Fine-tuned Universe.pdf

Fine-tuned Universe Universe Rubik’s Cube simultaneously”. Cube simultaneously”.[7]

The   fine-tuned Universe proposi sitio tionn that that the Universe   is the propo conditions that allow life allow  life in  in the Universe the  Universe  can only occur when certain universal   fundamental physical constants   lie lie withi withinn a very very narro narrow w range, range, so that that if any of several fundamental constants were only slightly different, the Universe would be unlikely to be conducive to the establis establishme hment nt and deve develop lopmen mentt of   matter, matter, astronomical structures, elemental diversity, or life as it is understoo understood. d.[1] The proposi proposition tion is discussed discussed among philosophers,, scientists philosophers  scientists,, theologians  theologians,, and proponents and detractors of creationism of creationism..

John Gribbin and Gribbin  and  Martin Rees wrote Rees  wrote a detailed history and defence of the fine-tuning argument in their book   (1989). According According to Gribbin and Cosmic Coincidences  Coincidences  (1989). Rees, carbon-based life was not haphazardly arrived at, but the deliberate end of a Universe “tailor-made for man.”[8]

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Physicist Paul Physicist  Paul Davies  has asserted that “There is now broad agreement among physicists physicists and cosmologists that the Universe is in several respects ‘fine-tuned' for life”. However, he continues, “the conclusion is not so much that the Universe is fine-tuned for life; rather it is finetuned for the building blocks and environments that life requires.” He also states that "'anthropic "'anthropic'' reasoning fails to distinguish between minimally biophilic minimally  biophilic universes,  universes, in which life is permitted, but only marginally possible, and optimally biophilic universes, in which life flourishes because biogenesis cause  biogenesis occurs  occurs frequently”.[2] Among scientists scientists who find the evidence persuasive, a variety of  natural explanations have explanations  have been proposed, such as the  anthropic principle along principle  along with multiple with multiple universes. universes.  George F. R. Ellis observes lis  observes “that no possible astronomical observations can ever see those other universes. The arguments are indirect at best. And even if the multiverse multiverse exists, it leaves the deep mysteries of nature unexplained.” unexplained.”[3]

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Premise mise

The premise of the fine-tuned Universe Universe assertion is that a small change in several of the dimensionless the  dimensionless fundamental physical phys ical constants would would make make the Unive Universe rse radicall radicallyy different. As Stephen As Stephen Hawking has Hawking has noted, “The laws of science, as we know them at present, contain many fundamental numbers, like the size of the electric charge of the electron electron and the ratio of the masses of the proton and the electron. ... The remarkable fact is that the values of these numbers seem to have been very finely adjusted to make possible the development of life.” [9] If, for examp example le,, the strong strong nucle nuclear ar force orce were were 2% strong stronger er than it is (i.e., if the coupling the  coupling constant representing constant  representing its strength were 2% larger), while the other constants were left unchanged, diprotons unchanged,  diprotons would  would be stable and hydrogen would fuse into into them them instea insteadd of deuterium and helium helium..[10] This would drastically alter the physics of stars of  stars,, and presumably preclude the existence of life similar to what we observe on Earth. The existence existence of the diproton would would short-circuit the slow fusion of hydrogen into deuterium. Hydrogen would fuse so easily that it is likely that all of the Universe’s hydrogen would be consumed in the first few minutes after the Big the Big Bang. Bang.[10] However, some of the fundamental constants describe the properties of the unstable strange, charmed, bottom and top quarks top  quarks and  and mu and tau leptons that that seem seem to playlit playlittl tlee part part in the the Unive nivers rsee or the structure of matter.

Hisstor Hi tory

In 1913 1913,, the the che chemist mist Lawr Lawrenc encee Josep Josephh Hend Henderso ersonn (1878– 1942) wrote  The Fitness of the Environment,  one of the first books to explore concepts of fine tuning in the Universe. Henderson discusses the importance of water of  water and  and the environment the  environment with  with respect to living things, pointing out that life depends entirely on the very specific envi- The precise formulation of the idea is made difficult ronmental conditions on Earth, especially with regard to by the fact that physicists do not yet know how many the prevalence and properties of water. [4] independ independent ent physica physicall constant constantss there there are. The current current In 1961 1961,, the the phys physic icis istt   Rober Robertt H. Di Dick ckee   claimed stand standard ard mode modell of parti particl clee ph physi ysics cs   has 25 freely adthat that certa certain in force orcess in   physics, physics, such uch as   gravity and justabl justablee parameter parameterss with an addition additional al parameter parameter,, the electromagnetism,, must be perfectly fine-tuned for life cosmological constant, electromagnetism constant, for gravitation. However, because to exist anywhere in the Universe. [5][6] Fred Hoyle also Hoyle  also the standard model is not mathematically self-consistent argued for a fine-tuned Universe in his 1984 book  Intel- under certain conditions (e.g., at very high energies, at compares “the chance chance of obtaining obtaining which both quantum both quantum mechanics and mechanics and general  general relativity are relativity are ligent Universe . He compares even a single functioning protein by chance combination relevant), physicists believe that it is underlaid by some of amino of amino acids to acids to a star system full system full of blind men solving other other theo theory ry,, such such as a grand unifi unified ed theo theory ry,, stri string ng theor theoryy, 1

