Fields of Vision

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Denis Delaney

C i a r a n Ward

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C a r l a Rho F i o r i n a

A Introduction to Literary Appreciation B From the Origins to the Middle Ages C The Renaissance D The Puritan, Restoration and Augustan Ages E The Romantic Age

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the English language

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Denis Delaney

C i a r a n Ward

C a r l a Rho F i o r i n a

MODULES

A IntroductionI B From the Origins C The Renaissance D The Puritan, Restoration and Augustan Ages E The Romantic Age

Literature

in the English language

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INTRODUCTION TO LITERARY APPRECIATION 'May God keep us From single vision' W i l l i a m Blake

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Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Introduction What is literature? Since the dawn of civilisation many men and women have felt a vital need to c o m m u n i c a t e their t h o u g h t s and feelings b e y o n d their immediate circle of family, friends and acquaintances to a wider world. Thanks to the invention of writing and printing they have been able to hand down to successive generations a priceless treasury of manuscripts and books. Literature is generally taken to mean those pieces of writing which, despite the passing of the years and even of the centuries, still inspire admiration, reflection and emotion in readers. Poems, plays, novels and short stories in a given language that have stood the test of time collectively make up a national literature. This does not mean, however, that only older works can be called literature. Today, millions of books are produced every year but only some of t h e m find their way i n t o literary magazines or o n t o the literary pages of newspapers. In these cases it is the critics and not time that decide what is and what is not to be regarded as literature. W h e t h e r their choices are appropriate or not will be a matter for future generations to decide. It is impossible to f o r m u l a t e a t o t a l l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e and allencompassing definition of literature because literature is never static. Writers, genres and styles of writing have fallen in and out of favour t h r o u g h o u t history and even today arguments rage about w h e t h e r more popular forms of fiction such as detective stories should be considered literature. These disputes can be left to the critics because, for t h e reader, literature is simply beautiful, meaningful writing.

Why read literature? The most obvious answer to this question is because it is enjoyable. Everybody loves a good story, and many great works of literature tell memorable stories. These stories provide an escape from our daily lives by transporting us to different times and places. We can travel back to the depression era in the United States with John Steinbeck, or we can journey through the African jungle with Joseph Conrad, or we can be projected into the future by science fiction writers like H.G. Wells. Escapism is only one reason for reading literature. Literature can also be viewed as a source of knowledge and information.Îf we read one of Chaucer's tales, a poem by Wilfred Owen and a novel by Chinua Achebe, we learn about a range of subjects from life in England in the Middle Ages, to conditions at the battle front in the first World War I, to the unresolved tensions in colonial Nigeria. Almost every poem, play or novel we read gives us more information about the world we live in.

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Introduction

Perhaps the most important reason for reading literature is because it breaks down our personal barriers. Literature invites us to share in a range of human eXpertences that we otherwise would be denied. It allows us to leave b e h i n d our age, sex, f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d and e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n so t h a t we can see t h e world from t h e perspective of people who are completely different from us. Great writers make us understand how other people think and feel. Literature stirs up our e m o t i o n s . It amuses, frightens, intrigues, shocks, c o n s o l e s , frustrates and c h a l l e n g e s us. It helps us to understand ourselves and others. Literature widens our field of vision.

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Why analyse literature?

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Literary analysis, in its broadest sense, is any attempt to understand a literary text. Every time we close a book and think about what we have read we are doing some form of literary analysis. An analytical approach to literature involves careful observation and drawing conclusions. IjjiJiQt^siiT^lyLa-QUP s t i o n ° f tearing a poem or story asunder and labelling the parts; it entails discovering patterns of meaning and becoming aware of the writer's intentions. . -:> (}>vjo[\)^) Literary analysis is a way of learning more about how literary texts are structured. T h e more we learn about t h e art of writing, the more receptive and responsive we b e c o m e as readers. T h e a n a l y t i c a l approach also provides t h e v o c a b u l a r y we need to define and c o m m u n i c a t e our responses to literary texts. We must know the definitions of terms such as setting, character, plot and point of view ? in order to express and exchange opinions. if

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One modern poet, when asked t h e question ' W h a t is poetry?', replied that poetry, unlike prose, is a form of writing in which few lines run to the edge of the page! The American poet Robert Frost contended that 'poetry is the kind of thing poets write'. W h i l e t h e s e replies, at first, m a y n o t seem serious, t h e y i n a d v e r t e n t l y reveal two i m p o r t a n t aspects of poetry: t h e first q u o t a t i o n indicates the arrangement of the words on the page as an important element of poetry, while the second emphasises that there is a special 'poetic' way of using language. A working definition may, therefore, be that poetry emerges form the interplay between the meaning of words and their arrangement on paper; or - as the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge put it - 'poetry is the best words in their best order'. Although poems come in all shapes and sizes, they share certain characteristics. Imagery, metaphors and symbols make poetry SYLVIA dense with meaning. Sound features, such as rhyme, rhythm and PLATH repetition, give the language a special musical quality. The standard The Colossus rules of grammar and syntax are often ignored, so that the language may be used in a striking or original way. SELECTED POEMS Poetry, like all literature, is a writer's a t t e m p t to A t ® TWO PLAYS OF WILLiAM BUTLER communicate to others his emotional and intellectual response to his own experiences and to the world that surrounds him. The poet puts words together to make EDITED AMD INTRODUCTION the reader feel what he has felt and experience what he M. L. ROSENTHA1. TED has experienced. HUGHES Wolfwatching 1

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Figures of speech A figure of speech is any use of language which deviates from the obvious or common usage in order to achieve a special meaning or effect. We use figures of speech in everyday c o n v e r s a t i o n w h e n we say, for example, ' m o n e y talks' (personification) or 'I've got butterflies in my stomach' (metaphor) or 'he's like a bull in a china shop' (simile). The density and originality of a writer's use of figures of speech is part of his characteristic style. There are many different figures of speech. The most widely used are: A simile is a figure of speech in which a comparison between two distinctly different things is indicated by the word 'like' or 'as'. A simile is made up of three elements: • the tenor: the subject under discussion; • the vehicle: what the subject is compared to; • the ground: what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common. We can therefore analyse the simile 'life is like a rollercoaster' as follows: tenor life

. ground it has its ups and downs

vehicle rollercoaster

A m e t a p h o r is an implied c o m p a r i s o n w h i c h creates a total i d e n t i f i c a t i o n between the two things being compared. Words such as 'like' or 'as' are not used. Like a simile, a metaphor is made up of three elements: • the tenor: the subject under discussion; • the vehicle: what the subject is compared to; • the ground: what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common. We can analyse the metaphor 'he's a live wire' as follows: tenor ground vehicle he is full of energy/is very lively live wire is potentially dangerous In metonymy (Greek for 'a change of name') the term for one thing-is applied to another with which it has become closely associated. 'The crown', for example, can be used to refer to a king. In synecdoche (Greek for 'taking together') a part of something is used to signify the whole or vice versa, although the latter form is quite rare. An example of synecdoche from everyday speech can be found in the proverb 'Many hands make light work', where the expression 'many hands' means 'the labour of many people'. An example of the whole representing a part can be found in expressions such as 'I'm reading Dickens', where an attribute of a literary work (i.e. it was written by Charles Dickens) is substituted for the work itself. Personification is a form of comparison in which human characteristics, such as emotions, personality, behaviour and so on, are attributed to an animal, object or idea: 'The proud lion surveyed his kingdom'. The primary function of personification is to make abstract ideas clearer to the reader by comparing them to everyday human experience. Humanising cold and complex abstractions can bring them to life, render them more interesting and make them easier to understand.

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QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G FIGURES OF SPEECH Are comparisons drawn through metaphors or similes? What information, attitudes or associations are revealed through these associations? Are there any examples of synecdoche or metonymy? What is the writer's purpose in using these figures of speech? How do they affect the style and tone of the poem? Are animals, objects or ideas personified in the poem? How does personification contribute to our understanding of the poem?

CASE STUDY 1 American poet and novelist Sylvia Plath (1932-1963) dedicated much of her work to exploring various states of mind. While much of her work is dark and disturbing, some of her poems reveal a more playfid and witty nature.

Metaphors

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GLOSSARY 1. riddle: puzzle 2. ponderous: heavy, large 3. strolling: walking 4. tendrils: thin leafless branches that plants wrap around things 5. timbers: pieces of wood 6. yeasty: yeast is the substance that makes bread expand 7. new-minted: newly made

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I'm a riddle 1 in nine syllables, An elephant, a ponderous 2 house, A melon strolling 3 on two tendrils 4 . O red fruit, ivory, fine timbers 5 ! This loaf's big with its yeasty 6 rising. Money new-minted' in this fat purse. I'm a means, a stage 8 , a cow in calf 9 . I've eaten a bag of green apples, Boarded the train there's no getting off 10 .

8. stage: phase of development

9. calf: young cow

10. there's no getting off: you cannot descend from

COMPREHENSION Which of the following is the solution to the riddle posed in the opening line of the poem? • A | wo | man | who | fa | ces | a | cri | sis • A | wo | man | ex | pect | ing | a | ba | by • A | wo | man | who | thinks | she's | ov | er | weight Justify your answer by referring to the text.

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ANALYSIS - FIGURES OF SPEECH 1 Which metaphor do you find most effective and why? 2 Through which metaphors does the poet convey the following ideas about her condition? • Physical discomfort and disproportion • The sense that her destiny has been decided and there is no turning back

• A loss of personal identity • The sense of carrying something precious • The idea of nausea and indigestion which is associated with her condition • Her communion with the animal kingdom • The sense of growing and expanding.

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What is Poetry?

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American poet Emily Dickinson (1830-1886) lived most of her life in total isolation. Only seven of her nearly 2,000 poems were published during her lifetime. Her contemporaries found her work bewildering, but today she is considered a major writer of unsurpassed originality.

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Apparently with no Surprise by Emily Dickinson

Apparently with no surprise To any happy Flower, The Frost 1 beheads it 2 at its play In accidental power — The blonde assassin passes on — The Sun proceeds unmoved To measure off 3 another Day For an approving God.

GLOSSARY 1. Frost: frozen drops of water 2. beheads it: cuts its head off 3. To measure off: to bring to a close

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COMPREHENSION 1 What does the frost do to the flower? 2 How does the sun respond to this act?

3 How would you define God as He is portrayed in the poem? • Loving • Sadistic • Other:

• Cruel • Detached

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• Indifferent • Paternal

A N A L Y S I S - FIGURES OF SPEECH 1 Make a list of the elements that are personified in the poem.

2 Personification adds drama to the poem. Which words do you find particularly dramatic?

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The association of very different elements that we find in metaphors is also used to sell products in advertising. Consider this advertisement for a banking service: You've got a completely individual set of fingerprints. How about a financial plan to match? We could analyse this advertisement in the same way as we analyse literary metaphors: tenor ground vehicle financial plan individual fingerprints personalised unique Find other advertisements which associate either visually or verbally diverse elements, for example: children's snacks - being a good mother beauty products - being sexy and desirable car - being adventurous and manly In class, discuss the implied message in the advertisements and decide whether or not you find them effective.

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Imagery Images are words or phrases that appeal to our senses. Consider these lines taken from Wilfred Owen's poem Dulce et Decorum Est. Bent double, like old beggars under sacks, Knock-kneed, coughing like hags we cursed though sludge. The poet is describing his experience as a soldier during the First World War. Through his choice of words he creates:

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• visual images: bent double, old beggars under sacks, knock-kneed; • aural images: coughing like hags, cursed; • a tactile image: sludge. If we replace the imagistic words that Owen uses with more generic terms: Physically exhausted, the soldiers marched across the wet terrain cursing their fate. the impact on our senses is lost. A writer may use an image to help us: • re-live a sense experience that we have already had. We may be able to conjure up the sound of old women coughing or the sensation of walking through mud from past experience; • have a new sense experience. This is achieved when our sense memories are called f o r t h in a p a t t e r n t h a t does n o t c o r r e s p o n d to a n y of our actual experiences. Exploited in this way, images allow us to see, hear, feel, smell and taste experiences that are new to us.

Few battles in human history have caused such devastation as the Battle of the Somme during the First World War.

We use the term imagery to refer to combinations or clusters of images that are used to create a dominant impression. Death, corruption and disease imagery, for example, creates a powerful network in Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet. Writers often develop meaningful patterns in their imagery, and a writer's choice and arrangement of images is often an important clue to the overall meaning of his work.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G A WRITERS USE OF I M A G E R Y • What does the writer want the reader to see, hear, taste, feel and smell? • What revealing details bring the place, the people or the situation to life? Does the writer use details that people would usually overlook? • Which are the most striking and revealing images? Which images tend to linger on in our minds? Are they important to the overall meaning of the work? • Does the work appeal to one sense in particular or to all the senses? • What emotions or attitudes do the images arouse in the reader?

What is Poetry?

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CASE STUDY 3 British-born poet and novelist Vernon Scanned (1922-) was a soldier, a boxer and a teacher before he became a writer. His work often takes its starting point from everyday domestic incidents.

Q Nettles by Vernon Scannell My son aged three fell in the nettle 1 bed. 'Bed' seemed a curious name for those green spears2, That regiment of spite 3 behind the shed 4 : It was no place for rest. With sobs and tears The boy came seeking comfort and I saw White blisters 5 beaded 6 on his tender skin. We soothed 7 him till his pain was not so raw8. At last he offered us a watery grin 9 , And then I took my hook 1 0 and honed the blade 11 And went outside and slashed 12 in fury with it Till not a nettle in the fierce parade Stood upright anymore. Next task: I lit A funeral pyre to burn the fallen dead But in two weeks the busy sun and rain Had called up tall recruits 13 behind the shed; My son would often feel sharp wounds 14 again. GLOSSARY 1. nettle: stinging grass

2. spears: sharp pointed pole used as a weapon

4. shed: small building for storing garden tools

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5. blisters: watery swellings under the skin containing watery fluid

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6. beaded: formed bubbles 7. soothed: comforted 8. raw: acute

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9. grin: smile 10. hook: tool used to cut grass 11. honed the blade: sharpened the cutting instrument

3. spite: malicious intent

12. slashed: cut with furious strokes 13. recruits: new soldiers 14. sharp wounds: painful injuries

COMPREHENSION 1 What happened to the poet's son while playing outdoors?

3 What did the poet do when he had finished comforting the boy?

2 We refer to a patch of nettles as a 'bed of nettles'. Why does the poet question the use of the word 'bed'?

4 What happened after two weeks? 5 What reflection did the poet make about his son's future?

ANALYSIS - IMAGERY 1 Pick out the military imagery in the poem. What association is established through the use of these words?

2 'White blisters beaded on his tender skin'. Which senses does this image appeal to? 3 What is conveyed by the image 'watery grin'?

Music videos are a powerful example of the impact of combining sound and visual images. Choose a music video that you particularly like. Identify the ideas and emotions that are conveyed by the lyrics and music of the song. Explain how the visual images of the music video reinforce or expand the impact of the song.

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Symbols A symbol is an example of what is called the transference of meaning. Writers take a concrete item - an object, a colour, a person, a place - and attribute a deeper meaning to it. A symbol may be a detail, an object, a character or an incident. It exists first as something literal and concrete in the work, but it also has the capacity to evoke in the mind of the reader a range of invisible and abstract associations. By definition symbols are open-ended. A given symbol will evoke different responses in different readers. There is, however, an acceptable range of possible readings and any interpretation of a symbol must be confirmed by the rest of the work. T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and understanding of symbols demands awareness and intelligence of the reader. It involves the reader directly in the creative process, asking him to add his own intellectual and emotional responses. Through this collaboration the work is enriched and enlarged.

Cultural or shared symbols

Many symbolic associations are widely recognised and accepted: the dawn with hope, t h e serpent with evil, the colour white with i n n o c e n c e , light with knowledge, dark with ignorance. Writers often make use of these cultural or shared symbols. Readers must not, however, automatically apply conventional m e a n i n g s to these symbols. S o m e t i m e s writers will enlarge or narrow t h e meaning of a cultural symbol. The reader must first carefully examine how the symbol is used in the text before assigning meaning.

Literary or personal symbols

Authors also use their own original symbols. Personal or literary symbols do not have pre-established associations: the meaning that is attached to them emerges from the c o n t e x t of the work in which they occur. A particular landscape or certain a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s may b e c o m e associated with a character's emotional state. A colour or an o b j e c t may take on a secondary meaning. A recurring gesture or a character may be given symbolic meaning.

When does an object, character or action cease to be just part of the story and Guidelines for identifying and under- begin to develop s y m b o l i c associations? There is n o simple answer to this question. Ultimately, t h e reader must develop his own awareness through standing symbols receptive and responsive reading. There are, however, some broad guidelines he can follow. The principal techniques that writers use for creating symbols are:

• repetition: the reader should take note of multiple references to a particular object or the recurrence of the same gesture; • emphasis: does the author seem to pay particular attention to some element, describe it in detail or use poetic or connotative language when referring to it? • associations automatically made with shared symbols: the reader should try to understand if the author wishes him to make conventional associations with the symbol or if he has added his own personal significance. While there is a risk that a reader may not identify symbols, there is also the danger that he may see symbolic importance where the writer did not intend it. 'Symbol hunting', i.e. attributing symbolic status to objects, characters or actions when there is little evidence in the text that they should be viewed as a symbol, should be avoided.

What is Poetry?

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QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G SYMBOLS Does Does Does Does How

the writer refer repeatedly to any objects or gestures in his work? he make any concrete items in the story emerge and assume importance? he use poetic or connotative language when describing particular objects or gestures? he use any shared or cultural symbols? Does he attribute the conventional meaning to these symbols? does the use of symbols help the writer to convey the meaning of his work? wmt» ^•âtms^smmimmmmam v

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CASE STUDY 4 Peter Meinke was born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1932. He has published short stories have appeared in many journals and periodicals.

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Advice to my Son by Peter Meinke

The trick 1 is, to live your days as if each one may be your last (for they go fast, and young men lose their lives in strange and unimaginable ways) but at the same time, plan long range 2 (for they go slow: if you survive the shattered windshield 3 and the bursting shell 4 you will arrive at our approximation here below of heaven or hell). To be specific, between the peony 5 and the rose plant squash and spinach, turnips 6 and tomatoes; beauty is nectar and nectar, in a desert, saves but the stomach craves 7 stronger sustenance than the honied vine 8 . Therefore, marry a pretty girl after seeing her mother; speak truth to one man, work with another;

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and always serve bread with your wine. But, son, always serve wine.

GLOSSARY 1. trick: skillful way of doing something

4. bursting shell: exploding bomb

2. long range: in the long term

6. squash ... turnips: types of vegetables

3. shattered windshield: front window of the car broken into many pieces

5. peony: flower

7. craves: has a strong desire for 8. honied vine: sweet wine

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The Persistence of Memory (1931) by Salvador Dali. 'Live your days as if each one may be your last... but at the same time, plan long range.'

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COMPREHENSION 1 What advice does the poet give his son in the opening lines of the poem?

4 What should his son do before marrying a pretty girl?

2 The poet makes references to ways in which young men lose their lives in line 7. What are they?

5 Should his son speak truth to and work with the same man?

3 What does the poet suggest that his son should plant among his flowers?

6 What should his son always serve with his wine?

ANALYSIS - SYMBOLS 1 Throughout the poem the poet is telling his son to have both prudence and joy in his life. Which approach to life is symbolised by:

2 Are bread and wine personal or shared symbols? Does the poet use them in the conventional way?

- the peony and the rose? - squash and spinach, turnips and tomatoes? - nectar? - bread? -wine? Based on these associations, what is the final piece of advice he gives his son?

Symbols do not exist only in literature. We are surrounded by symbols in our everyday life. What associations do you make with the following symbols?

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What is Poetry?15CB

Sound features Think of a sound that makes you relax, like the gentle lapping of water against 1 rocks. Now think of a sound that you cannot stand, perhaps the screeching of chalk against a blackboard. Different sounds have different effects on us. The sounds of language also create different responses in us and writers, especially < poets, use this in their work. By choosing words for their sound as well as their m e a n i n g , writers create a m u s i c a l i t y in their work t h a t can evoke strong emotional responses and reinforce the meaning they wish to convey. The most c o m m o n sound features are rhyme, a l l i t e r a t i o n , a s s o n a n c e and onomatopoeia. The term rhyme refers to the effect that is created when a poet repeats the same sound at the end of two or more lines. Rhyme has several important functions: • it adds a musical quality to the poem; • it marks the end of each line; • it makes the poem easier to remember; • it affects the pace and tone of the poem. There are several different types of rhyme: single-syllable or masculine rhyme: the beginning of the syllable varies while the rest stays the same, for example day/say light/night; d o u b l e - s y l l a b l e or f e m i n i n e r h y m e matches two syllable words or parts of words: ocean/motion, pretending/bending-, triple-syllable rhyme matches three-syllable words: beautiful/dutiful, comparison/ garrison; true or p e r f e c t r h y m e : the rhymed sounds correspond exactly, for example: boat/float, double/ trouble; i m p e r f e c t r h y m e ( h a l f r h y m e or s l a n t r h y m e ) : t h e sound of two words is similar, but it is not as close as is required in true or perfect rhyme. Generally the words contain identical vowels or identical consonants but not both, for example loads/lids/lads, road/moan/boat; end rhymes fall at the end of the lines; internal rhymes occur within the same line: Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary (The Raven, Edgar Allan Poe)

CASE STUDY 5 American poet Ogden Nash (1902-1971) is renowned for his humorous verse and epigrams. Find examples of end rhymes and internal rhyme in this short poem. How does rhyme contribute to the theme of the poem that hunting degrades man?

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The Hunter by Ogden Nash

The hunter crouches 1 in his blind 2 'Neath 3 camouflage of every kind,

GLOSSARY

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1. crouches: kneels down 2. blind: hiding place 3. 'Neath: under


And conjures up 4 a quacking 5 noise To lend allure to his decoys 6 , This grown-up man, with pluck 7 and luck Is hoping to outwit 8 a duck. 4. conjures up: creates 5. quacking: imitating duck sounds •

6. lend ... decoys: make his hunting technique more effective

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7. pluck: courage and determination

8. outwit: surpass in intelligence

Alliteration

Alliteration is the repetition of the same initial consonant sound in a sequence of nearby words. In Anglo-Saxon times, before the i n t r o d u c t i o n of rhyme, alliteration gave the language of poetry its musical quality and made the poems, which were often recited, easier to remember. Alliteration is still popular in m o d e r n p o e t r y and can also be f o u n d in songs, h e a d l i n e s and everyday expressions such as 'black and blue', 'safe and sound' and 'right as rain'.

Assonance

Assonance is the repetition of similar or identical vowel sounds in a sequence of nearby words containing different consonants. It creates 'vowel rhyme' as in break/play, hope/spoke. Like alliteration, assonance adds a musical quality to the language and it also establishes rhythm: • open, broad sounds 'o', 'u', 'a' (flow, burn, heart, flame) tend to slow the rhythm down; • slender 'i' and 'e' (hill, met) sounds create a quicker pace.

CASE STUDY 6 Find examples of alliteration and assonance

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in this poem by English novelist and poet Thomas Hardy

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Last Week in October by Thomas Hardy

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GLOSSARY fling: throw window-sill: flat piece at the base of a window robes ... laces: clothes and ornamental accessories

at will: following the wind's desire still and still: more and more 6. downcoming: falling

The trees are undressing, and fling 1 in many places On the gray roads, the roof, the window-sill 2 Their radiant robes and ribbons and yellow laces 3 ; A leaf each second so is flung at will 4 , Here, there, another and another, still and still 5 .

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A spider's web has caught one while downcoming 6 , That stays there dangling 7 when the rest pass on: Like a suspended 8 criminal hangs he, mumming 9 , In golden garb 10 , while one yet green, high yon 1 1 , Trembles as fearing such a fate for himself anon 1 2 .

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7. dangling: hanging and swinging about 8. suspended: there is a play on two meanings of the word:

a. hanging b. with a suspended sentence mumming: acting playfully

10. garb: clothes 11. yon: over there 12. anon: very soon

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What is Poetry?

T h e use of t h e sound of words to suggest t h e sound t h e y d e n o t e is called onomatopoeia. We hear this sound-echoing effect in the 'slamming' of a door, the 'buzzing' of bees, the 'ticking' of a clock. In his poem 'OnaMaTaPia', the poet Spike Milligan suggests that it more difficult to spell onomatopoeia correctly than to understand and identify it!

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Onomatopoeia

OnaMaTaPia Onamatapia! Thud - Wallop - Crash! Onamatapia Snip - Snap - Gnash! Onamatapia Whack - Thud - Bash! Onamatapia Bong - Ting - Splash.

CASE STUDY 7 Find one striking example of onomatopoeia in this poem by the contemporary Irish poet Seamus Heaney, born in Northern Ireland in 1939. Many of his poems have the rural setting of his youth and describe Insxhildhood experiences. In this poem he describes how a simple chore like folding sheets brought him closer to his mother.

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The Cool that Came off Sheets by Seamus Heaney

/ ' f e l n V ; » t ' / The cool 1 that came off sheets 2 just off the line Made me think the damp 3 must still be in them But when I took my corners of the linen And pulled against her 4 , first straight down the hem 5 And then diagonally, then flapped and shook 6 5 The fabric like a sail in a cross-wind, They made a dried-out undulating thwack 7 . So we'd stretch and fold 8 and end up hand to hand For a split 9 second as if nothing had happened For nothing had that had not always happened 10 Beforehand 10 , day by day, just touch and go, Coming close again by holding back 11 £ ^/c In moves 12 where I was x and she was o Inscribed in sheets she'd sewn 13 from ripped 14 -out flour sacks.

GLOSSARY

4. pulled against her: helped his mother to fold sheets

1. cool: freshness

5. hem: lower edge of the sheets

2. sheets: pieces of cloth used in bed to lie between 3. damp: humidity

6. flapped and shook: waved up and down,

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backwards and forwards 7. thwack: sharp sound 8. fold: turn one part so that it covers another part 9. split: fraction (of a second) 10. Beforehand: before

11. by holding back: staying distant 12. moves: turns in a game 13. sewn: joined together by sewing 14. ripped: cut

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Rhythm

The beating of the heart, breathing, walking, running - rhythm is at the core of human existence. Rhythm is also an important part of the language of literature. Writers build on the natural rhythms of language, putting words with the same stress pattern side by side and creating an underlying beat or rhythm in their work.

CASE STUDY 8 Scottish writer Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) was born in Edinburgh ami is perhaps best remembered for his novels Treasure Island and The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. However, he was also an accomplished poet. Listen to the recording of his poem From a Railway Carriage and say what the rhythm of the poem suggests.

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From a Railway Carriage by Robert Louis Stevenson

f ^ f » * t W >W f / ^ Faster than fairies, faster than witches, f I f «'V. jfl J f ,- ^__ I * •

GLOSSARY

1. hedges: bushes in rows forming a boundary 2. ditches: horizontal holes dug in the ground, often along roads meadows: fields sights: views driving: strong ever again: repeatedly in the wink of an eye: in an instant whistle by: flash by 9. clambers and scrambles: moves frantically using feet and hands 10. brambles: blackberries 11. tramp: homeless person

METRICAL TERMS AND SCANSION

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Bridges and houses, hedges and ditches ; And charging along like troops in a battle, All through the meadows 3 the horses and cattle; All of the sights 4 of the hill and the plain Fly as thick as driving 5 rain; And ever again 6 , in the wink of an eye 7 , Painted stations whistle by 8 . Here is a child who clambers and scrambles 9 , All by himself and gathering brambles 10 ; Here is a tramp 1 1 who stands and gazes 12 ; And there is the green for stringing the daisies 13 ! Here is a cart 14 run away in the road Lumping along 1 5 with man and load 16 ; And here is a mill 17 , and there is a river: Each a glimpse 18 and gone for ever! 12. gazes: looks fixedly 13. green for stringing the daisies: the grass where you can find daisies to make chains

14.cart: small hand-pushed vehicle with wheels 15.Lumping along: moving inelegantly 16. load: what is being carried

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17. mill: building where grain is ground to produce flour 18. glimpse: very quick incomplete look

The regular and rhythmic arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables found in poetry is called metre. The basic unit of metre is the foot, which consists of one stressed syllable and one or more unstressed syllables. The most common feet are: • iamb (adj.: iambic) - one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable: (a | way); • t r o c h e e (adj.: t r o c h a i c ) - one stressed syllable followed by one unstressed syllable: (fa | ther); >• . • anapest (adj.: anapestic) - two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable: (in | the | light); • d a c t y l (adj.: d a c t y l i c ) - o n e stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables: (o | ver | the);

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What is Poetry?

17

• monosyllable (adj.: monosyllabic) - one stressed syllable: sky; • spondee (adj.: spondaic) - two.stressed syllables: (rain | bow). Analysing metre is called scansion. W h e n we scan a poem we first count the number of syllables and identify the position of the stresses or accents. We then divide the line into feet and determine the metrical length of the line: monometer - one foot ^ f pentameter - five feet dimeter - two feet ' u'U hexameter - six feet 'SSL**trimeter - three feet heptameter - seven feet tetrameter - four feet octameter - eight feet ftu'lzr / UXU When we have identified the kind of feet and the line length, we combine the two to give t h e metre a n a m e , for e x a m p l e i a m b i c p e n t a m e t e r , t r o c h a i c hexameter, anapestic heptameter. Iambic pentameter is the metrical form that most closely resembles natural speech and it is the most widely used metre in English poetry. The following are examples of the scansion of a line of iambic pentameter and a line of anapestic tetrameter. The feet are marked by vertical lines, the unstressed syllables by w and the stressed syllables by ' :

Scansion

The cur | few tolls | tire knell | of part | ing day | (Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, Thomas Gray) | The Assyr | ian came down | like the wolf | oh the fold |, (The Destruction of Sennacherib, Lord Byron) Metre is n o t a straitjackfet and in most poems there are deviations from the principal p a t t e r n . W h e n s c a n n i n g a poem it is i m p o r t a n t to i d e n t i f y t h e prevailing metre, but also to notice variations. The analysis of metre is meaningful only if it contributes to our understanding of a p o e m . T h e r h y t h m m a y establish an a t m o s p h e r e or create a tone, and deviations from the predominant metrical pattern may highlight key elements.

CASE STUDY 9 Scan My Heart Leaps Up by William Wordsworth (1770-1850), who is considered to be one of the finest nature poets in the history of English literature. Identify the prevailing metre. What effect does the shortened line 6 have? Which word is highlighted by the addition of an added foot in the final line?

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My Heart Leaps Up by William Wordsworth

My heart leaps 1 up when I behold 2 A rainbow in the sky: So was it when my life began; So is it now I am a man; So be it when I shall grow old; Or let me die! The Child is father of the Man; And I could wish my days to be Bound 3 each to each by natural piety

GLOSSARY 1. leaps: jumps 2. behold: look at 3. Bound: connected

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Other rhythmic devices End-stopped line

When a pause occurs naturally at the end of a line we refer to it as an end-stopped line: The trees are in their autumn beauty, The woodland paths are dry, (The Wild Swans at Coole, W.B. Yeats)

Enjambement or run-on line

E n j a m b e m e n t or r u n - o n line are t h e terms we use when the sense of t h e sentence extends into the next line: The room was suddenly rich and the great bay-window was Spawning snow and pink roses against it (Snow, Louis MacNeice) If a strong break occurs in the middle of a line it is referred to as caesura: A thing of beauty is a joy forever Its loveliness increases; it will never Pass into nothingness (Endymion, John Keats) Enjambement and caesura give their own particular rhythm to poetry.

CASE STUDY 1 0 Find examples of end-stopped lines, enjambement and caesura (1770-1850) long autobiographical poem The Prelude.

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in this extract

from William

Wordsworth's

Skating

by William Wordsworth GLOSSARY 1. frosty season: cold season 2. blazed: shone with a bright light 3. twili; 4. 5. heedei' pay att 6. summc 7. indeed: 8. rapture: 9. tolled: raj 10. wheeled a moved alo, skates •

And in the frosty season 1 , when the sun Was set, and visible for i a mile The cottae through twilight 3 gloom 4 , happy time me nd loud heeled about 10 , d horse shod with steel 12 , ce in games (...) >Jt**>

l rotected by metal along: continued

making a sharp sibilant sound while skating 14. polished: shining

N C S O U N D FEATURES • What is thi >ut? Are there ai • Does the po • Are there an • How would > xiiythm of the poem? Is there a predominant metrical structure? Does the rhytnm of the poem reinforce the meaning? • Are there any run-on lines or caesura in the poem? How do they affect the rhythm of the poem?

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W h a t is Poetry?

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Standard poetic forms Ballads are short stories in verse, often accompanied by music, that belong to an oral tradition of poetry. Ballads share the following features: • they rarely tell a story from beginning to end. They take us immediately into the story and often open when the narrative has turned towards its catastrophe or resolution. We know little of the events leading up to the climax; • description is brief and conventional and very little information is given about the characters; • the narrative is impersonal - the narrator tells the story without expressing his personal attitudes or feelings. There is no moral comment on the characters' behaviour, and the motives behind their actions are largely unexplained; • in many ballads, words, expressions and phrases and entire verses are repeated. A line or group of lines which is repeated throughout the ballad is called a refrain; • many ballads contain stock descriptive phrases such as 'milk-white steed', 'blood-red wine', 'gallant knight' or 'snow white'. While other forms of poetry are characterised by individualistic or original figures of speech, the ballad employs a limited stock of images and descriptive adjectives w h i c h t h e performer could easily memorise; • ballads are composed in simple two or four line stanzas. The stanza usually consists of alternate four and three stress lines rhyming on the second and fourth line:

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Tire wind so cold blew south and north And blew into tile floor; Quoth our goodman to our goodwife 'Go out and bar tiie door' (Get up and bar the door)

CASE STUDY 1 1 Listen to this famous ballad which exists in numerous

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versions.

Barbara Allen

In Scarlet town where I was born, There was a fair maid 1 dwellin' 2 Made every youth cry Well-a-day 3 , Her name was Barb'ra Allen. All in the merry month of May, When green buds 4 they were swellin' 5 Young Willie Grove on his death-bed lay, For love of Barb'ra Allen. He sent his servant to her door To the town where she was dwellin' 'Haste ye 6 come, to my master's call, If your name be Barb'ra Allen.'

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GLOSSARY

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1. maid: young woman

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2. dwellin': living 3. Well-a-day: Alas 4. buds: undeveloped leaves or flowers 5. swellin': getting bigger 6. Haste ye: hurry you

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So slowly, slowly got she up, And slowly she drew nigh 7 him, And all she said when there she came: 'Young man, I think you're dying!' He turned his face unto 8 the wall And death was drawing nigh him. Good bye, Good bye to dear friends all, Be kind to Barb'ra Allen.

15

20

When he was dead and laid in grave, She heard the death bell knelling 9 . And every note, did seem to say Oh, cruel Barb'ra Allen. 'Oh mother, mother, make my bed Make it soft and narrow. Sweet William died, for love of me, And I shall die of sorrow.'

La Belle Dame Sans Merci by Frank Dicksee.

7. nigh: near 8. unto: towards

They buried her in the old churchyard Sweet William's grave was nigh hers And from his grave grew a red, red rose From hers a cruel briar 10 .

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9. knelling: ringing 10. briar: thorny stem 11.spire: cone shaped structure on a church 12.(en)twined: twisted around each other •

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They grew and grew up the old church spire 11 Until they could grow no higher And then they twined 12 in a true love knot The red, red rose and the briar.

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COMPREHENSION 1 What effect did Barbara Allen have on the young men of Scarlet town? 2 Why was Willie Grove dying? 3 How did Barbara Allen react when she was called to the young man's bedside?

5 When did Barbara Allen realise she had been cruel? 6 Where was Barbara Allen buried? 7 What grew from Willie Grove's grave? What grew from Barbara Allen's grave? Where did they become entwined?

4 What was Willie's last wish?

ANALYSIS-THE BALLAD 1 Does the ballad tell the story from the start, or are some of the events leading up to the starting point left untold? 2 Are there any descriptive details of setting or physical descriptions of the characters? 3 Does the speaker comment on the story, or is the storytelling impersonal?

4 Underline phrases and words that are repeated in the poem. 5 Identify the rhyming scheme in the poem. Note that in some cases two words may rhyme with one (for example, nigh him - dying). Is the rhyming pattern regular throughout the poem? 6 Work out the metre of the first stanza.

What is Poetry?23CB

The term sonnet comes from the Italian word 'sonetto', which means 'little song or sound'. In a sonnet a poet expresses his thoughts and feelings in fourteen lines. The sonnet originated in Italy, where it was popularised by the fourteenthcentury poet Petrarch. In the Italian or Petrarchan sonnet the first eight lines the octave - introduce the subject while the last six lines - the sestet - provides a comment and express the personal feelings of the poet. The rhyming scheme is usually ABBA-ABBA-CDC-CDC. The first poet to introduce the Italian sonnet to England was Sir T h o m a s Wyatt. Wyatt's sonnets are largely translations or imitations of those of Petrarch. However, he changed the rhyming scheme of the sestet to CDDC-EE, thus creating a quatrain (four lines) and a couplet (two lines). The Earl of Surrey developed the sestet even further, separating the couplet from the quatrain and using it to c o m m e n t on the previous twelve lines. The final pattern for the English sonnet comprised of three quatrains (four lines) and a couplet (two lines) with the following rhyming scheme: ABAB-CDCD-EFEF-GG. This is the sonnet form that Shakespeare inherited, and indeed this form is often referred to as the Shakespearean sonnet.

The sonnet •

Meanwhile, Elsewhere p. C62

CASE STUDY 1 2 q

Shall I Compare Thee (Sonnet 18) by William Shakespeare GLOSSARY

Shall I compare thee 1 to a summer's day? Thou art 2 more lovely and more temperate: Rough 3 winds do shake the darling buds 4 of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date 5 : Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines And often is his gold complexion dimmed 6 , And every fair from fair some time declines 7 , By chance 8 , or nature's changing course, untrimmed 9 But thy 1 0 eternal summer shall not fade 11 , Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest 12 , Nor shall death brag 13 thou wander'st 14 in his shade, When in eternal lines to time thou growest 15 So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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thee: you Thou art: you are Rough: violent buds: unopened flowers lease ... date: does not last long 6. dimmed: made less bright 7. every fair ... declines: beautiful things become less beautiful 8. By chance: accidentally 9. untrimmed: unstopped 10. thy: your 11. fade: become less strong 12. owest: possess 13. brag: boast, say 14. wander'st: walk around directionless 15.When ... growest: because you have been made eternal by the lines of the poem

comprehension: 1 Why is the poet's addressee superior to a summer's day, according to lines 1-4? 2 What is 'the eye of heaven'? When is its 'gold complexion dimmed'?

3 What destroys beauty in line 8? 4 Why will the poet's addressee not fade?

ANALYSIS - T H E SONNET« 1 Work out the rhyming scheme of the sonnet.

2 Outline the central idea of each of the quatrains. In what sense does the final couplet sum up the preceding twelve lines?

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Layout

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Layout refers to the visual form a poem takes on a page. It is important because it helps the reader's understanding by indicating, for example, where he should pause or where a new line of thought begins. Certain conventions have been established in the lay-out of poems. The lines: • do not cover the full page as they do in prose; • are usually grouped together into units called verses; • are occasionally grouped into units that repeat the same number of lines, the same metre and the same rhyming scheme. These units are called stanzas.

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In what is referred to as concrete poetry, the visual form of the poem is almost as i m p o r t a n t in c o n v e y i n g m e a n i n g as the verbal c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Here is an example:

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CASE STUDY 1 3 Q 40-Love by Roger McGough Read this poem by the contemporary poet Roger McGough. middle couple ten when game and go the will be tween

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aged playing nis the ends they home net still be them.

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й ANALYSIS - LAYOUT •'.ЛЬ

1 The poem describes a middle-aged couple, who no longer love each other. As you read the poem how do your eyes move? How does this relate to the fact that the couple are playing tennis? 2 The title of the poem may be read as a tennis score. The dash may also be read as minus, in which case, what does the title mean?

3 The most impressive visual feature of the poem is the large empty space between the two columns. What, in your opinion, does it represent?

The word 'drama' refers to any work that is intended for performance by actors on a stage. It is a type of writing or genre that is very different from poetry or fiction because the written text, what we call the play, is only one component of the work. Other elements are needed to bring a dramatic text to life: • the actors, the people who interpret the parts of the play; • the director, the person who decides how the play should be performed; • the audience, the people who watch the play. When reading a play, we should always try to imagine how it could be presented on stage. It always helps to see as many live or filmed versions of the play as possible. A play takes place on a stage. On the stage, a set representing the place where the action takes place is built. The set usually includes props, stage furniture, objects, coloured backcloths, etc. The set will immediately give us information about the play, for e x a m p l e , w h i c h h i s t o r i c a l period it is set in. It will also create expectations about what we are about to see. There are, of course, a great variety of set designs from c o m p l e x multi-storey sets to simple bare stages. A set is described as naturalistic, when it represents real life, or symbolic, when it tries to convey ideas or meaning. Lighting plays an important role in conveying the meaning of a play. Its primary function is to illuminate the actors and the stage but it can also focus attention on a particular area of the stage while the rest is in darkness or semi-darkness. Lighting is used to show the time of day when the action takes place. It also creates atmosphere. Filters are used to produce coloured light which may create warm, cold or eerie atmospheres. Today it is possible to incorporate spectacular lighting effects into a performance by using strobe lighting, ultraviolet light, underfloor lighting and other special techniques. Like lighting, s o u n d effects may also play an i m p o r t a n t part in theatrical productions. Sounds that come from the stage or sounds made offstage can make t h e p r o d u c t i o n more realistic and credible. Music is o f t e n used to create atmosphere or to underline particularly significant moments in the play.


Dialogue Dialogue has two major functions in drama: • it contributes to the telling of the story; • it reveals characters. A playwright has two or three hours of stage time to tell his story, which must emerge from the actions and conversations of the characters on stage. Dialogue is the conventional technique playwrights use to give the audience information about the setting, the time, the characters and the action in a play. Dialogue is, therefore, an essential storytelling device in drama. Dialogue is also important in creating character. In order to make a character convincing, a playwright must find the character's 'voice' - i.e. his unique style of speech. The audience should be able to draw conclusions about a character's personality and b a c k g r o u n d (social, e c o n o m i c and cultural) by listening attentively to how he speaks and what he says.

CASE STUDY 1 4 Written and directed by Bill Forsyth, Gregory's Girl first appeared in 1981 as a film. The quality of the dialogue and the excellent characterisation encouraged directors to adapt the screenplay for the stage. In this extract Gregory, who has fallen in love for the first time, talks about his feelings to his classmate Steve during a cookery lesson at school.

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Gregory's Girl by Bill Forsyth

Scene 6. The Cookery Class and others set up the Home Economics room. They are pastry1.] CAROL: Did you hear about the trial? Liz: Trial? CAROL: Football trial 2 . Dorothy joined it. Liz: And about time too 3 . SUSAN: Why is it boys are such a physical disaster? CAROL: Apparently Phil wouldn't let her play. SUSAN: Too much to lose I expect. CAROL: Well, she stuck it out 4 and showed him up something rotten 5 . ANN: Oh God, not pastry. I hate pastry and it hates me. Give me a goulash 6 any day. It doesn't fight back. CAROL: She scored three times with him in goal. SUSAN: Poor Phil. Liz: Have you seen his moustache? CAROL: Anyway he's got to pick her now 7 . Liz: Men's hair fascinates me. It's so temporary. ANN: Equal parts of Trex 8 and lard. Isn't that it? [CAROL, LIZ, SUSAN, ANN

making

GLOSSARY 1. pastry: mixture of flour, fat and water 2. Football trial: test to join the team 3. about time too: she could have done it earlier 4. she stuck it out: she persisted 5. showed ... rotten: completely embarassed him 6. goulash: Hungarian dish of meat cooked in a sauce with hot spices 7. he's got to pick her now: he has to choose her

8

Trex: type of cooking fat

9. bench: wooden work station

[The boys are coming in for a lesson. It is a mixed lesson. a professional. Already he has his bench9 organised.]

STEVE

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15

is in first. He is

Anyone seen Gregory? He's meant to be working with me ... oh dear Lizzie, not the hands. Lay off the hands till the last possible minute.

STEVE:

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ft r

W h a t is D r a m a ?

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[GREGORY is late and makes his way through the girls. He is trying to be both charming and surreptitious10.]

Sorry I'm late. Where've you been? GREGORY: Football. STEVE: Playing? GREGORY: No ... watching. From afar 11 .

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GREGORY:

STEVE:

STEVE:

Hands!

[GREGORY

shows him his hands. It is a routine

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inspection.]

That's just paint there. I've got the biscuit mix started, you get on with the sponge and put the oven on, four hundred and fifty degrees. GREGORY: Yes, boss. GREGORY:

STEVE:

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approaches STEVE. She is wearing a worried look and a grotty apron.] Steve, can you help me out with this pastry mix thing? GREGORY: Hello, Susan. [SUSAN

SUSAN:

[GREGORY

A still from the original film of Gregory's Girl: the cookery class.

is ignored]

Pastry? What pastry? There's more than one kind you know. Is it rough puff, short crust... flaky ... suet 12 ...? [SUSAN'S face is a blank13] Just tell me, what are you making? SUSAN: A meat pie. Margaret's doing the Strudel Soup, and I'm doing the pie. It's the eggs for the pastry that I'm not sure of ... STEVE: Strudel Soup, eh? I'd like to try some of that. It's NOODLE 14 soup, and what eggs? You don't put eggs in a pastry. It's 8 ounces flour, 4 ounces margarine ... GREGORY: ... a pinch of salt... STEVE: ... some salt, mix it up, into the oven, fifteen minutes... and that's it okay? No eggs, no strudels, nothing. SUSAN: IS that all? That's simple, really easy. STEVE:

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45

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[She wanders o f f s . ] think there are five guys in fifth year crying themselves to sleep over that 1 6 . GREGORY: Six, if you count the music teacher. , STEVE: Watch your mixing, it goes stiff if you overdo it 17 , thirty seconds is enough. Give me the sugar. GREGORY: It's time you were in love. Take your mind off all this for a while ... STEVE: Plenty of time for love. I'm going to be a sex maniac first. Start this summer. Get rid of my apron and let my hair down, put love potions in my biscuits. Anyway I want to be rich first, so that I can love something really ... expensive. GREGORY: You're daft 18 . You should try it. Love's great. STEVE: W h o told you? GREGORY: I'm in love. [He means it. He is abstractedly stirring the sponge mix with his finger.] I can't eat, I'm awake half the night, when I think about it I feel dizzy 19 . I'm restless... it's wonderful. STEVE: That sounds more like indigestion. GREGORY: I'm serious. STEVE: Or maybe you're pregnant, science is making such progress... [STEVE extracts GREGORY'S finger from the mixing bowl and starts to wipe it clean.] Come on, who is it? Is it a mature woman? Did you do anything dirty? Did you wash your hands? STEVE: TO

55 10. surreptitious: done secretly, without anyone seeing or knowing

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11. afar: a distance

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12.rough puff ... short c r u s t . . . flaky ... suet: types of pastry 13. blank: expressionless

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14. NOODLE: thin spaghetti-like kind of pasta 15. wanders off: leaves without going in a clear direction 16. over that: because of her

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17. stiff if you overdo it: hard if you mix it too long 18. daft: stupid 19.dizzy: light-headed

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Don't be crude 20 . Come on! W h o is it?

GREGORY: STEVE:

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You'll just laugh and tell people. STEVE: Give us a clue 21 . GREGORY: [reluctantly] It's somebody in the football team. S T E V E : [silent for a moment] Hey, that's really s o m e t h i n g . Have you mentioned this to anyone else? Listen, it's probably just a phase ... is it Andy, no, no ... is it Pete? GREGORY: Come on! I mean Dorothy, she came into the team last week. She's in 4A ... she's a wonderful player, she's a girl. She goes around with Carol and Susan, she's got long lovely hair, she always looks really clean and fresh and she smells m m m ... lovely. Even if you just pass her in the corridor she smells, m m m ... gorgeous ... She's got teeth, lovely teeth, lovely white, white teeth. GREGORY:

Oh, that Dorothy, the hair ... the smell... the teeth ... that Dorothy. That's her, that's Dorothy. STEVE: The one that took your place in the team. GREGORY: SO what. She's a good footballer. She might be a bit light but she's got skill, she's some girl... STEVE: Can she cook? Can she do this?

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85

STEVE:

GREGORY:

[STEVE

maker's

throws the rolled-out pastry into the air and juggles22 flourish23.]

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it with a pizza-

[being very serious] W h e n you're in love, things like that just don't matter. STEVE: Gimme the margarine. GREGORY: D O you think she'll love me back? STEVE: N O chance ... watch the mix! I told you, nice and slowly ... take it easy...

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GREGORY:

2 0 . crude: vulgar 2 1 . c l u e : something that helps in the solution of a mystery 2 2 . juggles: balances it in the air 2 3 . flourish: dramatic gesture •

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[STEVE takes GREGORY'S hands in his and guides him through the movements of a nice and easy stir.] GREGORY: STEVE: N O

What d'you mean no chance? chance.

105

COMPREHENSION 1 Where does the scene take place? What are the students doing? 2 Who has been picked to play on the football team?

4 Who has Gregory fallen in love with? 5 Does Steve think that Gregory has any chance of having his love returned?

3 Why does Steve inspect Gregory's hands?

ANALYSIS - DIALOGUE 1 Identify the lines in the dialogue which provide information about past events that is essential for the understanding of the story.

2 Gregory and Steve emerge as two very different characters in this scene. Find evidence in the dialogue that suggests that: a. Steve is well-organised, bossy, arrogant, sarcastic, humorous, self-confident. b. Gregory is shy, romantic, humorous, submissive, immature, insecure.

What is Drama?29'dm

Soliloquy S o l i l o q u y is a theatrical c o n v e n t i o n in w h i c h a c h a r a c t e r speaks aloud to h i m s e l f . T h e c h a r a c t e r may n o t necessarily be a l o n e on t h e stage; o t h e r characters may be present, but if they are, it is assumed they do not hear the words of the soliloquy. The playwright uses soliloquy to convey directly to the audience the character's motives, intentions and his innermost feelings and thoughts, or simply to fill in parts of the story.

Soliloquy

A monologue is similar to a soliloquy. It serves the same purposes. However, it is usually shorter and takes place in the presence of other characters on stage who hear what is being said.

Monologue

A related stage device is the aside, in which a character expresses his thoughts in a few words or a short passage that the other characters on the stage cannot hear.

Aside

CASE STUDY 1 5 This soliloquy is taken from Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare (1564-1616). Romeo has just met and fallen in love with Juliet. He is now in the garden of Juliet's home. Juliet is on the balcony but she is unaware of Romeo's presence.

Q Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare But soft! What light through yonder 1 window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, Who is already sick and pale with grief That thou her maid 2 art 3 far more fair than she. Be not her maid, since she is envious, Her vestal livery is but sick and green 4 , And none but fools do wear it 5 , cast it off 6 . It is my lady, O it is my love! O that she knew she were 7 !

GLOSSARY

(a) moonlight and (b) girls suffering from lack of blood. Envious people were said to be 'green with envy'

1. yonder: that 2. her maid: the servants of Diana, the virgin goddess of the moon, were unmarried maidens. Juliet is Diana's maid in the sense that she is unmarried 3. thou ... art: you are 4. Her vestal livery ... green: the dress (livery) worn by Diana's servants (vestals) is sickly green in colour like

5

And none ... wear it: Jesters usually wore green. Romeo means that anyone who decides never to marry is a fool

6. cast it off: throw it away 7. that she knew she were: I wish she knew she is my love

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Ian McKellen as Romeo in the 7 976 Royal Shakespeare Company production

of Romeo and Juliet. 'It is my lady, O it is my love!'


[Brusquely, recognising her with unconcealed disappointment8, and at once babylike, making an intolerable grievance9 of it] Why, this is the girl 1 jotted down 1 0 last night. She's no use: Ive got all the records I want of the Lisson Grove lingo 11 ; and I'm not going to waste another cylinder on it. [To the girl] Be off with you: I dont want you. LIZA: Dont you be so saucy 12 . You aint heard what I come for yet. [To MRS PEARCE, who is waiting at the door for further instuctions] Did you tell him I come in a taxi? M R S PEARCE: N o n s e n s e , girl! what do you t h i n k a g e n t l e m a n like Mr Higgins cares what you came in? LIZA: Oh, we are proud! He aint above giving lessons, not him: I heard him say so. Well, I aint come here to ask for any compliment; and if my money's not good enough I can go elsewhere. (...) HIGGINS: [Stupent] Well!!! [Recovering his breath with a gasp] What do you expect me to say to you? LIZA: Well, if you was a gentleman, you might ask me to sit down, I think. Dont I tell you I'm bringing you business? HIGGINS: Pickering: shall we ask this baggage to sit down, or shall we throw her out of the window? HIGGINS:

unss

m

M

J"

I 'gspp ili^M

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'FwSbs

:Wm

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unconcealed disappointment: open frustration

9. grievance: reason for complaint 10. jotted down: took notes on

mm

11.Lisson Grove lingo: language/slang used by people living in the Lisson Grove area 12. saucy: impertinent, disrespectful

A scene from the film My Fair Lady (1964).

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What is Drama?

[Running away in terror to the piano, where she turns at bay13] Ah-ah-ohow-ow-ow-oo! [Wounded 1 4 and whimpering1S] I wont be called a baggage when Ive offered to pay like any lady.

31

LIZA:

[Motionless, the two men stare at her from the other side of the room,

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amazed16.]

[Gently] But what is you want? LIZA: I want to be a lady in a flower shop stead of sellin at the corner of Tottenham Court Road. But they wont take me unless I can talk more genteel. He said he could teach me. Well, here I am ready to pay him not asking any favor - and he treats me zif I was dirt 17 . PICKERING:

can you be such a foolish ignorant girl as to think you could afford to pay Mr Higgins? LIZA: Why shouldnt I ? I know what lessons cost as well as you do; and I'm ready to pay. HIGGINS: HOW much? LIZA: [Coming back to him, triumphant] Now youre talking! I thought youd come off it 1 8 when you saw a chance of getting back a bit of what you chucked at me 1 9 last night. [Confidentially] Youd had a drop in 20 , hadnt you?

35

MRS PEARCE: HOW

[Peremptorily] Sit down. Oh, if youre going to make a compliment of it HIGGINS: [Thundering 21 at her] Sit down. MRS PEARCE: [Severely] Sit down, girl. Do as youre told. LIZA: Ah-ah-ah-ow-ow-oo! [She stands, half rebellious, half-bewildered22.] PICKERING: [Very courteous] Wont you sit down? [He places the stray chair near the hearthrug23 between himself and HIGGINS.] LIZA: [Coyly] D o n t m i n d if I do. [She sits down. PICKERING returns to the hearthrug.] HIGGINS: Whats your name? LIZA: Liza Doolittle.

40 13. at bay: away 14. Wounded: offended 15. whimpering: crying 45

16. amazed: very surprised 17. zif I was dirt: as if I were worthless

HIGGINS:

18. c o m e off it: stop pretending

LIZA:

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19. chucked at me: threw at me in a careless way 20. had a drop in: had been drinking alcohol 21. thundering: shouting 22. bewildered: shocked

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23. stray chair near the hearthrug: spare chair near the rug in front of the fireplace

COMPREHENSION | 1 How is the flower girl dressed? Why has she chosen these clothes for the occasion?

4 What does Higgins threaten to do to the girl?

2 Why does Higgins say the girl is 'no use'? (Line 12)

5 Why does the girl want to learn to speak 'more genteel'?

3 Why does the flower girl want Higgins to know that she came in a taxi?

6 Why does the girl think that Higgins had been drunk the previous night? (Line 45)

ANALYSIS-TONE

—

The speaker's attitude towards what he is saying or who he is speaking to will determine the tone he adopts. Work in groups of four. Read the stage directions and dialogue closely and identify the attitude of: - Higgins/Pickering/Mrs Pearce - Liza

towards towards

Liza Higgins/Pickering/Mrs Pearce

Prepare a group reading of the scene. Decide who will read each part. Use tone to convey the attitudes you have identified for each character.

*


Irony :

s

Irony can be defined as saying something while you really mean something else. It is very c o m m o n in everyday speech (for example, when we say 'that was a clever thing to do' meaning 'that was very foolish'), and it is also widely used in literature. The word 'irony' comes from the Greek word 'eiron', which means 'dissembler'. In fact the ironic speaker dissembles, i.e. hides his real intention. The three types of irony that occur most frequently in drama are: • verbal irony, in which there is a contrast between what a character literally says and what he means; • situational irony, which occurs when an event or situation turns out to be the reverse of what is expected or appropriate; • dramatic irony, which occurs when the audience knows something that one or more of the characters on stage do not know. Dramatic irony is often used to add humour or suspense to a scene.

CASE STUDY 17 This scene is taken from the play The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde (1854-1900). Jack Worthing leads a double life. In the countryside, where he is known as lack, he is the respectable guardian of a young girl, Cecily. In order to escape to the pleasures of the city when he pleases, Jack tells the young girl that he has a brother, Ernest, who leads a wicked life in London and needs to be kept under constant surveillance. Under the name of Ernest, Jack enjoys life in London and falls in love with a young woman named Gwendolen Fairfax. Gwendolen has always dreamed of marrying a man named Ernest because the name conjures up a person who is serious and sincere, i.e. 'earnest'. In the following scene Jack is in a flat in London with Gwendolen and her mother, Lady Bracknell.

Q The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde JACK:

Charming day it has been, Miss Fairfax.

Pray d o n ' t talk to me about t h e weather, Mr W o r t h i n g . W h e n e v e r people talk to me about the weather, I always feel quite certain that they mean something else. And that makes me so nervous. JACK: I do mean something else. GWENDOLEN: I thought so. In fact, I am never wrong. , JACK: And I would like to be allowed to take advantage of Lady Bracknell's temporary absence ... GWENDOLEN: I would certainly advise you to do so. Mamma has a way of coming back suddenly into a room that I have often had to speak to her about. J A C K : [Nervously] Miss Fairfax, ever since I met you I have admired you more than any girl... I have ever met since ... I met you. GWENDOLEN: Yes, I am quite well aware of the fact. And I often wish that in public, at any rate 1 , you had been more demonstrative. For me you have always had an irresistible fascination. Even before I met you I was far from indifferent to you. [JACK looks at her in amazement.] We live, as I hope you know, Mr Worthing, in an age of ideals. The fact is constantly GWENDOLEN:

•• GLOSSARY 1. at a n y rate: at least

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What is Drama?

mentioned in the more expensive monthly magazines, and has now reached the provincial pulpits 2 ,1 am told; and my ideal has always been to love some one of the name of Ernest. There is something in that name that inspires absolute confidence. The m o m e n t Algernon first m e n t i o n e d to me t h a t he had a friend called Ernest, I knew I was destined to love you. JACK: YOU really love me, Gwendolen? GWENDOLEN: Passionately! JACK: Darling! You don't know how happy you've made me. GWENDOLEN: My own Ernest! JACK: But you don't really mean to say that you couldn't love me if my name wasn't Ernest? GWENDOLEN: But your name is Ernest. JACK: Yes, I know it is. But supposing it was something else? Do you mean to say you couldn't love me then? GWENDOLEN: [Glibly3] Ah! That is clearly a metaphysical speculation, and like most metaphysical speculations has very little reference at all to actual facts of real life, as we know them. JACK: Personally, darling, to speak quite candidly, I don't much care about the name of Ernest... I don't think the name suits me at all. GWENDOLEN: It suits you perfectly. It is a divine name. It has a music of its own. It produces vibrations. JACK: Well, really, Gwendolen, I must say that there are lots of other much nicer names. I think Jack, for instance, a charming name. GWENDOLEN: Jack? ... No, there is very little music in the name Jack, if any at all, indeed. It does not thrill 4 . It produces absolutely no vibrations... I have known several Jacks, and they all, without exception, were more than usually plain 5 . Besides, Jack is a notorious domesticity 6 for John! And I pity any woman who is married to a man called John. She would probably never be allowed to know the entrancing 7 pleasure of a single moment's solitude. The only really safe name is Ernest. Gwendolen, I must get christened 8 at once married at once. There is no time to be lost.

JACK:

I

mean we must get

2 Is Gwendolen surprised by Jack's declaration of love? 3 What has always been Gwendolen's ideal?

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provincial pulpits: unsophisticated country towns Glibly: lightly, thoughtlessly thrill: produce excitement plain: ordinary notorious domesticity: wellknown nickname entrancing: delightful

8. christened: baptised

COMPREHENSION 1 Why does Gwendolen ask jack not to talk about the weather?

33

4 Jack asks Gwendolen if she could love him even if his name were not Ernest. How does Gwendolen dismiss the question? 5 What does Gwendolen think of the name Jack?

ANALYSIS - IRONY This scene is an example of dramatic irony. What does the audience know that Gwendolen does not know? How does this contribute to the humour of the extract? Gwendolen probably considers Ernest's declaration that he must get christened soon as a slip of the tongue. Does the audience interpret it in the same way?

.Sa 36


Setting as a way of revealing character

The manner in which a character perceives the setting may tell the reader more about the character and his or her state of mind than about t h e setting itself. W h e n , for example, an urban landscape is described by a character as 'desolate' and 'ominous', the writer may be telling us more about how the character is feeling rather than accurately describing the setting. The writer is using the outer world setting to give us an insight into the character's inner world.

Setting as a means of reinforcing theme

The setting may also reinforce and clarify the theme of a novel or short story. The physical setting in which the action takes place may symbolically represent the central ideas of the work. A solitary house in bleak, hostile surroundings may reinforce the theme of man's struggle against nature. Many modern novels take place in w h a t are t e r m e d 'alien settings', where even t h e familiar seems unfamiliar. T h e characters are often exiles, tourists or expatriates, and t h e inhospitable setting reinforces the theme of loss of roots and loss of home which is common to much modern fiction.

