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4.3.6 Fortlsandkenis A voicejesAoiced pak suchasEngNsh/s,z/aredistinguishednotonlybythemes. . enceolatrenc.eofvoicehuta lsohythedegreeojbreathandmttsculazeffox involved intheiralticulation. ' IhoseEnghshcorlsonantswhich areusuzlyvoicedtendtobe . ' alticulatedwithrelativelyweA energy,whereasthosewhicharealwaysvoicelessare rehtlvelystrong.Ifideed,we51121sttthatince!tam situ-ations,theSO-O'IIIH voked tonMmantsmayhm verykttlevoldng.rgAthattheenergyofMiculationbecomesa 5* W11' :Cantlactoriridistinguishingthevokedandvoicelessseries. .
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Kundswhenweaçeoutoftxtath.thl:havenotgottimetopauseejtberbecaur.e theneedfoTcommunicatjonispresslngorbecausewedo ' wis t ohaveachancetospeak seofsuchaninresstvepnuot lmo nh kso ajme rsto ren ae mel js se howwer,variablelxtween.lTahnegu uages,andisnotespeciallycommon in Engush,. lndividualrmmdsmadeonan ingressivepulmonicaintream may occur as s> hdee .3somesoundsmayalsooccurextralinpzisticaiy
c ommonwayofexpressingsurpriseorpainihvolvestheenerget,ksoinisnpEirnatgihosnbogf airaccompaniedbybilabialOrIabtodentalfrictiom 4.3.* Eg- sigeGlote icconsonants lntlteptcducttortBfthesesounçls,knownaszpcrjvEs,theglottisisclosed,s t lungalri5containedbeneathit.A closureornmowingismadeatsomeopma ojnt a b o v e t h e g l o t t l s t t h e s o f t p a l a t e b e i n g r a i s e d ) a n d t h e a i r b e t we e n t h j s p o i n t a theglottisiscompressedbyageneralmuscularconstrictionofthechamberan nd d
aïwtsingofthelarynx.' nms ,sawbajï veplosivesound1plmaybemade b mptr ingytbheeeajeirci yab bk ea hlie nje dct thi elîps.However,itisnotonlyplo. Siy vec sowh ce hss ma tn ithi v e ; a f f r l c a t e s a n d Mc ncly thistmeof ci ompresrioninanumberoflanguages,e.g.at (i tv se ',ts lc ',( syr zn xmo ,,et .lhave t ghtlydoyd,itfolkowsthatthistypeofarqculatjoncanapply.olf nlt yhte og vlooit ctejs lei ss s
Stmnds(P t'kloccursometjmesinfmalposittonsinsomedjaledsofEnglish
e. nxmth-eastLancashire).Thesearenottobeconfusedwiththemorecomm( og n.i
varianBoffinalIptpklwhicharefrequently(e.g.inpopularLondonspeech)
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'rhechartoftlzeInternationalPhoneticAlphabef(IPA)fseeTable1)showsmanDW Ofartiolatifm fm thevertkalaxis;place ofartkulation on thelmrizontal axts;and apairkngwkthîneachboxthuscreateflshowsvoîcelessconsonantson theleftandvoicedconsonantsontheright
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Thosesentenceadverbialswhichareusuallyclassifiedasconjuncts,e.g.inddentally,theçelore,cannottakeasolenuclmzsinthisway someothertypesofexpression,whicharesimilartoadverbialsinthattheyare. intlzenamreofafterthoughts,arealsocommoninfinalpositionwithnoaccent; forexaraple,vcrativesanddirectxyœechmnazkezs e.:.
Don'tyoua'gree,Peter? Don'tbea'foolhesaid. .
W f or ti onoccursattheendofthesent ence,t henthi swi llbe --h -e -n --o -l -d -di ,n .g .ma
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(Whydon'tyouinviteJohntotheparty'?) BecauseIdon't'likeJohn. (Wehadalong'wait.) Youmeanwehada'verylongwait.
