 Contract law. 50
Callipolis (ki-lip'o-lis).
Erechtheum (erek-the'iim). '106-107. •110. 111.123
Ethiopia.
Constitution. Athenian, 60. 93: Pericles
Callicrates (ka-lik'rii-tez). 99. 112. 185
Delphi charioteer. *29 Deluge, in Greek myth. 182
(ep-i-dam'niis), map 8. map 53 Epidaurus (epl-d6'riis). map 8, 62. 1 18. map 119, theater at, '148-149 Epirus (e-pi'riis), map 8, map 53. map 119. map 162; in Persian Wars, map 72
123; evolution of. in Athens. 60. 73. 93:
base. "168. Ionic. '58. •IIO; mixed, of
Comedy, 15, 95. 102. 123. ^152. 153 Commerce. See Business; Trade
Cadmus
,
119. 120
Coins. 14. ^54. •loS; Athenian. ^55. 97
Colchis (kol'kis).
battle of 1 18.
124. 184
map9
Ephialtes (efl-al'tez), 93. 184 Epic, heroic. 15, 35-38. 57; Homer. 37-38.
Delium (deh-um).
Bucephalus (bu-sefo-lus). 161. 163 Buddha. 77; sculpture. •170, 171
table 36, 132 Enlcrlainmenl, "90-91, "132-133, 168; epic songs, 35-38; lyric songs, 57-58; theater, 100-102, 123, *145-153. See
Climate. 12. 01 Clothing. 31.34. 62. 64. •80.95, •112
183
123
8
also Festivals and games Epaminondas (e-paml-non'das),
songs handed down. 35-38 Dascylium (da-sill-iim). map 53
Cnidus (ni'diis). map 9. 20 Cnossus (nos'MS). map 8
Bronze, use
map
Elis(c'lis).map8 Elysium. 17
Empedocles (em-ped'o-klez). 185 Emporiae (em-p6r'i-e), map 52 Engineering. 15-16.31.70 England. Greek trade. 52, 66 English language, derivatives from Greek,
Macedonian
8-9;
Boys; upbringing of, 34, 80, *82-83; toys for. *80-81 Bridges. Xerxes', across Hellespont. 74. "75
53
(c-lek'lra). Euripides.
Eleusis le-lu'sis),
Dance. 49. 145;
of aristocratic eta. 50-51. 59-60;
144;
map
Eleatic school, 59
City-states
33, 34, 38, disunity in Persian
53. 64. 8«. 08.122. 124
Boeolia (be-o'sha).
map
Cyrus the Great, King of
47
Citium, map 53 City Dionysia festival, 153
Bilhynia
(si-re'nc),
Cyrus. Prince of Persia. 159
(si'mdn). 96, 184
(siit-s^),
Cities:
U2
Cyrene
Cythera Cyzicus
Cimmerians. 35
Bcllerophon (be'-ler'o-fon). 3o. 104. 183 Beverages. 5t>- See also Wine Biology.
map S3
Cilicia(si-lishl-a).
map
53 Bards. 35: Homer. 37-38 Battering ram. '70 Barca
Chorus, 57; in drama. 101. 102. 145. 153; revival in modern drama. 154 Christianity. 102. 142
map
scarcity. 51. 59. 64, 89, staples. 51. 62.
l63
Assembly
64-65 Foot racing, 38. 126. "128. 129. "130 Footwear. "86
Education. 80. "82-83; Academy. 138; Athens as lasting center of. 11. 173;
Forests. o2
Sophists. 123-124; Spartan military. 34. theater as. 149
Egypt. 33. 162.
map
53. 173; Alexander in.
Athenian aid
10,
map
against Persia. 97;
Frieze. 57. "58: at Delphi. '22-23; of
Gjolbaschi. '39-47; Panathenaic procession (Parthenon). •20-27 90
•111-112
:
Frogs. Aristophanes,
Hermus River
Fuel. lamp. 65
Herodotus
Furies. 101. 180. 182
(hur'miisl,
map
9
Heroes, myths
Furniture. •94. 95
of,
184 31, 36-38, 182-183,
Lysias (list-os). 184
lockey. sculpture. '28
Lysippus
lumping.
Lysistrata (li-sis'trd-td). Aristophai
38. 126. 131
M
Hmdu
map 52
Gades.
Games, 131, ball, "132-133: children 80, Minoan, 31. Panhellenic, 125,
s,
Kush, l6l, map lo3 Hipparchus (hi-par'kiis), 00 Hippias (hip'i-iis), 60 Hippocrates (hi-pak'ra-le?), 16, 103104, 185, oath of, 103
"120-131, 132, 134 (see also Festivals
Hippodrome, 126
Hippomenes (hi-pom'e-ne^), 183 Hipponium (hi-p6n^•um), map 53
and games) Gandhara, map 163; Hellenistic innuence on religious art of, 163.
History:
•170-171 Caul,
map
of, 160,
map 162
52
Geography: of Greece, map 8-9, 12, 61: Greek knowledge of, II, 161-102 Geometry, 16, 20,59,138
Homer
Gibraltar, 182
185:
Gods, Greek,
at,
14, 16-17: in
"39-47
Olympian, "10-17,
drama, 100,
35, 41, 44, 99, 102.
in sculpture. "10. "16-17. 18.
"19, "22-23. "67, •lis. *136, "172;
and
warfare, '22-23, 44. See also Religion Gold, 31. 38. 54: mining in Thrace, 143. sculpture plating. 99. 114
Golden Age of Greece. Golden Fleece. 183
Gordium Gorgias
lliati,
(gor'di-iim).
(gor'ji^is}.
