FYBMS Environmental Management Notes. Chapter 1 : BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT The dictionary meaning of the term environment is ‘surroundings’ - the region surrounding or circumstances in which anything exists, everything external to the organisms. Environment therefore, refers to the sum of total conditions that surround man at a given point in space and time. The term environment was introduced in Ecology by biologist Jacob Van Uerkul (1864-1944) to denote these aspects of the world surroundings, with reference to organisms. The field of environment involves an understanding of the scientific principles, economic influences and political actions attending these aspects. TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT
The environmental can be divided into physical biological and cultural environment. On the basis of the structure the environment may be divided into fundamental types – The Abiotic or Physical environment consisting of air, water and soil/sediment. The Biotic or Biological environment consisting of flora, fauna and micro-organism al Environment is further subdivided into three broad categories: A Lithos Lithospher phere e (spher (sphere e of rock rock /soil /soil/sed /sedime iment) nt) B Hydro Hydrosp sphe here re (sphe (sphere re of water water)) C Atmo Atmosp sphe here re (sph (spher ere e of of gas gas)) The biotic components of the environment consist of plant(flora), animal(fauna), including man as an important component and micro-organism. Thus, the biological/biotic environment can be further subdivided into: A Flor Flora a / Plan Plantt Envi Enviro ronm nmen entt B Faun Fauna a /Ani /Anima mall Envi Environ ronme ment nt C Micr Microb obia iall Envi Enviro ronm nmen entt ELEMENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT A. Biot Biotic ic Comp Compon onen ents ts::
The Abiotic components comprise the inorganic substances (carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, etc), and come mainly from the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. Lithosphere :
The oceanic and the continental crust and the rigid upper portion of the mantle of the earth constitute the lithosphere. The economically useful elements (minerals ,metals, rock, fossil fuels), essential for man are basically from the lithosphere. The lithosphere occupies 30% of the total Earth’s surface. Land formations like the mountains plateau and plain supply habitat for plants and animals. The type of the economy depends upon the topography of the area. Plains are suitable for agriculture and industrial activity.
Atmosphere :
The multi-layered gaseous envelope surrounding the planet earth is atmosphere. The atmosphere is a significant component of the natural environment. All the necessary gasses (oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon-dioxide, and water vapour), sources for the sustenance of all the life forms in the biosphere are components of atmosphere. The atmosphere filters the incoming ultra-violet (UV) radiation and protects the earth’s surface from abnormal features such as cancer / mutation in organisms. Hydrosphere: This is the sphere of water consisting of surface, ground and ocean water. Seventy-one % of the Earth’s surface is in water. Glaciers and ice caps cover additional areas. Water plays an immense role in the sustainable environment balance of the earth. Water is essential for the industry, transportation, power generation, food production and processing, and the manufacturing sectors of the modern world. Morever, 70% of the body of the organism is constituted by water. The balance of water is maintained through circulation of water in the biosphere is maintained through circulation of water among the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere by characteristic path ways. The circulation along the characteristic pathways is known as the hydrological cycle. B Biotic Component Biotic or living components of the environment consist of flora (plant), fauna (animal), and micro-organisms. The biotic components are the drivers of the energy flow and the material cycles in the biosphere. On the basis of the relationship among nutrients, the biota can be divided into two groups – Autotrophic or self-nourishing components (e.g. all green plants) and heterotrophic components (e.g. all animals). Autotrophic components:
Green plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria constitute the biotic Autotrophic component of the ecosystems are able to fix light energy and manufacture food from simple inorganic substances like water and carbon dioxide by photosynthesis. This group of organisms is also known as producers. Heterotrophic Components:
Fungi, non-photosynthetic bacteria and other organisms and animals are the components of heterotrophic. Consumers are organism like herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores in the order of occurrence in the food chain. Herbivores feed on plants, carnivores feed on animal and omnivores feed on both plants and animals. Herbivores are also called as primary consumers and carnivores and omnivores are known as secondary and tertiary consumers, respectively. Decomposers are also known as sapotrophs and consist mainly bacteria and fungi. They break down complex compounds of the dead organisms, absorb some of the decomposed or breakdown products and release inorganic nutrients into the environment, thus making them available again to the autotrophs. RELATIONSHIP AT DIFFERENT LEVELS
The biotic component is the functional kingdom of nature, because it is based on the type of nutrition and is the energy source of all biota of the biosphere. The biotic components are arranged following a systematic pattern where all organisms are connected step-wise to each other in the ecosystem according to their food habits. The ‘steps’ or ‘levels’ of the
ecosystem are known as trophic levels. All trophic levels are closely interrelated with each other from the view point of food transfer and supplements to the biosphere, which is further connected with the economic environment of humans. Relationship among the different levels can be better understood by analysis of the functional aspects (material cycle and energy flow) of the ecosystem. THE CARBON CYCLE
The carbon cycle is one of the important cycles at the global levels. Carbon moves in the biosphere through various pathways. Human activities are making a significant impact on the global carbon cycle. The burning of fossil fuel, agro-industrial activity, deforestation etc. are increasing in the concentration in the atmosphere steadily. Flows between the atmosphere and the oceans were balanced until the onset of the industrial age. The atmospheric CO2 enters the plants at the time of photosynthesis. This is a process by which plants prepare their own food in the presence of sunlight. The carbon from CO2 is retained inside the plant and the oxygen is released into the environment. Animals eat plants and so the stored carbon enters their bodies. This carbon is then released back into the atmosphere by respiration. Sometimes trees, plants and animals get buried in the earths crust, and then due to immense pressure and heat this organic matter after thousands of years gets turned into fossil fuels. These fossil fuels are taken out of the ground by man and are burned, again releasing carbon back into the atmosphere. THE NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen is the most abundant element in the atmosphere. It is a vital element for all the living systems. It is the primary nutrient for all green plants, but it must be modified before it can be utilized by most living systems. Four processes participate in the cycling of nitrogen through biosphere Nitrogen Fixation Ammonification Nitrification Denitrification NITROGEN FIXATION
First step in the N Cycle ---is the conversion of nitrogen gas (N2) into NH3 or organic nitrogen. Three processes are responsible for the most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere: Atmospheric fixation by lighting Industrial fixation by humans Biological fixation by certain microbes, alone or in a symbiotic relationship with plants. AMMONIFICATION
This is the biochemical process whereby nitrogen is released from nitrogen containing organic compounds. Soil bacteria decompose organic nitrogen forms in soil to the ammonium form. This process is referred to as ammonification. NITRIFICATION
Nitrification is the conversion of NH4 to NO3. This aerobic reaction is carried out by Autotrophic bacteria. DENITRIFICATION
This involves conversion ofNO3 to N2 gas in the presence of low oxygen levels. THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:
Water is essential to life. Without it the biosphere that exists on the surface of the earth would not be possible. Nicknamed the “water” planet, earth is covered by one of our most precious resources. However almost 93% is locked in the ocean, toxic to humans and many plants and animals. The hydrologic cycle takes place in the hydrosphere, the region containing all the water in the atmosphere and on the surface of the earth. The cycle is the movement of the water through this hydrosphere. The components of the hydro cycle are: Condensation Infiltration Run – off Evaporation Precipitation * This cycle should be explained in detail CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystems are classified as 1. Natural ecosystem 2. Arti Artifi fici cial al (ma (mann-en engi gine neer ered ed)) ecos ecosys yste tem m NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS
It operates by themselves under natural condition without any major interference by man. On the basis of habitat, natural ecosystem are further divided as terrestrial, as forest grassland, desert, etc.and aquatic. Aquatic ecosystem are further distinguished as Freshwater that may be lotic (running water as a spring, stream, river) or lentic (standing water as a lake, pond, pool, puddle, ditch, swamp etc.) and marine, such deep as bodies as an ocean and shallow ones as a sea, estuary etc. ARTIFICIAL (MAN-ENGINEERED) (MAN-ENGINEERED) ECOSYSTEMS
This is maintained by man, by addition of energy and planned manipulation. For example croplands like wheat, rice fields etc. where man tries to control the biotic community as well as the physical-chemical environment, are artificial ecosystem. Ecosystems
Natural
Man – made
Terrestrial
Aquatic
Marine
Freshwater
Lotic
Lentic
THE CONCEPT OF ECOBALANCE
Ecological balance is the state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organism. The ecological balance of an area can be evaluated assessing the consumptions of energy and raw material, generation of emission, waste and the cost. There are areas of eco-imbalance all over the world and this need to be addressed in a manner that mitigates the imbalances. REASONS FOR ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCE
1) Lack Lack of coope cooperati ration, on, more more comp competi etitio tion n There is lack of co-operation among the major nation, to help in resolution of current environmental problems. The problems are not addressed in a realistic way. Some of these nations, moreover, are the most offenders. Instead of co-operation, competition in the present practice. As a result, eco balance has been deteriorated drastically. 2) Uncontrolled Uncontrolled exploitation exploitation and utiliza utilization tion of of resources resources Uncontrolled exploitation of non-renewable resources and over- utilization of resources for economic growth without considering ecological viability is another important reason for ecoimbalance. 3) Envi Environ ronme menta ntall pollu polluti tion on Inefficient or backdated technologies are creating havoc with the pollutants leading to pollution loads in the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. therefore, normal functioning of the atmosphere is disrupted significantly, and causing global environmental problems like the green house effect, ozone holes, acid rains, global warming, climate change etc. 4) Inapprop Inappropria riate te managem management ent of waste waste Wastes generated from industrial as well as agricultural activities are not managed properly. A huge amount of solid and hazardous waste are discarded or disposed to the environment without considering the health of the ecosystem. Major creeks have been used for dumping of the waste therefore causing imbalance in the oceanic environment. 5) Popu Popula lati tion on expl explos osio ion n Population growth is the mother of all environment degradation. Over-populated areas are generally have the problem of deforestation, destruction of biodiversity, lack of resources, regeneration, etc. consequently, changes in the landscape. Ecological states and environmental pollution takes place and at any cost ethics for business come into play. Therefore, the ecological balance is again disrupted.
NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
The urgent need to protect the environment ,in order to maintain the quality of life, has now been identified globally. Environmental protection starts by creating awareness among people that it becomes a part of their style . the important features of the subject are: a) It is very important important for each indivi individual dual for self-fulf self-fulfillm illment ent and social social development. development. It helps in the maintenance of life and health, in self- preservation, and in the preservation of the human race. b) It helps to to understand understand different different food chains chains and and the ecological ecological balance balance in nature. c) It helps to to understand understand and appreciate appreciates s how the environm environment ent is used used for making making a living and for promoting a material culture d) It helps helps in appreciating appreciating and enjoying enjoying nature and society society.. e) It is concerned concerned with with the changing changing the environment environment in a systematic systematic manner manner for for the immediate as well as future welfare of mankind. f) It directs directs attention attention toward toward problems problems of population population explosion, explosion, exhausti exhaustion on of natural resources and pollution of the environment, and throws light on the methods of solution. OBJECTIVES
The objectives of environmental education are to help social groups and individual to acquire: a) Awareness Awareness : acquire acquire an awareness awareness of of the environment environment as as a whole whole and it is alli allied ed problems and sensitivity b) Knowledge Knowledge :gain a variety variety of experiences experiences and and acquire a basic understa understanding nding of the the environment and its associated problems . c) Attitude Attitude : acquire acquire a set of of values values and feeling feeling of concern for the environm environment ent and the motivation for active participation in the environmental improvement and protection. d) Skill Skill : acquire acquire skill skill to identify identify and solve the environm environmental ental problems. problems. e) Evaluation Evaluation ability: ability: develop develop the abili ability ty to evaluate evaluate environment environmental al measures measures and education programme in terms of ecological, economic, social, and aesthetic factors. f) Participati Participation: on: to provide provide an an opportunity opportunity to to be activel actively y involved involved at all all levels levels of of working working towards the solution of environmental problems. -------------------------------------------------
Chapter 2 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES Definition. “Conservation is the ‘wise management’ of the biosphere (lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere) for the benefit of all life, including human beings, in such a way that the natural ecosystems are maintained as well as utilized in a planned manner. This would yield sustainable benefit to the present generation and also maintain its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of the future generations.” “Resource means a source of supply or support generally held in reserve.”
The natural resources are the various life supporting components of the biosphere, which can be drawn and utilized by the organisms from their environment. These resources include energy, air, water, land (soil), minerals, microorganisms, plants, animals, forests, forest products, fuels, etc. Threat of the ecological crisis.
In every ecosystem, the biotic and abiotic components are closely interrelated and through their interactions, they naturally manage to maintain the ecological balance. Similarly, various organisms present in any given ecosystem live as components of their natural environment and abide by the laws of nature. In addition, for this reason, the natural, undisturbed ecosystems are able to maintain the equilibrium of nature. On the other hand, man has created his own ecosystem. Since man is the only animal who has understood the nature, he has always interfered and changed it as per as his needs and desire. In the process, he has destroyed the natural ecosystems. Indiscriminate and non judicious exploitation of nature and natural resources in an unplanned manner by man has disturbed the nature’s balance. This is creating a condition of ecological crisis all over the world. If this is not stopped with immediate effect, the present ecological crisis will lead to the point of no return resulting in total disintegration of the nature. The consequences will be disastrous and devastating not only for man but for the entire life on earth. Need for conservation.