Setting in time

The historical period, time of year and time of day are all important features of the setting. The fact, for example, that most of a story's action takes place at night may create an atmosphere of mystery, violence or conspiracy. Authors often use the traditional associations with the seasons and the cycle of the day to create appropriate time settings for their work, for example spring-morning-youth.

Social setting

While the setting refers to the time and place in which the action occurs, the term social setting is used to indicate the social environment in which a story takes place. The social setting of a novel or story may be explicitly indicated by the author or it may be conveyed through the use of social or class markers, i.e. the way the characters talk, where and how they live, the clothes they wear, how they eat, and so on. Like the physical and temporal setting, the social setting may be relatively unimportant or it may play a determining role in a novel or story. In many novels characters are presented as products of their social class, and many authors have explored the themes of c o n f o r m i t y to or rebellion against the values and mores of specific social settings.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G SETTING What is the setting of the work in time and space? Is the setting briefly sketched or is it described in detail? Are the descriptions of setting based on visual images? Is the language used in the descriptions connotative or poetic? Through whose eyes is the setting seen? Does the setting reveal the characters' state of mind? Does the setting: a. contribute towards creating mood and atmosphere? b. influence the characters' behaviour? c. reinforce the main themes of the work? At what time of day /year does most of the action take place? Is this relevant?

What is Fiction?

37 QH

CASE STUDY 1 9 Saki, the pen-name of Hector Hugh Munro, was born in Burma in 1870. He is widely acclaimed for his short stories, many of which featured children as the protagonists. Read the story paying particular attention to the description of the lumber room where some of the action takes place.

The Lumber Room 1 by Saki The c h i l d r e n were to be driven, as a special treat 2 , to t h e sands at Jagborough. Nicholas was not to be of the party; he was in disgrace. Only that morning he had refused to eat his wholesome bread-and-milk on the seemingly frivolous ground that there was a frog in it. Older and wiser and better people had told him that there could not possibly be a frog in his bread-and-milk and that he was n o t to talk nonsense; he c o n t i n u e d , nevertheless, to talk what seemed the veriest 3 nonsense, and described with much detail the colouration and markings of the alleged 4 frog. The dramatic part of the incident was that there really was a frog in Nicholas's basin of bread-and-milk; he had put it there himself, so he felt entitled 5 to know something about it. Thg^sin6 of taking a frog from the garden and putting it into a bowl of wholesomeijread-and-milk was enlarged on at great length 7 , but the fact thaTsTooa out clearest in the whole affair, as it presented itself to the mind of Nicholas, was that the older, wiser, and better people had been proved to be profoundly in error in matters about which they had expressed the utmost assurance 8 . 'You said there couldn't possibly be a frog in my bread-and-milk; there was a frog in my bread-and-milk,' he repeated, with the insistence of a skilled tactician who does not intend to shift 9 from favourable ground. So his boy-cousin and girl-cousin and his quite uninteresting younger brother were to be takeruto Jagborough sands that afternoon and he was to stay home.(His cousins' aiint, who insisted, by an unwarranted, stretch of 1 0 imaginatiorirnrstyling 1 1 herself his aunt also, had hastily 12 invented the Jagborough expedition in order to impress on Nicholas the delights that he had justly forfeited 13 by his disgracefirf conduct S t ' m e breakfasttable. It was her habit, whenever one of the ctiitdreh fell from grace, to improvise something of a festival nature from which the offender would be rigorously debarred; if all the children sinned collectively they were informed of a circus in a neighbouring town, a circus of unrivalled 14 merit and uncounted elephants, to which, but for their depravity, they would have been taken that very day. A few decent tears were looked for on the part of Nicholas 1 5 when the moment for the departure of the expedition arrived. As a matter of fact, however, all the crying was done by his girl-cousin, who scraped her knee rather painfully against the step of the carriage as she was scrambling in 1 6 . How she did h o w l 1 7 ! ' said Nicholas cheerfully, as the party drove off without any of the elation of high spirits 18 that should have characterised it. She'll soon get over that,' said the soi-disant19 aunt. 'It will be a glorious afternoon for racing about over those beautiful sands. How they will enjoy themselves!'

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GLOSSARY

1. lumber room: storage

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room treat: exciting event veriest: absolute alleged: supposedly real entitled: having a right sin: deplorable action 7. enlarged on at great length: talked about for a long time 8. people ... assurance: they had been mistaken about questions which they were absolutely certain of 9. shift: move 10. by an unwarranted stretch of: extending the limits of 11.styling: designating

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12. hastily: quickly 13. forfeited: lost 14. unrivalled: unequalled 15. A few decent tears ... Nicholas: he was expected to cry a bit 16. scrambling in: trying to get in quickly 17. howl: cry

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18. elation of high spirits: excitement 19.soi-disant: selfnominated

.Sa 38


20. grim chuckle: sinister laugh 21. gooseberry: type of fruit that grows on a bush 22. loftily: in a superior tone 23. Nicholas ... reasoning: Nicholas did not accept that the reasoning was perfect 24. slip in: get in unseen 25. artichokes: type of vegetable 26. raspberry: see note 21 27. canes: sticks supporting the plants 28. shrubberies: groups of plants 29. whence: from where 30. sorties: visits to 31. wriggling his way: twisting his way 32. with obvious stealth of purpose: furtively 33.in ... sentry-duty: acting as a guard 34. thoroughly: totally 35. slipped back: went back unnoticed 36. suchlike: similar 37.trusting... to: placing his confidence in 38. stiffly: with difficult} 39. stale delight: old and no longer fresh source of fun 40. sealed from youthful eyes: barred from the view of the children 41. It came up to his expectations: It was as exciting as he had expected. 42. dimly lit: with very little light 43. aunt-by-assertion: so-called aunt 44. spoil: get ruined 45.damp: humidity 46. by way of: in order to

'Bobby won't enjoy himself much, and he won't race much either,' said Nicholas with a grim chuckle 20 . 'His boots are hurting him. They're too tight.' ' W h y didn't he tell me they were hurting?' asked the aunt with some asperity. 'He told you twice, but you weren't listening. You often don't listen when we tell you important things.' 'You are not to go into the gooseberry 21 garden,' said the aunt, changing the subject. 'Why not?' demanded Nicholas. 'Because you are in disgrace,' said the aunt loftily 22 . Nicholas did not admit the flawlessness of the reasoning 23 ; he felt perfectly capable of being in disgrace and in the gooseberry garden at the same moment. His face took on an expression of considerable obstinacy. It was clear to his aunt that he was determined to get into the gooseberry garden. 'Only,' as she remarked to herself, 'because 1 have told him he is not to.' Now the gooseberry garden had two doors by which it might be entered, and o n c e a small person like Nicholas could slip i n 2 4 t h e r e he could effectually disappear from view amid the masking growth of artichokes 25 , raspberry 26 canes 27 , and fruit bushes. The aunt had many other things to do that a f t e r n o o n , but she spent an hour or two in trivial gardening operations among flower beds and shrubberies 28 , whence 2 9 she could keep a watchful eye on the two doors that led to the forbidden paradise. She was a woman of few ideas, with immense powers of concentration. Nicholas made one or two sorties 3 0 into the front garden, wriggling his way 31 with obvious stealth of purpose 32 towards one or other of the doors, but never able for a moment to evade the aunt's watchful eye. As a matter of fact, he had n o intention of trying to get into the gooseberry garden, but it was extremely convenient for him that his aunt should believe that he had; it was a belief that would keep her in self-imposed sentry-duty 33 for the greater part of the afternoon. Having thoroughly 3 4 confirmed and fortified her suspicions, Nicholas slipped b a c k 3 5 i n t o t h e house and rapidly put into execution a plan of action that had long germinated in his brain. By standing on a chair in the library, one could reach a shelf on which reposed a fat, important-looking key. The key was as important as it looked; it was the instrument which kept the mysteries of the lumberroom secure from unauthorised intrusion, which opened a way only for aunts and suchlike 3 6 privileged persons. Nicholas had n o t had much experience of the art of fitting keys into keyholes and turning locks, but for some days past he had practised with the key of the schoolroom door; he did not believe in trusting too much to 3 7 luck and accident. The key turned stiffly 38 in the lock, but it turned. The door opened, and Nicholas was in an unknown land, compared with which the gooseberry garden was a stale delight 39 , a mere material pleasure. Often and often Nicholas had pictured to himself what the lumber-room might be like, that region that was so carefully sealed from youthful eyes 40 and concerning which no questions were ever answered. It came up to his expectations 4 1 . In the first place it was large and dimly lit 4 2 , one high window opening on to the forbidden garden being its o n l y source of i l l u m i n a t i o n . In the second place it was a storehouse of u n i m a g i n e d treasures. The aunt-by-assertion 43 was one of those people who think that things spoil 4 4 by use and consign them to dust and damp 4 5 by way of 4 6 preserving t h e m . Such parts of the house as Nicholas knew best were

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What is Fiction?

rather bare and cheerless 47 , but there were wonderful things for the eye to feast on 4 8 . First and foremost 49 there was a piece of framed tapestry 50 that was e v i d e n t l y m e a n t t o be a firescreen. To N i c h o l a s it was a living, breathing story; he sat down on a roll of Indian hangings 51 , glowing 52 in wonderful colours beneath a layer 53 of dust, and took in all details of the tapestry picture. A man, dressed in the hunting costume of some remote period, had just transfixed a stag 54 with an arrow; it could not have been a difficult shot because the stag was only one or two paces 55 away from him; in the thickly-growing vegetation that the picture suggested, it would not have been difficult to creep 5 6 up to a feeding stag, and the spotted dogs that were springing 5 7 forward to join in the chase had evidently been trained to keep to heel 5 8 till the arrow was discharged. That part of the picture was simple, if i n t e r e s t i n g , but did t h e h u n t s m a n see, what Nicholas saw, that four galloping wolves were coming in his direction t h r o u g h t h e wood? There m i g h t be more t h a n four of t h e m hidden behind the trees, and in any case would the man and his dogs be able to cope with 5 9 the four wolves if they made an attack? The man had only two arrows left in his quiver 6 0 , and he might miss with one or both of them; all one knew about his skill in shooting was that he could hit a large stag at a ridiculously short range 61 . Nicholas sat for many golden minutes revolving the possibilities of the scene; he was inclined to think that there were more than four wolves and that the man and his dogs were in a tight corner 62 . But there were other objects of delight and interest claiming 63 his instant a t t e n t i o n : there were quaint^ 4 twisted 6 5 candlesticks in t h e shape of snakes, and a teapot fashioned like a china duck, out of whose open beak the tea was supposed to come. How dull 66 and shapeless the nursery pot seemed in comparison! And there was a carved sandal-wood box 6 7 packed tight with aromatic cotton-wool, and between the layers of cotton-wool •were little brass figures, hump-necked 68 bulls and peacocks 69 and goblins 70 delightful to see and to handle. Less promising in appearance was a large

39 QH

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47. bare and cheerless: empty and sad 48. to feast on: to enjoy 49. foremost: most important

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50. framed tapestry: piece of cloth on which coloured threads form pictures, bordered with wood as a support 5,1. hangings: painted or embroidered cloths

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52. glowing: shining 53. layer: covering 54. stag: male deer 55. paces: steps 56. creep: move slowly close to the ground 57.springing: jumping 58. keep to heel: remain close behind 59. cope with: be a match for 60. quiver: arrow-case 61. range: distance 62. tight corner: difficult situation 63. claiming: calling for 64. quaint: nice in an intriguing way 65. twisted: having a spiral form 66. dull: uninteresting

john Singer Sargent, j C a r n a t i o n , Lily, Lily, Hose (1885). The | delights of the garden were nothing when compared to the delights of the lumber room.

67. carved sandal-wood box: decorated wooden box 68. hump-necked: having a rounded protuberance on their necks 69. peacocks: large birds with a beautiful tail 70. goblins: gnomes

E)38Introduction to Literary Appreciation

square book with plain black covers; Nicholas peeped i n t o 7 1 it, and, behold 7 2 , it was full of coloured pictures of birds. And such birds! In the garden, and in the lanes when he went for a walk, Nicholas came across a few birds, of which the largest were an occasional magpie or wood-pigeon 73 ; here were h e r o n s and bustards, kites, t o u c a n s , tiger-bitterns, brush turkeys, ibises, golden pheasants 74 , a whole portrait gallery of undreamedof creatures. And as he was admiring the colouring of the mandarin duck and assigning a life-history to it, the voice of his aunt in shrill 75 vociferation of his name came from the gooseberry garden without 7 6 . She had grown suspicious at his long disappearance, and had leapt 7 7 to the conclusion that he had climbed over the wall behind the sheltering 7 8 screen of the lilac bushes; she was now engaged in an energetic and rather hopeless search for him among the artichokes and raspberry canes. 'Nicholas, Nicholas!' she screamed 79 , 'you are to come out of this at once. It's no use trying to hide there; I can see you all the time.' It was probably the first time for twenty years that any one had smiled in that lumber-room.

71. peeped into: looked furtively and quickly 72. behold: exclamation of surprise 73. magpie or wood pigeon: common birds 74.herons ... pheasants: birds he sees in the book 75.shrill: high sounding 76. without: outside 77.leapt: lumped 78. sheltering: protective 79. screamed: shouted desperately 80. Presently: after a time 81. shriek: scream 82. sauntered: walked slowly 83. slipped: lost my balance and fallen 84.tank: large container 85. slippery: difficult to hold 86. Fetch: Get 87. yield: give in, surrender 88. gleefully: joyfull 89. were n o t . . . over indulged in: should not be enjoyed for too long 90. kitchenmaid: female kitchen servant 91. parsley: kind of cooking herb 92. rescued: set free

P r e s e n t l y 8 0 t h e angry r e p e t i t i o n s of Nicholas's n a m e gave way to a shriek 8 1 , a cry for somebody to come quickly. Nicholas shut the book, restored it carefully to its place in a corner, and shook some dust from a neighbouring pile of newspaper over it. Then he crept from the room, locked the door and replaced the key exactly where he had found it. His aunt was still calling his name when he sauntered 82 into the front garden. 'Who's calling?' he asked. 'Me,' came the answer from the other side of the wall. 'Didn't you hear me? I've been looking for you in the gooseberry garden, and I've slipped 83 into the rain-water tank 8 4 . Luckily there's no water in it, but the sides are slippery 85 and I can't get out. Fetch 86 the little ladder from under the cherry tree - ' 'I was told I wasn't to go i n t o t h e gooseberry garden,' said N i c h o l a s promptly. 'I told you not to, and now I tell you that you may,' came the voice from the rain-water tank, rather impatiently. 'Your voice doesn't sound like aunt's,' objected Nicholas. 'You may be the Evil One tempting me to be disobedient. Aunt often tells me that the Evil One tempts me and that I always yield 87 . This time I'm not going to yield.' 'Don't talk nonsense,' said the prisoner in the tank. 'Go and fetch the ladder.' 'Will there be strawberry jam for tea?' asked Nicholas innocently. 'Certainly there will be,' said the aunt, privately resolving that Nicholas should have none of it. 'Now I k n o w t h a t you are t h e Evil One and n o t my a u n t , ' s h o u t e d N i c h o l a s gleefully 8 8 . ' W h e n we asked my aunt for strawberry jam yesterday she said there wasn't any. I know there are four jars of it in the store cupboard, because I looked, and of course you know it's there, but she doesn't because she said there wasn't any. Oh, Devil you have sold yourself!' There was an unusual sense of luxury in being able to talk to an aunt as though one was talking to the Evil One, but Nicholas knew, with childish discernment, that such luxuries were not to be over-indulged in 8 9 . He walked noisily away, and it was a kitchenmaid 9 0 , in search of parsley 91 , who eventually rescued 92 the aunt from the rain-water tank.

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Tea that evening was partaken of 9 3 in a fearsome silence. The tide 9 4 had been at its highest when the children had arrived at Jagborough Cove, so there had been no sands to play on - a circumstance that the aunt had overlooked 9 5 in the haste of organising 9 6 her punitive expedition. The tightness of Bobby's boots had had a disastrous effect on his temper" 7 the whole of the afternoon, and altogether the children could not have been said to have e n j o y e d t h e m s e l v e s . T h e aunt m a i n t a i n e d t h e frozen muteness of one who has suffered undignified and unmerited detention :n a rain-water tank for thirty-five minutes. As for Nicholas, he, too, was silent, in the absorption of one who has much to think about; it was just possible, he considered, that the h u n t s m a n would escape with his hounds 98 , while the wolves feasted on 9 9 the stricken stag.

93. partaken of: had

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94. tide: periodic rise (and fall) of the sea due to the attraction of the moon and sun 95. overlooked: not noticed

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(From Beasts and Superbeasts, 1914)

96. in the haste of organising: because she hurriedly organised 9 7. temper: mood 98. hounds: hunting dogs 99. feasted on: ate

COMPREHENSION 1 Why was Nicholas not allowed to go to Vagborough with the other children?

6 Apart from the tapestry, what other 'objects of delight' did Nicholas find in the lumber room?

2 Did Nicholas cry as the other children set off on their trip?

7 What happened to the aunt in the gooseberry garden?

3 Where did the aunt forbid him to go?

8 What did the aunt ask Nicholas to do? Why did he refuse?

4 Why did Nicholas try to make the aunt believe that he wanted to go into the gooseberry garden? iVhere did he really want to go?

9 Why were each of the characters silent during evening tea?

5 What scene was depicted on the tapestry Nicholas "ound in the lumber room?

ANALYSIS-SETTING 1 What facts are given about the lumber room in the text? (Dimensions, lighting, objects stored) 2 What transforms :he lumber room into 'a storehouse of unimagined treasures'? 3 Does the lumber room have a symbolic significance in the story? What does it represent?

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4 What does the fact that Nicholas entered the lumber room against his aunt's wishes mean, in the context of your interpretation? 5 Nicholas derives pleasure from his experience in the lumber room long after he has left it. How do you interpret this in the context of the story? 6 What function does setting serve in this short story?

BDD Writers often show that setting influences the way their characters think and behave. Do you believe that this also happens in real life? Are you influenced by where you live and the people that surround you? Does your personality alter when you change setting? For example, do you feel more relaxed in the countryside or at the seaside, or do you feel more excited when you visit a large bustling city? Of the people who surround you, i.e. your social setting, who influences you most - parents, friends, brothers/sisters, teachers? Does the weather influence your mood?

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Character What do other people think? What emotions do they experience? How are they similar to or different from us? Literature allows us to look into the lives of an endless collection of men and women and find answers to these questions. We can learn about people's hopes and fears, we can see them struggle through adverse circumstances, we can rejoice with them in moments of success and sympathise with them in moments of despair. In real life we have the opportunity of knowing intimately a relatively small number of people - family members, loved ones, close friends. Literature allows us to multiply that number by giving us access to the private thoughts and lives of an endless assortment of fascinating and memorable people.

Defining characters When we analyse characters in fiction we need to ask some key questions about: • their relationship to the plot: do they play a major part in the events of the story or do they have a minor role? • the degree to w h i c h they are developed: are they complex characters or are they one-dimensional? • their growth in the course of story: do they remain the same throughout the story or do significant changes in their personalities take place? In order to discuss these issues we need to know the following terms.

Protagonist and antagonist

The central character of the plot is called the protagonist. Without this character there would be no story. The character against whom the protagonist struggles is called the antagonist. In many novels, however, the antagonist is not a human being. It may, for example, be the natural environment in which the protagonist lives, or society, or illness, or even death. The terms protagonist and antagonist do not have moral c o n n o t a t i o n s and therefore should not be confused with 'hero' and 'villain'. Many protagonists are a mixture of good and evil elements. Other characters in a story may be referred to as m a j o r or m i n o r characters, depending on the importance of their roles in developing the plot.

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43 What is Fiction?41QH

Round characters, like real people, have complex, multi-dimensional personalities. They show emotional and intellectual depth and are capable of growing and changing. Major characters in fiction are usually round. Flat characters embody or represent a single characteristic. They are the miser, the bully, the jealous lover, the endless optimist. They may also be referred to as types or as caricatures when distorted for humorous purposes. Flat characters are usually minor characters. However, the term 'flat' should not be confused with 'insignificant' or 'badly drawn'. A flat character may in fact be the protagonist of the story, in particular when the writer wishes to focus on the characteristic he or she represents. Some highly memorable characters, particularly in satirical or h u m o r o u s novels, can be defined as flat, for example t h e miser Scrooge in Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol.

Round and flat characters

D y n a m i c characters change as a result of the experiences they have. The most obvious examples can be found in initiation novels which tell stories of young people w h o grow i n t o adults, for e x a m p l e Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn. However, dynamic characters can be found in many other types of stories. Major characters in novels are usually dynamic. Static characters remain untouched by the events of the story. They do not learn from their experiences and c o n s e q u e n t l y they remain u n c h a n g e d . Static characters are usually minor characters, but sometimes a writer makes a static character the protagonist of his story, because he wishes to analyse a particular type of personality. Static characters also play major roles in stories that show how forces in life, such as the social environment or the family, sometimes make it hard for people to grow and change. An example can be found in the short story Eveline by James Joyce: the unhappy central character Eveline feels suffocated by her family circumstances and lifestyle but cannot find the strength to break free from her situation and start a new life with her fiance in South America.

Dynamic and static characters W

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How the author conveys character Another important aspect of character analysis is determining how the author presents and establishes a character. There are two basic methods for conveying character: telling and showing. T e l l i n g involves direct i n t e r v e n t i o n and c o m m e n t a r y by t h e author. He interrupts the narrative to comment on the character's personality, thoughts or actions. The guiding hand of the author is clearly evident as he helps us to form opinions about the character. An example of the telling technique can be found in this short extract from D.H. Lawrence's novel Sons and Lovers, in which the author describes the protagonist of his novel:

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Telling

Arthur Morel was growing up. He was a quick, careless, impulsive boy, a good deal like his father. He hated study, made a great moan if he had to work, and escaped as soon as possible to his sport again. When an author use te technique of showing, he steps aside and allows the characters to reveal t icmselves through what they do and say. His voice is silent. The reader is asked to infer character from the evidence provided in the dialogue and action of the story. W h e n the author chooses the showing method, the revelation of character is generally gradual. The reader must be attentive and receptive, and use his intelligence and memory to draw conclusions about the character's identity. Modern authors tend to favour showing over telling, but most writers use a mixture of both methods.

Showing


Dialogue

In real life what people say reveals a lot about who they are and what they think. Similarly, in fiction, what a character says can help us to understand basic elements of his personality. The character's attitude towards others may also emerge from the dialogue. Important information about his origin, education, occupation or social class may also be revealed by what he says and how he says it. However, characters in stories do not always say what they really think. Just like people in real life, they can be deceptive and create a false image of themselves.

Action

We can learn a lot about a character's e m o t i o n s , attitudes and values by examining what he does in the course of the story. We should try to understand the motives for the character's actions, and discover the underlying forces that make him behave the way he does.

Comparison with other characters

Is t h e way a c h a r a c t e r behaves similar to or different from t h e way o t h e r characters act? One of the chief functions of minor characters in fiction is to provide contrast to the main character. What can you learn by comparing the protagonist to some of the other less important characters?

Setting

The time and place in which the story unfolds may provide useful information about the characters. If events take place during a particular historical period (the Middle Ages, the French Revolution, the Vietnam War) the characters' ideas and actions may be shaped by important external events. The characters' physical surrounding (where they grew up, where they choose to live) may help us to understand their psychological make-up. References to the social setting may also give us some helpful insight. Do the characters share or reject the values associated with their social background?

Names

Occasionally the character's name may provide clues to his personality. Emily Bronte's choice of Heathcliff as a n a m e for the hero of her novel Wuthering Heights conveys the character's wild, rugged, almost primitive nature. (Heath = wild, uncultivated land; cliff = high rocky land that usually faces the sea)

Appearance

In real life it is not advisable to judge a person by his appearance, but in fiction h o w a c h a r a c t e r looks o f t e n provides i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n about his personality. References to t h e c l o t h e s a c h a r a c t e r wears may, for example, i n d i c a t e his social and e c o n o m i c status. Details of a character's physical appearance may prove useful in determining his age and the general state of his physical and emotional health.

UESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G C H A R A C T E R Is he a major or a minor character? Is he the protagonist/antagonist of the story? Is he a round or a flat character? Is he dynamic or static? Does the author reveal the character through showing or telling, or does he use both techniques? What does the way the character speaks reveal about his character? What information does the way the character behaves provide? Is he similar to or different from other characters in the story? How does he relate to the other characters? Has the setting shaped the character's personality? Does the setting reflect his mood or emotional state? Does the character's name have any importance, relevance or associations? m

ImSaEt%-.'' i mmW h a t is Fiction?

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CASE STUDY 2 0 Katherine Mansfield (1888-1923) was born in New Zealand and educated in Britain. She is widely acclaimed original and experimental writer whose stories often include sharp character sketches.

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Miss Brill by Katherine Mansfield Although it was so brilliantly fine - the blue sky powdered with gold and great spots of light like white wine splashed over 1 the Jardins Publiques Miss Brill was glad t h a t she had decided on her fur 2 . T h e air was motionless, but when you opened your mouth there was just a faint chill 3 , like a chill from a glass of iced water before you sip, and now and again a leaf came drifting 4 - from nowhere, from the sky. Miss Brill put up her hand and touched her fur. Dear little thing! It was nice to feel it again. She had taken it out of its box that afternoon, shaken out the moth-powder 5 , given it a good brush, and rubbed the life back into the dim little eyes6". "What has been happening to me?" said the sad little eyes. Oh, how sweet it was to see them snap at her 7 again from the red eiderdown 8 ! ... But the nose, which was of some black composition, wasn't at all firm. It must have had a knock 9 , somehow. Never mind - a little dab 1 0 of black sealingwax 1 1 when the time came - when it was absolutely necessary ... Little rogue 12 ! Yes, she really felt like that about it. Little rogue biting its tail just by her left ear. She could have taken it off and laid it on her lap 1 3 and stroked 1 4 it. She felt a tingling 1 5 in her hands and arms, but that came from walking, she supposed. And when she breathed, something light and sad - no, n o t sad, exactly - s o m e t h i n g gentle seemed to move in her bosom 1 6 . There were a number of people out this afternoon, far more than last Sunday. And the band sounded louder and gayer. That was because the Season had begun. For although the band played all the year round on Sundays, out of season it was never the same. It was like someone playing with only the family to listen; it didn't care how it played if there weren't any strangers present. Wasn't the conductor wearing a new coat, too? She was sure it was new. He scraped with his foot 1 7 and flapped 18 his arms like a rooster 19 about to crow 20 , and the bandsmen sitting in the green rotunda blew out their cheeks and glared 21 at the music. Now there came a little

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GLOSSARY 1. 2. 3. 4.

splashed over: thrown over randomly fur: animal hair used as clothing faint chill: slight sensation of coldness drifting: floating

5. shaken out the moth-powder: removed the powder that had preserved the fur from being damaged by insects 6. rubbed the life ... little eyes: polished the animal's lifeless glass eyes

7. snap at her: look at her

14. stroked: caressed

8. eiderdown: blanket

15. tingling: light stinging sensation

9. had a knock: been damaged

16.bosom: breast

10. dab: light touch

17. scraped with his foot: rubbed his foot on the ground

11. sealing-wax: sticky substance used to glue things together

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18. flapped: moved up and down 19. rooster: male chicken

12. rogue: someone who behaves badly, but who you like anyway

20. crow: emit a loud cry

13. lap: the legs of a sitting person

21. glared: looked fixedly

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.Sa 46 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

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22.claspe: tightly joined together 23. glanced, sideways: gave a quick look to her side 24. Panama hat: straw hat 25. pads: soft cushioning 26. bridge: section connecting the two lenses of a pair of glasses 27.To and fro: backwards and forwards 28. railings: barrier made of upright metal bars 29. swooping: running 30. bows: type of tie 31. velvet: very soft fabric 32. lace: a fine type of cloth 33. tiny staggerer: very small child walking unsteadily 34. hen: a female chicken 35. scolding: criticising him severely 36. odd: strange 37. stared: looked fixedly 38. slender: thin 39. down drooping: hanging down 40. dropped: let fall 41. ermine: type of white fur 42. toque: small woman's hat 43. stiff: rigid 44. shabby: old and worn out 45. paw: hand

Only two people shared her "special" seat: a fine old man in a velvet coat, his h a n d s clasped 2 2 over a huge carved walking-stick, and a big old woman, sitting upright, with a roll of knitting on her embroidered apron. They did not speak. This was disappointing, for Miss Brill always looked forward to the conversation. She had b e c o m e really quite expert, she t h o u g h t , at l i s t e n i n g as t h o u g h she didn't listen, at sitting in o t h e r people's lives just for a minute while they talked round her. She glanced, sideways 23 , at the old couple. Perhaps they could go soon. Last Sunday, too, hadn't been as interesting as usual. An Englishman and his wife, he wearing a dreadful Panama hat 2 4 and she button boots. And she'd gone on the whole time about how she ought to wear spectacles; she knew she needed them; but that it was no good getting any; they'd be sure to break and t h e y ' d never keep on. And h e ' d b e e n so p a t i e n t . He'd suggested everything - gold rims, the kind that curved round your ears, little pads 2 5 inside the bridge 2 6 . No, nothing would please her. "They'll always be sliding down my nose!" Miss Brill had wanted to shake her. The old people sat on the bench . Never mind, there was always the crowd to watch. To arm nu , m a u n t of the flower-beds and the band rotunda, the couples and groups paraded, stopped to talk, to greet, to buy a handful of flowers from the old beggar who had his tray fixed to the railings 28 . Little children ran among them,jwo£>ping 2 9 and laughhig^liitle boys with big white silk bows'' 0 under their chins, little girls; little French dolls, dressed up/in velvet 31 and lace 32 . And sometimes a tiny staggerer 3 3 'came suddenly rocking-tnto the open from under the trees, stopped, stared, as suddenly sat down "flop," until its small highstepping mother, like a young hen 3 4 , rushed scolding 35 to its rescue. Other people sat on the benches and green chairs, but they were nearly always the same, Sunday after Sunday, and - Miss Brill had often noticed - there was something funny about nearly all of them. They were odd 36 , silent, nearly all old, and from the way they stared 3 7 they looked as though they'd just come from dark little rooms or even - even cupboards! B e h i n d t h e r o t u n d a t h e slender 3 8 trees with yellow leaves down drooping 39 , and through them just a line of sea, and beyond the blue sky with gold-veined clouds. Tum-tum-tum tiddle-um! tiddle-um! turn tiddley-um turn ta! blew the band. Two young girls in red came by and two young soldiers in blue met them, and they laughed and paired and went off arm-in-arm. Two peasant women with funny straw hats passed, gravely, leading beautiful smokecoloured donkeys. A cold, pale nun hurried by. A beautiful woman came along and dropped 4 0 her bunch of violets, a little boy ran after to hand them to her, and she took them and threw them away as if they'd been poisoned. De^r me.L MjssJMll didn't know whether to admire that or not! And now an ermine 41 toque 4 2 and a gentleman ijti grey met just in front of her. He was tall, stiff 43 , dignified, and she was wearing the ermine toque she'd bought when her hair was yellow. Now everything, her hair, her face, even her eyes, was the same colour as the shabby 44 ermine, and her hand, in its cleaned glove, lifted to dab her lips, was a tiny yellowish paw 45 . Oh, she was so pleased to see him - delighted! She rather thought they were going to meet that afternoon. She described where she'd been everywhere, here, there, along by t h e sea. The day was so charming -

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What is Fiction?

didn't he agree? And wouldn't he, perhaps? ... But he shook his head, lighted a cigarette, slowly breathed a great deep puff into her face, and, even while she was still talking, flicked 46 the match away and walked on. The ermine toque was alone; she smiled more brightly than ever. But even the band seemed to know what she was feeling and played more softly, played tenderly, and the drum beat, "The Brute! The Brute!" over and over. What would she do? What was going to happen now? But as Miss Brill wondered, the ermine toque turned, raised her hand as though she'd seen someone else^ much nicer, just over There, and pattered away 47 . And the band changed again and played more quickly, more gaily than ever, and the old couple on Miss Brill's seat got up and marched away, and such a funny old man with long whiskers 48 hobbled along 49 in time to the music and was nearly knocked over by four girls walking abreast 50 . Oh how fascinating it was! How she enjoyed it! How she loved sitting here, watching it all! It was like a play. It was exactly like a play. W h o could believe the sky at the back wasn't painted? But it wasn't till a little brown dog trotted on solemn and t h e n slowly trotted off, like a little " t h e a t r e " dog, a little dog t h a t had been drugged, t h a t Miss Brill discovered what it was that made it so exciting. They were all on the stage. They weren't only the audience, not only looking on; they were acting. Even she had a part and came every Sunday. No doubt somebody would have noticed if she hadn't been there; she was part of the performance after all. How strange she'd never thought of it like that before! And yet it

El. Kirchner, Five Women in the Street (T913). 'There was something funny about all of them. They were odd, silent (...) and from the way they stared they looked as though they'd just come from dark little rooms or even even cupboards!'

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46. flicked: threw 4 7. pattered away: walked away with quick light steps 48. whiskers: moustache 49. hobbled along: walked unsteadily 50. abreast: in a line beside each other

47 QH

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explained why she made such a point of starting from h o m e at just the same time each week - so as not to be late for the performance - and it also explained w h y she had quite a queer 5 1 , shy feeling at telling her English pupils how she spent her Sunday afternoons. No wonder! Miss Brill nearly laughed out loud. She was on the stage. She thought of the old invalid gentleman to whom she read the newspaper four afternoons a week while he slept in the garden. She had got quite used to the frail head on the cotton pillow, the hollowed 5 2 eyes, the open mouth and the high pinched 5 3 nose. If he'd been dead she mightn't have noticed for weeks; she wouldn't have minded. But suddenly he knew he was having the paper read to him by an actress! "An actress!" The old head lifted; two points of light quivered 54 in the old eyes. "An actress - are ye?" And Miss Brill smoothed 5 5 the newspaper as though it were the manuscript of her part and said gently: "Yes, I have been an actress for a long time." The band had been having a rest. Now they started again. And what they played was warm, sunny, yet there was just a faint chill - a something, what was it?C- not sadneSs -(no, not sadnes^ - a something that made you want to sing. The tune lifted, lifted, the light shone; and it seemed to Miss Brill that in another moment all of them, all the whole company, would begin singing. T h e young ones, the laughing ones who were m o v i n g together, they would begin, and the men's voices, very resolute and brave, would j o i n t h e m . And t h e n she t o o , she too, a n d the o t h e r s o n t h e b e n c h e s - t h e y would c o m e in w i t h a kind of a c c o m p a n i m e n t s o m e t h i n g low, t h a t scarcely rose or fell 5 6 , s o m e t h i n g so beautiful moving 5 7 ... And Miss Brill's eyes filled with tears and she looked smiling at all t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s of t h e c o m p a n y . Yes, we u n d e r s t a n d , we understand, she thought - though what they understood she didn't know. Just at that moment a boy and a girl came and sat down where the old couple had been. They were beautifully dressed; they vygre in love. The hero and heroine, of course, just arrived from his father's yacht. And still soundlessly singing, still with that trembling smile, Miss Brill prepared to listen. "No, not now," said the girl. "Not here, I can't."

51. queer: strange 52. hollowed: looking like cavities 53. high pinched: small 54. quivered: trembled 55.smoothed: rubbed to make its surface more even 56. scarcely rose or fell: did not go up and down very much 57.moving: inspiring emotion 58. mug: face 59. whiting: type of fish 60. whisper: low voice 61. treat: something done to please oneself 62. dashing: elegant 63. unclasped: opened

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"But why? Because of that stupid old thing at the end there?" asked the boy. " W h y does she come here at all - who wants her? W h y doesn't she keep her silly old mug 5 8 at home?" "It's her fu-fur which is so funny," giggled the girl. "It's exactly like a fried whiting 5 9 ." "Ah,T)e off with y o u ! " said the boy in an angry whisper 6 0 . Then: "Tell me, ma petite cherie - " "No, not here," said the girl. "Not yet." O n h e r way h o m e she u s u a l l y b o u g h t a slice of h o n e y - c a k e at t h e baker's. It was her Sunday treat 6 1 . Sometimes there was an a l m o n d in her slice, s o m e t i m e s n o t . It m a d e a great difference. I f t h e r e was an a l m o n d it was like c a r r y i n g h o m e a t i n y p r e s e n t - a surprise something that might very well not have been there. She hurried on the a l m o n d S u n d a y s a n d s t r u c k t h e m a t c h for t h e k e t t l e in q u i t e a dashing 6 2 way. But to-day she passed the baker's by, climbed the stairs, went into the little dark room - her room like a cupboarth- and sat down on the red eiderdown. She sat there for a long time. The box that the fur came out of was on the bed. She unclasped 6 3 the necklet quickly; quickly without looking, laid it inside. But w h e n she put t h e lid on she t h o u g h t she heard something crying.

What is Fiction?

COMPREHENSION 1 Why was Miss Brill glad she wore her fur? 2 Who was sharing Miss Brill's 'special seat'? Why was she show disappointed with them?

7 Who sat down next to Miss Brill where the old couple had been sitting?

3 What had the previous week's couple talked about?

8 What did the boy call Miss Brill? How did the girl describe her fur?

•4 What did Miss Brill notice about the other people that sat on the benches and green chairs?

9 What did Miss Brill not do as she returned home that Sunday?

5 Why did the drum beat of the band seem to say T h e Brute! The Brute!'?

1 0 What did she hear when she put the fur back into the box?

6 When a little 'theatre' dog passed by, Miss Brill drew a conclusion about what was happening. What was it?

ANALYSIS-CHARACTER 1 Does the author tell us about Miss Brill by describing her and commenting on her actions, or ooes she us her personality through her thoughts and actions? 2 Does Miss Brill speak to anyone in the course of the story 7 3 Find evidence in the text which shows that Miss RrtI is a creature of habit (i.e. does the same things o w and over again). A Miss Brill describes other people in the park (lines 57-62). In what way does this description reflect on Vfes Brill herself? 5 Miss Brill looks forward to overhearing the conversation of strangers. What does this suggest about her own life?

7 The fur wrap of which Miss Brill is so proud at the beginning of the story is ridiculed by the girl who sits near her ('It's exactly like a fried whiting'). Can you see a parallel between the fur and Miss Brill? At what point in the story do the two almost become one? 8 Is Miss Brill a round or a flat character? 9 Is she static or dynamic? 1 0 Did your response to this character change in the course of the story? If so, at what point? 1 1 Consider the character's name: Miss Brill. What does it tell us about her marital status? Is this important in the context of the story? Brill makes us think of the word 'brilliant'. In what way is Miss Brill's 'brilliance' cut short in the story?

6 Miss Brill is very pleased at the idea that she is an actress in a performance. What makes this idea so appealing to her?

D.Tamic characters change as a result of experiences they have. Can you think of any experience you have had that has affected you deeply and made you change as a person? For example: - the influence of a negative person may have restricted your growth and your ability to express yourself; - a book you have read or a film you have seen may have given you a different insight into some important issue. Try to think of an experience that you believe was particularly significant and explain the impact it had on you as a person.

49 QH


Plot The term plot refers to an author's arrangement of the events that make up a story. The plot of a work is not necessarily the same as the story. When we tell a story we generally start at the beginning and continue in a chronological order until we come to the end. Plots, however, do n o t always follow this pattern. Many writers choose to mix events up in order to provoke specific responses in the reader. They may, for example, start in the middle of things (in medias res) and use flashbacks or dialogue to refer to previous events. The author's choices regarding plot do not stop simply at organising the events of his tale. He must also decide when the story begins, which events should be dealt with at length, which aspects of the story can be quickly summarised and when the story should end. Time is entirely subjective. The events of several years can be condensed into a paragraph, while a c o m p l e t e chapter may be dedicated to a particularly significant m o m e n t . The author's aim in writing a story will direct the choices he makes, and therefore analysing these aspects of plot gives us invaluable insight into the meaning of his work. Love stories, adventure stories, detective stories, horror stories: writers never seem to run out of ideas for stories. Although each story is unique, many of them share some basic elements.

Conflict

Conflict is the driving force behind many plots. It may come from: • outside: the main character may be in conflict with external forces such as his family, society, physical hardship or nature; • within: the character may be forced to make a difficult choice, or he may have to question his values and beliefs.

Suspense

S u s p e n s e is also an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in m a n y plots. C r e a t i n g suspense generally involves denying the reader immediate access to information which is essential to the full understanding of the story. The clearest example of this can be found in detective stories, where the author does not reveal the identity of the murderer until the very last m o m e n t . Suspense is often created through the careful ordering of events in the story.

Subplot

In some stories the main plot is accompanied by a subplot - a second story that is complete in its own right. The subplot is usually linked in some way to events in the main plot and generally helps to deepen our understanding of it.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G PLOT Are the events in the plot chronological? Does the plot begin at the start of the story or in medias res? What effect do these choices have on the story? Is the story based on conflict? Does the conflict come from outside or inside? What are the conflicting forces? Is suspense created in the plot? If so, how? Are there any subplots? What are their functions? '-utgirirfrrrrwr'- miiBTOfirirfj

What is Fiction?

51 QH

CASE STUDY 2 1 Graham Greene (1904-1991) is the author of novels, short stories, plays, travel books, essays and children's books. He travelled widely and used a wide range of geographical locations for his works, which often deal with people on the verge of political, social or spiritual crisis. Several of his novels have been successfidly adapted for the cinema.

The Invisible Japanese Gentlemen by Graham Greene There were eight Japanese gentlemen having a fish dinner at Bentley's. They spoke to each other rarely in their incomprehensible tongue, but always with a courteous smile and often with a small bow 1 . All but one of t h e m wore glasses. Sometimes t h e pretty girl w h o sat at the window beyond gave them a passing glance 2 , but her own problem seemed too serious for her to pay real attention to anyone in the world except herself and her companion. She had thin blonde hair and her face was pretty and petite in a Regency 3 way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh 4 way of speaking perhaps the accent of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies' College, which she had n o t long ago left. She wore a man's signet ring on her engagement finger, and as I sat down at my table, with t h e Japanese gentlemen between us, she said, 'So you see we could marry next week.' 'Yes?' Her companion appeared a little distraught. He refilled their glasses with Chablis and said, ' O f course, but M o t h e r ...' I missed some of t h e conversation then, because the eldest Japanese gentleman leant across the table, with a smile and a little bow, and uttered 5 a whole paragraph like the mutter 6 from an aviary 7 , while everyone bent towards him and smiled and listened, and I couldn't help attending to him myself 8 . T h e girl's f i a n c e resembled her physically. I could see t h e m as two miniatures hanging side by side on wood panels. He should have been a young officer in Nelson's navy in the days when a certain weakness and sensitivity were no bar to 9 promotion. She said, 'They are giving me an advance 1 0 of five hundred pounds, and t h e y ' v e sold t h e paperback rights already.' T h e hard c o m m e r c i a l declaration came as a shock to me; it was a shock too that she was one of my own profession. She c o u l d n ' t have b e e n m o r e t h a n twenty. She deserved better of life. He said, 'But my uncle ...' 'You know you d o n ' t get on with h i m . This way we shall be quite independent.' 'You will be independent,' he said grudgingly 11 . 'The wine-trade wouldn't really suit you, would it? I spoke to my publisher about you and there's a very good c h a n c e ... if you began with some reading...' 'But I don't know a thing about books.' 'I would help you at the start.' 'My mother says that writing is a good crutch 1 2 ...' 'Five hundred pounds and half the paperback rights is a pretty solid crutch,' she said.

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1. bow: act of bending forward to show someone respect glance: quick look Regency: in Britain, the period 1811-1820 harsh: unpleasantly strong uttered: said mutter: very low sound of indistinct voices

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7. aviary: large bird 30

cage attending to him myself: listening to what he was saying 9. no bar to: not an obstacle to 10. advance: money given before a job is finished 8.

35

11. grudgingly: in a way that showed resentment

40

12. crutch: means of support, way of earning money

: Wf

fb* s E)

52


13.1 daresay: Yes it is 14. She came alongside ... and aft: she approached him like an enemy ship, stopping beside him and firing from all sides 15.enfeebled: weakerned

'This Chablis is good, isn't it?' 'I daresay 13 .' I began to change my opinion of him - he had not the Nelson touch. He was doomed to defeat. She came alongside and raked him fore and aft 1 4 . 'Do you know what Mr. Dwight said?' 'Who's Dwight?' 'Darling, you don't listen, do you? My publisher. He said he hadn't read a first novel in the last ten years which showed such powers of observation.' 'That's wonderful,' he said sadly, 'wonderful.' 'Only he wants me to change the title.' 'Yes?' 'He doesn't like The Ever-Rolling Stream. He wants to call it The Chelsea Set.' 'What did you say?' T agreed. I do t h i n k that with a first novel one should try to keep one's p u b l i s h e r h a p p y . E s p e c i a l l y w h e n , really h e ' s g o i n g t o pay for our marriage, isn't he?' 'I see what you mean.' Absent-mindedly he stirred his Chablis with a fork - perhaps before the engagement he had always bought champagne. The Japanese gentlemen had finished their fish and with very little English but with elaborate courtesy they were ordering from the middle-aged waitress a fresh fruit salad. The girl looked at them, and then she looked at me, but I think she saw only the future. I wanted very m u c h to warn her against any future based on a first novel called The Chelsea Set. I was on the side of his mother. It was a humiliating thought, but I was probably about her mother's age. I wanted to say to her, Are you certain your publisher is telling you the truth? Publishers are h u m a n . They may sometimes exaggerate the virtues of the young and the pretty. Will The Chelsea Set be read in five years? Are you prepared for t h e years of effort, ' t h e long defeat of doing n o t h i n g well'? As the years pass writing will not become any easier, the daily effort will grow harder to endure, t h o s e 'powers of o b s e r v a t i o n ' will b e c o m e e n f e e b l e d 1 5 ; y o u will be judged, w h e n y o u r e a c h y o u r f o r t i e s , by performance and not by promise. 'My next novel is going to be about St. Tropez.' 'I didn't know you'd ever been there.' 'I haven't. A fresh eye's very i m p o r t a n t . 1 t h o u g h t we might settle down there for six months.' ' T h e r e w o u l d n ' t be m u c h left of the advance by that time.' ' T h e a d v a n c e is o n l y an a d v a n c e . I get f i f t e e n per c e n t after five t h o u s a n d copies and twenty per cent after t e n . And o f c o u r s e a n o t h e r a d v a n c e will be

Edward Hopper,

Nighthawks (1942).

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What is Fiction?

due, darling, when the next book's finished. A bigger one if The Chelsea Set sells well.' 'Suppose it doesn't.' 'Mr. Dwight says it will. He ought to know.' 'My uncle would start me at twelve hundred 1 6 .' 'But, darling, how could you come then to St. Tropez?' 'Perhaps we'd do better when you come back.' She said harshly, 'I mightn't come back if The Chelsea Set sells enough.' 'Oh.' She looked at me and the party of Japanese gentlemen. She finished her wine. She said, 'Is this a quarrel 17 ?' 'No.' 'I've got the title for the next book - The Azure Blue.' 'I thought azure was blue.' She looked at him with disappointment. 'You don't really want to be married to a novelist, do you?' 'You aren't one yet.' T was born one - Mr. Dwight says. My powers of observation ...' 'Yes. You told me that, but, dear, couldn't you observe a bit nearer home? Here in London.' 'I've done that in The Chelsea Set. I don't want to repeat myself.' The bill had been lying beside them for some time now. He took out his wallet to pay, but she snatched the paper out of his reach. She said, 'This is my celebration.' 'What of?' 'The Chelsea Set, of course. Darling, you're awfully 1 8 decorative, but sometimes - well, you simply don't connect.' 'I'd rather ... if you don't mind ...' 'No, darling, this is on me 1 9 . And Mr. Dwight, of course.' He s u b m i t t e d just as two of the J a p a n e s e g e n t l e m e n gave t o n g u e 2 0 simultaneously, t h e n stopped abruptly and bowed to each other, as though they were blocked in a doorway. I had thought the two young people m a t c h i n g miniatures, but what a contrast in fact there was. The same type of prettiness could contain weakness and strength. Her Regency counterpart 2 1 , I suppose, would have borne a dozen children without the aid of anaesthetics, while he would have fallen an easy victim to the first dark eyes in Naples. Would there one day be a dozen books on her shelf? They have to be born without an anaesthetic too. I found myself hoping that The Chelsea Set would prove to be a disaster and that eventually she would take up photographic modelling while he established himself solidly in the wine-trade in St. James's 22 .1 didn't like to think of her as the Mrs. Humphrey Ward 23 of her generation - not that I would live so long. Old age saves us from the realization of a great many fears. I wondered to which publishing firm Dwight belonged. I could imagine the blurb 2 4 he would have already written about her abrasive powers of observation. There would be a photo, if he was wise, on the back of the jacket 2 5 , for reviewers26, as well as publishers, are human, and she didn't look like Mrs. Humphrey Ward. I could hear them talking while they found their coats at the back of the restaurant. He said, 'I wonder what all those Japanese are doing here?' apanese?' she said, ' W h a t Japanese, darling? S o m e t i m e s you are so evasive I think you don't want to marry me at all.'

53 QH

90

95

100

105

no

lis

120 16. twelve hundred: one thousand two hundred (pounds)

125

130

17. quarrel: confrontation, argument 18. awfully: really 19. on me: for me to pay 20. gave tongue: spoke 21. Her Regency counterpart: a woman like her in Regency times 22. St. James's: prestigious London area

135

23. Mrs. Humphrey Ward: dull but successful writer of popular novels 24. blurb: short description of a book's contents

140

25. jacket: book cover 26. reviewers: book critics


COMPREHENSION 1 Where does the story take place? 2 What are the girl and her companion discussing? 3 What is the profession of both the girl and the narrator?

6 What opinion does the narrator have of writing as a profession? 7 Where does the girl wish to set her next novel? What is the title of her next book?

4 What profession is the young man thinking of entering? What would the girl like him to do instead?

8 What does the narrator hope for the young woman and her fiance?

5 According to the girl, what aspect of her writing does the publisher most admire?

9 Had the young woman noticed the party of Japanese gentlemen at the next table?

ANALYSIS - PLOT 1 The author chooses as the focal point of his plot the conversation between the young girl and her fiance in Bentley's restaurant. Find references to events which took place before and which may occur after this point. The author does not present the story chronologically. He focuses on one specific moment, the conversation in the restaurant, and uses dialogue to provide important information about the past and to speculate about the future. How does this manipulation of plot influence the impact of the story? • It makes it more difficult to follow. • It heightens the tension. • It allows the writer to focus on the personality of the characters. • It maintains the reader's interest by presenting the story as a jigsaw puzzle that must be pieced together. • It keeps the reader guessing.

2 Conflict is an important element in this story. a. What kind of conflict is the young man experiencing? Is it internal, external or both? b. What kind of conflict is the young girl experiencing? c. Does the scene he witnesses provoke conflict in the narrator? 3 Suspense is often created by denying the reader information that is essential to his understanding of a story. At what point does the reader understand the significance of the adjective 'invisible' in the title of the story? 4 In a sense, the story of the Japanese gentlemen forms a subplot to the main story. Consider the last comment made by the young girl and explain how the subplot throws a revealing light on the main story.

Conflict, both internal and external, is often an important element in plot. Consider these general conflictual situations: A. dissatifaction with the status quo fear of change B. opinion of parents -> aspirations of son or daughter C. peer pressure from friends -» personal values and beliefs Briefly outline a simple plot which would illustrate these conflictual situations. Case A has been done as an example: Roger lives in a rural community in Scotland. He comes from a modest farming family and his parents expect him to leave school and work on the farm. Roger, however, wants more from life. He wishes to complete his education and get a degree in Veterinary Science. When he has finished his secondary education he is offered a place at university in Glasgow. His parents accept his decision to leave, so Roger moves to Glasgow. He finds it hard to settle into this new environment. Life in the city overwhelms him and he finds it difficult to form friendships and relate to people. After his first year of study, he decides to return home and work on the farm.

What is Fiction?

Narrators and point of view In fiction the author does not address the reader directly. He creates a narrator whose voice we hear as we read the story. It is from the narrator's point of view that we see events unfold. T h e narrator may be a strong presence in the text commenting on and interpreting the material he presents or, at the other end of the spectrum, he may be almost invisible, simply allowing the story to present itself. Narrators are divided into two broad categories: first-person narrators and thirdperson narrators. The category of third-person narrators is divided into three subcategories: omniscient, limited and dramatic objective. S t r e a m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a relatively recent d e v e l o p m e n t in narrative technique, may be an extension of either first or third-person narratives.

First-person narrators First-person narrators, who refer to themselves as T', tell stories in which they are directly involved. In a first-person narrative the reader's vision of the story, or point of view, is limited to what the narrator himself knows, experiences, infers or has learned second-hand from others. First-person narratives are, by definition, subjective. The only thoughts and feelings that first-person narrators experience directly are their own. The reader can never expect to see characters and events as they actually are, but only as they appear to the 'I' narrator. Therefore special attention should be paid to the personality of the first-person narrators. Are they reliable? Do they have biases and prejudices that may influence how they tell the story? In certain first-person narratives t h e reader can understand more t h a n t h e narrator himself. This is often the case when the narrator is a child or a not very perceptive adult. By contrasting the narrator's perception of events and the reader's more informed views, the author can create humour or irony. The first-person narrative is c o m m o n l y associated with non-fictional literary forms such as biographies, memoirs or diaries. When used in fictional works it lends authenticity to the story. It is also perhaps the most.effective form of storytelling for getting the reader intellectually and emotionally involved.

Point of view

Third-person narrators When a story is told by someone outside the action, he is called a third-person narrator (because he refers to everybody in the story in the third person: 'he', 'she', 'they'). In this form of narration the person who is telling the story is like an observer who has witnessed what has happened, but plays no part in the events. The o m n i s c i e n t third-person n a r r a t o r is a kind of god; he is all-knowing. He knows everything about the fictional world he has created: he can read other characters' innermost thoughts, he is able to be in several places at once, he knows exactly what is going to happen and how each character will behave. He is free to tell us as much or as little as he wishes. An o m n i s c i e n t third-person narrator who interrupts the narrative and speaks directly to the readers is called obtrusive. He may use these intrusions to summarise, philosophise, moralise or to guide t h e reader's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of events. This kind of narrator was particularly popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. If the narrator does not address the reader directly he is referred to as non-obtrusive.

Omniscient point of view

55 QH


Limited omniscient point of view

When an author uses a limited omniscient narrator, he chooses a character in the story and tells the story from his point of view. This character becomes the centre of revelation and the reader sees the events and other characters from his viewpoint. If the narrator moves back and forth between an omniscient viewpoint and the viewpoint of the focal character, we refer to the narrative technique as 'free indirect style'. Free indirect style is perhaps the most widely-used mode of narration in modern fiction. Limited omniscient narration involves the reader more than pure omniscient narration. By associating the narrating voice with one of the characters in the story, the author gives it an identity and therefore makes it more interesting for the reader. Also, because much of the story is told from the partial viewpoint of one of the characters, the reader gets the idea that anything can happen in the course of the novel, just as it can in real life.

Dramatic or objective point of view

When an author uses a dramatic or objective point of view, the story seems to be told by no one. This narrative technique has often been compared to a videocamera left running. The narrator does not mediate between the story and the reader. He steps aside and allows the story to present itself through setting, action and dialogue. The reader is never taken inside the minds of the characters. He is presented with material which he alone must analyse and interpret. Although the narrator does not actively participate in the storytelling, he does have an important role to play in this type of narrative. It is the narrator who decides when to turn the videocamera on and off and where to point it. He decides what material to present, and his choices will obviously affect the reader's response. The dramatic point of view is widely used by modern writers because of the impersonal and objective way it presents experience.

Stream of consciousness

S t r e a m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s is the term applied to any attempt by a writer t o represent the conscious and subconscious thoughts and impressions in the mind of a character. This technique takes the reader inside the narrating character's mind, where he sees the world of the story through the thoughts and senses of the focal character. At the beginning of the twentieth century some authors, notably James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and William Faulkner, developed a stream of consciousness technique called interior monologue. The term is borrowed from drama, where m o n o l o g u e refers to t h e part in a play where an actor expresses his i n n e r thoughts aloud to the audience. In fiction, an interior monologue is a record of a characters, thoughts and sense impressions. As people do not think in complete, well-formed logical sentences, Joyce, Woolf and Faulkner abandoned traditional syntax, punctuation and logical connections in order to represent the flow of a character's thoughts. For example, in Joyce's Ulysses (1922) the reader finds himself with a transcript of one of the character's thoughts which contains no commas, full stops or capital letters. The stop, start, disjointed and often illogical nature of interior monologue makes it a challenge for the reader to interpret.

Interior monologue

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G N A R R A T I V E T E C H N I Q U E Does the author use a first-person or third-person narrator1 Is the third-person narrator omniscient? If the third-person narrator is limited, does he see the story from the point of view of one of the characters in the story? Is the point of view dramatic or objectivel Does the author try to represent the thoughts of a character? What technique does he use to achieve this effect? What effect does the author's choice of narrator have on the impact of the story? imm-y -- • ~

What is Fiction?

57 QH

CASE STUDY 2 2 Irish-bom writer fames Joyce (1882-1941) is widely acclaimed for his experimentations with narrative technique. following is a story taken from his collection Dubliners, which was published in 1916. GLOSSARY

The Boarding House1 by James Joyce was a butcher's daughter. She was a woman who was quite able to keep things to herself: a determined woman. She had married her father's foreman 2 and opened a butcher's shop near Spring Gardens. But as soon as his father-in-law was dead Mr Mooney began to go to the devil. He drank, plundered the till 3 , ran headlong 4 into debt. It was no use making him take the pledge 5 : he was sure to break out again a few days after. By fighting his wife in the presence of customers and by buying bad meat he ruined his business. One night he went for his wife with the cleaver 6 and she had to sleep in a neighbour's house. After that they lived apart. She went to the priest and got a separation from him with care of the children. She would give him neither money nor food nor house-room; and so he was obliged to enlist himself as a 7 sheriff's man. He was a shabby 8 stooped 9 little drunkard with a white face and a white moustache and white eyebrows, pencilled 10 above his little eyes, which were pink-veined and raw11; and all day long he sat in the bailiff's12 room, waiting to be put on a job. Mrs Mooney, who had taken what remained of her money out of the butcher business and set up a boarding-house in Hardwicke Street, was a big imposing woman. Her house had a floating 13 population made up of tourists from Liverpool and the Isle of Man and, occasionally, artistes from the music halls. Its resident population was made up of clerks from the city. She governed her house cunningly 14 and firmly, knew when to give credit, when to be stern 15 and when to let things pass. All the resident young men spoke of her as The Madam. Mrs Mooney's young men paid fifteen shillings a week for board and lodgings 16 (beer or stout 1 7 at dinner excluded). They shared in c o m m o n tastes and occupations and for this reason they were very chummy 1 8 with one another. They discussed with one another the chances of favourites and outsiders 19 . Jack Mooney, the Madam's son, who was clerk to a commission agent in Fleet Street, had the reputation of being a hard case 20 . He was fond of using soldier's obscenities: usually he came home in the small hours. When he met his friends he had always a good one to tell them and he was always sure to be on to 2 1 a good thing - that is to say, a likely horse 22 or a likely artiste23. He was also handy with the mits 2 4 and sang comic songs. On Sunday nights there would often be a reunion in Mrs Mooney's front drawing-room. The music-hall artistes would oblige 25 ; and Sheridan played waltzes and polkas and vamped 2 6 accompaniments. Polly Mooney, the Madam's daughter, would also sing. She sang: MRS MOONEY

I'm a ... naughty27girl. You needn't sham28: You know I am. Polly was a slim girl of nineteen; she had light soft hair and a small full mouth. Her eyes, which were grey with a shade of green through them, had a abit of glancing 29 upwards when she spoke with anyone, which made her

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The

•-

Boarding House: guest house 2. foreman: worker in charge of other workers 3. plundered the till: took money from the cash register headlong: straight take the pledge: promise to stop alcohol cleaver: large butcher's knife 7. enlist himself as a: apply for the post of 8. shabby: untidy 9. stooped: with bent and rounded shoulders 10. pencilled: drawn with a thin line 11. pink-veined and raw: his eyes were red and irritated 12. bailiff: public official in charge of confiscating debtors' possessions 13. floating: coming and going 14. cunningly: astutely 15. stern: firm 16. board and lodgings: food and room 17. stout: strong dark beer 18. chummy: friendly 19. favourites and outsiders: race horses thought most likely to win and race horses with little chance of winning respectively 20. a hard case: a hard man 21. be on to: to know, to have discovered 22. likely horse: horse with good chance of winning a race 23. likely artiste: an easy woman 24. handy with the mits: good at boxing (mits: boxing gloves) 25. would oblige: agree to sing 26. vamped: improvise 27. naughty: bad 28. sham: pretend 29. glancing: giving a quick look

.Sa 58


30. disreputable sheriff's man: Polly's father 31. give her the run of: put her in charge of 32. shrewd: clever 33. meant business: was serious about Polly 34. kept her own counsel: refrained from interfering 35.breeze: gentle wind 36. lace: decorative cloth made of finely interwoven threads 37.ballooned: undulated 38.sashes: window frames 39.belfry: bell tower 40. peals: loud sounds of ringing bells 41. worshippers: people going to church 42. circus: circular area at the intersection of streets 43. revealing their purpose... little volumes: both their modest behaviour and the small prayer books they were holding showed that they were going to church 44. streaks: leftover slices 45. morsels: bits 46. rind: thick outer skin 47.awkward: uneasy, embarrassed 48. in too cavalier a fashion: indifferently 49. connived: tacitly supported what was happening 50. that in her wise innocencetolerance: that she was falsely innocent and she had guessed the motives behind her mother's tolerance 51. gilt: covered with gold 52. mantelpiece: shelf above a fireplace 53. through her revery: while she was lost in her thoughts 54. have the matter out: discuss the issue 55.short twelve: shorter mass service at twelve o' clock 56. outraged: shocked and offended 57. pleaded: put forward

look like a little perverse madonna. Mrs Mooney had first sent her daughter to be a typist in a corn-factor's office but, as a disreputable sheriffs man 3 0 used to come every other day to the office, asking to be allowed to say a word to his daughter, she had taken her daughter home again and set her to do housework. As Polly was very lively the intention was to give her the run of 31 the young men. Besides, young men like to feel that there is a young woman not very far away. Polly, of course, flirted with the young men but Mrs Mooney, who was a shrewd 32 judge, knew that the young men were only passing the time away: none of them meant business 33 . Things went on so for a long time and Mrs Mooney began to think of sending Polly back to typewriting when she noticed that something was going on between Polly and one of the young men. She watched the pair and kept her own counsel 34 . Polly knew that she was being watched, but still her mother's persistent silence could not be misunderstood. There had been no open complicity between mother and daughter, no open understanding but, though people in the house began to talk of the affair, still Mrs Mooney did not intervene. Polly began to grow a little strange in her manner and the young man was evidently perturbed. At last, when she judged it to be the right moment, Mrs Mooney intervened. She dealt with moral problems as a cleaver deals with meat: and in this case she had made up her mind. It was a bright Sunday morning of early summer, promising heat, but with a fresh breeze 35 blowing. All the windows of the boarding house were open and the lace 36 curtains ballooned 3 7 gently towards the street beneath the raised sashes38. The belfry 39 of George's Church sent out constant peals40 and worshippers 41 , singly or in groups, traversed the little circus 42 before the church, revealing their purpose by their self-contained demeanour no less than by the little volumes 4 3 in their gloved hands. Breakfast was over in the boarding house and the table of the breakfast-room was covered with plates on which lay yellow streaks44 of eggs with morsels45 of bacon-fat and bacon-rind 46 . Mrs Mooney sat in the straw arm-chair and watched the servant Mary remove the breakfast things. She made Mary collect the crusts and pieces of broken bread to help to make Tuesday's bread-pudding. When the table was cleared, the broken bread collected, the sugar and butter safe under lock and key, she began to reconstruct the interview which she had had the night before with Polly. Things were as she had suspected: she had been frank in her questions and Polly had been frank in her answers. Both had been somewhat awkward47, of course. She had been made awkward by her not wishing to receive the news in too cavalier a fashion 48 or to seem to have connived 49 and Polly had been made awkward not merely because allusions of that kind always made her awkward but also because she did not wish it to be thought that in her wise innocence she had divined the intention behind her mother's tolerance 50 . Mrs M o o n e y glanced instinctively at the little gilt 5 1 clock on the mantelpiece 52 as soon as she had become aware through her revery 53 that the bells of George's Church had stopped ringing. It was seventeen minutes past eleven: she would have lots of time to have the matter out 5 4 with Mr Doran and then catch short twelve 55 at Marlborough Street. She was sure she would win. To begin with she had all the weight of social opinion on her side: she was an outraged 56 mother. She had allowed him to live beneath her roof, assuming that he was a man of honour, and he had simply abused her hospitality. He was thirty-four or thirty-five years of age, so that youth could not be pleaded 57 as his excuse; nor could ignorance be his excuse since he was a man who had seen something of the world. He had simply taken advantage of Polly's youth and inexperience: that was evident. The question was: What reparation would he make?