39. 47. 60; quoted. 39.
map
Hydraotis River, Hydria. "56
163
map
Hvphasis River. 162.
34. 93-104. "105-115
map 162
I
184
Ictinus (ik-ti'nus). 99. 112. 185
Greek beauty.
Ideals,
20. 28: heroism.
38. 49. 71. 124: Plato's ideal state. 140.
22. 41. 43. 51. individual liberty. 11-13.
141. tyrannies, 59, 60, 69-70. 124.
IB. "25. 34. 94-95. 140. 157. law. 13. 25:
See also City-states Grain crops, "64, 65, 89
manhood. 50-51.
Granicus River (gro-ni'kiis), battle > 162 159,1 Gyges, King of Lydia, 69 {ji-lip'iVs),
of.
See also Troy
llion (il'iiin). 39. Illyria (i-lir'i-o).
map
map
map
map
53.
map
72,
9
Immortality, 17 See also Life after death
H
India:
(ha'dez), 36, 181, 182
77,
River (hahak'mon),
map map
8
map 102
Halieisfha'li-es), 118
Hebrui River
Alexander
map
map
161.
in,
9
163. 165.
at.
161.
mop
163
(hek-fl-tom'pi'los), 160,
Ionia {i-6'ni-o).
map 163 Hector (hek'ter), 35, 41, 43, 183 Hecuba (hek'u-ba), 120 Helen of Trov, 32, 44, 47, 183 Hellenistic Age, 160, 163-164, 165; architecture, "168-169, "172-173; Asian influences, 164; Athens' role,
domination,
map
map
9.
53.
of, 161, 173;
map
sculpture,
*172 9,
map 119; 159, map 162,
53,
Alexander's crossing of, Xerxes' crossing of. map 72. 74, "75
Hephaestus (he-fes'tus -fes'liis),
Iron, use of, 32, "70
or, csp, Brit.,
"16-17, 181: temple at
Israel:
Kingdom,
Mosaic law. 13
33.
map
Issus. battle of. 160.
Italy:
mop 53 Heracles (her'o.klcz), 36. "86. 181, 182, 183
Ithaca
Istrus (is'triis).
map
map 53
9.
Greek colonization and trade. 52. 53, 124. Rome's emergence. 141. Empire of Dionysius. 143
map
{ith'fl-kii).
map
8.
Ivory. 38. 89, 99, 114
Heracles, Euripides, 123
Monoecus (mon-ek-us), map 52
183
8
Laurium, Mt. Ilorl-um), map 72 Law, 13, 25, codification, 38, 50, influence on later legal systems. 13. 168- See also
Marcus
Mardonius, 71,72. 77-78 Market place, Athenian, 87, 105, "106107 Marmara, Sea of (Propontis), map 9, Athenian domination, 9o, map 119:
Greek colonization of shores,
52,
map
mop 72
53: Persian domination,
Law
"106-107. See o/so Juries
"
ideal of. 17. 20
in Persian army, 72 Media, 69, map 163 Medicine, 11, 16, 32, 103-104 Mediterranean: Greek colonization and trade, map 52-53, Phoenician-controlled
Medes,
(lem'nos),
coasts,
9,
Megalopolis
map 72
(lc-nc'o"n) festival, 101,
(le-6n'f-dds), 75-76,
153
map
Melita (mel'f-td), 96,
rule,
8; in
Peloponnesian Wars, map 72
in Persian
Locris Ozolis (6-z6ns),
mop
8
Logic: Plato, 140: Aristotle, 142
Long Walls,
Piraeus, 122 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 37 Lycia (lish'i'd), map 9, map 53, liberation
map
9,
map
53,
map
119,
introduction of coinage, OO, sub|ugates Ionian colonies, 69; subjugation by
09
lavelin throwing, 38, 12
Lyric poetry. 15.57-58
Jewelry, 31,38, exports.
Lysander (h-san'der). 122. 184
map
8,
Athenian Empire, 97,
in
Spartan Alliance, 117, 118
Epic, Lyric poetry
War, map 119;
map 8 map S3, map
(meg'fl-lop'o-lis),
(meg'fl-rd),
Megara Hyblaea (hible'o), mop Megaran colonies, map 52-53
57-58; classical Athenian. 100-102. 123. Ionian, 37-38; Plato, 138-140, See o/so Locris (lo'kris),
52-53; rise of Rome, 141,
72, 77, joins
184
under Persian
mop
163-164
Medusa, 182
Megara
map
Leptis Magna, map 53 Lesbos (lez'bos), map 9, in Athenian Empire, mop 119, in Delian League,
Persia.
Geometry "Mean (moderation),
Mechone (mS-kd-ne'l, 151 Medea (me-de'o), 183
courts. Athenian. 93. 96-97. 105.
Drama;
Greek origin, map 52 Masks, theater, 101, "150-151, 154 MassiUa (mo-sil'i-o), mop 52 Mathematics, 16, 138, 140 See also
Meat. 51.05, "87
Reform
Lydia,
Hercules. Sec Heracles Hermes (hur'mez), "16-17, 181. of Praxiteles. "13
Curtius, "141
Marseilles,
mop
by Athens, 96
Heraclitus (her n-kli'tus), 59, 185
Hermione (hur^mi'o.ne). 118 Herms. Stoj of the. Athens, "106-107
163
Isthmian Games. 125. 134
Athens, '106-107 Hera (he'ra), "16-17, 44, 180, 181, 182 Heraclea Pontica (her'a-klW p6n'ti-ko),
Heracles
89
trade, 52,
battle of. 71-73,
71, 93
LaoTzu,77
Literature. 14-15. 18. of aristocratic era.