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certaintyaboutwhatheisMyinglandsometimesmoresemantic(e,g.theycooccurwithlexicalmem ingswhicharereinfordngorlimiting-thisisparticularly tllecasewithadverbials).Ingeneral,themeaningsoftonesarenotdirectlygrammatkal,butgrammarmayindirectlybeinvolvedintwoways:(i)someattimdes aeeinherentlynnorealuyciated n*th questjonw Lapafie r,èdgh Tipe whic oftenhasameaningofsurprise,Irequentlymarksanechoquestiontseealsoprevioussection);and(ii)theRttimdinalanddiscoursalmeaningsconveyedwill varysomewhataccordingtothesyntacticsentence-type(e.g.declarative whinterrogative,yes/no-interrogative)withwhichtheintonationalphraseco-occurs. u h a i o n c o i e ty en ---B -e -c da ,s -e ,-of u-t --e -iv pa --r -i -t -n f-i hn -m -e -a --n -i i-g g,a -c fr -d -n -g 1-t -o --s -e -n -t -e -nc -u -p -uej su -s nt -m -, -dividedaccordingtothefollowingcategories:(1)majordeclaratives;(2)minor declaratives;(3)wh-interrogatives;(4)yes/rm-interrogatives;(5)tag-interrogatives; (6)imperatives;f7).exclamatives;(8)socialformulae.Ingeneral,fallingnuclear t ;.gohreratnhdein n ttl sie e a ao sn see rs ti( vwh e,e tt hh ee hi fac ll lutd hi eg mo re er vf gof ra oli u)sar te hesep dea gra rt ei eve o, fma fint at lir tyof inf vc ot la vendd ; whereast/othsimplerises(.and-)andfall-rises(-)arecontinuative,implicative
I nthel as texampl etherei sobviousl ys omeel ementofcont rastpresentbetweenlongandveryftmxç',Sometimesthenucleusmayfallonacontrasteditem '
ae b nl d ong on w-i a t s h se t r h t i e vr ei .i s Ln eg ve to ln t oe n se i s(t n m he ost o c rt os mom fm on ean min og ns gth th eysc eo bn ev ie ny g. themi dlevel ) Theexamplesaregiven asisolatedutterancesorprecededbyabracketed'set-
even thoughalateritem inthetntonationalphraseisnew,e.g. Johnisaquitea'tallman/whereashisbrotherisvery'short.
ting'.Itshouldberememberedthattl'teattimdinalmeaningofanutterancemust alwaysbeinterpreted within acontext,both ofthesittzation ant: lalso ofthe speaker'spersonality.Itmaywellhappenthatanlntonationwhkhispolitein onesetofdrcumstancesmight,forinstauce,beoffenslveorpatronjzingwhen usedbyanotherpersorlorinothercirœmstances.
Incertain,veryIimited cases,thewholeofanintonationalphrasecomprisesoId information.onesuclzcaseconcernsicHoF-s,i.e.whereasecond speakerechoes
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somektehring saidt; and willafofli lrost wstpheaatkoer fth ha esfij rustst (the one wit lllwcha ac ricgeent toua lt ziio ghnro isf e)t ,hee.gs .econd spea
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(Icouldn't'dott.)Youcouldn't'cloit? . ll42. 1 'rl- Mewnlor of' ronez AlmostalIprimaryaccentsin wordsand loagerutteranc eshaveup tonow been exemplifbedusingthehjgllfallnuclear .
tone(rflarked).ThisisthewayLnw'llirllindividualBr ordyareusuallyciàedin isolation.Moreover,inallstylesofEnglishspeech,simplefallsinpitch(whether fromahighormidstartinpmzint orthemajorityofnucleartones(gen- ' z )accountf erallyestimatedaround5t2 069. Simplerises;ndfall-risesaregenerallyestimated
to accountfora further40% oftones.The preponderanceoffallsisusually slightlyhigherinconversation thanin othertypesofspeech,e. & scripted reading.Sincerisesandfall-risesareoftenusedasacohesivedevicesignallingmore ' tofollow,itisnotsurprisingthattheyaremorefrequentlyusedin readingwhere theywilloftenindicatethatasentenceisnotyetfinished. lhemeaningsofnucleartonesaresometimesmoredjscoursalinnamre(e.g. ' tlzey indicate links orthe absence of linksbetween successive intonational '
phrases),sometimesmoreattimdinal(e.g.theyindicatethespeaker'sdoubtor 17quirke!al.(1964:681)flrystal(1969:222,Mtenberg(1987136).Butr seealsothehigher figtkrereNrtedinj12. 7(1).
(1 l Ma jo)rMh decolarrJ afr til vqer/rt effl' ez? rstothosecaseswheretheintonationalphrasecorrelates with an independentclause with themainclausein complexsentences,with thelastclauseincompoundsentencesandwiththatpartofanyofthesewhich isremaindered when aseparateintonationalphraseisgiventoan adverbialora gubjectorsomeotherpartoftheclause,e.g.