What is Fiction?

There must be reparation made in such cases. It is all very well for the man: he can go his ways as if nothing had happened, having had his moment of pleasure, but the girl has to bear the brunt 58 . Some mothers would be content to patch up 59 such an affair for a sum of money; she had known cases of it. But she would not do so. For her only one reparation could make up for the loss of her daughter's honour: marriage. She counted all her cards again before sending Mary up to Mr Doran's room to say that she wished to speak with him. She felt sure she would win. He was a serious young man, not rakish 60 or loud-voiced like the others. If it had been Mr Sheridan or Mr Meade or Bantam Lyons her task would have been much harder. She did not think he would face publicity. All the lodgers in the house knew something of the affair; details had been invented by some. Besides, he had been employed for thirteen years in a great Catholic wine-merchant's office and publicity would mean for him, perhaps, the loss of his sit 61 . Whereas if he agreed all might be well. She knew he had a good screw62 for one thing and she suspected he had a bit of stuff put by 63 . Nearly the half-hour! She stood up and surveyed herself in the pier-glass64. The decisive expression of her great florid face satisfied her and she thought of some mothers she knew who could not get their daughters off their hands. Mr Doran was very anxious indeed this Sunday morning. He had made two attempts to shave but his hand had been so unsteady 65 that he had been obliged to desist. Three day's reddish beard fringed 66 his jaws and every two or three minutes a mist gathered on his glasses so that he had to take them off and polish them with his pocket-handkerchief. The recollection of his confession of the night before was a cause of acute pain to him; the priest had drawn out 6 7 every ridiculous detail of the affair and in the end had so magnified his sin that he was almost thankful at being afforded a loophole of reparation 68 . The harm 69 was done. What could he do now but marry her or run away? He could not brazen it out 70 . The affair would be sure to be talked of and his employer would be certain to hear of it. Dublin is such a small city: everyone knows everyone else's business. He felt his heart leap 71 warmly in his throat as he heard in his excited imagination old Mr Leonard calling out in his rasping voice: Send Mr Doran here, please. All his long years of service gone for n o t h i n g ! All his industry 7 2 and diligence thrown away! As a young man he had sown his wild oats 73 , of course; he had boasted 74 of his free-thinking and denied the existence of God to his companions in public-houses. But that was all passed and done with... nearly. He still bought a copy of Reynolds's Newspaper75 every week but he attended to his religious duties and for nine-tenths of the year lived a regular life. He had money enough to settle down on 76 ; it was not that. But the family would look down on her. First of all there was her disreputable father and then her mother's boarding house was beginning to get a certain fame. He had a notion that he was being had 77 . He could imagine his friends talking of the affair and laughing. She was a little vulgar; sometimes she said I seen and If I had've known. But what would grammar matter if he really loved her? He could not make up his mind whether to like her or despise78 her for what she had done. Of course, he had done it too. His instinct urged him to remain free, not to marry. Once you are married you are done for 79 , it said. W h i l e he was sitting helplessly on t h e side of t h e bed in shirt and trousers she tapped lightly at his door and entered. She told him all, that she had made a clean breast 8 0 of it to her mother and that her mother would speak with him that morning. She cried and threw her arms round his neck, saying: - O, Bob! Bob! What am I to do? What am I to do at all?

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58. bear the brunt: pay the consequences 59. patch up: repair the damage of 60. rakish: irresponsible, dissolute 61. sit: job 62. screw: income 63. stuff put by: money saved away

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64. pier-glass: large high mirror 65. unsteady: shaky, trembling 66. fringed: had grown on 67. drawn out: extracted 68.magnified his sin... reparation: made him feel so guilty that he was almost happy to have this chance to repair the damage 69. harm: damage

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70. brazen it out: be defiant, pretend he had done nothing wrong 71.leap: jump 72. industry: hard work 73. sown his wild oats: done foolish things 74. boasted: talked proudly of 75 .Reynolds's Newspaper: radical newspaper 76. settle down on: to get married and start a family 7 7. he was being had: he had been conned, framed

150

78. despise: hate 79. done for: finished 80. clean breast: full confession

A

jam 60


81. feebly: weakly, unconvincingly 82. bosom: breasts 83. altogether: completely 84. for: because 85.gust: sudden rush of air 86. loose: not tight around her body 87. combing jacket: bedroom jacket 88. instep: upper part of a foot 89. furry slippers: flat open shoes lined with fur 90. glowed: gave out a soft light 91. steadied: adjusted 92. thoughtfulness: . attention to his needs 93. tumbler: glass 94. tiptoe: the tip of their toes 95.landing: area between flights of stairs 96. hold back: resist 97. missus: (Mrs) Mooney 98. parlour: sitting room 99. waistcoat: sleeveless garment worn under a jacket 100. moaning: lamenting 101. dimmed with moisture: covered with vapour (from his perspiration) 102. stared upon his discomfiture: observed his uneasiness 103. pantry: small room where food is stored 104. nursing: holding carefully 105. Bass: beer 106. return-room: room in the guest house 107. on account of: because of 108. there was no harm meant: he hadn't meant to insult the girl 109. bloody well: certainly 110. dipped: briefly immersed 111. amiable: enjoyable 112. nape: back 113. bed-rail: bed frame

She would put an end to herself, she said. He comforted her feebly 81 , telling her not to cry, that it would be all right, never fear. He felt against his shirt the agitation of her bosom 82 . It was not altogether 83 his fault that it had happened. He remembered well, with the curious patient memory of the celibate, the first casual caresses her dress, her breath, her fingers had given him. Then late one night as he was undressing for bed she had tapped at his door, timidly. She wanted to relight her candle at his for 84 hers had been blown out by a gust 85 . It was her bath night. She wore a loose 8 6 open combing-jacket 8 7 of printed flannel. Her white instep 8 8 shone in the opening of her furry slippers 89 and the blood glowed 90 warmly behind her perfumed skin. From her hands and wrists too as she lit and steadied91 her candle a faint perfume arose. On nights when he came in very late it was she who warmed up his dinner. He scarcely knew what he was eating, feeling her beside him alone, at night, in the sleeping house. And her thoughtfulness 92 ! If the night was anyway cold or wet or windy there was sure to be a little tumbler 93 of punch ready for him. Perhaps they could be happy together... They used to go upstairs together on tiptoe 94 , each with a candle, and on the third landing 9 5 exchange reclutant goodnights. They used to kiss. He remembered well her eyes, the touch of her hand and his delirium... But delirium passes. He echoed her phrase, applying it to himself: What am I to do? The instinct of the celibate warned him to hold back 96 . But the sin was there; even his sense of honour told him that reparation must be made for such a sin. While he was sitting with her on the side of the bed Mary came to the door and said that the missus97 wanted to see him in the parlour 98 . He stood up to put on his coat and waistcoat 9 9 , more helpless than ever. W h e n he was dressed he went over to her to comfort her. It would be all right, never fear. He left her crying on the bed and moaning 100 softly: O my God! Going down the stairs his glasses became so dimmed with moisture 101 that he had to take them off and polish them. He longed to ascend through the roof and fly away to another country where he would never hear again of his trouble, and yet a force pushed him downstairs step by step. The implacable faces of his employer and of the Madam stared upon his discomfiture 102 . On the last flight of stairs he passed Jack Mooney who was coming up from the pantry 1 0 3 nursing 1 0 4 two bottles of Bass 1 0 5 . They saluted coldly; and the lover's eyes rested for a second or two on a thick bulldog face and a pair of thick short arms. When he reached the foot of the staircase he glanced up and saw Jack regarding him from the door of the return-room 106 . Suddenly he remembered the night when one of the music-hall artistes, a little blond Londoner, had made a rather free allusion to Polly. The reunion had been almost broken up on account of 107 Jack's violence. Everyone tried to quiet him. The music-hall artiste, a little paler than usual, kept smiling and saying that there was no harm meant 108 : but Jack kept shouting at him that if any fellow tried that sort of a game on with his sister he'd bloody well 109 put his teeth down his throat, so he would. Polly sat for a little time on the side of the bed, crying. Then she dried her eyes and went over to the looking glass. She dipped 110 the end of the towel in the water-jug and refreshed her eyes with the cool water. She looked at I herself in profile and readjusted a hairpin above her ear. Then she went back to the bed again and sat at the foot. She regarded the pillows for a long time and the sight of them awakened in her mind secret amiable 111 memories. She rested the nape 112 of her neck against the cool iron bed-rail 113 and fell into a J revery. There was no longer any perturbation visible on her face.

What is Fiction?

She waited o n patiently, almost cheerfully, w i t h o u t alarm, her m e m o r i e s gradually giving place to hopes a n d visions of t h e future. Her hopes and v i s i o n s w e r e so i n t r i c a t e t h a t s h e n o l o n g e r saw t h e w h i t e p i l l o w s o n w h i c h h e r gaze w a s f i x e d o r r e m e m b e r e d t h a t s h e w a s w a i t i n g f o r a n y t h i n g . At last s h e h e a r d h e r m o t h e r c a l l i n g . S h e started t o h e r feet a n d r a n t o t h e

210

banisters114. - Polly! Polly! - Yes, m a m m a ? - C o m e d o w n , dear. M r D o r a n w a n t s s p e a k w i t h y o u . T h e n s h e r e m e m b e r e d w h a t s h e h a d b e e n w a i t i n g for.

215

114. banisters: handrail on a staircase

COMPREHENSION 1 W h y did Mrs M o o n e y ' s marriage fail?

7

2

c o n f e s s i o n ? W h a t had b e e n t h e priest's reaction?

W h a t did she d o with t h e m o n e y from t h e

W h a t had Mr Doran revealed to t h e priest in

butcher's s h o p ?

8

W h y was Mr Doran reluctant to marry Polly? How did Polly s h o w Mr Doran her ' t h o u g h t f u l n e s s '

3 W h a t kind of residents did s h e have in her

9

boarding h o u s e ?

(line 1 6 6 ) ?

4 Did Mrs M o o n e y intervene immediately w h e n her d a u g h t e r Polly started having an affair with o n e of t h e residents?

t h e stairs to speak to Mrs M o o n e y ?

5 W h a t form of reparation did Mrs M o o n e y w a n t for t h e 'loss of her d a u g h t e r ' s h o n o u r ' ? 6

Line 8 9 says ' S h e was sure she would win'. W h a t

1 0 W h a t did Mr Doran long t o d o as he d e s c e n d e d 1 1 W h o s e faces did he i m a g i n e w e r e staring at h i m ? 1 2 Polly s t o p p e d crying while Mr Doran w e n t t o speak t o her mother. W h a t t h o u g h t s m a d e her 'almost cheerful' (line 2 0 6 ) ?

did she think she would w i n ?

ANALYSIS - POINT OF VIEW 1 T h e narrative t e c h n i q u e in this short story is an e x a m p l e of free indirect style. T h e narrator alternates b e t w e e n an o m n i s c i e n t point of view a n d t h e viewpoints of characters in t h e story. W h i c h

3

Why, in your opinion, d o e s J a m e s Joyce use this

type of narrative t e c h n i q u e in his story? • To give t h e reader g r e a t e r insight into t h e minds of his c h a r a c t e r s .

c h a r a c t e r s ' points of view are r e p r e s e n t e d ?

• To m a k e t h e t o n e of t h e story m o r e d e t a c h e d a n d

2 Find at least o n e paragraph in t h e story w h e r e t h e point of view is predominantly

• To s h o w h o w reality is perceived in different ways

scientific. by different p e o p l e .

- omniscient:

• To allow t h e reader t o form his o w n opinions a b o u t

- Mrs M o o n e y ' s : - Mr Doran's:

t h e c h a r a c t e r s and their motives.

- Polly's:

In t h e short story The Boarding

• To add an e l e m e n t of h u m o u r t o t h e story.

House, J a m e s Joyce uses t h e multiple point of view of free indirect s p e e c h t o help us

u n d e r s t a n d t h e motives b e h i n d his c h a r a c t e r s ' decisions. Try this e x p e r i m e n t t o d e v e l o p y o u r o w n ability t o s e e things from different points of view. Work in pairs. a. Think of a conflictual situation t h a t involved a n o t h e r p e r s o n w h i c h upset, d i s a p p o i n t e d or a n g e r e d you (for e x a m p l e , an a r g u m e n t with a friend, family m e m b e r , t e a c h e r ) . b. Tell your partner w h a t h a p p e n e d from y o u r point of view. c. Try t o p u t yourself in t h e position of t h e o t h e r p e r s o n involved in t h e c o n f l i c t a n d e x p l a i n t h e situation as convincingly as you can from his/her point of view. d. Discuss t h e results of y o u r e x p e r i m e n t with y o u r partner. Have y o u c o m e t o a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e situation?

61 QH

.Sa

62


Theme T h e m e is the central idea that directs and shapes the subject matter of a story, play or poem. It is the views of life or the insights into human experiences that the author wishes to communicate to his readers. In certain types of literature (fables, parables and propaganda pieces) the theme emerges forcefully as a moral or a lesson t h a t t h e a u t h o r wishes to teach, while in o t h e r s t h e t h e m e is embedded in the story. In the past, writers openly stated the theme of their work. They usually put the words into the mouth of a character or used an omniscient narrator to voice their opinions. If the theme of a work is clearly stated in the text, we refer to it as an overt theme. Most modern writers are reluctant to state the themes of their work openly. They prefer to encourage the readers to think and draw their own c o n c l u s i o n s . W h e n the t h e m e is hidden in the action, characters, setting and language of a story, we refer to it as an implied theme.

Theme versus subject

The theme of a literary work should not be confused with the subject or the story. To say that a work is about 'love' is not identifying the theme; it is merely stating the subject matter. Saying what happens in a story is also not a way of identifying t h e t h e m e ; it is simply summarising the plot. The t h e m e is the abstract, generalised comment or statement the author makes about the subject of the story. It is the answer to the question 'What does the story mean?', not 'What is the story about?'.

Formulating theme

When formulating the theme of a literary work, hasty generalisations and cliches should be avoided. Sweeping statements about life are rarely enlightening, so writers tend to avoid them. They are more inclined to explore complex issues and propose tentative answers.

Supporting theme

The theme of a poem, play or story should emerge from and be confirmed by the analysis of plot, characters, setting, imagery, sound features and style. If the t h e m e that is proposed leaves certain elements unexplained, or if there are aspects of t h e story t h a t do n o t support t h e t h e m e , t h e n it is p r o b a b l y incomplete or incorrect.

The title of the work

T h e title t h e a u t h o r gives the work should always be taken i n t o careful consideration when trying to identify the theme. The title often suggests the focus of the work and may provide clues about its meaning.

Multiple themes

A single work may contain several themes and readers may identify different, even opposing themes in the same work. Any theme that is supported by the other elements of the work should be considered valid.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G T H E M E • What is the subject of the story, play or poem? What general comment is the writer making about the subject? • How do other elements in the story support the theme? • How are the theme and the title of the story, poem or play related? • Is there more than one theme in the work? IHi III »II —I

What is Fiction?61QH

CASE STUDY 2 3 American writer Ernest Hemingway (1898-1961) is famous for novels such as The Old Man and the Sea and A Farewell to Arms ( • Texts G18 and G19). He was also a prolific and accomplished short story writer.

Old Man at the Bridge by Ernest Hemingway An old man with steel rimmed spectacles 1 and very dusty clothes sat by the side of the road. There was a p o n t o o n bridge 2 across the river and carts, trucks, and men, women and children were crossing it. (...) But the old man sat there without moving. He was too tired to go any farther. It was my business to cross the bridge, explore the bridgehead 3 beyond and find out to what p o i n t t h e e n e m y had a d v a n c e d . I did this and returned over the bridge. There were not so many carts now and very few people on foot, but the old man was still there. 'Where do you come from?' I asked him. 'From San Carlos,' he said, and smiled. That was his native town and so it gave him pleasure to mention it and he smiled. 'I was taking care of animals,' he explained. "Oh,' I said, not quite understanding. Yes,' he said, 'I stayed, you see, taking care of animals. I was the last one to leave the town of San Carlos.' He did not look like a shepherd 4 nor a herdsman 5 and I looked at his black dusty clothes and his grey dusty face and his steel rimmed spectacles and said, 'What animals were they?' Various animals,' he said, and shook his head. 'I had to leave them.' (...) What animals were they?' I asked. There were three animals altogether,' he explained. 'There were two goats, ind a cat and there were four pairs of pigeons.' And you had to leave them?' I asked. Yes. Because of the artilllery. The captain told me to go because of the artillery.' And you have no family?' I asked, watching the far end of the bridge where a few last carts were hurrying down the slope of the bank. No,' he said,' only the animals I stated. The cat, of course, will be all right. K cat can look out for itself, but I cannot think what will become of the others.' What politics have you?' I asked. I am without politics,' he said. 'I am seventy-six years old. I have come twelve kilometres now and I think now I can go no farther.' This is not a good place to stop,' I said. 'If you can make it, there are trucks up the road where it forks 6 for Tortosa.' I Hill wait a while,' he said, 'and then I will go.' (...) He looked at me very blankly and tiredly, then said, having to share his » : rry with someone, 'The cat will be all right, I am sure. There is no need : be unquiet about the cat. But the others. Now what do you think about ~e others?' they'll probably come through it all right.'

/

5

10

15

20

25

GLOSSARY

30

•-

1. steel rimmed spectacles: glasses with a steel frame 2. pontoon bridge: bridge built on a floating platform

35

3. bridgehead: position an army takes from which it can advance or attack 4. shepherd: man who looks after sheep

40

5. herdsman: man who looks after goats or cattle 6. forks: divides into two or more roads

.Sa 64


7. swayed: moved 8. dully: without emotion •

'You think so?' 'Why not?' I said, watching the far bank where now there were no carts. 'But what will they do under the artillery when I was told to leave because of the artillery?' 'Did you leave the dove cage unlocked?' I asked. 'Yes.' 'Then they'll fly.' 'Yes, certainly they'll fly. But the others. It's better not to think about the others,' he said. 'If you are rested I would go,' I urged. 'Get up and try to walk now.' 'Thank you,' he said and got to his feet, swayed 7 from side to side and then sat down backwards in the dust. 'I was only taking care of animals,' he said dully 8 , but no longer to me. 'I was only taking care of animals.' There was nothing to do about him. It was Easter Sunday and the Fascists were advancing toward the Ebro. It was a grey overcast day with a low ceiling so their planes were not up. That and the fact that cats know how to look after themselves was all the good luck that old man would ever have.

45

50

55

60

COMPREHENSION 1 W h e r e w a s t h e old m a n sitting and w h y ? 2

W h a t task did t h e narrator have t o carry o u t ?

3 W h y was t h e old m a n t h e last person t o leave t h e town? 4

W h y was t h e old m a n c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e

animals? Which animal was he least worried a b o u t and w h y ? 5

6

W h y did t h e narrator w a n t t h e old m a n t o m o v e

on? 7

W h a t h a p p e n e d w h e n t h e old m a n s t o o d up t o

leave? 8

Is it clearly stated w h e t h e r t h e old m a n survived

t h e w a r or n o t ? How d o you interpret t h e final s e n t e n c e in t h e story?

Did t h e old m a n support either side in t h e conflict?

ANALYSIS-THEME 1 W h i c h of t h e following s t a t e m e n t s best s u m m a r i s e s

2

t h e t h e m e of t h e short story?

Bridge.

• W a r is evil.

to paintings, p h o t o g r a p h s e t c . In w h a t s e n s e is

• Even w h e n e x p o s e d t o t h e atrocities of war s o m e p e o p l e d o n o t lose their basic humanity.

Focus o n t h e title of t h e story Old Man at

the

Omitting t h e article 'a/an' is typical of c a p t i o n s

Hemingway's story similar t o a painting or a photograph?

• War reduces mankind t o t h e level of animals. • M a n y i n n o c e n t p e o p l e b e c o m e victims of war. • War makes our everyday c o n c e r n s s e e m ridiculous.

Formulate t h e t h e m e ( n o t t h e s u b j e c t ! ) of a story, p o e m , play or film script you would like to write.

For example: elderly people are disregarded by modern society when in fact they have an invaluable contribution to make.

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES 7+K c e r t W y - 1 4 8 5 'A knyght ther was, and that a worthy man, that fro the tyme that he first bigan To riden out, he loved chivalrie, Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie.' From The Canterbury

Tales b y G e o f f r e y C h a u c e r

Beowulf •SH

'r

Myths and legends People all over the world tell stories. They tell stories of films they have seen, books they have read or simply experiences they have had. Storytelling is as old as man himself. Long before TV or cinema or even books, it was the main form of entertainment. Stories were passed on from generation to generation and some of those ancient stories are still with us today in the form of legends, myths and folk tales. Listen to the Canadian legend about how the sky was created and then answer the questions. a. b. c. d. e.

What shape was the earth originally? What did Obweji own? Why did Pateka go with Obweji? What did Obweji do with Pateka's stone necklace? What did Obweji do with the earth?

INTRODUCTION •

IN

f. g. h. i. j.

Where did Obweji go to sleep? Were Obwejii servants on earth sad when he died? How were his servants reminded of their master? Who did Pateka marry? How many children did they have?

B e o w u l f was w r i t t e n in A n g l o - S a x o n (Old English), t h e l a n g u a g e w h i c h , t h r o u g h

t h e centuries, has developed i n t o t h e English language we k n o w today. As Anglo-Saxon is like a foreign l a n g u a g e e v e n t o a n a t i v e speaker of English, t h e extracts y o u are g o i n g t o read h a v e b e e n translated i n t o m o d e r n English. T h e translation by Francis G u n m e r e (published in 1 9 1 0 ) closely follows t h e original t e x t and m a i n t a i n s s o m e of its stylistic features. There is a simplified m o d e r n English translation t o t h e right in Text B l . THE STORY Hrothgar, king of Denmark, suffered while his kingdom was being attacked by a devouring monster, named Grendel. Grendel was protected by a magic spell and could not be hurt by weapons made by man. He lived in the wastelands, and every night he visited Hrothgar's hall carrying off and killing his guests. Beowulf lived in the nearby kingdom of Geatland. From a very early age he showed signs of great strength and extraordinary

courage. He killed many sea monsters and defended

country from enemy attacks. When he heard from mariners ofGrendel's

murderous

his

attacks,

he decided to help Hrothgar. He and some of his bravest followers crossed the sea to Denmark where they were welcomed by the king. A big feast was held in their honour.

till

That night everybody slept except Beowulf. Grendel entered Hrothgar's hall and killed one of Beowulf's sleeping men. Beowulf, unarmed, fought the monster and with his great strength tore out one ofGrendel's

arms at the shoulder. Mortally wounded, Grendel retreated to his

home in the surrounding wastelands ( • Text Bl). Grendel's mother came to avenge her monster son's fatal injury and carried off a Danish nobleman and Grendel's torn off arm. Beowulf and his men followed the blood trail left by the arm and came to the lake where Grendel's mother had taken refuge. Beowulf plunged into the lake and swam into a chamber. He fought Grendel's mother, killing her with an old sword

•

Beowulf, as illustrated in a cartoon version by R. Crochoske (adaptation by Dr David Breeden).

he found in an underwater cavern. Grendel's body was also lying in the cavern so Beowulf cut off his head and brought it back to King Hrothgar ( • Text B2). There was a great feast in the hall to celebrate Beowulf's victory and an even greater celebration when he returned to his home country, where he was made king.

Beowulf 65

After fifty years of successful reign Beowulf had to face another evil creature, a fire breathing dragon which was trying to destroy the country. Although he was very old, Beowulf slayed the dragon but he was mortally wounded in the process.

Beowulf Mortally Wounds Grendel (...) Now many an

earl 1

of Beowulf brandished 2 blade ancestral 3 , fain 4 the life of their lord to shield 5 , their praised prince, if power were theirs; never they knew, as they neared the foe 6 ,

5

hardy-hearted heroes of war, aiming their swords on every side the accursed to kill, no keenest 7 blade, no fairest of falchions 8 fashioned 9 on earth, could harm or hurt that hideous 1 0 fiend 1 1 !

10

He was safe, by his spells 12 , from sword of battle, from edge of iron. Yet his end and parting cm that same day of this our life woeful 1 3 should be, and his wandering soul far off flit 14 to the fiends' domain 1 5 .

15

Soon he found, who in former days, harmful in heart 1 6 and hated of God, on many a man such murder wrought, that the frame of his body failed him now. For him the keen-souled kinsman 1 7 of Hygelac 18

20

held in hand; hateful alive •»as each to other. The outlaw dire 19 took mortal hurt; a mighty wound showed on his shoulder, and sinews 20 cracked, and the bone-frame 2 1 burst. To Beowulf now die glory was given, and Grendel

25

thence 2 2

ieath-sick his den in the dark moor sought 2 3 , noisome abode 2 4 : he knew too well that here was the last of life, an end erf his days on earth.

GLOSSARY L earl: follower 2- brandish: hold and wave 1 blade ancestral: sword 4. fain: willing ;

shield: protect

-

foe: enemy keen: sharp

• falchion: sword

30

9. fashion: make 10. hideous: horrendous 11. fiend: wicked or cruel being 12.spell: magic charm 13. woeful: painful 14. flit: fly 15. (fiends') domain: hell 16. harmful in heart: evil 17. kinsman: relative

o

Text B 1 I Beowulf's warriors brandished many a sword, inheritances from the ancient days, trying to protect their chief, but that did no good: they could not have known, those brave warriors as they fought, striking from all sides, seeking to take Grendel's soul, that no battle sword could harm him he had enchantment against the edges of weapons. The end of Grendel's life was miserable, and he would travel far into the hands of fiends. Grendel, the foe of God, who had long troubled the spirits of men with his crimes, found that his body could not stand against the hand grip of that warrior. Each was hateful to the other alive. The horrible monster endured a wound: the bone-locks of his shoulder gave way, and his sinews sprang out. The glory of battle went to Beowulf, and Grendel, mortally wounded, sought his sad home under the fen slope. He knew surely that his life had reached its end, the number of his days gone.

18. Hygelac: king of the Geats 19. dire: horrible 20. sinew: cord connecting muscle to bone 21.bone-frame: skeleton 22. thence: from there 23. sought: looked for 24. noisome abode: dirty and dark home

466FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Anglo-Saxon P o e t r y

COMPREHENSION 1 What did Beowulf's followers try to do?

4 What part of Grendel's body did Beowulf wound?

2 What did they not know about the monster?

5 Where did Grendel go after he was injured?

3 What evil deeds had Grendel done in the past?

6 Did Grendel know that he was going to die?
ANALYSIS 1 Find expressions in Text B1 that are used to avoid the repetition of frequently recurring terms. Beowulf

line 4 line 20

Beowulf's followers

line 1 - 2 line 6

Grendel

line line line line

sword

line 2 line 8 line 9

2 Rhythm* throughout period. The to maintain

praised

prince

5 8 10 22

is an important stylistic element in poetry all ages including the Anglo-Saxon Gunmere translation you are reading tries some of the original rhythmic elements.

A modern day Beowulf prepares to do battle with Grendel (from the film Beowulf starring Christoph Lambert (1999).

Listen again to the recording as you read the following extract (the stressed syllables are in bold type). Are the lines rhythmic? Soon he found, who in former days, harmful in heart and hated of God, on many a man such murder wrought, that the frame of his body failed him now. 3 A feature which regulated the rhythm of AngloSaxon poety is the pause or caesura*. In original transcripts of the poem this is marked by a space while in the Gunmere translation it is represented by a comma. Tha come of more under misthleotum then came from the moor, under the mist-hills Grendel gotigan Codes yrre baer Grendel stalking, he bore God's anger. Find examples of lines in Text B1 where Gunmere has tried to reproduce the original caesura by dividing the line with a comma, colon, semi-colon or full stop.

Beowulf

5

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Alliteration

Now many an earl of Beowulf brandished blade ancestral

One of t h e most i m p o r t a n t stylistic elements of Anglo-Saxon poetry is alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of the same c o n s o n a n t sound at the beginning or in t h e middle of two or more words. Anglo-Saxon poetry was recited, often accompanied by music, in front of an audience. Alliteration gave the language a musical quality. It also played the same role as rhyme in later poetry; it helped the poet and the audience to memorise the poem. Alliteration is still widely used in modern English. Songs, nursery rhymes, newspaper headlines and advertisements often contain alliteration. 1 Underline other examples of alliteration in Text B1. 2 Examine the headlines below and find examples of alliteration.

Four-legged friend's five mountain Marathon

SMALL SCREEN STAR DVD format gives you souncTvision + m mm » m ^ • . . . ^ _ ^

3 Find more examples of alliteration in headlines in English newspapers or in advertisements. 4 Underline examples of alliteration in this verse from the Elvis Costello song Shipbuilding. The result of this shipbuilding With all the will in the world Diving for dear life W h e n we could be diving for pearls It's just a rumour that was spread around town A telegram or a picture postcard

: •>

Are there any examples of alliteration in songs that you know?

il legends have become very popular in today's computer games because of their mix of magic, adventure conquest. The monsters, dragons, magic rings, capes of invisibility, secret potions and the motives of love, si and vengeance have all been reproduced in these games to entertain today's players. Have you ever played •# these games? What were the features you enjoyed?

-k i

' BE 4

J

M

6

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Anglo-Saxon Poetry

Text B 2

Beowulf Kills Grendel's Mother

'Mid 1 the battle-gear 2 saw he a blade triumphant, old-sword of Eotens 3 , with edge of proof, warriors' heirloom 4 , weapon unmatched, - save only 'twas more than other men to bandy 5 -of-battle could bear at all m

as the giants had wrought 6 it, ready and keen. Seized then its chain-hilt 7 the Scyldings' 8 chieftain, bold and battle-grim 9 , brandished 10 the sword, reckless of life 11 , and so wrathfully 12 smote 13 that it gripped her neck and grasped her hard,

10

her bone-rings breaking: the blade pierced through that fated-one's flesh: to floor she sank. Bloody the blade: he was blithe 14 of his deed 15 . Then blazed forth light. 'Twas bright within as when from the sky there shines unclouded heaven's candle. The hall he scanned. BPS«

II

By the wall then went he; his weapon raised high by its hilts the Hygelac-thane 16 , angry and eager. That edge was not useless to the warrior now. He wished with speed Grendel to guerdon 17 for grim raids many, for the war he waged on Western-Danes oftener far than an only time, when of Hrothgar's hearth 18 -companions

« r •• is M ^ firaij

he slew19 in slumber 20 , in sleep devoured, fifteen men of the folk of Danes, and as many others outward bore, his horrible prey. Well paid for that

S il®

the wrathful prince! For now prone 21 he saw Grendel stretched there, spent 22 with war, spoiled 23 of life, so scathed 24 had left him Heorot's 25 battle. The body sprang far when after death it endured the blow, sword-stroke savage, that severed its head.

GLOSSARY 1. 'Mid (amid): in the middle of 2. battle-gear: weapons 3. Eotens: ancient Scandinavian tribe 4. heirloom: object that has been handed down from generation to generation 5. bandy: give and take blows 6. wrought: shaped

7. hilt: handle 8. Scyldings: descendants of Scyld Shefing, founder of the Geat dynasty 9. grim: serious 10. brandish: hold and wave 11. reckless of life: fearless for his own safety 12. wrathfully: angrily 13. smote: hit hard 14. blithe: happy 15. deed: action

'... the Scyldings' chieftain, bold and battle-grim ...'

16. thane: lord 17. guerdon: pay back, recompense 18. hearth: fireplace 19. slew: killed 20. slumber: sleep 21. prone: lying flat 22. spent: exhausted 23. spoiled: devoid, without 24. scathed: injured, wounded 25.Heorot: Hrothgar's dining hall

Beowulf 69

COMPREHENSION 1 Who made the sword that Beowulf found?

5 Why did Beowulf want to take further revenge on Grendel?

2 Why had other men been unable to carry it into battle?

6 How many of Hrothgar's men had Grendel killed?

3 Which part of Crendel's mother's body did Beowulf strike?

8 How did Beowulf mutilate the monster's body?

7 Was Grendel still alive at this point?

4 What happened that made it possible for Beowulf to see the body of Grendel in the cave?

•шин

ANALYSIS 1 Find examples of alliteration in the text. 2 Weapons were an essential part of life in the historical period in which Beowulf is set. Only men who belonged to the higher classes of society could possess a weapon. Slaves and servants were not

allowed to have them. They were often personalised with names and handed down from generation to generation. Find evidence in the text to suggest that weapons were highly valued by Anglo-Saxon society.

WRITERS W O R K S H O P A n o t h e r feature of A n g l o - S a x o n poetry is t h e f o r m u l a e . T h e s e were widely used c o m p o u n d nouns or short phrases that were synonyms for often repeated words like 'ship', 'sea', 'king' or names. As the poems were often composed on the spot about a recent event, formulae gave the poet time to think. The word 'king' for example could be replaced by: beaga brytta = the ring giver sinces brytta = the treasure giver freowine = a gracious friend 1 What expressions are used in Text B2 to avoid the repetition of: Beowulf: line 7: ; line 18: ; line 29: Grendel's mother: line 12: sword: line 1: ; line 3: Formulae are not simply synonyms, as each of them stressed a different aspect of t h e thing described. 2 Look at both the texts you have read so far. Make a list of the formulae you have found for Beowulf. What characteristics of the hero do they emphasise? The most unusual formulae are known as k e n n i n g s . These are metaphorical phrases that are used instead of a noun. For example, a ship was a 'sea-wood' or a 'wave-floater', a body was 'bone-house' and blood was 'war-sweat'. 3 Find a kenning in the texts you have read for: - body (Text B1, line 25): - sun (Text B2, line 16): OVER T O Y O U

Write your own kennings for the following: winter, summer, school, love, home, money, teacher, car. Example: Christmas = snow-holiday

A status symbol is an object which shows that the person who owns it has a high social status. Beowulf's magnificent sword is a status symbol because it shows that he is the greatest warrior of his day. In our society there are many status symbols such as big cars, yachts or even the things we wear. Try to think of at least four objects that are regarded as status symbols today.

Medieval Poetr The Bailad The following ballad is one of the best known traditional English ballads and has been sung in different versions, over hundreds of years, right up to the present day. Listen to it and answer the questions. a. What sad event does the young man announce in the opening stanza? b. How does the weather reflect his state of mind? c. What does the young man decide to do?

d. e. f. g.

After how long does the ghost start to speak? What does the young man want from her? What will happen if the young man kisses her? Do you think they will meet again and if so, when?

Q The Unquiet1 Grave Cold blows the wind to my true love And gently drops the rain I never had but one true love And in Greenwood she lies slain 2 . I'll do as much for my sweetheart As any young man may; I'll sit and mourn 3 all on her grave For a twelvemonth and a day. W h e n the twelvemonth and a day is past The ghost began to speak; 'Why sit you here upon my grave, And will not let me sleep?' 'There's one thing that I want, sweetheart, There's one thing that I crave 4 , And that is a kiss from your lily-white lips, Then I'll go from your grave.'

GLOSSARY unquiet: restless, agitated, anxious slain: killed, dead mourn: grieve crave: desire very strongly clay: material from which bricks and pots are made 'My breath ... strong': my breath smells badly yonder: over there grove: wood Is wither'd to a stalk: all the petals are dead and only the stem is left

'My breast it is as cold as clay 5 , My breath smells earthly strong 6 And if you kiss my cold clay lips Your days they won't be long.'

5

10

15

20

(...) 'O down in yonder 7 grove 8 , sweetheart, Where you and I did walk, The first flower that I ever saw Is wither'd to a stalk 9 . The stalk is wither'd and dry, sweetheart, And the flower will never return And since I lost my own sweetheart, What can I do but mourn? W h e n shall we meet again, sweetheart? W h e n shall we meet again?' ' W h e n the autumn leaves that fall from the trees Are green and spring up again Are green and spring up again.'

25

30

The B a l l a d

9

INTRODUCTION • Ballads are short folk songs that tell a story. The word 'ballad' comes from the late Latin ballare

(to dance), so 'ballad' originally m e a n t a song with a dance. They are a n o n y m o u s works

composed in simple language by unlettered authors and handed down orally from generation to generation. Singers w h o learned the ballads often made changes to both the text and the tune and therefore popular ballads exist in m a n y different versions. Ballads were very popular in England throughout the Middle Ages.

Robin Hood and the Bishop of Hereford

Text B 3

o

Robin Hood is a legendary English outlaw. He and his men lived in a forest, which may

GLOSSARY

ha\e been Sherwood Forest near Nottingham,

1. bold: brave, courageous served: treated, tricked

from where they attacked and robbed rich

travellers. They became folk heroes because they did not injure their victims and never tabbed from the poor. Robin, with the help of one of his best men, Little John, invites the Bishop of Hereford into Barnsdale Wood for a drink. The Bishop is in for a surprise. Others they may tell you of bold 1 Robin Hood, Derry, derry, down! Or else of the barons bold, But I'll tell you how they served 2 the Bishop, When they robbed him of his gold.

5

Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down! Robin Hood, he dressed him in shepherd's attire 3 , Derry, derry, down! .And six of his men also, And, when the Bishop he did come by,

10

They around the fire did go. Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down! We are but poor shepherds' quoth 4 bold Robin Hood, Derry, derry, down! And keep sheep all the year,

15

But we've resolved to taste to-day of the best of our King's deer.' Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down! Thou'rt 5 a merry fellow;' the old Bishop said, Derry, derry, down! 'The King of thy

deeds 6

20 shall know;

Therefore make haste 7 , come along with me, For before the King shalt go!' Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

fit

The legend of Robin Hood is not based on historical fact, although there is that in 1230 law enforcers in Yorkshire tried to capture an outlaw called Robin Hood. The theme of rebellion against the unjust ruling class, seen in the legends of Robin Hood, was popular in literature throughout Europe at that time. He has been the subjt of several films, including Robin Hood, Prince of thieves (1991), starring Kevin Costnei

•-

attire: clothing quoth: said Thou'rt: you are deeds: actions make haste: hurry up

Q B ^

472FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES -Anglo-SaxonPoetry

Robin Hood he set then his back to an oak,

25

Derry, derry, down! His foot against a thorn, And underneath from his shepherd's cloak Pulled out a bugle horn 8 . Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

30

Robin put the small end against his lips, Derry, derry, down! And loudly a blast did blow, Till full six score9 of his trusty 10 men Came a-running in a row.

35

Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down! 'What's the matter, master?' says Little John, Derry, derry, down! 'You call us so hastily.' 'Oh! Here's the Bishop of Hereford,

40

For to-day he passes by.' Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down! Robin Hood he took then the old Bishop's hand, Derry, derry, down! 45

And led him to gay Barnsdale 11 , And made him

sup 12

at his board that night,

Where they drank wine, beer and ale. Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

Daniel Madise, Robin Hood and His Merry Men (1845).

8. bugle horn: small trumpet 9. score: twenty 10. trusty: loyal 11.Barnsdale: a wood 12. sup: eat

*

The Ballad

'Call me in the reck'ning 1 3 ' the Bishop then said, Derry, derry, down!

50

'I'm sure it's growing high' 'Lend me your purse, Sir' said Little J o h n , 'And I'll tell you by and by:' Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down! Little J o h n he took then the old Bishop's cloak,

55

Derry, derry, down! And spread it on the ground And from the Bishop his portmanteau 1 4 He told 1 5 five hundred pound. Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

60

Little J o h n he took then the old Bishop's hand, Derry, derry, down! And called for the pipes to play, .And made the Bishop to dance in his boots; He went gladly on his way.

65

Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

13. in the reck'ning: when it is time to pay 14. portmanteau: bag 15. told: took

COMPREHENSION 1 How did Robin disguise himself to trick the Bishop? 2 What did he tell the Bishop he was going to do?

4 What did the Bishop offer to do in return for Robin Hood's hospitality?

3 Where did Robin and his men take the Bishop and what did they do?

5 Did the Bishop realise that Robin Hood and his men had stolen his money?

ANALYSIS 1 Identify the lines where the singer/narrator speaks durectly to the listener/reader. What is the purpose of these lines? • • • •

To introduce the story. To provide biographical details about Robin Hood. To introduce the singer. To involve the listener/reader by creating expectations.

2 The story is told through find examples of both.

narrative

and

dialogue*.

3 What evidence is there in the text that Robin Hood was well-loved and respected by his men? <'.hich of the following does Robin Hood use to trick Bishop? • Intelligence « Bribery

• Flattery • Blackmail

• Violence • Cunning

4 The Bishop may be seen as representing the church of the Middle Ages. Is his behaviour in the story fitting for a man of God? 5 The line 'Derry, derry, down!...' is repeated throughout the poem. What effect does it have? 6 Some of the grammatical structures used in the poem would be considered unusual in modern English, for example 'Robin Hood, he dressed him' (line 7) instead of 'Robin Hood dressed himself'. Find other examples. 7 What is the rhyming scheme of the poem (omit lines which are repeated: 'Derry derry down')? Is it regular throughout? S O Listen again to the recording of the poem. Is the rhythm of the ballad regular?

11

4 12

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES -Anglo-SaxonP o e t r y

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Stock images

W h i l e o t h e r f o r m s of p o e t r y are characterised b y individual or original figures o f speech, the ballad employs 'ready-made' images which are referred to as stock images. Examples of stock images are 'snow-white skin', 'bold knights', 'merry m a i d e n s ' . Stock images were used because: • t h e y were easier to m e m o r i s e a n d gave t h e singer m o r e t i m e t o m a n i p u l a t e t h e story of t h e ballad; • because t h e y were familiar to t h e listener a n d t h e y were easier t o understand. As b a l l a d s b e l o n g e d t o a n oral t r a d i t i o n , l i s t e n e r s did n o t h a v e t i m e t o i n t e r p r e t original or c o m p l e x imagery. Find an example of stock imagery in The Unquiet Crave and Robin Hood and the Bishop of Hereford.

OVER T O Y O U

Link the words in A to the words in B to create stock images. B

A milk rose ruby cherry blood lily gallant royal coral

red white knight sword ladies water

Today in many respects pop songs have taken the place of ballads. Choose one or two pop songs you know and examine the lyrics. Are there any strikingly original images? Can you think of any stock phrases or images that are widely used in pop/rock songs? ('Come on everybody', 'Ooh baby', 'My heart went boom/bang', etc.)

Ballads are social documents. They give us an insight into what life was like in England at the time they were written. In five hundred years' time, when people listen to songs that were composed in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, what will they learn about us? Try to think of at least one famous song and what it will tell people in 2 5 0 0 .

The Canterbury

Tales - Geoffrey C h a u c e r

13

The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer

A pen-picture is a detailed and accurate description of a person in words. Firstly, you describe the person physically, and then you give details about his or her personality, interests and abilities. Choose someone you know personally, or a famous person you know a lot about, and write a pen-picture as follows: STEP ONE - Fill in the following notes: 1 Name:

5 Body:

2 Age:

6 Personality:

3 Job:

7 Skills and abilities:

4 Face: hair, eyes, nose, mouth, ears

8 Likes and dislikes:

STEP T W O - Using the information in Step One, write a pen-picture. Paragraph one should cover points 1 - 5 , while paragraph two should cover points 6 - 8 .

INTRODUCTION •

G o i n g o n pilgrimages in Medieval E n g l a n d was a way of c o m b i n i n g religion w i t h

pleasure. People from m a n y different walks of life would form a group, travel b y cart a n d o n foot t o a holy shrine, stay t h e r e for a w h i l e a n d t h e n go b a c k h o m e together. T h e r e was a h o l i d a y a t m o s p h e r e i b o u t pilgrimages because for most people it was t h e o n l y t i m e

pR an of O w e

they c o u l d get away f r o m t h e

Sfnpman

drudgery of their daily routine. In The Canterbury

Tales a group of

rilgrims is o n its way to visit o n e

knight

Rcve

pnoreaee

fRillcr

of England's m o s t f a m o u s cathedrals i n t h e s o u t h e r n c i t y o f C a n t e r b u r y . It is a v a r i e d g r o u p

Chaucer on the road with some of his characters.

representing a good cross-section : f English society of t h e day.

THE PROLOGUE n The Prologue' we are introduced to the pilgrims individually and Chaucer writes a pen~ssire of each one of them. Several members of religious orders form part of the group. In ~ixts B4 and B5 we are introduced to two female characters *rrld

who are connected with the

of religion: a Prioress, who is the head nun in a convent (priory), and a

wealthy

» »nan who is - apparently - very religious. : The Canterbury Tales were written in an archaic form of English which is difficult to underTlie following modem versions of Chaucer's texts were written by Nevill Coghill. TextBS shows - $ original version alongside the modern version.

* 'f

-J*

l ^ t l ' ^ • D , , 14

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval Poetry

o

Text B 4

The Prioress

There also was a Nun, a Prioress, Her way of smiling very simple and coy 1 . Her greatest oath 2 was only 'By St Loy!a, And she was known as Madam Eglantyne. And well she sang a service3, with a fine

5

Intoning through her nose, as was most seemly 4 , And she spoke daintily 5 in French, extremely, After6 the school of Stratford-atte-Bowe b ; • Visual Link B7 - • GLOSSARY a

b

St Loy: A saint who was rather controversial because he became rich by collecting religious relics. Stratford-atteBowe: The site of a monastery near London where the monks and nuns spoke a form of Norman French that was very different from classical French.

1. coy (Middle English): quiet 2. oath: swearword 3. she sang a service: she sang religious songs seemly: proper, correct daintily: delicately After: in the style of meat: table well taught: polite withal: as well 10. morsel: piece of food 11. zest: interest 12. sedately: calmly 13. straining: trying very hard

French in the Paris style she did not know. At meat 7 her manners were well taught 8 withal 9 ; Nor dipped her fingers in the sauce too deep; But she could carry a morsel up and keep The smallest drop from falling on her breast. For courtliness she had a special zest 11 ,

is

And she would wipe her upper lip so clean That not a trace of grease was to be seen Upon the cup when she had drunk; to eat, She reached a hand sedately 12 to the meat. She certainly was very entertaining, Pleasant and friendly in her ways, and

20 straining 13

To counterfeit 14 a courtly kind of grace, A stately bearing 15 fitting to her place, And to seem dignified in all her dealings 16 . As for her sympathies and tender feelings, She was so charitably

25

solicitous 17

She used to weep if she saw but a mouse Caught in a trap, if it were dead or bleeding. And she had little dogs she would be feeding With roasted flesh, or milk, or fine white bread. And bitterly she wept if one were dead Or someone took a stick and made it smart 18 ; She was all sentiment and gentle heart. Her veil was carried in a seemly way, Her nose was elegant, her eyes glass-grey; Her mouth was very small, but soft and red, Her forehead, certainly, was fair of spread19,

14. counterfeit: imitate 15.stately bearing: aristocratic posture 16. dealings: behaviour 17. solicitous: kind to others 18. made it smart: caused it pain 19. fair of spread: wide

10

No morsel 10 from her lips did she let fall,

from the 15th-century Ellesmere manuscript

Portrait of the Prioress

of The Canterbury Tales.

30

!H&iilLk^' The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey Chaucer

Almost a span 2 0 across the brows 2 1 ,1 own 2 2 ; She was indeed by no means undergrown 2 3 . Her cloak 2 4 ,1 noticed, had a graceful charm.

40

She wore a coral trinket 2 5 on her arm, A set of beads, the gaudies 26 tricked 27 in green, W h e n c e 2 8 hung a brooch 2 9 of brightest sheen 3 0 , On which there first was graven 3 1 a crowned A, And lower, Amor vincit omnia32.

20. span: the width of a hand 21. brows: eyebrows

22. own: say 23. undergrown: short

45

24. cloak: coat without sleeves 25. trinket: kind of rosary bracelet

26. gaudies: the eleventh bead on a string of rosary beads 27. tricked: decorated 28. whence: from which 29. brooch: piece of jewellery 30. of brightest sheen: very shiny 31. graven: engraved, cut 32. Amor vincit omnia: Love conquers all

COMPREHENSION 1 What did people call the Prioress? 2 What language did she speak?

6 How does the Prioress show that she loved animals?

4 What did she try to imitate?

7 It was against convent rules for nuns to uncover their forehead. Did the Prioress respect the rule? Give a line reference.

5 Find information in the text about the following traits of her physical appearance:

8 Describe the rosary beads which the Prioress wore on her arm. What hung in the place of a crucifix?

3 How did she behave at table?

nose: eyes: mouth: forehead: height:

ANALYSIS 1 The narrator's description of the Prioress's table manners is very detailed. Underline the expressions which suggest that the Prioress is very refined at table.

4 The Prioress does not respect the rule which stated that nuns should cover their forehead. What does this suggest about her attitude towards how she looks?

2 The narrator draws attention to the fact that the Prioress does not drop the tiniest particle of food or sauce and leaves no trace of grease on her glass. In your opinion does this suggest that he admires the Prioress's refinement or is he making fun of her preoccupation with table manners?

5 The golden brooch which hangs from the Prioress's rosary beads was also against convent rules. Focus on the inscription Amor vincit omnia. Considering what you know about the Prioress do you think Amor refers to sensual or spiritual love?

3 Focus on the lines which refer to the Prioress's love of small animals. a. How does she react if she sees a mouse caught in a trap? In your opinion, is her reaction fitting or is the narrator making fun of her? b. According to monastic rule, nuns could not keep pets. Does the Prioress obey this rule? c What does the Prioress feed her small dogs? Considering the fact that many people died of hunger in this period, is it fair to say that the Prioress s more concerned about animals than men?

6 Find evidence in the text to suggest that the Prioress was attracted by the upper social classes and wished to imitate them. 7 'Eglantyne' was a popular name for heroines in medieval romances. Why do you think people called the Prioress by this name? Is it an appropriate name for the head of a priory of nuns? 8 The Prioress's favourite exclamation is 'By St Loy'. Saint Loy was accused of having inappropriate worldly interests. Could the Prioress be accused of having the same weakness? Refer to the text in your answer.

—

ID

$ ,

16

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval

Poetry

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Irony

I r o n y can be defined as saying something while you really mean something else. It is very c o m m o n in every day speech (for example, when we say 'that was a clever thing to do' meaning 'that was very foolish') and it is also widely used in literature. Writers generally use irony to criticise a subject indirectly. They often pretend to sympathise

mm

with a character when they are, in fact, exposing their weaknesses. Chaucer, for example, gives the impression that he is charmed by the ladylike manners and sophisticated appearance of the Prioress. However, while he praises her he also includes details w h i c h he knows t h e reader will find u n f i t t i n g for a w o m a n of her position. T h e text, therefore, has two levels of m e a n i n g : a superficial level at which C h a u c e r expresses his a d m i r a t i o n for t h e Prioress a n d a deeper level at w h i c h he playfully makes fun of her. Irony allows a writer to criticise in an indirect way. The writer c a n n o t be 'accused' of attacking t h e s u b j e c t as there is n o clear e v i d e n c e of this in t h e t e x t . Chaucer, for example, seems to praise t h e Prioress - he leaves it entirely up to t h e reader to find reasons to criticise her.

TASKS

1 Underline words or phrases in the text that suggest that Chaucer admires the Prioress. 2 Make a list of the aspects of the Prioress that you find inappropriate for a nun.

OVER T O Y O U

Write a short ironic text about someone who is familiar to your classmates, i.e. a famous person, a teacher, a student.

STEP ONE -

Write a list of five things that everybody knows to be true about the person in

question.

Example: 7. He is almost always late for class 2.

...

STEP T W O

- Write the opposite of each of the statements in Step One. Example: 7. He is never late for class 2.

...

STEP THREE -

Write a short text that includes the points in Step Two and read them aloud

in class.

The Prioress has perfect manners and always behaves in an appropriate way when in the company of others. Does this mean she is a perfect individual? Does the way we act in public automatically reveal what kind of person we really are? Discuss with the rest of the class.

The Canterbury

The Wife of Bath1 A worthy woman from beside Bath city Was with us, somewhat deaf 2 , which was a pity. In making cloth she showed so great a bent 3 She bettered those of Ypres and of G h e n t 4 . In all the parish not a dame dared stir 5

5

Towards the altar steps in front of her. And if indeed they did, so wrath 6 was she As to be quite put out of charity 7 . Her kerchiefs 8 were of finely woven ground 9 , 1 dared have sworn 1 0 they weighed a good ten pound

10

The ones she wore on Sunday, on her head. Her hose 1 1 were of the finest scarlet red And gartered 12 tight; her shoes were soft and new. Bold 13 was her face, handsome and red in hue 1 4 . A worthy woman all her life, what's more

15

She's had five husbands, all at the church door, Apart from other company in youth; No need just now to speak of that, forsooth 1 5 . And she had thrice been to Jerusalem, Seen many strange rivers and passed over them;

20

She'd been to Rome and also to Boulogne 1 6 , St James of Compostella 1 7 and Cologne 1 8 , And she was skilled in wandering by the way 1 9 . She had gap-teeth 2 0 , set widely, truth to say. Easily on an ambling 2 1 horse she sat

25

Well wimpled 2 2 up, and on her head a hat As broad as is a buckler 2 3 or a shield; She had a flowing mantle that concealed Large hips, her heels spurred 24 sharply under that, In company she liked to laugh and chat

30

And knew the remedies for love's mischances, An art in which she knew the oldest dances.

• Visual Link B7 GLOSSARY 1. Bath: important centre for the cloth trade in medieval England 2. somewhat deaf: she will later explain that this was due to a blow she received from her fifth husband 3. bent: natural talent -S. Ypres and Ghent: important Flemish weaving centres v stir: move wrath: angry

7. charity: In the Middle Ages people went up to the altar in order of social importance with gifts which they made themselves. Chaucer plays on the expression 'out of charity' which means very angry and also that the Wife of Bath would no longer offer her gift to the church 8. kerchiefs: head-coverings 9. ground: material 10.1 dared have sworn: 1 am almost sure 11. hose: stockings

17


Text B 5

Q

A good wif was ther of biside bathe, But she was somdel deef, and that was scathe. Of clooth-makyng she hadde swich an haunt, She passed hem of ypres and of gaunt. In al the parisshe wif ne was ther noon That to the offrynge bifore hire sholde goon; And if ther dide, certeyn so wrooth was she, That she was out of alle charitee. Hir coverchiefs ful fyne weren of ground; I dorste swere they weyeden ten pound That on a sonday weren upon hir heed. Hir hosen weren of fyn scarlet reed, Ful streite yteyd, and shoes ful moyste and newe. Boold was hir face, and fair, and reed of hewe. She was a worthy womman al hir lyve: Housbondes at chirche dore she hadde fyve, Withouten oother compaignye in youthe, But therof nedeth nat to speke as nowthe. And thries hadde she been at jerusalem; She hadde passed many a straunge strem; At rome she hadde been, and at boloigne, In galice at seint-jame, and at coloigne. She koude muchel of wandrynge by the weye. Gat-tothed was she, soothly for to seye. Upon an amblere esily she sat, Ywympled wel, and on hir heed an hat As brood as is a bokeler or a targe; A foot-mantel aboute hir hipes large, And on hir feet a paire of spores sharpe. In felaweshipe wel koude she laughe and carpe. Of remedies of love she knew per chaunce, For she koude of that art the olde daunce. I

12. gartered: tied 13. Bold: proud 14. hue: colour 15. forsooth: to tell the truth 16. Boulogne: pilgrims went to pray to the image of the Virgin Mary 17. St James of Compostella: shrine of St James in Galicia in western Spain 18. Cologne: In Germany. It housed the shrine of the three wise men and St. Ursula 19. wandering by the way: this suggests that she did

not always stay on the 'straight and narrow way' of the church 20. gap-teeth: wide spaces between her front teeth. It was believed to be a sign of low moral standards 21. ambling: walking 22. wimpled: wearing a covering for the head and neck 23. buckler: a small circular shield 24: spurred: with sharp points

•

18

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval Poetry

COMPREHENSION 1 Fill in the table with details from the text about the Wife of Bath's physical appearance and way of dressing. Face:..,

Headkerchief:

Teeth:.

Stockings: ....

Hips:...

Shoes: Hat: Mantle: Spurs:

2 What was the Wife of Bath's profession? 3 How many times had she been married? 4

Underline the names of places she had visited on pilgrimages.

ANALYSIS 1 Certain information in the text seems to suggest that the Wife of Bath was a religiously devout person. In which lines does the narrator say that she: - attended mass and communion: - was married in church: - went on many pilgrimages:

lines lines lines

The narrator adds details that make the reader question the Wife of Bath's sincerity and devotion. Find information that contradicts the image of the Wife of Bath as a holy and devout christian. Complete the following sentences: - she attended mass and communion b u t . . . - she was married in church. However... - she went on many pilgrimages because ... 2 The medieval church ordered women to cover their hair so that it would not distract men during the services. Did the Wife of Bath choose her headwear out of a sense of modesty? Find other examples of her vanity and desire to be at the centre of attention. 3 In lines 18, 2 3 and 32 the narrator makes indirect references to the fact that the Wife of Bath led an active sex life. Explain what is implied in each of these sentences.

4 In the Middle Ages gapped-teeth were considered to be a sign of: • boldness • gluttony

• falseness • lasciviousness

Which of these characteristics does the Wife of Bath have? 5 Which adjective is used twice to describe the Wife of Bath? Is it used straightforwardly or ironically? 6 Although the narrator seems to imply that the Wife of Bath has many defects do you get the impression that he dislikes her? Which of the following may be considered to be her saving graces? Justify your choices by referring to the text. She is: • independent • sociable • attractive • successful • sexually active • modest

• • • H • •

extrovert generous sincere wealthy strong-willed vivacious

The Canterbury

Tales - Geoffrey C h a u c e r 81

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P The term r h y m e refers to the effect that is created when a poet repeats the same sounds at the end of two or more lines. Rhyme has several important functions: • it adds a musical quality to the poem; • it shows the poet's ability to manipulate the language; • in poems such as The Canterbury

Tales, which was composed for performance before

an audience, it serves the important function of indicating where one line ends and another begins and it makes the poem easier to remember for both the performer and the audience.

TASK

?

