Franchino Gaffurio (1451-1522) as Renaissance Theorist, Teacher, and Composer
by Leonardo Zuno Fernández
A research paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for MUTH 6670: History of Music Theory II April 14, 2016
The objective of this paper is to synthesize highlight the importance of Franchino Gaffurio as an active m usic theorist with pedagogical intentions, which he expresses from the point of view of a church musician. In order to do this, I w ill emphasize the fact that he was a theorist, teacher, and composer living in the Renaissance period. It is out of this background that we are to understand his three music theory treatises. For the purposes of this paper, I will examine only one of them in detail: Practica musicae (1496). Due to the humanist humanist features of Franchino Gaffurio, there are many overtones and references that allude to the ancient Greeks, and these will be pointed out as they are key to understanding the output of Gaffurio.
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Franchino Gaffurio was born in 1451 in Lodi, ne ar Milan. He was a Benedictine priest and choirmaster for over forty years, and it is in this context that he composed music for his choir. A contemporary of Josquin des Prez, it is very evident that he was influenced by the same ideas regarding the importance of numbers, proportions, ratios, and the like. It is also clear that he was acquainted with Leonardo da Vinci, since the primary portrait we have of Gaffurio was painted by the renowned painter. Gaffurio was author of t hree music treatises: De Harmonia musicorum instrumentorum opus (1518), Theorica musicae (1492), and Practica musicae (1496). For the purposes of this paper, we will examine only Practica Musicae in detail. It is significant
to note that Gaffurio was one of the most famous Italian musicians in the late 15 th and early 16th centuries. Also noteworthy is the fact that his treatises were published using the printing press, which was in its early stages of operation. With his strong humanist bent, Gaffurio makes connections to ancient Greeks, as well as incorporating ideas of his time (such as innovative ways of mensuration). Finally, this paper will em phasize the fact that Practica Musicae has strong aims at equipping musicians with knowledge ( theorica) and skills ( practica) about music.1 Here is a brief overview of De Harmonia musicorum instrumentorum opus and Theorica musicae. De Harmonia is naturally the most speculative of his theory treatises. The content here intersects with topics of
Ficinian character, as well as Greek mythology and literature. The names of the Greek modes are associated with particular Greek gods, as e ach mode has been ‘consecrated’ to a god. It is clear that Gaffurio, from a humanist perspective, cites sources such as Aristides Quintillianus’ De Musica as a way to revive this long-gone
tradition of the modes and the muses. Theorica musicae, on the other hand, deals with another aspect of music theory, namely, more mathematical topics of number and proportion, in which Gaffurio delighted.2 In this
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William Bowen, Review of The Theory of Music, 174. In his book review, Bowen discusses how this "dichotomy of Greek and Latin theory implicitly separates harmonic science, case as a Greek abstraction, from practical issues appertaining to Latin theory." 2 Fuller, Review of Joachim Burmeister's Musical Poetics, 122. "By relegating much of current doctrine to the realm of 'practice', and to a separate treatise, Gaffurius could preserve the sense of a seamless theoretical continuum while yet promulgating the knowledge late fifteenth-century musicians needed to function successfully in their own world."
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treatise, Gaffurio reintroduces the tradition of Pythagorean ratios from Boethius, and he also provides ample visual examples for relationships between numbers, as well as Greek terminology for musical intervals and tetrachords. Finally, he includes a Guidonian system of solmization, which he scaffolds for students of various musical abilities. Even in this treatise, one can see the pedagogical character of these music theory treatises.
Now, let us examine Practica musicae in greater detail than the previous two treatises discussed above. It is noteworthy that Gaffurio –who composed many motets, Masses, settings of the Magnificat, and hymns during his Milan years, and who also col lected music (his and other composers’) into four codices under his direction— did not provide music examples from his compositions; rather, his examples were composed primarily as exactly that: musical examples. Many times, these musical examples were devi sed for the sake of theoretical knowledge, without a purpose to be applied in a real-life setting. At any rate, here begins a discussion of the four books that make up Musica Practicae.
Book 1 – On various topics, including solmization. Gaffurio as a humanist.