Greek
Ischia(Is'ki-ij),38
map
against
Isocrates (i-s6k'rd-tez), 143, 184
Ionic architecture, "58, "110, 111, 168 Ireland.
philosophers
map
Iskander, 164
173, cities of, 160, 163, 168: influence
t'n-e'o), battle of (418 B,C ), mop 119 Manufacture, 49, 50, 87. 89. See also Crafts Maracanda (Samarkand), mop 163
Marble, 56: used on Acropolis, 99, 112
Leucas (lu'kds) (island), map 8, in Peloponnesian War, map 119 Leucas (town), map 53, map 119 Leuctra(luk'tra), battle of, 124 Liberty, individual Greek ideal of, 11-13, 18. "25. 34: in conflict with order and stability. 12-13. 140. 157 Life after death, concepts of. 17. 51. 140 Light. Greek, 55, "61 Lighting, 65 Lindos (lin'dds), map 9, temple at, "21 Linear B script. 32
58-59. subiugation by Lydia. 69; subjugation by Persia. 69-71, map 72, See also Aegean islands Ionian Sea, map 8, map 72, map 119
(mnl'iis),
Marathon (mar'o-thon).
Athenian
on oriental
•28, *166-168,
34
mop 72
119
lyric poetry, 57-58,
map 119. colonization. 34-35; cultural revival. 38. and heroic epic. 35-38; science and philosophy.
34-35
Marriage: in Athens. 85. 95, 153; girls age, 80, in Sparta, 34
Leonidas
182
9,
spreading in Hellenistic Age, 163, 168 Uocoon (l|.6k'o-6n) group, "loo
Lenaean
Infanticide. 63. 80
Hecatompylos
Hellespont,
mop
Athens,
Leisure, 49, 79, "90-91
lo(i'6).
163, "170-171,
8, 32,
Land reform, Peisistraius, 00 Land shortages, 34,51 Landowners, 49
Lemnos
Indus River. Alexander
(heb'riis),
mop
(lad'e), battle at, 70.
on sculpture of. 163. "170-171. around 1000 B.C.. 33: under Persian rule. 71. 161; rise of Buddhism. 77
Hecataeus (hek a-te'us) of Miletus. 10
art,
Laconia (Id'ko'ni-a),
Lamachus (lam'a-kws), 121 Lampsacus (lamp'sa-kiis), revolt
171: Chandragupta. 163: Hellenistic
influence
Halicarnassus (hal'I-kar-nas'us), 9,
8.
lo2
Imbros (im'bros),
Hahacmon
Mallus
League of Corinth, 144, 157, 158, 163 League of the Greeks, mop 72, 74, 78; disunity,74,76, 77, 78 Legend (s), 35-38; of beginnings of Athens, 111; and history, 16, 36, 37; of Odysseus, 37, 47, 183; of Trojan War, 31, 32, 36-37, 40, 41, 43, 44, 47, 183
157
143-144
Mantinea (man
Laws, Plato, 140
37. 39. 41. 43. 60.
II,
mop 8 mop 53
Malis (mal'is),
20. excellence. 13-14. 17. 26. 27,
Homer.
72, 143; under Philip
Graecia, map 53 Magnesia (mag-ne'zhd), map 8
Socratic, 137-138; Spartan, 34 Iliad,
121
123; moderation. 17.
53,
Magna
'56
Latin League, 141
mop9
Icaria(i-ka'ri'O).
Athens. 122: democracy. 13. "25. 60. 73. 93-94. 97. 108; monarchies. 32. 33.
Hades
(ki'liks).
Larissa (la-ris'a),
Greek colonization, map 52
Iberia.
49-51. 59. Council experiments, in
Gylippus
Kylix
map
8,
Magistrates, 50
Landscape, Greek, 12, •61-67; influence on art, 55 Language, Greek, 13, 14, 34, table 36;
163
map
162; in Persian Wars, 71,
Krater. '56
Lade
Homicide, 50, 93 Horseback racing, 126, 131 Houses, 31,35 Hunting, "62, 63 Hydaspes River, battle at, l6l, mop 163
mop
Maeander River (mean'der), mop Maenads (mc'nadz), "147, 181
Lacedaemonians (las'e-de-mo'ni-on), 76
37, 39, 41, 43, 60, 157;
map
(mas'e-do'niti),
119, 143, 163, 173; under Alexander,
157-158,
K/eroterion (kle-ro-terl-on). "108 K/ismDs(klis'mds). "94
Labor. 87; serfs, 60; slaves, 51, 87, 94-95
43. Ill, 181
Minoan {also Elder, Titans), 35, myths of, 35-36, 38, 99, 180-181,
180,
(ho'mer), 35, 37-38, 103, 164,
Odyssey, 37,
Cjolbaschi, frieze found
180-181;
of,
map
Herodotus: Thucydides): and legend. 16.36.37 Hittites. 32, 33,35 Home life. See Family life
Girls, "80, 90, "91
102:
Greek reporting and writing
Macedonia Kabul River. Alexander at. 161. mop 163 Kings. See Monarchial government
16,38. 103. 104. 117 [see also
Gaugamcia, battle
185
Justinian. 173. legal code o(. 13
Ihii
.
(li-sip'iis),
Juries: ballots. "99. selection. "It
See also Legends Hesiod (hc'si-od), 33, 180, 185 Hir
182
Jocasta(j6-kas'tii).