Thus, it is obvious that if we want to save the human race as well as the enormous diversity of life on earth, we must at once adapt and implement some distinct measures for conservation of nature and natural resources. This is to insure planned, judicious and controlled use of life-sustaining natural systems. Our late Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi while launching the World Conservation Strategy in India on 6 March 1980 emphasized our ancient tradition of care, conservation and worship of trees and animals. In her, own words “the interest in conservation is not sentimental one but the rediscovery of a truth well-known to our sages. The Indian tradition teaches us that all forms of life, human, animal and plants are so closely linked that disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in the others.” Aims of conservation.
1. To maintain maintain essentia essentiall ecological ecological processes processes and life support systems. systems. 2. To preser preserve ve biol biologi ogical cal dive diversi rsity, ty, and and 3. To insure insure a continuous continuous yield yield of useful useful plants, plants, animals animals and and materials materials by establi establishing shing a balanced cycle of harvest and renewal. Conservation is aimed at helping social and economic development. RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES
More commonly, natural resources are classified as 1. 2.
Inexhaustible i.e. wind, tidal energy, precipitation, etc. and Exhaustible e.g. ground water, minerals, fuels, food, forests, etc.
Table showing renewable and non-renewable natural resources Inexhaus Inexhaustib tible le
Wind, Wind, tidal tidal energy, energy, precip precipita itatio tion, n, etc.
Natural Resources
Exhaustible
Biotic- (i) Crops, forests, other Renewable vegetations (ii) Wild and domestic animals. (iii) Microorganisms. Abiotic – Water, soil, etc. Metals – iron, zinc, copper, etc. NonFossil fuels – coal, oil deposits, etc. Renewable Minerals and their salts – phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, etc.
The exhaustible resources are further classified into two categories. a. Renewable resources. The resources that can be regenerated artificially or naturally (such as from the biomass of living organisms) are called renewable resources. E.g. crops, forests and other vegetations, wild and domestic animals, microorganisms, water, land (soil), etc. b. Non – Renewable resources. Non – renewable resources are those natural resources which cannot be regenerated or replaced after use or which lack the ability for recycling. Resources with a very long recycling time are also considered non – renewable e.g. fossil fuels (like coal, oil, natural gas) metals, minerals and ores, rocks, etc. The nature and importance of some of the natural resources is considered here. A. Land (soil). It is a renewable natural resource. Soil is the complex mixture of physical, chemical and biological components. It is an important abiotic factor of ecosystem as it provides water, nutrients and anchorage to plants (producers). The presence and nature of vegetation in any area largely depend on the quality of soil and the various edaphic factors. Degradation of soil.
Misuse or improper use of soil results in degradation of soil. Such soil becomes unsuitable for plant growth. Degradation of soil causes loss of vegetation and this, in turn, adversely affects climate and the environment. Hence, conservation and proper management of soil is very important and essential. B. Water. Water is a vitally important renewable natural resource. All organisms need water for survival. Rivers, lakes, ponds, and ground water are the reservoirs of fresh water while oceans are the huge reservoirs of marine water. Rainwater is the natural source for the renewal/replenishment of the water in these reservoirs. Draught and floods are the two main natural factors responsible for the loss of natural water resources directly or indirectly. In addition, non-judicious use and undue wastage by man
also contribute towards the loss of available water. In addition, pollution of water renders it unsuitable for consumption as well as for existence of aquatic flora and fauna. Reduction in soil water or non-availability of water directly affects vegetation growth and disturbs the environment as a whole. Water can be conserved by holding the rainwater in catchments areas by constructing dams and then regulating the water supply through canals. Similarly, growing vegetation cover helps to retain soil water.
C. Forests. Forests are the vast renewable natural resources. Forests are of immense biological and ecological significance. For example; (i) They are the source source of forest forest products products like fuel, fuel, timber, timber, lumber, lumber, food, medicin medicinal al plants, fodder, etc. (ii) (ii) They They prov provid ide e idea ideall habi habitat tat for wild wild lif life. e. (iii) (iii) They provide provide vegetation vegetation cover to the soil and thus thus check check surface surface evaporation, evaporation, increase increase water-retaining capacity of soil and prevent floods and soil erosion by soil binding. (iv) They help in in recycli recycling ng of moisture moisture in in the nature nature and and regulate regulate rainfal rainfall. l. Indiscriminate deforestation reduces rainfall, groundwater level and makes the land barren. This alters the climate of the region. In addition, it disturbs and destroys the wild life. Hence, conservation of forest is essential. There should be proper balance between harvest of forest and its resources on the one hand and the afforestation on the other. D. Wild Wildli life fe..
In a broader sense, the term wildlife covers any or all organisms which are non-cultivated (e.g. wild plants) and non-domesticated (e.g. wild animals). It also includes microorganisms and all other lesser-known human beings. One important and essential characteristic feature of the wildlife is that they are very well adapted to their natural environmental conditions. Hence, they grow and survive in their natural habitat without the care of human beings. Existence of wildlife at all levels of the food chains in any ecosystem is essential for maintaining the ecological balance of that ecosystem. In addition, it must be saved and preserved to maintain the diversity of life. However, wildlife is often threatened with elimination from the region or extinction from the earth. Thus, to save the wildlife and preserve the diversity of life on earth, it is essential to take definite steps towards conservation of wildlife. E. Food. Terrestrial agriculture is the main source of food for human beings. However, the total land in the world under cultivation is not enough to provide adequate supply of food for the everincreasing human population. Hence, this creates a condition of food crisis resulting in starvation, malnutrition, etc. To deal with this crisis, modern agricultural practices are used. This involves industrialization of agriculture and to supplement the agricultural products, the aquaculture (fish farming) and mariculture (aquaculture in oceans) are proving to be of immense value. In fact,
oceans have an unlimited potential as source of protein-rich food and raw material, if judiciously used. F. Minerals. These are one of the non-renewable natural resources. Organisms need various minerals for normal metabolism and healthy growth. Besides this, huge quantities of minerals are constantly being used in industries and for technological and cultural purposes. The two main sources of minerals are: (i) The earth’s earth’s crust and the parent parent rocks rocks for terrestri terrestrial al minerals minerals and and (ii) The oceans oceans for for the marine minerals. minerals. The minerals largely used are of two types :(a) Metallic minerals (e.g. iron, copper, silver, gold, aluminum, lead, zinc, etc.) and (b) Non-metallic minerals (e.g. coal, sand, petroleum products, salts, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.) G. Fuels and the energy crisis. Energy is the capacity to do work. It is needed by all organisms for maintenance of life. Similarly, energy is needed constantly and on very large scale for domestic, industrial and technological purposes. In fact, the progress of human civilization and the economic growth of every country largely depend on the resource and supply of energy. The more commonly used conventional source of energy is the various kinds of fossil fuels. These include petroleum, natural gas (e.g. methane), coal, and synfuels (i.e. naturally occurring organic products which can be converted into synthetic petroleum) such as oil shale, tar sands, etc. These account for nearly 90% of the world’s production of commercial energy, the remaining 10% coming from the hydroelectric and nuclear power resources. This will be clear from the following figures. Oil - 39.5% Hydroelectric – 6.7% Coal - 30.3% Nuclear power – 3.9% Natural gas - 19.6% However, all the fossil fuels are the exhaustible non-renewable natural resources and shall be finished eventually. The realization of this fact is creating the fear of unavoidable energy crisis all over the world. Hence, much before the crisis is reached, it is imperative to (i) Adapt Adapt urgent urgent meas measures ures to conse conserve rve and and regula regulate te the existi existing ng stock stock of non-ren non-renewa ewable ble energy resources and (ii) (ii) To find find some suitabl suitable e inexhaus inexhaustib tible le and/or and/or renewabl renewable e alternati alternative ve energy energy resourc resources. es. In this regard, the following non-conventional renewable sources of energy hold considerable potential and promise, if investigated and exploited properly. These are Solar energy (i) Wind energy (ii (ii) Tidal idal (oce (ocean an)) ener energy gy (iii (iii)) Geot Geothe herm rmal al ene energ rgy, y, etc etc.. In addition, there are number of biomass-based renewable energy systems. These include energy sources such as (i) Fire wood
(ii) (ii) Petro Petro plants plants (i.e (i.e.. potentia potentiall plant plant specie species, s, which which can be be the source source of of liquid liquid hydrocarbons to be used as a substitute for liquid fuels. (iii) Biogas (iv) (iv) Elec Electr tric ic ener energy gy,, etc etc.. ECOLOGICAL CRISIS Environment is “the sum total of all conditions and influences that affect the development of
life of organisms,” while ecology is “the overall study of the interactions and interrelationships of organisms and their environment.” All natural ecosystems are capable of self-maintenance and are very delicately balanced. The over use, misuse, and abuse of natural resources by the modern man during the last couple of centuries have grossly disturbed the balance of most natural ecosystems of the world. Therefore, for the first time in his cultural history, man is faced with the most serious ecological problem i.e. the ecological crisis. ROLE OF MAN IN CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
The condition of ecological crisis is reached because of the degradation of the ecosystems. This is the outcome of the over exploitation of natural resources by man. This was inevitable in view of the population explosion, technological advancement, industrialization, profit oriented capitalism, unplanned urbanization, modern agricultural practices, deforestation, etc. the cumulative effect of all these activities of man, especially during 19th and 20th centuries, is the induction of undesirable changes in the environment (soil, water, air) making it less suitable for organisms. This is called environmental pollution, which ultimately is responsible for the present ecological crisis. Some of the human activities responsible for changing environment and consequent ecological crisis are discussed here. Man and Farming.
Agriculture involves intervention and modification of natural ecosystems. The demand of various agricultural products has been constantly increasing because of the ever-increasing human population. Therefore, man has been trying to extract more and more from the available land. This involved heavy use of synthetic chemical fertilizers, manipulation of soil conditions by tillage, control of soil moisture by irrigation and drainage, etc. On the one hand, this helped to increase the agricultural production while; on the other hand, these chemicals have caused considerable degradation of the environment over the years. For example; 1. Deforestation Deforestation over the the years for clearing clearing the land land for agricul agriculture ture has destroyed flora and fauna of large number of ecosystems all over the world. 2. Intense cultivation cultivation without without proper soil management management leads leads to soil soil erosion, erosion, depletion of soil nutrients and desertification. 3. Irrigation Irrigation without without proper proper drainage drainage leads leads to water water logging, logging, salinat salination ion and degradation of the quality of soil. 4. Indiscrimi Indiscriminate nate use of chemic chemical al fertilize fertilizers rs and crop crop protectants, protectants, especial especially ly of the non-biodegradable types, results in their accumulation in harmful
concentrations in soil, water, etc. They also accumulate in bodies of organisms causing various health problems. Industrialization:
Industries provide all the essential as well as luxurious modern amenities. Their role in improving life styles and standards of human societies cannot be denied. Industries have become indispensable component of the modern age. However, industries have adversely affected and changed the environment e.g. 1. Land for setting setting up up industries industries is is acquired acquired either by deforestatio deforestation n or by converti converting ng agricultural land. 2. Industries Industries consume consume huge quantities quantities of raw material materials s and energy. energy. This results results in over over exploitation of natural resources and disturbs natural cycles and balance of nature. 3. The various various poisonous poisonous gases, gases, smoke, smoke, etc. released released from industri industries es pollute pollute soil and and water. Thus, industries are growth of industries is the main cause of unplanned urbanization leading to unequal distribution of human population. In addition, greater the population, greater is the pollution of the given environment. Thus, while industries have become an essential component of modern life, they are also the main factor of degradation of environment and ecosystems. Hence, industries may be described as the “necessary evils” of the modern age. Technological growth.
Technology is closely linked with or is inseparable from science. The two are complementary to each other. The scientific knowledge is used to develop a technology and then the technology used for the advancement of science and benefit of mankind. The advancement in biotechnology during the past few decades has immensely helped in the field of cell and molecular biology, genetic engineering, medicines, medical application, etc. This has resulted in increasing longevity of life and reducing in death rate. Consequently, the global human population continued to increase at alarming rate resulting in the present population explosion. This is especially true for our own country. With the population growth, all kinds of ecological problems also came up leading towards the ecological crisis. Pollution.
“Pollution refers to any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristic of our environment (air, water, soil) that may or will adversely affect human or other species and life-supporting systems of our biosphere directly or indirectly.” A substance or factor whose presence can damage the usefulness of a resource is called the pollutant. Large quantities of various gaseous, liquid and solid waste generated by industry and other human activities act as pollutants. These are grouped into two main categories: 1. Biodegradable pollutants e.g. human and animal wastes, agro based residues and fertilizers, etc. However, these can be harmful if their input exceeds the decomposing capacity of the ecosystem.