This book includes an introduction to the practice of music, and later also mentions the discipline of music (which he calls “musica disciplina”). These two are common themes throughout the treatise. Even in this
treatise, Gaffurio makes reference to the posterity of “Orpheus, Amphion, Linus of Thebes, Arion, Timotheus, and others,” whose music “has soothed wild beasts, another has moved rocks and trees, and still another has charmed sea monsters and calmed troubled minds.” The musicians’ names above are discussed in greater detail
in Theorica. It is evident that this work, although it has a stronger pedagogical purpose, still reflects the humanist character of Gaffurio. In order to establish his authority as a music theorist, he also cites knowledge of the Pythagoeans, Platonists, and Peripatetics, while also quoting Aristoxenus and the nature and form of the entire body. There is no shortage of speculative music theory in this treatise about the practice of music. Gaffurio also sounds very Augustinian when he mentions that musical practice is a movement of sounds creating melody and harmony.
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Moving on to the topic of practice, he writes, "So it is necessary that we understand their rise and fall and their harmony, not only mentally, but also by hearing and performance.” This musical practice is different than that of grammarians (again, a similar comment is made by Augustine in his De Musica). Gaffurio established that there are 4 types of musicians who produce sonorous tones: (1) orators and lectors, (2) those who make metered music, as in poetry, (3) true musicians and singers, who create melody and sweet song in counterpoint, and finally (4) actors, mimes, and those who move rhythmically in response to musical sound. Naturally, the goal is to become a well-trained musician. It is for this reason that Gaffurio proceeds with teaching about Guido d'Arezzo and his six solfege syllables. Gaffurio was a strong follower of Guido d’Arezzo. As part of Guido’s system, Gaffurio explains how mutation occurs between the different hexachords (natural, soft, and hard). He defines a hexachord as “an aggregation of six pitches arranged
in diatonic order”: ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la. Among other discussions in book 1 of Musica Practica, Gaffurio discusses mathematical ratios, how to read plainchant, clefs, the distinction between tones and se mitones, and the various musical intervals: 2nds, 3rds, 4ths, 5ths, 6ths. He recommends his method as “the preferable method of instructing children.” He then scaffolds a system of solmization that is appropriate for various skill levels in musicians: (1) reading solfege syllables, (best for pedagogical reasons), (2) reading notes without solfege syllables, (for skilled singers), and (3) and reading text and notes (the desired goal of the best ecclesiastical singers). Gaffurio proves to be in line with theorists and pedagogues known around his time by citing Marchetto of Padua’s definition of mutation as, “t he changing of the name of a tone to another name having the same sound.”
Book 2 – Mostly on rhythm. Gaffurio as a teacher.
The second book of Musica Practicae includes various concepts related to rhythm, ligatures, modus, tempus and prolatio –and how all of these work together in the context of a musical composition. In the area of rhythm, Gaffurio includes a wide variety of rhythms with their divisions and sub-divisions. In this book, his
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examples are very concrete, clear, and pedagogical. Each visual example clearly illustrates the objective he tries to communicate to his readers. He goes into detail when discussing the difference between perfect and imperfect notes, and how to properly handle them in musical notation and in reading. It is not surprising that in this book, Gaffurio also cites Johannes de Muris as an authority on rhythm.
Book 3 – Mostly on counterpoint. Gaffurio as a teacher. This book is mostly about Gaffurio’s eight mandates of counterpoint. Here is a brief summary of what
these entail:
1) The beginning of each composition must have perfect concor ds (unison, octave, double octave, or fifth or twelfth). Although fifths and twelfths are not 'perfect', they are included 'because of their sweet sonority'. 2) Two perfect species of the same kind cannot move in parallel ascending or descending contour , consecutively. Ex. Two unisons, two octaves, two double octaves, etc. An exception is made for P5th to Diminished 5 th: ex.: AE to BF. However, this is in his opinion, incorrect. 3) At least one or more imperfect concords (3rds, 6ths) should be placed between perfect concords.
Also, discords (2nds, 4ths, 7ths) are not allowed between perfect concords of the same kind. 4) A variety of perfect and dissimilar concords is allowed in succession. 5) Octave displacement (and voice exchange) between perfect intervals is allowed, provided the voices more in dissimilar fashion. 6) Contrary motion is encouraged between t he cantus, tenor, and countertenor. “This is an arbitrary rule, however, for very often the notes of a tenor (ascending or descending) follow the notes of the cantus in parallel motion.” 7) Endings of sections (currently known as ‘Directed progressions’) are expected to include the intervals of a major 6th to an octave. 8) Every composition must conclude on a perfect consonance.
This book also discusses Musica Ficta and False Counterpoint. Here, he provides some unusual examples of chromaticism and of composing: ‘Colored compositons, which are also called fictive’3.