(he^rod'o-tiis), 70, 71, 72, 73,
74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 103, 104,
mop
53,
53, 54
mop 118
Melos (me'los), map 8, in Peloponnesian War, map 119, 120: vase painting, 56
Melpomene (mel-pom'e-ne), "153 Memphis, map 53. map 162 Menander (me-nan'der), 85, "150, 185 Mende(men'de),mop53 Menelaus (men c-la'iis), 44, 47 Mercenaries, 158-159
Merchants, 49, "88, 89, See also Trade Mesembria (me'-sem'bri'd), map 53 Mesopotamia, 12 Messana (me'-san'fl), map 53, mop 118
Messene
(me"-se'ne),
Messenia
map 8 map
(me'-se'ni-o),
8,
51
Messina, Greek origin of, map 53 Metals, use of, 31, 32, 38. See olso Bronze; Gold: Iron Metaphysics, 142 Meteora (me-te-or'o), rock pillars of, •62-63
Methone
(me"-th6n'e),
map
53,
map
119
Metope(s), 57, "58: of Parthenon, 99, temple of Zeus at Olympia, 100 Milesian colonies, mop 52-53. 71 Miletus (mi-le'tiis). map 9, map 53. 72,
map
119: Alexander
in,
map
map 102:
destruction by Persians, 70-71, revolt against Athens, 122, scientists of, 58 Miletus, The Capture of, Phrynichus, 71 Militarism: Aristocratic era, 51: Athenian aggressions, 96, 97, 104; Mycenaean, 32; Spartan, 34, 57, 60, "139. See ojso
Warfare Military training, 34, 49
Miltiades(mill['iide2),71,73,o<,, 140. 184
Oratory. 108. "109, 137, 143-144,
Mining. 87, 94. gold, 143, silver, map 72, 73-74 Minoans, 31, 32; gods of, 35 Minos (mi'nos), bull of, 182 Minotaur, 183 Monaco, Greek origin, map 52 Monarchial government, 32, 33. 38. 49. 124; dual, in Sparta. 49.71 Money. See Coinage; Coins Monotheism: Plato. 140. Xenophanes. 5c Morality; aristocratic concept of. 50-51. personal, emergence of concept (Socrates). 137. 142; Plato. 140 Motya (mot'yfl). map 53 Mountains of Greece. 12.01. '62-63
Orchestra. "145. "148-149
97, 143, 158; Seleucid Empire, 163;
Oresteia, Aeschylus, 101
Sparta's alliance with, during
Music. 15. 16, 49, 57;
Demosthenes, 144;
banquets, '90;
at
map
(mi-se'ne),
i,55;
Myron Mysia
72, 78
8: civilization
31-32; epics of, 36-37;
fall of,
(or-6p'i(s).
Orpheus
(or'fe-i"
destruction in
9f
map
53.
119
Eurymedon
in Pel at
River, 96, 97,
Wa
1
'72;
Salamis, 76-77; strength, 71. 74
map
Persian Wars. 60. 71-78,
72, 93, 143;
background, 69-71 under Darius I, 71-73: under Xerxes, 74-78; Herodotus' study and reporting of, 103; Persian army, 72, Persian strength, 71, 74 Persians, Die, Aeschylus, 78 Phalanx formation, "142-143 Phaleron ( fo-lSr'6n), 71 map 72. 73 Phanagoria (fa-na-gorT-a). map 53 ;
map
Paeonia (pe-o'ni-a), coin. "165 Pagasae (pag'a-se).
My
map
map
8,
8.
162.
map
72
Minoan,
31;
,31
Pallas Athena, See
map
9,
threat to Greece, 96,
73-77, 96
Olympia, "120-127 Athena
Palmyra, 168, "169
map
renewed
72;
*ersian fleet: destruction at Mycale, 78;
Palaestra (pa-les-trn), at
nts.
map
Peloponnesian War, 122; under Xerxes,
180 annexation by
Athens, 60
Palaces: Hellenistic, 168; c
32-33;
(mi'rdnl. 185 (mish1'(i),
(o-res'tez), 36, 101,
Oropus
"125, "126, "128-131, "134, "146-147
map
(mik'o-le). battle of,
Mycenae
Orestes
Painting, 55-5o, "86; Mycenaean, '30, vi •12, "62, "68, "77, ^80, •82-90, 'Oo,
choral, 57. 145: at festivals. 34. 38. 57. 145, 153; instruments, 57, '90
Mycale
Ionian colonies subjugated by, 69-71,
Pericles, 98, 100. 108
Pamphylia
(pim-fitt-ii),
map
53
(fi-le'mdn), 173
Myths, 35-38, 58, 59; dramatization,
Pandora (pan-do'ra), 181
Philippi(fi-lip1).map9
Pangaeum
Philosophy, 15-17, 37, 137-142; of aristocratic era, 58-59; Aristotle, 142;
Mytilene
(mit'*I-e'ne).
map
map
9.
119;
revolts against Athens, 119. 122
map
53
Napoleon Bonaparte, 159, 164 National bonds, 13. 34. 38. 125. See also
67,88
map
8, 34.
Delian League. 96 Neapolis (ne-ap'6-lis).
map
72; in
map 53
Nicaea (on
Nike Apteros
(ap'te-ros)
(Athena Nike),
temple. *106-107, 123
map
Nile River, 12,
53.
North Africa. Greek colonies
in,
map
52-53
Northern Sporades,
map
8
o
Paros (par'os). map 8 Parthenon. 99-100. *106-107. "112-115.
41,43
map 163 Pausanias (p6-sa'ni-as), 77-78 Peasant uprisings, 59 Pedagogue, '83
(
pel'a),
map
8,
map
Odyssey, Homer. 37.