2. Non-biodegradable pollutants e.g. heavy metals, D.D.T, pesticides, etc. These enter the food chains and they may be magnified to dangerous levels in higher tropic organisms. The various categories of common pollutants may be listed as follows. 1. Deposited matter (e.g. soot, smoke, tan, dust, grit) 2. Gases (e.g. SO2 , CO, CO2, NO, H2 S, ammonia, fluorine, chlorine, etc.) 3. Chemical compounds (e.g. aldehydes, arsines, hydrogen, fluorides, phosphogens, detergents, etc.) 4. Metals (e.g. Pb, Fe, Zn, Hg, etc.) 5. Ecological poisons (e.g. various biocides) 6. Sewage 7. Radio Radioac acti tive ve subs substan tance ces s 8. Noise 9. Heat. The pollution caused by these pollutants may be classified as air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution. ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCE & ITS CONSEQUENCES CONSEQUENCES
The ecological imbalance is created due to the environmental pollution. This adversely affects soil, water, air as well as climatic conditions like temperature, rainfall, etc.
Effect on Land.
Land pollution is the by-product of rapid and unplanned industrial progress and over population. The land is polluted with the dumping of solid wastes generated in the household and industrial units. The common soil pollutants are Domestic wastes (e.g. kitchen garbage, household rubbish, bottles, tin cans, plastic • materials, rags, waste paper, sewage, etc.) Industrial wastes (e.g. slag, fly-ash, lime sludge, metal scarps, plastics, chemical • effluents, etc.) Pollutants washed down from the atmosphere Pesticides and other biocides Synthetic fertilizers Agricultural chemicals. • • • •
Consequences of land pollution.
1. 2. 3. 4.
Loss of soil soil fertility fertility due to the effect effect of acids, acids, alkalies, alkalies, insectic insecticides, ides, fungicides fungicides,, etc. The essen essentia tiall soil soil organi organisms sms may may be kill killed. ed. Soil Soil becom becomes es toxi toxic c for for plant plant grow growth. th. Quality Quality of of agricu agricultu ltural ral soil soil is is affect affected. ed.
Effect on water.
A vitally important factor like water is also polluted because of various human activities. The main sources of water pollution are 2. Dom Domesti estic c sewa sewage ge
3. Indu Indust stri rial al efflu effluen ents ts 4. Chemicals Chemicals (e.g. fertili fertilizers, zers, pesticid pesticides, es, herbicides, herbicides, etc; etc; the surface runoffs runoffs from from agricultural fields) 5. Mine Minera rall oil oils, s, etc. etc. The water pollutants may be classified as follows. a) Biological – Pathogens like viruses, bacteria, protozoa, worms, etc. b) Chemical – (i) Inorganic – e.g. nitrates, phosphates, chlorides and fluorides. (ii) Organic – e.g. pesticides, dyes, chlorocompounds, phenols, paints, plastics, etc. (iii ) Heavy metals – e.g. soluble heavy metal ions like Hg, Pb, cadmium, Cu, Zn, and their organometallic compounds. c) Physical – Heat from industries. Consequences of water pollution.
1. Decrease Decrease in the percentage percentage of of dissolved dissolved oxygen oxygen thereby thereby affecting affecting aquatic aquatic plants plants and animals. In addition, decomposition of organic waste in such water is done by anaerobic bacteria. This releases methane and other foul smelling gases. 2. Consumption Consumption of water water containing containing various various aquatic aquatic pathogens pathogens causes causes diseases diseases in plants, plants, animals and humans. 3. The nitrates nitrates and phosphates phosphates in polluted polluted water cause cause algal algal blooms. blooms. These These disrupt disrupt the balance of aquatic eco system. 4. Water polluted polluted with with domestic domestic sewage sewage can spread spread diseases diseases like like cholera, cholera, typhoid, typhoid, dysentery, diarrhea and number of other water borne diseases. Effect on air.
The industries, automobiles, forest fires and domestic combustion are the major sources of air pollution. The air pollutants discharged from industries and power houses include gases like SO2, CO, CO2, H2S, NO, NO2, etc. and traces of ethylene, acetylene and propylene. Smoke, smog, PAN (peroxy acetyl nitrate) is also the air pollutants from industries. The air pollutants released from automobile exhausts include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons. The PCB’s are released into atmosphere when synthetic rubber tyres rub against road. Consequences of air pollution.
1. Inhaling SO2 causes various respiratory disorders; oxides of nitrogen can cause internal bleeding, pneumonia, cancer, etc. Carbon monoxide is a highly poisonous and lethal gas. Similarly, ozone and PAN also cause dry throat, cough, etc. 2. Fumes of toxic metals metals are are extremely extremely harmful harmful.. Lead damages damages brain brain of young childr children en and in adults; it affects blood, liver, kidney and nervous system. Mercury vapours can cause skin and neurological problems. Dust of coal, asbestos, etc. causes respiratory problems. 3. Gases like SO2, NO2, O3, PAN, etc. cause injury and damage to various economically important plants resulting in great economic loss. In general, air pollutants cause necrosis, premature leaf and fruit fall, affect various metabolic processes, etc. in different plants. 4. Mosses and lichens are highly sensitive to air pollution by SO2. These plants are killed even with slightest SO2 pollution of air. Hence, these act as bioindicators of air pollution. Effect on atmospheric temperature.
Air pollution has adverse effects not only on plants and animals but also on the ecosystem as a whole. One of the most significant effects of air pollution is seen on the rise in global temperature. Higher concentration of CO2 in atmosphere prevents the loss of heat by radiation. The CO2 layer acts like glass panels of the green house. It allows the sunrays to filter through but prevents the heat from radiating out into space. The radiation thus trapped causes rise in temperature. This phenomenon is described as the Green House Effect. CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has increased in the recent past and it is estimated to increase further in near future. If this happens, the global temperature will also rise. Consequence of increased temperature.
1. Rise in global global temperature temperature will will cause cause polar ice ice caps to melt. melt. As a result, result, there will will be rise in sea level and the low lying coastal areas will be submerged. 2. This This will will also also affect affect the the drinki drinking ng water. water. 3. The rise in in temperature temperature would affect affect regional regional climate climate and cause shift shift in climati climatic c zones. 4. There There will will be appreci appreciable able decre decrease ase in the the rainfal rainfall. l. 5. It will will also also cause cause death of forests forests and and other other vegetation vegetations. s. 6. With the loss loss of vegetation vegetation cover, cover, the soil is is exposed. exposed. This results results in soil soil erosion, erosion, greater heating and evaporation from soil, etc. Effect on diversity of organisms.
Origin of new species and extinction of some of the existing species is a part of the natural process of organic evolution. However, human activities are causing extinction at an unnatural or greater rate. Destruction or alteration of natural habitats, pollution of environment, degradation of ecosystem, hunting and poaching, over exploitation of economically important plant and animal species, etc pose great threat to the organisms, both plants and animals. The organisms of such ecosystem should adjust with the changed environment, migrate to some other region or else die. Thus, the original composition of the ecosystem is changed and the number of organisms is reduced. Consequences.
As a consequence of above mentioned and some other factors, over the last few centuries many animal and plant species have become extinct and many more are facing the danger of extinction (endangered species). Once a species becomes extinct, it is permanently lost from the world and cannot be retrieved e.g., Cheetah from India and Dodo bird from Mauritius has become extinct. Whatever has happened in the past, now it is our responsibility to prevent the numerous endangered species from becoming extinct. Man alone can do this and help to preserve the diversity of life on earth. Effect on food chains and webs.
The reduction in number of species at any food level in the ecosystem, due to migration, excessive killing or extinction, disturbs the food chains and food webs in that ecosystem. For example; over grazing or deforestation reduces/eliminates the vegetation (primary producers). As a result, the number of herbivores decreases (migration or death), this in turn, affects the carnivores in that region. Blooms.
Sometimes, the pollution of water by compounds of nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, etc favours growth of certain algae and causes there over population. This is described as algal
bloom. This sudden increase in the population of a particular species in water affects the
aquatic ecosystem directly as well as indirectly. Over population of pest organisms.
With tremendous increase in the agricultural crops all over the world, most favourable conditions are created for the pest organisms. Consequently, there is great increase in pest populations. To check these and protect the crop, heavy use of pesticides is in practice. The non-biodegradable chemicals in such pesticides pollute soil and water, and cause many serious health problems through bioaccumulation. Bioaccumulation.
Normally, plants and animals have the ability to get rid of some poisons out of their systems. However, certain toxic chemicals like pesticides, insecticides, methyl mercury, heavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, copper, etc. tend to accumulate and remain fro longer periods in the body of organisms. This is called bioaccumulation. Once bioaccumulated at any level of the food chain, their concentration goes on progressively increasing as they pass from organism to organism along the food chain. This is called biomagnifications. Thus, these chemicals tend to accumulate in quantities far higher than their concentration in the surrounding medium. The toxic methyl mercury present in pollute water can accumulate in fishes in concentration 1000 times greater than its concentration in the water. Consumption of such fish caused ‘Minamata disease’ in Japan in 1952. Similarly, bioaccumulation of cadmium in liver, kidneys and pancreas caused a human disease called ‘Itai-Itai’ in Japan. It is a bone disease and leads to cancer of liver and lungs. The bioaccumulation of poisonous substances is found to be very high in India. This is especially true of pesticide chemicals. This is due to the consumption of crop and vegetables treated with insecticides, contaminated water and drinks, etc. The fallouts of nuclear fission and various radioactive substances also enter and accumulate in organisms. These are passed on human through the food chains. This is harmful and causes various health hazards e.g. genetic misbalance, tumors, Leukemia, etc.
Chapter 3 Conservation
Def : Simply put, Conservation means ‘Wise Management’ of our resources so that they remain and can be utilized for a greater amount of time. Immediately after the Earth Summit (1992) India has taken several steps in the direction of conservation of environment and development in harmony with environment. The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development is a step in that direction. It envisages the need for laying down the guidelines that will help to weave environmental considerations into the fabric of national life and development process. It is an expression of commitment for reorienting policies and action in unison with environmental perspective. Nati Nation onal al Cons Conser erva vati tion on Development.
Stra Strate tegy gy
and and
Poli Policy cy Stat Statem emen entt
on
Envi Enviro ronm nmen entt
and and
The guidelines state, “that the survival and well-being of a nation depends on sustainable development. It is a process of social and economic betterment that satisfies the needs and values of all interest groups without foreclosing future options. To this end, we must ensure that the demand on the environment from which we derive our sustenance, does not exceed its carrying capacity for the present as well as future generations. Over the years, there has been progressive pressure on the environment and the natural resources, the alarming cons conseq eque uenc nces es of whic which h are are beco becomi ming ng evid eviden entt in incr increa easi sing ng prop propor orti tion ons. s. Thes These e consequences detract from the gains of development and worsen the standard of living of the poor who are directly dependent on natural resources. It is in this context that we need to give a new thrust towards conservation and sustainable development”. The task before us would be daunting if it were not for the many positive factors that are emerging: emerging: people’s people’s movement to conserve conserve their own environment, environment, role of judiciary, judiciary, greater greater public and media concern for environmental issues and spread of environmental awareness among children and youth. It is up to us as State and Citizens to undertake development process in keeping with our heritage and the traditional conservation ethos in harmony with the environmental imperatives of this land.