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DISPUTES DISPUTES REGARDIN REGARDING G THE EXISTEN EXISTENCE CE AND EXTENT EXTENT OF FINE-TUN FINE-TUNING  ING 

or loop or loop quantum gravity. gravity. In some candidate theories, theories, the actual number of independent independent physical physical constants may be as small as one. For example, the cosmological constant may be a fundamental constant, but attempts have also been made to calculate it from other constants, and according to the author of one such calculation, “the small value of the cosmological constant is telling us that a remarkably precise and totally unexpected relation exists among all the parameters of the Standard the  Standard Model of particle physics, physics, the bare cosmological cosmological constant and unknown physics.”[11]

3.1

Carbo Carbon n and and oxyge oxygen n

Further information: information: Triple-al Triple-alpha pha process § Improbabi Improbabillity and fine-tuning

An older example is the  Hoyle state, state, the third-lowest third-lowest energy state of the carbon-12 the  carbon-12 nucleus,  nucleus, with an energy of 7.656 MeV above above the ground ground level. level. Accor According ding to one calculation, if the state’s energy were lower than 7.3 or greater than 7.9 MeV, insufficient carbon would exist to support life; furthermore, furthermore, to explain explain the universe’s universe’s abundance of carbon, the Hoyle state must be further tuned to a value between 7.596 and 7.716 MeV. A similar calculation, focusing focusing on the t he underlying fundamental constants that give rise to various energy levels, concludes that the 3 Exa Exampl mples strong force must be tuned to a precision of at least 0.5%, and the electromagnetic force to a precision of at least Martin Rees formulates Rees  formulates the fine-tuning of the Universe 4%, to prevent either carbon production or oxygen proin terms of the following following six dimensionless six dimensionless physical con- duction from dropping significantly.[15] [12][13] stants.. stants the  strength of electromagnetism to electromagnetism  to the N , the ratio of the strength strength of gravity for gravity for a pair of protons, is approximately 1036. According According to Rees, if it were significantly significantly smaller, smaller, [13] only a small and short-lived universe could exist.

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Dispute Disputess regard regarding ing the existe existence nce and extent of fine-tuning

strength gth of the force orce bindi binding ng nucleons into Epsilon (ε), the stren nuclei, is 0.007. nuclei, 0.007. If it were 0.006, 0.006, only hydrogen hydrogen could could exist, and complex chemistry would be impossible. If it were 0.008, no hydrogen would exist, as all the hydrogen would have been fused shortly after the big the  big bang. bang.[13]

Physicist Victor Physicist  Victor Stenger objects Stenger  objects to the fine-tuning, and especially to   theist  theist   use use of fine-tuning fine-tuning argume arguments. nts. His numerous criticisms include what he calls “the wholly unwarranted assumption that only carbon-based life is [16] In turn, the astrophysicist Luke Barnes has possible.” the  Density parameter, parameter, is the Omega  ( Ω), also known as the Density criticised much of Stenger’s work.[17] relati relative ve importanc importancee of gravity gravity and expans expansion ion energy energy in the criticised Universe. Universe. It is the ratio of the t he mass density of the Uni- Fred Adams has Adams has investigated investigated the structure of stars in universe to the “critical density” and is approximately 1. If verses with different values of the gravitational the  gravitational constant gravity were too strong compared with dark energy and G , the fine-structure the  fine-structure constant α, and a nuclear reaction the initial metric expansion, the universe would have col- rate parameter C . His study suggests suggests that roughly roughly 25% of lapsed before life could have evolved. On the other side, this parameter space allows stars to exist.[18] if gravity were too weak, no stars would have formed.[13] The validity of fine of  fine tuning examples tuning  examples is sometimes questhe cosmological constant. constant. It describes the Lambda ( λ) is the cosmological ratio of the density of dark of  dark energy to energy  to the critical energy density of the universe, given certain reasonable assumptions such as positing that dark energy density is a constant. In terms of Planck of  Planck units, units, and as a natural dimensionless value, the cosmological constant, λ, is on the order of 10−122 .[14] This is so small that it has no significant significant effect effect on cosmic structures that are smaller than a billion light-years light-years across. If the cosmological cosmological constant was not extremely small, stars and other astronomical structures would not be able to form.[13]