183
39. 47, 60
Oedipus (ed'i-piis). 3o, 101. 182 Oedipus at Colonas, Sophocles, 123 Oedipus Rei, Sophocles, 101, 123 OtBcials: aristocratic era, 50; Athenian,
93-94, 108; lots used in selection of. •98; Mycenaean. 32; payment of, 108 (e-nok'o-e), "56
Oinochoe Olbia Olive Olive
oil.
map
53 51. 65. 89. 134
l6l'bi-o).
trees. "64. 65. 111.
"128; templeof Zeus. 100
Olympian Zeus. Templeof. Athens.
"106.
"173
Olympias (o-lim'pias). 144 Olympic Games. 38. 75. 125. "126-131. 132. 134
Olympus. Ml. 72.
home
Olynthus
(o-lim'piis),
map
8.
map
of gods. 35
map 8 Ammon. map
(6-lin'thus),
Oracles. 17: of
lo2;
Delphic, 69, 74, 180
ill,
charily; old, 5bey. orb. odd.
conn
map
53. 66; alphabet,
sphere of influence in Mediterranean, map 52-53 Phrvgia (frii'i-a). map 9. map 53 Phrynichuslfrinl-kus). 71 Pillars of Heracles. 182 Pindar (pin'der). 104. 158. 185 Pindus Mountains (pin'diis). map 8 Piracy. 32. 69. 94. 97 Piraeus (pi-ri'us). map 8. 34, 73, 98, 36, 38;
and culture, 123-124, 137; peace treaty of 421 B.C 120; spirit
peace treaty of 404 B.C.. 122; revolts of Athenian allies, map 119. 122; Sicilian campaign. 121-122; tactics. 118; mentioned, 18, 93, 98, 100, 125 Peloponnesian War, The, Thucydides, 104, 117 Peloponnesus (pel'o-po-ne'sus), map 8, 53. '62-63, Pericles' invasion of,
map
72, 74, 76,
map
119
Plant
life,
map
occupation
Renaissance. 11 Republic, Plato. 140
Rhea (re'a). 180 Rhegium (rej1-»m). map
map
53.
map
119,
alphabet. 36. 38
Rome, map
53; expansion in Mediterranea 163-164. Greek influence on. 11. 163-164. 173; law. 13; rise of. 141 Roxane, loO
map
119; battle of.
Spartan siege and 120
of. 118.
Plato (pla'to). 82. 137. 138-141, 142, 143,
185, Dialogues, 138-140, his ideal state, 140, 141, Laws, 140; Republic, 140;
Sacrificial offerings, 17, '6.^,
views on liberty
Saguntum
lis.
order, 140, 141;
quoted, 138, 140 Plinth. '58
Sais,
(sa-gun'ti^m),
'126
map 52
map 53
Salamis (sal'a-mis). 76: battle 76-77, 93, 114
Plowing. '88 Plutarch (pldb'tark), 76, 95, 112, 119, 160 Pnyx (p'niks), 93, 105, '106-107, '108 Poetry, 14-15. 37, 54, 57-58, 60, 100-102; 15, 57, 100.
Polls (po'lis). 50. See also City-states
Pergamum
Political systems.
See also Drama; Epic;
Samos
(sa'mos),
map
Empire,
map
9.
of,
map
72,
34; in Athenian
119; in Delian League,
96; Persian subjugation of. 70.
under Polycrates. 69-70 Samothrace (sam'o-thras).
map
map
72;
9. '44:
Victory statue. *24
9
Periclean Age, 95, 98-104, '105-115, 117 Pericles (per'1-klez), 98, '105, 106, 108.
Sappho
See City-states; Government, forms of
(safo). 57-58. 185
map 52 map 9. 71. map
Sardinia, Sardis,
72.
map
123. 140. 184; death of. 119; funeral
Pollux (pol'iiksl. 183
Ionian expedition to 70 71 Saronic Gulf (sa-ron'ik). map
oration of. 18. 98. excerpts 100; and
Polycrates (po-lik'ra-tez). 69-70
Satraps, 70
Peloponnesian War. 118-119, and
Satyr play, 149, 153
quoted, 12-13, 18-28, 95, 105; mentioned 76, 102,120, 124, 137,144 Perinthus (per-in'thws), map 53
Polygnotus (pol-ig-no'tus). 185 Pontus pon'tHs), map 53. map 163 Population figures: Attica (430 B.C.). 94; city of Athens. 105 Porch of the Maidens. '110
Persephone (per-sefo-ne), '16-17, 36, 181, on coin, '54
Porus. Indian King. 161 Poseidon (po-si'don). "16-17. 44. »67, 99,
and women, 95;
Polyclitus (p61-i-kH'tiis). 185
(
Persepolis (per-sep'o-lis): Alexander in, 160, map 163; palace at, 71, '159, 160
Posidonia (p6-si-d6n'i-a),
map
Peloponnesian War,
map
1
map 53 8, map 53: map 119
99
Satyrs, "147, 181, mask, "151 Schliemann,Heinrich,40
Schools. "82-83;
Academy.
Aristotle. 173. sloas.
138; of
"106-107
Sciences. 11. 15-16. Alexander in. 158.
s
interest
102; of aristocratic era. 58-59;
102-104; post-Periclean Athens, in
18,
Pottery, 14, '20, 34, 35, 38, 55, "56;
exports
162;
8. 60. 7o.
Aristotle. 142-143; of Periclean Age.