Preservation
Preservation is the best form of Conservation, consisting of preventive measures and action designed to forestall and prevent the processes that lead to alterations in the environment. Sustainable Development
Promotion of Sustainable Development There are two categories of natural resources- non renewable and renewable. The first category includes those which are of geological origin and any amount consumes is gone fore foreve verr for for all all prac practi tica call purp purpos oses es.. The The rene renewa wabl ble e are are used used or harv harves este ted d and and are are replaced/replenishes by natural forces. Sustainability means that the rate of harvest does not exceed the rate of increment/regeneration. The Economic Survey Report says that a country’s environmental problems vary with its stage stage of develo developme pment, nt, technol technology ogy and enviro environmen nmentt polici policies. es. While While some some proble problems ms are associated with the lack of economic development, others are aggravated by economic activi activitie ties. s. It further further gives gives glimps glimpses es of variou various s factors factors that affect affect the enviro environme nment nt and resources adversely. For example, while discussing the soil degradation, it says that most of the land in the country shows evidence of degradation, affecting the productive source of economy (out of the total geographical area of 329 million hectares, 175 million hectares are degraded) and the Government’s strategy towards preventing such degradation includes such measures as: (a) Water Water shed devel developm opment; ent; (b) Treatment Treatment of affected affected areas; areas; (c) Transf Transfer er of technol technology ogy;;
(d) Biomas Biomass s Productio Production; n; (e) Remote sensing sensing for surveyi surveying ng affected affected areas. Likewise, the document discusses about deforestation, biodiversity, solid waste disposal and their relationship with economy and environment. The purpose of quoting this report and discussing the relationship between economy and environment is firstly to underscore the point that today the country needs to be on a strong economic and ecological footing. Secondly, is to point out that Governments till recently have been dealing with ecological sustai sustainab nabili ility ty and econom economic ic develo developme pment nt as two separat separate e entitie entities s whereas whereas these these are interrelated. The ecosystem supports the economic growth and if the former is ignored, Economic growth cannot continue. Ther There e is anothe anotherr aspe aspect ct to sust sustai ainab nabililit ity. y. Sust Sustai aina nabl ble e devel develop opme ment nt has has to take take into into consideration not only inter generational equity i.e interest of future generation, but also equity among among the nations of north and south. It may be reiterated reiterated that economic economic capital mostly mostly consists consists of national national environme environmental ntal resources resources but for the last last few decades decades the developing countries in particular. Have been facing depletion of this capital, thus landing themselves into economic crises. CERTAIN CERTAIN SPECIFIC SPECIFIC DIRECTION DIRECTIONS S TOWARDS TOWARDS SUSTAINA SUSTAINABLE BLE DEVELOPME DEVELOPMENT NT AND ENVIRONMENT
The The Gove Governm rnment ent has under underta take ken n certa certain in impor importa tant nt steps steps to preve prevent nt damage damage to the environment, these are: Afforestation
Nati Nation onal al Affo Affore rest stat atio ion n and and EcoEco-de deve velo lopm pmen entt Boar Board d has has been been set set up to prom promot ote e afforestation. afforestation. During 1993, it is claimed claimed that two million million hectares hectares of land was brought under afforestation. The Eco Task Force has been constituted to work in environmentally degraded areas. This schem scheme e has been been spec specia ialllly y conc concei eive ved d to use use the serv servic ices es of ex-s ex-ser ervi vice ceme men. n. The The Government is also hoping that once global funds become available to implement Agenda 21, new afforestation schemes can be initiated. Regulation Polluting Industries
The Ministry of Environment and Forests has identified 17 most polluting industries and asked them to install pollution control equipment or face punitive action including closure. The 17 indust industrie ries s declare declared d as most most pollut polluting ing are: are: sugar, sugar, fertil fertilize izer, r, cement cement,, distil distiller lery, y, aluminium, petrochemicals, thermal power, caustic soda, oil refineries, tanneries, copper smel smelter ters, s, zinc zinc smel smelter ters, s, iron iron and steel steel,, pulp pulp and paper, paper, dye dye and dye dye inter interme medi diate ates, s, pesticides and pharmaceuticals. Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 and Environment relief Funds.
In the wake of the Oleum Gas Leak in which the Supreme Court awarded compensation to the victims of the Oleum Gas Leak from a Delhi Plant of the Delhi Cloth Mills, the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 was passed. The Act provides for Public Liability Insurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to persons affected by accident occurring while handling any hazardous substance. The Act was amended in 1992 to enlarge the meaning of the accident.
The most important aspect of the amendment is the establishment of Environment Relief Fund by the Central Government. Water Cess
The increase in the cess of those industries, which consume excess water for discharge of those effluents, which are in access of standards, has been stipulated. Vehicle Exhaust
Automobiles are responsible for the greatest air and noise pollution in big cities. Now lead free petrol is used in vehicles plying in big cities. The manufactures of automobiles have been told to stop manufacturing two stroke engines. The compulsory pollution check on vehicles has seen introduced in Delhi and other big cities. The public buses would soon run on CNG, which is eco-friendly. Thermal Plants.
Our thermal power plants are great sources of pollution. They produce fly ash and other particulate materials in the surrounding areas. We have been talking of making bricks out of fly ash for almost a decade but not much success has been achieved. Most plants have been asked to install treatment plants but only some have adopted system for collection of dry fly ash for its utilization. Measure For Abatement Of Pollution In Rivers
The Government Government has come out with schemes for cleaning the Ganga, Yamuna and Gomti . For Ganga, this is stipulated as the second phase of the Ganga Action Plan. Under the Scheme, sewage and industrial effluent treatment plants are to be installed in 15 towns long these rivers. The Damodar river is yet another highly polluted river. A project for the cleaning that river is also in offing. The Government of India is visualizing a plan for making pollution free 18 under a comprehensive National River Action Plan Project Tiger
Under the Wild Life Protection Act hunting of all wild species other than vermin and those damaging the habitat of wild animals has been prohibited and a Central Zoo Authority has been created. A review of Project Tiger was launched in 1972. It revealed that in 1972, there were about 268 tigers in reserves. In mid-eighties number rose to 1121 in 17 reserves and in 1993 the number was 1327 tigers in 79 reserves. According to a review of the “Project Tiger 1993”, what has happened is that on account of shortage of prey and harsh environment conditions the tiger would disappear and unless suitable suitable measures are taken urgently it might disappear forever from the Sundarban, Sundarban, which is an ideal habitat for the tigers. Disappearance of the tiger would disturb the delicate ecosystem. Excessive felling of trees along the banks of the rivers has resulted in the shortage of food for the tigers. Public Policy
Present system of decision making in many countries tends to separate economic, social and enviro environmen nmental tal factors factors at polic policy y level level and planni planning. ng. This This has great great impli implicati cations ons for sust sustai aina nabl ble e deve develo lopm pmen ent. t. Envi Enviro ronm nment ental al polic policie ies s have have to be plac placed ed at the cent center er of economic and political decision making if sustainable development is to be achieved. The
responsibili responsibility ty for developing a sound public policy for environment protection protection and resource resource conservation lies with the Government. The methods by which a public policy is formulated are: (a) Through Through legisl legislati ation; on; (b) Through ordinanc ordinance e issued by the the President President of India; (c) Through the the decisions decisions handed down by the the Supreme Supreme Court or High High Courts. In our country a significant step was undertaken when the courts as a fundamental right of citizens permitted environmental litigation. Also, the concept of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) was introduced for the first time in the Supreme Court judgment against a municipality. The judgment recognized PIL as a constitutional obligation of the Courts. As a result the courts have been admitting large number of environmental cases. Some of the judges hearing such cases have given landmark judgments and have been called as ‘green judges’. Also, some of the lawyers have been called as Environmental activists. The first landmark judgment of the Supreme Court was delivered in 1985 when on the basis of a PIL, the Court directed the U.P Government to stop limestone quarrying in the sub-Himalayan hills of Dehradoon district.
GLOBAL WARMING
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING Scientists predict the effects of greenhouse gases by constructing models using computers to assess climatic changes. changes. Scientists Scientists agree that: (i) actual warming warming has been taking place during the last 100 years; (ii) warming would further increase the temperature of the earth by 3-50C if increase in CO 2 doubles; (iii) if warming continues, coastal areas would see a rise in sea level. If temperature rises by further 3-50C, sea levels may rise by 0.5 ft. to 5.0 ft. because of melting of mountain glaciers and expansion of oceans. This would result in islands like Maldives getting submerged. HOW TO COMBAT GLOBAL WARMING
At the Earth Summit held at Rio De Janeiro (1992) 153 nations signed the convention on clim climati atic c chang change e and comm commit itted ted thems themsel elve ves s to reduc reduce e emis emissi sions ons of CO2 and and other other greenhouse gases. Thus there is already agreement among nations that global warming is a serious serious problem and rather than to wait and watch, steps are being taken towards reducing reducing consumption of fossil fuels by finding out alternative sources of renewable energy, better energ energy y mana managem gement ent syst system em and and reduc reducin ing g defor defores estat tatio ion. n. Foll Follow owin ing g steps steps have have been been suggested by experts: 1) Cleaning Cleaning up of of coal coal driven driven technolog technology y This can lead lead to lesser lesser pollutio pollution. n. Also Also conversion of coal to gas is possible. This would further reduce pollution. 2) More More use of natural natural gases than than coal becaus because e natural natural gases contai contain n only half the carbon of coal and no sulphur. 3) Renewable sources of energy would ultimately tackle the problem of CO2 emission and pollution. Wind power and solar energy are obvious choices. But there are other renewable sources like photo voltaic (photo voltaics convert sunlight directly into electricity). These sources produce little or no pollution and involve no safety risks. 4) Manufacturing Manufacturing fuel-effici fuel-efficient ent vehicl vehicles es is another step.
Deforestati tation on Revers Reversal. al. This is a major major step to reduce reduce CO2 concen concentra tratio tion. n. It is 5) Defores possible to reclaim more land to plant trees but requires more land to plant more trees but requires more help from social, political and financial institutions. GREEN HOUSE GASES Carbon dioxide (CO2) • • •
Main greenhouse gas. Arising from burning of fossil fuels. Levels increase as a consequence of deforestation.
Methane (CH4)
About 20% of greenhouse effect is due to methane. Arises (i) rice paddies; (ii) wetlands; (iii) (iv) burning of wood; (v) landfills Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Responsible for about 15% of the greenhouse effect. Thousand times more effective (heat absorbing) than CO2 • Reach the atmosphere (i) (ii) air conditioning (iii) foam packing industries. • •
from cattle;
•
•
from refrigeration; industry;
Nitrous Oxide (NO2) • •
Responsible for 5% of greenhouse effect. Arises from (i) coal (ii) biomass (iii) foam packing industries.
burning; burning;
OZONE DEPLETION
Ozone depletion is another global problem. Ozone layer in the stratosphere forms a shield for earth against harmful ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) from outer space. Depletion of ozone results in the formation of holes in its shield. UV-B arising from sun would reach the earth if there are ozone holes. Harmful effects
The sun emits light rays of varying wavelengths. These rays have varying effects on earth’s surface, on its living beings, on its ecosystem. The shorter the wavelength of rays, more damage these can do to plants and animals. Ultra violet (UV) rays are of short wave length. Ozone layer/shield as mentioned above acts as a barrier to UV; without this shield, the ecological ecological balance of earth would change, and life would be paralysed. paralysed. Though most of the plants and animals have some kind of protective mechanism from UV, a longer exposure to these rays result in their penetration to lower layer of body. This leads to skin cancer and damage to eyes in human beings. In plants, the process of photosynthesis - the process by which plant manufacture their food – is affected.
The issue
The first of recent conventions conventions on environmental environmental issues issues was the convention on ozone layer protection. protection. Vienna convention convention as it is called, was held in Vienna in 1985. This was followed by Montreal Protocol. (1987) on substances that deplete ozone layer. It was signed by 24 countries and by 1988 signatories rose to 35. In 1990 delegates from 75 countries and by 75 countries met in London to sign an accord that strengthened the provision on Montreal Treaty. The Ozone Depleting Substances
It was in 1974 that Mario Molina and Sherwood Rowland of University of California found that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) destroy the ozone in the stratosphere. CFCs are inert substances and can remain intact for years. There There is another another family family of compoun compounds, ds, called called Halons Halons,, which which contai contain n bromine bromine.. These These compounds are 100 times more potent in destroying ozone than CFCs. It may be worth menti mention onin ing g that that CFCs CFCs when when firs firstt disc discov over ered ed prov proved ed usefu usefull subs substan tance ces s espe especi cial ally ly to refrigeration industry because these are neither inflammable nor toxic. Besides refrigeration industry, industry, these compounds are used as aerosol propellant, propellant, as solvents solvents for grease or glues, as a component of foam packaging, etc. Ozone hole
Ozone hole was first discovered by British Antarctic Survey in 1983 over Antarctica. It was found that levels of ozone were dropping very fast, though a small percentage was being replenished during fall season. But, by 1987 ozone had dropped by 50 percent. It was also found that ozone levels were dropping in other parts of the world too. Alarmed over such declining levels of ozone, United Nation Environment Programme (UNEP) called a meeting of few developed nations to consider the issue of ozone depletion vis-à-vis CFCs and phasing out use of ozone depleting compounds. Initially USA resisted but later agreed to 50% reduction in the use of these compounds. This formed the basis of Montreal Protocol (1987) on substances that deplete the ozone layer. TYPES OF WASTES
Solid wastes arise from: (i) (i) Dome Domes stic tic Sour Source ce – garb garbag age. e. (ii) Sewage sludge. (iii) (iii) Agricu Agricultu ltural ral source source – agric agricult ultural ural residu residues. es. (iv) (iv) Constr Constructi uction on sites sites – debris debris and unuse unused d materi material. al. (v) (v) Power ower stati tation ons s – flfly ash ash.. (vi) (vi) Mini Mining ng and and qua quarr rryi ying ng.. (vii) (vii) Industr Industry y – both hazardo hazardous us and nonnon- hazard hazardous ous wastes wastes arise from industr industrial ial sources sources.. Hazardous wastes are those wastes which are toxic and pose threat to humans as well as to environment. environment. Examples Examples of these wastes are pesticides, pesticides, asbestos, asbestos, polish, polish, paints, stai tain removers, flu fluore orescent lights hts, certai tain types of oil oils, solv olvents, ts, etc etc. Non hazardous industrial wastes are substances like metal and glass pieces, plastic, rubber and sludge from waste treatment plants. (viii) (viii) Radio-ac Radio-activ tive e wastes wastes from from nuclear nuclear instal installat lation ions. s. So far as the the radio-ac radio-activ tive e wastes wastes are concerne concerned, d, there there are interna internatio tional nal conventi conventions ons relati relating ng to their their dispos disposal. al. Legally no country can dump these in the sea. These have to be disposed off or rendered harmless through established procedures.