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ftookantlverctulJbecauseitwasrainjng. ltookthecarlandflrt?velpLotulon. Theftrs. on/wJ5NeilArrzlslr/nâr. Usuallyt/ma wea doointtthtile smo wp' . W'edoi tthiswuykusually. Inmajordedarativesfallingtonesaretheleastattitudinallymarkedofthetones wjtl.jthehighfallexprcxssingmorelivelinessandinvolvementthantheIow fall,d. lt'saverynice'garden. Of'courseitis. It'saverydullbook. Theparcelarrivedonx' Fhursday. 23Forfurtherlnformationonthemeaningsottones,seeHalliday(1967),O'CommrandArnold (1973)Cruttenden(1997)Wells(Z006).
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Iljkehis-wife/evenifIdon'tlikehim.
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(It'sthetwenty-fifthtoday,isn'tit?)Twenty--sixttl. JIo bu't fhn oudi ddonn't 'tsduoccie te /dJo/hn llvp bh ei vlieprydYid c. ross. Highrisesarecommononechoes(asalreadymentionedattheendoftheprevioussection)andondeclazativequestions: (1diditinblue.)Yeudiditin'blue? rsoyoudidn't'go? ' Othertonesarelesscommon.Thelow risewithonlyotherlow syllablesbeforeit
(i.e.WithnoPrecedingPitchaccent)isComplaining:
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YOumustn'tgoaWay. Whereas,withahigllpitchbeforeit,itisencouragingorevenpatronizing(this sequenceisverycommoninspeechtochildrenll Youdll' onlyover.dothings. There's'noPointin-rtzshing.
ThissequenceisIrequentonimperatlves(seebelow)withasimilarsortofmeaning.Finally,theleastcommonnucleartone29istherise-fall.Itsmeaningusually . involvesanelementofbeingveryimpresKdorconversely,beingveryunimPressedandhenceindigaantorevensarcasticf He oh'sitnh-edeheedadlo Hf oa wb-ig nif cir emfoi rnyoumd u. on. mse-lallisoften usedforgossip:
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Haveyouheard?/Jill'sAprepzant. (2)àfint,rdeclaratives Underminordedarativesareincludedallthose parf. sofdeclarativesentences
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val/ud,whei rea:themidlevelcarriesnoothermeaningotherthanthatofnonfinalitp which isIherhapswhyitaloneofthesethreetonesoccursonlyin non-
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finalposition: wh atJ'dvlike/isadrinkoftea. The-bes.tpersontodo it/wouldbeBillBailey. Ihevcrtzcialissue/isthat... we tooktbe-carlanddrovetoBirmingham. On mywayto>work/itgtartedtorain. un>fortunately/itdoesn'tworklikethat. (cf,Un-fortunately/itdoem'tworklikethat.)
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Mostadverbialswhichhaveaseparateintonationalphrasewilltakearisingtone
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butthereareanumber()fadverbialsofaparticularlyassertivekindwhichmore commonlytakeafallingtone(e.g.literall y,certainly,honestly,bythewcl',(fcourse, besidesj, Be'sides/he'shadmoretimethanheslzouldhave. Bythe'way/whatdoyouthinkofthenewchap? Asindicatedbythelastexample,someadveebtalscanoccurbeforeinterrogatives aswellasdeclaratives.Adverbialsalsof' requentlyoccurfollowtngthemain dause;inthesecaKs,therisewhichoccursisalmostalwayslowrise(butthe fallingtypeagaintakesafa11): IwenttoCanada/lastyear. Itdidnltwork/unfortunately. Heturnedbrightred/niterally. Intlwcaseoffinalsubordinateclauses,twosequencesoftonesarepossible.ffthe
viousmainclausehasafall,then thesubordinateclausewiiltakea1ow rise. P xure ternativelythemain clausemaytakeafail-riseandthesubordinateclausethe jajj,a, Ibeganto feel'ill/becauseIhadn'thadenough toteat.