Listen to the recording of the original Middle English version of The Wife of Bath and read the text. Work out the rhyming scheme by writing the same letter of the alphabet beside words that rhyme. Is the rhyming scheme regular throughout? Rhyme in a poem or song is most effective when it is original and striking. Rhymes that are worn or predictable ('love/above', 'my lady/my baby') are tiring and uninteresting. Read the song lyrics and poem below and say whether you think the rhymes are worn or effective: There was something in the air that night The stars were bright, Fernando They were shining there for you and me For liberty, Fernando

(Fernando, by Abba) Here lies my wife: here let her lie Now she's at rest, and so am I (John Dryden)

Think of songs or poems that you know where the rhyme is worn or effective.

•DD When the Wife of Bath goes to church it is as if she is taking part in a fashion parade. Can you think of other occasions when people overdress because they want to impress people? Think of an example and tell your dassmates.


On their way to Canterbury the pilgrims stop at an inn. The owner of the inn asks each of the pilgrims to tell two stories on their way to Canterbury and another two stories on their way back. The person who tells the best tale will have a free dinner. There are twenty-four tales in all because the work is incomplete.

The pilgrims having a meal (engraving by Wynklyn de Wörde, 1478).

The Nun's Priest's Tale The Nun's Priest's Tale is an English version of a fable that was well-known all over Europe. The proud, vain cock, the domineering hen and the crafty, shrewd fox were easily recognisable stock characters that English and continental audiences could identify with.

A cock called Chanticleer lives in a farmyard with his seven wives. One night he has a nightmare

in which he sees an

animal coming to attack him. He is very frightened and wakes up shouting and sweating but one of his wives, Lady Pertelote, accuses him of being a coward ( • Text B6). One day a fox enters the farmyard

intent on

capturing

Chanticleer. He tells the cock that he has the most beautiful voice he has ever heard and asks him to sing, fust as he starts singing, the fox grabs him by the throat and carries him off ( • Text B7). The farmer's wife, her daughters and all the farm animals run after the fox in an attempt to save Chanticleer and, just when all seems lost, he manages to escape. He tells the fox that he should stop and tell the creatures who are chasing him to give up because they will never be able to catch him. The fox thinks this is a good idea, but the moment he stops, Chanticleer flies up to the safety of a tree. He has learnt his lesson and will never listen to a flatterer again.

The fox addresses Chanticleer.

The Canterbury


Lady Pertelote Speaks her Mind ii

u s

21

Q

Lady Pertelote accuses Chanticleer of being a coward because he is frightened of his dream. 'For shame 1 ' she said, 'you timorous poltroon 2 ! Alas, what cowardice! By God above, You've forfeited 3 my heart and lost m y love.

• Visual Link B7

I cannot love a coward, come what may. For certainly, whatever we may say, .All women

long4-

GLOSSARY

5

and O that it might be! -

For husbands tough 5 , dependable and free, Secret, discreet, no niggard 6 , not a fool That

boasts 7

2. poltroon: coward 3. forfeited: given up, lost 4. long (for): want

and then will find his courage cool

At every trifling 8 thing. By God above,

•-

1. For shame: you should be ashamed of yourself

10

How dare you say for shame, and to your love,

5. 6. 7. 8.

That anything at all was to be feared? Have you n o manly heart to match your beard? tad can a dream reduce you to such terror?'

tough: strong niggard: mean person boasts: talks proudly trifling: unimportant, insignificant

COMPREHENSION 1 How does Lady Pertelote react when Chanticleer •pfs her of his terrifying dream? 2 What kind of husbands do all women want according to Lady Pertelote?

ANALYSIS 1 When Lady Pertelote discovers what has frightened Chanticleer she abuses him verbally. Find line references in the text. ifre calls him insulting names.

Line(s)

She compares him to a fool.

Line(s)

She tells him she can TO longer love him.

Line(s)

5he accuses him of not laving a brave heart.

Line(s)

2 Lady Pertelote's speech is punctuated by ^«damations. Underline some examples in the text. What do they reveal about her feelings? 3 -tow would you describe Lady Pertelote's attack? Savage Exaggerated • Humiliating -easonable 8 Appropriate • Heartless Other: •: _ d you agree that the text reverses traditional male " : "emale roles? Does this make the text humourous?

3 What kind of 'fool' does Lady Pertelote detest? 4 Why does Lady Pertelote accuse Chanticleer of having no manly heart?

4 The Nun's Priest's Tale is an example of a beast fable*. This narrative form features animals that behave and speak as human beings. Which of the following adjectives that are usually associated with human beings would you use to describe Lady Pertelote? • Nagging • Courageous • Other:

• Independent • Confident

• Strong-willed B Insensitive

Discuss you choices with your classmates. Listen again to the recording of Text B6. Is it rhythmic? Find examples of end of line words that rhyme.

Sf 4 22

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES -Anglo-SaxonP o e t r y

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Iambic pentameter

Iambic p e n t a m e t e r is the most c o m m o n rhythm pattern in English poetry and it was first used in English by Geoffrey Chaucer. The modern version of the poem which you have read, by and large, maintains the original metre.

TASKS

Listen to the recording of the lines from the poem. Number the syllables and mark the unstressed syllables " and the stressed syllables '. Example: | 'For | shame' | she | said, | 'you | tim | o | rous | pol | troon! | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | A | las | what | cow | ard | ice! | By | God | a | bove, | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

>r- *

You've forfeited my heart and lost my love. I cannot love a coward, come what may.

xm

j§ Chaucer was also t h e first English writer to use h e r o i c couplets: two lines of iambic pentameter that rhyme. This pattern of r h y t h m and rhyme b e c a m e very popular in English literature and was used, among others, by Shakespeare, Dryden and Pope. 2 Write the same letter of the alphabet (A, B, C, etc.) next to the line ending with the same rhyme. Is the rhyme scheme regular throughout?

OVER T O Y O U

Chaucer originally intended his work to be recited in front of an audience. How do you think the strong and regular rhythm and rhyme schemes would have helped the performance of the work?

Quarrelling husbands and wives are frequently used to add humour to books, films, etc. Can you think of any other examples of warring couples that have made you laugh?

The Canterbury

Chanticleer's Narrow Escape The fox, whose name is Sir Russel Fox, has just asked Chanticleer


Text B 7 GLOSSARY

to sing for him.

Pyrrhus kills Priam while Troy is being destroyed. Hasdrubal was king of Carthage in 146 BC, when it was destroyed by the Romans.

He stretched his neck, his eyes began to close, His beak to open; with his eyes shut tight He then began to sing with all his might 1 . Sir Russel Fox then leapt 2 to the attack, Grabbing his gorge 3 he flung 4 him oe'r his back

Nero was accused of starting the fire that destroyed Rome in AD 64.

And off he bore 5 him to the woods, the brute 6 , pursuit 7 .

(...) Sure never such a cry of lamentation Was made by ladies of high Trojan station 8 ,

10

When Ilium 9 fell and Pyrrhus 3 with his sword Grabbed Priam by the beard, their king and lord, And slew 10 him there as the Aeneid tells, As what was uttered 1 1 by those hens. Their yells 1 2 Surpassed them all in palpitating 1 3 fear

15

W h e n they beheld 1 4 the rape 15 of Chanticleer. Dame Pertelote emitted sovereign shrieks 16 Louder than those extorted 1 7 from the wife 20

And Carthage all in flame and ashes lay. She was so full of torment and dismay 1 8 That in the very flames she chose her part And burnt to ashes with a steadfast 19 heart. O woeful 2 0 hens, louder your shrieks and higher

might: strength leapt: jumped gorge: throat flung: threw violently bore: carried brute: a cruel person pursuit: chase high Trojan station: the upper classes in Troy 9. Ilium: Troy 10. slew: killed 11. uttered: shouted

That echoed up in anguish to the peaks Of Hasdrubal b , when he had lost his life

•-

In Virgil's Aeneid,

This Chanticleer stood high upon his toes,

And for the m o m e n t there was n o

25

Than those of Roman matrons 2 1 when the fire Consumed their husbands, senators of Rome, When Nero c burnt their city and their home, Beyond a doubt that Nero was their bale 2 2 !

12. yells: shouts 13. palpitating: agitated 14. beheld: saw 15.rape: capture 16. emitted sovereign shrieks: screamed like a queen 17. extorted: obtained, heard 18. dismay: fear 19. steadfast: loyal 20. woeful: very sad 21. matrons: women 22. bale: destruction

COMPREHENSION 1 How did Chanticleer prepare himself to sing?

5 Where did he take his victim?

2 Why did he prepare himself so elaborately?

6 What did the hens start to do when they saw Chanticleer being carried away?

3 Why did Sir Russel Fox ask Chanticleer to sing before his attack? 4 How did Sir Russel Fox carry Chanticleer away?

23

7 What was Lady Pertelote's reaction to what had happened?

4 2 4 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES -Anglo-SaxonPoetry

ANALYSIS 1 The text is based on comparisons. Fill in the table below. l.a

1 The hens

I.b 2 The yells of the hens

2.a

are/is compared to

2.b

3 Lady Pertelote

3

4 The shrieks of Lady Pertelote

4

2 Beast fables are often told to teach people how they should behave. What human weakness does the story of Chanticleer warn against? How would you sum up the moral lesson of the tale?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Mock heroic

The m o c k h e r o i c form of satire adapts the elevated heroic style of classical epic poems to a trivial subject. In Text B7 Chaucer compares the animals in the farmyard to famous Greek and Latin figures. Underline words and expressions in the text that refer to people of high social standing. Example: (linelO) ladies of high Trojan station

OVER T O Y O U

What effect does comparing the farmyard events to momentous occasions in classical literature have on the text? It makes it more: P poetic

• comic

• elevated in tone

• ridiculous

• serious

Discuss your opinions with classmates.

Chaucer, in a humorous way, compares Chanticleer's abduction to the fate of Priam, Hasdrubal and Nero. The farmyard is in the same state of confusion as Troy, Carthage and Rome when they were destroyed. If Chaucer were writing today he could refer to the destruction of many more cities over the last seven hundred years. From your knowledge of history write the names of four cities and when they were destroyed.

Writers' Gallery - Geoffrey Chaucer

WRITERS' GALLERY Family

Geoffrey Chaucer

was born some time between 1 3 4 0 and 1 3 4 5 . We do not know the exact date. His family belonged to the emerging middle class and his father was a wealthy wine merchant in London. He received a good education and while still a boy he became a page to Princess Elizabeth, daughter-in-law of the king, Edward III. The army

Chaucer joined the army and fought in France during

the Hundred Years' War. He was captured and held prisoner until the king ransomed him. He took part in the peace negotiations with France in 1360 and clearly served the king well, since he was

GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1340-1400) Travels

defined as a well-beloved personal attendant and granted a life pension.

In 1366 he married Philippa de Roet, a noblewoman and sister-in-law of a powerful man,

John of Gaunt, who became Geoffrey's patron. From 1368 onwards Geoffrey travelled in Europe on diplomatic missions. He visited Genoa and Florence where he became acquainted with Italian .iterature and in particular with the works of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio. Career

In 1374 he was appointed Controller of Customs of Wools, Skins and Hides, a post he held

for twelve years. In 1 3 8 6 he started a political career and represented the county of Kent in Parliament. At that time he was also a Justice of the Peace. He was appointed Clerk for the King's '•Vorks (the person who oversees building work in progress) first at Westminster, then at Windsor and the Tower. For the last ten years of his life Chaucer retired. Throughout his life he had a comfortable standard of living and he collected over sixty books. This was an impressive library before the invention of printing, when books were rare and expensive. He took a lease on a house in the garden : f Westminster Abbey, where he worked on his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales. He died on 25th October 1400 and was buried in a chapel of the Abbey which has since become known as 'Poets' Corner'.

TASK True or false? Correct the false statements, a. Geoffrey Chaucer lived in the fourteenth century. : He was born into a poor illiterate family, c. [Xiring his life he was a soldier, a diplomat, a civil servant, a politician, a poet.

WORKS

d. He died when he was around fifty-five or sixty years old. e. He is buried in Westminster Abbey, in what is called Poets' Corner.

Chaucer's work is generally divided into three periods: The French period (up to 1370)

Chaucer's early works are based

-rly on French models. His chief work during this time was the Book of the Duchess, an allegorical .-nt written in 1369 on the death of Blanche, wife of John of Gaunt, his patron.


i The Italian period

(up to c.1387)

»mm-

•

m m

Chaucer's work was then influenced by Italian literature,

particularly by the works of Boccaccio and Dante. His major works in this period were: The Parlement ofFoules,

a medieval beast fable which tells of the mating of fowls on St Valentine's

Day and is believed to celebrate the betrothal of Richard II to Anne of Bohemia. The House of Fame, which recounts the adventures of Aeneas after the fall of Troy and was influenced by Dante's Divine Comedy. Troylus and Criseyde, which combines an episode from the Iliad and elements of Boccaccio's version of the same episode. It is still considered one of the great love poems in the English language. The Legend of Good Women, which looks at love from a female point of view and recounts stories of women, such as Cleopatra, who died for love. In this work Chaucer uses for the first time the heroic couplet*, iambic pentameter* in rhyming pairs which he later used in The Canterbury Tales. The English period

In Chaucer's final period he wrote his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, and

achieved his fullest artistic power. THE CANTERBURY TALES

This unfinished poem of about 17,000 lines was written mostly after 1387 and is widely considered to be one of the most brilliant

works in all literature. The poem introduces a group of pilgrims who are journeying from London to the shrine of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. They meet at the Tabard Inn in Southwark, London, where the host, Harry Bailly, proposes that they have a storytelling competition. The best storyteller will be given a free supper on his or her return to London. Chaucer originally planned that the work should contain 120 tales, four for each pilgrim, but at the time of his death he had only written wm

twenty-four and some of them were not complete. The Prologue

The pilgrims are described in the General Prologue; together, they represent a wide

cross-section of fourteenth-century English life, although the nobility and the poor are missing as they would not have taken part in this type of group pilgrimage. The Tales

The tales are structured as a series of interlinked stories. Each tale is preceded by a pro-

logue in which the storyteller speaks about himself. The themes of the tales vary from the spiritual to the earthy and humorous. The pilgrims are often illmannered and quarrelsome and frequently interrupt and criticise each other. The Miller, for example, tells a story about an ageing carpenter whose young wife is

mm..

unfaithful

to h i m .

The

Reeve, who is a trained car-

•MM

William Caxton's Canterbury Tales (1478), British Library. -

-

$!0&guc

•Writers' Gallery - Geoffrey Chaucer

penter, retaliates with a tale about a miller w h o is also betrayed by his wife. M a n y of t h e tales counterbalance or give another point of view to the ideas presented in the preceding tale. The tales permit open dialogue between people from different levels of society. The pilgrims' tales include a variety of medieval genres that range from humorous beast fables* to the serious homily or sermon. Why it is a masterpiece

The Canterbury

Tales is a masterpiece for numerous reasons:

• it is written in English in a period when it was a forgone conclusion that all serious writing had to be done in Latin or French. Chaucer himself was fluent in both these languages as well as in Italian; • it is a valuable social document as it gives us an insight into a cross-section of fourteenth-century English society; • it includes experimentation with rhyme and rhythm patterns that greatly affected the literature that followed; • it contains a cast of memorable characters that are brought to life by Chaucer's superb powers of characterisation. It is for these outstanding achievements that Chaucer is generally regarded as the father of English poetry. The Canterbury

Tales was one of the first works to be printed by William Caxton's revolution-

ary printing press in 1478, and it has never been out of print since then.

TASKS 1 Answer these questions.

2 Cross out incorrect statements. The Canterbury Tales...

a. What is Chaucer's most important work from the French period? b. What literary genre does The Parlement of Foules belong to? c. Who is the protagonist of The House of Fame? 4. Which of Chaucer's poems is considered to be one of the best love poems in English literature? «. Which famous Egyptian queen is one of the characters of The Legend of Good Women?

a. b. c. d. e.

is a poem written in iambic pentameter. was written in the later stages of Chaucer's life. is unfinished. is about fourteenth-century English aristocrats. should have included 120 tales, according to the original plan. f. was originally written in Latin and translated into English by Chaucer.

J Use the mind map to prepare a short talk about Chaucer's life and works. Army Mid,dle c l a s j -< background

\

t I

-

»-Patron: john of Gaunt

Political career

Buried in Poets' Corner

Literary career French period

•Travels

/

u Italian period

\

English period:

The Canterbury Tales

mam

Everyman BBBD DD Look at this list of abstract concepts: Good Fear Kindness

Evil Greed Intelligence

Beauty Wealth Power

Find photographs from newspapers or magazines that exemplify one or more of these concepts. For example, a military parade might represent power, while a huge yacht might represent wealth. Explain your choices to the class.

INTRODUCTION •

T h e a i m o f M e d i e v a l D r a m a was t o e n t e r t a i n a n d i n s t r u c t . An e x a m p l e of t h i s

didactic form of theatre was t h e Morality play w h i c h b e c a m e e x t r e m e l y popular during t h e fourteenth c e n t u r y . M o r a l i t y p l a y s were i n t e n d e d t o t e a c h p r i n c i p l e s a n d v a l u e s . T h e c h a r a c t e r s in t h e p l a y s personified abstract c o n c e p t s such as greed, laziness and kindness. T h e y debated moral issues and m a d e suggestions about h o w people should live. Everyman,

written in 1 5 0 0 , is o n e of t h e finest e x a m p l e s of medieval Morality plays. THE STORY God is angry because Everyman, who represents mankind,

is more concerned

with

material goods than spirituality. He summons

Death

Everyman

and

tells

to justify

him

to

force

how he has

lived.

Everyman looks for friends who will stand by him in this hour of need. He

asks

Kindred (family) and Wealth to keep him company but they immediately

abandon

him. Strength, Beauty, Intelligence

and

Knowledge

the

all help Everyman along

way, but it is Good Deeds accompanies towards

alone

him on his final

death.

A sixteenth-century woodcut of Everyman.

that journey

Everyman

Everyman's Salvation KME! Q This scene is taken from the end of the play. The text is a modern version taken from a recent

production.

EVERYMAN:

O Jesu, help! All hath 1 forsaken 2 me.

G O O D DEEDS: EVERYMAN:

Nay 3 , Everyman; I will bide 4 with thee 5 .

Gramercy 6 , Good Deeds 7 ! Now may I True friends see.

Knowledge, will ye 8 forsake me also? KNOWLEDGE: EVERYMAN:

Yea9, Everyman, when ye to Death shall Go; But not yet.

5

Gramercy.

Take example, all ye that this do hear or see, How they that I loved best do forsake me, Except m y Good Deeds that bideth truly. G O O D DEEDS:

All earthly things is but vanity;

10

Beauty, Strength, and Discretion do man forsake, Foolish friends, and kinsmen 1 0 , that fair spake 11 All fleeth 1 2 save 13 Good Deeds, and that am I. EVERYMAN:

Have mercy on me, God most mighty.

GOOD DEEDS: EVERYMAN:

15

Here I cry God mercy.

GOOD DEEDS: EVERYMAN:

Fear not; I will speak for thee.

GLOSSARY

Let us go and never come again.

1. h a t h : have

Into thy hands, Lord, m y soul I commend;

2. forsaken: abandoned

(In manus tuas, of mights most

3. Nay: no

20

For ever, c o m m e n d o spiritum meum) [He sinks into his grave] KNOWLEDGE:

Methinketh 1 4 that I hear angels sing.

5. thee: you 7. Deeds: actions 8. ye: you 9. Yea: yes

Now shalt thou into the heavenly sphere.

10. kinsmen: family

Where all ye shall come

11. spake: spoke

That liveth 1 6 well before the judgement day.

25

[Enter DOCTOR]

12. fleeth: run away 13. save: except 14. M e t h i n k e t h : I think

Ye hearers, take it of worth, old and young,

15.reckoning: admission of things you have done

And forsake Pride, for he deceiveth you in the end; And remember Beauty, Five Wits, Strength, and Discretion.

16. liveth: live

They all at the last do every man forsake, Save his Good Deeds there

4. bide: stay 6. Gramercy: thank you

ANGEL: Thy reckoning 1 5 is crystal-clear.

DOCTOR:

• Visual Link B5

doth 1 7

he take.

For after death amends may n o man make 1 8 . THUS ENDETH THIS MORAL PLAY OF EVERYMAN

30

17. doth: does 18. amends m a y n o m a n make: man cannot atone for his sins

»

COMPREHENSION 1 Why does Everyman thank Good Deeds? 2 Does Knowledge abandon Everyman immediately? 3 Which 'earthly things' are of little use to a man when he faces death, according to Good Deeds? 4 Why does Good Deeds tell Everyman not to fear?

5 What makes Knowledge believe that Everyman has gone to heaven? 6 Who, according to the angel, will enter the 'heavenly sphere' on the judgement day? 7 Why is it important that a man has Good Deeds to take with him when he dies, according to the Doctor?

30

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval D r a m a

ANALYSIS 1 In his final speech the doctor speaks directly to the public: 'Ye hearers, ...'. Find three other examples where characters address the audience. Everyman: lines Deeds: Angel:

lines lines

How do these direct addresses add to the didactic nature of the text?

2 Would you consider the language used in the to be • simple and straightforward? • elevated and poetic? For what type of audience do you think this kind play was performed? 3 C i ) Listen to the recording and focus on the sou features. Find examples of end of line rhymes a alliteration.

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Allegory

An allegory is a story, poem, picture, etc., in which the characters and events not o have meaning in themselves but also convey a second spiritual or philosophical mean' In the case of Everyman,

for example, the character Everyman on one level is simply

man facing death who has to account for how he has lived his life. On a second, more philosophical level, Everyman stands for all men and the problems he faces are those mankind in general: level 1 - an individual facing death Everyman level 2 - mankind struggling with moral issues Typical characteristics of an allegory are: • the presence of at least two levels of meaning; • the personification of abstract concepts such as virtues, vices, states of mind, etc.; • the representation of historical personages and events; • the presentation of moral or philosophical issues; • the introduction of humorous elements. Which of the elements of allegory listed above can be found in the excerpt from Everyman you have read? There are many different types of allegorical stories. Aesop's ..^JäESs -

parables* •• - fliSsljfej

fables*,

for example, or

such as those told by Jesus are allegorical and therefore have more than one level

of meaning. Do you know any allegorical stories? If so, can you explain the different levels of meaning?

You do a good deed when you help someone without expecting anything in return. A small one would be to help an old person carry heavy bags home from the supermarket. A big one would be to donate most of your savings to a charitable organisation. Some people say that in our commercialised world there are fewer good deeds than in the past. Do you agree? Give examples of good deeds that you know people do or of good deeds that you would like to see people do.

fly;

The Context

f

Historical and Social Background

Britain: From earliest times to 1066 f o r how long t h e windswept islands off t h e n o r t h w e s t coast of THE aental Europe were uninhabited remains a mystery. When and why t first human beings set foot on British and Irish soil must also remain a matter r speculation. What is known is that those first adventurers were followed by ; identifiable groups of migrants who settled into their new home.

EDGE OF EUROPE

ent times Britain was inhabited by Iberians. Little is known of these BRITAIN'S who left behind them the barrows (large mound graves made of or stone) that can still be seen in the south of Britain and at Stonehenge, a ous circle of stones. n 2 0 0 0 and 1200 BC, the Celts began to migrate to Britain from west Germany. They spoke their own Celtic language, and were as Britons. Celts lived in round, wooden huts in small villages and were mainly farmers, h k e y organised themselves i n t o tribes with a king or queen as leader and m a t r i b a l wars were very common. |fet 55 BC Julius Caesar landed in Britain having conquered Gaul. After a of military campaigns, small Roman settlements were created in ith and east. a hundred years later, in AD 43, the emperor Claudius sent a large army to Roman control over a wider area. The Britons, led by Queen Boadicea, bravely but were defeated. Boadicea chose to drink poison rather than be prisoner. All of England and Wales was subdued. Romans introduced their civilisation and language and built towns, roads, and temples. Many of the towns were originally army camps and the Latin for camp, castra, has remained ny modern town names ending h\aster', 'chester' or 'cester', such as ster, Manchester or Leicester. : of the Roman roads are still in ace today, t Romans tried for over a century to er Caledonia, as they called id. but they did not succeed. In 1 aid. Emperor Hadrian ordered the ig of a wall across the north of Bae m d to act as a great defensive r to stop attacks from the Scottish who were known as Picts.

FIRST INHABITANTS

THE SECOND WAVE

THE ROMANS Queen

Boadicea

& •

94 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context

N E W INVADERS The Anglo-Saxons

At the beginning of the fifth century AD, Rome withdrew its legions Britain to the c o n t i n e n t to defend the borders of the empire ag barbarian attacks. New invaders saw the opportunity for expansion and began to settle on the ' the Angles, Saxons and Jutes came from the regions of continental Europe correspond to the modern territories of Holland, Southern Denmark and W Germany. They gradually took over the area that is now known as England land of the Angles) while the Celts retreated north and west to Scotland and' The new settlers brought with them an extensive body of tribal culture in the of alliterative verse. Some of them also used a runic alphabet to carve messages, mostly on wooden sticks, but writing was not used extensively until the conversion to Christianity, when manuscript technology was introduced from Rome and Ireland. The Anglo-Saxons lived in small villages; their houses were made of mud, wood and straw and were grouped around the house of their Runes: characters of an ancient Germanic ] lord. The Anglo-Saxons liked fighting, alphabet used throughout Northern Europe, gambling and drinking. They also Scandinavia, the British Isles and Iceland. liked music and singing. Their sense

r h • m SbM X*

f U thO r

g

• N + U * kYHt

w h n i j ch p e o s t

Life in Anglo-Saxon Britain

The thane

CHRISTIANITY St Augustine

• Visual Links B2 and B4

The Venerable Bede

THE VIKINGS

L MH h X K l ^ f l i

b e m Ingoedaaey

of hospitality was renowned, as was the high respect they showed for women. Life expectancy was not very long. The climate of England was and damper at that time and few people lived beyond the age of forty-l Epidemics and famine contributed to the high rate of mortality. The 'thane' was the most important man in the village; he kept order and his people obey the law. There were no prisons, and p u n i s h m e n t according to the crime. Criminals were either mutilated, hanged, or comp pay a sum of money called 'wergild'. Britain had been Christian under the Romans, but the pagan Saxons pushed Christianity westward and northward, where it survi Wales, parts of Scotland and above all in Ireland. At the end of the sixth cen Pope Gregory I sent a monk, Augustine, to bring Christianity back to Engl Augustine established a Christian community in Canterbury and became the Archbishop of Canterbury. Churches were built all over the country and monks, whose simple mon lives appealed to the common people, played a major role in the conversion] the Anglo-Saxons. With Christianity came Latin learning and the converted Anglo-Saxons prod" academic and scientific works of remarkable quality for the period. Venerable Bede, a scholar and historian, wrote, in Latin, the first history^ England. However, nearly all the treasures of this golden cultural age wf destroyed along with many monasteries by Britain's next invaders. The Vikings, who came from Norway and Denmark, raided northern; western Europe between the eighth and the ninth centuries, c a r r y i n g l B anything of value they could find. During their raids the Vikings built t e m p o « B camps and their word for camp wik can still be found in modern place name* such as Warwick and Norwich.

H i s t o r i c a l a n d Social B a c k g r o u n d

The most successful Viking invasions established settlements along the northeast coast. The Anglo-Saxons were unable to repel them and in 8 7 8 King Alfred the Great signed a treaty leaving t h e Vikings in c o n t r o l of n o r t h e r n England while he maintained power in the south. The Vikings eventually blended in with the Anglo-Saxons and made important contributions to the English language: for example, nouns like skirt and sky and pronouns like they and them are of Viking origin. The power of the Anglo-Saxons was broken in AD 1066 by the Normans. The N o r m a n s c a m e originally from D e n m a r k b u t after settling on t h e French coast they adopted French customs and a dialect of the French language. The Norman king William I (William t h e Conqueror) defeated the last AngloS a x o n king Harold II at t h e B a t t l e of H a s t i n g s in 1 0 6 6 and t o o k c o n t r o l of southern England.

King Alfred

THE NORMANS William

the

Conqueror

• Visual Link B3

Sporadic resistance in the rest of the country was then crushed with the help of advanced military technology including moats and stone castles (Anglo-Saxon castles were made of wood). After t h e N o r m a n c o n q u e s t AngloS a x o n e l e m e n t s o f E n g l i s h culture survived primarily a m o n g t h e lower classes, w h i l e French and Latin elements predominated in aristocratic circles. The animals tended by herders, for example, had Anglo-Saxon names «сои', lamb, pig) w h i l e t h e f i n i s h e d products served up on aristocratic ubles had names derived from French beef, mutton, pork). Important aspects of Anglo-Saxon law were, however, rxorporated into English law.

The Norman invasion was the last in British history, but it was by far the significant, and its effects were to be felt for m a n y centuries after l's historic victory at the Battle of Hastings.

-|"HE M A K I N G QF THE BRITISH NATION |

TASK I-iDOSe the correct option. The early inhabitants of Britain, the Iberians, left behind graves and a mysterious circle of stones erected on the Salisbury Plain. 6

J»J no trace of their culture and civilisation.

2 The Celts came from * ! northern Italy around 4 0 0 BC and spoke Latin. 1»J Germany and were called Britons. 1 ~~e Romans *

led by Julius Caesar landed in Britain in 55 BC.

:

were defeated by Boadicea.

1

southern and central Britain, where they built towns and roads.

*

(tomans conquered

Sntain and defeated the Picts in Scotland.

5 The Anglo-Saxons came when the Romans withdrew from Britain. |~b] defeated the Romans and took control of Britain. 6 Christianity was introduced by the [ a ] Romans, then strengthened by St Augustine. [b] Anglo-Saxons, who built churches and monasteries. 7 The Vikings ["a] invaded southern England, but soon left without trace. |~b~l came from Scandinavia and established settlements along the coast of northern England. 8 The Normans _aj led by King Harold II defeated the Vikings in 1066. [~b] defeated the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings.

J

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context

Britain 1066-1485: The Middle Ages ENEMIES EVERYWHERE

The Hundred Years' War

Scottish

resistance

I Wales

THE SOCIAL ORDER

After the Battle of Hastings the Normans took control of the whole of England, but they had to deal with threats from two sources: their fellow countrymen in France and their rebellious Scots, Irish and Welsh neighbours. At t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e Middle Ages, England and France were almost o n e country because m a n y aristocrats owned land on both sides of the Channel, while the king divided his time between both. However, following a number of wars, i n c l u d i n g t h e H u n d r e d Years' War, w h i c h started in 1 3 3 7 , England separated from France. The war was marked by victories and defeats that brought about the loss or recovery of territories in France. In 1415 the English defeated the French at the battle of Agincourt and won back Normandy, but the French, led by the charismatic French patriot Joan of Arc, counterattacked. J o a n was captured and executed by the English in 1431. By 1453 the port of Calais was the only possession England had in France. Like the Romans, t h e Anglo-Normans had a m b i t i o n s to c o n q u e r Scotland, but despite n u m e r o u s a t t e m p t s , t h e y were unsuccessful. T h e B a t t l e of B a n n o c k b u r n ( 1 3 1 4 ) marked t h e high point in Scottish resistance to The film Braveheart English aggression. tells the story of Scottish resistance to English Ireland had been left alone for ceninvaders and the turies, until the Norman king Henry II historic Scottish victory sent an army there in the eleventh at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. century. Although this expedition was not very successful, it was significant because it was the first time an English government showed direct interest in the neighbouring island. For a long time Wales resisted Norman attempts to bring it under control, but by the end of the thirteenth century most resistance had broken down and the Prince of Wales, the English king's eldest son, ruled the country in the English king's interests. Like France, English society adopted the feudal system and there was strict distinction between social classes. The most powerful individual in the country was the king. He owned most of the land, was the leader of the army and could demand that the people pay him taxes. He made the laws with the help of advisers, and lived in a castle with his closest followers, who made up the court. Barons and lords were members of the aristocracy who were given land by the king. They had almost absolute power in their territories. Knights, merchants and yeomen made up the middle classes. The knights were soldiers who fought for the lords and the king and were often rewarded with land. The merchants were Britain's first businessmen and usually lived in towns. The yeomen were farmers who owned small pieces of land. The majority of the population were villeins or serfs, who were given a small piece of land to work by a lord, but they did not own it. In return they had to give most of what they produced to their lord and do any job he asked them to do.

H M Historical a n d Social B a c k g r o u n d

One tenth of the population were slaves. Unlike villains or serfs they had no land to work and were owned by the lord, who used them as he wished. Under the feudal system political power lay in the hands of the king. He THE ruled through a system of patronage, which meant that he gave land or granted privileges to the people who were loyal to him and helped him in times of need. The monarchy, however, could survive only through a constant supply of m o n e y in the form of taxes, so the relationship between the king and his subjects was based on how much money the king wanted and how much people were prepared to pay. An i m p o r t a n t event in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of this relationship was the carrying out of the first census in English history during the reign of King William I, in 1086. His officials went around the country and wrote down the names of all the landowners and how much land they owned. In this way the king knew how much tax to ask for from each individual. This census became known as the Domesday Book. ~he nobles, who were the main contributors of money to the monarchy, THE :elt that in return for their generosity they should have some say in the xr'vernment of the country. Under pressure from them, King J o h n agreed to : : n s u l t a representative c o u n c i l of t h e aristocracy in 1 2 1 5 . This h i s t o r i c izieement was written down in a document known as the Magna Carta. In 1240, for the first time, the council of aristocrats which advised the king was :nJed a 'parliament': England was on the road of becoming the first and only r.idiamentary monarchy in Europe. - owever, tax money from the nobles was not enough to finance the upkeep of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and pay for t h e wars against r r a n c e ; t h e middle classes were t h e n asked to c o n t r i b u t e as well. T h e y c o m p l i e d , b u t in 1 3 4 9 knights, yeomen and merchants united to form the Council of the C o m m o n e r s and demanded, in turn, to be consulted by the king when important decisions had to be taken. From a situation in which the king e n j o y e d almost absolute power, by the end of the Middle Ages, two councils, one made up of aristocrats and the other of commoners, had a say in the running of the country. England became the first country in the world where the principle that representatives of the people had a right to participate in government was accepted. In m a n y ways t h e c o u n c i l s of t h e aristocrats and commoners were the prototype for today's House of Lords and House of Commons. The loss of power was not the only problem the monarchy had to face. Dynastic conflicts led to instability and civil war in the second half of the fifteenth century, when two noble families fought each other to gain the right to rule England. This conflict was known as the Wars of the Roses because one faction, the House of York, had a white rose as their symbol while their opponents, the House of Lancaster, had a red rose. At the r ittle of Barnet in 1471, the House of York eventually n a decisive victory and secured the throne.

SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

The Domesday

Book

LOSS OF ABSOLUTE POWER The Magna The first

Carta 'parliament'

The Council of the Commoners

Ifr"35

36

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The C o n t e x t

Read this extract from the Magna Carta (1215) (in modern

English).

No aid 1 shall be collected in our k i n g d o m w i t h o u t the c o n s e n t (of t h e C o u n c i l ) e x c e p t to ransom person 3 , and to make our eldest son a knight, and once to marry our eldest daughter, and for this purpi only a reasonable aid only shall be collected. (...) Furthermore we promise that all (...) cities, towns, and shall have all their liberties and privileges, and shall pay aids only with the c o m m o n counsel of the except in the three cases said above. (...) We will n o t for t h e future g r a n t p e r m i s s i o n t o a n y m a n to c o l l e c t a n aid u p o n h i s free m e n save ransoming his body, making his eldest son a knight, and o n c e marrying his eldest daughter, for whid reasonable aid only shall be collected. (...) For a trivial 4 offence, a free man shall be fined only in proportion to the degree of his offence, and for a offence correspondingly, but not so heavily as to deprive him of his livelihood 5 . In the same way, a merchi shall be spared his merchandise, and a husbandman 6 the implements 7 of his husbandry 8 . (...) None of fines shall be imposed except by the assessment on oath of reputable men of the neighbourhood. (...) No sheriff, constable, coroners, or other royal officials are to hold lawsuits that should be held by the royal ju: KING JOHN The 15th day of June in the 17th year or our reign (1215) GLOSSARY 1. aid: tax 2. ransom: set free

3. our person: the king 4. trivial: of small importance 5. livelihood: means of living

6. husbandman: farmer 7. implements: tools 8. husbandry: farming

TASKS 1 The extract focuses on two main issues. What are they? 2 Why do you think the barons felt compelled to force King John to make these promises?

THE CHURCH

Apart from t h e king and t h e nobles, t h e greatest power in England in the Middle Ages was the Church. In the eleventh century the k i n g c o n t r o l l e d t h e C h u r c h and appointed all the bishops, but in the following centuries the Pope in Rome gradually increased his influence and t o o k o v e r t h e a p p o i n t m e n t of C h u r c h leaders. This led to c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n C h u r c h and S t a t e . T h i s c o n f l i c t is best e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e relationship between Thomas a Becket, t h e A r c h b i s h o p of C a n t e r bury, a n d King H e n r y II. T h e k i n g a n d t h e A r c h b i s h o p c l a s h e d over

jjj

A scene from Becket (1964), starring Richard Burton and Peter O'Toole.

H i s t o r i c a l a n d Social B a c k g r o u n d

where people should be tried - ecclesiastical or civil courts. Thomas refused to give in and was murdered by Henry's knights in Canterbury Cathedral (1170). Although the vast majority of the population could neither read nor write, the Middle Ages saw the beginning of an educational system in England. Monasteries were the leading centres of culture, and t h e C h u r c h was the first institution to set up schools, b e g i n n i n g in t h e e l e v e n t h century. The first lay schools were opened by merchants in the towns some four centuries later. Oxford and Cambridge universities were established as early as the thirteenth century. In modern terms, England in the Middle Ages was a developing country when compared to more economically advanced parts of Europe like Italy and Flanders. English merchants fostered trade, especially in wool and textiles, and tended to live in towns. London, owing to its strategic position in the south of the country, became a busy trading centre. Many of the Anglo-Saxon laws were still applied throughout the Middle Ages. For example, victims of crime were paid damages by offenders. The Normans, however, added their own laws and the new system became known as C o m m o n Law. Under C o m m o n Law, a new case was compared to similar cases in the past and the judge then decided what to do in the new case. This system is still in operation in Britain today. Life was very hard. In t h e Middle Ages over ninety-five percent of the population lived in the country or in small villages. People lived off the produce of the land and, as the population increased, there was sometimes n o t enough food for everybody. The average diet was very poor and people rarely ate fruit or vegetables b e c a u s e fruit was t h o u g h t to be dangerous to health and v e g e t a b l e s were used o n l y t o s e a s o n m e a t a n d soups. T h e r e s u l t i n g lack of vitamins meant that disease was widespread. One event, above all others, affected daily life. T his was the b u b o n i c plague or Black Death, which first broke out in 1348 and was not completely eradicated for centuries. It is estimated that one third of the population of late medieval England was killed by the plague. The Middle Ages was a period of slow change and development in Britain. THE When the first king of the Tudor dynasty, Henry VII, came to the throne in 1485, he found himself at the head of a stable country that was about to embark on a social and cultural renaissance.

EDUCATION The role of the monasteries

THE ECONOMY

THE LEGAL SYSTEM The Common

Law

DAILY LIFE • Visual Link B6

The Black

Death

• Visual Link BS

EVE OF THE RENAISSANCE

TASKS 1 Match words and definitions. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Hundred Years' War Domesday Book Magna Carta Black Death Council of Commoners Wars of the Roses

a b c d e f

Document giving the barons power and rights, Bubonic plague that ravaged Europe for centuries, Group of people from the middle classes who advised the king, First survey of the population in England. Series of conflicts between two noble families for the throne of England, Series of wars between England and France.

2 Write beside each event the century in which it took place. Battle of Hastings Battle of Bannockburn Failed expedition to Ireland The English crown takes control of Wales King John signs the Magna Carta First census: the Domesday Book

Assassination of Thomas a Becket Oxford and Cambridge universities established . Calais only English possession left in France Wars of the Roses Outbreak of Black Death

37

40

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context

Transcriptions by monks

BEOWULF

• Beowulf, Texts B1 and B2

The setting • Visual Link B1

Historical content

PROSE

poems based on stories from the Old Testament. Cynewulf wrote poems about the lives of the saints and apostles. What remains of early Anglo-Saxon poetry today was written down by monks in monasteries from the end of seventh century onward. The monks often eliminated pagan aspects of the works that contrasted with religion and added elements of Christian morality. Only about 30,000 lines of Anglo-Saxon verse survive today. About ten percent of this corpus is formed by the 3,182 lines of the epic poem Beowulf, the oldest existing work of literature in the English language. The Angles, Saxons and Jutes took the story to Britain during their fifth century invasions, then the story was passed on from generation to generation until it was eventually written down by an anonymous writer, probably in the eighth century. The only surviving manuscript of the poem dates from the tenth century. It is currently housed in the British Library in London. The poem tells the story of the hero Beowulf in his fights against supernatural creatures and includes many references to other stories and historical events. Most of the main action takes place in Geatland (in Sweden) and on the Danish island of Sjaelland (Zealand) during the sixth century. However, the many digressions extend the poem's geography to the rest of Denmark, northern Germany, Poland and the Low Countries.

F/ET FE

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The oldest existing copy of Beowulf is a tenth-century manuscript which miraculously survived a fire that destroyed the library where it was stored in the sixteenth century. Some of the pages still bear the marks of the fire. Today the manuscript is housed in the British Library, London.

Although there is no evidence that Beowulf himself ever existed, it seems that I several poems were composed about the character. The poets obviously had a deep I knowledge of Germanic history and even though Beowulf is a legendary figure t h e ! events of the poem occur in a real place and in a precise historical setting. The oldest example of Anglo-Saxon prose is represented by laws written at 1 the beginning of the seventh century. However, the most i m p o r t a n t ! d o c u m e n t from that period is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It was o r i g i n a l l y ! compiled on the orders of King Alfred the Great in approximately AD 890 andl subsequently maintained and added to by generations of anonymous scribes! until the middle of the twelfth century. It is a detailed timeline of English history, I which includes information on agriculture, science, law, battles, religion a n d ! many other topics. It does not present a complete history of those times and it is not one hundred percent accurate but it does give some idea of what happened] in Britain over one thousand years ago.

TASK Correct the following statements. a. Nearly all modern English words derive from Old English words. b. The very few examples of Anglo-Saxon poetry that have come down to us were written in manuscript form by travelling minstrels called 'scops'. c. The Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf is a mixture of fact and fiction. d. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is an accurate historical account of the reign of King Alfred the Great.

The Literary B a c k g r o u n d

MEANWHILE,

41

ELSEWHERE

LINK TO G E R M A N LITERATURE: The Nibelungelied One of the most famous European sagas to be composed in the same period as Beowulf is the Germanic epic poem T h e Nibelungenlied (Song of the Nibelungs). The Nibelungenlied was written down in old German by an anonymous scribe around AD 1200, but it dates from an emiier period. The saga's characters belong to the Nibelung-Burgundian Germanic population, who settled between the Rher Rhine and France in the fifth and sixth centuries AD. The Burgundians were exterminated by the Huns in 437. The saga was told around fires at night and sung to the harp in the banqueting halls of kings and nobles. It was known to all Germanic-speaking peoples in Germany and Scandinavia, as well as to the Angles and Saxons in Britain. like Beowulf, Siegfried, the hero of the saga, kills a dragon. By bathing in its blood, he acquires magic powers i n d becomes almost invincible. However, he also comes into possession of a treasure which carries with it a terrible curse: its owner will meet a violent death. In the course of m a n y adventures, Siegfried promises to marry Brunhild, queen of the Valkyries, but t h e n breaks his promise, and marries Kriemhild. Brunhild is furious and has Siegfried killed, but when he dies she kills herself in despair. Many years later, Kriemhild's second husband, Attila, king of the Huns, claims that Siegfried's treasure should r t his, but Gunther, Kriemhild's brother, has hidden it at a secret location in the river Rhine (where, according x legend, it is still hidden today). In the ensuing battle over the treasure between Attila and the Huns and « a n t h e r and the Nibelungs, Gunther and nearly all the Nibelungs are killed. M desperation at the death of her brother and the defeat of her people, Kriemhild kills her two sons and iermes them to her husband at the victory banquet. She then murders him while he is sleeping and is herself KSed by a knight who is horrified at what she has done.

TASK Car you see any similarities between the legend of Beowulf and the legend of the Nibelungenlied? Make a list of the a r m o r elements. For example: - They both belong to an oral storytelling tradition and were passed on from generation to generation until they were • fcufy written down.

{ to the world of music iddle of the nineteenth century Wagner, perhaps the greatest "T of German opera, used The enlied legend as the basis for his cycle operas known collectively as Der Ring tiungen. C ^ Listen to one of the most famous pas• i y from the opera The Valkyries. What ; land of emotions does the music evoke? Do Lfou think it recreates the atmosphere of an •anic scene? Bfou .vere asked to set the legend of Beowulf T: -mjsic, what kind of music would you - rose - heavy metal, acoustic folk music, —^crron c music, slow melodic music?

Music from The Valkyries was used as the soundtrack in scenes from the film about the Vietnam war Apocalypse Now.

102 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context

Literature in the Middle Ages After the Norman invasion three languages were spoken in England. The ruling Norman class spoke French, while English was the language of the conquered Anglo-Saxons and Latin was the language of the Church and scholars. The English of this period was an unstable mixture of dialects. There were four major dialects: Northern, East Midland, West Midland and Southern. It was the East Midland dialect that eventually became the basis of the modern language. This was because it was the dialect spoken in London, which was becoming a major commercial centre, and it was also the dialect of Cambridge and Oxford, the two great centres of learning. In what is referred to as the Middle English period (1150-1500) English underwent momentous changes from both a grammatical and a lexical point of view. During the Middle English centuries noun and adjective endings gradually disappeared. Grammatical gender also disappeared and gender in nouns related only to the masculinity or femininity of living beings. As the Anglo-Norman aristocracy eventually lost their ties with France, they started to speak English but enriched the language by adding thousands of French words to it. By 1476, when William Caxton introduced printing to England, the language had been greatly simplified grammatically and enriched lexically. Old English had been transformed into a language which would form the basis for modern English.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE MIDDLE ENGLISH From Old English to Middle English

Major changes

Printing

THE EARLY MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD (1066-1350) Didactic poems

Writing in Latin

N o r m a n Conquest did not have an immediate effect on English literature. Old English sagas like Beowulf continued to be copied during the second half of the eleventh century and Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse was composed until well after 1066. Long didactic poems written in English were also popular in this period. They presented stories from the Bible, saints' lives and moral lessons, and were intended as instruction for people who did not know Latin or French.

As English increasingly became the language of the uneducated common people fewer works of literature were written in it. Latin was generally considered to be

A sixteenth-century printing press.

•PS The Literary Background

the language of serious writing. One example of a Latin work from this period is Historia Regum Britanniae ( 1 1 3 7 ) written by Geoffrey of M o n m o u t h . It is a collection of historical events and legends and it includes the first tales of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. It was not until more than one century after the Battle of Hastings that French models began to influence English literature. The chivalric romance, a form of narrative poetry which developed in twelfth-century France, spread to Britain in the thirteenth century. The plot of these poems usually centred around a single knight who fought at tournaments, slayed dragons and underwent a series of adventures in order to win the heart of his heroine. Romances introduced the idea of courtly love, according to which the lover idealised and idolised his beloved. The lover suffered agonies for his heroine but remained devoted to her, and showed his love by adhering to a rigorous code of behaviour both in battle and in his courtly conduct.

• Pieces of the Past, p. B44

Chivalric

romances

The romances written in Britain at this time are divided into three main categories: • the matter of Britain': stories that centre on the pseudo-historical King Arthur who defended Celtic Britain against the Anglo-Saxons; • the matter of Troy': tales of the classical world such as the Seege ofTroye and Kytig Alisaunder; • English Breton lays: short poems or songs that tell stories of otherworldly magic and are modelled on those of professional Breton storytellers. These unsophisticated works were written primarily for the emerging middle dasses, and the manuscripts that preserve them are early examples of commercial book production. Further evidence of influence from French literature comes in the form of humorous beast epics, which first appeared in the thirteenth century. One of the first examples of this genre is The Fox and the Wolf, an English version of the French epic Le Roman de Renart. The lyric, which was virtually u n k n o w n in Old English poetry, started to circulate in the thirteenth century. Lyrics were short songs that did not tell a storv but expressed the thoughts or feelings of a speaker. The most frequent topics in the Middle English secular lyrics are springtime and romantic love, ieligious lyrics also made an appearance at this time. The poets generally expressed their sorrow for Christ on the cross and for Mary. The religious devotion M the poets is often expressed in language that is also used in love poetry. Throughout the Middle Ages ballads*, short folk songs that tell stories, were very rcpular. The Celts and Anglo-Saxons undoubtedly composed ballads, but we ruive no record of these early works. The oldest recorded ballad in the English language, called Judas, was written down in a late thirteenth century manuscript. Many of the ballads, however, first appeared in written form with the Production of the printing press (1476). ballads told different types of stories. There were ballads about the supernatural: varies of ghosts and demons or people who returned from the dead to haunt the firing. There were romantic tragedies usually dealing with the separation of wers through misunderstanding or the opposition of family. Many ballads were about crime and its punishment, and often told the stories of amvicted criminals who were about to be executed and repented for their sins JO the execution scaffold. Over forty ballads were about the folk hero Robin rtood who was praised for his adventurous spirit, his sense of humour and his _: acern for the poor. Finally, there were ballads recounting historical events, _ :h as battles between the English and the Scots (The Border Ballads) or natural asters such as shipwrecks and plagues.

• The Canterbury Tales, Texts B6 and B7

The lyric

• pp. A19-20

• The Unquiet Grave, p. B8

• Robin Hood and the Bishop of Hereford, Text B3

43

104 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - T h e C o n t e x t

GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH'S HISTORIA REGUM BRITANNIAE Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain) is not a reliable historical source, as many of the events described in it are historically unfounded. From a literary point of view it is, however,highly regarded, and has been a source of inspiration for many writers throughout the centuries. The heroic deeds of King Arthur which are described in the book have been the subject of many subsequent literary works. CHAP. IV (...) At these words, all of t h e m , e n c o u r a g e d with t h e b e n e d i c t i o n of t h e h o l y prelate, i n s t a n t l y armed themselves, and prepared to obey his orders. Also Arthur himself, having put on a coat of mail 1 suitable to grandeur of so powerful a king, placed a golden helmet upon his head, on which was engraven the figure of a dragon; and on his shoulders his shield called Priwen; upon which the picture of the blessed Mary, mother of God, was painted, in order to put him frequently in mind of her. T h e n girding o n 2 his Caliburn, which was an excellent sword made in t h e isle of Avallon, he graced his right hand with his lance, n a m e d Ron, which was hard, broad, and fit for slaughter 3 . After this, having placed his men in order, he boldly attacked the Saxons, who were drawn out in the shape of a wedge 4 , as their manner was. (...) he drew out his Caliburn, and, calling upon the name of the blessed Virgin, rushed forward with great fury into the thickest of the enemy's ranks; of w h o m (such was the merit of his prayers) not one escaped alive t h a t felt t h e fury of his sword; n e i t h e r did he give over t h e fury of his assault u n t i l h e had, with his Caliburn a l o n e , killed four h u n d r e d and s e v e n t y m e n . T h e Britons, seeing this, followed their leader in great m u l t i t u d e s , a n d m a d e slaughter on all sides (...)

A scene from the film Excalibur (1981): Arthur accepting the magic sword from the Lady of the Lake.

GLOSSARY 1. coat of mail: piece of armour of metal rings or plate used to

protect the upper part of the body 2. girding on: fastening, attaching

3. slaughter: killing 4. drawn o u t . . . wedge: positioned in a V-shaped formation

TASKS 1 Make a list of the armour King Arthur wore and the weapons he carried into battle. 2 Underline the Christian references in the text. 3 Who was King Arthur fighting against? 4 How many men did King Arthur kill according to the text? 5 What was the outcome of the battle?

I The Literary Background

The Norman Conquest did not initially affect prose writing. Old English prose t e x t s were c o p i e d for m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y after t h e B a t t l e of Hastings. However, in t h e early t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y it was necessary to add a glossary to help readers understand the texts, because the English language had changed so much. French and Latin were the principal languages of prose. Those works which were written in English were intended primarily for w o m e n who could not read French or Latin, and included several texts on the lives of women saints a n d t h e ' A n c r e n e W i s s e ' or 'Rule of A n c h o r e s s e s ' , a m a n u a l for t h e guidance of women recluses outside regular religious orders.

PROSE

TASK

—

Vrswer these questions. a. Why was French literature such a strong influence on English literature in the medieval period? b- Which poetic forms came from France? Which one(s) already existed in the Anglo-Saxon tradition?

f r o m 1 3 5 0 to 1 5 5 0 E n g l a n d witnessed a peculiar linguistic s i t u a t i o n , THE LATER gualism and trilingualism had become very c o m m o n among the small PERIOD ority of t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t c o u l d read. Latin and F r e n c h were idered more suitable for serious writing and there was such dialectal diversity in h that works could only be understood in the area where they were written. The i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e l a n g u a g e of l i t e r a t u r e in t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y is John plified by J o h n G o w e r ( 1 3 3 0 - 1 4 0 8 ) , who wrote three major works: in French (Speculum Meditantis - The Mirror of the Thoughtful Man); in Latin (Vox Clamantis - The Voice of one Crying in the Wilderness); in English ( C o n f e s s i o Amantis - The Lover's Confession). Norman aristocracy lost all ties with France, English replaced French as the age of t h e court. T h e aristocracy began to patronise English vernacular T h e stage was set for t h e triumphal e n t r a n c e of t h e father of English Geoffrey Chaucer. nportance of Geoffrey Chaucer's contribution to the development of literature is unquestionable. His introduction of a ten-syllable line ubic pentameter* r e v o l u t i o n i s e d r h y t h m in English poetry. His reflects t h e views and values of t h e society in w h i c h he lived, b u t his were not limited to local events and contemporary issues. His t h e m e s :of universal interest and he had a great t a l e n t for narrative writing. His iece is The Canterbury Tales, an unfinished series of stories told by a group i m s journeying from L o n d o n to the shrine of St T h o m a s a Becket and T h i s o u t s t a n d i n g work is a n o v e r v i e w of h u m a n n a t u r e a n d an ledia of medieval literary styles. poetry had become popular in the English language after it had reduced by the Normans, but in the fourteenth century there was J of alliterative verse w h i c h recalled t h e early A n g l o - S a x o n epics. An pie of a l l i t e r a t i v e verse f r o m t h i s p e r i o d is W i l l i a m L a n g l a n d ' s Piers s. It takes the form of a series of dream visions dealing with the spiritual !ocial issues of f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y England. In his dream t h e poet sees, I before him in a field, representatives from every class of English society, c a n attacks the abuses of the Church and the vices of the monastic orders, : resents a picture of t h e h a r d s h i p s c o m m o n people had to endure t h a t with the picture of a prosperous society presented by Chaucer.

MIDDLE ENGLISH (1350-1550)

Gower

POETRY: GEOFFREY CHAUCER

• The Canterbury Tales, Texts B4-B7

OTHER POETS William

Langland

45

Jj 48

FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - T h e C o n t e x t

MEANWHILE,

ELSEWHERE

LINK TO ITALIAN LITERATURE: Boccaccio

m

11

Travelling in Europe in the Middle Ages was not easy. Horse and carriage were the only means of transport and travellers were often attacked by outlaws. It is therefore surprising to see how m u c h and how far people travelled around; scholars and diplomats criss-crossed the continent and saw, read, wrote and swapped ideas. G e o f f r e y C h a u c e r , for o n e , was g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e works of Giovanni Boccaccio, whom he probably met during his travels in Italy. Boccaccio's verse romance Filostrato was the source for Chaucer's Troylus and Criseyde, and the framework idea in Boccaccio's Decameron, that a group of people leave Florence to escape the plague and tell stories to e n t e r t a i n themselves, is t h e basis for t h e structure of The Canterbury Tales. Boccaccio's last tale in particular, the story of Griselda, b e c a m e immensely popular in the late Middle Ages. Petrarch translated it into Latin, it was t h e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o F r e n c h and G e r m a n , and C h a u c e r retold it in English in The Clerk's Tale.

Giovanni Boccaccio.

TASK Do some research on the similarities and the differences between The Decameron and The Canterbury Tales and prepare a short talk.

CROSS-CURRICULAR LINK

-[ to Latin/Greek

The hero 1 What are the characteristics of a hero? Work in groups of four. Each of you should make a list of five words that you would associate with the word 'hero'. When you have finished, pool your ideas and make a list of the words you have come up with. What were the most common words? Read your list out to your classroom and listen to their lists. Based on the work of all the groups, make a list of the most common words associated with the idea of a hero. 2 Beowulf is the hero of northern European sagas. He lived in a world of powerful and mysterious forces where nobility, fatalism, pride, loyalty, the search for glory and death all played important parts. He lived in violent times in a violent environment where nature was often hostile and man was constantly under the threat of death from marauding monsters. A different type of hero was created in Mediterranean literature: Homer's Achilles and Ulysses, and Virgil's Aeneas belonged to different times, cultures and societies, which they reflect in their heroic deeds. Make a list of words that you would associate with each of these heroes.

What characteristics does Beowulf share with these classical heroes? Are there any important differences? Who would you consider to be a modern hero? Think of three names. On the basis of your choices try to define a modern hero. How do the heroes you have chosen reflect the times we live in?

THE RENAISSANCE 1 4 8 5 - 1 6 2 5 All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players.' F r o m As You Like It b y W i l l i a m Shakespeare

Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe

DBBD DD

In the play you are about to read the main character - Faustus - is terrified of going to hell. He cannot picture what it is really like but he knows that he will have to endure terrible suffering for all eternity. Try to build up a picture of what hell would be for you. For each of the five senses, describe a situation which you would find unbearable. An example has been given to help you. Sight

I have to watch a video of the mutilated bodies of all the victims of all the wars in human history.

Sound A constant squeaky noise like the one a new piece of chalk makes on a

Taste

All the food I eat is rotten and everything I drink tastes like acid.

Smell

There is an all-pervasive smell of decomposing

Touch

Everything I touch feels like the slimy skin of a snake.

blackboard.

bodies.

INTRODUCTION • Although Christopher Marlowe's f a m e was s o m e w h a t obscured b y his c o n t e m p o r a r y , W i l l i a m S h a k e s p e a r e , h e is regarded as o n e of t h e g r e a t d r a m a t i s t s o f t h e E n g l i s h R e n a i s s a n c e . In Doctor

Faustus

he has created o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m -

pelling characters in English literature. THE STORY Faustus, having studied and been disappointed

by all the sci-

ences, decides to explore the world of magic. Through he calls up Mephistopheles,

a devil, and makes an

magic,

agreement

with him: he will give his soul to Lucifer in return for twentyfour years of life. During this time, Mephistopheles

will be his

servant and do anything he asks him to do. For the rest of his life, Faustus indulges in every imaginable earthly pleasure and, thanks to the magical intervention of Mephistopheles, famous people from the past like Helen of Troy.

lustus makes a devilish it with Mephistopheles.

meets

Doctor Faustus - Christopher Marlowe

As the end of the twenty-four years draws near, Faustus begins to realise the enormity of the agreement he has made. He is terrified of death and begs to be saved, bid, at the end of the play, he is taken to hell by the devils.

Faustus's Last Hour

Text C I

Q

This is the last scene in the play. It is eleven o'clock and, at midnight, Faustus must give his soul to the devil and face eternal damnation.

Act 5, Scene 2 BAD ANGEL: N O W

CHARACTERS Faustus, let thine eyes with horror stare1

• Doctor Faustus, a scholar

Into that vast perpetual torture-house.

• Bad Angel, a devil

There are the Furies2 tossing 3 damned souls

< Mephistopheles, a devil

On burning forks; their bodies boil in lead. There are live quarters 4 burning on the coals That ne'er can die. This ever-burning chair Is for o'er tortured souls to rest them in. These that are fed with sops5 of flaming fire Were gluttons 6 and loved only delicates And laughed to see the poor starve7 at their gates.

10

But yet all these are nothing; thou shalt see Ten thousand tortures that more horrid be. FAUSTUS:

O, I have seen enough to torture me.

BAD ANGEL:

Nay8, thou must feel them, taste the smart 9 of all.

He that loves pleasure must for pleasure fall.

15

And so I leave thee, Faustus, till anon 1 0 ; Then wilt thou tumble 11 in confusion. [Exit FAUSTUS:

BAD ANGEL.

The clock strikes eleven]

Ah, Faustus,

Now hast thou but one bare 12 hour to live, And then thou must be damned perpetually. Stand still, you ever-moving spheres of

20

heaven 13 ,

7.

That time may cease 14 and midnight never come! Fair nature's eye 15 , rise, rise again, and make Perpetual day; or let this hour be but

9.

A year, a month, a week, a natural day,

25

GLOSSARY Note: Elizabethan English is different from modern English. Here is a list of the most frequently recurring archaic words and their modern equivalents.

12. bare: only

equi171

thou: you thee: you thyself: yourself thine: yours art: are hath: has, have doth: does

smart: sharp pain

10. anon: soon 11. tumble: collapse

That Faustus may repent 16 and save his soul! O lente, lente currite noctis

tossing: throwing quarters: bodies sops: small pieces gluttons: people who eat too much starve: die from hunger Nay: no

wilt: will shalt: shall 1. stare: look fixedly 2. Furies: goddesses who punished criminals in Roman and Greek mythology

13.spheres of heaven: planets 14. cease: stop 15.Fair nature's eye: the sun 16. repent: say you are sorry for your sins

17.0 lente, lente currite noctis equi: O slowly, slowly run, you horses of the night

3

4

THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

18. leap: jump 19. streams: flows 20. rend: tear 21. Yet will I call on him: but I will call him 22. spare me: do not take me 23.Stretcheth: stretches 24. bends ... brows: looks angrily down at Faustus 25. wrath: anger 26. Then: so 27. headlong: head first 28. gape: open wide 29. harbour: protect 30. You stars ... nativity: Marlowe is referring to astrology and the belief that the position of the stars when you are born can influence what happens in your life 31. allotted: given me 32. draw up: pull up

The stars move still; time runs; the clock will strike; The devil will come, and Faustus must be damned. O, I'll leap 18 up to my God! Who pulls me down? See, see where Christ's blood

streams 19

in the firmament!