Excepting certain industrialized countries, in other countries the wastes, garbage or rubbish is handled by agencies/municip agencies/municipal al corporations corporations.. These are dumped or buried and no body cares what happens to these wastes. Mostly these wastes are burnt, though this practice is now discouraged in big cities. Dumping wastes whether hazardous in this manner results in: (i) health risk to humans (ii (ii) env environ ironme ment ntal al dam damag age e in the the for form m of dam damag age e to soi soil, l, wate waterr and and air air because because of leachi leaching ng by which which chemica chemicall and other other harmful harmful material materials s percolate into soil and ground water. Also as these wastes decompose, there is foul smell as well as production of methane gas. INTEGRATED SYSTEM FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT
Agenda 21 addressed the problem of waste management stating that sound management of wastes wastes is among among the major major enviro environmen nmental tal issues issues for maintai maintainin ning g the quality quality of Earth’ Earth’s s environment environment and achieving achieving sustainable sustainable development. development. Accordingly, Accordingly, waste managemtn managemtn is done through following systems. (i) Minimum production of waste. (ii (ii) Maxi Maximi mizi zing ng reus reuse e of of was waste te and and rec recy ycli cling. ng. (iii (iii)) Adopt Adoptin ing g envir environm onmen ental tally ly soun sound d wast waste e disp dispos osal al pra practi ctice ces. s. (iv) Exten tendin ding wa waste se services. es. MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
Till 1970’s disposal of hazardous wastes did not attract much attention. Not much concern was was show shown n then then about about the the haza hazardo rdous us wast wastes es leak leakin ing g form form dumpi dumping ng ground grounds s into into the adjoining areas causing land and water pollution. Since last decade increasing concern has been shown in regard to Hazardous Waste Management including its: (i) Control of generation. (ii) Storage. (iii) Transport. (iv) Reuse. (v) Recycling. (vi) Disposal. Hazard Hazardous ous Waste Waste Managem Management ent requir requires es not only only national national but intern internati ational onal efforts efforts and cooperation cooperation because transboundry transboundry shipment of these wastes has now come under scrutiny scrutiny and is covered under Besel Convention. The UN General Assembly in a resolution dated Dec. 22, 1984 requested regional commissions to prevent the illegal traffic of hazardous wastes. Human Resource Development efforts should be intensified to train the people in various organizations to reorient current waste management practices to include waste reuse and recycling. Promoting Environmentally Sound Waste Disposal
Despite the fact that waste production is minimized and wastes are reused and recycled, some some wastes wastes still still remain remain.. Even Even after after treatm treatment, ent, waste still still remain remains s and has impact impact on environment. Treatment of municipal wastes like garbage and fecal material should be given priority. Efforts should be:
(i) (i)
To esta establ blis ish h wast waste e treat treatme ment nt and and dispo disposa sall quali quality ty crit criter eria ia and and stan standa dard rds s based based on assimilative capacity of the receiving environment. (ii) (ii) To est establ ablis ish h mech mechani anism sm for for moni monitor torin ing g wast waste-r e-rel elate ated d poll polluti ution on.. Various options for waste disposal are: (i) Recycling and reuse. (ii) Landfills. (iii) Composting. (iv) Incineration. Landfills: As mentioned above, earlier almost all the wastes were dumped at so called
landfills and burnt releasing smoke and foul smell. These landfills are source of soil and water pollution. This dumping of waste is not environment friendly.
What is Reusing?
The reuse of product means using same product over and over in its original form. Glass bottles or Cola bottles instead of cans are used again and again. Why not use glass material for beverages instead of cans or cardboard cartons. Similarly it is a good practice to carry lunch in steel boxes instead of containers of plastic material which is not biodegradable and reusable. Composting
Municipal solid wastes, garbage from kitchens, food processing industry and degradable wastes from slaughterhouse can be composted in composting plants and sold as fertilizer. Household Household garbage can be composted at backyard o serve as useful nutrient nutrient material material for vegetation. Incineration: incineration is another method of disposal especially of garbage. It is disposal
of waste through burning. It can reduce both the volume and the weight of the wastes. It can render toxic wastes into less toxic substances. The case of Japan using incinerators is mentioned above. Desertification :
Desertification is a widespread environmental problem that directly affects over 100 countries. It occurs when productive land in arid, semi-arid and/or sub-humid dryland regions is degraded by human activities and by climate variations like drought. Drylands cover around one third of the worlds land surface and are inhabited by more than one sixth of the worlds population. Global climate changes accelerates the process of desertification as higher temperatures increase evaporation or if there is decrease in rainfall. Human activity is the primary cause of desertification. There are four basic activities tat are responsible for desertification: Over cultivation: today the agricultural practices are more commercial than ever. There are a lot of higher levels of technological inputs, which most of the time do more damage than normal. Farmers feel the necessity to get more output for more gains. The use of improper methods and ever increasing demand for food has compounded the problem. The net result
is a gradual decline in the productivity of once fertile soil and which after some time is abandoned by farmers and termed as useless. Once abandoned natural forces quickly take over and the process of soil degradation sets in. Deforestation: When man requires land for agriculture the first thing he does is clear forest land, this leads to reduction in rainfall and also soil erosion of the top soil. This ends in the soil becoming useless after some years and the whole process is restarted. Improper irrigation: the thirst to produce more and sell more agricultural produce has pushed farmers to use improper improper irrigation methods. These methods are not monitored properly and most of the time end up increasing the salinity of the soil rendering it useless. Over grazing: This is another activity that has degraded land severely in certain areas. It has led to degradation of soil. About one third of the worlds ranges are severely degraded by over grazing, making this the largest cause for soil degradation. The first sign of improper range management is elimination of the most palatable grasses. As over grazing progresses, hungry animals strip the ground bare and their hooves pound the soil, hastening erosion. Global Action Programme for desertification eradication
It has been estimated that the present global direct loss due to desertification amounts to about $42 billion per year. A worldwide programme to combat desertification effectively would lessen this loss considerably. The following are the steps that should be followed: a) Preventive measures. b) Corrective measures c) Rehabilitation programme. Consequences:
Global food security will be unattainable if desertification is not stopped and reversed, as to provide for the worlds growing population and providing for adequate diets for all the worlds food production must increase by three times. Desertification reduces biological diversity, increases social strife and strains the resources of the country.
Chapter 4 INTRODUCTION
Business and industry including Multinational Corporation (MNCs) play a crucial role in economic and social development of a country. All economic activities either affect or are affected by natural environment resources-extraction, processing, manufacture, transport, consum consumpti ption on and final final dispos disposal al of the product product are related related to enviro environme nment nt protect protection ion.. Moreover economic activities affect the natural resources for future generations too. Study of the econ econom omic ic syst system em ther therefo efore re is cruc crucia iall in so far as quant quantit ity y and and qual qualit ity y of natura naturall resources is concerned. There are two important aspects of economic and environment linkage: (a) Promotion Promotion of sustai sustainable nable developme development; nt; (b) Implication Implications s on globalised globalised economi economies. es. Some of the resources are not renewable and those, which are renewable do not get renewed at the same pace at they are consumed. We have also sent that the production processes result in producing not only the desired product but also the waste. How are the wastes going to be managed? It has therefore become imperative that resource conservation and environmental protection must become a part of overall management and Environmental Management System be adopted as a strategy for meeting the expectation of the society as well as sustainable growth. Not only must this but EMS take cognizance of nature, not infinitum but nature infini infinitum tum.. The nature nature has been providi providing ng sustena sustenance nce and protec protectio tion n to livin living g creatur creatures es considering the fact that the world is now moving towards innovations and technology, which often denies legitimacy of environmental themes. To bring these under the ambit of the environmental consideration, the structure of the organizations will need to be changed to understand the ecological reality. In summary, it is fair to say that we have only begun to adopt EMS in a responsible way both in national and global perspectives, it is our hope that our relationships with nature and its nature would be perceived perceived at every level, level, especially political political and corporate, corporate, with a sense of urgency and acute sensitivity. Till 1970’s the slogan was ‘limit to growth’ which means environmental management to ‘aim at resource conservation at local, community or national level’ during 1980’s and 1990’s the situation changed. The environmental issues became global; through they originate at local or national level. Added to this, is the belief that new technology, free trade and product innovation, environmental protection and regeneration of ecosystem are possible. According to this school of thought environmental and resource management is a problem of efficiency in energy used, substitutions substitutions of non-renewable non-renewable or recycling recycling technologies. technologies. In this way, more
could be produced but the question is that the more production is achieved without increase in raw materials or resource based. If the resource based raw materials is finite can be increased production. Environmental Management System
Environmental aspects
It means organization’s activities, services and products which interact with the environment e.g. packaging is an aspect and the waste produced in the process of packaging is an impact. Environmental impacts
A change change in enviro environmen nment, t, wholly wholly or partia partially lly result resulting ing from from an organi organizat zation ions s activi activitie ties, s, services or products (aspect) is referred to as Environmental Impact. Usually impacts are harmful; sometimes impacts can be beneficial as for example conservation programmes protect wild life. Those responsible for EMS, must be able to identify both existing as well as potential impacts. For identifying impacts, following environmental aspects must be known. 1. Emissions. 2. Effl Efflue uent nt disc discha harg rge. e. 3. Consum Consumpti ption on of of reuse reuse of mater material ial.. 4. Noise. Environmental policy
It is a written statement that defines organizations mission, attitude and framework of actions towards environment. An environmental policy includes vision and core values of the organizations, compliance with legal and other requirements and commitment to environmental protection through actions like: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Preven Preventio tion n of pollut pollution ion at sourc source. e. Redu Reduct ctio ions ns of of wast waste. e. Design Design and operati operational onal managem management. ent. Mini Minimu mum m use use of of ener energy gy.. Bringi Bringing ng awar awarenes eness s to to empl employe oyees. es.
There can be more actions.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
EIA refers to the review of potential impact impact of a project to be launched launched by an organization organization it includes: 1. Assess Assessment ment of exist existing ing enviro environme nmental ntal status status.. 2. Analysis Analysis of various various factors factors of Eco system system like trees, trees, ponds. ponds. 3. Analysis Analysis of adverse adverse impact impact of the project project to be be started. started. 4. Impact Impact on peopl people e in neighbo neighbourho urhoods ods..
Certification body
It is an independent organisation, which verifies that a company’s EMS conforms to specific standard such as ISO14001. Such a body is called certifier. If the system conforms to standard, the company will be awarded certificate. It is advisable to select a certification body, which has been accredited by government agency or other impartial organization with credibility. What is Environmental Audit?
It as an objective and documented verification of processes to obtain evidence to determine whether EMS of an organization confirms to the criteria laid down by the organization. It is a detailed evaluation of organizations performance against set objectives. The keys words for EMS audit are: Documented, Periodic and Objective. The report of audit has to be conveyed to the management. If an audit for ISO14001 certification is carried out, it would provide the proof of following objectives: 1. Evidenc Evidence e of of confo conformi rmity ty of EMS. EMS. 2. Evidence Evidence of fulfilling fulfilling legal/regula legal/regulatory tory requirements requirements.. 3. Provide Provide opportuniti opportunities es for further improvement improvement of EMS. EMS. Eco Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
It is an envir environ onme menta ntall audi auditt sche scheme me launc launched hed by the Europ Europea ean n Unio Union. n. It diffe differs rs from from ISO14001 in following respects: 1. It requires requires an organization organization to provide provide the audit audit report report to the public. public. 2. It appl applie ies s to manu manufac factu turer rers. s. Organizations can upgrade from ISO14001 to EMAS through CEN* Very few organizations, so far have registered for EMAS. ISO 14000 (Series) - THE BASIC PRINCIPLES
ISO 14000 was approved by European commission through the recommendation of CEN (committee de normalization) which is European Unions Standardization body. ISO 4001 is deri derive ved d from from ISO ISO 9000 9000 but but it is broa broade derr in scop scope e than than qual qualit ity y stan standa dard rds s beca becaus use e environmental environmental issues are larger issues affecting affecting the nations and the world’s resources and living conditions. Further, it requires organizations to be concerned with everything from raw material to end product as it reaches the consumer and its final disposal- a cradle to grave appro approac ach. h. ISO ISO 14001 14001 is not not a guara guarante ntee e of exce excellllenc ence e in envir environ onme menta ntall issu issues es.. An organization may like to be upgrade from ISO 14001 to EMAS which is open to public. ISO 14000 enables an organizations EMS to: 1. Formulate Formulate and define policy policy and objectives objectives in this this regard. regard. 2. To formulate formulate a plan to impleme implement nt the policy policy and objectives. objectives. 3. To devel develop op the capaci capaciti ties es and and suppo support rt to achi achiev eve e the imple impleme ment ntati ation on of poli policy cy objectives. 4. To monitor monitor and evalu evaluate ate enviro environmen nmental tal perform performanc ances. es. 5. To review review the the EMS for for conti continued nued impr improve ovemen ment. t. Environmental Policy
A sound environmental policy reflects the commitment of management in matters relating to environmental issues. The policy has to be written as a document to be available to the concerned employees as well as external parties.