!hegantofeelvill/becauseIhadn'thadenoughtcpeat.
wh rinousenndtesn Posi icth iow ne s,re e.e gx.csl uubdje ed ctu s,naçt devre(1 rb)ia ab lso ,vte h.eMo firs st tocf lathe usese oo fc ccoump ec ne tennocn es-fi annadl
o-in In(R3) PY te hsetfn mo reteurr sousaulti avnes dmoremlitewayofaskingyes/noquestionsiswiththe
gf t ehnet hoens rd nnattehcelsaeuisneto l e se teesnace su.suallyfromtherisinggroup: 'f t eu sb uo se ui o of nc ao tmp iona lx ph rn as re
1 i l anl tth gyh abh sisharvi saeiliasbmleobreeff e uheenntui nclGeuen etrhaelnAm ic nll); i f aP e to kaw llyr ae cc( e eo du s lla lei or f eqt ' s, the lr s wa i ta ke ao ht i gn hPitch: (ltYgoingtorain1'm afraid.)D0yOu' really.thinkSO?
fall-rise?low riseand mid luxvel.Fall-riseagaincarriesitscommon meaningof .
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286 WqriH Cwnnzctashecn Afalllagtone(ltighfallJrlowfalponayex/no-intezroxatlveZnaZ'Hitasb ancldemanding:
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' Anotheztypeoftaghasconstantm larity.Thistypeonlyhasïowrise(falling tonesareimm ssible).Themeaningconveyedislnthenamreofathoughtful echoofastatementfrom theprecedingspeaker:
t reI (C T. oan myeoxuplraeime nemb ditearlwh 1toit me .)le Bfuttmy don ye owus uh no de ep) rxstA ar ne dth ite ?yinthe'wardrolye?t !. (1can'tfindmypertanywhere.)Areyousureyoubroughtît'wîthyou? ' Arise-fallisoftenusedtomarkayes/no-interrogativeasanexclamation: (Hedidn'tevenleaveamessage)Nowisn'tthatpe-cuiiar! (I'mgoingtoSpalntomonow.)Arenztyoualucky! (Herefusedtohelpme.)wouldyoube-lieveit! (4)Wh-intelmgatives 'l'heusualtoneonwh-interrogativesisfalling(lowfallorhighfall): (Shewantsyoutosendanapology. lWhatitgottodowith'her? ( (Y 5boeudmu idnst 'tn&'tet tetll hehe jr o) b.Wh )Hoyw'ndoot? youknow?
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(1thinkhe'sgoingtoemigrate.)Sohewon'tmrryherf.wcm'the? (Rachel'sgoneoutw' ithJchrl.)5lze'5stkllseeinghim/isshe?
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T lter eto thee lorw iver s, ih tiesamo renalitkiv dy tn oebo enashuicgh ht rnlt se err inogGat ei nve es rais lMn icarnis )e.T(li hkeey ue ses/onfot-i hnete rr isreogisat mo e' tentative:
(6)Imperatives Abruptimperativeshaveafallingtone.Politeimmratives,wltichareatleastsug' gestmgthattheIistenerhasarighttorefuswaresaidwitharisingtone(mostfrequentlyiow riseandsometimesfall-rise): (izvedecidedtoIendhimmycar)Don'tbesuchasilly'fool. (Whatshould1donow?)Goandwashthe'car. (Y0uShouldn'thav'esgental2thatmoney.)IMn'tbe.angl' yaboutit. (1'm afraidl'vehadenoughofyou.)Givemeanother'chance. (1havtaverydelicatejobtodol' iert.)Be-careful. Theuseofarisingtoneratherthanafallingtonesoftenstheimperative. sometimestherisingtoneiscombinedwithatag:
(Canlhavtsomemorewine?)Helpyourself/won'tyou? (Hernenresareterrible.)Seeifyoucanhelp/willyou? (J'm dojngmybe-st.)Well1hurlyup/can'tyou?
(We'reoffonThursday.)WhenareyouJeaving? . (I'm afraiditdidn'twork.)Whydidyoudoit.thatway? Wh-interrogativescanbeusedwithhighrise'toaskforrepetition: ' (He'scompletelyirresponslble.)'Whatdidyousay? (HernamewasPettigrewbeforeshewasmarried.)'Whatdidyousayshe wascalled? : . (s)Tasuinterrogatives 'r -in nd teerdroto gaatip vere sce cc oli nnsg isd teocflaarat si evqe u.eTnlwy ceoafreamo n asutxciolimmo aryvnel rybnaengdati avepi rf oa np oure n- ' aage ! PP
gxc Ex(c7l)ama til vama es(t ij.v ee.sthosesentenceshavingthesyntacticform ofanexclamative, ieaninitialquestionwordandnoverb)takeafaliingtone(indudingrise-falll: whatabeautiful'day!How'shzpidheis1Whataverysillythingto'do! whatapa-laver! Similarlyindi%dualwords particularlynounsand adjectives,can begiven exclamatoryforcebytheuseofafallin:tone,e.g. 'Nonsense!You 'idiot!hMarvellous!