One drop would save my soul, half a drop. Ah, my Christ! Ah, rend 20 not my heart for naming of my Christ! Yet will 1 call on him 21 . O, spare me 2 2 Lucifer! Where is it now? 'Tis gone; and see where God Stretcheth 23

out his arm and bends his ireful

Mountains and hills, come, come and fall on me And hide me from the heavy wrath 25 of God! No, no! Then 2 6 will I headlong 27 run into the earth. You stars that reigned at my nativity 30 , Whose influence hath allotted 31 death and hell, Now draw up 32 Faustus like a foggy mist Into the entrails 33 of yon 3 4 labouring 35 cloud,

If thou wilt not have mercy on my soul,

43. Why w e r t . . . soul?: why were (wert) you not born without a soul? (Faustus is talking to himself as if he were another person) 44. this: this soul 45. Pythagoras'

metempsychosis: a

theory, attributed to Pythagoras, which

45

That when you vomit forth 36 into the air,

36. forth: out of you

4 2 . 0 , no end ... souls: A damned soul must suffer forever

40

Earth, gape 28 ! O, no, it will not harbour 29 me.

My limbs 37 may issue 38 from your smoky mouths,

40.'Twill... anon: it will be over soon 4 1 . 0 God ... ransomed me: O, God if you do not want to (wilt not) save me, do it for your son, Jesus Christ, who has freed (hath ransomed) me through his sacrifice on the cross

35

brows 24 !

33. entrails: the inside part of an animal's or person's body 34. yon: over there 35. labouring: pregnant and slow-moving, as if the cloud was about to give birth 37. limbs: parts of the body 38. issue: come out of 39. watch: clock

30

So that my soul may but ascend to heaven. [The watch39 strikes] Ah, half the hour is past! 'Twill all be past anon 4 0 .

50

O God, Yet for Christ's sake, whose blood hath ransomed me 41 , Impose some end to my incessant pain. Let Faustus live in hell a thousand years,

55

A hundred thousand, and at last be saved. O, no end is limited to damned souls 42 . Why wert thou not a creature wanting soul? 43 Or why is this 44 immortal that thou hast? Ah, Pythagoras' metempsychosis4S,

were that true 46 ,

60

This soul should fly from me and I be changed Unto 47 some brutish 48 beast. All beasts are happy, for, when they die, Their souls are soon dissolved in elements 49 ; But mine must live still to be plagued 50 in hell.

65

Curst 51 be the parents that engendered 52 me!

says that, when a person or animal dies, their soul migrates to the body of another person or animal 46. were that true: if that were true

47.Unto: into 48. brutish: showing no human intelligence or feeling 49. dissolved in elements: disappear

50. plagued: punished 51. Curst: cursed (to curse someone is to ask God or another supernatural power to harm someone) 52. engendered: gave birth to

Doctor Faustus - C h r i s t o p h e r M a r l o w e

No, Faustus, curse thyself. Curse Lucifer, That hath deprived thee of the joys of heaven. [The clock striketh

twelve]

O, it strikes, it strikes! Now, body, turn to air, Or Lucifer will bear 5 3 thee quick to hell. [Thunder and

70

lightning]

O soul, be changed into little water drops, And fall into the ocean ne'er to be found! My God, m y God, look n o t so fierce on me! [Enter Adders 54

LUCIFER, MEPHISTOPHELES

and other

DEVILS]

and serpents, let me breathe a while!

Ugly hell, gape not 5 5 . Come not, Lucifer! I'll burn m y books. Ah, Mephistopheles! [The

DEVILS

exeunt56 with him]

75

53. bear: carry 54. Adders: poisonous snakes 55.gape not: do not open up 56. exeunt-, leave

COMPREHENSION 1 What, according to the Bad Angel, is happening to the following in hell? Fill in the table referring to the text. damned souls (line 3)

live quarters (line 5)

o'er tortured souls (line 7)

the Furies are tossing them on burning forks while their bodies boil in lead

2 In lines 2 1 - 2 5 Faustus asks the planets to stand still. What does he wish would happen? 3 What does Faustus believe might save him? (Line 32) 4 Why does he want to be hidden by mountains and hills? 5 In line 4 0 where does he try to hide? 6 What does he ask the stars to do? (Lines 4 2 - 4 8 ) 7 Underline the sentences where Faustus refers to or addresses God and Christ. What image of God does he portray? • A loving and merciful God. • A God of justice and punishment. Is the image of Christ similar? 8 What compromise is he prepared to make with God? (Lines 5 4 - 5 6 )

gluttons (line 9)

9 Why does he wish that Pythagoras's theory of metempsychosis were true? 1 0 Into what does he want his body and soul transformed? (Lines 6 9 - 7 1 ) What purpose would the transformation serve?

5

ü

\

5

. f - '^kjjgp: 6


ANALYSIS 1 Focus on the Bad Angel's description of hell (lines 3 - 1 0 ) . Which of the senses do the details appeal to most? Does the description reinforce the traditional association of hell and heat? 2 Faustus uses short sentences, exclamations and questions throughout his speech: 'O, I'll leap up to my Cod!' (line 30) 'Who pulls me down?' (line 30) 'Ah, my Christ!' (line 32). Find other examples in the text. What purpose do they serve? • To show that Faustus is in a state of confusion and desperation. • To show that he is calm and meditative. • To add drama to his speech. • To make his speech more natural. • Other: 3 Find examples in the text where Faustus: - addresses himself; - refers to himself in the third person. What does this suggest about his state of mind? 4 The striking of the clock is mentioned three times. What effect do you think the reference to the passing of time would have on an audience? There are fifty lines in Faustus's speech before the clock strikes midnight. How many are there before

rm m

Blank verse

and after the half past eleven chime? What does this suggest about how time seems to be passing for Faustus? 5 Elizabethan audiences came from a wide range of social backgrounds ( • p. C59). Which aspects of the extract you have just read would have appealed to the more popular sections of the audience and which elements would have interested the more learned spectators? 6 According to Christian doctrine, a sinner can save his soul if he confesses his sin and makes an act of sincere contrition. Why do you think Faustus's pleas for mercy are unanswered? • He does not truly believe in a loving and merciful God. • He never clearly admits to having committed a grave sin. • He asks for mercy because he is afraid of eternal damnation and not because he is sorry for what he has done. • He continues to blame Lucifer for what has happened (line 67) and does not take full responsibility for his actions.

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Blank verse consists of unrhymed i a m b i c p e n t a m e t e r s - ten-syllable lines in which unstressed syllables are followed by stressed syllables. | There | are | the | Fu | ries | toss | ing | damn | ed | souls | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | On | burn | ing | forks; | their | bod | ies | boil | in | lead | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B l a n k verse is t h e verse f o r m t h a t m o s t c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s t h e natural r h y t h m s of English speech and it is the most frequently used verse form in English literature. It was first used in drama by Christopher Marlowe and became the standard metre for plays in t h e Elizabethan period. Doctor Faustus

is written primarily in blank verse. However,

Marlowe did not always strictly adhere to its rules. In lines 4 0 to 4 8 find: a) examples of blank verse; b) examples of lines that do not conform to the rules of blank verse. ft Listen to the recording of lines 4 0 - 4 8 . Pay particular attention to the rhythm and stress patterns of the verse form. Try to read the lines using the same rhythm and stress.

Doctor Faustus - C h r i s t o p h e r M a r l o w e

7

STAC I N 6 T H E PLAY

Performance elements

A printed play that you read is an incomplete blueprint of a playwright's work, which only becomes complete when performed. Performance elements such as casting, the choice of actors, costumes, the clothes the actors wear, lighting, how the stage area is illuminated and stage scenery or props (properties), the stage furniture, are all part of a meaningful system of signs t h a t , when added to the text, give t h e play its full m e a n i n g . Some indications about the performance elements may be included in the playwright's stage directions but it is generally the director of the play and his staff who make these decisions. Through his choices a director tries to remain faithful to the playwright's intentions but also to add his own personal vision of the play.

OVER T O Y O U

Work in groups of four. Discuss: a. Which famous actor would you cast in the role of Doctor Faustus? Consider elements such as age, tone of voice, physical characteristics, etc. Justify your choice. Which of your classmates might best interpret the part and why? b. If you were directing the scene you have just read, what kind of lighting, costumes and stage scenery would you use? Faustus looks upward towards salvation and downwards towards damnation. How would you represent this through the stage lighting? c. The text refers to 'devils' and 'adders and serpents'. Would you use actors to represent the devils and serpents? What kind of costumes would they wear? Where would you position them? How would they move? d. What kind of stage scenery and props would you use to create a suitable setting for the scene? Would you choose an elaborate stage set or would you prefer simplicity, allowing the audience to use their imagination? What would the advantage of your choice be?

Faustus wanted to know more and do more than any other mortal man. In the end he paid a very high price for his superhuman powers. Today, as science pushes the frontiers of human knowledge ever forwards, some people are arguing that scientific research should be tightly controlled and, if necessary, Smited, to avoid abuse by unscrupulous individuals or groups. In which of the following fields do you think research should or STould not be limited? Give details. • • I • •

Medicine Military technology Communications and information technology Space exploration Genetic modification of animals and plants.

A modern production of Doctor Faustus in which

just few, simple props are used.

8


SiS

WRITERS' GALLERY Early years

Christopher Marlowe

was b o r n in Canterbury in 1 5 6 4 , the son of a prosperous shoemaker. Education

He was an e x c e p t i o n a l s t u d e n t a n d w h e n he was

f i f t e e n h e was awarded a s c h o l a r s h i p to King's S c h o o l in Canterbury, one of the oldest schools in Britain. He continued his studies at Cambridge University, where he took his Bachelor of Arts in 1583. Three years later he received his Master of Arts degree in spite of opposition by the University authorities, who suspected him of converting to Roman Catholicism during a secret journey to Rheims, France, the centre of Catholic sentiment. Marlowe at this

CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE (1564-1593) University wits

time was probably working for t h e government in Her Majesty's Secret Service, spying on Catholic conspirators, so the government authorities intervened on his behalf and the degree was granted.

He moved to London, where he met other graduates who were involved in the literary

life of London. Together they formed a circle of young writers known as the 'University Wits'. Plays

From 1587 to 1593 he wrote and produced his four great plays: Tamburlaine

Parts I and II, The

Jew of Malta, Edward the Second and Doctor Faustus. He was the first English playwright to use blank verse* and to write genuine tragedy*. His works were highly successful and had a major influence on other playwrights of the period including Shakespeare. Tragic death

Marlowe's death was mysterious; he was stabbed to death on May 30, 1 5 9 3 in a

tavern brawl. It is widely believed that he was deliberately assassinated for political reasons.

TASK True or false? Correct the false ones. a. Marlowe was born into a well-to-do family. b. He was a very bright student and attended a first-rate school and university. c. He was never interested in either religious or political matters.

d. In London he worked for a company called 'University Wits'. e. He became a playwright and his works were very famous in his own time. f. He died a violent death at age twenty-nine.

BffPHM^^^^^B

The fact that his life was so short makes Marlowe's contribution

^^^^^^^•••••BMBiill^B

to drama even more remarkable. In many ways he gave to English

theatre the foundation on which Shakespeare was to build. Each of his plays revolves around a protagonist who is obsessed by a ruling passion: • Tamburlaine wishes to conquer the world; • Edward is blinded by his homosexual love; • Doctor Faustus aspires to unlimited knowledge; • the Jew of Malta is obsessed by his love for gold. However, his works are far more sophisticated than the medieval morality plays which told simple tales of wickedness and well-deserved punishment. Marlowe created tragedies in which men, aware of the potentially catastrophic consequences, make difficult decisions.

Writers' Gallery - Christopher Marlowe

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Hif

Doctor Faustus, Marlowe's best-loved work, is based on a collection of German stories called the Faustbuch,

w h i c h he probably

The Tragical! Hiftoy of

read in English translation. The tales in the Faustbuch

narrate in prose the real-life

story of the German scholar and travelling m a g i c i a n Georgius Faustus.

Marlowe

transforms t h e s e simple stories of good and evil i n t o a c o m p l e x drama w h i c h explores themes such as man's aspiration

the Life and Death o / D o d o r Fauftus. With new Addiuons.

W r i t t e n by (I:/.

zWL'ar

to surpass all h u m a n limitation, and the consequences of ambition when it is not restricted by a sense of morality. Marlowe established blank verse* as the p r i n c i p a l verse f o r m of

Elizabethan

drama. He avoided m o n o t o n y by varying stresses and breaking up t h e lines with pauses, e x c l a m a t i o n s a n d

shortened

sentences, and using the syntax to reflect the state of mind of the character. In his short life Christopher Marlowe left a lasting mark on English drama. His early death undoubtedly deprived literature of even greater and more developed works.

TTie title page for the 1620 edition of Doctor Faustus.

Printed for loh« Wright, and arc to be ibid si his f!'.op witboui Newgate, at the iignc of clicBiUSc. 16*0.

TASKS 1

Complete the sentences.

a. Marlowe's characters are people who ... b. Compared to earlier theatrical works, Marlowe's dramas... c. His most famous play, Doctor Faustus, is based on ... d. His use of blank verse influenced ...

2 Marlowe's life was short and intense, and ended tragically. Imagine the news of his sudden death is announced in a TV news bulletin. Prepare the brief news report and act it out for the rest of the class.

10


Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare

All over the world, the names Romeo and Juliet are synonymous with romantic love. Here are two definitions of love taken directly from the play: Love is ... 'a smoke made with the fume of sighs.' 'a madness most discreet, a choking gall and a preserving sweet.' Now try to write your own definition of love. Love is ...

INTRODUCTION • Romeo and Juliet has always been one of Shakespeare's best-loved plays. It is an impassioned cry in favour of love over hate, peace over war. It is simply one of the most gripping love stories ever told ( • Visual Link C3). CHARACTERS The house of

Capulet:

• Juliet

THE

STORY

The Montagues and the Capidets are the two chief families

of Verona, and for years they

have been enemies in a bitter feud. Romeo, a Montague, and Juliet, a Capulet, fall madly in

• Capulet, her father

love ( • Text C2) but they realise that their families will try to stand in their way.

• Lady Capulet, her mother

Everything starts to go wrong for the two lovers. In a fight, Romeo kills Tybalt and as a punish-

• Tybalt, her cousin

ment, he is banished from Verona to Mantua. Juliet finds out that Romeo has to leave Verona and so the two lovers decide to get married in secret. They are married by Friar Lawrence.

The house of Montague: • Romeo

Juliet is very sad and depressed when Romeo goes away. Her father insists that the best way to cheer her up is to have her marry Paris, an old friend, but Juliet refuses. In desperation she asks

• Montague, his father • Lady Montague, his mother

Friar Lawrence to help her get out of the marriage with Paris and reunite her with Romeo. Friar Lawrence devises an ingenious plan to help Juliet. He tells her to drink a magic potion which will make her lose consciousness and everyone will think she is dead. However, she will wake up after forty-two hours, and when she does, Romeo will be there to take her to Mantua.

• Paris, suitor to Juliet • Friar Lawrence

Juliet does as Friar Lawrence has instructed and everybody thinks she is dead. Friar Lawrence sends Romeo a letter telling him about the plan but Romeo does not receive it. He only hears that Juliet is dead. He rushes back to Verona and, when he gets to the graveyard, he finds her seemingly lifeless body. Overcome by grief, he kills himself. When the effect of the potion wears o f f , Juliet wakes up. She sees Romeo's dead body and commits suicide ( • Text C3). The two families realise that their feud has led to the deaths of the two lovers and promise never to fight again.

a

Text C 2

What's in a Name?

It is night time and Juliet is on her bedroom balcony. She is talking out loud to herself but does not realise that Romeo has climbed over the wall into her garden and is listening to her. - • GLOSSARY (See note on Elizabethan English on p. C3) 1. wherefore: why 2. be ... my love: swear you love me

Act 2, Scene 1: Capulets' orchard JULIET: O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore 1 art thou Romeo? Deny thy father and refuse thy name; Or if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love 2 , And I'll no longer be a Capulet.

Romeo and Juliet - William Shakespeare

[Aside]:

ROMEO

Shall I hear more or shall I speak at this? JULIET:

5

'Tis but thy name that is my enemy;

Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. What's Montague? It is nor hand nor foot, Nor arm nor face, nor any other part Belonging to a man. O be some other name!

10

What's in a name? That which we call a rose By any other word would smell as sweet; So Romeo would, were he not Romeo called, Retain 3 that dear perfection which he owes4 Without that title 5 . Romeo, doff 6 thy name,

is

And for thy name which is no part of thee, Take all myself. ROMEO:

I take thee at thy word:

Call me but love and I'll be new baptised; Henceforth 7 1 never will be Romeo. JULIET:

20

What man art thou that thus bescreened 8 in night

So stumblest on my counsel 9 ? ROMEO:

By a name 1 0

I know not how to tell thee who I am. My name, dear saint, is hateful to myself,

25

Because it is an enemy to thee; Had I it written, I would tear the word. JULIET:

My ears have yet not drunk a hundred words

Of thy tongue's uttering 11 , yet I know the sound. Art thou not Romeo, and a Montague? ROMEO:

Neither, fair maid, if either thee

JULIET: H O W

30

dislike 12 .

cam'st thou hither 13 , tell me and wherefore?

The orchard walls are high and hard to climb, And the place death, considering who thou art, If any of my kinsmen 14 find thee here. ROMEO:

With love's light wings did

I

o'er

perch 15

35 these walls,

For stony limits cannot hold love out, And what love can do, that dares love attempt 16 : Therefore thy kinsmen are no stop to me.

3. Retain: keep 4. owes: owns 5. title: name 6. doff: get rid of 7. Henceforth: from now on 8. bescreened: hidden

9. stumblest on my counsel: overhears my thoughts

13.cams't thou hither: did

10. By a name: with a name

14. kinsmen: family relations

11. Of thy tongue's uttering: of what you are saying

15. o'er perch: climb over 16. And what love ... attempt: a person who is in love has the courage to do anything

12. if either thee dislike: if you do not like one or the other

you come here

11

12


COMPREHENSION

—

—

1 In the opening lines (1-4) Juliet suggests how she and Romeo can solve their problem. Explain her proposals in your own words.

4 How does Juliet recognise Romeo? 5 Why does Juliet describe the orchard as 'death' for Romeo? (Line 34)

2 In line 18 Romeo speaks to Juliet. What gives him the confidence to reveal himself?

6 What helped Romeo climb the walls of the orchard and overcome his fear of death? (Lines 3 6 - 3 9 )

3 What does Romeo want Juliet to call him? (Line 19)

ANALYSIS

—

1 Romeo's love for Juliet is almost religious in its intensity. Find two religious terms which Romeo uses when speaking to Juliet.

3 Which of the two characters seems more aware and fearful of the dangers they are running? Quote from the text.

2 Focus on the language that Romeo uses. What adjective would you choose to describe it? • Bold • Passionate • Confident • Cautious • Other:

4 It has been suggested that Romeo and Juliet suffer a tragic fate because they are too impulsive. Find evidence of Romeo's impulsiveness in the text.

Underline sentences in which Romeo says that his love for Juliet has made him brave in the face of death. How would you describe Romeo's personality?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Dramatic tension Dramatic irony

One of the greatest tasks facing a playwright is capturing and m a i n t a i n i n g t h e audience's attention. This is often done through d r a m a t i c t e n s i o n or suspense. Suspense or tension is created when the audience is uncertain about what is going to happen. In the case of the scene you have read there are two sources of suspense: • At the beginning of the scene Juliet does not know that Romeo is in the orchard listening to what she is saying. The audience is, however, aware of Romeo's presence. This is an example of dramatic irony. The audience knows something that one or more of the characters on stage do not know. Dramatic irony is often used to add humour or suspense to a scene. In this case, as Juliet speaks there is a danger that she may say something which Romeo will misinterpret. Overheard conversations are often the source of misunderstandings in drama. The audience is kept in suspense until Romeo reveals himself in line 18. • The fact that Romeo may be discovered by Juliet's family also creates suspense. The tender atmosphere which the lovers create m a y at any m o m e n t be violated by the hatred and violence of Juliet's family. The presence of danger heightens the tension and makes the scene even more romantic.

TASKS

1 Explain how Romeo's aside in line 5 heightens the tension in the opening part of the scene. 2 Underline the sentences that remind the audience that Romeo is braving death in order to declare his love for Juliet. How do these sentences contribute to creating suspense?

OVER T O Y O U

In what kind of books and films is suspense the main feature? Think of a book you have read or a film that you have seen that included elements of suspense. How did you feel as you read the book or watched the film? Do you enjoy the anxiety created by suspense? Have you ever felt that the feelings are too intense (in the case, for example, of horror stories or films)?

Romeo and Juliet - W i l l i a m S h a k e s p e a r e 119

STACIN6THE

PLAY

Stage directions

Deciding where the actors should stand and how they should move is extremely important in the staging of a play. Sometimes the playwright will make suggestions about the actors' movements in his stage directions. These are usually included in the script in italics. It is often, however, the director of the play who makes these decisions.

OVER T O Y O U

Imagine you are staging a production of the scene you have just read. Focus on the moment when Romeo reveals himself to Juliet. Try to imagine how you would deal with this moment. Does Juliet hear Romeo before she sees him? Where has Romeo been hiding? Does he emerge from the shadows, is he standing below balcony, does he step out from behind a tree? Does he appear very suddenly and startle Juliet or does he reveal himself slowly? Try to write stage directions for this key moment in the scene.

Romeo and Juliet belong to opposing factions in Verona during the Renaissance. In today's world there are many groups that regard each other as enemies. Make a list of opposing groups that you know. What would happen if a boy and girl from opposing groups fell in love?

Ah, What an Unkind Hour

Text C 3

Romeo is at the graveyard. He has just killed Paris, who had tried to stop him seeing Juliet, and is now sitting beside Juliet's seemingly lifeless body.

Act 5 Scene 3: A churchyard, outside the tomb of the Capulets ROMEO: O

m y love, my wife,

Death, that hath sucked the honey of t h y breath,

GLOSSARY

Hath had nop'ower yet upon t h y beauty.

(See note on Elizabethan English on p. C3)

Thou art not conquered, beauty's ensign 1 yet Is crimson 2 in thy lips and in thy cheeks,

5

And Death's pale flag is not advanced there. (...) Ah, dear Juliet, W h y art thou yet so fair? Shall I believe That unsubstantial 3 Death is,amorous, ,

. ,

,

,

A . , i OMMM*

And that the lean abhorred monster keeps

10

Thee here in dark to be his paramour 5 ? For fear of that, I still will stay with thee, And never from this palace of dim 6 night Depart 7 again. Here, here will I remain With worms that are thy chambermaids 8 ; O here

15

rest 9 ,

Will I set up my everlasting j^Lvi [ut'L' And shake the yoke of inauspicious stars From this world-wearied flesh 10 . Eyes, look your last 11 ! Arms, take your last embrace 1 2 ! and, lips, O you

20

The doors of breath, seal 13 with a righteous 1 4 kiss A dateless bargain to engrossing Death 1 5 !

^ / j

N

? /

•-

1. ensign: flag 2. crimson: deep red 3. unsubstantial: not a part of this world 4. lean: thin, hungry 5. paramour: lover 6. dim: dark Depart: leave chambermaids: female servants Will I set up my everlasting rest: Will 1 join you in death 10.And shake ... flesh: and throw this heavy weight of bad luck off my tired body 11. look your last: take a last look 12. embrace: hug 13. seal: authenticate 14. righteous: virtuous 15.dateless ... Death: timeless contract with all absorbing death

V oJ i.'S ' £S

tM 14


16.conduct: poison 17. unsavoury: unpleasant 18. dashing: throwing violently (Romeo is like a ship that is thrown against the rocks) 19. weary bark: tired boat 20. apothecary: chemist (It refers to the chemist who had given Romeo some poison)

Come, bitter conduct 16 , come, unsavoury 17 guide! Thou desperate pilot, now at once run on The dashing 18 rocks thy seasick weary bark 19 ! Here's to my love [Drinks] O true

q

apothecary 20 !

(...) [Enter

FRIAR LAWRENCE]

FRIAR LAWRENCE: [FRIAR

Romeo!

stoops22 and looks on the blood and weapons]

21. Thus: in this way

Alack 23 ! Alack! What blood is that which stains 24

22. stoops: bends over

The stony entrance of the sepulchre?

23. Alack: expression of regret or surprise (arch.) 24. stains: leaves a mark

What mean these masterless 25 and gory 26 swords [Enters the tomb] Romeo! O, pale 27 ! Who else? What, Paris too?

26. gory: covered with blood

And steeped 28 in blood? Ah, what an unkind hour

28. steeped: soaked, bathed 29.Ah, what ... chance: How unkind was the moment when these horrible deeds were done! 30. stirs: moves 31. comfortable: supportive, consoling 32. thwarted our intents: frustrated our plans 33. Thy husband in thy bosom (heart): Romeo 34. dispose of: send 35. Among a sisterhood: in an order 36. Watch: guards 37. Come go: hurry up and go 38. Go get thee hence: go away 39. timeless: untimely, at the wrong time

Is guilty of this lamentable chance 29 ! [JULIET

The lady stirs 30 .

35

O comfortable 31 Friar, where is my lord?

JULIET:

I do remember well where I should be; And there I am. Where is my Romeo? [Noise within] FRIAR LAWRENCE:

I hear some noise, lady. Come from that nest

Of death, contagion, and unnatural sleep.

40

A greater power than we can contradict Hath thwarted our intents 32 , Come, come away. Thy husband in thy bosom 33 there lies dead; And Paris too. Come, I'll dispose of 34 thee Among a sisterhood 35 of holy nuns.

45

Stay not to question, for the Watch 36 is coming. Come go 37 , good Juliet, I dare no longer stay. JULIET:

Go get thee hence 38 , for

I

will not away.

[FRIAR

Poison I see hath been his timeless 39 end. To help me after? I will kiss thy lips,

•

leaves]

What's here? A cup closed in my lover's hand?

41. Haply: perhaps, maybe 42. restorative: medicine (the kiss will 'cure' her of life and restore her to Romeo)

45. rust: to become covered with rust (the reddish-brown substance that forms on wet metal)

î

t J/\lrJ

O churl 40 , drunk all, and left po friendly drop

44. sheath: cover for the blade of a knife

•J

rises]

40. churl: brute

43. dagger: short knife

30

To lie discoloured by this place of peace?

25.masterless: belonging to no one

27. pale: dead

25

,

Thy drugs are quick. Thus 21 with a kiss I die. [Dies]

50

Haply41 some poison yet doth hang on them, To make me die with a restorative 42 . [Kisses him] Thy lips are warm. CAPTAIN OF THE W A T C H : JULIET:

Yea, noise? Then I'll be brief. [Takes

This is thy

sheath 44 ;

[Stabs herself]

there rust 45 and let me die. [Falls on

ROMEO'S

55

[Within] Lead, boy, which way?

body and dies]

ROMEO'S

dagger43] O happy dagger,

Romeo and Juliet - W i l l i a m S h a k e s p e a r e 121

COMPREHENSION

—

1 Why does Juliet not appear to be dead? (Lines 1 - 6 ) 2 What does Romeo call 'death' in line 9? 3 Why does he think death is keeping Juliet in this dark place?

7 What, according to Friar Lawrence, has caused his plan to fail? 8 Where does Friar Lawrence want to send Juliet?

4 What reason does Romeo give for committing suicide?

9 Why is Juliet upset when she sees that the cup of poison is empty?

5 What does Friar Lawrence see as he enters the tomb?

1 0 Why does Juliet hurry her final act?

6 What is the first question Juliet asks when she awakens?

ANALYSIS

|

1 In lines 1 - 6 Romeo says that Juliet does not appear to be dead. Explain the dramatic irony* in what he says. What effect does the irony of the situation have? It increases tension and suspense. It adds an element of humour. It makes the audience more involved. It makes the scene more tragic. 2 Find two examples of speech.

personification*

5 Several times during the play life is compared to a sea journey. How does the metaphor* in line 24 extend this image? 6 When Friar Lawrence enters the tomb he speaks in exclamations and questions. What does the way he speaks reveal about his state of mind?

in Romeo's

3 Throughout the play Romeo says that he is a victim of fate. In which line does Romeo repeat that destiny has been cruel to him? 4 By committing suicide Romeo believes that he will be reunited with Juliet spiritually, so in his final speech he focuses on the physical aspects of their love. Underline the parts of the body he mentions.

7 Juliet notices that Romeo's lips are still warm and therefore that he is not dead long. How does this add to the tragedy of the scene? 8 Find references to the setting in the scene you have read. How do you imagine the stage should be set for this scene? What kind of atmosphere do you think the setting* should create?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P

Tragedy

M

TASK OVER T O Y O U

Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy. This is a form of drama in which the chief character, the tragic hero, undergoes a series of misfortunes which eventually lead to his downfall. The hero passes from a state of happiness to a state of despair because of some weakness - tragic flaw - in himself. The tragic hero is an important man of high social standing. He is not evil - he is a mixture of good and bad. The audience understands his weakness but feels pity for him because his misfortunes are greater than he deserves. He is usually doomed from the beginning and there are often premonitions of his downfall in what he says. It is often fate or supernatural elements that control his destiny, and death is generally the only escape he can find from pain and suffering. Romeo is a good example of a tragic hero. He belongs to an important family. A series of unfortunate events lead to his downfall: he falls in love with Juliet - daughter of his enemies the Capulets - , he kills Tybalt in a street fight, he does n o t receive Friar Lawrence's message . . . . Romeo's tragic flaw is his impulsiveness and his passionate nature. He becomes totally engrossed in his love for Juliet and he does not consider the consequences of what he is doing. Romeo's tragic flaw is his impulsiveness. Have you found any evidence of this trait in the extracts you have read? What are the qualities that make the audience feel pity for Romeo? Can you name any other famous tragic heroes/heroines? Choose one of them, do some research and briefly tell his/her story.

122 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

S T A C IN C T H E

Delivery

PLAY

Delivery in acting refers to the way an actor says his lines. The actor, with the help of the director, must decide what tone of voice he is going to use, which words or expressions he is going to emphasise, the pace at which he is going to deliver the lines, where he will make pauses and what facial expressions or gestures he will make.

OVER T O Y O U

Work in groups of six. Divide Romeo's final speech in the following way: Lines 1 - 6 0 my love ... not advanced there. Lines 7-11 Ah, dear Juliet... to be his paramour? Lines 1 2 - 1 8 For fear... world-wearied flesh. Lines 18-21 Eyes, ... engrossing Death! Lines 2 2 - 2 4 Come, bitter conduct... seasick weary bark! Lines 2 5 - 2 6 Here's to my love ...I die. Each of you should take one section of the speech and learn it. Decide how you are going to deliver your lines. The following notes may help you. Tone of voice: loud voice or whisper? Quickly or slowly? Gestures while performing?

Facial expressions? Pauses? Words to emphasise?

Use your imagination and think of interesting ways to create the greatest dramatic effect.

In Romeo and Juliet one of the main themes is the generation gap. The term 'generation gap' was invented in the 1960s to define the different outlooks on life that younger and older people have. Throughout the play older people warn the two young lovers that they should be less impetubus. ( ln fact Romeo and Juliet meet, fall in love, are parted and die in the space of just five days. The two young lovers do not listen to the advice of their elders. They believe that nothing is as important as the love they feel for each other. Do you feel that there is a gap in how younger people and older people see things in today's society? Over which of the following issues is the difference in opinion most pronounced? Work

Money

School and study

Relationships

Marriage

Dress

Drugs

Technology

Race

Nationalism

Choose one of the issues and explain how younger and older people's opinions differ with regard to it.

L

[ to the world of music

The scene you have read in Text C2 has often been described as a 'love-duet' in which two lovers take turns in declaring their love for each other. The reference to music is not surprising as the entire play has been a source of inspiration for musicians through the centuries. Berlioz's dramatic symphony Romeo et Juliette, Tchaikovsky's symphonic poem, Prokofiev's ballet music and, more recently, Dire Straits's song Romeo and Juliet have all been inspired by the play. Read the lyrics of the Dire Straits' song. The following elements from the play can also be found in the song. Can you identify them? -Juliet is - Juliet is - Romeo - Romeo - Romeo

above Romeo recalling the balcony scene. startled by Romeo's presence. and Juliet come from the same social background. is prepared to run risks to show his love for Juliet. and Juliet use celestial imagery (stars/moon, etc.) to describe their love for each other.

Romeo and Juliet - William Shakespeare

R o m e o a n d Juliet

A lovestruck1 Romeo sings a streetsuss2 serenade Laying everybody low3 with a lovesong that he made Finds a convenient streetlight steps out of the shade Says something like you and me babe how about it?4 Juliet says hey it's Romeo you nearly gimme5 me a heart attack He's underneath the window she's singing hey la my boyfriend's back You shouldn't come around here singing up at people like that Anyway what you gonna do about it? Juliet the dice were loaded from the start6 And I bet and you exploded in my heart And I forget 1 forget the movie song7 When you gonna realise it was just that the time was wrong Juliet? Come up on different streets they both were streets of shame Both dirty both mean yes and the dream was just the same And I dreamed your dream for you and now your dream is real How can you look at me as if I was just another one of your deals? When you can fall for chains of silver you can fall for chains of gold You can fall for pretty strangers and the promises they hold You promised me everything you promised me thick and thin8 Now you just say oh Romeo yeah you know I used to have a scene with him Juliet when we made love you used to cry You said I love you like the stars above I'll love you till I die There's a place for us you know the movie song When you gonna realise it was just that the time was wrong Juliet? I can't do the talk like they talk on TV And I can't do a love song like the way it's meant9 to be I can't do everything but I'd do anything for you I can't do anything except be in love with you And all I do is miss you and the way we used to be All I do is keep the beat10 and bad company All I do is kiss you through the bars of a rhyme11 Julie I'd do the stars with you any time Juliet when we made love you used to cry You said 1 love you like the stars above I'll love you till 1 die There's a place for us you know the movie song When you gonna realise it was just that the time was wrong Juliet? A lovestruck Romeo sings a streetsuss serenade Laying everybody low with a lovesong that he made Finds a convenient streetlight steps out of the shade Says something like you and me babe how about it?

'Thou are not conquered, beauty's ensign yet is crimson in thy lips ...' A scene from Franco Zeffirelli's Romeo and Juliet (1968).

GLOSSARY 1. lovestruck: in love 2. streetsuss: clever 3. Laying everybody low: impressing everybody 4. how about it?: what do you think? 5. gimme: give me 6. the dice ... start: it was obvious from the beginning what the result would be 7. movie song: reference to the song 'There's a Place for Us' from the soundtrack of West Side Story, a film based on the story of Romeo and Juliet 8. thick and thin: through good and bad times 9. meant (mean): supposed 10. keep the beat: play music 11. the bars of a rhyme: my music

17

M 18


A Midsummer Night's Dream by William Shakespeare

Choose one of the situations below and write a letter to a problem page asking for help with your dilemma. Add as many details as you like. Situation A Your father does not approve of the person you love and you know he will never give you his consent to get married. He has someone else in mind that he believes would make a better match but you do not love the other person. Situation B You are going to get married. You like your fiance/e and you know that the marriage will be good but you are really in love with someone else.

Situation C You are in love with a man who is already engaged to be married. Another man has declared his love but you cannot forget your true love. Situation D You have been in love with a woman and planning to marry her but suddenly you fall in love with another woman and now you have no feelings for your fiancee.

Each of the situations refers to one of the four main characters in A Midsummer Night's Dream: Hermia, Helena, Lysander and Demetrius. When you have finished working on the play try to match each character to a situation.

INTRODUCTION • Shakespeare had great powers of i m a g i n a t i o n and his plays deal w i t h a vast range of topics a n d situations. In A Midsummer

Night's Dream

t h e world o f fairies c o m e s i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e

h u m a n world a n d s o m e very strange things h a p p e n . THE STORY The play takes place on the day and night before

the wedding

between

Theseus

and

Hippolyta. Egeus wants his daughter Hermia to marry Demetrius. She, however, is in love CHARACTERS Humans: • Theseus, Duke of Athens • Hippolyta, Queen of the Amazons, engaged to Theseus • Egeus, father

Hernia's

• Hermia, in love with Lysander • Helena, in love with Demetrius • Lysander, in love with Hermia • Demetrius, in love with Helena

Theseus tells Hermia that under Athenian law a daughter must obey her father, and orders her to marry Demetrius within four days or face death. Hermia decides to escape from Athens with Lysander to a wood outside the city.

Helena,

Hernia's close friend, is in love with Demetrius. The two had been lovers but had broken up. Helena, however, wishes to restore their love and tries to win Demetrius's favour by telling him of Hermia and Lysander's plan to elope. Demetrius, followed by Helena, enters the wood to search for Hermia and Lysander. The wood is inhabited by fairies. When Oberon hears Demetrius arguing with Helena, he tells Puck to pour some magic love-juice on his eyes so that the couple will be reconciled. But Puck makes a mistake and pours the juice on Lysander's eyes, with the result that he falls in love with Helena. Demetrius and Helena have since been reconciled so now both Demetrius and Lysander are in love with Helena while Hermia is ignored ( • Text C4). The lovers' lives have been thrown upside down by the fairies but Oberon decides to make

Fairies: • Oberon, King of the Fairies • Puck, a goblin

with Lysander and so she refuses to do as her father says. Egeus asks Theseus to help him.

mischievous

amends. He tells Puck to put a juice on their eyes while they are sleeping that will restore them to their former state, so, when Lysander wakes up, he is again in love with Hermia. The two former friends quarrel ( • Text C5).

A Midsummer Night's Dream - William Shakespeare

Theseus and Egeus forgive the lovers for running away and agree to Lysander marrying Hermia. The play ends with three weddings: Theseus marries Hippolyta, Demetrius marries Helena, and Lysander marries Hermia.

A Double Cherry Parted ESBSB3 Q Puck has mistakenly put some love-juice on Lysander's eyes, so now both he and Demetrius are in love with Helena, while nobody loves Hermia. Helena cannot believe that the two men are in love with her and accuses her best friend, Hermia, of plotting with Lysander and Demetrius to make fun of her. A scene from the film

Act 3, Scene 2: Another part of the wood HERMIA:

A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935).

What love could press Lysander from my side?

LYSANDER:

Lysander's love, that would not let him bide 1 ,

Fair Helena, who more engilds 2 the night Than all yon fiery oes 3 and eyes of light. [To

HERMIA]

Why seek'st thou me? Could not this make thee know

The hate I bare HERMIA: Y O U

HELENA:

thee 4

5

made me leave thee so?

speak not as you think; it cannot be.

Lo, she is one of this confederacy 5 .

Now I perceive 6 they have conjoined 7 all three To fashion 8 this false sport in spite of me 9 . Injurious 10

Hermia, most ungrateful

10

maid 11

Have you conspired, have you with these contrived 12 To bait 13 me with this foul derision? Is all the counsel 14 that we two have shared The sisters' vows 15 , the hours that we have spent

15

When we have chid the hasty-footed time For parting us 16 - O, is all forgot? All schooldays' friendship, childhood innocence? We, Hermia, like two artificial 17 gods Have with our needles created both one flower 18 ,

20

Both on one sampler 19 , sitting on one cushion, Both warbling 20 of one song, both in one key,

GLOSSARY >«e note on Elizabethan J g i i s h on p. C3) bide: wait 1

engilds: brightens up, embellishes oes: round, shiny pieces of material used to ornament dresses

-

bare thee: have for you

5. confederacy: conspiracy

13.bait: torment

6. perceive: see

14. counsel: talking as friends

7. conjoined: joined together

15. vows: promises

8. fashion: create

16.When we have ... parting us: when we have criticised (chid) time because it went by too quickly (hastyfooted), forcing us to part, even though we would have liked to spend more time together

9. in spite of me: to spite me, to get at me 10. Injurious: hurtful, causing injury 11. maid: girl 12. contrived: planned in a secret way

17. artificial: highly skilled in art 18. Have with our needles ... flower: We embroidered a flower together 19. sampler: piece of embroidery 20. warbling: singing like a bird

19


21. incorporate: of one body 22. moulded: shaped 23.Two of the first ... Due but to one: like two bodies in one as on a heraldic shield 24. crest: decoration at the top of a heraldic shield 25. rent asunder: tear apart 26. scorning: rejecting 27.Our sex ... for it: all women will condemn you as I do •

As if our hands, our sides, voices, and minds Had been incorporate 21 . So we grew together Like to a double cherry, seeming parted

25

But yet an union in partition, Two lovely berries moulded 22 on one stem, So with two seeming bodies but one heart, Two of the first, like coats in heraldry, Due but to one 23 , and crowned with one crest 24 . And will you rent our ancient love

30

asunder 25 ,

To join with men in scorning 26 your poor friend? It is not friendly, 'tis not maidenly. Our sex as well as I may chide you for it 27 , Though I alone do feel the injury.

35

COMPREHENSION 1 Why does Lysander no longer love Hermia? 2

Does Hermia believe what Lysander says?

3 What does Helena think that Hermia, Lysander and Demetrius have joined together to do? 4 Why is she particularly angry with Hermia?

6 What activity does Helena recall them doing together? (Lines 19-24) 7 In lines 24-30 Helena makes two comparisons. What does she compare her friendship with Hermia to? 8 Does she believe that she will be the only one to criticise Hermia's behaviour?

5 How long have Helena and Hermia been friends?

ANALYSIS 1 In line 1 Hermia asks Lysander why he no longer loves her. How would you describe Lysander's reply? • Truthful • Insensitive

• Straightforward • Reasonable

• Hurtful

What justification can be given for Lysander's harsh reply? 2 Helena asks three questions in her attack on Hermia. Underline them in the text. What effect do you think Helena hopes to achieve through her questioning? She hopes: • to embarrass Hermia into an admission of guilt. • to win Hermia over to her side. • to discredit Hermia in front of Lysander and Demetrius. • to get answers and understand why Hermia has betrayed her.

3 In lines 1 9 - 2 4 Helena describes how she and Hermia embroidered a flower together as an example of how close they were as friends. Which adjectives would you choose to describe the example she chooses? • Intimate • Feminine • Trivial • Striking • Calming 4 Helena says that she and Hermia were a 'double cherry' (line 25). Do you think that this image is effective? Justify your answer. 5 In lines 1-10 there is end-of-line rhyming. Write the same letter of the alphabet beside the words rhyme. Read the lines aloud emphasising the rhyme pattern.

A Midsummer Night's Dream - William Shakespeare

21

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Blank verse Heroic COUplet

Shakespeare's plays have been described as poetic drama. Part of what gives his work its poetic quality is the rhythm and musicality of the language. In the extract that you have read Shakespeare uses two verse forms: blank verse and rhyming (or heroic) couplets. Blank verse consists of unrhymed iambic pentameters - ten syllable lines in which unstressed syllables are followed by stressed syllables. | Is | all | the | coun | sel | that | we | two | have | shared - | 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

| The | sis | ters' | vows, | the | hours | that | we | have | spent | 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

A rhyming couplet consists of two lines of iambic pentameter that rhyme in pairs: AA, BB, and so on. HERMIA:

| What | love | could | press | Lys | an | der | from | my | side? | 1

LYSANDER:

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

| Lys | an | der's | love, | that | would | not | let | him | bide, | 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

TASK

The first part of the extract that you have read is written in rhyming couplets, the second part is blank verse. At what point does the change take place? Say why you think the verse form changes. Consider the following points: - as Helena gets angrier her language becomes freer; - blank verse is better suited to the tone of what Helena is saying.

OVER TO YOU

Listen to the recording of lines 2 6 - 3 5 . Pay particular attention to the rhythm and stress patterns of the verse form. Try to read the lines using the same rhythm and stress.

STAC I N C T H E P L A Y

Setting

OVER T O YOU

A Midsummer Night's Dream takes place in the daytime world of Athens, a state of disciplined order and down-to-earth reality, and the night-time world of the enchanted wood, a realm of disorder and fantasy. These two distinct settings must be created by stage scenery, properties (props) and lighting. Settings for a play may vary from extravagant expensive sets to essential or abstract staging, depending on the budget that is available and the personal preferences of the director. Whatever the case may be, the stage setting should not be a distraction but should enhance the audience's understanding of the play. The speech in Text C4 takes place in the enchanted night-time wood where fairies and disorder rule. Work in groups and decide what stage scenery, props and lighting you would use for a performance of the speech in your classroom. Take into consideration the amount of time you have to prepare scenery and props, the space that is available and the possible sources of light. Be realistic in your suggestions. Discuss your proposals with other groups. Choose the best ideas and plan a performance.

ODD Hermia and Helena have been friends since childhood but have fallen out because of a misunderstanding caused oy Puck's mistake. From your own experience and knowledge make a list of reasons why long, close friendships sometimes break up.

FA* SMS.

TIG

w i 22


Text C 5

You Juggler! You Puppet!

Act 3, Scene 2: Another part of the wood Hernia realises that Lysander really is in love with Helena and does not love her anymore. She accuses Helena of stealing him from her. HERMIA:

O me, you juggler1, you canker-blossom 2 ,

You thief of love! What, have you come by night GLOSSARY

(See note on Elizabethan English on p. C3) 1. juggler: (artist who keeps objects in the air by throwing them up quickly and catching them again), trickster, deceiver 2. canker-blossom: a worm that eats into and destroys a flower 3. maiden: young woman, virgin 4. bashfulness: modesty 5. What, will... gentle tongue: are you trying to force me into answering you? 6. Fie: expression of disgust (arch.) 7. puppet: a small human being or animal 8. Ay, that way goes the game: so, that is the way she did it 9. perceive:see

And stolen my love's heart from him? HELENA:

Have you no modesty, no maiden 3 shame,

No touch of bashfulness 4 ? What, will you tear

5

Impatient answers from my gentle tongue 5 ? Fie6, fie, you counterfeit, you puppet 7 , you! HERMIA:

Puppet? Why so? - Ay, that way goes the game 8 .

Now I perceive9 that she hath made compare 10 Between our statures 11 . She hath urged her height,

10

And with her personage, her tall personage, Her height, forsooth 12 , she hath prevailed with him 13 . And are you grown so high in his esteem 14 Because I am so dwarfish 15 and so low? How low am I, thou painted maypole 16 ? Speak!

is

How low am I? - 1 am not yet so low But that my nails can reach unto your eyes 17 .

10. hath made compare: compared 11. statures: heights

him: she has won him over 14. esteem: favourable opinion

12. forsooth: truly

15. dwarfish: like a dwarf, short

13. she hath prevailed with

16. maypole: tall pole around

which people danced on May Day 17.1 am not y e t . . . your eyes: I am tall enough to scratch your eyes out

COMPREHENSION 1 What does Hermia accuse Helena of doing? 2 Why does Hermia think Helena has called her a puppet?

3 What, according to Hermia, has Helena used to win Demetrius's love? 4

How does Hermia threaten to hurt Helena?

ANALYSIS 1 Hermia calls Helena a 'juggler', a 'canker-blossom' and a 'thief of love' (lines 1-2). Try to explain why she uses each of these offensive terms. Example: She calls Helena a juggler because she plays with other people's emotions.

2 Helena accuses Hermia of being a 'counterfeit' and a 'puppet'. Which of the two insults offends Hermia more deeply? Do you think that Hermia is envious of Helena's height? There is a pun* in line 1 3: 'And are you grown so high in his esteem ...'. Can you explain it?

3

mm :. A Midsummer Night's Dream - William Shakespeare

if 23

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Comedy Humour

Comedy is a major form of drama. In it the characters amuse and entertain us rather than engage our profound concern. We are confident that great disasters will not occur and we know that the action will usually turn out happily for the chief characters. H u m o u r is the main ingredient of a comedy. It can be divided i n t o three broad categories: • verbal humour, when what the characters say is funny; • behavioural humour, when what the characters do is funny; • situational humour, when the situation the characters find themselves in is funny. In the case of most comedy the humour is a mixture of all three categories. Say whether the following are examples of verbal, behavioural or situational humour. - Hermia and Helena, two very refined, ladylike characters, insult each other and threaten each other with physical violence. - Hermia, who previously was loved by both Lysander and Demetrius, is now despised by both of them. -There is a double meaning in the expression 'high in his esteem' which means 'respected' but also may be a reference to the fact that Helena is very tall.

OVER TO YOU

Make a list of three comic actors that you admire. Discuss whether their comedy is primarily based on verbal, behavioural or situational humour or if it is a mixture of all three.

STAC INC T H E P L A Y

Movement

Movement can be used to reveal character and mood to the audience. A character may change the way he walks, for example, according to the mood he is in. Movement can also be used to indicate the relationships between characters. One character may, for example, walk away from another in disgust or slowly approach another in a confrontation that produces rising tension. Where characters should stand and how they should move must be carefully planned in the rehearsal stages of a play.

OVER TO YOU

The characters in Text C5 feel a range of strong emotions including anger, hatred, shock, insecurity, disgust and vengeance. Discuss how each character is feeling as she delivers her lines. Work on how you are going to convey these emotions through the character's movements. Experiment with space. Have two actors perform the piece standing as far apart as possible and then as close to each other as possible. Which of the two options worked best? Are some of the lines better shouted from a distance? Are other lines more effective whispered fiercely at close physical contact? Have the two actors act out the scene using numbers instead of the script. This will allow them to focus on movement and body language. On the basis of your experimentation decide how the characters should move in this scene and then prepare a performance.

Wouldn't it be nice sometimes to live under the protection of a magic spell like the sleeping couples in A Midsummer Night's Dream? If you were living under a magic spell, how would you like your life to change? Here are two examples to help you: I would be able to read people's minds. I would be protected from all forms of physical danger.

i 24


Hamlet by William Shakespeare

Read the following story which is loosely based on the plot of Hamlet. Winston Hamlet and his brother Roger are partners in a successful business. Roger is having an affair with Winston's wife, Geraldine. Together they plan to kill Winston so that Roger will become the sole owner of the company. While away on a fishing trip together, Roger pushes his brother overboard, and manages to convince the police that the drowning was an accident. Just two months later he marries Geraldine. Gertrude and Winston's son, Freddie, is horrified at his father's death and his mother's remarriage. When he receives an anonymous letter saying that his uncle killed his father, he decides to take the law into his own hands. As Winston is sitting in a restaurant with Geraldine, Freddie walks in and shoots him dead. He then asks the restaurant owner to call the police and waits calmly until he is arrested. In court, he is found guilty of murder. The judge is about to pass sentence. You are the judge. Choose one of the following sentences and explain why you chose it. • Life-in-prison • A prison sentence (specify for how long)

• A fine (specify how much) • House arrest (specify for how long)

• Any other sentence?

INTRODUCTION • Hamlet is probably the best-known character from Shakespeare's plays. He is a young man who has to deal with the terrible trauma caused by his father's murder. What intrigues many theatregoers and literary critics is Hamlet's psychological make-up. Is he strong or weak? Is he really mad or is he only pretending? These and many more questions continue to be asked about this fascinating character ( • Visual Link C4). THE

CHARACTERS • Hamlet, Prince of Denmark • Ghost of Old Hamlet, Hamlet's father and former king • Claudius, current King of Denmark and fortner king's brother • Gertrude, Queen of Denmark and Hamlet's mother • Polonius, close adviser to Claudius and father to Ophelia and Laertes • Ophelia, Polonius's daughter, in love with Hamlet • Laertes, Polonius's son

STORY

Claudius kills his brother Old Hamlet, marries his widow Gertrude and becomes King of Denmark. One evening Hamlet sees his father's ghost who asks him to avenge his death. From that day on he starts to act strangely and seems, to many people, to be going mad. He dearly wants to get revenge by killing Claudius but finds it hard to actually do it ( • Text C6). He rejects Ophelia, and continues to behave very oddly. Claudius begins to suspect that he might know something about the murder and asks Polonius to spy on him. While Hamlet is talking to his mother, Polonius hides behind a curtain to overhear what is being said. Hamlet realises someone is there and stabs Polonius to death through the curtain ( • Text C7). Claudius then decides to send Hamlet away to England with two of courtiers (Rosencrantz and Guildenstern), who are under orders to kill him. Hamlet outsmarts them and returns home to learn that Ophelia has died in a state of madness and desperation. In a final attempt to get rid of Hamlet, Claudius organises a sword fight between him and Laertes. His plan goes terribly wrong, however, and although Hamlet does die, Claudius, Gertrude and Laertes are also killed.

UL I J I I

'To be, or not to be - that is the question.' scene from the film Hamlet (1990), starring Mel Gibson.

Ham let - William Shakespeare

To Be or Not to Be

Text C 6

25

«

In this very famous speech Hamlet asks why man does not lose his will to live despite the obstacles he has to overcome.

Act III Scene I: A room in the castle HAMLET: T O

be, or not to be - that is the question.

Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows1 of outrageous 2 fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them? To die - to sleep No more; and by a sleep to say we end The heart-ache 3 , and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to 4 ; 'tis a consummation 5 Devoutly to be wish'd. To die - to sleep 10

To sleep! perchance 5 to dream. Ay, there's the rub7; For in that sleep of death what dreams may come,

12. whips and scorns: (fig.) blows 13. wrong: unjust actions

When we have shuffled off 8 this mortal coil 9 , Must give us pause. There's the respect 10 That makes calamity of so long life 11 . For who would bear the whips and scorns 12 of time,

15

The oppressor's wrong 13 , the proud man's contumely 14 , The pangs 15 of despised 16 love, the law's delay, The insolence of office, and the spurns 17 That patient merit of the unworthy takes 18 , When he himself might his quietus make 19

20

With a bare bodkin 20 ? Who would these fardels bear, But that the dread 24 of something after death The undiscovered country from whose bourn 25 25

And makes us rather bear those ills 27 we have Than fly to others that we know not of? Thus conscience does make cowards of us all, And thus the native hue 28 of resolution Is sicklied

o'er 29

with the pale

cast 30

of thought;

30

And enterprises of great pitch and moment 3 1 , With this regard32 their currents turn awry33, And lose the name of action.

GLOSSARY i See note on Elizabethan English o n p. C 3 )

1. slings and arrows: (slings: pieces of cords with leather in the middle used to throw stones; arrows: thin pointed

sticks that you shoot with a bow) 2. outrageous: adverse 3. heart-ache: pain 4. flesh is heir to: part of a human life 5. consummation: conclusion

17. spurns: rejections 18. of the unworthy takes: receives from people of little value 19. his quietus make: write his own quittance (document stating that he is free from debt)

To grunt 21 and sweat 22 under a weary 23 life,

No traveller returns - puzzles26 the will,

14. contumely: offensive behaviour 15. pangs: sudden and sharp feelings of pain 16. despised: rejected

6. perchance: perhaps 7. rub: impediment, obstacle 8. shuffled off: removed 9. coil: spiral loop (here: body) 10. respect: thought, consideration 11. of so long life: last so long

20. bare bodkin: naked dagger 21. grunt: emit the sound that pigs make 22. sweat: perspire 23. weary: tiresome 24. dread: fear 25. bourn: boundary, limit 26. puzzles: confounds 27.ills: adversities 28. native hue: natural colour 29. sicklied o'er: turned pale as if sick 30. cast: colour 31. pitch and moment: importance 32. With this regard: because of this 33. their currents turn awry: change direction

i132THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

COMPREHENSION 1 Focus on lines 1-5. Consider the two metaphors: '...to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune' 'to take arms against a sea of troubles' Which metaphor* represents passive submission to the injustice and suffering of life and which one suggests active rebellion?

-

2 What does Hamlet compare death to in lines 5-10?

7 In line 22 Hamlet uses the expression 'to grunt and sweat'. Which negative aspect of life is he drawing our attention to? • Social discrimination • Political injustices • Emotional turmoil • Physical hardship Which expressions suggest that man is nothing more than a beast of burden?

3 Which expression in line 10 interrupts Hamlet's flow of thoughts and introduces a different line of reasoning? 4 In line 12 Hamlet says that when we die we are freed from 'this mortal coil'. Consider the meaning of 'coil' given in the glossary and explain what Hamlet means in your own words. 5 In lines 15-21 Hamlet describes the suffering and injustices of life. Find expressions which refer to the following: - unrequited love - inefficiency in legal procedures - political oppression

ageing mistreatment by authority contempt unjust criticism

6 What escape from life's misery does Hamlet suggest in lines 20-21?

8 What is the 'undiscovered country' from which no traveller returns, which Hamlet refers to in lines 24-25? 9 What, according to Hamlet, stops man from taking action? (Lines 28-33)

ANALYSIS 1 Which semantic field do the expressions 'slings and arrows' (line 3) and 'to take arms' (line 4) belong to? What image of life do they suggest? 2 By comparing death to sleep (lines 5-10) does Hamlet depict it positively or negatively? 3 In the opening ten lines of Hamlet's speech each infinitive is balanced by another of similar or opposite meaning. Link each of the infinitives in column A of the table below with an infinitive in column B. A to be

to suffer

to die

to sleep

B to take arms

to dream

not to be

to sleep

4 Focus on lines 9-10: 'To die - to sleep -/To sleep! perchance to dream'. What effect does the repeated use of infinitives create? • A soft, lulling effect • A harsh, rhythmic effect 5 In his list of the injustices man suffers (lines 15-21) Hamlet uses personification*. In line 15 time is personified and described as having 'whips' and 'scorns'. Can you find other examples of personification in lines 15-21? 6 Which expression in line 30 parallels and contrasts with the expression 'natural hue of resolution' in line 29? Which words in line 30 link thought and disease?

7 Which of the following adjectives would you choose to describe the tone of Hamlet's speech? Justify your choice by referring to the text. • Angry • Optimistic • Proud • Philosophical • Ironic • Melancholic • Passionate • Dejected 8 In this speech Hamlet does not use the pronouns or 'me'. Which personal pronouns does he use and who do they refer to? Would you consider the speech to be: • Hamlet's personal reflections on his immediate situation? • a general analysis of the human condition? On the basis of the answers you have given can you explain the universal appeal of the speech? 9 What aspects of Hamlet's character emerge from the speech? • His confusion • His lack of courage • His melancholy nature • His strong religious convictions • His weariness • His desire for revenge • His hatred of his uncle • His indecision • Other:

Hamlet - William Shakespeare

• ' ^»iäSf 27

WRITERS WORKSHOP Soliloquy is a theatrical convention in which a character speaks aloud to himself. The character may not necessarily be alone on the stage; other characters may be present but if they are, it is assumed they do not hear the words of the soliloquy. The playwright uses soliloquy to convey directly to the audience the character's motives, intentions and his innermost feelings and thoughts, or simply to fill in parts of the story. Which of the following purposes does the soliloquy you have just read serve? • To fill in parts of the story • To explain Hamlet's motives • To outline Hamlet's intentions • To convey Hamlet's feelings about his immediate situation • To express Hamlet's thoughts on fundamental human problems Soliloquy is used to develop the story or to help the audience to understand the inner feelings of a character. Can you think of a similar convention that is often used in cinema for the same purposes?

Hamlet is talking to his mother while Polonius is listening tco their conversation behind a curtain (arras).

Act III Scene 4: The Queen's closet HAMLET: QUEEN:

HAMLET: QUEEN:

Now, mother, what's the matter?

Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended. Mother, you have my father much offended.

Come, come, you answer with an idle1 tongue.

HAMLET: GO, QUEEN:

GLOSSARY

Why, how now, Hamlet!

HAMLET: QUEEN:

go, you question with a wicked 2 tongue.

What's the matter now?

1. idle:lazy

No, by the rood 3 , not so.

You are the queen, your husband's brother's wife; And - would it were not QUEEN:


Have you forgot me?

HAMLET:

so 4 !

2. wicked: bad, cruel 10

3. rood: crucifix 4. would it were not so: I wish it was not true

- you are my mother.

Nay5, then, I'll set 6 those to you that can speak.

Come, come, and sit you down; you shall not 1budge7; You go not till I set you up a glass

5. Nay: no

HAMLET:

Where you may see the inmost part of you.

•-

6. set: send (Polonius and Claudius) 15

7. budge: move

i 28


QUEEN:

What wilt thou do? Thou wilt not murder me?

Help, help, ho! 8. draws (his sword): takes his sword out 9. slain: killed 10. rash: foolish, stupid 11. wretched: worthless 12. Leave wringing: stop twisting (from discomfort or anxiety) 13.1 shall, If... stuff: this I will do if I can penetrate it 14. wag: shake, move 15.blurs ... modesty: makes your grace and pale colour of modesty disappear

POLONIUS: HAMLET:

[Behind] What, ho! Help, help, help!

[Draws8] How now! A rat? Dead! for a ducat, dead!

[Makes a pass through the arras.] POLONIUS: QUEEN:

[Behind]

O! I

am slain 9 . [Falls and dies]

HAMLET:

Nay,

QUEEN: O ! HAMLET:

I

know not. Is it the king?

what a rash 10 and bloody deed is this!

A bloody deed! Almost as bad, good mother,

As kill a king, and marry with his brother. QUEEN: AS HAMLET:

Ay, lady, 'twas my word.