The policy is formulated by the top management who are signatories of the policy document. Environmental Policy should: 1. Be realistic realistic taking taking into into consideration considerations s the constraints constraints and and resources resources of the company company aw well as the extent of impact that the organization has on the environment. While discussing the impacts, the document should embody life-cycle analysis, resource conservation, waste reduction and product design. In fact, the concept of sustainable development should be a part of the document. Rhetoric’s would not serve any purpose in the process of documenting the policy. 2. Be docu docume ment nted ed and and avai availa labl ble e to all all the the empl employ oyee ees s and and the the eter eterna nall part partie iessstakeholders and public. 3. Be clear clear about about commitm commitment ent for continued continued improvem improvement ent of EMS. 4. Be in conf confor ormi mity ty with the laws and rules rules and and regul regulati ation ons. s. In other other words words,, it must must make a statement in regard of the compliance. 5. Lay down down a framewor framework k of enviro environme nmental ntal obje objecti ctives ves.. The object objective ives s take take into into consid considera eratio tion n the visio vision, n, missio mission, n, and the core core values values of the organizations. The objectives are in fact indicators of performance. The indicators then become measurable. Examples of indicators are quality of a. Raw Raw mat mater eria iall use used. d. b. Emissions. c. Othe ther wa wastes. d. Energy. e. Recy Recycl clin ing g of wast waste. e. The EMS Auditor would be taking into consideration the objectives and all the above listed requirements while conducting the audit. Planning:
Planning of EMS for audit requires that the system should be in form of written plan or manua manuall givi giving ng deta detailils s of work work and and proc proced edure ures. s. When When the the work work invo involv lves es handl handlin ing g of hazardous materials or any other procedure involving safety measures, it has to be carefully written as plan document. Planning for EMS is an important function of an organization in the sense that it takes into consideration consideration a proper schedule, schedule, resources, resources, targets, successes successes as well as likely failures, contingencies and alternatives to mitigate the crisis if it occurs. The plan includes environmental aspects and impacts, thought there may be overlap in policy and planning in this regard. Planni Planning ng takes takes into into consid considerat eration ions, s, the proces processes ses,, resourc resources, es, respons responsibi ibilit lities ies,, skills skills,, authority and coordination. Implementation:
The next element of EMS specifications, ISO 14001 is its implementation. An organization should have support and capabilities for achieving objectives and targets set out in policy and plan. The process of implementation implies management skills. Implementation of ISO 14001 means: 1. Managem Management ent of human, human, financ financial ial and and natural natural resourc resources. es. 2. Moti Motiva vati tion on for acti action. on. 3. Resp Respon onsi sibi bililiti ties es.. 4. Docu Docume ment ntat atiion 5. Commun Communica icatio tion n with with the the organi organizat zation ion.. 6. Oper Operat atio ion n con contr trol ol..
7. Prepa Prepare redne dness ss of of emerg emergen ency cy.. 8. Record Records s and mana manageme gement nt of infor informat mation ion’s. ’s. Successful implementation of EMS would need commitment of all the employees. EMS, in fact encompasses many other areas of management, particularly organizational change in one area that is key to successful implementat implementation ion of EMS. It is important important that the traditional traditional managem management ent culture culture is changed changed to enviro environme nmental ntal organi organizat zation ion culture culture which which means means discarding discarding old practices practices and beliefs beliefs and learning learning new ones. Education Education and training provide the the memb member ers s of orga organi niza zati tion on with with requ requis isit ite e envi enviro ronm nmen enta tall skil skills ls and and know knowle ledg dge. e. Enviro Environme nmental ntal awarene awareness ss of the staff staff in general general and enviro environme nmental ntal traini training ng for those those involved in EMS brings benefits to the organization and helps in implementation of EMS. Of course for this to happen, commitment has to begin at the highest level of management. The top top mana manage geme ment nt has has als also to ensu ensure re that that suffi uffici cien entt res resourc ources es are are prov proviided ded for for implementation of EMS. Monitoring and evaluation:
EMS demands a mechanism for measuring performance and evaluation. After monitoring and evaluation, an organization can then review its action for improvements. Therefore a process has to be evolved that involves testing, and verification. Such a process must be an ongoing process to identify environmental performance indicators that are verifiable. Also for regular monitoring, the companies must establish a system and procedure for determining compliance and conformance with laws and rules and regulations. For conformance to all the above regulations, a periodic audit of EMS should be conducted either by internal or external auditors who are trained and qualified for the job. Review:
An orga organi niza zati tion on that that has has init initia iate ted d the the proc proces ess s of form formul ulat atin ing g Poli Policy cy,, Plan Planni ning ng,, Implementation and Monitoring of EMS has to adopt the last step namely, the Review of the syst system em.. At this this Revi Review ew stag stage, e, the the orga organi niza zati tion on has has to thin think k in term terms s of cont contin inua uall impr improv ovem ement ent of envir environ onme menta ntall perfo perform rman ance ces. s. Revi Review ew is very very impo importa rtant nt beca becaus use e it undertakes an in-depth analysis of all the issues of environmental concern. Reviews must go beyond the stage of compliance. It must pay full attention to implementation of objectives set out by the organization. If the objectives have not been achieved or not achievable, these must be changed or modified. Issues to be discussed in this process of review are: 1. Suitabi Suitabilit lity y of envi environm ronmenta entall policy policy.. 2. Recomm Recommenda endatio tion n of of audi auditt repo report. rt. 3. New New regu regula lati tion ons. s. 4. Inter Interes estt of stak stakeho ehold lder ers. s. 5. Publi Public c aware awarenes ness s and and pressur pressures. es. The review findings must be documented especially its recommendations in regard to safety meas measur ures es,, prev prevent entiv ive e meas measur ures es and impa impacts cts on publi public c heal health th and and livi living ng condi conditi tion ons. s. Accide Accidents nts and incide incidents nts may occur occur suddenl suddenly. y. They result result from from failur failures es of equipme equipments, nts, human errors or flaws in EMS itself. These have to be identified and compliances be restored. Human errors are most significant because it is something that can be corrected on the basis of deep analysis as to why a particular person makes a particular mistake. Anyways, it is the management which is blamed if the machine fails or processes become haphazard or when people make mistake. The responsible management reviews the EMS in the light of what is stated in the last sentence.
THE INDIAN SCENE
In India today many companies have been certified for ISO 14001. Japan has maximum number of companies certified for ISO 14001 compared to any other country in the world. GLOBALIZATION
India opened up its economy in early 1990’s. Globalized not only deals with movement of elements like physical capital, (machinery and equipment) technology and labour but also financial capital (foreign direct investment). There is more international trade today band this trend is rising. One major impact of global economy is on environment and resources. The international trade alters the volume of production production and consumption. consumption. As it is known, the consumption consumption patterns patterns of western countries countries are imitated by the developing countries (e.g. fast foods) and if this trend continues, its impacts on resources would be significant. Another trend is that poor countries are cash starved. They would tend to sell natural resources to earn foreign exchange. The issue that need immediate attention is whether liberalized trade leads to damage to enviro environme nment. nt. As mentio mentioned ned above, above, global global trade trade and enviro environmen nmental tal issues issues were were kept kept separate and even in the initial rounds of talks and negotiations of Uruguay Round of General Agreement on Tariffs Trade(GATT) there was no attempt to resolve the issue of environment environment and trade. (Uruguay round led to setting cup of WTO in 1995 to administer administer the agreements on International Trade). However, the final Uruguay round did take into account the environmental issues and ensued that WTO takes up these issues on priority basis. Soft Technlogy
Application of Soft Technology: It has now been realized worldwide that in the process of productivity and profit, tremendous damage is caused to the environment, if the technology procedures employed consumes large quantities of natural resources and leave behind a mass of pollutants. Businesses affect the environment in at least two ways, every working day they consume energy and other resources and create waste that must be disposed off. The truth is that no matter how environmentally responsible they may be few industrial factories will ever be truly good to the environment. The most one can hope for is that industrial units do the least damage in the pursuit of productivity and profits. One way to reduce environmental damage is by using soft technology. Soft technology means that technological procedure which is not harsh on the environment. Soft technology distu disturb rbs s the ecoeco-sy syst stem em to the leas leastt exten extent. t. It uses uses the mini minimu mum m amoun amountt of natura naturall resources. It gives time to nature to correct and replenish itself. It produces a low degree of pollutants. It takes steps to process the waste products, so they are converted to harmless products before they are discharged into the eco-system. Soft technology has certain drawbacks as far as the company is concerned, soft technology is less efficient, it gives lower yield (productivity) and hence lower profits. It is also much more expensive as more steps are required to be set up to safe guard the environment or to treat waste. It is increasingly felt that only technology that is suited and adapted to Indian conditions will succeed and be profitable. It has been experienced that foreign technologies made made availab available le to develop developing ing nations nations are those, those, which which have have become become obsole obsolete te in their their country of origin and are high-energy consumers or not environment friendly. There may be practic practical al diffic difficult ulties ies in the employ employment ment of soft soft technol technology. ogy. For exampl example e the substi substitute tute component may not be readily available at all times and as per specifications.
Every company is saddled with pressures from government, environmentalists customers and others to change its products and processes to more eco-friendly eco-friendly types. In the coming coming years the distinction distinction between a ‘green and un green’ company company may become a critical critical factor in the way a stake holder views the company. Ultimately Ultimately the eco-friendly eco-friendly or green company company alone will be able to remain competitive in the coming age.
Measures taken by international community towards Environment Management INTRODUCTION:
Man’s awareness of resource resource depletion depletion and degrading degrading environment/ec environment/ecosyste osystem m began after world war 2. But nothing tangible was done to control damage afflicted to environment. This attitude however changed in sixties. The Govern Governmen mentt in 1960’s 1960’s especia especially lly in develo developed ped countri countries es were were undergoi undergoing ng a social social change; later such change also started in developing countries. The social change, raised aspirations and hopes of people for improvement in quality of human life, which in turn opened up numerous issues relating to development, sustainable development, economic growth growth and consum consumeri erism. sm. And all the issues issues are linked linked to enviro environmen nment. t. Soon Soon people people recognized that environment was deteriorated and the natural resources were depleting due to developmental activities. Literature appeared that aimed at educating not only the people but also more so the policy makers and the politicians about the matters of environmental concerns. Protecting of environment and conservation of natural resources came to be realized at national and international levels and a concern for ecology become a watchword. As the concerns for environmental problems increased, the governments institutionalized the national national and local local levels levels and new through through legisl legislati ation on and regula regulatio tions. ns. New laws laws were were enact enacted ed at nati nationa onall and loca locall leve levels ls and new agenc agencie ies s estab establilish shed ed to make make sure sure the the compliance of laws especially by business and industry. In the early decades industry, trade and business resisted efforts aimed at environmental protection protection and resource resource conservation conservation because money spent on such efforts would diminish diminish profit. However, the attitude is changing, not because of legal action only but also due to realization that cutting down on raw material waste etc. could be a financial gain. It also became clear; in due course that environmental problems are not only local or national but must be viewed in international perspective. As for example, problems like ozone depletion or Global warming cannot be tackled at national level. Leader’s politician’s and people in general, therefore, started looking up organizations like UN for environmental issues of global concerns.
United Nations Conference on Human Environment, 1972
It was in the light of the above-mentioned scenario that the United Nations Conference on Human Environment was held at Stockholm. The following two strategies emerged in this conference. 1) The The pri princi nciple ple and and human environment.
acti action on plan plan were were evol evolv ved for for
cont contro rollling ling and and
regu regullati ating
2) Institu Institutio tional nal and financ financial ial arrange arrangement ments s were were propose proposed d for achiev achieving ing the goals goals for regulating human environment. This has been called as Magma Carter environment. It declares: (a) Human have the fundamental right to freedom, freedom, equality equality and adequate conditions conditions of life in an environment of quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being. (b) Human beings have responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations. GENERAL ASSEMBLY’S RESOLUTION OF DECEMBER, DECEMBER, 1972.
Stockholm conference was followed by the United Nations General Assembly resolution of Decemb December, er, 1972 emphas emphasisi ising ng the need of active active coopera cooperatio tion n among among the states states in this this sphe sphere re of huma human n envi enviro ronm nmen ent. t. The The reso resolu luti tion on desi design gnat ated ed June June 5 as The The Worl World d Envi Enviro ronm nmen ental tal Day Day and and urged urged gover governm nmen ents ts and organ organis isati ations ons in the the Unite United d Natio Nations ns Systems to undertake on that day every year world wide activity reaffirming their concerns for the protections of the environments. Another resolution was passed which provided for instit instituti utional onal and financ financial ial arrange arrangement ments s for intern internati ational onal coopera cooperatio tion n of enviro environme nments nts.. Amongst other decisions provisions were made for establishing a governing councils for envi enviro ronm nmen enta tall prog progra ramm mmes es head headqu quar arte ters rs at Nair Nairob obii lead leadin ing g to esta establ blis ishm hmen entt of environmental secretariat and environment funds. The governing council formulated long terms and short terms plans for the protection of environment particularly relating to development. UN Habitat Conference on human settlement of 1979, World Conference of 1977 and other conferences.