tioned on the grounds that such reasoning is  subjective anthropomorphism applied anthropomorphism  applied to natural to  natural physical  physical constants. Critics also suggest that the fine-tuned Universe assertion and the anthropic principle are essentially tautologies essentially  tautologies..[19]

spatial  dimensions in  in  spacetime  spacetime,, is 3. D , the number of spatial dimensions

In addition, critics argue that humans are adapted to the Unive Universe rse through through the process process of evoluti evolution, on, rather rather than the Universe being adapted to humans (see puddle (see  puddle thinking, thinking,

The fine-tuned Universe argument has also been criticized as an  argument by lack of imagination, imagination, as it assumes no other forms of life, sometimes referred to as carbon chauvinism. chauvinism. Conceptually, Conceptually, alternative  alternative biochemistry or istry  or other forms of life are possible.[20] Regarding this, Stenger argues: “We have no reason to believe that our kind of carbon-based life is all that is possible. Furthat multiple uniQ , the ratio of the gravitational energy required to pull a thermore, modern cosmology theorises that multiple large galaxy apart to the energy equivalent of its mass, is verses   may exist with different constants and laws of around 10−5 . If it is too small, small, no stars can form. form. If it is physic physics. s. So, it is not surprising surprising that we live in the one too large, no stars can survive survive because the universe is too suited for us. The Universe is not fine-tuned to life; life violent, violent, according to Rees.[13] is fine-tuned to the Universe.” Universe.”[21] Rees claims that life could not exist if there were 2 or 4.[13]

5.3

3

Bubble Bubble univer universe se theory theory

below). below). They also see it as an example example of the logical flaw theologian Richard theologian  Richard Swinburne reaches Swinburne reaches the opposite conof hubris or anthropocentrism anthropocentrismin in its assert assertio ionn that that humans humans clusion using Bayesian using Bayesian probability. probability.[29] are the purpose of the Universe. Universe.[22] This approach has led to considerable research into the anthropic principle and principle  and has been of particular interest to particle physicists, physicists, because theories because theories of everything do everything do apparentl tlyy gene generat ratee large large number numberss of unive universe rsess in whic whichh the 5 Poss ossible ible natu natura rali list stiic expla xplana na-- paren physic physical al constants constants vary widely. widely. As yet, there there is no evtions idence for the existence of a multiverse, but some versions of the theory do make predictions that some reThere are fine are  fine tuning arguments that arguments  that are naturalistic are  naturalistic..[23] searchers studying  M-theory  M-theory and  and gravity leaks hope to As modern modern cosmol cosmology ogy deve develope loped, d, various various hypothe hypotheses ses see some evidence of soon. [30] Some multiverse theories have have been propose proposed. d. One is an oscillatory an  oscillatory universe or universe  or are not falsifiable not  falsifiable,, thus scientists may be reluctant to call a  multiverse  multiverse,, where fundamental where  fundamental physical constants are constants  are any multiv multiverse erse theory theory “scienti “scientific”. fic”. UNCUNC-Chap Chapel el Hill propostulated to resolve themselves to random to  random values  values in dif- fessor Laura fessor  Laura Mersini-Houghton claims Mersini-Houghton claims that the WMAP the  WMAP ferent iterations ferent  iterations of  of reality.[24] Under this hypothesis, sep- cold spot may spot  may provide testable empirical evidence for a arate parts of reality would have wildly different charac- parallel universe, universe,[31] although this claim was recently reteristics. In such scenarios, the issue of fine-tuning does futed as the WMAP cold spot was found to be nothnot arise at all, as only those “universes” with constants ing more than a statistical artifact.[32] Variants on this hospitable to life (such as what we observe) would de- approach include  Lee Smolin's Smolin's notion of cosmological velop life capable of contemplating the question of the natural selection, selection, the Ekpyrotic the Ekpyrotic universe,  universe, and the Bubble origin of fine-tuning. universe universe theory. Based upon the Anthropic the Anthropic principle, principle, physicist Robert physicist  Robert H. Critics of the multiverse-related explanations argue that Dicke proposed Dicke  proposed the  the   “Dicke coincidence” argument that argument  that there is no evidence that other universes exist. the structure (age, physical physical constants, constants, etc.) of the Universe verse as seen seen by livin livingg obser observe vers rs is not rando random, m, but is conconstrained by biological factors that require it to be roughly 5.3 Bubble Bubble unive universe rse the theory ory a “golden age”.[5] Main article: Chaotic article:  Chaotic inflation theory See also: Multiv Multiverse erse § Bubble theory 5.1 Inflatio Inflationary nary cosmol cosmology ogy The bubble The  bubble universe  model by physicist  Andrei Linde postulates that our Universe is one of many that grew from a multiverse a multiverse consisting  consisting of vacuum of vacuum that  that had not yet Inflation theory posits that an inflaton an  inflaton field in field  in the first decayed decayed to its ground its ground state. state. 10−30 seconds of the universe produces strong repulsive gravity, and the universe and space-time expand by a facAccording to this scenario, by means of tor of 1030. Afte Afterr 10 10−30 seconds, gravity starts to bea random quantum fluctuation, the Universe come attractive. attractive. In this framework, framework, with such rapid ex“tunneled” from pure vacuum (“nothing”) to pansion, the overall shape of the universe at 14 billion what is called a false vacuum, a region of space years is much less sensitive sensitive to initial parameters than the that contains no matter or radiation, but is not standard big standard big bang model, bang  model, and thus the fine-tuning issue quit quitee “nothi “nothing. ng.”” The spac spacee insid insidee this this bubb bubble le of disappears.[25] false vacuum was curved, or warped. A small Main article: Inflation (cosmology) (cosmology)