[Lifts up the arras and discovers

POLONIUS]

Thou

17. vows: solemn promises 18.dicers' oaths: promises made by gamblers

Leave wringing 12 of your hands. Peace; sit you down,

20. thunders: makes a loud noise (like that of thunder) 21. index: list (of crimes) 22. counterfeit presentment: portrait (not real presentation) 23. brow: upper part of a face, above the nose 24. Hyperion: in Greek mythology, a giantsized god with superhuman powers 25. threaten: say menacing words 26. station: posture 27. New lighted on the heaven-kissing hill: newly, freshly arrived on the high hill 28. A combination and a form: a combination of qualities and physical presence 29. seal: official mark in a document 30.mildew'd ear: diseased ear of com 31. wholesome: healthy 32.Could you ... moor: you abandoned Old Hamlet (fair mountain) and chose Claudius (moor: desolate land; batten: become fat)

25

kill a king!

16.blister: thin watery swelling under the skin

19. roars: makes a loud noise (like a lion's)

20

O me! What hast thou done?

wretched 11 ,

rash, intruding fool, farewell!

I took thee for thy better; (...) 30

And let me wring your heart; for so I shall, If it be made of penetrable stuff 13 (...) QUEEN:

What have I done that thou dar'st wag 14 thy tongue

In noise so rude against me? HAMLET:

Such an act

That blurs the grace and blush of

35

modesty 15 ;

Calls virtue hypocrite; takes off the rose From the fair forehead of an innocent love, And sets a blister 16 there; makes marriage vows 17 As false as dicers' oaths 18 .

40

(...) QUEEN:

Ay me, what act

That roars 19 so loud, and thunders 20 in the index 21 ? HAMLET:

Look here, upon this picture, and on this,

The counterfeit presentment 22 of two brothers. See, what a grace was seated on this brow 23 -

45

Hyperion 24 's curls, the front of Jove himself; An eye like Mars, to threaten 25 and command; A station 26 like the herald Mercury New lighted on the heaven-kissing hill 27 ; A combination and a form 28 indeed

50

Where every god did seem to set his seal 29 , To give the world assurance of a man. This was your husband. Look you now, what follows: Here is your husband, like a mildew'd ear 30 Blasting his wholesome 31 brother. Have you eyes? Could you on this fair mountain leave to feed, And batten on this moor 32 ? Ha! Have you eyes? You cannot call it love, for at your age

55

Macbeth

29 - William Shakespeare

The hey-day in the blood is tame 33 , it's humble 34 , And waits upon the judgement 35 ; and what judgement

60

Would step from this to this? (...) QLTEN: O Hamlet, speak no more! Thou turn'st my eyes into my very soul; And there I see such black and grained spots 36 As will not leave their tinct 37 . HAMLET:

65

Nay, but to live

In the rank sweat 38 of an enseamed 39 bed, Stew'd 40 in corruption, honeying 41 and making love Ch er the nasty sty 42 QBEEN: O, speak to me no more; These words, like

daggers43,

70

enter in my ears;

No more, sweet Hamlet! LET: A murderer and a villain! A slave that is not twentieth part the tithe 44 Of your precedent lord; a vice 45 of kings;

75

A cutpurse 46 of the empire and the rule That from a shelf the precious diadem stole, And put it in his pocket! No more! 'Enter the

GHOST

in his

nightgown.]

i: A king of shreds and patches 47 Save me, and

hover 48

80

o'er me with your wings,

You heavenly guards! What would your gracious figure 49 ? : Alas, he's mad! ": Do you not come your tardy 50 son to chide 51 , that, laps'd in time and passion 52 , lets go by 53

85

The important acting of your dread 54 command? Oh say! n Do not forget: this visitation s but to whet thy almost blunted purpose 55 . But. look, amazement 56 on thy mother sits.

90

Oh. step between her and her fighting soul Conceit 57 in weakest bodies strongest works Speak to her, Hamlet. : How is it with you, lady? :: Alas, how is't with you, That you do bend your eye on

95

vacancy 58 ,

Xnd with the incorporal air do hold discourse 59 ?

C—)

"«Vhereon do you look? » - d a y ... tame: your •dual drive should have iminished - -amble: unimportant

35. waits upon the judgement: puts rational thought first 36. grained spots: ingrained marks

37. leave their tinct: lose their colour, fade 38. rank sweat: smelly perspiration

39. enseamed: lurid 40. Stew'd: immersed 41. honeying: sweet talking 42. nasty sty: disgusting pig's den 43. daggers: knives 44. tithe: tax often percent given to support the local church 45. vice: clown (in Morality plays 'vice' impersonated human vices and wore the multicoloured clothes that would later become typical of clowns) 46. cutpurse: thief 47. shreds and patches: badly dressed 48. hover: stay in the air 49. would your gracious figure: what is your wish? 50. tardy: hesitating 51. chide: reprimand 52. laps'd in time and passion: guilty of letting time pass and the passion of revenge cool 53. go by: pass 54. dread: terrifying 55.but to whet... purpose: only to spur you into action 56. amazement: great surprise 57. Conceit: imagination 58.bend ... vacancy: look into an empty space 59. hold discourse: talk

' J K 4 30


HAMLET: O n h i m , o n h i m ! ( . . . ) QUEEN: TO

whom do you speak this?

HAMLET: D O QUEEN:

HAMLET: QUEEN:

you see nothing there?

Nothing at all; yet all that is I see. Nor did you nothing hear?

No, nothing but ourselves.

HAMLET:

Why, look you there! Look, how it steals away 60 !

My father, in his habit 61 as he liv'd! 60. steals away: disappears

61. habit: clothes

4 rat? Dead! for a ducat, dead! i scene from Hamlet (1948), tarring Laurence Olivier.

m

COMPREHENSION 1 When the queen speaks of 'thy father' (line 2) and Hamlet speaks of 'my father' (line 3), are they referring to the same person? 2 When Hamlet says that the queen will see 'the inmost part of you' (line 15), is he speaking literally or figuratively? Does the queen understand what her son wishes to do? 3 Who does Hamlet think is hiding behind the curtains? 4 What does Hamlet mean when he says that he wants to 'wring' the queen's heart? (Line 31) 5 When the queen asks Hamlet what she has done to anger him (lines 33-34), does he answer her question directly?

ANALYSIS 1 In the opening lines of the text Hamlet uses the queen's own words to point the finger of accusation away from himself and towards her. Find two examples. How would you describe Hamlet's attitude towards his mother in these opening lines? • Provocative • Mocking • Sympathetic • Respectful • Loving • Other:

6 From line 43 to line 57 Hamlet compares his father and his uncle Claudius. In which lines does he describe his father? In which lines does he describe his uncle? 7 At what point in the text does the queen seem to admit that she has done something evil? 8 What overcomes the queen's judgement according to Hamlet in lines 59-61? 9 Hamlet thinks that the ghost has come to reprimand him. For what? 1 0 Does the ghost want Hamlet to take revenge on his mother? Refer to the text in your answer.

1

1 1 Underline the sentences in the text that suggest that the queen cannot see or hear the ghost.

2 Focus on lines 20-29. Hamlet thinks that he has killed Claudius when in fact he has mistakenly murdered Polonius. Underline sentences that convey Hamlet's dispassionate indifference to his crime. How would you explain his lack of emotion? • He feels his actions are justified because he is avenging his father's death. • He is close to madness and no longer able to feel emotions. • He has little interest in killing and revenge; he is more passionate about saving his mother's soul.

Macbeth

3 Find an example of personification* in lines 37-42. Referring to the text, complete the following metaphors*:

The crime committed by the queen: - makes modesty lose - makes virtue become - replaces a rose with - transforms marriage vows into What do the metaphors have in common with each other and with the queen's actions? 4 Make a list of the gods Hamlet mentions in describing his father (lines 46-55). What do these allusions* to Greek and Latin mythology suggest about Hamlet's view of his father? In the image that follows (lines 54-55), Hamlet's father and his brother Claudius are compared to 'two ears of corn'. Why is Hamlet's father 'wholesome' while Claudius is 'mildew'd'? 5 Complete the following table which analyses the metaphor in lines 56-57. tenor

ground

vehicle

Hamlet's father wholesome, beautiful lowly, ugly, barren moor love healthy, dignified j lust batten 6 Examine lines 66-69. What in Hamlet's opinion is n e relationship between Claudius and the queen rased on? Which words in particular convey Hamlet's degust? 7 What aspects of Claudius's character does Hamlet jnderline in the metaphors in lines 73-78? 8 Focus on the apparition of the ghost (lines 88-93). Toes his attitude towards the queen confirm or contrast with Hamlet's? "he ghost is often considered to be a figment of -amlet's imagination, an extension of his mind and conscience. If this is the case, what does the ghost's Ktrtude towards the queen suggest about the ^»ationship between Hamlet and his mother? II That Hamlet despises his mother and cannot forgive her. • That Hamlet is caught between wishing to avenge his father's death but not wishing to punish his mother, whom he loves.

- William Shakespeare 137

9 What purpose does the appearance of the ghost serve? • It heightens tension by introducing a potentially frightening supernatural element. • It helps the audience to follow the plot of the play. M It makes the audience more sympathetic towards the queen. H If the ghost is interpreted as an extension of Hamlet's thoughts, it shows the more forgiving side of his nature. 1 0 Focus on the character of the queen. What is her attitude towards Hamlet? Find evidence in the text that suggests that: - in the past her relationship with Hamlet was positive: line - she is afraid of what Hamlet might do in his current state: line - she loves Hamlet and knows the gentle side of his nature: line - she thinks that Hamlet is suffering from some form of mental disorder: line - she is concerned about Hamlet's well-being: line 1 1 The queen speaks primarily in questions and exclamations. Find some examples in the text. What does her form of speech convey about her state of mind? Do you feel sympathetic or angry towards the queen in this scene? 1 2 Consider the aspects of Hamlet's character that emerge from this text. Which of the following adjectives would you choose to describe him on the basis of this scene? • Passionate • Rational • Forgiving • Hysterical • Confused • Heartless • Mad • Righteous Are they the same adjectives that you would use to describe Hamlet in text C6?

i 32


WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Figure of speech

A figure of speech is any use of language which deviates from the obvious or common usage in order to achieve a special meaning or effect. We use figures of speech in everyday conversation when we say, for example, 'money talks' (personification) or 'it's raining cats and dogs' (metaphor) or 'they are like two peas in a pod' (simile). In literature, figures of speech are used to create a stronger intellectual or emotional impact on the reader or spectator and to add a range of depth of association. For example, when Hamlet describes his father and Claudius he uses striking figures of speech which make the descriptions stronger and more memorable. When a writer's work is rich in figures of speech we describe his style as figurative. The text from Shakespeare's Hamlet that you have just read is an excellent example of highly figurative writing. Choose two figures of speech form Text C7 that you find striking and explain why you think they are particularly effective.

OVER TO YOU

Re-write lines 41-53 in non-figurative style. Try to reduce what the characters say to its essentials and avoid the use of figures of speech. When you have finished, read the original figurative version and your new literal version aloud. Comment with your classmates on how the impact of the text changes.

STAC I N C T H E P L A Y

Suspense

One way of incorporating suspense into a play is by giving the audience more information than the characters themselves have, and allowing them to see dangers that the characters are unaware of. The anxiety created in this situation is similar to what we feel when, in real life, we can see that an accident is about to occur but we are unable to warn the person who will be the victim.

OVER TO YOU

Examine the scene you have just read from three different perspectives: Hamlet's, the queen's, and the audience's. Use the table below to determine what each of them knows (/) or does not know (X). Hamlet

The queen

The audience

knows that... Polonius is hiding behind the curtain. Hamlet wishes to avenge his father's death. The queen has been Claudius's accomplice. Hamlet is talking to a ghost.

Do the characters and the audience share the same information? Who has most information - Hamlet, the queen or the audience? When a character and the audience do not share the same information it is important that the playwright and the director draw attention to it. In the scene you have just read the queen shares little of the information that the audience has. Go through the text and underline the statements in which the queen's partial understanding of the situation emerges. Choose some of the lines and discuss what facial expressions and movements should accompany what the queen is saying, and in what tone of voice the lines should be delivered.

Hamlet criticises his mother for marrying her brother-in-law Claudius. He is like other sons and daughters who find fault with their parents and are not afraid to say it. What annoys young people about their parents? Examples: they never listen to what we have to say. They think they know everything. Add others.

Macbeth - William Shakespeare

Macbeth by William Shakespeare

When we say that The end justifies the means', we mean that anything we do is justifiable if it helps us reach an objective. This line of thinking, however, can bring a person face-to-face with a moral dilemma in situations where he must use slightly or totally illegitimate or immoral means to reach a legitimate objective. 1 Look at the following situations and indicate whether you think the end justifies (Yes) the means or not (No). 2 In small groups compare your answers. 3 One member of each group reports the results to the rest of the class. Means

End

Copy.

Pass an exam.

Yes

No

Tell your boy/girlfriend a lie.

Meet another boy/girl.

Yes

No

Spread false rumours about an opposing candidate.

Win an election.

Yes

No

Shoot and injure an unarmed burglar who is robbing your house.

Protect your property.

Yes

No

Evade taxes.

Have enough money to provide a good education for your handicapped child.

Yes

No

Take drugs that improve performance but do not damage health.

Win a sports competition.

Yes

No

INTRODUCTION • The Macbeths are n o ordinary couple. They are going to get to the top and n o one is going to stop them. Here is Shakespeare at his thrilling best.

CHARACTERS • Duncan, King of Scotland • Malcolm, son

THE STORY

—

On their return from a victorious campaign, Macbeth and Banquo meet three witches. The witches prophesy that Macbeth will be made Thane of Cawdor, while Banquo's sons will become kings. The first prediction comes true immediately. Lady Macbeth is not content, however, because she wants her husband to be king and convinces him to kill Duncan ( • Text C8). The king's sons are wrongly suspected of the murder and flee abroad. Macbeth is crowned king. Macbeth feels that Banquo and his son could be a threat to his throne, so he orders their assassination.

The murderers manage to kill Banquo but Fleance escapes. Soon after the

Duncan's

• Donalbain, Duncan's son • Macbeth, General of the king's army • Banquo, General of the king's army • Fleance, Banquo's son • Macduff, Thane of Fife • Lady Macbeth, Macbeth's wife

killing, Banquo's ghost appears to Macbeth and he becomes increasingly worried about his

• Three witches

e\il actions, which he sees no way of stopping. His wife has also been shaken by events and

• Banquo's ghost

skirts showing the first signs of madness. He goes back to the witches to find out what will happen in the future. They tell him to be

•ary of Macduff,

who has joined Malcolm in England, where they are raising an army to

snack Macbeth and dethrone him. When Macbeth hears of their plan he sends his soldiers to 'acduff's castle where they kill Macduff's wife and children.

• Seyton, an officer in Macbeth's army Note: A thane was a Scottish nobleman who was given land by the king.

33


Macduff and Malcolm gather their forces and march on Scotland. Macbeth sets up his defences in Dunsinane Castle and waits for the enemy to arrive. Just before the battle, to his great surprise, he hears that Lady Macbeth has committed suicide ( • Text C9). He fights bravely but is killed in a fight by Macduff, while Malcolm is crowned king of Scotland.

Q

[Text C 8

Unsex me Here

Lady Macbeth has just read the letter from her husband telling her that he has been made Thane of Cawdor, and that Duncan is to stay in their castle that evening.

Act 1, Scene 5: A room in Macbeth's castle at Inverness LADY MACBETH:

(...) The raven 1

Himself is hoarse 2 That croaks3 the fatal entrance of Duncan Under my battlements 4 . Come, you spirits That tend 5 on mortal thoughts, unsex me here 6 ,

5

And fill me, from the crown to the toe 7 , top-full Of direst8 cruelty! Make thick my blood, Stop up th' access and passage to remorse; That no compunctious visitings of nature 9 Shake my fell purpose 10 , nor keep peace between

10

Th' effect and it 11 . Come to my woman's breasts, And take my milk for gall 12 , you murdering ministers 13 , Wherever in your sightless substances 14 You wait on nature's mischief 15 ! Come, thick night, And pall 16 thee in the dünnest 17 smoke of hell,

is

That my keen knife see not the wound it makes, Nor heaven peep 18 through the blanket 19 of the dark To cry, "Hold 20 , hold!" [Enter

MACBETH]

Great Glamis! Worthy Cawdor! 21 Greater than both, by the all-hail 22 , hereafter 23 ! GLOSSARY


1.

raven: large black bird, thought to bring bad luck

2. is hoarse: cries out roughly 3. croaks: makes a harsh, low sound 4. battlements: top part of a castle 5. tend: take care of 6. unsex me here: remove my femininity 7. crown to the toe: head to foot 8. direst: worst 9. compunctious ...

20

Thy letters have transported me beyond This ignorant 24 present, and I feel now The future in an instant 25 . MACBETH:

My dearest love,

Duncan comes here tonight.

nature: natural feelings of conscience 10.Shake ... purpose: change my ruthless plan 11.nor keep ... it: come between my plan and the action itself

Macbeth is referring to the spirits 14. sightless substances: invisible forms 15.wait ... mischief: help the evil forces in nature

12.And take ... gall: replace my milk with bitter poison

17.dunnest: darkest 18. peep: give a quick secretive look

13. ministers: here Lady

19.blanket: cover

16. pall: cover

25

20. Hold: stop 21.Great Glamis! Worthy Cawdor!: Macbeth was both thane of Glamis and thane of Cawdor 22. all-hail: greeted by everyone 23. hereafter: in future 24. ignorant: lacking knowledge of the future 25. in an instant: very soon

Macbeth - William Shakespeare 141

LADY MACBETH: MACBETH:

And when goes hence 26 ?

Tomorrow, as he purposes 27 .

LADY MACBETH:

O! never

Shall sun that morrow see 28 ! Your face, my thane, is as a book, where men

30

May read strange matters. To beguile the time, Look like the time 29 , bear welcome 30 in your eye, Your hand, your tongue: look like the innocent flower But be the serpent under't. He that's coming Must be provided for 31 ; and you shall put

35

This night's great business into my despatch 32 ; Which shall to all our nights and days to come Give solely sovereign sway and masterdom 33 . MACBETH:

We will speak further 34 .

LADY MACBETH:

Only look up clear 35 ;

40

To alter favour ever is to fear 36 . Leave all the rest to me.

26. goes hence: goes away 27.as he purposes: so he intends

deceive the people around, wear an expression that suits the occasion

28.Shall ... see: tomorrow will not come for Duncan

30. bear welcome: appear welcoming, friendly

29.To beguile ... the time: to

31. provided for: looked after

32. into my despatch: under my control

35. look up clear: look at me directly

33. sovereign sway and masterdom: kingship

36.To alter favour ... fear: to change the expression on your face means to live forever in fear

34. speak further: talk about it again

COMPREHENSION 1 Lady Macbeth calls on the spirits of evil to suppress her natural sentiments as a woman. She uses three very forceful images. Link each image with the aspect of her nature she wishes to suppress. Lines 5-7: unsex me here ... direst cruelty Lines 7-11: Make thick my blood ... Th' effect and it. Lines 11-14: Come to my woman's breasts... nature's mischief

Maternal instinct Femininity Remorse

2 Why does she want the night to be very dark? (Lines 14-15) 3 What advice does Lady Macbeth give her husband? (Lines 30-38) 4 What will they gain by committing the murder, according to Lady Macbeth? ANALYSIS 1 A raven is a black crow which is often associated with death. Why is it appropriate that this bird sounds the fanfare' for Duncan's entrance into Macbeth's castle?

3 Lady Macbeth greets her husbands by saying 'Great Glamis! Worthy Cawdor!'. Why does she use his titles instead of a more personal form of salutation?

2 Find an example of personification* in line 17. Which s presented as the stronger force: heaven and the Dowers of good or nighttime and the powers of evil?

4 Lady Macbeth encourages her husband to deceive Duncan through his body language. Which body parts does she tell him to be particularly careful about and why?


5 According to Lady Macbeth, her husband should pretend to be a flower while actually being the serpent beneath it. What associations do you make with the image of the serpent? 6 Lines provided business despatch

35-36 contain a number of double meanings. for = fed or killed = feasting or murder = carrying out the welcome or killing

Does Lady Macbeth use these veiled words because she is: • testing how Macbeth will react to the possibility of murder? • still unsure herself about the awfulness of murder? • afraid that direct language will make Macbeth refuse to act? • other:

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Onomatopoeia

Wm mm 8®Sl Jftlf.

TASK

Ssmm

OVER TO YOU

mm

-

Onomatopoeia is the literary term that is used when the sound of a word resembles the sound it denotes. Examples of onomatopoeia can be found in verbs such as: buzz: the sound a bee makes slam: the sound of a violently closed door bang: the noise made by an explosion. Find an example of onomatopoeia in the opening lines of Lady Macbeth's speech. Link the onomatopoeiaic words to the sounds they denote. sound made by frying food hiss sound made by a drink that contains a lot of gas rattle sound made by a snake screech little, low, crying sound sizzle whimper short knocking sound made when something is shaken unpleasant high-pitched cry fizz

STAC I N 6 T H E P L A Y

Tone

OVER TO YOU

In everyday speech the tone of voice we use can change the meaning of what we say. A simple expression such as 'sit down' can become an order, an invitation or a question depending on the tone that is used. Actors also use tone of voice to convey meaning. In the extract you have just read, for example, line 26 'And when goes hence?' can be read as a simple question or in a way that suggests that Duncan may never leave the castle, depending on the tone the actor uses. Occasionally the playwright will make suggestions about the tone that should be used. Words such as 'angrily', 'playfully' or 'remorsefully' may appear in the stage directions. However, it is usually the actor and the director who decide what tone would be most appropriate. Work in three groups. Each group should focus on a section of Lady Macbeth's soliloquy. Group 1 Lines 4-7 Come, you spirits ... Of direst cruelty! Group 2 Lines 7-11 Make thick my blood ... Th'effect and it. Group 3 Lines 11-14 Come to my woman's breasts ... on nature's mischief! Experiment with different tones of voice when you say the lines: whisper them, hiss them fiercely, speak them as if in a trance, chant them like a spell.

When Lady Macbeth says 'unsex me here', she implies that she should turn into a man in order to be able to organise and carry out Duncan's murder. From our twenty-first century perspective, does this idea that only men are capable of being clinically cruel and cold-hearted still seem valid? Can you think of any female characters in books, films or on TV that are cold-hearted and cruel? Discuss with your classmates.


The Sound and the Fury

Text C 9

Macduff's and Malcolm's army, made up of English and Scottish soldiers, is about to attack Macbeth's army, which is defending the castle [Enter with drum and colours,

ofDunsinane.

M A C B E T H , SEYTON

and soldiers.]

\LACBETH: Hang out our banners 1 on the outward walls; The cry is still, "They come!" Our castle's strength Will laugh a siege to scorn 2 ; here let them lie, Till famine and the ague3 eat them up 4 . Were they not forced5 with those that should be ours6, We might have met them dareful, beard to beard 7 , And bear them backward home 8 . [.4 cry within, of women] What is that noise? SEYTON: It is the cry of women, my good lord. IExit] ?ETH:

I have almost forgot the taste of fears.

10

The time has been, my senses would have cooled To hear a night-shriek 9 ; and my fell of hair Would, at a dismal treatise, rouse and stir, As life were i n ' t 1 0 . 1 have supped full with horrors: Direness11, familiar to my slaughterous 12 thoughts, Cannot once start me 13 . SRe-enter SEYTON] Wherefore 14 was that cry? \: The queen, my lord, is dead. ETH: She should have died hereafter 15 : There would have been a time for such a word 16 .

ARY *e on Elizabethan on p. C 3 ) tanners: flags Nir castle's strength ... i: they will never be b to capture our castle ne: fever t them up: weaken them I they can no longer fight taced: reinforced •±Oie that should be ours: zae Scottish soldiers Wanting against Macbeth » e might ... beard: we m z h t have fought them in lie open, man-to-man ... home: and forced " a m back to where they • n e from

9. The time ... night-shriek: in the past I would have been afraid if I heard a cry in the night 10. fell of hair ... As life were i n ' t : when 1 heard a frightening story (dismal treatise) my hair (fell of hair) would stand up (rouse and stir) as if it were alive 11. Direness: horror 12. slaughterous: murderous 13. Cannot once start me: cannot frighten me now 14. Wherefore: what was the reason for? 15. hereafter: later 16. a time for such a word: a better time to hear this

15

37


17.Creeps ... day: one day follows (creeps) another in the same insignificant way; creep: move in a slow, quiet, careful way 18.T0 ... time: until the end of the world 19. And all ... dusty death: every day we have lived (all our yesterdays), somebody has been shown the way (lighted) to death

Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow, Creeps in this petty pace from day to day 17 , To the last syllable of recorded time 18 ; And all our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death 19 . Out, out, brief 20 candle! Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player 21 That struts and frets 22 his hour upon the stage, And then is heard no more: it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing. 20. brief: short 21. player: actor

25

30

show dignity and passion

22. struts and frets: tries unsuccessfully to

COMPREHENSION 1 Does Macbeth believe that his castle can withstand a siege? 2 Why does he not fight the enemy army in man-toman combat?

4 Does the future hold any promise for Macbeth? 5 Does he take any pleasure from thinking of the past? 6 Can he see any meaning in life?

3 Why is Macbeth no longer fearful?

ANALYSIS 1 Find an example of opening lines (1-5).

personification*

in Macbeth's

2 In line 10 fear is presented as if it were a type of food. Underline the expression that establishes this association. The food imagery is continued in line 14 'I have supped full with horrors'. Try to explain this image in your own words. 3 Focus on line 19 'She should have died hereafter'. The word 'should' can mean 'would' or 'ought to' and the line can be interpreted in a sympathetic or unsympathetic way. If the meaning 'would' is taken, it suggests that Macbeth no longer cares about his wife. If 'should' is interpreted as 'ought to', it implies that Macbeth feels his wife's death is premature, and that perhaps he could have intervened to save her, or at least had time to mourn her. Read the line in different ways to suggest the two meanings. If you were the director of the play which of the two interpretations would you choose? What is the effect of the repetition* of the word tomorrow in line 21 ? How do you think this line should be delivered? • Slowly in a weary tone • Quickly in a frantic tone • Other:

4

5 Macbeth describes life in a series of striking images (lines 25-30). Link each image to the aspect of life he wishes to underline. Life is a ... brief candle walking shadow poor player tale told by an idiot

Life is ... insubstantial meaningless undignified short

6 Macbeth's mood changes dramatically in the course of this extract. Which of the adjectives below best describe his mood in the following lines? Lines 1-8 Lines 10-1 7 Lines 19-30 defiant hesitant nostalgic

philosophical reflective morbid

sombre confident


39

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Metaphor

The language of Shakespeare's plays is highly poetic. One of the elements that gives his work a poetic quality is the use of metaphors. A metaphor is an implied comparison which creates a total identification between the two things being compared. Words such as 'like' or 'as' are not used. A metaphor is made up of three elements: the tenor, i.e. the subject under discussion (for example, 'life'); the vehicle, i.e. what the subject is compared to (for example, a 'candle'); the ground, i.e. what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common (for example, 'brevity'). Metaphors have several important functions. They arouse emotions and feelings and help us to create mental pictures that are memorable. They often appeal to our senses. They compress meaning into a few lines and help us to understand difficult abstract ideas by making reference to familiar concrete items. 1 Consider the metaphors in lines 26-30. In each case 'life' is the tenor. What are the vehicles and the grounds?

TASKS -

mm

2 Which of the metaphors for life in Macbeth's soliloquy do you find most striking and why?

''Hmk3

Do any of the metaphors help you to create mental pictures? Could you draw a picture which would illustrate any of the metaphors?

OVER TO YOU

Write your own metaphor for life and explain the ground. Example: Life is a maths lesson. Ground: the more time passes the less you understand!

STAC INC T H E P L A Y

Timing

Timing refers to the pace at which an actor delivers his lines. Through timing an actor can direct the audience's attention to what is most important for the understanding of a play. If an actor delivers all his lines at the same pace it is difficult for the audience to identify and absorb essential information. This is particularly the case when the language of the play is highly figurative as is the case in Shakepearean drama. Choosing the correct places to pause and the correct speed of delivery is an essential part of an actor's preparation.

OVER TO YOU

Actors have many techniques which they use to improve their timing. One such technique is the addition of 'silent lines' to the text. These are lines that are not spoken aloud. The unspoken words help the actor to achieve the appropriate timing. Consider Macbeth's soliloquy at the end of the extract you have read. Read the soliloquy, saying the added words (in italics) silently to yourself and the original text aloud. Life's but a-walking shadow, [nothing more] a poor player [of no consequence] That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, [of pain and disillusion] And then is heard no more [gone forever]: it is a tale [a sad tale] Told by an idiot, [who does not understand what he says] full of sound and fury, [empty noises] Signifying nothing. Choose a short extract (4-6 lines) from the material you have studied. Add some 'silent lines'. Learn the passage by heart and prepare to perform the piece.

Macbeth, having been the most powerful man in Scotland, is now totally disillusioned with life. If you were to meet him, what questions would you ask him? 3repare some questions. Split up into pairs. Student A is the interviewer. Student B is Macbeth. When Student A -as finished asking his questions, invert roles.

Sonnets by William Shakespeare INTRODUCTION • Shakespeare is known as 'the Bard', which means 'poet'. This is because much of the language in his plays is poetic and because he also wrote poems. You are going to read two of the 154 sonnets that have come down to us. These two, like m a n y others, give unusual perspectives on the theme of love.

rDBDD DD Have you ever felt that nothing is going right in your life? Have you ever wished that you were better-looking or richer or more intelligent? Have you ever wished that you had more friends? If you have, then you will find it easy to understand Shakespeare, who, in this poem, thinks about those times when he can see nothing good in his life. Read the poem and find how he lifts himself out of depression.

o • Visual Link C6

T e x t CM

Sonnet 29

When in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes, I all alone beweep 1 my outcast state 2 , And trouble 3 deaf Heaven with my bootless 4 cries, And look upon myself, and curse 5 my fate, Wishing me like to 6 one more rich in hope, Featured' like him, like him with friends

5

possess'd 8 ,

Desiring this man's art 9 and that man's scope 10 , With what I most enjoy contented least 11 ; Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising 12 , Haply 13 I think on thee, - and then my state

10

(Like to a lark 14 at break of day arising From sullen 15 earth) sings hymns at heaven's gate 16 ; For thy sweet love remember'd such wealth brings 17 , That then I scorn 18 to change my fate with kings.

GLOSSARY (See note on Elizabethan English on p. C3) 1. beweep: cry over 2. outcast state: condition of being exiled, separated 3. trouble: disturb 4. bootless: useless 5. curse: complain angrily about

6. Wishing me like to: desiring to be

13. Haply: perhaps

7. Featured: looking

14. lark: very small song bird

8. with friends possess'd: having friends

15.sullen: dark, sad

9. art: skill 10. scope: knowledge 11. With ... least: not even enjoying the things I most like doing

12. despising: hating

16. heaven's gate: doors of paradise 17.thy sweet love ... brings: the remembrance of your love brings such richness 18. scorn: refuse

Macbeth

- William Shakespeare

COMPREHENSION 1 Why does the poet weep? (Line 2)

3 What changes the poet's mood?

2 What does he envy in other men? a. (line 5) b. (line 6) c. (line 6) d. (line 7) e. (line 7)

4 Who does the poet feel superior to, according to line 14?

ANALYSIS 1 Focus on line 2. How does the poet suggest that he feels lonely and unloved? Can you find any other evidence in the poem that the poet feels lonely? 2 What is heaven commonly believed to listen to? Why does the poet feel that heaven is deaf? (Line 3) 3 Focus on lines 5-8. Does the poet envy other men their material possessions? What do these lines suggest about how the poet feels about himself? 4 Consider line 8. Does this line suggest that the poet is happy or sad? In this line there is the juxtaposition of two opposites. What are they? 5 The only image that the poem contains occurs in line 11, where the poet compares himself to a lark ascending in the sky. Would you agree that the image is more striking because it is alone? What graphic feature attracts our attention to the image? 6 Explain how line 12 contrasts with line 3.

7 The table below illustrates the poet's view of his 'state' at the beginning and at the end of the poem. Beginning of the poem Heaven Kings Other men The poet

End of the poem Heaven The poet Kings Other men

In what sense does the poet, like the lark, 'ascend' in the course of the poem? 8 Work out the rhyming scheme of the sonnet*. Where does the rhyming scheme change? Would you agree that the last two lines of the sonnet summarise its content? The poem is written in iambic pentameter* - five pairs of unstressed/stressed syllables. Break line 1 into its syllables and then mark the stressed syllables.

WRITERS W O R K S H O P Simile

A simile is a figure of speech in which a comparison between two distinctly different things is indicated by the word Tike' or 'as'. Like a metaphor, a simile is made up of three elements: the tenor, i.e. the subject under discussion; the vehicle, i.e. what the subject is compared to; the ground, i.e. what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common.

OVER TO YOU

Consider the simile in lines 11-12. What is the subject under discussion? The tenor is What is the subject compared to? The vehicle is What do the two have in common? The ground is Try writing a simile for an emotional state such as happiness, sadness, fear. Examples: I was as happy as a lottery winner who had just been handed his cheque for a million pounds. My heart was like a stone that sank to the bottom of a well.

-low do you pull yourself out of a state of depression or unhappiness? Make a list of the things you do that help to cheer you up.

41

Rm' . ki

4 2

T H E

RENAISSANCE - P o e t r y

Can someone love us if we are not very good looking or even quite ugly? Are we condemned to a life of misery if we do not look like a film star? Read what Shakespeare thinks in the following poem. "

Q

Text C l l

GLOSSARY (See note on Elizabethan English on p. C3) 1. dun: dark 2. wires: long, thin pieces of metal. In Elizabethan poetry the word 'wire' was used to refer to golden, shiny hair 3. damask'd: light red or pink 4. delight: pleasure 5. reeks: has an unpleasant smell 6. grant: admit 7. go: walk 8. treads: walks with a heavy step 9. As any ... compare: as any woman who was mistakenly praised for being more beautiful than her

COMPREHENSION

Sonnet 130

My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun; Coral is far more red than her lips' red: If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun 1 : If hairs be wires 2 , black wires grow on her head. I have seen roses damask'd 3 , red and white, But n o such roses see I in her cheeks; And in some perfumes is there more delight 4 Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks 5 . I love to hear her speak, - yet well I know That music hath a far more pleasing sound: I

grant 6

I never saw a goddess

And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare As any she belied with false compare 9 .

—

terms of comparison

eyes her lips her breasts her hairs her cheeks her breath the way she walks Are the comparisons negative or positive? 2 In describing his mistress the poet appeals to the reader's sense of sight, smell and hearing. Say which comparisons appeal to which sense. Sight lines Smell lines Hearing lines

I

-

My mistress, when she walks, treads 8 on the ground.

1 The poet describes his love through a series of comparisons. Complete the table below with the terms of comparison. the poet's mistress

go 7 ,

3 The sonnet can be divided into two parts, one in which the poet views his mistress objectively and the other where he views her subjectively. Which lines give an objective view? Which lines give a subjective view? Can you explain the last two lines of the sonnet in your own words? 4 Is the poet's mistress the same as other women described in poems? Is the poet disappointed by this or is it her uniqueness that makes his love 'rare'? (Line 1 3)

10

Sonnets - William Shakespeare

ANALYSIS

—

1 The terms of comparison Shakespeare used (eyes/sun, lips/coral, breasts/snow, etc.) are typical of Elizabethan courtly love poetry. Do you find these comparisons original or banal? Does Shakespeare use them seriously or is he ridiculing this type of poetry? 2 Imagine you had tone of voice would • Ironic • • Romantic • • Other:

43

to read the poem aloud. What you use? Comic • Serious Mocking • Apologetic

4 Work out the rhyming scheme of the sonnet. At which line does the rhyming scheme change? Would you agree that the last two lines are different from the rest of the poem? In what way? The poem is written in iambic pentameter* - five pairs of unstressed/stressed syllables. Break line 1 into its syllables and then mark the stressed syllables.

5

3 Although it was written as a witty attack on courtly love sonnets, the message of the poem is serious. Which of the following statements best summarises the theme of the poem? • • • •

Women should not be glorified in poetry. There are many different types of beauty. True love does not demand physical perfection. Beauty lies in the eye of the beholder.

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Parody

A parody imitates the work of another author, usually with the intention of ridiculing it. Shakespeare's Sonnet 130 is a parody of a form of poetry which was popular in Elizabethan England. The Petrarchan love sonnet, in which a poet compared his lover to natural beauties, was named after the fourteenth-century Italian poet who wrote a series of love sonnets for his beloved Laura. This form of poetry was first imitated in England by Sir Thomas Wyatt ( • p. C55) at the beginning of the sixteenth century and met with great success. Shakespeare himself often wrote this form of love sonnet. However, in Sonnet 130 he chooses to make fun of it. Sonnet 1 30 is almost a mocking reply to a Petrarchan sonnet. Using the Shakespearean 'reply' as a basis try to to reconstruct the type of sonnet that is being parodied. Petrachan Sonnet

Sonnet 130

My mistress' eyes are like the sun

My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun

(...)

(•••)

Do you know of any other forms of parody, for example, films that parody other films or comic actors that imitate and parody famous people? Think of an example and try to explain how it works.

•DB Shakespeare says in this poem that you can love someone even if they are not good-looking. Which of the following, do you think, are factors in attracting one person to another? • Sense of humour • Sensitivity • Wealth • Intelligence • Physical strength • Vulnerability • Social class Add some more factors of your own.

i 44

THE RENAISSANCE - Drama

WRITERS'

GALLERY

r-ÄrSK

The

beginnings

Little

is

known about the events of William Shakespeare's life. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564, probably on April 23rd. His father, a glover by trade, was a prominent local figure who held important positions in the government of the town. His mother came from a prosperous local family. William Shakespeare probably attended Stratford grammar school, but he did not go on to study at university. When he was eighteen he married Anne Hathaway, who was eight years his s e n i o r , and six months later his first child Susanna was born,

W I L L I A M SHAKESPEARE (1564-L616) Career

followed three years later by twins Hamnet and Judith. It is commonly believed that Shakespeare left Stratford to avoid being arrested for poaching.

He went to London where he did a series of jobs, including holding theatre-goers' horses

outside playhouses. He eventually became an actor, and by 1592 he was sufficiently well-known as a dramatist to be the subject of an attack by the playwright Robert Greene (1558-1592). Greene wrote a pamphlet in which he complained that uneducated dramatists were becoming more popular than university men like himself. In it he called Shakespeare 'an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers'. Success and prosperity

In 1595 Shakespeare joined an important company of actors called The Lord

Chamberlain's Men (later changed to The King's Men) and performed at court. His success as a dramatist grew. He mixed in high social circles and the Earl of Southampton, to whom he dedicated his sonnets, became his patron and friend. His improved financial standing allowed him to invest in the building of the Globe Theatre and in 1597 he bought New Place, the finest house in Stratford. Retirement and death

He retired to his hometown in 1611, where he died on April 23rd 1616.

TASK Answer these questions.

\J a.

laB

Wi

b. c. d. e. f.

When and where was Shakespeare born? Who did he marry and at what age? Why did Robert Greene call him 'an upstart crow'? What was The Lord Chamberlain's Men? What was The Globe? How did he spend the last years of his life?

WORKS

His sources

Shakespeare wrote thirty-seven plays in a period of

about twenty years, from 1591 to 1611. He used many sources for

his plays including the classical Greek and Latin writings of Plutarch and Plautus, the Italian works of Matteo Bandello, Giraldo Cinzio and Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, and the English historian Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland (1577), a source of material for many Elizabethan playwrights.

Writers' Gallery - William Shakespeare

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Shakespeare did not publish his plays. Some of his works were put together from notes taken in the theatres or reconstructed from memory by actors. They are referred to as Bad Quartos. Quartos are large-sized books made of sheets of folded paper. They are called 'Bad' because they are full of gaps and mistakes. In 1623, seven years after Shakespeare's death, two former actors and friends of Shakespeare's, Heminge and Condell, decided to publish the first collection of his plays. The so-called First Folio included thirty-five plays that were divided into 'Comedies, Histories and Tragedies'. The Four Periods

The plays were not dated. However, approximate dates have subsequently been

given to them based on: • references to contemporary events in the play; • references to the works of other writers which are dated; • style, plot, characterisation and metre used in the play. Shakespeare's plays are usually divided into four periods: First Period

The first period covers the years from 1590 to 1595 and was a period of learning and

experimentation. In these years Shakespeare wrote very different types of plays: • chronicle plays dealing with the history of England, such as Henry VI and Richard III; • comedies which include A Midsummer Night's Dream and The Taming of the Shrew; • the tragedies Titus Andronicus and Romeo and Juliet.

'In the Globe Theatre, Southwark' from Vischers View of London

(1616).

THE RENAISSANCE - Poetry

During the second period, from 1596 to the turn of the century, Shakespeare focused

on chronicle plays and comedies and it is generally agreed that it was during these years that he wrote his best comedies, including The Merchant of Venice, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It and Twelfth Night, which base their comedy on a wide range of themes such as the pain and pleasure of love, mistaken identity and the degrading of materialistic and humourless people. Third Period

During the third period, from 1600 to 1608, Shakespeare wrote his great tragedies.

These plays have given world theatre unforgettable characters such as Hamlet, King Lear, Othello and Macbeth. The comedies that were written in this period no longer have the bright, optimistic appeal of earlier works. The darker elements that are found in works such as Measure for Measure seem to suggest that Shakespeare was experiencing difficulties in his personal life which made his outlook rather pessimistic.

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Fourth Period

A return to a happier state of mind is reflected in the plays of the final period from

1609 to 1612. The Tempest, for example, is set in the ideal world of an enchanted island where an atmosphere of magic, music, romance and harmony prevails. Shakespeare is widely regarded as one of the greatest dramatists in

^SSff" •

world literature. The universal

I N

appeal of his work is based on its timeless themes, unforgettable characters and powerful language. His ability to engage the audience's attention has remained unsurpassed to the present day. cene from Prospero's Dks, a Peter Greenaway film

>97) based on The Tempest William Shakespeare.

TASK

a

r

;

WM

r"a'wftfe

Take notes under the following headings and prepare a short talk on Shakespeare's plays. Sources: Bad quartos: First folio: Main characteristics and major plays of: -

First period: Second period: Third period: Fourth period:

Shakespeare's reputation is based on:

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\mmmmm-r Plays for audiences

SHAKESPEARE'S THEATRICAL GENIUS

47

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The relationship between audiences and

performers was very intimate in Elizabethan theatres. Spectators sat on the stage or stood close to the performer and openly

expressed their opinions about what was taking place on stage. Shakespeare had an unparalleled ability to entertain all sections of his audiences; the more intellectual elements enjoyed the poetic language and subtle characterisation of his work while the less educated spectators delighted in the compelling storylines, gory battlescenes and humorous intrigues. Variety of themes

The variety of timeless themes in Shakespeare's works is unsurpassed:

• the appeal of an unsophisticated life in harmony with nature (As You Like It)-, • ambition and jealousy, deception and crime (Macbeth, Othello); • greed, corruption and ingratitude (King Lear); • love and politics (Antony and

Cleopatra);

• crime, guilt and punishment (Macbeth, Richard III); • the all-conquering power of love (Much Ado About Nothing); • the impatience of youth (Romeo and Juliet); • the pains and pleasures of love (The Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It). Unforgettable characters

Shakespeare portrayed an unforgettable gallery of characters:

• Hamlet, a complex and sensitive idealist who is paralysed by indecision; • King Lear, a proud misguided father who loses his mind when he understands his daughters' true nature; • Othello, a naive victim of his enemy's envy and treachery; • Macbeth, a soldier who is transformed into murderer by ambition; • Lady Macbeth, a scheming, ambitious wife who realises, too late, the horror of what she has done; • Richard III, a liar, manipulator and murderer. Mastery of language

The highly poetic quality

of the language is a feature of all Shakespeare's plays. In Elizabethan theatres scenery and props were almost non-existent so Shakespeare had to conjure up settings, moods, and atmospheres with his words. His richly dense language, with its striking imagery and musicality, is perhaps his greatest legacy. Many of the lines from his plays are so memorable that they have become everday sayings in the English language, for example All's Well That Ends Well (title of a play), 'Neither a borrower nor a lender be' (Hamlet). TASK

—

Prepare a brief talk in which you outline the reasons for Shakespeare's greatness.

King Lear mourning the death of his daughter, Cordelia.

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Jîsss

THE RENAISSANCE - Poetry

THE SONNETS

Shakespeare's sonnets - 154 in all - were first published in 1609 without the knowledge or consent of their author. Though there

is very little direct evidence which might point to a specific date of composition, on stylistic grounds it is believed that they were written at an earlier date. The sonnets have been conventionally divided into two groupings: Sonnets 1-126 are addressed to or concern an unnamed 'fair youth', probably Shakespeare's friend and patron the Earl of Southampton. Sonnets 127-154

are about a woman who is conventionally referred to as the 'dark lady', presumably

Shakespeare's mistress. The poet speaks about his troubled love for the woman (who is married) and describes a painful relationship in which they are both unfaithful to each other. The range of emotions explored in the sonnets is extraordinary: confident declarations of

Themes

unselfish love, sad parting words, expressions of joy at reunion or bitter disappointment at mutual infidelity. Styles

The range of styles is greatly varied. In many sonnets the style is complex and rich while in

others the vocabulary, syntax and form are disarmingly simple. The best of the sonnets are widely considered to be the finest love poems in English literature.

TASK Answer these questions. a. How many sonnets did Shakespeare write? b. Who are sonnets 1 - 1 2 6 addressed to? c. Who is the 'dark lady'? d. Are all the sonnets written in the same style?

THE REAL SHAKESPEARE

The few existing documents about Shakespeare only certify that he was b o r n in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1 5 6 4 , got married at

eighteen, had three children, left Stratford and went to London, became an actor and owned a share of the Globe Theatre. Evidence also exists that he returned to Stratford in his forties, bought a big house, looked after his properties and died in 1616. In his will there is no mention of returns from plays or poems. Only six examples of his handwriting exist: six signatures, all with a different spelling of his name. His death went totally unnoticed. Scholars have wondered how someone with Shakespeare's social and educational background could know so much about history, Italy, Latin, Greek and all the other subjects that filled his plays. For over a century now many have voiced their doubts about the real identity of the author of 'Shakespeare's plays'.


The works of Shakespeare: TIMELINE Period I

Approx. date

Plays

Plays of Experimentation

1590-1591 1592-1593

Henry VI (parts I, II, III) (History plays) Titus Andronicus (Tragedy) Richard III (History play)

1593-1594

The Comedy of Errors (Comedy) The Taming of the Shrew (Comedy)

1594-1595

The Two Gentlemen of Verona (Comedy) Love's Labour's Lost (Comedy) Romeo and Juliet (Tragedy) Richard II (History play) A Midsummer Night's Dream (Comedy) King john (History play)

1593-1595

Sonnets

1596-1597

The Merchant of Venice (Comedy) The Merry Wives of Windsor (Comedy) Henry IV (I, II) (History plays) Much Ado About Nothing (Comedy) Henry V (History play)

1598-1599

As You Like It (Comedy) Twelfth Night (Comedy) Julius Caesar (History play)

1600-1601

Hamlet (Tragedy) Troilus and Cressida (Tragedy)

1602-1603

All's Well That Ends Well (Comedy/Romance) Measure for Measure (Comedy/Romance) Othello (Tragedy)

1604-1605

King Lear (Tragedy) Macbeth (Tragedy)

1606-1607

Antony and Cleopatra (Tragedy) Coriolanus (Tragedy)

1608

Timon of Athens (Tragedy)

1609

Pericles (Tragedy)

1609-1610

Cymbeline (Romance) The Winter's Tale (Romance)

1611

The Tempest (Romance) Henry VIII (probably incomplete, History play)

Period II Artistic maturity: Lyrical masterpieces and Chronicle Plays

Period III The Great Tragedies

Period I V Last Plays


Britain 1485-1625 THE TUDOR YEARS Three great leaders • Visual Link CI • Visual Link C5

GOVERNMENT

Henry VIII

The nobles

RELIGION The

Reformation

In this Protestant propaganda picture, a dying Henry VIII is telling his son, Edward VI, to uphold the true Protestant religion. The pope has collapsed at Edward's feet.

The kings and queens of England in the sixteenth century all descended from a Welsh squire, Owen Tudor. This dynasty produced three great leaders who left an indelible mark on the country: • Henry VII ( 1 4 8 5 - 1 5 0 9 ) restored people's faith in the monarchy; • Henry VIII (1509-1547) established the Church of England; • E l i z a b e t h I ( 1 5 5 8 - 1 6 0 3 ) encouraged exploration of and trade with other continents which would lead later to the creation of the British Empire. Over the previous century the institution of the m o n a r c h y had been greatly weakened by bitter feuds which meant that one king followed another in quick succession. Henry VII's main achievement was to stay in power for over twenty years and prove that the monarchy could play a stabilising role in the country. A weak m o n a r c h y had meant a strong parliament, but a stronger m o n a r c h y meant a weaker parliament with major decisions being taken in consultation with a very small group of loyal advisers. In the case of Henry VIII, this often meant only one adviser, the most influential of whom was the Archbishop of York, Sir Thomas Wolsey. At local level, the nobles, who had held a lot of power in the Middle Ages, saw their influence watered down. The private armies that each local lord organised to help maintain feudal control over his own area were banned, and central government increasingly took over total responsibility for law and order. The sixteenth century was the century of the revolt against the Roman Catholic Church in Europe, which became known as the R e f o r m a t i o n and saw the foundation of the Protestant Churches. The English Reformation was


instigated by Henry VIII and initially revolved around his private life. When he realised that his wife could not give him the male successor he so desperately wanted, he asked the Pope to grant him a divorce so that he could marry Anne Boleyn. When the Pope refused, he decided that the English Church would break away from Rome, and with the Act of Supremacy in 1534, he became the head of the Church of England. The irony of this story, which was to have a lasting effect on English history, is that his new wife bore him a girl, Elizabeth I. The break with the Roman Catholic Church was greeted favourably by most English people, who were glad to see the end of interference by the Pope in national affairs. Henry consolidated the new Church by closing all the monasteries between 1536 and 1539, and gradually the Anglican Church took on its role as the official state Church. The publication of the first B i b l e in the English language (1539) and the Book of Common Prayer (1584) helped a great deal to bring the new religion closer to the people. Not everybody agreed with the Reformation and religious disputes were to breed intolerance and violence for many years to come. Under the reign of Mary, Henry VIIPs daughter by his first wife and a Catholic, Protestant leaders were executed, while Elizabeth I, although by no means a religious fanatic, prohibited the celebration of the C a t h o l i c mass. It was not until the following century, however, that the divisions brought about by the English Reformation would lead to open conflict.

The Act of Supremacy

The Anglican Church takes shape • Visual Link C2

Religious disputes

The burning in Antwerp in 1536 of the heretic William Tyndale, who wrote the first English translation

of the New Testament (1562).

Tudor England was basically self-sufficient. Food was in adequate supply and the population grew steadily. Many people were involved in the wool and cloth industry and, up until about 1550, Holland continued to be England's most important trading partner. The need to produce more and more wool meant that life in the countryside began to change. It was more profitable to keep sheep than grow crops, so there was a move away from arable farming and crop-growing to pasture. This meant that fewer people were needed to work the land, and a process began that in the following centuries would see millions of people move from the country to towns and cities. Most towns were not much bigger than villages with the exception of London, which continued to grow rapidly as eighty percent of the nation's trade was carried out there. The towns were populated by merchants and craftsmen, but living conditions were very poor and the lack of public sanitation was a constant cause of disease. However, Tudor England still remained basically a rural country with only ten percent of people living in towns while ninety percent lived in villages, as they had done in the Middle Ages. The local lord still held considerable power in his area but the system of feudal slavery disappeared. There were no more serfs and a farmer was secure on his land as long as he paid the rent. Life was not easy for anyone in Tudor England, whether in the country or town, but the Poor Law that was passed in 1601 would improve conditions for later

THE ECONOMY AND EVERYDAY LIFE

Urbanisation

Rural England

The Poor Law

51

52

THE RENAISSANCE - The Context

generations. The law stipulated that parishes had to provide schools, hospitals and childcare for orphans, and houses of correction for drunkards and tramps in their local community. Although it would take over 400 years to complete, this was the first small step in the setting up of what we now know as the 'welfare state'. For centuries, England's main rival in Europe had been France, and this continued to be the case throughout the reign of Henry VIII, when a number of wars were fought which brought no great gain to either side. The balance of power in Europe was changing, however, and the old rivalry between the two neighbours was to be of secondary importance in the second half of the sixteenth century. With the collapse of the Dutch wool market in 1550, England found itself in a position where it had to find new markets and new forms of trade to sustain economic and social development. With this aim in mind, Elizabeth I looked beyond Europe towards America and Asia. The first step towards c o l o n i a l expansion was the building of a fleet that could transport goods and protect the nation's interests at sea.

ENGLAND AND THE REST OF THE WORLD England and France

Expanding

markets

England and Spain

• Visual .Link C5

Colonial expansion: a. The New World

b. Asia

With the fleet in place, the one great obstacle that remained in England's way was Spain. Spanish explorers were already opening up the American continent for exploitation and had no intention of letting the English share in their gains. From 1584 almost to the end of Elizabeth's reign, England and Spain fought a war for the control of the seas. One of the main protagonists in the war was Sir Francis Drake, who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the world between 1577 and 1580. He also took part in the battles that resulted in the destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588. Military success meant that the road was clear for English entrepreneurs to establish colonies and open up new horizons for trade. Sir Walter Raleigh was one of those intrepid pioneers. He helped establish a colony in Virginia in North America and brought back potatoes and tobacco to Europe. On the other side of the world the East India Company, which was set up in 1601, started to do business with countries in Asia and laid the foundations for the colonisation of India.

During Elizabeth I's reign, England became a powerful, prosperous nation in which trade and arts flourished.


A direct consequence of the war between England and Spain was the colonisation of Ireland. Elizabeth and her advisers were afraid that the Spaniards would use Ireland, which had remained Catholic during the Reformation, as a base to attack England. The Irish were defeated by the forces of Lord Mountjoy in 1601 and their leaders had to flee. Elizabeth also encouraged Protestant farmers to take land in Ireland in the hope that a sizeable Protestant colony would help pacify the island. This colonisation continued throughout the seventeenth century and was particularly successful in the north of the country. When the last of the Tudor monarchs, Elizabeth I, died in 1603, she left behind a realm that had changed greatly since her grandfather Henry VII had become king in 1485. It was a prosperous and progressive country whose monarch commanded the respect of the people both as head of the Anglican Church and head of state. Prosperity brought a renewed interest in culture and learning. The arts, particularly in the form of theatre and poetry, flourished. It was a country that had fought to gain respect on the world stage and would expand its power and influence in a way that must have been difficult to imagine at the time. However, on the domestic front, storm clouds were gathering. As James I's reign drew to a close in 1625, the rivalries between Parliament and monarchy and between the different religious denominations were about to explode into open conflict.

c. In Ireland

THE TUDOR LEGACY Prosperity and progress

Trouble ahead

TASKS 1 a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

Link each sentence to a person. 'The king follows my advice. I could manipulate him if I wanted to.' 'Why do I have to disband my army? Will the king be able to defend me then?' 'Marry me. I'll give you a boy.' 'With this Act of Supremacy I declare myself the Head of the Church of England.' 'We have to stop the Protestants. Arrest their leaders. Put them to death.' 'Next week I'm travelling to Amsterdam on business.' 'Your Majesty, the Spanish Armada is destroyed. Our great country is safe.' 'I have created a kingdom where the arts flourish and people appreciate the importance of culture and learning.'

Sir Thomas Wolsey A nobleman Elizabeth I Sir Francis Drake Mary I Henry VIII A cloth merchant Anne Boleyn

2 Choose one of the topics and prepare a brief talk (max. 5 minutes). Use websites to find further information. Elizabethan England Henry VIII Elizabeth I The Reformation Overseas explorations and the wars with Spain

MAIN EVENTS: The Renaissance 1485--1509 1509 -1547 1534 1536 -1539 1539 1547--1553 1553--1558 1558--1603 1577--1580 1584 1588 1601

Reign of Henry VII Reign of Henry VIII Act of Supremacy Monasteries closed First Bible in English Reign of Edward VI Reign of Mary 1 Reign of Elizabeth 1 Sir Francis Drake sails around the world The Book of Common Prayer The Spanish Armada destroyed The Poor Law The East India Company is set up

159

56


An illustration for the

Shepherdes Calender

(1579) by Edmund Spenser.

The Faerie Queene

or more levels. Originally intended to be twelve books, only half of the work was completed. Each book recounts the adventures of a knight, who represents one of the twelve virtues that make a perfect gentleman. The main theme of the work is the glorification of Queen Elizabeth and her court. In fact, at the end of the story, Prince Arthur, the most important knight, is to marry the Faerie Queene Gloriana, who represented Queen Elizabeth. The Faerie Queene shows Spenser's great gift for creating refined and vivid word pictures, and his ear for the musicality of the language. He introduced a new metre into English poetry called the Spenserian stanza, which consisted of eight lines of ten syllables plus a twelve-syllable line containing six iambic feet, with the rhyming scheme ABABBCBCC. Spenser's belief that poetry should deal with subjects far removed from everyday life and should be written in refined language - unlike that which was used by common people - became the basic principle for poetry throughout much of the Elizabethan period. Although it introduced new elements inspired by classical and continental Renaissance models, Elizabethan love poetry maintained many of the features of the courtly love poems of the Middle Ages. The lady to whom the poem was addressed was distant and idealised and the poetic language was highly ornate and musical. Poems were often set to music and sung to the accompaniment of an instrument.

TASK Choose the correct option. 1 During Elizabeth's reign the arts flourished because [a | the economy was strong and people had more time and money for the arts, b ! Greek refugees introduced classical Greek culture to England. 2 Italy was regarded a] with both contempt and admiration. b | with suspicion and scorn. 3 Sir Philip Sidney wrote ~a~l tales in the style of Boccaccio's tales. [~b] sonnets based on Petrarch's themes and style.

4 Edmund Spenser wrote 7a] religious poems each of which glorifies one of the twelve virtues. b] allegorical poems which, on one level, are meant to glorify the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 5 In The Fairie Queene, Spenser [a] uses a new poetic metre and highly refined language. I b] glorifies the everyday life of common people.

The Literary Background 161

While much Renaissance poetry is of a very high quality, the greatest literary works of the period are plays. The medieval tradition of Mystery and Miracle plays continued under the reign of Henry VII. However, after the schism from Rome and the Reformation, Henry VIII put an end to medieval religious drama. Humanism revived interest in classical drama and the plays of Plautus, Terence and Seneca, among others, were translated into English, published and widely read. Seneca's tragedies were particularly popular and created a taste for horror and bloodshed. An example of Seneca's influence on English drama can be seen in the works of Thomas Kyd. His highly popular play about bloody revenge called The Spanish Tragedy ( 1 5 8 7 ) has m a n y Senecan e l e m e n t s including horror, villains, corruption, intrigue and the supernatural. Early English Renaissance playwrights accepted some of the conventions of classical theatre, but they adapted the form to suit their needs and did not content themselves with simply producing poor imitations of classical models. For several reasons English drama flourished under Elizabeth I and James I: • theatre appealed to all social classes, from the sovereign to the lowest class; • plays could be understood by the illiterate, who formed the largest section of the population; • there had been a strong theatre-going tradition in Britain since the Middle Ages; • • the theatre was patronised by the Court and the aristocracy; • the language of drama was less artificial than that of poetry; • there was a great number of talented playwrights who produced works of extraordinary quality; • the prosperity of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods meant that people had both the time and money to go to the theatre. Drama was strictly linked to the Elizabethan world view which emphasised above all else the principle of order. Early Elizabethans believed that a hierarchy existed in the natural world which ascended from inanimate objects to animals, men, angels and eventually God. Man was the central link in this chain: his body linked him to the animal world below him while his soul linked him to the spiritual world above him. Man was at the centre of the universe because the moon, the sun, the planets and the stars all revolved in orbit around the earth. A number of factors, however, weakened Elizabethan beliefs in the principle of universal order. The development of modern experimental science, for example, established that the earth and other planets revolved around the sun, thus displacing man from the centre of creation. In The Prince (1513) Machiavelli rejected the notion of a divinely ordained political hierarchy and explained how political power could be won and held with no reference to the will of God. Much Elizabethan drama is concerned with the hierarchical order of the universe and what may occur if it is broken. In Macbeth when the king is killed the natural order of society is broken, and the result is chaos and tragedy. The loss of order is also reflected in the natural world (darkness in daytime, owls killing falcons, horses eating each other) and in the inner world of the characters (Lady Macbeth's insanity). Only at the end of the play, when the rightful king sits on the throne, is order restored. The breaking of the laws of order may also result in comedy. In A Midsummer Night's Dream the disciplined ordered world of Athens is contrasted with the night-time wood, which is a dark realm of disorder, chaos and confusion. Elizabethan heroes are no longer the allegorical paragons of virtue of Medieval drama. They are full of passion and doubts and constantly question the world that surrounds them.

DRAMA

Thomas Kyd (1558-1594)

Why drama

flourished

The principle of order

Questioning the principle of order

• Texts C8 and C9

• Texts C4 and C5

58


A play performed on a platform raised in the yard.