The international efforts at the protections and preservation of the environment became vigorous in 1970’s and 1980’s. Most important efforts are the followings. 1) UN Hab Habitat Con Conference on Hu Human Set Settlements in Va Vancouver, Can Canada in 1976. 2) World Water ter Confer ference on Mardle Plata, ta, Argen gentin tina in 19 1977. 3) The Wo World Wa Water ter Con Conffere erence ca called upo upon th the UN UN to to es establ tabliish the the pr progr ogramme to provide clean drinking water and sanitation to all. 4) The UN Desertificatio tion Confer ferenc ence held eld in Nair airobi in 1977. 77. 5) Paris Conference held in n1986 called for saving trees and forest. The conference was attended by heads of state and government officials from 36 countries. EARTH SUMMIT, 1992 Introduction
UN Convened a United Nation Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio-De-Janeiro in 1992. It is called Earth Summit; an 800- page document called Agenda 21 was issued at this conference. It contains comprehensive blue prints for the government and every thing from population strategy, management of hazardous waste, recycling energy conservation, renewable energy, and business strategy to role of women in the environment. While the guidelines and the principles proclaimed at Rio conference are not legally binded, they carry a strong moral force to ensure their adoption. The underline idea of Agenda 21 is that humanity has reached a point where present policies on development and economic growth have not been able to tackle tackle the problems of poverty, hunger and loving loving conditions. conditions. They continue to cause continuing resource depletion and deterioration of ecosystem on which life on this planet depends. If human beings have been provided with decent living
condit condition ions s specia specially lly in develo developin ping g countri countries, es, the managem management ent of eco system system at local, local, national and global levels have to be undertaken on priority basis. Rio Declaration
Having met at Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June , 1992; •
•
•
•
Reaff Reaffir irmi ming ng the decla declara rati tion on of the Unit United ed natio nations ns Confe Confere renc nce e on the the Huma Human n th Environment, adopted at Stockholm on 16 June , 1972. and seeking to build upon it; With the goal of establishing a new and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation among States, key sectors of societies and people; Workin Working g towards towards intern internati ational onal agreeme agreements nts which which respec respectt the intere interest st of all and protect the integrity of the global environment and developmental system; Recognizing the integral and interdependent nature of the Earth, our home.
INDIA’S EFFORT INTRODUCTION
India did recognize recognize and visualize the significanc significance e of environmental environmental protection protection and resource cons conser erva vati tion on befor before e the firs firstt Intern Internat atio ional nal meet meet on Envi Enviro ronm nment ental al.. The The Stoc Stockh khol olm m Conference on Human Environment was convened by UN in 1972 whereas India’s Fourth Plan (1969-74) document clearly lays down the following: “Plann “Planning ing for harmon harmoniou ious s develop developmen mentt recogni recognizes zes the unity unity of nature nature and man. man. Such Such planning is possible only on the basis of a comprehensive appraisal of environmental issues. There are instances in which timely, specialized advice on environmental aspects could have have help helped ed in proj projec ectt desi design gn and and in aver averti ting ng subs subseq eque uent nt adve advers rse e effe effec ct on the the environmental environmental leading to loss of invested invested resources. resources. It is necessary, therefore, therefore, to introduce the environmental aspect into our planning and development”. CONSTITUTIONAL CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION
Within five years of the Stockholm Conference, India amended its Constitution (The 42nd Constitutional amendment 1976) to include “Environmental Protection” as a constitutional obligation. Article 48A lays down: “The State shall endeavor to protect and improve the environmental and to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country”. Article 51A relates to fundamental duty. This article runs: “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environmental including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures”. NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENTAL ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AND COORDINATION
Soon after the Stockholm conference, India set up a National Committee on Environment Planning and Coordination (NCEPC). This committee was concerned with issues relating to appraisal of development projects, human settlements planning, survey of eco-systems, like wetland, and spread of environment education.
Environment Protection Act 1986
Till 1980’s, emphasis seems to have been chiefly to prevent and control pollution. In 1986 the Government of India passed a comprehensive Environment Protection, Act, (1986) as an aftermath of Bhopal tragedy of 1984. The Enviro Environme nment nt Protect Protection ion Act (1986) (1986) was passed passed for the protecti protection on of enviro environme nment, nt, regulation of discharge of pollutants, handling of hazardous substances, speedy response in the event of accidents threatening environment and deterrent punishment to those who endanger human environment, safety and health. “The present Act was enacted to bridge the gaps in the existing legislation on this subject, since the existing laws generally focus on specific types of pollution or on specific categories of hazardous substances. Yet some major areas of environmental hazards are not covered. There are uncovered gaps in areas of major environmental hazards. There are inadequate linkages linkages in handling handling matters matters of industrial industrial and environmental environmental safety. Control mechanisms mechanisms to guard guard again against st build build up of haza hazard rdous ous subs substan tance ces, s, espe especi cial ally ly new chem chemic ical als, s, in the the environment, environment, are weak. Because of a multiplicity multiplicity of regulatory regulatory agencies, there is a need for an authority which can assume the lead role for studying, planning and implementing longterm term require requirement ments s of enviro environme nmental ntal safety and to give give directi direction on to, and co-ord co-ordina inate, te, a syste system m of speed speedy y and and adequ adequate ate resp respons onse e to emerg emergen ency cy situ situati ation on threa threaten tenin ing g the the environment”. If the authori authority ty contemp contemplat lated ed by the Central Central Governmen Governmentt contin continues ues to be the existi existing ng Pollution Boards then it is feared that the entire exercise may not yield results. This is so because the Pollution Control Boards (CPCB), till now seem to have adopted a soft line visà-vis the country and prefer to be persuasive rather than punitive. It may be pointed out that of late various agencies including CPCBs have become more stringent and have recommended strong actions against those who violate the act. THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH PLAN Seventh Plan
The seventh plan lays down well-defined strategy for environment protection. This strategy is the resul resultt of real realiz izati ation on that that envir environm onmen entt and and natur natural al reso resour urce ces s repr repres esent ent the most most fundamental fundamental building blocks for national development and social social well-being. well-being. The strategies strategies that are laid down in the Seventh Plan, to achieve substantial development in harmony with environment are: Eight Plan
Eighth Eighth Year Year Plan Plan further further strengt strengthene hened d the Enviro Environmen nmental tal polici policies. es. In the Eighth Eighth Plan Plan alloca allocatio tion n of funds funds for the protect protection ion of environ environment ment were increas increased ed and a state-w state-wis ise e allocation was formulated. The Government of India set up a cell to ensure effective implementation of anti-pollution measures and measures for the protection of environment. India embarked in a big way in the direction of protection of environment in launching new programmes. Noteworthy are the projects for cleaning rivers of which biggest project relate to cleaning of Ganga and Jamuna. India has also embarked on the project of afforestation. India became signatory to Earth Summit 1992.
* Chapters 3 and 4 also have the case studies on Narmada bachao andolan, andolan, silent valley, chipko movement etc.- to be elaborated elaborated and studied from the class notes
Dear students, some of you from the Sion (W) college had requested me to provide some some more more poin points ts on the the topi topic c “Man “Man as a Reso Resour urce ce Prod Produc ucer er and and Reso Resour urce ce Consumer” as I had not given these points in the class so, so, I am forwarding the same ( the Sion (E) students are welcome to use any points which might not have been covered in class ) – this is part of the third chapter. Man’s role in Resource Utilisation . Man Man is know known n for for his his skill skill,, abil abilit ity y and and inte intell llig igen ence ce.. Man Man has has been been,, from from time time immemorial, using his attributes to make his existence a more satisfying one. Today man is not only able to produce and sell many different goods, but if he so chooses he is also able to produce many resources. Therefore man is known as a resource producer, distributor and consumer.
Man as a Resource Producer. Man is the most intelligent of species, with the most creative mind known. He has used his skill and intelligence to improve the techniques of production of production of natural resources i.e. he is able to extract and many times place back what is taken from the enviro environme nment. nt. Using Using planni planning ng and approp appropria riate te techno technolog logy y he is able able to alloca allocate te resources as he wants and fulfil the needs of the society. Also, he is able to reshape the available natural resources to suit the current needs i.e. Man has the ability to modify the physical environment as he chooses and when he chooses. Therefore man is called as a Producer of resources. Man as a Resource Consumer. During ancient times i.e. during the development of human civilisations, man produced and consumed the available resources in proportion to his very basic needs. But as he flourished and developed hi s needs also grew, till today’s era, which sees a high standard of living. In this age man has to produce more to meet the demands of society. The standard of living and man’s ever-increasing demand has led to a large consumption of resources. Using better technology and science man i s forever developing newer and better products for the consumption of society. Therefore man is called as a Consumer of resources.
Chapter 5
Watershed management The necessity of conserving water and soil resources is universally recognized. While there are seven to eight months without water in a year when it is too dry, there is a period of four to five months during the monsoon, when everything is wet and drainage channels become overflowing fast moving rivers. The construction of small and cheap earthen dams to check the overflow of rainwater helps to use this vast water potential that can be used during the long hot and dry months. This simple idea i s both water and soil conservation-effective and ecologically sound; was practiced by the people of India in the past, what we today know as the “ watershed technology”. Amongst all the natural resources, water, with its availability, quality and cost-effective distribution have become serious problem, to both city- dwellers and people living in the rural areas. The scarcity availability of water is becoming a severe constraint in improving human food, health security. Water conflicts are likely to grow at local, regional and national levels. Conservation sustainable and the equitable use of water must receive high priority. This needs science-based knowledge of ‘Hydrological cycle’ and the technical knowledge of ‘Watershed management’. What is a watershed? A watershed is defined as any spatial area from which rain or irrigation water is collected and drained through a common point. It is synonymous with a drainage basin or catchment area. There is no definite size for a watershed as it may vary from a few hectares to several hundred hectares. Size of watersheds depends upon the topography. Based on the size watersheds maybe classified as Micro, Mini or Macro. Given the general topography of the Peninsular India and farm size distribution patterns, the joint property of a group of 5 to 10 farmers usually adds up to a landscape unit, which suffices for creating a watershed. In natural landscape, such units generally co-exist in a serial continuum. Each watershed unit is a well-defined topographically delineated area with a distinct boundary. Each landscape watershed may constitute simple or complex agro-ecologies. It may be made up of an upland ecology or a combination of upland, lowland ecologies or in some cases, a toposequential complex of ecologies representing upland lowland a nd coastal ecosystem. Each ecosystem in such complex watershed has its distinct function and land use capacity. The upland part of the watershed generally represents dry land rain fed agro- ecology and acts as a catchment flow regular area for water to the lowlands. The lowlands, mainly used for the production of paddy or other high water requiring crops, are a net consumer of water while the coastal ecosystem functions as the main water resource system. In this way watershed framework provides the necessary inter-ecological linkages and is a logical unit for the integration of the sustainable use of land and water. It helps augment soil and groundwater resources. It is also benefited by the biological, social and economic inputs, which if properly managed, lead to diversified high agricultural production, control of environment degradation and provide a mechanism for recharging underground water aquifers.
Watershed management in this way, thus ensure water adequacy to crops and reduce the risks of yield loss due to water related tresses.
Basic Principles of Watershed Management Since no “package of practices” of large-scale application of watershed technologies exists and there are no thumb rules, which can be universally applied to all kinds of landscapes some fine-tuning of watershed strategies is necessary.
The following are the important steps in watershed management. 1. The first step in watershed management is human resource development and creation of awareness at all levels. 2. The watershed is a geographic hydrologic landscape unit. It has to be surveyed by civil engineers, and the land has to be developed by the watershed farmers on contoured topographic setting. 3. Waterways have to be designed and marketed on the ground and built in harmony with the slope of the land and farmers have to plant their crops and prepare the seedbeds in wheel-leveled land. 4. Finally, tanks have to dug at proper locations and interlinked to achieve maximum water storage efficiency.
Where watershed management programme has been applied in a holistic manner it has proven that farm management can be successfully sustained at higher levels. Ralegaon Siddhi village in Maharashtra has been quoted as a best model of watershed management. The adaptation of watershed management techniques has changed fortunes in Jadcherla village in the chronic drought prone Mahboobnagar district of Andhra Pradesh. Under the Rajiv Gandhi Watershed Mission, in Madhya Pradesh, 22 percent of the district lands in Jhabua, which were brought under watershed development, witnessed a remarkable ecological-economic change. The government of Andhra Pradesh has prepared an extensive watershed programme. The government proposes to take up 200 watersheds for development, where there is scarcity of potable water caused by steep fall in groundwater levels.
Land Management Land has always been the preliminary requisite of economic development. With the changes inland use over time land has become more of a prime and crucial resource. Understanding of the basic fact that just 27% of the total earth surface has land, has made it necessary to understand the importance and limitation of land as a resource. It was therefore essential to manage the land in a more effective manner. The efficiency of Land management is a preliminary to sustainable development because sound land management is crucial to enhance land productivity. Land administration improvement is consistent with land and economic reforms. The use of computer technologies offers new prospects. Land management: a major factor of economic development. The efficiency of Land Administration a preliminary to sustainable development because sound land management is crucial to enhance land productivity; Urban Land Management and Governance : Why are cities involved in the process
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
of economic growth? Cities Cities are historical historically ly associa associated ted with with economic economic expansion. expansion. The accelera acceleration tion of the urbanization urbanization process is unprecented. unprecented. Urban managemen managementt and governanc governance e are key key elements elements in in urban develop development. ment. The urban urban employme employment nt issue issue directl directly y affects affects the economic economic growth. growth. The urban urban policy policy objective objective is to contribute contribute to the economic economic develop development. ment.