111, 181
Potidaea (pot i-de'a),
162-163, in Egypt, 71, 73, 97; expansion under Cyrus the Great, 69; expansion under Darius I, 70-71, 161 Greek mercenary army of Cyrus in, 158-159; ;
118
Rhodope Mountains (rod'o-pe). map a Rhone River, map 52
Roman
Penelope (pe-nel'o-pe), 47 Peneus River (pe-ne'us), map 8 Pentathlon (pen-tath'lon), '130-131
Perseus (pur'sijs), 37, 182 Persia: absolutism, 13, 18, 69, 158; Alexander's conquest of, 158-161,
and
Gods
Religious festivals, 38, 99, 100, 125, 145, •147. See a/so Festivals
painting. 56
forms, 15; meter, 37; subject matter,
map
of, 37,
beliefs, 59, 140;
See also
122; temple at Lindos, "21; vase
Penal codes, 50
(pur'ga-miim),
book
as source
monotheist
32, revolt against Athens,
62. *63
72. 77-78;
;
Rhodes (rodz) (city), map 9 Rhodes (island), map 9. Doiian invasion,
119, 122
Plains of Greece, '61, "64-65
Athenian
1
Rhetoric. 123-124. 142
Plague, at Athens, 118, 123
Plataea (pla-te'a), 77.
Phidias, 100, 114;
118
Olympia|6-Hm'pi-
72
Phoenicia(ns). 33.
map
162
77; Spartan domain, 95, 117,
(o-dis'us). 37, 39, "46-47.
map
Pellenelpe-len'el, 134
118; and Persian Wars,
Obol, coin. *55
Phocaea (fo-se'a). map 9, 52. map 53 Phocaean colonies, map 52-53 Phocis (fo'sis). map 8. in Peloponnesian War. map 119; in Persian Wars.
Peloponnesian War, 117-123, map 118119, causes of, 104, 117-118; effects on
map
Odysseus
102, 145, 147, Hellenistic period, 168;
sacrificial offerings, 17. '65, '125;
,
map 162
Eleatic school, 59. Hellenistic period.
state, 33.
Pella
Nicias{nishn-ns). 119-120. 121. 184 Nike (ni'ke), *115; of Samolhrace, '24
141, 143-144, 157,
Pharaoh, *33
Reform: constitutional, 60, 93, land, 60: social, 57 Keggio di Calabria, Greek origin, map 53 Relief sculpture -See Frieze Sculpture Religion, le-17. 58: and art. 14. 17. 18. 28, 99. 166; Athens, 99-100, 111, 114, 123, 124; Delphi. 74. 143; and drama. 100,
Ideals
Peisistratus (pi-sis'tra-tus), 60, 184
map 52 Hydaspes R). map 163
Macedon,
111,
Recreation, 79, "90-91, '132-133
137-138. Sophists. 123-124. See also
100; temple of Zeus at Olympia, 100 Pegasus (peg'a-siis), 104, 183
Nicaea(ni.se-a| (Nice),
of
Ramses
Panticapaeum (pan-ti-ka-pe'tim), map bi Paphlagonia (paf l«-g6'ni-fl). map 53 Paris(ofTrovl,44 Parmenides lpar-men'i
Pediment(5l, 57, '58; of Parthenon, 99,
Nearchus(n5ar'kus).lo2 Nemean (ne-me'dn) Games, 125. 134 Nestus River Ines'tiVs). map 9
139, 185 Pythagorean theorem. 59, 139 Pythian (pith'i-an) Games, 125, 134
Python (pi-|h6n), 56
Homer's epics
Pattala,
ot>,
120
4
Nausicaa(n6-sik'3-a).37 (nak'sos),
19,
1
16, 59,
34, Plato, 138-141, 142; Socrates, 124.
Patroclus(pa.tr6't
Naxos
map
Pythagoras (pi-thag'o-ras),
161. 173, of individual liberty, 12-13,
map 53 Naupactus (no-pak'tus). map 119 Navigation, 15.
8, 34,
Pankralion (pan-kra'shi-iin), 131
sculpluresof. '26-27. 99-100. '111-112. '92 •115.
Alliances of city-states
Naucratis {n6'kra-tis).
II
158, 184
Festivals
N Naples, Greek settlement, 52.
Philip
Panhellenic Games, 125, '126-131 awards, ^134-135; training, 132, See also
163
(tol'e-mi), 159,
Pylos (pi '16s), map Pyrrha(pir'a), 182
R
'54
Phengari. Mt. (fen-gar'e). ^44 Phidias (fid1-as). 99, 100, 112, 185; his Athena Parthenos, 99. 114, ^115
Philemon
(pan-je'iVm). 143
Proskenion (prds-ka'ni-6n), "148-149 Protagoras (pro-tag'o-ras). 82, 124, 184 (prit'a-ni), Athens, 93-94
Prytany Ptolemy
,
map 8 Phaselis (fa-sells), map 53; coin Phasis(fas'is), map 53
Panathenaic
100-101, 123: of gods. 35-36. 180-181; of heroes. 36-38. 182-183 See also Legends
Propylaca (pr6p'Me'a), Athens, 99, "106-107
Pharsalus(far.sa'liis).
Mysticism: Plato, 138, 140, 142, Pythagoreans, 138
festival, 99; procession, •26-27, 99, ^106- 107, '111-112
Priam(pri'am),37, 41; mask, "151 Priests, 13, 149 Property laws, 50 Propontis. See Marmara, Sea of
of. 52, 54, 89.
See also Vases
140-141, 142-143 Scopas (sko'pas), 185
Sculpture. '10. 14. 18. '19. '22-29, 38, 55; archaic, •13. 56-57. 100; classical. '13.
Prasiae(pras'l.e).118
14.28. '29.99-100. '111-112. '115.
Praxiteles (praks-ife'-lez), 20. 185;
'136. lo7; Dark Age, 56: Hellenistic. '28, '166-168, ^172, Indian, Hellenistic
Hermes
of.