The actors

The companies and their patrons

The theatres

The actors were direct descendants of Medieval street performers. In spite of the popularity of their performances, a law passed in 1572 still classified actors as vagabonds, thus putting them at risk of being imprisoned depending on the will of the various authorities. In order to overcome the problem they worked in companies patronised by a nobleman, whose name the company took (The Earl of Leicester's Men, The Lord Chamberlain's Men). The nobleman gave them a letter of permission which allowed them to travel around the country and perform without fear of punishment. Companies generally played in London in the winter and spring and travelled around the country in summer, when the city was often ravaged by plague. At the time when Shakespeare was acting there were approximately twenty companies of actors in London and more than one hundred provincial troupes. As acting was considered immoral, there were no women in the companies female parts were played by boys whose voices had not yet changed. An average play had a cast of about twenty. The main parts were played by company actors Three or four boys were hired for the women's roles, and six or more hired men played the minor roles or worked as musicians, stage managers, wardrobe keepers, prompters and stage hands. Some actors doubled for two or more minor parts. Actors had to have good memories, strong voices and the ability to sing, dance and fence. The costumes they wore were very elaborate sixteenth-century creations which did not respect historical accuracy. Until the building of permanent playhouses, plays were performed in inns, on a platform raised in the yard. Guests at the inn watched the performances from the second-storey galleries, while the common people took their places in front o ' the stage. Playhouses were at first built outside the city walls because they were consider to be centres of corruption. The first playhouse built in London was The Theatre in 1576, followed by The Rose, The Swan and The Globe (1599). The comp to which Shakespeare belonged, The Lord Chamberlain's Men, was one of

The Literary Background

few companies that owned its own playhouse. By the end of Shakespeare's career they had two theatres: The Globe and The Blackfriars. Elizabethan theatres were built with the inn yard model in mind. They were polygonal or circular three-tiered structures, open to the sun and rain. In the case of The Globe, the open courtyard and three semi-circular galleries that surrounded it could hold more than 1,500 people. The stage projected out into the courtyard about five feet above the ground and had two main parts: • the outer stage was a rectangular platform where the main action of the play took place. It was covered by a thatched roof but had no front or side curtains; • the inner stage stood behind the outer stage and was concealed by a curtain. This stage was used when a scene took place in a more confined space (for example the tomb scene in Romeo and Juliet) or when a character was supposed to overhear the action on the main stage. On either side of the inner stage there was a door through which actors entered and disappeared. Below the floors of the outer and inner stages was a large cellar called hell. Actors in 'hell', who played the parts of ghosts, demons or fairies, would make dramatic appearances through trap doors onto the main outer stage. Over the main stage there was a third space which could be used by musicians, represent a balcony scene or stand for the walls of a city. Above the third level there was a series of pulleys which >~> " could be used to suspend fairies, 8 PALL ' SS CHV*«M angels, ghosts and thunderbolts. Many special effects were used in the theatre. Death scenes were very I gory and realistic and animal organs and blood were often used to make battle scenes more realistic. The audiences became very involved in the play, particularly the spectators in the yard, who were very close to the action. Their tickets were cheaper than the tickets of the spectators sitting in the galleries and they participated by cheering, hissing and even throwing rotten vegetables.

Structure of an Elizabethan theatre

Outer and inner stage

Special effects

Audiences

A view of London in the early sixteenth century showing St Paul's cathedral and The Theatres on The South Bank.

TASK Cross out incorrect statements. Elizabethan drama: - had strong links with classical Greek and Latin drama. - often featured the themes of corruption, intrigue and revenge. - flourished because it was popular with all social classes.

- only appealed to the higher, educated classes. - often included the themes of order and hierarchy. - emphasised the centrality of Nature as a guide to human actions. - often dealt with the consequences of the disruption of hierarchical order.

59

60


WBHßp'4

S OF THE

PAST

THE ELIZABETHAN THEATRE

This is what The Globe theatre looked like.

TASKS 1 Match letters and words. galleries upper stage open courtyard outer stage hell inner stage

actors'entrances

onto the stage

entrance

A= F = B= G= C= H= D= I = E= 2 Draw your own simplified plan of an Elizabethan theatre and prepare an oral description.

'special effects'level


The two outstanding playwrights of the era were Christopher Marlowe ( • pp. C2-C9) and William Shakespeare ( • pp. C10-49). One of their contemporaries, Ben Jonson, also made a significant contribution to the drama of the period. He is best remembered for his play Volpone (1606), a satire on greed and corruption. The main character Volpone is a rich avaricious Venetian. He is surrounded by people who pretend to be his friends because they want to inherit his fortune. Volpone pretends to be ill and tricks his so-called friends into giving him expensive gifts, thus punishing them for their insincerity. Jonson also wrote a series of successful masques. A masque was an elaborate form of court entertainment originally developed in Italy that involved poetic drama, music, song, dance and splendid costuming. The plot was slight and often introduced mythological and allegorical elements. The characters, who wore masks, were played by ladies and gentlemen of the court. The play ended with a dance when the players removed their masks and took members of the audience as partners. Prose writing in the Renaissance period did not reach the same standards of excellence as poetry or drama. The geographical expeditions of the era gave rise to travel literature in which writers gave accounts of the voyages of explorers such as Walter Raleigh and Francis Drake. The great interest in classical and continental literature led to the translation of many books into English: Thomas North's translation of Plutarch's Lives (1579), Chapman's translation of Homer (1610) and Paterick's Machiavelli were all very influential works. The Authorised Version of the Bible, produced in 1611 by a team of forty-seven scholars, is unquestionably one of the works which greatly influenced the development of English prose style. Every Protestant home had a copy of the Bible and many families listened to daily readings. One of the most important figures in the development of English prose style was Francis Bacon. He wrote in Latin and in English, and is best remembered for his Essays ( 1 6 2 5 ) , inspired by the French writer M o n t a i g n e . Bacon rejected the long-winded overly ornate Elizabethan style and replaced it with a plainer, more straightforward style, thus helping to pave the way for modern English.

Ben Jonson (1572-1637)

Masques

PROSE

Accounts of explorations and translations

The Bible

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Essays

Francis Bacon, philosopher and statesman.

TASK Answer these questions. a. What work is Ben Jonson best remembered for? b. What vices are ridiculed in his most important play? c. Where were masques performed?

d. What kind of prose works were mainly developed in Elizabethan England? e. How did Bacon influence the development of English prose style?

61

62


MEANWHILE,

ELSEWHERE

LINK TO ITALIAN LITERATURE: Petrarch Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca, 1304-1374) was one of the leading figures in the Italian Renaissance, English Renaissance his work inspired early sonnet writers like Wyatt and Surrey ( • p. C55). Here is one of the many sonnets that Petrarch wrote in praise of Laura, the woman he loved. Feeling ashamed that I still seem to pass Over your beauty, Lady, in my rhyme, I remember when I for the first time Saw you, made for my love as no one was.

Vergognando talor ch'ancor si taccia, Donna, per me vostra bellezza in rima, Ricorro al tempo ch'i' vi vidiprima, Tal che nuli'altra fia mai che mi piaccia.

But the burden11 find crushes my frame2, The burden cannot be polished3 by my file4, And my talent which knows its strength and style In this attempt becomes frozen and lame5.

Ma trovo peso non da le mie braccia, Ne ovra da polir colla mia lima; Pero I'ingegno, che sua forza estima, Ne I'operazion tutto s'agghiaccia.

Several times I moved my lips to cry; But my voice was constrained within my lungs. Which is the sound that can soar6 up so high?

Piu volte gia per dir le labbra apersi; Poi rimase la voce in mezzo 7 petto. Ma qual son pona mai salir tant'altro?

Several times I began writing songs; But pen and hand and intellect were bound7 To be conquered and caught in the first sound.

Piü volte incominciai di scriver versi; Ma la penna e la mano e I'intelletto Rimaser vinti nel primier assalto.

•

GLOSSARY

1. burden: heavy weight, the hard task of describing your beauty and my love for you 2. frame: body

and during the

3. polished: made lighter 4. file: pen, writing skills 5. lame: disabled, handicapped 6. soar: fly 7. bound: tied

TASKS 1 Work out the rhyme scheme of the sonnet. The original Italian version is ABBA ABBA CDE CDE. Is it the same as the original? 2 What problem is introduced in the first eight lines (octave) of the sonnet? 3 In the last six lines (sextet) does the poet resolve the problem? (See page C55)

Petrarch.



-{to Tragedy

Tragedy A tragedy is a play in which events have disastrous or fatal consequences for all or some of the characters, and tragedy has been a popular form of theatre from Greek times up until the present day. The Roman writer Seneca, whose nine tragedies were translated into English during the sixteenth century, influenced many dramatists of the day, including William Shakespeare. Seneca's tragedies and Renaissance tragedies often had some of the following features in common: 1 2 3 4

crime bloodthirsty scenes witchcraft and the supernatural very ambitious characters

5 6 7 8

revenge long reflective soliloquies powerful rhetoric characters who go through emotional crises

PROJECT a. Choose two (or more) of the following plays. b. Write the plots in your own words. c. Explain, with reference to the story and/or the actual text, which of the features listed above the plays have or do not have in common. Seneca (Lucius Annaeus c. 4 BC-AD 65) - Troades, Phaedra, Thyestes, Agamemnon, Hercules Furens Thomas Kyd (1558-1594) - The Spanish Tragedy (1587) - one of the most popular tragedies in the Elizabethan period. • p. C57. William Shakespeare (1564-1616): Romeo and Juliet (c.1595) • pp.C10-17, Hamlet (c.1601) • pp. C24-32, Macbeth (c.1605) • pp. C33-39. PROJECT Choose one of the plays you have analysed and one of the following modern tragedies: Tom Stoppard (1937-): Rosencratz and Guilderstern are Dead (1966) Arthur Miller (1915-): Death of a Salesman (1940) Compare them by answering the following questions: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

What is the tragedy in the play? What emotional crises do the characters go through? Are any of the characters heroic? Is there a lot of violence and crime? In which play are the stage directions more complete? Are any of the characters very ambitious? Which play do you feel is more realistic? Are there many long speeches?

THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES 1625-1776 The mind is its own place, and in itself Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven. From Paradise Lost (Book I) b y J o h n Milton

John Donne INTRODUCTION • J o h n D o n n e was an i n t e n s e l y p a s s i o n a t e m a n . In t h e f o l l o w i n g two p o e m s h e speaks directly to his mistress and to God. He uses c o m p l e x and sometimes contorted images, but w h e n the reader goes to the trouble o f understanding what t h e y m e a n , he fully understands what love and religious faith m e a n t to this hot-blooded poet.

If God really loves us why does he allow us to fall into the temptation of sin? Should He do more to help us to stay on the right path? Read what John Donne suggests God should do to keep him from sinning.

Q

m m

Batter My Heart Batter 1 my heart, three-person'd God 2 ; for, you As yet but 3 knocke, breathe, shine 4 and seeke to mend; That I may rise, and stand, o'erthrow mee, and bend 5 Your force, to breake, blowe, burn and make me new. I, like an usurpt towne, to another due 6 , Labour 7 to'admit you, but Oh to no end 8 , Reason your viceroy in mee, mee should defend 9 , But is captiv'd and proves weak or untrue. Yet dearely I love you, and would be lov'd fain 10 , But am betroth'd unto 1 1 your enemie: Divorce mee, untie, or breake that knot againe, Take mee to you, imprison mee, for I Except 1 2 you enthrall mee 1 3 , never shall be free, Nor ever chaste, except you ravish mee 1 4 .

GLOSSARY

Note: here is a list of the most frequently recurring archaic words and their modern equivalents. thou: you thee: you thyself: yourself thy: your thine: yours art: are hath: has, have doth: does wilt: will shalt: shall

1. Batter: strike violently

2.

three-person'd God: the Holy Trinity (God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit) but: only shine: polish bend: direct, apply to another due: owing duty and obedience to another

7. Labour: work hard

8. to no end: with no result 9. Reason ... defend: reason, who represents God in the poet, should defend him 10. fain: willingly 11.betroth'd unto: engaged to be married to 12. Except: unless 13. enthrall mee: make a slave of me 14. ravish mee: possess me sexually, rape me

HÜJliJi .. gBBXfcti John ü o n n e

COMPREHENSION 1 What does the poet ask God to do in line 1 ? 2 What, according to the poet, has God done up until this point? 3 What must God do in order to make the poet rise and stand? (Line 3) 4 What does the poet compare himself to in line 5? He says that he owes obedience to another; who do you think he is referring to? 5 What is God's viceroy in line 7? Why is it unable to defend the poet?

ANALYSIS

—

7 In line 10 the poet says that he is betrothed to God's 'enemy'. Who is he referring to in your opinion? What does the poet ask God to do with this union? 8 In which lines does the poet suggest that he is unworthy of God's love? 9 How, according to the poet, can God make him free? 1 0 How can God make him chaste?

—

1 Although this is a religious poem the language the poet uses is violent. Underline all the verbs in the poem which suggest violent action. 2 In line 1 the poet speaks of the 'three-person'd God' which has the obvious meaning of the Trinity. The idea of trinity is developed throughout the poem as God is described as three different persons. In which lines is God described as: - a king? Line - a conqueror? Line - a lover? Line 3 There are also three different images of the poet. In which lines does he compare himself to: - a door/gate? Line - a town? Line - a woman? Line 4 The poem is based on a series of oppositions. Fill in the table below with the elements that oppose the words and expressions in the left-hand column. Batter

6 What desire does the poet express in line 9?

knocke

that 1 may rise and stand breake, blowe, burn bethroth'd Except you enthrall me chast How do you think these violent oppositions affect the tone of the poem? Do they make it more: • passionate? • calm? • religious? • dramatic? • striking? • other:

5 The poem is made up of three sentences. Find where each sentence begins and ends. Which sentences are made of quatrains (4 lines) and sestets (6 lines)?

alliteration* in the poem. 7 Look at this example of enjambement*.

6 Find an example of

Batter my heart, three person'd God; for, you As yet but knocke, breathe, shine and seek to mend;

Find another one in the first four lines of the poem and an example from the last four lines of the poem. 8 Look at this example of

caesura*.

internal pause*

or

Batter my heart, (pause) three person'd God; (pause) for, (pause) you

Find other examples in the poem.

9

Would you consider the rhythm* of the poem to be regular or broken? How does the rhythm of the poem reflect the disorder and emotional disturbance of the poet's mind?

1 0 Work out the rhyming scheme of the poem. (Consider that 'enemie' in line 10 may be pronounced to rhyme with T in line 12.)

3

\ i

4

THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Conceit

A conceit is a figure of speech which draws a comparison between two strikingly diff ent things. In Batter My Heart, for example, the poet uses a conceit when he compa himself to a usurped town. Much Elizabethan poetry used very conventional image but John Donne and other metaphysical poets ( • p. D94) tried to use a wide range sources including science, theology, alchemy and travel to make their imagery mo innovative and effective.

SNEfK^lliiP

OVER TO YOU

jj^p In Batter My Heart the poet compares himself to a door or gate which has been closed to Cod, a town which has been occupied by God's enemy and a woman who is engaged to God's rival. Which of these conceits do you find most striking and effective and why? Striking comparisons similar to the conceits of the metaphysical poets are often used in so You're the cream in my coffee (Cole Porter) You are in my blood, you're my holy wine (Joni Mitchell) And after all, you're my wonderwall (Noel Gallagher) Work in groups. Make a list of language areas that are not usually considered 'poetic', for example the language of computers, sport, food, household objects, etc. Try to make conceits for friends or loved ones or people you hate using these language areas. For exampleYou are my screensaver. You are cigarette ash on my favourite

ice-cream.

Read your best conceits aloud to the rest of the class.

John Donne wants God to force him to be good. He says that God must imprison him because he does not have enough self-discipline to resist sin and temptation. Are there any areas of your life in which you feel you should have more self-discipline? Are you disciplined in your approach to school and study? Are you disciplined in what you eat, or do you find it difficult to resist the temptation of junk food? Would people who know you describe you as 'dependable', 'punctual', etc.?

John

üonne

5

Is it true that when two people are head over heels in love it is as if they become one person? Read the following poem and find out what John Donne thinks.

The Good-Morrow1

[Text 1)2

I wonder, by my troth 2 , what thou, and I Did, till we lov'd? Were we not wean'd 3 till then? But suck'd on countrey pleasures, childishly 4 ? Or snorted 5 we in the seven sleepers den 6 ? 'Twas so; But this, all pleasures fancies bee 7 .

5

If ever any beauty 8 I did see, Which I desir'd, and got, 'twas but a dreame of thee. And now good morrow to our waking soules, Which watch not one another out of feare; For love, all love of other sights controules 9 ,

10

And makes one little roome an every where. Let sea-discoverers to new worlds have gone, Let Maps to others, worlds on worlds have showne 10 , Let us possesse our world, each hath one, and is one. My face in thine eye, thine in mine appeares,

15

And true plaine hearts doe in the faces rest, Where can we finde two better hemispheares Without sharpe North, without declining West? What ever dyes, was not mixt 11 equally 12 ; If our two loves be one, or, thou and I

20

Love so alike, that none do slacken 13 , none can die. An allegorical representation of a lover who is burning in the flames of passion.

GLOSSARY

ourselves like carefree children?

(See note on p. D2)

5. snorted: snored

1. Good Morrow: good morning 2. by my troth: truly 3. wean'd: grown up (to wean: to gradually stop feeding a baby milk and start giving it ordinary food)

6. seven sleepers den: according to legend, seven young Christians from Ephesus were walled up alive as they attempted to escape persecution by the emperor Decius. They were found alive over two centuries later

4. But suck'd ... childishly: did we only enjoy

7. But this ... fancies bee: all other pleasures are only

imaginary and not real when compared to our love 8. beauty: beautiful woman 9. For love ... controules: true love removes (controules) the desire to see other people and places 10.Let Maps ... showne: other worlds can be discovered with maps 11. mixt: mixed

12. What ever dyes ... equally: the poet is saying that because their love is perfectly balanced, it will never die. At that time it was believed that the lack of perfect balance and proportion in the elements of which all bodies are constituted caused decay and death 13. slacken: to become weaker

•

\ i 6


COMPREHENSION 1 The poem opens with a question. Formulate the question in your own words. What possible answers does the poet suggest in lines 2 - 4 ? 2 Is the poet's present lover the first woman he has had a relationship with? 3 What setting is suggested in the second stanza? Where are the lovers and what time of day is it? Refer to the text to support your answer.

4 Why are the lovers uninterested in new sights, discoveries and worlds? 5 What does the poet see reflected in his lover's eyes? 6 What does the poet compare himself and his lov to in line 1 7?

7

Why does he believe that their love will never

die?

ANALYSIS 1 The poet refers to the lovers' past, present and future. Identify the lines that refer to each period. Past: lines

Present: lines

Future: lines

2 The poet suggests that the lovers were childish and immature before they fell in love. Underline the words in lines 2 - 4 that create the idea of childishness. 3 -

Focus on the opening lines. Find examples of: rapid questions: an exclamation: 'non-poetic' vocabulary:

- a run-on line*:

Would you agree that the language of the opening stanza is similar to that of everyday speech? How do you find the opening lines of the poem? • Dramatic • Striking • Original • Banal • Other: 4 Now that the poet has found true love he feels that the past is no longer relevant. What expression does he u s e in line 5 to dismiss that past as unimportant? 5 In the second stanza the poet says that he and his lover have created one world through their love. How many times are the words 'one' and 'world' repeated in the stanza? 6 In line 9 the poet suggests that lovers sometimes watch each other out of fear. What may be the causes of these fears in your opinion? Are the poet and his lover subject to these fears?

7 Lines 11-13 introduce the concept that love conquers space. In a complex conceit* a parallel is drawn between geographers and lovers. Complete the parallel as illustrated in the table below. Sea-discoverers

through their overseas expeditions

have reduced the new world to maps

which they share with others

The poet and his lover

through the true love that they feel for each other

have reduced the world to

which

8 In the second stanza the universe is reduced to a room. In the third stanza it is reduced to an even smaller space. What is it? 9 Focus on line 18. Why do you think the north is described as 'sharpe' and the west is considered 'declining'? In the new world the lovers create there is no north or west. By excluding them what does the poet hope not to have in his world? • Coldness • Light • Old age • Romance • Mystery • Illness 1 0 Explain how, in the last lines of the poem, the poet suggests that love also conquers time.

John

üonne

7

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Diction

The term diction refers to the choice of words in a literary work. A writer's diction may be described, for example, as abstract or concrete, colloquial or formal, technical or common, literal or figurative. It may also be drawn from a particular lexical source. John Donne's poetic diction is often colloquial and rough. This is in sharp contrast to other poets of the period who used extremely refined diction. It is one of the features of John Donne's poetry that makes it so innovative and striking. Underline any words in the poem that you consider to be colloquial or 'non-poetic' in a traditional sense.

OVER TO YOU

There are numerous adjectives to describe a writer's diction. Among them the most common are: ornate up-to-date

artificial archaic

plain concrete

simple abstract

colloquial literal

literary figurative

Read the brief extracts below and choose: BPH®;

a) one or more adjectives from the list above which you think accurately describe the diction; b) one or more adjectives that you think would be inappropriate in describing the diction.

mm

Discuss your choices with your classmates. Fixer of Midnight

From Paradise Lost

He went to fix the awning Fix the roping In the middle of the night On the porch ... Reuel Denney

'Is this the region, this the soil, the clime,' Said then the lost Archangel, 'this the seat That we must change for Heaven?, this mournful gloom For that celestial light?

You Fit Into Me

•it:/• »S^g№

You fit into me Like a hook into an eye A fish hook An open eye. Margaret Atwood La Belle Dame Sans Merci

John Milton Come Home from the Movies Come home from the movies Black girls and boys The picture be over and the screen Be cold as our neighbourhood Come home from the show, Don't be the show. Lucille Clifton

Ah, what can ail thee, knight-at-arms Alone and palely loitering; The sedge is wither'd from the lake, And no birds sing. John Keats

•DB |ohn Donne says to his lover that she is the only woman for him and that he hopes their love will never die. These are common themes in songs. Try to think of titles of songs or words from songs where these themes are expressed.

\i8


WRITERS'

GALLERY Early years

John Do

born in London in 1572 Roman Catholic family at a time when members of that faith under increasing pressure to conform to the teaching of the Brail

established Church of England. Donne was educated at Oxford possibly Cambridge but was not allowed to take a degree beca his religion. He travelled abroad, visiting Italy and Spain returning to London with a view to starting a career as a diplo London in the 1590s was the centre of intellectual and lite life in England and Donne took full advantage of all it had offer. He led a wild life and was described by one of

JOHN DONNE (1572-1631) Religion

contemporaries as 'a great visiter of ladies, a great frequenter plays and a great writer of conceited verses'.

Throughout this period Donne was tormented by the question of his religion. If

remained loyal to the Roman Catholic faith, he would have to give up any hope of a success career. On the other hand, three generations of his family had suffered exile and even death defend their right to be Catholic. His own brother Henry had died in prison for sheltering a prie Donne spent years studying all the points of dispute between the Church of England and th Catholic Church, and finally in 1593 he decided to convert to the Protestant faith.

Jr

Career

He started his diplomatic career when he entered the service of Sir Thomas Egerton, Lord

Keeper of England, as his chief secretary. In 1601 he was elected Member of Parliament and at the age of twenty-nine seemed set for an illustrious political career. A single act destroyed his bright prospects. He secretly married Lord Egerton's niece and was imprisoned for marrying a minor without her guardian's consent. He was soon released, but he was dismissed from his position as Egerton's secretary. He and his wife moved a short distance from London and managed as well as they could under difficult financial circumstances. In his personal life this was a happy time for Donne, and he wrote many of the Songs and Sonnets which deal with the theme of love in this period. Professionally, however, things were going from bad to worse. He made applications to several possible

/ a -

patrons but was unable to get a new state appointment. He became seriously ill in 1 6 0 8 - 1 6 0 9 and wrote a treatise in favour of suicide. Many of the Divine Poems, in which Donne explores the concepts of sin and judgement, date from this period. Having unsuccessfully tried to regain a career in politics and diplomacy, Donne turned his attention to the Church. He wrote essays and pamphlets condemning the Church of Rome.

mm

In 1615 he was ordained into the Church of England and was later made an honorary Doctor of Divinity at Cambridge. When he was elected Dean of St Paul's Cathedral he made a series of memorable sermons which earned him the reputation of being the greatest preacher of his generation. John Donne died in 1631 aged fifty-nine.

An illustration from one of John Donne's works depicting man and the universe.

Writers' Gallery - John Donne

'"nMMHHH

While his sermons won him public acclaim, John Donne wrote poetry exclusively for personal pleasure. During his lifetime his

poems were read only by his circle of friends in manuscript form. It was not until two years after his death that they were published. His literary production includes: • Satires written in the 1590s based on the Latin models of Juvenal and Horace. The targets of these works were the social evils of the day; • Songs and Sonnets, a collection of love poems; • Divine Poems, a collection of religious poetry; • Sermons and meditations, which include Donne's weekly sermons and his opinions on a wide range of religious topics. Metaphysical

poetry

Donne was a great literary innovator and is widely considered to be the

founder of the metaphysical school of poetry ( • p. D94). His work was characterised by the use of paradoxes*, epigrams*, puns* and conceits*, i.e. striking images that associate dissimilar ideas. Much of the poetry written in the period in which he lived was musical, ornate and respectful: he rejected these standards and wrote poems which were original, striking and irreverent. His use, for example, of religious imagery in love poems and images of physical love in religious poetry shocked his contemporaries, and his work was not widely appreciated in the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries. His reputation grew at the beginning of the twentieth century, when his passionate, dramatic poetry became popular again, and it is only since then that he has been widely recognised as one of the great poets of the English language.

TASKS

/

1 Choose the correct option. 1 John Donne was born _a] a Catholic. _bj a Protestant. 2 In his youth he devoted himself to 0

studying Greek and Latin classics.

_bj women, theatrical performances and writing poems. 3 Converting to the Church of England was an easy step which Donne took lightheartedly. ~b~l a very difficult decision which Donne thought about for years. 4 Donne's brilliant political career was _aj destroyed by his secret marriage to his patron's niece. b

long and successful, thanks to Sir Thomas Egerton's protection.

5 Unable to find new employment, he [a] contemplated and wrote about suicide. 1 b 1 decided to write poems in honour of Sir Thomas Egerton. 6 When he was ordained into the Church of England he [~a~1 became a famous preacher, bJ started travelling on delicate diplomatic missions. 2 Tick the expressions that can be applied to Donne's poetry. • Poems written for personal pleasure. • Poems expressing love for nature. • Religious or love poetry. • Paradoxes, epigrams, puns and conceits. • Musical, ornate and respectful poetry. • Original, striking and irreverent. • Epic poetry about heroic deeds. • Passionate, dramatic poetry.

\i177THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry

Andrew Marvell INTRODUCTION • There is something very modern about the poetry of Andrew Marvell. He may have written over three hundred years ago, but his sophisticated imagery and direct style are perfectly suited to the tastes of the twenty-first century reader.

The poet is trying to convince a girl to be his girlfriend. Read the poem and decide for yourself if the girl will be convinced by his argument.

Q

To his Coy1 Mistress2 Had we3 but World enough and Time, This coyness 4 Lady were no 5 crime. We would sit down, and think which way

•

GLOSSARY

To walk, and pass our long Loves Day.

(See note on p. D2)

Thou by the Indian Ganges side

1. Coy: reluctant

Should'st rubies find 6 :1 by the Tide

2. Mistress: a woman to whom a man pledges his love. In modern times it refers to a woman who has a sexual relationship with a married man

Of Humber7 would complain. I would

3. Had we: if we had 4. coyness: shyness 5. were no: would not be

Love you ten years before the Flood8: And you should if you please refuse Till the conversion of the Jews9. (...) But at my back I always hear Times winged Charriot hurrying near 10 : And yonder 11 all before us lye

6. Should'st rubies find: would find rubies (precious red stones)

Desarts12 of vast Eternity.

7. Humber: river that flows through Hull, Marvell's home town

Now therefore, while thy youthful hew 13

8. the Flood: the Flood which God sent to cover Earth. Only Noah and his Ark survived it. The poet means 'very ancient times' 9. Till ... Jews: until the end of time. It was believed that the Jews would convert to Christianity on Judgement day 10.Times ... hurrying near: the flying chariot of time approaching fast 11. yonder: over there, in the distance

(...) is

Sits on thy skin like morning dew14, And while thy willing 15 Soul transpires At every pore with instant Fires, Now let us sport us 16 while we may; And now, like am'rous birds of prey17, Rather at once our Time devour, Than languish in his slow-chapt pow'r 18 . Marvell's Coy Mistress may have I like this girl, who was painted by Van Dyck between 7 622 and 1627.

12. Desarts: deserts 13. hew: colour ('hue') 14. dew: drops of water that form on outdoor surfaces at night

15. willing: full of desire 16. sport us: enjoy ourselves 17. birds of prey: birds which kill and feed on other animals 18. Rather ... pow'r: it is better

that we devour our time now, rather than lan its jaws that slowly everything (slow-chapt with slowly moving jaiwfc

Andrew Marvell

Let us roll all our Strength, and all Our sweetness, up into one Ball: And tear our Pleasures with rough strife 19 ,

25

Through the Iron gates of Life.

19. And tear ... strife: and enjoy our pleasures with great determination (rough strife: violent battle) 20. Thus: in this way 21. though ... run: even if we cannot stop time (our Sun) we can beat it by living life with great intensity •

Thus 20 , though we cannot make our Sun Stand still, yet we will make him run 21 .

COMPREHENSION 1 In the world the poet describes in lines 1-10 there are no limits to time and space and therefore he and his lover do not need to hurry their love. Say whether the following lines refer to time or space. Lines 3^1:

Lines 5-7:

Lines 8 - 1 0 :

2 In lines 11-14 the poet explains why he feels the need to act immediately. Try to explain his argument in your own words. 3 In the final section the poet suggests that he and his mistress should seize the day and become lovers. In doing this what will they conquer?

ANALYSIS 1 Focus on the imagery* of lines 11-12. The poet says that 'Times winged Charriot' is directly behind him. What does this striking image suggest about his perception of time? How does it contrast with the view of time presented in the first verse? 2 How would you define the tone of the opening verse? • Humorous • Playful • Facetious • Angry • Persuasive • Other: What is the tone of lines 11-14? • Humorous • Ironic • Solemn • Pessimistic • Sombre • Other: Do you agree that there is a sharp change of tone from the first verse to the second? 3 In lines 13-14 the poet looks to the future and to life after death. What image does he use to convey his vision? Do you consider the image to be optimistic or pessimistic? Justify your choice. 4 Consider lines 15-18 in which the poet focuses on the woman's youth. He compares her complexion to morning dew. Is the choice of the part of the day significant? In lines 1 7-18 he describes her soul as 'willing' and associates it with fire. What does this suggest about the lady's feelings for the poet? 5 Underline the verbs in lines 19-28. Are they predominantly static or dynamic? Do they suggest that the poet and his lover will take action or remain motionless victims of time?

11

6 In the final verse the poet suggests that although they cannot stop time, they can master it by living each moment of their lives intensely. The concept of the victim becoming master is conveyed through a series of contrasts. Link each of the words in column A with a contrasting word or expression in column B.

A amorous devour strength pleasures stand still

B sweetness run birds of prey slow-chapt strife

7 Does the tone of the final part of the poem differ from the rest? How would you describe it? • Triumphant • Optimistic • Sarcastic • Playful • Other: 8 Identify the rhyme scheme of the poem. Is it regular throughout? Count the syllables in each line. What kind of line does Marvell use? • tetrameter* • pentameter* • hexameter* Find examples of in-line pauses* (marked by commas) and run-on lines*. What effect do they have on the poem? Choose from the following or add your own. • They make the rhythm less regular and therefore less lightweight. • They make the poet's language more similar to natural speech. • They interrupt the flow of the poem. • They add to the musicality of the poem.


WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Hyperbole

Hyperbole (Greek for 'overshooting') is an overstatement or a deliberate exaggeration, used either for serious or comic effect. It is frequently used in everyday speech in expressions such as: 'I've told you a million times not to put your feet on the sofa!' 'There are thousands of reasons why studying Greek and Latin is useful.' In literature, hyperbole is used to catch the reader's attention. Its two fundamental uses

aife

are diametrically opposed: to underline the gravity of the point the writer is making or to add an element of humour. Find examples of hyperbole referring to space and time in the first verse of the poem To his Coy Mistress. Is the hyperbole used to underline the seriousness of the point the poet is making or to add a touch of playful humour? OVER TO YOU

Experiment with hyperbole. Write three sentences in which you use hyperbole for comic effect. The English lesson was so boring the birds in the trees outside fell asleep. Mr Wakefield's nose is so large that it enters a room a full minute before the rest of his body. While I was waiting for the bus I grew a three-inch beard.

Marvell is urging a woman to become his lover. He believes that because life is so short, each day should be fully enjoyed. This concept was first developed by the Latin poet Horace: 'Carpe Diem, quam minimum credula postero' ('Seize the day, and believe in the future as little as you can'). This timeless theme inspired the Italian prince and poet Lorenzo De Medici in the fifteenth century: Quant'e bella giovinezza che si fugge tuttavia! Chi vuol esser lieto sia: di doman non c'e certezza!

Youth is so gay How quickly it slips away! Be happy while you may For tomorrow might be your last day!

and the sixteenth-century French poet Pierre de Ronsard: Cueillez, cueillez votre jeunesse: Comme a cette fleur, la veillesse Fera ternir votre beaute.

Pick, pick your youth Like thisflower's,old age Will spoil your beauty.

Now it is your turn. Add two or three more examples of 'Carpe diem' situations to the following: I have an important test on Monday and I should be preparing for it. My friends are going to a football I think: Carpe diem! And I go with them.

match

Writers' Gallery - Andrew Marvell

WRITERS'

GALLERY Andrew Marvell was born on 31st March 1621. He started

writing poetry, primarily in Greek and Latin, during his life as a student at Cambridge University, from which he graduated in 1638. From 1642 to 1 6 4 6 he travelled abroad to France, Holland, Switzerland, Spain and Italy. When he returned to England he became the tutor of twelve-year-old Mary Fairfax at her Yorkshire home. It was at this time that he wrote some of his greatest poems, including To his Coy Mistress. His friend John Milton recommended him for the position of Assistant Latin Secretary to the Council of State, a post he secured in 1657. In 1659 Marvell

ANDREW MARVELL (1621-1678) WORKS

was elected M.P. for his home town of Hull. He remained in politics for over twenty years, taking part in diplomatic missions to Holland and Russia. He died in 1678. Poetry

Today Andrew Marvell is best remembered for the lyrical

poems he wrote during the two-year period he spent as a tutor in

Yorkshire. At the time of writing, these poems were only known to a few of Marvell's close friends including Milton ( • pp. D14-22), and it was not until three years after his death that they were printed for a wider audience. Marvell drew inspiration from a wide range of sources including the Cavalier poets ( • p. D94) and John Donne ( • pp. D2-9) but, like Milton, it was his classical training that exercised the greatest influence on his work. His poetry shows his passion for life and his great love of nature. Marvell was in some respects a forerunner of the Romantic movement ( • pp. E115116) in his sheer enjoyment of the open air and country life. Satirical poems

From 1667 to the end of his life Marvell wrote a series of satirical poems about

public figures and the events of the day. His biting satirical attacks were directed towards political leaders, members of the aristocracy, the Court and the king himself. To protect Marvell, the satirical poems were only circulated among friends in manuscript form. It was not until 1688, ten years after his death, that they were published. Prose

Marvell's prose work consists of political pamphlets and a long series of newsletters he wrote

to his constituents on the work of Parliament. The letters are important historical documents because they give us information about proceedings in Parliament at a time when no other records were kept. In the eighteenth century Marvell was chiefly remembered as an outstanding patriot and politician. Marvell the poet had always had his admirers, but it was only at the beginning of the nineteenth century, during the Romantic period, that he was given the recognition he deserved. TASK True or false? Correct the false statements. a. Marvell's best works include lyrical poems which were published anonymously during his lifetime. b. Marvell was greatly influenced by his studies of ancient Greek and Latin authors. c. Unlike poets before him, his love of nature is authentic and sincere: nature is not just a source of inspiration for similes and metaphors.

d. Marvell's poems are full of sadness and a sense of incumbent tragedy. e. Marvell's satirical poems against prominent members of the society of his time (including the king) were published posthumously. f. The letters Marvell wrote to the people who had elected him to Parliament are of considerable historical importance.

\i1 4


Paradise Lost by John Milton

D B 13D In the Bible, the figure of Satan stands for Evil while God stands for Good. Since then, in literature and art, Satan has been depicted in many different ways. In groups, think of a book, a painting, or a film in which Satan is one of the characters and answer the following questions. 1 What does he look like? 4 Does he have any special powers and if so, what are 2 What kind of place does he live in? they? 3 Does he have any followers and/or enemies and if 5 Is the impression that is given of Satan positive, so, who are they? negative or neutral?

INTRODUCTION • When he sat down to write Paradise Lost, J o h n Milton was inspired by religious fervour and helped by a masterful command of the language. It took him five years to complete what has since been recognised as the greatest epic poem in English literature. His picture-in-words of Hell is so vivid that the reader feels he can almost walk into the page and find himself surrounded by the fires of damnation ( • Visual Link D4). THE

STORY

Paradise Lost is a retelling of the Bible story of Man's expulsion from Paradise in twelve books. In Books I and II, Satan has just been defeated in battle by God and banished to Hell, from where he plans with the other fallen angels to get revenge. In Books III and IV he flies to Earth, sees Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and resolves to tempt them to disobey God. In Books V-VIII the archangel Raphael tells Adam and Eve about Satan's rebellion and their own creation, and warns them not to eat the fruit from the tree of knowledge. In Book IX Adam and Eve eat the forbidden fruit and are expelled from Paradise in Books X and XI, while Satan celebrates his victory. The last book (Book XII) is an account by the archangel Michael of what will happen after the fall of Man up to the coming of the Messiah.

Q H a H Better to Reign in Hell (Book I) Satan is addressing his followers soon after their arrival in Hell, but instead of crying over what has been lost he gives an inspiring and defiant

speech.

(...)

'Is this the region, this the soil1, the clime 2 ,' Said then the lost Archangel 3 , 'this the seat4 That we must change 5 for Heaven, this mournful gloom 6 For that celestial light? Be it so 7 , since he GLOSSARY

(See note on D2) 1. soil: land 2. clime: country

3. lost Archangel: Satan 4. seat: place

5. change: exchange 6. mournful gloom: sad and

depressing darkness 7. Be it so: let us accept this

Paradise Lost - John Milton

Who now is sovran 8 can dispose and bid 9

15

5

What shall be right: farthest from him is best, 11. happy fields: heaven (allusion to the Elysian fields of Greek mythology)

Whom reason hath equalled, force hath made supreme Above his

equals 10 .

Farewell, happy

fields 11 ,

Where joy for ever dwells 12 ! Hail13, horrors! hail, Infernal World! and thou, profoundest Hell,

10

Receive thy new possessor - one who brings A mind not to be changed by place or time. The mind is its own place, and in itself Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven. What matter where, if I be still the same,

15

And what I should be, all but less than he Whom thunder hath made greater 14 ? Here at least We shall be free; the Almighty hath not built Here for his envy, will not drive us hence 15 ; Here we may reign secure, and in my choice 16 , To reign is worth ambition, though in

20

Hell 17 :

Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven. 8. he ... sovran: he who rules (God) 9. dispose and bid: do and command

he is and he only won power because his armies were stronger than mine

lO.farthest... equals: it is better to be as far away as possible from God. 1 am as intelligent as

12. dwells: lives 13. Hail: welcome 14. What matter... greater: It does not matter where I am because I am still the same as I was before. I am almost as good as God who beat me in battle 15.the Almighty ... hence: God, who built this place for us and not for himself ( n o t . . . for his envy), has no intention of attacking it and sending us away (hence) 16.choice: opinion 17.To reign ... Hell: the important thing is to rule, even if it is in Hell

»

COMPREHENSION Does Satan accept that God is his superior?

1 Where is Satan?

4

2 Is he happy to be far from God? Why?

5 Will his new surroundings change the way Satan thinks?

3 According to Satan, how did Cod defeat him - by power or reason? Did this represent a true victory for God, in his opinion?

6 List the reasons why Satan feels that Hell is preferable to Heaven.

ANALYSIS 1 The extract contains contrasting descriptions of Heaven and Hell. Underline them in the text. What images of the two places are conveyed? 2 God is never mentioned explicitly in the text. Underline words and expressions that refer to him. How is God described by Satan? Choose from the adjectives below. • Ambitious • Competitive

• Just • Evil

• Loving • Devious

3 Choose three adjectives from the list below to describe Satan. Justify your choices by referring to the text. Courageous Fearless

• Evil • Selfish

• Ambitious • Humble

• Proud

4 Although Milton wrote Paradise Lost to praise God, some critics feel that Satan is the true hero of the poem. Does Satan have any heroic qualities in your opinion?

5 Consider lines 2 - 4 . They are examples of run-on line* (enjambement*).

Find other examples of run-on lines in the text. What is the effect of this device? It makes Satan's speech • more poetic but more artificial. • flow more naturally.


Blank verse is generally regarded as the poetic metre that most closely resembles the rhythm of natural in English. Would you agree that Satan | 'Is | this | the | re| gion, | this | the | soil, | the | clime,' speech | speech sounds natural? Do you think that it could 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 successfully be performed as a theatrical monologue? | Said | then | the | lost | Arch | an | gel, | 'this | the | seat | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 7 Milton was heavily influenced by his classical

6 4 |J Paradise Lost is written in blank verse*.

The metre is not regular throughout. Sometimes Milton varies the number of syllables or the unstressedstressed syllable pattern. Listen again to the recording of the following four lines and analyse them as above. Receive thy new possessor - one who brings A mind not to be changed by place or time. The mind is its own place, and in itself Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven.

studies. In his poetry he often used words of Latin origin. Link the words in column A below to the Latinate equivalent that Milton uses (in column B). B

A place deepest heavenly hellish owner

celestial possessor region infernal profoundest

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Style

Style refers to the way a writer says what he wants to say. It is usually analysed in terms of the diction (i.e. the choice of words), the sentence structure or syntax, the density and types of imagery, the rhythm and sounds. Many adjectives are used to classify types of style including formal, oratorical, ornate, sober, simple, elaborate, conversational. Styles are also classified according to literary periods or traditions, for example, metaphysical style and Restoration prose style, or according to an important work, for example Biblical style. Style may also be described by making reference to its greatest exponent, for example, Shakespearean style, Miltonic style and Byronic style.

TASK

Milton's style is very distinctive and is often referred to as grand style. The features are: - the choice of words of Latin origin; - allusions to the classical world; - long sentence structures. Find examples of each feature in the extract you have read.

OVER TO YOU

Experiment with style. Rewrite the first ten lines of Satan's speech in a more informal style. STEP ONE - Substitute the underlined words with other words or expressions (see list below). STEP T W O - Make sentences shorter and use any device that you think might make the speech more informal. sad darkness the bright lights of heaven No problem king say and do whatever he likes bye-bye heaven where everyone is always happy Hi there, you deepest 'Is this the region, this the soil, the clime,' Said then the lost Archangel, 'this the seat That we must change for Heaven, this mournful gloom For that celestial light? Be it so. since he Who now is sovran can dispose and bid What shall be right: farthest from him is best, Whom reason hath equalled, force hath made supreme Above his equals. Farewell, happy fields. Where joy for ever dwells! Hail, horrors! hail, Infernal World! and thou profoundest Hell (...)

Start like this: Is this the place that we must exchange for Heaven? I guess we're going to have to get used to ...

Learn your version of the speech by heart and perform it for your classmates.

Sonnet XVIII - John Milton

Satan says that, even though he has been defeated, he will build a new empire in Hell and never accept God's supremacy. It almost seems that Milton has unintentionally made Satan into a hero who fights bravely against adversity. Try to think of examples of people, or groups of people, who fight or have fought against adverse circumstances when it might have been easier to give up. The following areas where people can become heroes in the face of adversity should help you get some ideas: sport family life politics social work study career development natural disasters war illness

•

An engraving Gustave Dore Paradise Lost

17

\i1 8


Q

Text D 5

Sonnet XVIII: On the Late Massacre in Piemont

The Waldensians, or Valdesi, are a Protestant community that has lived for cen a number of valleys that connect Italy to France. Milton, who was a devout Prot and virulently anti-Catholic,

wrote this poem when he heard about a

massa

Waldensians by Catholic troops in 1655. Avenge1, O Lord, thy slaughter'd 2 saints, whose bones Lie scatter'd 3 on the Alpine mountains cold, Ev'n them who kept thy truth so pure of old 4 , When all our fathers worshipp'd stocks and stones 5 ; Forget not: in thy book 6 record their groans 7 Who were thy sheep 8 and in their ancient fold 9 Slain 10 by the bloody Piemontese that roll'd Mother with infant down the rocks. Their moans The vales redoubl'd to the hills, and they To Heav'n 11 . Their martyr'd blood and ashes sow O'er all th' Italian fields where still doth sway The triple tyrant 12 ; that from these may grow A hundred-fold, who having learnt thy way Early may fly the Babylonian woe 13 .

GLOSSARY (See note on D2)

1. Avenge: get justice for 2. slaughter'd: murdered 3. scatter'd: thrown over a wide area 4. Ev'n ... old: those who preserved the true, pure religion in earlier times 5. stocks and stones: inanimate things 6. thy book: the book that God will consult on Judgement day, when he decides who will go to Hell or Heaven (Revelations 20:12) 7. groans: cries of pain

8. sheep: followers 9. ancient fold: old church (fold: the group of people you belong to and share the same beliefs as) 10. Slain: killed 11.Their moans ... Heav'n: their cries of pain (moans) intensified (redoubl'd) as they rose from the valleys to the hills and then up to Heaven 12.Their martyr'd blood ... tyrant: the blood of these martyrs is like seeds sown all over Italy where the Pope (the triple tyrant) still rules (doth sway). A reference to the Latin

Christian writer Tertullian's famous phrase 'The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church' and the parable of the sower (Matthew 13:3-9) 13.that from ... woe: that from these seeds the Protestant community may multiply. The new converts from Catholicism will avoid the fate of all Catholics which is to be punished by God (Babylonian woe). The ancient city of Babylon was considered a city of perdition and was identified by Protestants with Rome.

COMPREHENSION 1 Who are the 'slaughter'd saints' mentioned in line 1 ? 2 Where did the massacre take place? 3 What does the poet admire about the Waldensian's faith?

4 Did the Piemontese spare the women and children? 5 Who still rules Italy, according to the poet? 6 What does he hope will happen in the future?

Sonnet XVIII - John Milton

ANALYSIS

—

19

—

1 Underline any words or expressions in the text that refer to the Waldensians. Which of the following characteristics do you think are emphasised? • Their saintliness • Their courage • Their skill in fighting • Their hatred of Catholics • Their purity • Their long-standing religious traditions Justify your answer by referring to the text. 2 The images of the massacre are quite striking. Find an image that has a strong visual appeal and one that appeals to your sense of hearing. 5 Find examples of run-on-lines* (enjambement*) in the poem. Do you feel that this device makes the sentences long and complicated or gives a more natural flow to the language?

4 How would you describe the style* of the poem? • Elevated • Formal • Other:

• Colloquial • Sombre

• Relaxed

One of the elements that contributes to creating the style is allusions* to other great works of literature. Use the notes in the glossary to identify allusions to the Bible and other works of literature. 5 The poem is written in the form of a sonnet*. Identify the rhyme scheme and then say whether the poem is divided into an octave and a sestet (Petrarchan sonnet) or three quatrains and a couplet (Shakespearean sonnet).

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Didactic literature PÜ

Poetry, plays, novels and stories whose primary purpose is to guide, instruct or teach come under the heading of didactic literature. They are distinguished from purely imaginative works (sometimes called 'mimetic' works) whose goal is purely to interest and appeal to the reader. Didactic literature was particularly popular in seventeenthcentury England. Much of the poetry of the period was written to educate the readers on subjects as diverse as morality, religion, philosophy, gardening and beer-making. Propagandist literature is a particular type of didactic literature which tries to convince the reader to take a position or direct action on a contemporary moral or political issue. Milton's Paradise Lost may be considered to be didactic literature, while his sonnet On the Late Massacre in Piemont falls into the category of propagandist literature. Work in groups. Discuss how effective Milton's On the Late Massacre in Piemont is as propagandist literature. In the course of your discussion answer these questions. a. What was your reaction to the poem when you first read it? Were you surprised by the vehemence of Milton's attack? b. Do you think that Milton is objective in how he depicts the historical facts? c. Do you think that the poetic form allows Milton to be more subjective? If he had written an essay or a newspaper article, would the reader have demanded greater historical authenticity and more analysis? d. Do you think that poetry is an appropriate vehicle for political messages or do you think they are better conveyed through journalism? What, if any, are the advantages of expressing your political message in a poem? Think of a poem, novel, film or song that you would consider didactic or propagandist. Explain to your classmates the message contained in the work. Think about examples such as Animal Farm by George Orwell, songs like Sunday, Bloody Sunday by U2 and films like Schindler's List.

•DO

1

Do you know any other songs that have political themes? If you do, find the lyrics of the song, make copies for your classmates and listen to the song together. Do some research on the theme of the song and give a short talk on what the song is about.


WRITERS' GALLERY Background

and

education

J o h n Milton was born in London in 1608 into a wealthy, well-educated family. His father, who had been disinherited by his family for b e c o m i n g Protestant, instilled in his son from an early age a love of learning and strong religious beliefs. By the age of sixteen he could write in Latin and Greek and had a good knowledge of Philosophy. He attended Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took his Master of Arts degree and distinguished himself as an outstanding student. For a period of time he considered taking religious orders, but finally decided to move back home, where

JOHN M I L T O N (1608-1674) Political

views

he continued his studies and wrote. In 1638 he visited France and Italy. However, when news of the Civil War in England reached him he returned home.

He was an adamant supporter of Cromwell and Parliament, and when King Charles I

was executed he wrote a pamphlet in which he voiced his approval, saying it was the people's right to call to account a Tyrant or Wicked King, and after due conviction to depose him and put him to death. He was rewarded for his pamphlet when Parliament offered him the position of Latin Secretary to the Commonwealth, a post comparable to a Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs today. Milton, who had always had weak eyesight, was going blind, and doctors warned him not to take the job as it involved translating into Latin all the government's foreign correspondence. Milton replied that he had to do his duty for the Commonwealth and accepted the position. He eventually went totally blind. Final years

After the Restoration Milton spent a brief period in prison for the part he had played

in the Commonwealth, but he was well-respected and had powerful friends and so was soon released. He spent the last years of his life in retirement dedicating himself to the writing of his masterpieces: Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes. He died in 1674.

TASK Underline the answers to these questions in the text. a. What religion was Milton born into? b. In which subjects did he excel? c. What countries did he travel to in 1638?

H f f M M H ii^HI^HMailliiHillii^lilH

d. What event persuaded him to return home? e. What job was he offered as a reward for his antiRoyalist stance? f. Why was he arrested after the Restoration?

John Milton's work can be divided into three phases. Phase

I: Early poems

and a masque

The first phase covers his

years as a student. When only fifteen years old he wrote his first poems, which were paraphrases of Psalms. While studying at Cambridge he wrote poetry in Latin, as was the custom at the time, but it was his burning ambition to produce great poetry in his native language, and in 1629 he wrote his first masterpiece, the Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity, a celebration of the coming of Christ and the abandonment of pagan Gods. Milton was fascinated by Italian culture. He studied writers like Petrarch, Dante and Tasso, and their works influenced his early poems L'Allegro and II Penseroso (1632).

Writers' Gallery - John Milton

In 1634 his masque Comus, which combined music, verse and dancing, was first performed. In 1637 he published his greatest minor poem, Lycidas, a pastoral elegy written in remembrance of the death of a fellow student. Phase II: Prose writings In his second phase of creativity Milton focused on prose writing. In 1643 he published The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce, claiming the right of a husband or wife to dissolve a marriage on the grounds of incompatibility. In his personal life Milton had married a seventeenyear old girl, the daughter of a Royalist family, in 1642. She left him after just a few weeks, largely, it is said, because of his austere attitude to life and their religious differences. The two were, however, reconciled, but Milton never fully forgave his wife and became a strong supporter of divorce. One of his greatest prose works, Areopagitica ('Things to be declared before the Areopagus', a hill in Athens where a respected council met to take important decisions), published in 1644, is Milton's impassioned plea for freedom of speech and the press. In this pamphlet he compares the Greek council and the English Parliament, which had just passed a law controlling the press. In the same year he wrote the pamphlet Of

Education

JOANNIS M I L T O N l

which promoted encyclopaedic educational schooling

Angli

for the formation of humanistic leaders. However, while publicly Milton explained the importance of a broad education, in private he did n o t h i n g to educate his daughters. His eldest daughter was totally illiterate. Because his eyesight was failing he taught his other daughters to read

PRO

POPULO

ANGLICANO

DEFENSIO

Contra CUuJii zAr,on)mi, alias SMmafii, Dcfcnfioncm R.EQIAM.

m e c h a n i c a l l y to him in foreign

languages, without understanding the words they read. They took revenge by selling books from their father's library. In 1649 he wrote The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in which he justified the execution of Charles I. England was criticised by several European countries for the execution of the monarch* In reply, Milton wrote Pro Populo Anglicano

Defensio

(Defence of the People of

England) and Pro Populo Anglicano

Secunda

Defensio

(Second Defence of the People of England) in 1651 and 1654 respectively. Both documents were written in Latin so that they could be read throughout Europe. Phase

III: Poetic

masterpieces

iftND/N/,

Typi« VH GmLmu. Anno Domini

iSji.

The title page for Pro Populo Anglicano

Defensio (1651).

After the Restoration in 1660 Milton retired from public life and

dedicated himself to the writing of his great poetic masterpieces. He had always wanted to write an epic poem in English in the classical style of Virgil's Aeneid, and initially he had considered the legend of King Arthur as a suitable subject matter. However, he eventually chose the Fall of Man as his theme and set to work on Paradise Lost. Published in 1667, Paradise Lost tells the story in twelve books of Satan's banishment from Heaven and his attempt to take revenge on God through the temptation of Adam and Eve. The poem is written in blank verse and observes the classical epic conventions: • the hero is a figure of great importance. Adam represents the entire human race; • the setting of the poem is ample in scale: the action takes place on Earth, in Heaven and in Hell;

,;2 2

THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Poetry

St • the action involves superhuman deeds in battle and a long and arduous journey: Paradise Lost includes the war in Heaven and then Satan's journey to the newly-created world to corrupt mankind; • there are catalogues of some of the principal characters, introduced in formal detail: in Book I Milton describes the procession of fallen angels; • an epic poem is narrated in an elevated style that is deliberately distanced from ordinary speech: Milton's grand style* is created by the use of Latinate diction and syntax, wide-ranging allusions (there are references to Homer, Virgil, Dante, Tasso, Ariosto, Spenser and the Bible) and long listings of names;

.

• the narrator begins by stating his theme and invoking a muse: in the opening lines Milton calls on God to be his guiding spirit in writing his 'adventurous song'; • the narrative starts when the action is at a critical point: Paradise Lost opens with Satan and the fallen angels in Hell, gathering their forces and plotting revenge. It is not until Books V-VII that we learn from the angel Raphael about the events in Heaven that led to this situation. Milton wanted to write a poem in praise of God. As he said in one of his sonnets, he wanted to use his literary gifts 'to serve therewith my maker'. Some critics have claimed that the true hero of Paradise Lost is, however, Satan. It has also been suggested that Milton may have identified a parallel between Satan's struggle against the absolute power of God and his own fight against the absolute authority of the monarchy. In 1671 Milton published Paradise Regained in four books. Written in the same epic style as Paradise Lost, it tells the story of Christ's temptation by Satan in the desert. In the same year he also published Samson Agonistes, a play depicting the events leading up to the killing of Samson by the Philistines. It observes the conventions of Greek tragedy and includes choruses, messengers and reports instead of direct speech. Reputation

For over two hundred years Milton was regarded as one of the greatest writers in the

English language. At the beginning of the twentieth century some influential literary figures such as Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot ( • Module G) criticised his 'grand style', claiming that it was artificial and rhetorical and too far removed from the speech of common people. Other critics have since argued that his style is appropriate to the subject matter and epic form, and have rehabilitated him to a preeminent role in English literature.

mm

M... •

s

TASK

Prepare to speak for thirty seconds about John Milton's works. Concentrate on selecting the most important information. You may use the spidergram as a guideline.

ofPf-gf®

e The Rape of the Lock fry Alexander Pope

Briefly describe your morning routine. How much time do you spend showering, getting dressed, etc.? What is the most annoying part of your routine? Is there any part that you enjoy?

INTRODUCTION • Alexander Pope's massive literary output included much-admired translations of both the Iliad and the Odyssey but his most famous poem is about a bizarre domestic incident. W h e n one of his friends, Lord Petre, cut off a lock of Miss Arabella Fermor's hair, Belinda in the poem, their two families, started a feud. To defuse the tension he wrote The Rape of the Lock, which made fun of the incident ( • Visual Link D5).

Beauty Puts on all its Arms This text is taken from the first of the five Cantos that make up the complete

Text D 6

poem.

And now, unveil'd 1 , the Toilet stands display'd2, Each Silver Vase in mystic Order laid. First, rob'd 3 in White, the Nymph 4 intent adores, With Head uncover'd, the Cosmetic Pow'rs. A heav'nly Image in the Glass appears,

5 rears5;

To that she bends, to that her Eyes she

Th' inferior Priestess6, at her Altar's side, Trembling 7 , begins the sacred Rites of Pride. Unnumber'd 8 Treasures ope 9 at once, and here The various Off'rings of the World appear; From each she nicely culls with curious

10

Toil 10 ,

And decks 11 the Goddess with the glitt'ring Spoil 12 . This casket India's glowing Gems unlocks 13 , And all Arabia breathes 14 from yonder 15 Box. The Tortoise here and Elephant unite, Transform'd to Combs, the

speckled 16

15 and the white.

Here Files of Pins 17 extend their shining Rows,

'... Th' begins Aubrey edition

Puffs18, Powders, Patches 19 , Bibles, Billet-doux 20 .

GLOSSARY 1. unveil'd: uncovered 2. Toilet... display'd: dressing table stands in all its glory 3. rob'd: dressed 4. Nymph: Belinda 5. rears: raises 6. inferior Priestess: the servant

7. Trembling: shivering with excitement

inferior Priestess ... Trembling, the sacred Rites of Pride.' Beardsley illustrated the 1896of The Rape of the Lock.

17. Pins: pieces of metal used to keep hair in place

9. ope: open

1 3 . c a s k e t . . . unlocks: box (casket) reveals (unlocks) the treasures of India

10.culls ... Toil: carefully chooses

14. breathes: emanates perfume

11. decks: decorates

IS. yonder: over there

19. Patches: artificial beauty spots

12. glitt'ring Spoil: shining products

16. speckled: with spots (made from tortoise shell)

20. Billet-doux: love letters

8. Unnumber'd: countless

18. Puffs: pads to put face powder on

,;2 4


21.The Fair ... Charms: the Lady becomes more beautiful 22. awakens: wakes up 23. by Degrees: gradually 24. purer Blush: a betterlooking red colour 25. keener Lightnings quicken: more acute sparks of light appear 26. Sylphs: guardian angels 27. plait the Gown: fold the dress 28. Betty: the servant

Now awful Beauty puts on all its Arms; The Fair each moment rises in her Charms 21 ,

20

Repairs her Smiles, awakens 22 ev'ry Grace, And calls forth all the Wonders of her Face; Sees by Degrees 23 a purer Blush 24 arise, And keener Lightnings quicken 25 in her Eyes. The busy Sylphs 26 surround their darling Care;

25

These set the Head, and those divide the Hair, Some fold the Sleeve, whilst others plait the Gown 27 ; And Betty's 28 prais'd for labours not her own.

•

COMPREHENSION The extract you have read can be divided into four parts. Say at which line each section begins and ends. - Belinda takes her place before the dressing table: line ... .... to line ; - the work begins: line to line ; . to line ; - description of the objects on the dressing table: line - the work is completed: line in line Part 3 Part 1 g. What can be found in the boxes from India and a. How is Belinda dressed? Arabia? b. What does she 'adore'? (Line 3) h. What are the combs made of? c. Whose image appears in the glass? (Line 5) i. What other objects can be found on Belinda's How does Belinda react to it? dressing table? d. Why is Betty referred to as 'inferior'? Part 2 e. What do the expressions 'Unnumber'd Treasures' (line 9) and 'various Off'rings of the World' (line 10) refer to? f. Who is the 'Goddess' in line 12?

Part 4 j. Betty starts to apply Belinda's make-up. What changes take place in Belinda's face? k. Who helps Betty in preparing Belinda? What specific tasks do they carry out?

ANALYSIS 1 There are several examples of religious imagery* in the text, for example: 'Each Silver Vase in mystic Order laid'. (Line 2) Find other words and expressions that are usually associated with this semantic field. 2 Belinda's dressing is also compared to military procedures, for example: 'And decks the Goddess with the glitt'ring Spoil'. (Line 12) Explain why lines 1 7 and 19 reinforce this association. 3 Does comparing Belinda's dressing to a religious ceremony and military matters make it seem more solemn or trivial? 4 Products from distant, exotic lands are cited in the description of Belinda's dressing table. What are they and where are they from? Does Pope make reference to them to highlight Belinda's: • sophistication and refinement? • vanity and frivolity?

5 In line 18 Pope lists the things on Belinda's dressing table. Which one stands out from the others? Why do you think Pope includes this incongruous element? To show: • that dressing had almost a religious significance for Belinda. • that religion was of little importance to her. • that she was fervently religious. 6 Belinda is never referred to by name in the text. Underline the words and expressions Pope uses to refer to her and her behaviour. What impression do you get of her? Do you think of her as: • humble • modest • vain • sophisticated • elegant • frivolous • other:

The Rape of the Lock - Alexander Pope

7

Examine the verse form used in the poem.