5.2

Multi Multive verse rse

Main article: Multiverse article:  Multiverse The Multiv Multiverse erse hypothe hypothesis sis assumes assumes the existen existence ce of many many univer universes ses with differe different nt physic physical al constant constants, s, some of which are hospitable to intelligent life (see multiverse: (see  multiverse: anthropic princip principle le). ). Because we we are intelligent intelligent beings, we are by definition definition in a hospita hospitable ble one. Mathema Mathematitician Michael Ikeda and astronomer William astronomer  William H. Jefferys have argued that the anthropic principle and selection and  selection effect resolves fect  resolves the entire issue of fine-tuning, [26][27] as does philosopher of science Elliott science  Elliott Sober. Sober.[28] Philosopher and

amount of energy was contained in that curvature, somewhat like the energy stored in a strung strung bow. This ostensi ostensible ble violati violation on of energy conservation is allowed by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle for sufficiently small time intervals. The bubble then inflated exponentially and the Universe grew by many orders of magnitude in a tiny fraction of a second. (For a nottoo-technic too-technical al discussi discussion, on, see Stenger Stenger 1990[33] ). As the bubble expanded, its curvature energy was converted into matter and radiation, inflation stopped, and the more linear Big Bang expans expansion ion we now experi experienc encee commenc commenced. ed. The Universe cooled and its structure spon-

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taneously froze out, as formless water vapor freezes into snowflakes whose unique patterns arise arise from a comb combina inatio tionn of symme symmetry try and ranrandomness. —Vi Vict ctor or J. St Sten enge gerr, The The Anth Anthro ropi picc [34] Coincidences

In standard standard   inflation, inflation, inflation inflationary ary expans expansion ion occurred occurred while the Universe was in a  false vacuum state, vacuum  state, halting when the Universe decayed to a true vacuum true  vacuum state. state. The bubble universe universe  model proposes that different parts of this inflationary universe (termed a Multiverse a  Multiverse)) decayed at differe different nt times, times, with decayi decaying ng regions regions corresp correspondi onding ng to universes not in causal in causal contact with contact with each other. It further supposes that each bubble universe may have different physical constants.

5.4

Top-do Top-down wn cosmo cosmolog logy y

The Designer Universe theory of John of  John Gribbin suggests Gribbin  suggests that the Universe could have been made deliberately by a member or members of a technologically technologically advanced civiliza lizati tion on in anot anothe herr part part of the the Multiverse Multiverse,, and and that that this this adadvanced vanced civili civilizati zation on may have have been respons responsibl iblee for for causing causing [38] the Big Bang.