"13
influence on. 163, •170-171; mass
Sphacteria
production. lo7; materials. 38, 56;
surrender of. map 119, 120 Sporades (spor'a-dez). map 9, Sporades. Northern, map 8
painting of early. '86, Parthenon, '20-27, W-lOO, "111-112, "115; relief, 14, •16-17, 'ZS, 57, "81, "91, "109.
"132-133, 'ISO, "168 (see also Frieze);
Athenian
Hunting
Stesichorus (stc-sik'o-riis), 54
Strymon River
66
(stri'mon),
mufi 118
Sybaris
map
118
map 9 Shipping, 66, 67, "88-89; pentekonlers, "74-75; triremes, "122-123
Sestos (ses'tds),
Shoemaker's shop, "Be empire of Dionysius. 143; Greek colonization and trade, 52, map 53, 54. 89, 1 24 Peloponncsian War campaign in. mollis. 121-122 Sicyon (sish'i-on). map 8 Side(sid'e), mafi53, "172
(sib'a-ris),
map
163
map map
53,
art in, 168,
mop
53
Silver, 31. 32;
"169
Tanais(lan'a-is),
53.
map53
(tan'ta-liisl.
36
(td-ren-tiim) (Taranto).
map
map 52
map
53, 54,
Apollo,
at
Delphi, 69, 143, of Apollo,
Didyma, "168;
map 72, map
in
w
119 124
(thra'-sira'a-kiis),
(thu-sid'i-dez). 104, 185;
map
76-77. 118; Persian tactics against Alexander, 160; in sculpture, "22-23,
•39-45; tactics, in
tom'i).
{
map
(tor-on'e).
Erechtheum
in, 160, 161.
map 163
Solomon, King of
Israel.
Sophocles (sofo-klez), 27, 101, 145, 185, Atitigotie, 95; Oedipus at Colonus, 123; Oeiiipus Rex, 101. 123; quoted, 18. 101 (spar'tfl),
map
8, 34. 60.
117,
map
162. 163; brief cultural flowering of. 34. 56. 57. 60; dual monarchy. 49. 71; fleet. 122; infanticide, 63. invasion of
Attica (500 B.C.). oO. isolationism of. 60. 95. 157. 158; militarism. 34. 57. 60.
•139; in Peloponnesian War. 1 17. 118-122. 125; Persian alliance of. 122. in
Persian Wars. 71,
policies after
map
72. 74. 75-76.
Peloponnesian War. and
defeat at Leuctra. 124, 139, political and military prestige of. 74, 93, 95; protests
Persian subiugalion of Ionia, 70; slavery, 51, 60; warrior, "138; way of
79 Spartan Confederacy, 117, life,
121
34,
map
118-119,
(tha'sos).
map
Trojan
Delian
map 72
149. 151; awards, 147. 149. 153; chorus.
Tyras
Women,
Tyre,
(tir'as),
map
44. 47,
The, Euripides. 101-102.
of Leuctra. 124. 139; defeated
map
at
(li-re'ni-an) Sea.
map
118
map
8
•16-17, 35, 38. 44. 180, 181,
-Ammon, on
coin, ^54, stoa
Olympia, 100; Temple of Olympian eplsof. 50, 102, 138
Zeus. Athens, ^173 Zoroaster, 77
Ferri
and Robert I
E.
E.
Foy,
Eraser
Dunn and
Haynes Printing Corporation,
Paper hy The
(ziis),
182, 183;
Text photocomposed under the direction of Albert
Cover materials by The
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mentioned, 114, 158, 159
.173 Zeno, of Elea, 185
John L Halleribeck (Vice President and Director of Production), Robert
f7y /<.
159
Xerxes, King of Persia. 73-77. 96;
Athens,
Tyrlaeu5(tCir-le'us).57. 185
Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez), 73-74, 7o. 140,184 Theodorusfthe-o-dorTislof Phocaea, 49 Theophrastus (the o-fras'tiis). 173
Bound
/liialiasis,
of.
53
by Philip of Macedon, 144, insurrection against Alexander, 158; myths, 182, 183 Thebes (on Nile), map 162
Printed hy Fawcett •
Xanthippus (zan-thip'ijs), 76 Xanthus (zan'thlis), map 9 Xenophanes (ze-nofa-nez). 16. 59 Xenophon (zen'o-tiin), 20, 22, 185;
53; Alexanders siege of. 159.
map 162 Tyrrhenian
Theatron (the'a-tron). '148-149 Thebes (thebz), map 8, 97, 104, map 162,
P.
•US
history, 16, 38, 103, 104, 117; Plato,
183
of.
Tyrants. 59. 60, 69-70: Thirty, 124
101. 102. 145, 153. financing, 140; use of masks, 101, "150-151 See a/so Drama Theater of Dionysus (Athens), 100, '145. '149
lames
38. 56. 99. 114.
138-140. See also Literature Written documents. See Records
120; modern production. •154-155 Troy, map 9, 39; Alexander's visit to, map 162; battlements of, *40-41; fall 46.47
Theater, 100-102. '145-153, actors. 101.
at battle
Woodcarving. Wool. 64. 89
^85
Writing. 14-15. 38: Aristotle, 141-142,
180; Gjolbaschi frieze. •39-45:
heroes
9. 54; in
League. 96, Persian rule,
role of. 80. 82. 85. '86. •90-91.
95; cosmetics of.
of.
147
Victory, '24
(
Thais (tha'is). 159 Thales (tha'lez). 16. 58. 185 Tharrus. map 52
Thasos
Women:
53
Troad (tro'ad). map 9 Troezen trez'e'n). map 8. 76. 118 Trojan horse. 47. 183 Trojan War. 31. 32. 36-37. 41. 43.