cedingstatementismsitiveandWcel'erlatcalled'reversedpolarity'tags).Such ' tia two allo anrl nggsth oa nvee(us uac llo ymmo Iowrn isea)lt .e Bronta hti tvye pse;saof fal tolinneget xopneec( thai ggrheef me nr t,lto hw eff aal lll)do er ma ds-
Itifs8) dis floicci uallt( toormu givl eae rulesfortheintonationofsocialformulaebecauseitisanarea
(1hadalovelytime.)Yes/Thedaydidgowell/hdidn'tit? (LendmeyourcopyofShakespeare.)Youwilllookafterit/'won'tyou? (Wheredidlputmygolfclubs?)Youlefttheminthegarage/.didn'tyou? (Heaskedmetodrivehimthere.)Butyouwon'tbeabletogoLwiliyou? lW'howasthatwomanilewaswïtlz?)ItwashïssisterSwasn'tft?
Priatelysaidwithariseonbeinggivenaticket,whileahighfalllsmorelikelyifa genuinefavourhasbeendoneanda1owfalliftlzematterinhandisboring.IQe morningMtIIahighfallissincere-soundinglandsometimesinappropriately:0!), withalow fallisbrusqueandwithalowriseispolite(andIyossiblyoverlym1). Thîsgreetl ng(arldmanyothers)canalsol>esaidw'itllthe'St/izecl'toneAehjch
ingorinvitingit,theriseleavingopenthem ssibilityofdisagreement! flt':alongwayfrom theshops.)It%zjghtontheoutskir!sXi:n'tit?
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wherenativespeakersofEnglishoften haveidiosyncratichabih.Itis,however, generallytrtzethatfallingtonesgenerallyshow sinceritywhilerisingonesareused insituationswbereaformulaicpleas isappropriate.Thustla kyouisappro-
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135 InternatlonalEnglish:Prloritlesand Tolerances
'Rö/and/Jl5/wereexpenuable;forthepresentmodeleventhesomewhathigher
. argetisiikelytobethemostcontenttousandthemostutfficulttobe 'rxssortoft out.6ItcanbesetupasatargetIorthosewhouse hvlish asalin'vm preciseaib t i wr thintiwirowncountry(andsometimesincludingsurrounding rrancae wi '
sjwuonallyloaded /f,v/anujsz./alsobecomeexpendable.variationsinthe Placeofarticulationof/s,z/(e.g.dentalorretroflex)canbetolerated.Atthislevel tbereisnojustificationforinsistingonthepronunciationof/h/atai),i.e.jtcan bereplacedbyzero;alternativelyveuranduvuurrealizationsareacceptable.
countries)orasameansofintemationalcommunicationnotnecessariiyinvolv.
ingnauvespeakersatall.ItinvolvessimplifyingtheAmakam Englishsetupin 913.4inwaystomakeiteasierforleamersfrom manydifferentlanguagebackgrounds;anditwillallowsomevariationtotakeaccountolthesedifferentbackgroundsbutnottoanextenttonaakethepevarietiesnxutuallyunintelBpble.
Iz.s.1.z A.<.-, Thesameapplieshereasappliedinthepreviousmouel: lf'z%lshouldbekeptdistinctfrcim/trdr/(where/r/maybeyl-seenextsection) butrealizationsas(tjdjjorItç,dj.lar Iqqishouldbenaaintained but asefa oc rce tp hub eplleo.sT ivheedco isndtnra cs ttobnestwde lsecnul s# seIdanid n
duceswhatmightstillbeanintelligibleform ofEnglish given thatcommunication usingitwillbein context:wherethelanguageusedhasa fairdegreeof predictabihty. '
inL1English. jtjos.j.4 Ajjjjrosmuna yojerancesinthissectionarethesameasfortheprevi -
ReductionofallcontrastswhichinvolveaIowftmctionalloadisaliowed.Itpro.
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ousmodel.A1Ivariationson/l/aretolerable(i.e.kl)tll,and(u)inpost-vocalic position)./r/canbepronouncedinallIyositionswhereitisinthespellirtganda jupjejthery)org(j)jsactuallypreferable.Thedistinctionbetw'eensomeformof
I3.5.I Consonants Almostallofwhatwassaid in 13.4.1concerning consonantsintheprevious modelappliesherebutmoreL1intrusionisallowable.