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Christian philosopher philosopher Alv Alvin in Plant Plantinga inga argues argues that random random chance, applied to a single and sole universe, only raises the question as to why this universe could be so “lucky” as to have precise conditions that support life at least at some place (the Earth) and time (within millions of years of the present). One reaction to these apparent enormous coincidences is coincidences  is to see them as substantiating the theistic claim that the Universe has been crea created ted by a person personal al God and as offeri offering ng the material for a properly restrained theistic argument— argument—hen hence ce the fine-tunin fine-tuningg argument. argument. It’s as if there are a large number of dials that have to be tuned to within extremely narrow limits for life to be possible in our Universe. It is extremely unlikely that this should happen by chanc chance, e, but much much more more likel likelyy that that this this should happen, if there is such a person as God. —Alvin Plantinga, The Dawkins Confusion; Naturalism ad absurdum[39]

Alie Alien n de desi sign gn

One hypothesis is that the Universe may have been designed by extra-universal aliens extra-universal aliens.. Some believe this would solve the problem of how a designer or design team capable of fine-tuning the Universe could come to exist. Cosmologist Alan Guth believes Guth  believes humans will in time be able to generate new universes. By implication previous intelligent entities may have generated our Universe. [37] This idea leads to the possibility that the extraterrestrial designer/designers are themselves the product of an evolutio lutionar naryy proce process ss in their their own own unive universe rse,, whic whichh must must theretherefore fore itself be able to sustain life. However However it also raises the question of where this universe came from, leading to an infinite an infinite regress. regress. The Biocosm The Biocosm hypothesis and hypothesis and the Meduso-anthropic the Meduso-anthropic principle both ciple  both suggest that natural that natural selection has selection has made the universe  biophilic  biophilic.. The Univer Universe se enables enables intellige intelligence nce because intelligent entities later create new biophilic universes. This is different different from the suggestion suggestion above that aliens from a universe that is less-finely tuned than ours made our Universe finely tuned.

Relig Religio ious us argu argume ment ntss

As with  theistic evolution, evolution, some individ individual ual scienti scientists, sts, theologians,, and philosophers theologians and philosophers as  as well as certain religious groups argue that providence that providence or  or creation  creation are  are responsible for fine-tuning.

Stephen Hawking, Hawking, along with Thomas Hertog of CERN of  CERN,, proposed that the Universe’s initial conditions consisted of a   superposition  superposition   of many possible initial conditions, only a small fraction of which contributed to the conditions we see today. [35] According to their theory, it is inevitable inevitable that we find our Universe’s “fine-tuned” physical constants, as the current Universe “selects” only those past historie historiess that led to the present present condition conditions. s. In this way, top-down cosmology provides an anthropic explanation for why we find ourselves in a universe that allows matter and life, without invoking the existence of the Multiverse.[36]

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RELIGI RELIGIOU OUS S ARGUM ARGUMENT ENTS  S 

This fine-tuning of the Universe is cited [40] by philosopher and Christian apologist William apologist  William Lane Craig as Craig  as an evidence   for for the existen existence ce of God   or some form of intelligence   capable of manipulating (or designing) the intelligence basic physics basic  physics that  that governs governs the Univer Universe. se. Craig Craig argues, argues, however, “that the postulate of a divine Designer does not settle for us the religious religious question.”

7.1

Intelli Intelligen gentt design design

Proponents of Intelligent of  Intelligent design argue design  argue that certain features of the Universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent an intelligent cause, cause, not an undirected undirected process such as natural as  natural selec selection tion.. The fine-tuned Universe argument ment is a cent centra rall prem premis isee or pres presen ente tedd as give givenn in many many of the published works of prominent prominent intelligent intelligent design proponents, such as William as William A. Dembski and Dembski and Michael  Michael Behe. Behe.

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7.2

have me in it!' This is such a powerful idea that as the Sun rises in the sky and the air heats up and as, gradually, the puddle gets smaller and smaller, it’s still frantically hanging on to the notion that everything’s going to be all right, because this World was meant to have him in it, was built to have him in it; so the moment he disappears catches catches him rather by surprise. I think this may be something we need to be on the watch out for.