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Fictas autem seu coloratas contrapuncti species quae in monochordo chordulis ipsis singulos tonos diuidentibus considerantur aliquantulum prosequamur: Hae enim quod chromatica dimensione ducuntur coloratas demonstrant cantilenas: quas et fictas dicunt .
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These include the 1) chromatic, 2) mixed, and 3) enharmonic genus: Bb, A, and F –hexachords. For example, in Bb: an Eb is necessary; in A: C# and F#; and in F: Bb. Gaffurio ends this book with a note on how singers ought to behave when performing: These rules include: avoiding loud bellowing, excessive vibrato and singing too loudly; maintaining harmonious proportion with other voices; and t he tenor voice is important because it ‘upholds concordances with other parts’. More importantly, one must let the music express the meaning of the words, as well as avoiding a
stationary tenor voice. The use of other instruments besides the voice is encouraged to support the choir. These last rules especially, demonstrate the practical side of Gaffurio.
Book 4 – Less concrete and more theoretical Gaffurio as a theorist.
In this book, Gaffurio cites Euclid, who taught that proportions are fixed reciprocal relationships of two quantities of like genus in any dimension. While some proportions are rational, and others are irrational. At this point, Gaffurio provides various examples of proportions (first simple ones, and then more complex ex amples). 6:4 is similar (because they share 2 as their common divisor), as is 9:6 because it has ‘sharers’. Then, he moves on to provide various proportions using unreasonable examples, as Ruth Deford notes in her article.4 First, he begins with 3/2, then 2/3, but later gives others that would be far less common: 5/1, 10/2, 15/3, and finally, even more complex ratios, such as 8/7 and 7/8. By way of summary, it would be fair to say that Musica Practicae features Franchino Gaffurio as a humanist, as a teacher, and as a composer. First, book 1 highlights his strong humanist bent toward ancient concepts that seemed like they were far gone. Gaffurio makes an attempt to revive that long tradition of speculative Greek music theory. Second, books 2 and 3 are the most pedagogical. In t hese books, one can see
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Deford, On Diminution and Proportion in Fifteenth-Century Music Theory, 3. “Despite their obvious importance, these topics are notoriously problematic. Theories of diminution are a mong the most difficult of fifteenth -century writings to interpret, because seemingly straightforward statements on the subject often prove to be ambiguous on closer inspection. ”
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Gaffurio as a teacher of music theory. It is likely that his audience was not the average person, but rather musicians who trained others in the subject of music (likely, other choirmasters). It is for this reason that Gaffurio categorizes different levels of musicians, as well as provides a graduated version for how to introduce concepts, especially solfege. After explaining basic rudimentary concepts, he moves on to rhythm, meter, and counterpoint. Book 4 features another side of Gaffurio. Here he comes across more like a music theorist who explores different theoretical possibilities, especially regarding ratios with r hythmic possibilities. However, it is noteworthy that at this point the musical ex amples he provides are not from his compositions, for these are not things that would be used under ordinary circumstances, but rather concepts that are theoretically possible. It is in book 4 that he does not come across much as a teacher, but rather as someone theorizing about music. In short, it is fair to say that Franchino Gaffurio was an exemplary humanist, teacher, and music theorist.
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Bibliography
Primary Sources
Gaffurio, Franchino. Practica Musicae. Translated by Irwin Young. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1969. Gaffurio, Franchino. Practica Musicae. Translated by Clement A. Miller. Middleton, WI: American Institute of Musicology, 1968. Gaffurio, Franchino. The Theory of Music. Translated by Walter Kurt Kreyszig. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993.
Secondary Sources Blackburn, Bonnie J.. 1987. “On Compositional Process in the Fifteenth Century”. Journal of th e American Musicological Society 40 (2). [University of California Press, American Musicological Society]: 210 –84. doi:10.2307/831517.
Bowen, William R.. 1996. Review of The Theory of Music. Journal of Music Theory 40 (1). [Duke University Press, Yale University Department of Music]: 170 –76. http://www.jstor.org/stable/843927. Deford, Ruth I. 2005. “On Diminution and Proportion in Fifteenth -century Music Theory”. Journal of the American Musicological Society 58 (1). [University of California Press, American Musicological Society]: 1 –67. doi:10.1525/jams.2005.58.1.1.
Fuller, Sarah. 1995. Review of Musical Poetics; the Theory of Music. Music Theory Spectrum 17 (1). [Oxford University Press, Society for Music Theory]: 11 9 –23. doi:10.2307/745766.