/r/andsomeform of/l/should'however'beinsisted upon sinceitisofhigh uri nocrtit ioynbae lcla ou as deio nfEt nhgelishhig .hAfcontrastbetween/v/and/w/shouldreceivehigh pf itoin o dss mt v)foreither shouldbeavoidedbecauseofpu on tc ent aa lll isl tea nderan mi inub tes rt pi reti ao tn ionof!
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I3.5.1.I Pleslv' e: /p,t.k/anö /b,dàW mustremain ascontrastive sounds. Mp iration(jnitially)andlengthefprecedingvowel/nasal/lateral(finally)arestili thepreferred featuresforthe contrasts.Butmany speakersusingEnglish for internationalpurposesmay,bymatchingEnglishtotheirL1,makethesecontrast' sdependonvoicingalone;thiscanbetoleratedwiththistarget.Thesame appliesalsowheretheplosivesarefollowedby/1,z,w,j/ldevoicingoftheapproximantlisstilltobepreferredbutlackofthisfeaturecan betolerated.Variations intheplaceofarticulationof/t,d/canbetoleratedastheywereintheprevious t arget(i .e.theyCanbedent alorretr ofl exl.Us eOf/a/inPl aceofnasalandl at eral Plosionandinsequtnce:OfPlosivesisalsoallowable.Therealizationof/d/asa flapIr1isagainnottfkbeentouragedbecatkleOfPotentialconfusionwith/r/.And itstillremainsimpcGant(asinthePreviousmodel)tokeeptheplosivesasp10.
912.5.1.labovecanbeallowedtobemoredependentonvoicingthanisusual
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sivesandnotallow weakeningtofrkatives.
Iz.s.l.a Fricative, Asfntlwpreviousmouelplaceofarticulationdistinctions amongfricativesshouiuberetained,/e,ö/canbeallowedtobecome(lentalEl,w; r v qca ven leratneu l a reep pl la ac ce eme men nt tb isy 'oanl ee ro el aar soxt nwh yn ite wa sb ree ct oo mme det dwu thg ah ttn ho etwen ec ae keunr inge gdo. fs puc loh . sivestofricativu shoulunotbeallowed:ifitwere,anachtalreversalofthesimahi tiosnisiI niknealy tivto e-b sp-eeaakmo erEre ngclo isnhfeussiwnogusli dtuoacti co un r,tih .ea.n/do/n -l>v . îöo Jn ane-dwa föy/r -eqptl qa.ce cme lean zlt y. ' t
l3.5'I'5 * ** Tolerancesinthissectionaretlw rameasforthepreviousmtxlel, l-atittldei9allowableintheplaceofarticulationof/n/(e.g.dentalorretroilex).
'l'heWonunciationofa/g/following/p/isallowable(itisusuallypresentinthe Spelling). I3.5I4.conzorumvcluxer.s FinalclustersinvolvingC+/td/(includingpast t ernths ee. +imp ma y l o ett heirktjd/asi nAmal gamEngl ish(andildeedi nRP).some f u re s li fic as ti m ofclusterscanbetolerated.Initialclustersof/s/+Cand C +/1rwj/willoftenbesimplifiedbyleamersatthislevelGenerallyspeakinp useofanintrtlsivevowelistobeprefezredtodroppingconsonants;andamedial intrusivevowelistobepreferredtoinitialintmsivevowele.g.forsportJ am:t/ ratherthankespa:t/ratherthankpmt/(a1lthreeareofcours'elikelytoincls udean /r/fromthespellingaswell,e,g.ysapa:rtp. 13.5.2 Vowels
Forthepreviousmouel,itw&ssugsesteuthattheuistin' ctionsbe%'wee'ntlw pairs ' . ' ':
ItisinthisareathattherequirementsofInternationalEnglish mostdifferfrom thoseofAmalgam English,vowelcontrastsingeneralappeartobelesscnwialto iritelligibilityinEnxlishtl aanconsonantcontrastssothatamajorsimplification ofthevowelsystem''ispossibleforInternationalEnglish.Moreoveralargepart
6Thiswholesectionisinthenatureofabypethesisahoutwhatconstittstethecharacteristicsof suchamodel.Theenlybookwhichtenfrontsthispreblemandpresentssomeevidenceis J Jenkins(21G ).
7Lin(7. ,*3).