Counter Counter argume arguments nts

Mark Colyvan, Jay Garfield and  Graham Priest (2005) Priest  (2005) have argued that a theistic explanation for fine tuning is faulted due to fallacious probabilistic reasoning. [41] Physicist Robert Physicist  Robert L. Park has Park  has also criticized the theistic interpretation interpretation of fine-tuning: If the unive universe rse was was desi designe gnedd for life, life, it must must be said that it is a shockingly inefficient design. There are vast reaches of the universe in which life as we know it is clearly impossible: gravitational forces would be crushing, or radiation leve levels ls are too high high for compl complex ex mole molecu cule less to exexist, or temperatures would make the formation of stable chemical chemical bonds bonds impossible... impossible... Finetuned tuned for life? life? It woul wouldd make make more more sense sense to ask ask why why God desi designe gnedd a unive universe rse so inhosp inhospit itabl ablee to [42] life. Victor Stenger argues that “The fine-tuning argument and other recent intelligent design arguments are modern versions of God-of-the-gaps of God-of-the-gaps reasoning,  reasoning, where a God is deemed necessary whenever science has not fully explained some phenomenon”.[16] Stenger argues that science may provide an explanation if a Theory of Everything is formulated, which he says may reveal connections tions between between the physical physical constants. constants. A change in one physical constant may be compensated by a change in another, suggesting that the apparent fine-tuning of the universe is a fallacy because, in hypothesizing the apparent fine-tuning, it is mistaken mistaken to vary one physical parameter while keeping keeping the t he others constant.[43]

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In popu popula larr cult cultur uree

John C. Lennox   discusses the fine-tuned Universe at length in   God’s God’s Undertak Undertaker: er: Has Science Science Buried God?  (2006). Robert J. Sawyer   discusses the fine-tuned Universe at length in his novel novel  Calculating God  (2000).  (2000). Author   Neal Stephe Stephenson nson   discu discusse ssedd the issue issue of finefinetuning in the conclusion to his essay  In the Beginning... was the Command Line. Line.[44] Puddle thinking  is a satirical illustration of the   “life is   fine-tuned to the Universe”  Universe”   argument above coined by

Douglas Adams to Adams  to satirize the Fine-tuned Universe argument for supernatural creationism.[45][46] As quoted in Richard Dawkins' Dawkins' eulogy for Adams:[47] imagine a puddle a  puddle waking  waking up one morning and thinki thinking, ng, 'This 'This is an inter interes estin tingg worl worldd I find find myself in, an interesting hole I find myself in, fits me rather neatly, doesn't it? In fact, it fits me staggeringly well, must have been made to

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See also •

 Clockwork universe theory

•

 Fine-tuning

•

 Hindsight bias

•

 Origin of life

•

 Rare Earth hypothesis

•

  Teleology

•

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Ultimate fate fate of the universe

Ref Referen erence cess

[1] Mark Isaak (ed.) (2005). (2005).   “CI301: The Anthropic Principle”..  Index to Creationist Claims .  TalkOrigins Archive. ciple” Archive. Retrieved Retrieved 2007-10-31. [2] [2] Davi Davies es (200 (2003) 3).. “Ho “How biobio-ffrien riendl dlyy is the the uniuniverse”.   Int.J.Astrobiol  2 (115 (115): ): 115. 115.   arXiv: arXiv:astroph/0403050.. ph/0403050   Bibcode:2003IJAsB...2..115D Bibcode: 2003IJAsB...2..115D.. doi::10.1017/S1473550403001514 doi 10.1017/S1473550403001514.. [3] George George F. R. Ellis, Ellis,  “Does the Multiverse Really Exist?" Scientific American [4] Lawrence Lawrence Joseph Henderson, Henderson,  The fitness of the environment: an inquiry into the biological biological significanc significancee of the  The Macmillan Company, 1913  properties of matter  The

[5]   R. R. H. Di Diccke (196 (1961) 1).. “Dir “Dirac ac’s ’s Cosmo Cosmolo logy gy and Mach’s Principle”.   Nature 192 (4801) (4801):: 440–44 440–441. 1. Bibcode::1961Natur.192..440D Bibcode 1961Natur.192..440D.. doi  doi::10.1038/192440a0 10.1038/192440a0.. [6] Heilbro Heilbron, n, J. L. The Oxford guide to the history of physics  and astronomy, Volume 10 2005, p. 8 [7] Profi Profile le of Fr Fred ed Ho Hoyl ylee at OPT OPT.. Optcorp.co Optcorp.com. m. Retrieve Retrievedd on 2013-03-11. [8] Gribbin. Gribbin. J and and Rees. Rees. M, Cosmic Coincidences: Dark Mat1989,  ISBN 0ter, Mankind, and Anthropic Cosmology , 1989, ISBN 553-34740-3 [9]   Stephen Stephen Hawking Hawking,, 1988.  A Brie Brief Histor History y of Time, Time, Bantam Books, ISBN Books,  ISBN 0-553-05340-X, 0-553-05340-X, p. 125.