Urban Land management and Governance are key elements in urban development
Rapid urban population growth places an unprecedented logistical and financial burden on municipal authorities, especially when the urban growth is recent. City governments can do a lot to assist industry and commerce (including tourism) by good planning and physical development. Infact they are confronted with increasing difficulties in the management of land, infrastructure and services: 1. They face a widespread lack of competence in the administrative administrative bodies in charge of town management. 2. They lack the resources to provide infrastructure and basic social services necessary to promote employment, health and economic growth. In that respect, urban management and governance enhancement is a current priority when there is a need to develop the spirit and ability of municipal authorities to plan and manage urban growth and environment and to develop and improve appropriate supporting institutions.
Coastal Zone Management Coastlines are truly special places, sites of remarkable beauty in high demand for development. Over this past fifty years, our coastal watersheds and shorelines have seen intense pressures for all types of uses-often to the detriment of the very resour resource ces s whic which h attr attract acted ed people people in the first first place place.. Since Since the passag passage e of of the the federal Coastal Zone Management Act and the Clean Water act in the 1970’s, government-planning activities have attempted to balance these potentially conflicting uses. Virtually all coastal states now have Coastal Management Plans and Programs, as do many countries and local communities. Amendments to these acts created National Estuary Programs. Non point pollution programs, and a watershed management focus to enhance estuarine and marine water quality, making decisions within this context requires exposures to a vast array of technical information and management tools. The coastal areas are one of the most prime areas as far as the environment is concerned. They form the boundary between the two spheres of the planet viz. Hydrosphere and the Lithosphere. The coasts support one of the natures most diverse and complex environment which perform a multifaceted role which is crucial in maintaining the ecological balance. The multifaceted role which is crucial in maintaining the ecological balance. The coastal areas have become environmental hotspot after it has come under scrutiny due to extensively damages brought about by development activities in these areas. Once upon a time these areas were considered as the wastelands but the developments in the field of environmental studies have changed the perspective towards these so-called wastelands. Considering the fact that about more than 50% of the world’s population lives within the 500 kms. Stretch of the coast, coast, it becomes almost obvious that the human settlements settlements and human activities are also concentrated within this zone. This further led to the step of disposing wastes in this fragile environment the best example around us which has led to severe damage is the area of Mahim creek which was one not long ago a paradise for the migratory as well as local birds. It has turned major feeding and breeding ground for these birds. It was a major feeding and breeding ground for these birds. Today it has turned into nothing more than a junkyard. Mangrove forests along the coast are mainly responsible for the protection of the coasts, prevent soil erosions and lessen the effects of natural disasters like cyclones, typhoons and tidal waves. This ecosystem also help in stabilizing the physical environment by buffering against the wave action and thus stabilizing the sediments which makes them into system supporting a large variety of like forms and a complex food chains and a food web. One of the world known mangroves are that of the
1. 2. 3.
Sunderbans in the Ganga delta. Such a diverse and ecological fragile environment is today under threat from various agencies. This threat is basically due to two reasons, Pollution from land Deve Develo lopm pmen entt pro proje ject ctss such uch as port portss, dam damss etc etc. Tour Touris ism, m, Defo Defore rest staation tion,, Over Overffishi ishing ng,, etc. tc. This has led to a rapid destruction and degradation of the coastal habitats and resources. With the increase in the environmental degradation of coastal areas the Ministry of Enviro Environme nment nt and forest forestss issued issued certai certain n guidel guideline iness for the develo developme pment nt of beache beachess in 1983. 1983. It proposed Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures to gauge the effect of the activities that have direct impact on the coastal areas. In 1991 the ministry issued another notification under the environmental protection act 1986, declaring the coastal stretches as the Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ), and regulating the activities within the area. The act define definess the coasta coastall stretc stretches hes of seas, seas, bays, bays, estuar estuaries ies,, rivers rivers and backwa backwater terss which which are influenced by tidal action, in the land ward side up to 500 mts from the high tide line as a pan of the Coastal Regulation Zone.
Agricultural Management With With the ever ever increa increasin sing g develo developme pments nts in the field field of techno technolog logy y man has achiev achieved ed unlimi unlimited ted advances to make his life more comfortable. The next result of these developments was an over all increase in the standard of living, and life expectancy. The death rates gradually began to fall but man forgo forgott about about the control control of birth birth rates. rates. This imbala imbalance nce led to the problem problem of ever ever increa increasin sing g population. It is estimated that today there are about a billion people being added to the human population every 12-13 years which requires an increase in the annual food grain production to 250 mn tones once in every 10 years. Till date there has been no acute shortage of food grains in real sense this was possible due to the four basic factors which are as follows; 1. Rapid advances advances in the technology technology particularly particularly the breeding breeding of varieties and high yielding yielding seeds. 2. Impro Improvis vised ed organ organiza izatio tion n of produ productio ction n and distrib distributi ution on syste systems ms of seeds, seeds, fer fertili tilizer zers, s, irrigation etc. 3. Public policies in land reforms, infrastructure development. development. 4. Efforts of the people people towards accepting the new new technologies. developm pment entss in the the field field of agricu agricultu lture re also also added added a new dimens dimension ion to tradit tradition ional al The develo agriculture and that was commercial outlook which aimed at maximum output from the farms with the use of most advanced technologies. The traditional farm products were replaced in many parts with industrial and cash corps. This gave rise to new agricultural society with profit as the main motive. This was achieved with the technology, services and government policies, This was later known as the GREEN REVOLUTION. This era started in 1968 and gave a tremendous boost to the agricultural production. Initially the fruits were very tasty but as the time passed the technology began to show its colors. The miracles of the 60’s and 70’s now are becoming nightmares of today.
The over use of fertilizers for increasing production, use of pesticides, weedicides etc. for crop protection. Over irrigation, destruction of natural gene banks etc. gave rise to serious problems. This raised many questions about the validity of the advances in agriculture. This exploitative agriculture did offer greater possibilities but intensive cultivation without proper soil conservation techniques led to destruction of soil fertility and structure which will lead to formation of deserts. Irrigation Irrigation without without proper proper drainage drainage will lead to water logging logging resulting resulting in soil getting alkaline alkaline and saline rendering them useless for farming. Extensive use of pesticides and fertilizers fungicides bring about changes in natural food chains which lead to cancer and other disease. Unscientific tapping of ground water will deplete the underground water which will paw away for desertification. Replacement of local species with high yielding varieties in large area will result in spread of diseases capable of wiping out the entire crop.
Thus we can see that without proper understanding of the consequences of the changes brought about it has raised new issues and problems. This required a different approach not only to solve the existing probl problems ems but also also to solve solve the problems problems in future future.. This This is the where where Agricu Agricultu lture re Manage Managemen mentt techniques came into picture…. In the subsequent years 1970 excessive use of fertilizers and chemical pesticides has caused soil degradation, ground water pollution and spread of pesticide resistant pests. This led to warnings of the is no option except to produce more food from less per capita land. In other words impending food crisis in the in coming millennium. Since land is shrinking resource for agriculture there it becomes necessary to produce more with the help of high yields per unit of land. It will be therefore necessary to see how science can be used to rake the productivity without ecological harm. It will be necessary for the emerging progress to be referred as evergreen revolution as the emphasis will be on the productivity which is sustainable overtime and is rooted in the principles of ecology, economics, and social issues. Fortunately in the recent past the revolu revolutio tion n in the field field of tec techn hnolo ology gy gave us three major weapons which increase se our agricu agricultu ltural ral produc productiv tivity ity keepin keeping g in view view the which will help us to increa environmental concerns. These three weapons are, 1. The genetic engineering. 2. The information and communication communication revolution. 3. The ecotechnology ecotechnology revolution. 1. The The gen genetic etic eng enginee ineeri ring ng will ill help elp us in the und unders erstand tandin ing g the gene geneti ticc bases ases of living organisms which when used in a careful and rational manner will help to understand and develop newer processes to increase the productivity. 2. The developments in the fields of information and communication will enable us to access the vast store house of information assimilated from the different parts of the world. This information will be very useful for planning and minimizing the damages in agriculture as well as help to increase the productivity as the technical information relating to weather forecasts, agronomics choice of farming methods, fertilizers in proper proportions etc. will also be available. 3. Ecot Ecotech echno nolo logy gy prom promot otes es the the best best of tradi traditio tiona nall know knowle ledg dgee and and tech techno nolo logy gy with with lead leadin ing g technologies like the biotechnology, space (Remote sensing), new materials etc.
If thes thesee thre threee weap weapon onss are are used used in comb combin inati ation on with with the impr improv ovem emen ents ts of mana manage geme ment nt and and govern governanc ance, e, has a great great potent potential ial for the integr integrate ated d manage managemen mentt of natura naturall resour resources ces and ecosystems so as to get the best out of them. The Agricultural Management will now have to look into the problem with an integrated approach keeping a holistic view. Today what is known as precision Agriculture will be the only solution if there is need to increase the food grain production without seriously damaging or the destroying the natural resources required for agriculture. Precision requires an
A. HILL HILL ARE AREA A MAN MANAGE AGEMEN MENT T Problems of hill areas: The crucial environmental problems of the hills are deforestation and soil erosion, both leading to the drying up of water resources, flash floods and decline in the yield of food and cash crops, fodder, fuel and other minor forest produce. Poverty in the hills is directly related to storages of material for basic subsistence, specially where, under the traditional, land and water management systems, the capacity of land to support the population has already been exceeded. In many hill areas, intensive human and livestock pressure along with indiscriminate felling of trees for commercial purposes have already led to loss of soil and rapid depletion and destruction of the forest cover. Besides, the water retention capacity and productivity of land have been adversely affected. These factors have impaired the ecology significantly and also resulted in deterioration in the economic conditions of the hill people. Traditional agricultural practices, especially shifting cultivation, have also contributed to destruction of forests and soil erosion. Seemingly harmless activity as prolonged grazed by livestock, especially goats and sheep’s, have further exposed many hill areas, serious ecological degradation. Developmental activities like construction of buildings, roads, dams, large and medium industries and mining, etc. have aggregated environmental problems. Consequently, perennial sources of water springs and small streams have dried up in many areas. The major challenge, therefore, locations specific solutions, so as to reverse the process and ensure sustainable development of the growing population and ecology of the hill areas. Classification of hill areas: The hill areas covered under the HAMP were the areas identified i n 1965 by a committee of the National Development Council (NDC) and these recommended by the High level Committee for Western Ghats in 1972. The Hill areas of the country fall broadly in to the following two categories: 1. Areas which are coextensive coextensive with the boundaries boundaries of the state or Union Territory, namely Jammu Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram. 2. Areas which form part part of a state which which are termed as ‘Designated ‘Designated Hill Areas’ Viz; a) Two hill hill districts districts of Assam-n Assam-north orth cacher and kabri kabri angling. angling. b) Eight districts districts of of UP- Dheradhun, Dheradhun, Pauri Pauri Garhwal, Garhwal, Tehri Garehwal Garehwal,, chamoli, chamoli, Uttar kashi, kashi, Nainital, Almora, and Pithoragarg. c) Major Major parts parts of Darje Darjeelin eling g Distric Districtt of West West Bengal Bengal.. d) Nilgiris Nilgiris distri district ct of Tamil Tamil Nadu Nadu e) 163 talukas talukas of Western Western Ghats Ghats areas comprisi comprising ng of Maharashtr Maharashtraa (62 talukas). talukas). Karnataka Karnataka (40 (40 talukas). Kerela (29 talukas), Tamil nadu (29 talukas), and goa (3).
The basic objective of the HAMP has been socio economic development of the hills and the people living there in harmony with ecological development. The programmes implemented under the NPDP have, therefore, aimed at promoting the basic life support systems with sustainale use of the natural resources of the areas covered by the programme. The approach and the strategy of the HAMP has evolved over time. The programmes implemented during the 5 th Plan period were mainly beneficiary oriented. While the emphasis shifted to eco development in the 6 th Plan, the general tenor of the HAMP remained substantially the same as that of the normal state plan following the same sectoral approach. The 7 th Plan laid particular emphasis on the development of ecology and environment as summed up in three phases, namely, eco restoration, eco preservation and eco development. It aimed at evolving plans and programmes to take care of the socio economic growth, development of infrastructure and promotion of the ecology of the areas covered by HAMP. The Special Central Assistance which is given for hill areas is 90% grant than 10%loan this is in addition to the Normal state Plan and is not meant to replace activities under the State’s normal plan. Hence, States receiving funds under HAMP are expected to prepare sub plans for designated hill areas indicating flows from both normal State Plan and the Special Central Assistance. This is to ensure that the schemes are properly dovetailed and integrated with State Plan Schemes.