Tenedos (ten'e'-dos). map 72 Tennyson. Alfred Lord. 37
33 Solon (so'lon), 57. 87. 184 Sophists. 123-124. 137
Sparta
map
*64, 89
51, 65, 89, 90.
Winged
Transportation. 88
Triglyph. '58 Trireme. •122-123
map 53
Wheat growing, Wine,
Wrestling. 38. 126. 131
Athens. •106-107; at Lindos. *21. of Olympian Zeus. Athens. '173; Parthenon. "92. 99-100. "106-107. '112-115. ofZeus. atOlympia. 100
65
War. 118; hunting. •62; iron. 32; Trojan War. "42-45; warships. "122-123; Xerxes' army. 72, See also Armor Weaving, ^86
•153; origin of word. 147
Trapezus (trap'e-zus) (Trebizond).
Soli (sol'i).
bronze. 31. 32; heavy. Peloponnesian
Tragedy, 15. 95. 100-102. 120. 123. 145. 153. modern revival. •154-155: Muse
"106-107, *110, 111. 123. Hellenistic period. 167. 168. *173: of Hephaestus,
Sogdiana, Alexander
Militarism
Weapons. •70-71; Alexander's army. 162;
map bi
Athena Nike, '106-107,
123,
at Marathon, 72, tactics, Peloponnesian War, 118, Theban
tactics at Leuctra. 139. See also
53
Athens, Delian League and Athenian Empire, 97, 98, 117, 122, 124;
at
Achaean (Mycenaean]
17. 22. 51.
32. Alexander. 159-160. I6l.
Corinthian, 121; expansion into Asia, 164, 165, imports, 64, 89; written negotiations, 38, ^98
architectural elements,
Warfare.
democracy in. 22. ideals of. 22. 43. 51; Macedonian phalanx. "142-143; naval.
8
Socrates (sok'ra-tez). 27, 90, 124, 137-138, 139, 142, 185; trial and death,
Soil. 61,
The
Tombstones. '79. 95
Social reform, Solon. 57
137-138; quoted. 15, 20
Venus de Milo, "136 Victory statue. Samothrace, "24
Toys, '80-81 Trade, 35, 49, 51-52, 54, 66, *88, 89,
57, '58, architectural styles, "58;
9
map
Tombs. Mycenaean (Achaean). 31
Torone
Taygelus Mountains (ta-ij'e-tiis). map 8 Teachers, "8283: Sophists, 123-124
-S"
9,
Weapons
map 118
Tegea (te'je-a), map 8 Temples. 17. 38: in Athens, "106-107; of
Smyrna, map
map
Tools and utensils: farming. '88. 89. household, ^84; sense of beauty and function, 14, 20. 55 See also Vases;
Tanagra(tan'a.gra),I53
Slavery, 51,59. 60, 94-95
uprisines.
(thras),
Tin trade, 66 Tiryns (tir'inz),
Tarraco (tar'a-ko) (Tarragona), Tartarus (tar'tfl-rws). 35 Tauchira (tokir'a). map 53
"83; population figures, Attica, 94;
Painting Vegetable crops. 51 Vegetation. 62. "63
Peloponnesian War, 104. 117: quoted. 119, 120, 121-122
162, 173; Hellenistic
Simonides (si-mon'i-dez), 50. 185 Sinope (5i-n6'pe)(Sinop), map S3 Siphnos(sIf'nDs).ma|)8 Siwa, map 162 Skene (ske'ne), "148-149 Slaves: as labor, 51. 87, 94-95; pedagogues.
Valleys of Greece, 12. 61. ^64-65
Tomi
Tarentum
mining. m
Macedonian
Titans. 180
Tantalus
Signature seals, '14-15
•o4-65, 74.
Vase(s). •ZO; basic shapes. •56. See also
Thucydides
;
map
8,
75,77
Thrasymachus
Sicily:
Sidon,
map
Peloponnesian War,
of,
and utensils
52
invasion of, 143; in Peloponnesian War map 119; Persian invasion of, map 72,
Thracians. in Persian army, 72
118.121-122; coin. "54
Syria,
(thes'o-li),
invasions of, 71,
53
Symposiarch (sim-po'zi-ark), and symposium, 90 Syracuse, map 53, 54: Athenian siege
map
183
(the'sus),
162; Delian League members, 96, Macedonian invasion of, 143; Persian
160,
in.
map
72, 75-76: Philip of
162; agrarianism, 49;
Thrace
8
Stylobate(sti'lo-bat), "58
Surgery. 16, 32
Susa,7I; Alexander
fleet
(se-jes't(i),
Seleucus (se-lu'kiVs), 163 Selinus |se"-Un'i
mop
(
at,
Thirty Tyrants, Athens, 124 Tholos (tho'los): Athens, •106-107; Delphi, ^48
Strategeion (stra-ta'ge-on), Athens,
Sea power, Athenian. 73. 74. 76. 9o. 97, 98,99-100,117, 118. 122. 173, See also
Utica.
143
map
•106-107
Sea. influence of. 12 61, 62,
Utensils. See Tools
map
Macedon Theseus
Stoas, in Athens, "106-107
Scyths, 54, 72
''er-mop'j-le), 74, 75;
battle of, 22,
Thessaly
recreational, "132-133 See also
States- Sec City-states
Scylletium (si-lcsM-um), muji 33 Scyros (sir'os), map 8. 97 Scythia (sith'l-fl). map 53
Segesta
map 72
Sports, 38. 49; of children, 80. "81. "83, Athletics; Fishing:
54 Scylla (sil'i), 66 in Sicily,
Thermopylae
and
siege
(sfak-ter'i-fl).
Arthur
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