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REFE REFERE RENC NCES  ES 

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[35] Ball, Ball, Philip (June 21, 2006).   “Hawking Rewrites His[18] Adams, Adams, F.C. (2008). (2008). “Stars “Stars in other univer universes: ses: stellar stellar tory...Backwards”..  Nature News Online . Retrieved April tory...Backwards” structure with different fundamental constants”.   Jour19, 2010. nal of Cosmology Cosmology and Astroparti Astroparticle cle Physic Physics  s    2008   (8): Hawking ing,, S. W. W.;; Hertog Hertog,, Thomas Thomas (Febr (Februar uaryy 2006). 2006). 010.   arXiv: arXiv:0807.3697 0807.3697..   Bibcode: Bibcode:2008JCAP...08..010A 2008JCAP...08..010A.. [36]   Hawk “Popul “Pop ulaati ting ng th thee La Land ndsc scaape pe:: A Top Do Down wn Ap Ap-doi::10.1088/1475-7516/2008/08/010 doi 10.1088/1475-7516/2008/08/010.. proach”..   Phys. proach” (12): 123527. 123527.   arXiv: arXiv:hepPhys. Rev. Rev. D73   (12): th/0602091v2.. th/0602091v2   Bibcode: Bibcode:2006PhRvD..73l3527H 2006PhRvD..73l3527H.. [19] See, e.g., Silk, e.g., Silk, Joseph (September Joseph (September 14, 2006). “Our 2006).  “Our place doi::10.1103/PhysRevD.73.123527 doi 10.1103/PhysRevD.73.123527.. Retri Retriev eved ed June June 15, in the Multiver Multiverse” se”..   Nature. Volume 443 (Number 7108). 2012. doi::10.1038/443145a doi 10.1038/443145a.. [20] See, e.g. Jack Cohen and Ian Stewart: Stewart: What Does a Martian Look Like: The Science Science of Extraterr Extraterrestr estrial ial Lif Life , Wiley, 2002 [21]  Stenger, Victor J.. J..  “Flew’s Flawed Science”. Science”.

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[22] See, e.g., Gerald Feinberg Feinberg and Robert Robert Shapiro, “A Pud- [39] Alvin Plantinga, “The Plantinga, “The Dawkins Confusion; Naturalism ad dlian Fable” in Huchingson,  Religion and the Natural Sciabsurdum,” Christianity Today, March/April 2007   (1993), pp. 220–221 ences  (1993), [40] William Lane Craig, Craig, “The  “The Teleological Argument and the [23] L. Susskind, Susskind, The cosmic landscape: string theory and the Anthropic Principle”. Principle”. leaderu.com illusion of intelligent design . (Little, Brown, 2005) [41] Colyvan Colyvan et al . (2005).  Problems with the Argument from [24] [24] Wheel Wheeler, er, J. A. (1977) (1977) in Foundati Foundational onal problems problems in the speFine Tuning. Synthese 145: 325-38. cial sciences , Reidel, Dordrecht, pp 3–33 [42]  Park, Robert L. L. (2009).  Superstition: Belief in the Age of  University Press. Press. p. 11. ISBN 11.  ISBN 978-0Science. Princeton University [25] Greene, Greene, Brian. Brian. The Fabric Fabric of the Cosmos: Cosmos: Space, Space, Time 691-13355-3 and the Texture of Reality.  ISBN 978-0141011110 Marcus us (14June 2011). 2011). “W  “Why hy the univ universe erse was wasn't n't [26] The Anthropic Principle Principle Does Not Support SupernaturalSupernatural- [43]  Chown, Marc fine-tuned for life”. life”.  New Scientist . ism,, Michael Ikeda, Bill Jefferys ism [44] In The Beginning Beginning Was Was The Command Command Line. Line. Cryptonomi[27]  Michael Ikeda and Ikeda and William  William H. Jefferys, Jefferys, “The Anthropic con.com. Retrieved on 2013-03-11. Principle Principle Does Not Support Supernaturalism,” in The Im probability of God,  Michael Martin and Ricki Monnier, [45] William Williams, s, Roby Robynn (18). “The anthr anthropi opicc univ universe” erse”..  The SciSciEditors, Editors, pp. 150–166. Amherst, N.Y.: Promethe Prometheus us Press. Press. ence Show  (ABC Radio National). Retrieved 19 NovemISBN 1-59102-381-5. 1-59102-381-5. ber 2009. Check date values in: |date= (help (help)) [28]  Elliott Sober, Sober, 2004.  The Design Argument , in The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Religion, W. E. Mann, Editor. Blackwell Blackwell Publishing, ISBN Publishing, ISBN 0-631-22129-8. 0-631-22129-8.

[46] Redfern, Redfern, Martin (24 December 1995). “Proofs 1995).  “Proofs of God in a photon”. photon”.   The Independent . Retrieved 19 November 2009.

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Furt Furthe herr read readin ing g   Barrow, John D.; D.;   Tipler, Frank J.  (1988). The Anthropic Cosmological Principle .   Oxford Universityy Pre sit Press ss.. ISBN 978-0-19-282147-8 978-0-19-282147-8..   LCCN 87028148.. 87028148

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 John D. Barrow, Barrow, 2003. The Constants of Nature Nature , Pantheon Books, ISBN Books, ISBN 0-375-42221-8 •

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  Bernard Carr, Carr, ed. ed. (2007) (2007)  Universe or Multiverse?  Cambridge University Press.   MarkCol Mark Colyva yvan, n, Jay Garfield Garfield,, Graha Graham m Prie Priest st.. (2005). Problems with the Argumen Argumentt from Fine Tuning . Synthese 145: 325-38.  Paul Davies, Davies, 1982.  The Accidental Universe , Cambridge University Press, ISBN Press,  ISBN 0-521-24212-6

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Fine-Tuning website. website.

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"Cosmologi Cosmological cal fine-tuning. fine-tuning.""

 Hugh Ross: Ross: •

"Design and the t he Anthropic Principle." Principle."

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"Evidence For Design In The Universe." Universe. "

  Gerald Schroeder: Schroeder: Fine-turned universe. The cosmos is fine-tuned to permit human life at life at the talk.origins index to creationist creationist claims.   Interview with Interview  with Charles  Charles Townes discussing Townes  discussing science and religion.   Home page of Templeton of  Templeton Foundation  project on fine-tuning.

Criticize fine tuning Cosmi Cosmicc Jackp Jackpot: ot: Why Why Our  Criticize Houghton MifUniv Univer erse se Is Just Just Right Right for Lif Life,   Houghton •

The Goldilocks Goldilocks Enigma: Enigma: Why Why Is the Univers Universee Just  Books,  ISBN 0-547Right for Life? , 2008, Mariner Books, ISBN

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flin Harcourt, ISBN Harcourt,  ISBN 0-618-59226-1. 0-618-59226-1. Reprinted as:

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 Stephen M. Barr (2001) Barr  (2001) "Overview "Overview of the Cosmological Intelligent Design argument," argument,"   First Things, the Journal of Religion, Culture, and Public Life .

  Alister McGrath, McGrath, 2009. A Fine-Tuned Universe:  Universe:  The Quest for God in Science and Theology , Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN Press,  ISBN 0-664-23310-4. 0-664-23310-4.   Timothy McGrew, Lydia McGrew, Eric Vestrup, 2001.  Probabilities and the Fine-Tuning Argument:  A Sceptical View . Mind 110: 1027-1037.

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 Bibliography of online Links to criticisms of the Fine-Tuning Argument. Secular Argument. Secular Web.  Ikeda, Michael, and Jefferys, William H., " The Anthropic Principle Does Not Support Supernaturalism."" ism. Jefferys, W. H., and J. O. Berger, "Sharpening "Sharpening Ockham’s razor on a Bayesian strop." strop."  Victor Stenger: Stenger: •

 Simon Conway Morris, Morris, 2003.   Life’s Life’s Solution: Solution: InCambridge ge evitable Humans in a Lonely Universe . Cambrid Univ. Press.

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The Fallac Fallacy y of FineTuning: Tuning: Why Why the Universe Universe Is Not Designed Designed for Us .

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  Peter Ward and   Donald Brownlee Brownlee,, 2000. 2000.   Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the UniVerlag. verse. Springer Verlag.

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"A Case Against the Fine-Tuning of the Cosmos"" mos "Does the Cosmos Show Evidence of Purpose?"" pose? "Is the Univ Universe erse fine-tuned for us?" us? "

  Elliott Sober, Sober, "The Design Argument." Argument." An earlier version version appeared in the  Blackwell Companion to the Philosophy of Religion  (2004). Hans Halvorson, Halvorson, "A "A probability problem in the finetuning argument." argument."

Investigating fine-tuning

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  God: God: new new ev evid iden ence ce – a se serie riess of si sixx vi vide deos os ex expl plori oring ng how evidence from cosmic fine tuning points to the reality of a creator God

Anthropi Anthr opicc tun tuning ing of the we weak ak sca scale le and of m_u m_u/m_ /m_dd in two-Higgs-do two-Higgs-doublet ublet models, models, S.M. S.M. Barr, Almas Almas Khan

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  Fine-tuned Universe Universe   Source:    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-tuned%20Universe?oldid=639084190  Contributors:    Bryan Derksen,

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