9

25

Find an example of personification* in line 19.

a. Focus on the first two lines:

1 0 Find an example of an oxymoron* in line 19. | And | now, | un | veil'd, | the | Toi | let | stands | dis | play'd, | 1 1 |Explain the ironic use of the word 'purer' in line 23. | Each | Sil | ver | Vase | in | my | stic | Or | der | laid. Can you identify an example of internal rhyme in the How many syllables are there in each line? same line? b. Mark the stressed syllables ' and the unstressed syllables Which of the following stress patterns is 1 2 Which of the following adjectives would you use used? to describe Pope's diction*? • Anapestic*

• Trochaic*

• Iambic*

c. Which of the following is the correct definition of the verse form used by Pope? • Heroic couplet*

• Alexandrine*

• Blank verse*

d. Is the metre and structure of the poem regular or irregular on the whole? 8 Identify the sound device that is used in line 18.

• Colloquial • Rich • Precise

• Vague »Plain • Concise

•Scientific m Ornate

1 3 How would you describe the tone of the poem? • Solemn • Mocking • Other:

• Ironic • Playful

• Elevated • Religious

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Mock-heroic

A m o c k - h e r o i c (or m o c k - e p i c ) poem imitates the elevated style and conventions (invocations of the Gods, descriptions of armour, battles, extended similes, etc.) of the epic genre in dealing with a frivolous or minor subject. The mock-heroic has been widely used to satirise social vices such as pretentiousness, hypocrisy, superficiality, etc. The inappropriateness of the grandiose epic style highlights the trivial and senseless nature of the writer's target. The Rape of the Lock is an example of the mock-epic form. In it Pope uses the lofty, serious style of classical epics not to describe battles or supernatural events, but to satirise the seriousness with which friends in his circle treated a breach of manners at a social gathering: the stealing of a lock of hair. The Rape of the Lock contains all the standard features of the epic genre:

M r - J M

• a Kt :-. r

.

& J -mm

OVER T O Y O U mm

HI

A dream message from the gods Epic feast Arming the heroes journey to the underworld Sacrifice to the gods General combat Exhortation to the troops Intervention of the gods Single combat Apotheosis Which of the epic features is parodied in the extract you have just read? Experiment with the mock-heroic style. Write sentences in which you compare people or everyday occurrences to characters or events in epic poetry. Example: The journey was endless. When I got home I felt like Odysseus returning to Ithaca!

In the extract from The Rape of the Lock you have read, Alexander Pope makes fun of the elaborate extent Belinda goes to in order to make herself beautiful. How do you feel about the issue of vanity and the beauty industry?


LINK

{ to the world of music

In 1972 American singer/songwriter Carly Simon released the song You're So Vain, which became a worldwide hit. There was much speculation at the time about who the subject of the song was. Many people believed the song was about Mick jagger, the lead singer of the rock band The Rolling Stones (who actually sings backing vocals on the chorus), others claimed it was about the actor Warren Beatty. Read the lyrics of the song and compare it to Alexander Pope's attack on vanity. Which of the two is more direct? Which is more effective? You're So Vain You walked into the party like you were walking onto a yacht Your hat strategically dipped1 below one eye Your scarf it was apricot You had one eye on the mirror as you watched yourself gavotte2 And all the girls dreamed that they'd be your partner They'd be your partner, and ... You're so vain, you probably think this song is about you You're so vain, I'll bet you think this song is about you Don't you? Don't you? You had me several years ago when I was still quite naive3 Well you said that we made such a pretty pair And that you would never leave But you gave away the things you loved and one of them was me I had some dreams, they were clouds in my coffee Clouds in my coffee, and ... I had some dreams they were clouds in my coffee Clouds in my coffee, and ... Well I hear you went up to Saratoga and your horse naturally won Then you flew your Lear jet4 up to Nova Scotia To see the total eclipse of the sun Well you're where you should be all the time And when you're not you're with Some underworld spy or the wife of a close friend Wife of a close friend, and ...

GLOSSARY 1. dipped: pulled down 2. gavotte: dance (a gavotte is a fast, happy French dance) 3. naive: inexperienced, innocent 4. Lear jet: a luxurious private plane

Carly Simon.

Writers' Gallery - Alexander Pope

WRITERS' GALLERY LIFE AND WORKS

Early years

Alexander Pope

was born in London in 1688,

the o n l y son of a cloth m e r c h a n t . At the age of twelve he suffered from tubercolosis of the bone, which stunted his growth and left him deformed and sickly for the rest of his life. Because his family was Catholic he could not attend public schools or go to university, so he was largely self-educated. He based his studies on the Classics and French and Italian authors. Writing

career

From a very early age he showed a gift for

writing. W h e n he was just sixteen years old he wrote his Pastorals

ALEXANDER POPE (1688-1744) '

( 1 7 0 9 ) , which were based on classical models and

showed his skill in using poetic metre. In his twenties he wrote Essay on Criticism (1711), based on Horace's Ars Poetica, where he '

sets out his principles for writing poetry.

Written while he was still in his mid-twenties, The Rape of the Lock (1712-1714) is a masterpiece of the mock-heroic*. It concerns the quarrel between two families caused by Lord Petre's cutting a lovelock from the head of Arabella Fermor, Belinda in the poem. It is a playful poem full of paradoxes*, witty observations and humorous epic allusions. It makes fun of the fatuous upper-class society it depicts and shows Pope's unrivalled mastery of the heroic couplet*. The Rape of the Lock established Pope's reputation in literary circles. He became friends with Jonathan Swift and, together with some other leading literary figures, they formed the 'Scriblerus Club' to discuss topics of contemporary interest and to ridicule all false tastes in learning. In 1720 he completed a translation of Homer's Illiad, and his translation of The Odyssey, which appeared in 1726, gave him financial independence. He was one of the first poets to become economically self-sufficient through his poetry, and he was widely recognised as the leading man of letters of his day. The Dunciad (1728) is Pope's most celebrated satire. It is written in the mock-heroic style and is an attack on the author's literary rivals, critics and enemies, who are grouped together and called 'Dulness'. In it Pope describes the triumph of banality (Dulness), which takes over all the arts, sciences, the theatre and the court and leads the world to cultural chaos and artistic bankruptcy. Pope spent the last years of his life in Twickenham outside London, where he led a largely reclusive life. In later years his health declined and he became physically dependent on others. He died in 1744. Reputation

Alexander Pope was the most celebrated poet of the early part of the eighteenth

century. In the second half of the century he fell out of favour, as tastes began to change and his sophisticated poetry was considered to lack feeling. He did not appeal to readers again until the beginning of the twentieth century, when once more his wit and technical ability found an appreciative public.

TASK Prepare a short report on Pope following the outline: education health precocious artistic talent different poetic forms reputation

27

,;2 8


Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by Thomas Gray INTRODUCTION • Although T h o m a s Gray wrote many other poems, his Elegy Written in a Con Churchyard

is the one that has caught the imagination of generations of readers. Certain lines like

Paths of Glory lead but to the Grave', are among the best-known in the language. The poem also has a cial place in English literature because it marks the transition from the Augustan to the early Romantic

Graveyards are often sad a n d s o m e t i m e s mysterious. T h e y are nearly always q u i e t places w h e r e p e o p l e can think a b o u t their d e a d loved o n e s undisturbed by t h e noise a n d bustle of everyday life. T h e narrator in this p o e m has w a n d e r e d into a graveyard a n d thinks a b o u t t h e m a n y p o o r p e o p l e w h o are buried t h e r e . He asks himself if their lives are of less value than t h e lives of t h o s e w h o have b e e n rich a n d successful. Read on a n d find t h e answer.

Q •

GLOSSARY

1. blazing: burning

with strong, bright flames Hearth: where a fire is burning ply her Evening Care: do her household jobs, like preparing dinner, in the evening 4. to lisp ... Return: to greet their father when he comes home from work 5. envied Kiss: the children are jealous of one another because they all want to kiss their father Oft... yield: they often gathered the crops (Harvest) (a sickle is a tool for cutting grass, corn, etc.) Their Furrow ... broke: They often ploughed (furrow: plough) the land to prepare it for planting How jocund ... afield: how happy they were (jocund) when they drove

Text D 7

The Paths of Glory Lead but to the Grave

(...)

For them no more the blazing 1 Hearth 2 shall burn, Or busy Housewife ply her Evening Care 3 : No Children run to lisp their Sire's Return 4 , Or climb his Knees the envied Kiss5 to share. Oft did the Harvest to their Sickle yield 6 , Their Furrow oft the stubborn Glebe has

5 broke 7 ;

How jocund did they drive their Team afield8! How bow'd the Woods beneath their sturdy Stroke 9 ! Let not Ambition mock 10 their useful Toil 11 , Their homely Joys and Destiny obscure;

10

Nor Grandeur 12 hear with a disdainful 13 Smile, The short and simple Annals 14 of the Poor. The Boast of Heraldry15, the Pomp 16 of Pow'r, And all that Beauty, all that Wealth e'er 17 gave, Awaits alike 18 th' inevitable Hour.

is

The Paths of Glory lead but to the Grave.

their horses (Team) through the fields (afield) 9. How bow'd ... Stroke: how the woods bent down beneath their strong blows 10. mock: make fun of 11.Toil: hard work

12. Grandeur: the nobility, rich people 13. disdainful: showing disrespect 14. Annals: history 15. Boast of Heraldry: the pride of the aristocracy

(Heraldry is the study of the history and insignia of families) 16. Pomp: ostentation 17. e'er: ever 18. Awaits alike: they all wait for

Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard - Thomas Gray

29

Nor you, ye Proud 19 , impute to these the Fault 20 , If Mem'ry o'er 21 their Tomb no Trophies raise, Where thro' the long-drawn Isle and fretted Vault 22 The pealing Anthem swells the Note of Praise23. Can storied 24 Urn 25 or animated 26 Bust Back to its Mansion 27 call the fleeting 28 Breath? Can Honour's Voice provoke the silent Dust, Or Flatt'ry 29 sooth 30 the dull cold Ear of Death? Perhaps in this neglected Spot 31 is laid 'Oft did the Harvest to their Sickle yield... How bow'd the Woods beneath their sturdy Stroke!' An illustration for Thomas Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.

Some Heart once pregnant with 32 celestial Fire, Hands that the Rod of Empire might have sway'd, Or wak'd to Exstacy the living Lyre33.

books that contained all the knowledge gathered throughout history (ample Page Rich with the Spoils of Time)

But Knowledge to their Eyes her ample Page Rich with the Spoils of Time did ne'er unroll 34 ; Chill

Penury 35

repress'd their noble

30

Rage36,

And froze the genial Current of the Soul 37 .

35. Chill Penury: cold poverty

Full many a Gem 38 of purest Ray serene 39 ,

36. Rage: burning ambition, energy

The dark unfathom'd 4 0 Caves of Ocean bear 41 : Full many a Flower is born to blush 42 unseen,

37. genial Current of the Soul: talent, artistic sensibilities and abilities

35

And waste its Sweetness on the desart 43 Air. (...)

19. ye Proud: you proud people 20.impute ... Fault: think it is a fault or defect 21. o'er: over 2 2 . t h e long-drawn Isle ... Vault: the centre of the church and the decorated ceiling 23.The pealing ... Praise: resounding (pealing) religious songs are played and

38. Full m a n y a Gem: many precious stones like diamonds sung in honour of the dead person

30. sooth: make calm 31. Spot: place

39. of purest Ray serene: transparent (serene: clear), of the highest quality

24. storied: old and valuable

32. pregnant with: full of

25. Urn: container that can be used to hold the ashes of a dead person

33.Hands ... Lyre: this person might have been an emperor who held (sway'd) a sceptre (Rod of Empire) in his hand or played the lyre beautifully

40. unfathom'd: mysterious, so far down in the sea that they have never been seen

3 4 . B u t . . . unroll: they never had the chance to open (unroll) and study the

42. blush: blossom, bloom

26. animated: lifelike 27. Mansion: big house 28. fleeting: lasting for a short time 29. Flatt'ry: (flattery) insincere praise

41. bear: hold

43. desart: desert

COMPREHENSION 1 Who does 'them' refer to in line 1 ? 2 Which adjectives would you use to describe the lives of the people buried in the graveyard? (Second stanza) • Simple • Outdoor • Rural • Sophisticated • Wealthy • Happy II Physical • Intellectual 3 According to the poet in the third stanza, what should Ambition and Grandeur not do? 4 Which of the following statements corresponds to the view expressed by the poet in the fourth stanza?

• Death, the great leveller, does not respect ancestry, power, beauty or wealth. • Power, beauty, ancestry and wealth can make life better and death more comfortable. • Death can take people away but it cannot remove the memory left by their beauty, power, ancestry or wealth. 5 Who are the 'Proud' referred to by the poet in the fifth stanza? Are they buried inside the church or outside in the graveyard? How do their tombs differ from those of the humble villagers?

, ; 30

THE AUGUSTAN AGE - P o e t r y

6 In the sixth stanza the poet gives two examples of the trophies mentioned in the previous stanza. What are they?

Link each metaphor to the talent or quality it refers to.

Heart once pregnant with

7 What is the 'Mansion' of 'fleeting Breath' in line 22?

great statesmanship

celestial Fire

8 In lines 2 3 - 2 4 the poet asks if the honours and flattery that important people have received during their lifetime can help them after they have died. Does the poet know the answer to this question? 9 In the seventh stanza the poet says that the people buried in the graveyard may have had talents or qualities that they never exploited. He uses three metaphors* to indicate them.

Talent/quality

Metaphor

musical genius

Hands that the Rod of Empire might have sway'd (Hands that) wak'd to

poetic inspiration

Exstacy the living Lyre

l O Two factors, according to the poet in the eighth stanza, stopped the people buried in the graveyard from realising their full potential. What are they?

ANALYSIS 1 In the first stanza the poet presents images of simple rural life. Say which senses they appeal to (S = Sight, H = Hearing, T = Touch). I

I blazing Hearth shall burn ] Housewife ply her Evening Care

[

| Children run to lisp

5 Focus on the two metaphors in the final stanza. How would you interpret them? • • • •

People have many different types of talent. Talent often goes unnoticed. Great talent is of no use to the dead. The world of nature is more beautiful that anything man can produce.

1 | the envied Kiss to share

Do you find them both equally effective?

2 In the third, fourth and fifth stanzas the poet reflects on the humble lives of rural workers and the more sophisticated lives of prominent men of society.

6 The poet often changes the normal word order of a sentence. For example, the normal word order of:

a. Which social group do these expressions refer to? useful Toil Ambition homely Joys Destiny obscure Grandeur Boast of Heraldry Beauty Wealth

would be: The harvest often yielded to their sickle Find other examples of unusual word order in the poem.

b. The poet seems to be defending the humble life of rural workers. From whom and what?

7 Alliteration* is one of the elements that adds musicality to the poem. Find some examples.

3 Personification* is widely used throughout the poem. Give a line reference for the personification for each of items in the table below:

8 Define the rhyming scheme. Is it regular throughout?

abstract ideas ambition:

inanimate objects storied urn:

grandeur:

bust:

memory:

dust:

natural elements the woods:

honour: flattery: knowledge: death: 4 Find two examples of rhetorical questions* in the extract from the poem. If the ideas had been formulated in statements rather than questions would they have been as effective?

Oft did the Harvest to their Sickle yield

9

How would you define the rhythm* of the poem?

• Regular • Slow-moving • Measured

• jerky • Fast-moving

"lO Would you consider the structure of the poem to be carefully planned or spontaneous? justify your answer. 1 1 As a person of culture and 'knowledge', the poet is clearly not like the people who are buried in the graveyard. Do you think that he identifies himself with the other people he refers to in the poem (Ambition, Grandeur, Proud)? How would you describe the poet? •t Melancholy • Solitary • Gregarious • Reflective • Isolated

• Light-hearted • Satirical • Optimistic

Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard - Thomas Gray

31

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Synecdoche

In synecdoche (Greek for 'faking together') a part of something is used to signify the whole or vice versa, although this latter form is quite rare. An example of synecdoche from everyday speech can be found in the proverb 'Many hands make light work', where the expression 'many hands' means 'the labour of many people'. An example of the whole representing a part can be found in expressions such as 'Put some Deep Purple on the CD player', where the name of the band is used to signify one of their CDs. Synecdoche can be effective in drawing someone's attention to one particularly interesting aspect of what you are talking about. In the fifth stanza of Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, Thomas Gray uses synecdoche to represent a church. Can you identify the parts that represent the whole? Use synecdoche to represent the following: school a doctor an animal (dog, cat, elephant, etc.) a car a policeman each of the seasons

One of the themes in Gray's poem is that many ambitious and talented people never succeed in fulfilling their dreams because they are too poor ('Chill Penury repress'd their noble Rage'). Does the amount of money a person has limit what he can achieve in today's world? Does money play an important part in becoming one of the following? A leading politician A top sports person A top actor, actress or singer A leading scientist A top lawyer A university professor Are there any other fields where you think money can make the difference between being successful or not?

P \

i

32

THE P U R I T A N AGE - P o e t r y

WRITERS' GALLERY

äBBB

T h o m a s G r a y was b o r n i

SBlll

I I • h

London

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to

a

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m i d d l e - c l a s s f a m i l y . E d u c a t e d first at E t o n , h e w e n t o n t o Cambridge, where he became friends with Horace Walpole, th son of t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r . F r o m 1 7 3 9 t o 1 7 4 1 he t r a v e l l e a r o u n d E u r o p e w i t h W a l p o l e , b u t w h i l e in Italy t h e t w o quarrelled and Gray returned h o m e alone. T h a t same year h ' father and his close friend Richard West died, and Gray return to live for a time with his m o t h e r in the small village of Stoke Poges in Buckinghamshire. W h i l e there he wrote the Sonnet o~ the Death of Richard West, his Ode on Adversity and the unfinished Hymn to Ignorance.

After this period of reclusion he returned t o

C a m b r i d g e , w h e r e he g r a d u a t e d in Law in 1 7 4 3 a n d was

THOMAS GRAY (1716-1771) WORKS

reconciled with Walpole. He was t h e n a p p o i n t e d Professor of Modern History at Cambridge, where he died in 1771. In 1 7 5 0 Gray sent Walpole a manuscript of his m o s t celebrated poem Elegy Written in a Conntry Churchyard.

It was published in

1751 to great acclaim, making Gray one of the most celebrated poets of the time. In his poem Gray describes t h e small village graveyard of Stoke Poges, where the poet muses about the lives of the villagers who lie buried there and contemplates mortality and h u m a n potential. At the end of the p o e m he considers his own d e a t h and wonders if in s o m e way his art will grant h i m a form of immortality. Little material was to follow his great poetic masterpiece: a small collection of six poems in 1 7 5 3 and his two Pindaric odes, The Bard and Progress of Poesy in 1 7 5 7 . He t h e n started doing research for a history of English poetry which he intended to write. He also travelled around Scotland

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and England recording his impressions in letters, which reveal his great interest in ancient Celtic and Norse poetry and his love of nature. In 1 7 6 8 he published Poems, which included his imitations of Celtic and Norse verse, such as The Fatal Sisters and The Descent of Odin (1761), which reawakened

1i

interest in ancient northern European mythology. Reputation

Gray's beautifully-written verses, which reveal a shift from neoclassical rationality to

introspection and sentimentality, greatly influenced a new generation of poets that emerged at the end of t h e century. As a matter of fact, the g l o o m y m e l a n c h o l y and meditative quality of Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard

were new in t h e neoclassical period. It struck a chord with other

writers, who began to write in a similar style and became known as the 'Graveyard poets'.

TASK Correct the following sentences. a. Thomas Gray was largely self-educated as he was born into a poor family. b. He never left the little village of Stoke Poges where he was born. c. His most celebrated poem is a sonnet written to mourn the death of his dear friend Richard West.

d. He never achieved great popularity in his own lifetime. e. He was fascinated by Greek mythology. f. The themes of his masterpiece, Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, are love and pain of separation.

ama in The Way of the World by William Congreve

Living with o t h e r p e o p l e is n o t always e a s y b e c a u s e every individual has habits a n d ways of d o i n g t h i n g s t h a t o t h e r p e o p l e m a y n o t like. Imagine t h a t you have d e c i d e d t o g o and live with a n o t h e r person for a long period. Draw up a list of rules t h a t you insist y o u r partner m u s t respect if your life t o g e t h e r is t o work o u t . For e x a m p l e :

Wash the dishes straight after eating. Wear earphones when listening to music.

INTRODUCTION •

W h e n p e o p l e w e n t t o t h e t h e a t r e in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y

t h e y wanted t o have a laugh and be amused. T h o s e w h o w e n t to see The Way of the World were certainly n o t disappointed. Brilliant dialogue a n d an ingenious if c o m p l i c a t e d plot kept t h e audience o n t h e edge of their seats. Yet Congreve did n o t write o n l y t o entertain, a n d m a n y of t h o s e w h o were amused b y his plays were really l a u g h i n g at t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e faults of t h e i r society t h a t h e satirised so a c c u r a t e l y ( • Visual Link D5). THE STORY Mirabell wants to marry Millamant but her aunt, Lady Wishfort, will not give her consent. While Mirabell tries to convince Lady Wishfort to change her mind, a number of people do all they can to prevent the marriage. In the end, all objections are overruled and the lovers marry.

Any More Conditions? Millamant

Text D 8 Q

and Mirabell are talking about what their lives will be like if they get married,

and Millamant sets out some conditions that she would like Mirabell to respect.

Act 4, Scene 1

CHARACTERS

(...) MILLAMANT:

MIRABELL:

• Mirabell, a man • Millamant, a woman • Lady Wishfort, Millamant's aunt

(...) I'll lie a-bed 1 in a morning as long as I please.

Then I'll get up in a morning as early as I please.

MILLAMANT:

Ah, idle creature 2 , get up when you will 3 - and d'ye 4 hear. I won't

be called names after I'm married; positively 5 I won't be called names. MIRABELL:

Names!

MILLAMANT:

5

Ay, as 6 wife, spouse, my dear, joy, jewel, love, sweetheart and

t h e rest of t h a t nauseous c a n t 7 in w h i c h m e n and their wives are so fulsomely 8 familiar; I shall never bear 9 that - Good Mirabell, don't let us be familiar or fond 1 0 , nor kiss before folks, like my Lady Fadler and Sir Francis; nor go to Hyde Park together the first Sunday in a new chariot 1 1 , to p r o v o k e eyes a n d w h i s p e r s 1 2 , a n d t h e n n e v e r t o be seen t h e r e together again, as if we were proud of one another the first week, and GLOSSARY 1. I'll lie a-bed: I will stay in bed

2. idle creature: lazy person 3. will: want

4. d'ye: do you 5. positively: absolutely

10

6. Ay, as: Yes, like 7. nauseous cant: insincere talk 8. fulsomely: excessively 9. bear: accept, stand 10. don't let... or fond: let us not behave in an affectionate way 11. chariot: carriage 12. whispers: words spoken quietly

, , 34

THE RESTORATION AGE - D r a m a

ashamed of one another for ever after. Let us never visit together, nor go to a play together, but let us be very strange 13 and well-bred 14 ; but let us be strange as if we had been married a great while, and as well-bred as if we were not married at all. Have you any more conditions to offer? Hitherto 15 your demands are pretty reasonable. M I L L A M A N T : Trifles 1 6 . - As 17 liberty to pay and receive visits to and from whom I please; to write and receive letters without interrogatories or wry faces 1 8 on your part. To wear what I please, and choose conversation with regard only to my own taste 19 ; to have no obligation upon me to converse with wits 2 0 that I don't like, because they are your acquaintance 21 , or to be intimate with fools 22 , because they may be your relations 23 . Come to dinner when I please; dine in my dressing room when I'm out of humour 24 , without giving a reason. To have my closet 25 inviolate; to be sole empress of my teatable 2 6 , which you must never presume to approach without first asking leave 27 . And lastly, wherever I am, you shall always knock at the door before you come in. These articles subscribed28, if I continue to endure 29 you a little longer, I may by degrees30 dwindle into 31 a wife.

15

MIRABELL:

Mariage ä la Mode (1743) by William Hogarth.

13. strange: detached

showing displeasure

14. well-bred: polite

19. to m y own taste: that I like

15.Hitherto: up to now

20. wits: intelligent people

16. Trifles: things of little importance

21.acquaintance: person you know

17. As: Like

22. intimate with fools: friendly with stupid people

18. wry faces: expressions

23. relations: family members 24. out of humour: in a bad mood

27. asking leave: asking for permission 28. subscribed: accepted

25.closet: private room

29. endure: tolerate

2 6 . b e sole ... tea-table: be left alone when I am having tea

30. by degrees: gradually 31. dwindle into: become (diminishing myself)

•

COMPREHENSION 1 What are Mirabell and Millamant discussing? 2

In her speech Millamant makes a list of conditions. Find examples in the text of the following:

Things ... - she and her husband should not do together; - she should be free to do; - she should not be obliged to do; - her husband should not do; - her husband should do. 3 How does Mirabell react to Millamant's requests?

20

25

30

35

The Way of the World - William Congreve

ANALYSIS

-

1 Which of the following adjectives would you use to describe Millamant? Justify your choices. • Determined • Dependent • Sweet • Nonconformist • Outspoken • Domineering • Humorous • Honest • Other: 2 In her speech Millamant paints a picture of a typical upper-class marriage (the type of marriage she rejects) in the second half of the seventeenth century. Was the institution of marriage at that time based on true emotions or social conventions? Support your answer by referring to the text.

4 Mirabell and Millamant have strong feelings for each other and decide to marry at the end of the play. In her speech do you think that Millamant is showing the selfish, domineering side of her nature, or is she simply being brutally honest with the man she loves? 5 Which adjectives would you choose to describe the language used by the two characters? • • • • •

Colloquial Formal Educated Sophisticated Other:

• Conversational • Intimate • Refined

3 How were women treated in the type of marriage Millamant rejects? Were they considered equal or inferior to their husbands? Refer to the text.

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P The term 'wit' was originally used to refer to intelligence or inventiveness. In the sixteenth and seventeenth century it came to be used to indicate ingenuity in literary invention and it was frequently used to describe the brilliant and surprising imagery of the metaphysical poets ( • p. C94). In the second half of the seventeenth century the term 'wit' became associated with humour. It was used to refer to the humorous linguistic invention and wordplay which characterised the comic style of Restoration dramatists. It has maintained this meaning to the present day. An example of wordplay can be seen in Congreve's choice of names for his characters. Each character is called after a particular personality trait. This form of character naming already existed in Morality plays ( • p. B47), but Congreve uses it not for didactic purposes, but for comic effect. The following is a list of names of the characters in The Way of the World. Match each name to a corresponding definition. Mirabell Millamant Witwould Wilfull Fainall Wishfort

OVER T O Y O U

a a a a a a

person who has a thousand lovers very wilful person man who looks at all the beautiful women he sees person who would like to be intelligent but is not person who wants something desperately person who is false

Use the same technique to make up names for famous people or people that you and your classmates know. Miss Everlate Mr Enormouth Mrs Lookame

somebody who always arrives late somebody who never stops talking somebody who likes attention

„ J? 36

THE RESTORATION AGE - D r a m a

STAC INC THE PLAY

Dialoguedriven plays

In a play such as The Way of the World the action, i.e. what the characters do, is of limited importance. Most of the events of the play take place in genteel drawing rooms and consist of characters speaking to each other. When producing dialogue-driven plays where there is little physical action, a director must find alternative ways of holding the audience's attention. He must highlight the play's strengths which, in the case of Congreve's work, is the sparkling dialogue, but also add elements which the audience will find visually appealing. He must, however, make sure that any additions do not detract from the original spirit of the play.

OVER T O Y O U

Read the review of a modern staging of The Way of the World. Make a list of the innovations the director used to make the play more visually appealing to his audience.

Giles Havergal's production of Congreve's great comedy is reduced to a playing time of two and three-quarter hours. This deprives us of a number of pleasant lines, but also sharpens up the plot mechanism, which in the first half of the evening can sometimes be slowed down by the wit. The best of the wit is amplified by Sue Blane's black-andwhite set, scribbled over1 in seventeenthcentury handwriting wherever there's room. When the lights go up, there is a table, centre, covered with legal documents and sunounded by three young men dressed

in formal present-day clothes and black lawyer's gowns. Principally they are employed as scene-shifters2, but sometimes take an active part in the business; for example, when Mirabell and Millamant have agreed to exchange a marriage contract, one of them produces the document and hands it over. Millamant's acceptance of Mirabell's marriage proposal is beautifully done by Paola Dionisotti, her final promise to 'dwindle into a wife' spoken with a proper understanding of the consciously artificial words. This feeling of collaboration with the audience is one

1. scribbled over: written hastily and carelessly 2. scene-shifters: people who

move scenery and props 3. mise-en-scene: staging 4. niches: secluded spaces

of the prettier characteristics of a pretty mise-en-scene3, with dialogues sometimes spoken to the spectators rather than the characters on the stage, and offstage people kept visible by placing them into niches4 on either side of the stage, where they can show us what they think of what is going on. Rupert Frazer's Mirabell is inclined to freeze into the attitudes of a tailor's dummy , but they are graceful attitudes and reinforce the grace of his dialogue. Review by B. A Young, FINANCIAL TIMES, 16 March, 1984 (adapted and abridged)

5. tailor's dummy: an object made to look like a real person for fitting clothes

Work in groups. Imagine you have to stage the scene from The Way of the World you have read. What would you do to make it visually appealing? Make notes under the following headings: Setting (for example: seventeenth century or some other historical period?) Costumes Lighting Stage scenery/props

In a humorous way, Mirabell and Millamant are saying that a successful marriage needs careful planning. On a scale from 0 (not important) to 10 (very important), say how important the following factors are in helping to make a marriage a success. -

Come from the same town: Come from the same social background: Come from the same religious background: Have the same skin colour:

_ Have the same hobbies and interests: - Like the same kinds of food: - Have the same level of education:

Writers' Gallery - William Congreve

WRITERS' GALLERY Although

he was born

in

England, William Congreve was educated in Ireland, where his father had been posted by the army. He attended a prestigious grammar school and then he received his Master of Arts at Trinity College, Dublin. Congreve started writing at a very young age. While still in his teens he wrote a novel which won him the respect of many influential literary figures and allowed him to have his first play, The Old Bachelor (1693), performed at the Drury Lane Theatre in London. It was an immediate success, running for the then unprecedented length of two weeks. His next play, The Double Dealer, although now

W I L L I A M CONGREVE (1670-1729)

considered an improvement on his first work, was not so well received by the critics or audiences of the day. Although for Love ( 1 6 9 5 ) and the tragedy The Mourning

Bride

(1697) were successes. The Way of the World (1700), later considered to be Congreve's masterpiece, was coolly received by the public and critics. Disappointed by the negative response, Congreve gave up playwriting at the early age of thirty. He spent the rest of his life holding some m i n o r government positions and writing occasional poetry and librettos for several operas. He also translated the French playwright Moliere's Monsieur de Pourceaugnac. He was a very popular man and throughout his life was highly respected by other eminent literary figures. This allowed him to live mostly on his reputation and royalties from his plays. He died in 1729 in a carriage accident and was buried in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey.

WORKS

William Congreve was a true master of comedy. He drew inspiration from a world he knew well: the fashionable, licentious

and often amoral court of Charles II. Unlike other writers of the time, he did not create characters that were gross or farcical. His characters were refined men and women who talked wittily and displayed quick brains and a sharp sense of humour. Millamant in The Way of the World is a perfect example of Congreve's art: she is an exquisitely well-drawn character, a lady of fashion who displays her intelligence, humour and heart through her brilliant speeches. Congreve's work is witty and amusing but it also has a serious side. In The Double Dealer, Love For Love and particularly in The Way of the World, he criticises the class to which the play is addressed, accusing it of having lost the true value of love and replaced it with sexual excess. One of the reasons for the lack of success of The Way of the World may indeed have been that the theatre audience had gradually become aware that they were laughing at themselves.

TASK Answer these questions.

d . What are the main themes in Congreve's plays?

a. How old was Congreve when he started his literary career?

e. Which of the following describe Congreve's dialogues? • Witty • Moralistic • Clever • Entertaining • Everyday • Intelligent • Brilliant • Philosophical

b . Which one of his plays is considered to be his masterpiece? c. Why were Congreve's characters different from those commonly found in contemporary plays?

She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith

Misunderstandings can sometimes be tragic but are often comic. The humour in many funny scenes in novels, plays and films is based on one or more of the characters misunderstanding a situation. Complete the following task. Richard meets Elaine at a disco and invites her out. They arrange to meet in a pub the following evening. When he walks into the pub he sits down beside a woman he thinks is Elaine. She looks and is dressed very like her but she is a completely different person. Complete the following dialogue. RICHARD: Hi, have you been waiting long? Ms X:

Sorry?

RICHARD: Ah! Come on! Where would you like to go for dinner?

INTRODUCTION • Goldsmith believed that theatregoers wanted to be amused. Many of the plays that were written by his contemporaries were sentimental comedies, which he thought were over-sentimental. In She Stoops to Conquer, his most successful play, there is very little sentiment but a lot of comedy. THE STORY Sir Charles Marlow and his friend Hardcastle arrange a marriage between their children, Marlow and Miss Hardcastle. On his way to visit the girl, the young man asks some local people if they can recommend an inn where he can spend the night. Tom Lumpkin decides to have some fun and tells him that the Hardcastle house is the best inn in the area. So, when he gets there, he thinks that Hardcastle is the landlord of the inn ( • Text D9) and that Miss Hardcastle is a maid who is working there. This misunderstanding gives rise to many amusing

SHE STOOPS TO CONQUER; A

COMEDY IN FIVE

ACTS.—BY

OLIVER

GOLDSMITH.

situations until Marlow eventually realises his mistake. Miss Hardcastle, who has met Marlow both as herself and as a maid, is sure that he loves her, and so the couple marry. Note: The title of the play refers to the fact that Miss Hardcastle pretends to be from a lower social class to see if she loves Marlow and if he loves her. She 'Stoops', i.e. goes down the social scale, to 'Conquer', i.e. win his love.

CHARACTERS • Hardcastle

The title page from an edition of She Stoops to Conquer.

• Miss Hardcastle, his daughter • Sir Charles Marlow • Marlow, his son • Tom Lumpkin, Miss Hardcastle's cousin

She Stoops to Conquer - Oliver Goldsmith 206

You cannot be serious

Text D 9 Q

Marlow thinks that Hardcastle's house is an inn, so he has ordered his servants to drink as much as they want, believing that the landlord will be happy at making a lot of money on beer. Hardcastle, however, believes that Marlow, who he correctly thinks is the son of his friend Sir Charles Marlow and a welcome guest in his home, is abusing his hospitality.

(Act IV) [Enter

HARDCASTLE.]

(...)

GLOSSARY

(...) But, though I say nothing to 1 your own conduct, that of

HARDCASTLE:

your servants is insufferable. Their manner of drinking is setting a very bad example in the house, I assure you. MARLOW:

I protest, my very good sir, that's no fault of mine. If they don't

drink as they ought they are to blame. I ordered them not to spare the

5

cellar 2 .1 did, I assure you. (To the side scene.) Here let one of my servants come up. (To him.) My positive directions were, that as I did not drink

4. below: downstairs, where the servants live

myself, they should make up for my deficiencies 3 below 4 . Then they had your orders for what they do! I'm satisfied5!

HARDCASTLE: MARLOW:

[Enter

They had, I assure you. You shall hear from one of themselves.

SERVANT

10

drunk.]

You, Jeremy! Come forward, sirrah 6 ! What were my orders? Were you not told to drink freely, and call for what you thought

fit7,

for the good

of the house? [Aside)

HARDCASTLE: JEREMY:

I

begin to lose my patience.

Please your honour, liberty and Fleet

15

Street 8

for ever! Though I ' m

but a servant, I'm as good as another man. I'll drink for no man before good supper will not sit upon - hiccup 10 - my conscience, sir. You see, my old friend, the fellow is as drunk as he can possibly

20

be. I don't know what you'd have more, unless you'd have the poor devil soused in a beer-barrel 11 . Zounds! 12 He'll drive me distracted 13 if

HARDCASTLE:

I

contain 14 myself any

longer. Mr. Marlow, sir; I have submitted to your insolence for more than four hours, and I see no likelihood 15 of its coming to an end. I'm

25

now resolved to be master here, sir, and I desire that you and your drunken MARLOW:

pack 16

may leave my house directly.

I

desire you'll leave my

30

Sure, you cannot be serious! At this time of night, and such a

roused 1 9 , directly.

tell you sir, I ' m serious; and, now that my passions are

I say this house is mine, and I c o m m a n d you to leave it

15. likelihood: probability 16. pack: group of wild animals 17. you jest: you are joking

night! You only mean to banter me 18 ! HARDCASTL'E: I

11. soused in a beerbarrel: put into a container full of beer so that he is completely wet

13. distracted: mad

house. MARLOW:

10. hiccup: involuntary sound that shows that he has drunk too much

14. contain: control

when I'm doing what I can to please you! I tell you, sir, you don't please me; so

6. sirrah!: Sir! (said in an arrogant way) fit: appropriate Fleet Street: street in London where there were over thirty taverns

12. Zounds!: exclamation expressing indignation

Leave your house! - Sure, you jest 1 7 , my good friend! What,

HARDCASTLE:

5. I'm satisfied: Now I have proof of what I suspected

9. d a m m y : (damn me): an exclamation which expresses anger or annoyance

supper, sir, dammy 9 ! Good liquor will sit upon a good supper, but a MARLOW:

1. to: about 2. not to spare the cellar: drink as much as they wanted to 3. make up for my deficiencies: compensate for the fact that I do not drink

35

18. banter me: make fun of me 19. m y passions are roused: I am angry

40

THE AUGUSTAN AGE -

20. A puddle in a storm: a puddle is a small pool of water. During a storm a puddle is insignificant. Marlow is saying that he is not afraid of Hardcastle 21.stir: move 22. bid: order 23.confound me ... did: I certainly never did (in an angry tone) 24.bantering: in a joking tone 25. brazen-nosed bellows: bellows are used to blow air into a fire. The top of this bellows is made of brass 26. take a fancy to: like, want to have 27. Rake's Progress: set of engravings by the English artist William Hogarth (1697-1764) 28. slumbers: sleep 29. hearty: big 30. well-bred: well brought up 31.coxcomb: stupid man who spends too much time and money on his clothes and appearance 32. bully: someone who uses strength or power to frighten and intimidate weaker people 33. presently: soon

Fiction

MARLOW:

Ha! ha! ha!

A

puddle in a storm 2 0 .1 shan't stir 21 a step,

I

assure

you. (In a serious tone.) This your house, fellow! It's my house. This is my house. Mine, while I choose to stay. What right have you to bid 2 2 me leave this house, sir? I never met with such impudence, curse me, never

40

in my whole life before! HARDCASTLE:

Nor

I,

confound me if

I

ever did 23 ! To come to my house, to

call for what he likes, to turn me out of my own chair, to insult the family, to order his servants to get drunk, and then to tell me This house is mine, sir. By all that's impudent, it makes me laugh. Ha! ha! ha! Pray,

45

sir, (bantering 24 ) as you take the house, what think you of taking the rest of the furniture? There's a pair of silver candlesticks, and there's a firescreen, and here's a pair of brazen-nosed bellows 25 , perhaps you may take a fancy to 2 6 them? MARLOW:

Bring me your bill, sir, bring me your bill, and let's make no more

so

words about it. HARDCASTLE:

There are a set of prints, too. What think you of the Rake's

Progress27 for your own apartment? MARLOW:

Bring me your bill, I say; and I'll leave you and your infernal

house directly. HARDCASTLE: MARLOW:

55

Then there's a mahogany table, that you may see your face in.

My bill, I say.

HARDCASTLE: I

had forgot the great chair, for your own particular slumbers28,

after a hearty 29 meal. MARLOW:

Zounds! Bring me my bill,

HARDCASTLE:

I

say, and let's hear no more on it.

Young man, young man, from your father's letter to me,

I

60

was

taught to expect a well-bred 30 modest man, as a visitor here, but now I find no better than a coxcomb 31 and a bully 32 ; but he will be down here presently 33 , and shall hear more of it. [Exit.]

•

COMPREHENSION 1 What does Hardcastle complain to Marlow about in the opening lines of the scene?

5 What is Marlow's initial reaction to Hardcastle's suggestion that he should leave the house?

2 Does Marlow think that Hardcastle is angry because: • the servants are drinking too much? • the servants are drinking too little?

6 Why does Marlow claim that the house is his? (Lines 38-39)

3 Marlow's servant, Jeremy, starts a saying but does not finish it (lines 18-19). Can you guess how the saying should finish? Is what Jeremy says coherent? 4 What course of action does Hardcastle choose to take?

7 What sarcastic suggestion does Hardcastle make when Marlow says that the house is his? 8 Does Hardcastle listen to what Marlow is saying in the final lines of the scene? 9 In his last statement Hardcastle indirectly reveals his true identity to Marlow. How?

She Stoops to Conquer - Oliver Goldsmith

41

ANALYSIS 1 What information does the audience have that: - Hardcastle does not? - Marlow does not? How does having more information affect the audience's response to the play? • • • •

It makes it easier to understand. It creates tension among the audience. It allows them to see the humour in the situation. It gives them a deeper insight into the psychology of the characters.

2 In the sentences below, Hardcastle expresses his feelings of annoyance with the behaviour of Marlow's servants. a. Put them in order from the expression of least to the expression of most annoyance. I ] Now that my passions are roused (...) I command you to leave it directly. •

I say nothing to your own conduct, that of your servants is insufferable. I He'll drive me distracted if I contain myself any longer.

I I I desire that you and your drunken pack may leave my house directly. I I I begin to lose my patience. b . Find the line reference for each statement in the text. As the scene develops, does Hardcastle's anger increase or diminish?

4 Focus on the character of Marlow. a. How would you describe his attitude towards Hardcastle, whom he believes to be an inn-keeper, and Jeremy, his servant? • Respectful • Patronising • Detached

• Condescending • Apologetic • Rude

b . Marlow's attitude towards those he considers to be of lower social rank (Jeremy, Hardcastle as the innkeeper and Kate as a barmaid) would have been perfectly acceptable to an eighteenth-century audience. Would a modern audience view his behaviour in the same way? 5 One of the comic elements of the scene is created by the lack of communication between Hardcastle and Marlow. At what point in the scene does it become clear that the two characters are not really listening to each other? 6 Underline expressions that are repeated in the passage. What purpose does repetition serve? • It makes the language more poetic. • It intensifies the humour by adding a crescendo effect. • It helps the audience to follow the plot. • It underlines key concepts that are essential to the understanding of the themes of the play.

3 In lines 45^18 Hardcastle seems to have reached the climax* of his anger. As the scene proceeds how does he channel his emotions? • By taking physical action against Marlow. • By verbally abusing Marlow. • By making Marlow the target of his sarcasm.

STAC INC THE PLAY

Farce

Farce is a type of comedy designed simply to make an audience laugh. Typical ingredients of farce include ludicrous plots, deception, mistaken identity, discovery, coincidence, misunderstanding, caricature, type characters, verbal humour and physical horseplay. Farce is one of the oldest and most popular forms of theatre. Farcical elements can be found in the ritual celebrations and theatre of ancient Greece, the plays of the Roman writers Plautus and Terence, medieval Morality plays, the Commedia

deU'arte, Moliere, Charlie Chaplin and today in the films of Jim Carrey and

Woody Allen. It is also a major ingredient in many television sitcoms. Farce is often referred to as 'low comedy' because it does not require intellectualism or literary sensitivity of the audience. Paradoxically, however, this 'low' form of comedy can be extremely demanding and challenging for the actors and the director.

THE AUGUSTAN AGE - D r a m a

OVER T O Y O U

1 The scene from She Stoops to Conquer that you have just read contains the following farcical elements: • the type character: Jeremy, the drunken servant; • misunderstanding: between Hardcastle and Marlow. How would you deal with these farcical elements of the play? Answer these questions. a. How should the actor playing Jeremy deliver his lines? Practise saying the lines in a 'drunken state'. b . When Marlow calls him to the front of the stage how should he walk? c. How should he look (clothes, stage make-up)? When you have discussed these issues prepare a short performance of lines 12-19. 2 Focus on the section from line 42 to the end of the scene. An outraged and sarcastic Hardcastle is no longer listening to an increasingly irritated Marlow, who is asking for the bill. a. Should the actor playing Hardcastle move or stand still as he makes Marlow the butt of his sarcastic jokes? If you think he should move, describe his movements. In what tone should he deliver his lines? b . Should each of Marlow's requests for the bill be delivered in the same tone? How should the actor show Marlow's growing impatience? c. Consider the timing of the section. Should there be long gaps between Hardcastle's lines or should they be delivered as a single speech? Should Hardcastle's lines drown out Marlow's request for the bill? When you have discussed these points, apply your ideas to a performance of this part of the text.

The scene you have read is funny because Hardcastle and Marlow are victims of a misunderstanding. Think of a situation, from your own experience or from a book or film, in which the humour was based on a misunderstanding. Complete the details below. People involved: Where: Misunderstanding: What happened:

Writers' Gallery - Oliver Goldsmith

WRITERS' GALLERY

OLIVER GOLDSMITH (1730-1774)

Oliver Goldsmith was born in the west of Ireland, the son of a poor clergyman. He entered Trinity College in Dublin as a scholarship student and had to do a series of menial jobs, including selling street ballads and waiting tables, to finance his studies. In 1750 he tried to enter the Church, but his request for ordination was refused. He went to Edinburgh to study medicine, and then spent a few months at the Dutch university of Leyden before setting off on a journey which took him to France, Switzerland and Italy. He made a meagre living playing Irish tunes on the flute, and often depended on food distributed at convent gates to survive.

In 1756 he arrived destitute in London, where he unsuccessfully attempted a career in medicine. He found work as a hack writer, reviewer and translator and worked for several periodicals. He wrote his Chinese Letters - later republished as The Citizen of the World, (1762) - a series of satirical essays describing English life through the eyes of a Chinese visitor. He became friends with the influential critic and writer Samuel Johnson ( • p. D104) and began to mix in literary circles. He was, however, notorious for spending money in gambling and drinking, and his financial state was constantly precarious. In 1768 he wrote his first play - The Good Natur'd Man - which, after initial rejection, was performed at Covent Garden to moderate success. His theatrical masterpiece, She Stoops to Conquer, which followed, was well-received by the critics and immensely popular with the public. Between these two plays he published his best-known poem, The Deserted Village, which draws in part on his childhood memories of Ireland. Despite his success as a writer, his inability to handle his finances often led him to the brink of bankruptcy, and in fact he died in poverty in 1774. Oliver Goldsmith was often in desperate need of money, so much of his writing was done in haste and is of inferior quality. He did, however, write three remarkable works: • A novel, The Vicar of Wakefield (1766), which is still widely read. It tells the story of the kindly reverend Dr Primrose, whose strong faith in God and belief in the essential goodness of mankind help him and his family to overcome adversity. The novel is often criticised as overly sentimental and pedantic. However, it holds an important place in the history of English literature as it is considered a forerunner of the didactic novels of the nineteenth century. • A poem, The Deserted Village (1770), which inspired the poets of the Romantic period. In the poem Goldsmith looks back nostalgically to the idyllic pastoral life of the small country village of Auburn (probably inspired by Goldsmith's childhood village in the west of Ireland). • A play, She Stoops to Conquer (1773), his greatest literary achievement, which continues to be staged today. Criticising contemporary drama as unimaginative and melodramatic Goldsmith, for his masterpiece, looked for inspiration to an earlier form of drama, the Comedy of Manners of the Restoration period ( • pp. D 9 6 - 9 7 ) . The play's well-structured comic plot, based on mistaken identities and likeable characters, made it an instant success with theatre audiences and helped breathe new life into an art form that was experiencing a particularly colourless period.

WORKS

TASK Prepare a brief report on the life and works of Oliver Goldsmith.

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46

THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

COMPREHENSION 1 Why did Robinson decide to keep a written record of his experience? 2 Which is now a stronger force in Robinson: his reason or his sense of hopelessness? 3

Match A and B to reconstruct Robinson's pros and cons. B

A He is alone on a desert island with little hope of being found

but

He is far from the rest of the world He does not have the company of other men He has no clothes He has no means of defence

however

He has nobody to talk to

he has been saved from death and may also be saved from this terrible situation, the weather is warm so he will not suffer from cold. there are no wild beasts that will harm him. God has helped him to have everything he needs for his survival, he is alive. he will not die of starvation because the island is fertile.

4 When Robinson has finished making his list, he draws a conclusion about life in general. Explain it in your own words.

ANALYSIS 1 Focus on the character of Robinson. a. Find evidence in the text that: - he is literate: lines - he has strong religious beliefs: lines - he believes in the power of reason: lines - he is familiar with the world of trade and commerce: lines - he has a practical approach to solving problems: lines b. Which of the following social categories do you think Robinson most likely belongs to? • Unskilled lower class labourer • Middle class merchant/professional • Aristocratic gentleman Give reasons for your choice. 2 In his 'Evil' column, Robinson cites both psychological and material needs, a. Tick the table below according to which kind of need is expressed. Evil

Psychological

Material

Psychological

Material

I am divided from Mankind, a Solitaire, one banish'd from humane Society. I have no Clothes to cover me. I am without any Defence or Means to resist any Violence of Man or Beast I have no Soul to speak to, or relieve me. b. Do the same for the 'Good' column of Robinson's list. Good But 1 am not starv'd and perishing on a barren Place, affording no Sustenance. But I am in a hot Climate, where if I had Clothes I would hardly wear them. But I am cast on an Island, where I see no wild Beasts to hurt me, as I saw on the Coast of Africa: And what if I had been Shipwreck'd there? But God wonderfully sent the Ship in near enough to the Shore, that I have gotten out so many necessary things as will either supply my Wants, or enable me to supply my self even as long as I live.

Robinson Crusoe - Daniel Defoe

47

c. Does Robinson answer each 'psychological need' with a 'psychological solution'? Which is more dominant: the practical or the emotional side of Robinson's nature? 3 Robinson's language is characterised by a series of 'balanced couples' which may be repetitions of the same idea ('Condition, and the Circumstance I was reduc'd to'), or opposites ('good/evil'). a. Find the missing elements in the following couples. Reason/ Comforts/

Debtor/ something Negative/

b. Which adjective would you choose to describe the language Robinson uses to express himself? • Balanced • Emotional • Confused • Precise • Rational • Journalistic • Poetic c. What does Robinson's language reveal about his personality?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Narrative technique refers to the way a story is told - how the author presents the reader with the setting, characters, actions and events that make up a work of fiction. In a first-person narrative the reader sees the event unfold through the eyes of a single character: the narrator speaks as 'I' and is himself a character in the story. The reader's vision of the story or point of view is limited to what the first-person narrator himself knows, experiences, infers or can find out by talking to other characters. The first-person narrative is commonly associated with non-fictional literary forms such as biography, memoirs or diaries. When used in fictional works it lends authenticity, creating the illusion that the narrator is relating events that he has personally witnessed or experienced. As the reader 'sees the world through the narrator's eyes', he is often encouraged to identify and sympathise with the narrator's views. 1 Who is the T of the passage from Robinson Crusoe you have just read? Explain why this is an example of first-person narrative. 2 When Daniel Defoe first wrote Robinson Crusoe he presented it to the public as a true story, not as a work of fiction. How did the narrative technique he chose help him to deceive his readers? Using the first-person narrative technique write the opening five to ten lines of a fictional work that you think would capture the attention of readers.

The English saying 'Every cloud has a silver lining' means that there is something positive about any negative situation. For example, in the terrible event of someone close to us dying, we often realise how important friends and relatives are and appreciate them more than we normally would. Think of a situation where a cloud has a silver lining and tell your classmates about it.

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Text D l l

Civilising Friday

Robinson and Friday return to the place where, the previous day, Robinson had res Friday from his fellow cannibals. (...)

I kept1 there with him all that Night; but as soon as it was Day, I beckon'd to 2 him to come with me, and let him know, I would give him some Cloaths 3 , at which he seem'd very glad, for he was stark 4 naked: As we went by the Place where he had bury'd the two Men, he pointed exactly to the Place, and shew'd 5 me the Marks that he had made to find them again, making Signs to me, that we should dig them up again, and eat them; at this I appear'd very angry, express'd my Abhorrence 6 of it, made as if I would vomit at the Thoughts of it, and beckon'd with my Hand to him to come away, which he did immediately, with great Submission. I then led him up to the Top of the Hill, to see if his Enemies were gone; and pulling out my Glass 7 , I look'd, and saw plainly 8 the Place where they had been, but no appearance of them, or of their Canoes; so that it was plain they were gone, and had left their two Comrades behind them, without any search after them. But I was not content with this Discovery; but having now more Courage, GLOSSARY Note: the verbal suffix -ed was often spelt -'d for example 'sav'd' instead of 'saved'. 1. kept: stayed 2. beckon'd to: gestured 3. Cloaths: clothes 4. stark: completely 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

shew'd: showed Abhorrence: disgust Glass: telescope plainly: clearly takes: took

10.dextrously: skilfully 11.get... Intelligence: know more 12. chill: cold 13. dreadful: horrible 14. humane: human 15.dy'd: coloured 16.mangl'd and scorch'd: twisted and burnt 17. Tokens: signs 18. next King: neighbouring King 19. Wretches: evil people 20. hither: here 21. Heap: one on top of the other 22. hankering: hungry

and consequently more Curiosity, I takes9 my Man Friday with me, giving him the Sword in his Hand, with the Bow and Arrows at his Back, which I found he could use very dextrously 10 , making him carry one Gun for me, and I two for my self, and away we march'd to the Place, where these Creatures had been; for I had a Mind now to get some fuller Intelligence 11 of them: When I came to the Place, my very Blood ran chill 12 in my Veins, and my Heart sunk within me, at the Horror of the Spectacle: Indeed it was a dreadful 1 3 Sight, at least it was so to me; though Friday nothing of it: The Place was cover'd with

humane 1 4

made

Bones, the Ground

dy'd 1 5 with their Blood, great Pieces of Flesh left here and there, half eaten, mangl'd and scorch'd 1 6 ; and in short, all the Tokens 1 7 of the triumphant Feast they had been making there, after a Victory over their Enemies; I saw three Skulls, five Hands, and the Bones of three or four Legs and Feet, and abundance of other Parts of the Bodies; and Friday, by his Signs, made me understand, that they brought over four Prisoners to feast upon; that three of them were eaten up, and that he, pointing to himself, was the fourth: That there had been a great Battle between them, and their next King 18 , whose Subjects it seems he had been one of; and that they had taken a great Number of Prisoners, all which were carry'd to several Places by those that had taken them in the Fight, in order to feast upon them, as was done here by these Wretches 1 9 upon those they brought hither 20 . I caus'd Friday to gather all the Skulls, Bones, Flesh, and whatever remain'd, and lay them together on a Heap 21 , and make a great Fire upon it, and burn them all to Ashes: I found Friday had still a hankering 2 2 Stomach after some of the Flesh, and was still a Cannibal in his Nature;


but I discover'd 2 3 so m u c h Abhorrence at the very Thoughts of it, and at the least Appearance of it, that he durst not discover it 24 ; for I had by some Means let him know, that I would kill him if he offer'd 25 it.

45

When we had done this, we came back to our Castle, and there I fell to work for my Man Friday; and first of all, I gave him a pair of Linnen Drawers 26 , which I had out of the poor Gunner's Chest 2 7 I m e n t i o n ' d , and which I found in the Wreck 28 ; and which with a little

50

Alteration fitted him very well; t h e n I made him a Jerkin 2 9 of Goat's-skin, as well as my Skill would allow; and I was now grown a tollerable good Taylor 30 ; and I gave him a Cap, which I had made of a Hare 31 -skin, very convenient, and fashionable enough; and thus he was

55

c l o a t h ' d 3 2 for the present, tollerably well; and was mighty well 3 3 pleas'd to see himself almost as well cloath'd as his Master: It is true, he went awkwardly34 in these Things at first; wearing the Drawers was very awkward to him, and the Sleeves of the Wastcoat 3 5

60

gall'd 36 his Shoulders, and the inside of his Arms; but a

hnaay snowing nis submission to Robinson.

little easing them where he complain'd they hurt him, and using himself 37 to them, at length he took to them very well 38 . The next Day after I came h o m e to my Hutch 3 9 with him, I began to consider where I should lodge him 4 0 , and that I might do well for him, and yet be perfectly easy 41 my self; (...) But I needed n o n e of all this Precaution; for never Man had a more faithful, loving, sincere Servant, than Friday was to me; without Passions, Sullenness 4 2 or Designs 4 3 , perfectly oblig'd and engag'd 4 4 ; his very Affections were ty'd 45 to me, like those of a Child to a Father; and I dare say, he would have sacrific'd his Life for the saving mine, upon any occasion whatsoever; the many Testimonies 46 he gave me of this, put it out of doubt, and soon convinc'd me, that I needed to use no Precautions, as to my Safety on his Account 47 .

23. discover'd: showed 24. he durst not discover it: he was afraid to say or show it 25.offer'd: tried 26. Linnen Drawers: linen underpants 27.Gunner's Chest: on the ship, Robinson had found some clothes in a box (chest) that belonged to

one of his shipmates (the Gunner)

35. Wastcoat: (waistcoat) jacket

28. Wreck: the ship

36. gall'd: rubbed against and hurt

29.Jerkin: sleeveless jacket

37. using himself: getting used

30. Taylor: (tailor) a man who makes clothes

3 8 . a t length ... well: eventually he liked them

31. Hare: rabbit-like animal

39. Hutch: shelter

32.cloath'd: dressed 33. mighty well: very

40. lodge him: find a place for him to live

34. awkwardly: uncomfortably

4 1 . b e perfectly easy: feel safe

42. Sullenness: silent displeasure or anger 43. Designs: secret plans 44. oblig'd and engag'd: grateful and interested in what he was doing 45.ty'd: linked 46. Testimonies: examples 47. on his Account: because of him

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50


COMPREHENSION 1 What did Friday think they should do with the two bodies? How did Robinson react to the idea?

4 Friday clearly wished to eat some of the hu remains. What stopped him from doing so?

2 What did Robinson find when he returned to the place where Friday's enemies had been?

5 What did Robinson do when he returned to his shelter?

3 What had happened, according to Friday?

6 Why did Robinson feel that it was not necessary protect himself from Friday?

ANALYSIS 1 Focus on the relationship between Robinson and Friday. a. Find two incidents in the text where Robinson's wishes prevail over Friday's. b. Examine the two episodes involving heavy physical labour; the carrying of arms and the gathering and burning of the human remains (lines 38^t0). Do the two characters share the work equally? c. Which word in line 9 suggests that the two characters are not on an equal footing? d. How does Robinson refer: • to Friday in -line (16): - line (68): - line (70): • to the other natives in - line (20): - line (36): • to himself in - line (58): - line (70): e. What does Robinson's use of names reveal about his attitude towards people that are not of his own race and culture? f. How would you define the relationship between Robinson and Friday? • They show each other mutual respect. • Robinson feels superior to Friday and feels the need to 'civilise' him. • Robinson is curious about the differences in culture that emerge. • Friday feels that he owes Robinson a debt of gratitude for saving his life. • Robinson treats Friday like a slave and has no consideration for his feelings. • Robinson exploits Friday. • Robinson wishes to protect and educate Friday. • Other:

2 Focus on the descriptive passages in the extract, from line 24 to line 29 and from line 46 to 63. How would you define Robinson's descriptions? • Vague • Precise • Detailed • Scientific • Poetic • Verbose • Concise • Other: 3 The two episodes which Robinson describes are very different. The aftermath of the cannibals' feast is shocking and extraordinary, while the providing of clothes for Friday is relatively trivial and mundane. a. Does Defoe mark the difference between the two episodes by a change in style or is the same style used throughout the passage? b. How would you describe the style used by Defoe? • Emotional • Lyrical • Journalistic • Pseudo-scientific E Over-elaborate c. What effect does this style create? • It makes the material seem more convincing. • It involves the reader on an emotional level. • It helps the reader to understand how Robinson felt. • It allows the reader to form his own response to the material. m Other:


51

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Realism

The term realism is used to denote the attempt by writers to present an accurate imitation of life as it is. The realist sets out to write fiction which reflects a world that is convincing and recognisable to the common reader. He does this by: • writing about ordinary characters, usually of the middle class, who have no special gifts. Under normal circumstances these characters would live unexceptional lives, but in special conditions they may display a kind of heroism; • placing the characters in a setting that is familiar to the reader; • using a special literary style that gives the reader the illusion of actual experience. The style may be defined as reportorial or journalistic, and it seems to render the events in a matter-of-fact way; • being unselective in his choice of subject matter; • dealing, in the same way, with both the trivial and the extraordinary; • paying great, almost scientific attention to descriptive detail. Use the checklist below to determine which of the features of a realistic novel Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe displays. Tick the features you have found in the extracts you have read. Main character • He belongs to the middle class. • He has no exceptional talents. • Under special circumstances he shows heroic qualities. Setting • He lives in surroundings that are familiar to the common reader. Style • The events of the story are rendered with little emotion or sentiment, in what may be described as a journalistic style. • Both trivial and extraordinary events are described in the same way. • Descriptions are detailed.

OVER T O Y O U

The following extract is an example of non-realistic writing. It is taken from Mary Shelley's Frankenstein ( • pp. E88-95) and describes the moment in which Frankenstein is woken from his sleep by the monster he has just created. The emotionally-charged atmosphere is created by the use of words like started, horror, chattered and convulsed. The vague description of the monster heightens the tension by leaving much to the reader's imagination. Use the features of realism - lack of emotion, attention to detail, etc. - to re-write the passage in a more matter-of-fact, journalistic style. Original Version I started from my sleep with horror; a cold dew covered my forehead, my teeth chattered, and every limb became convulsed; when, by the dim and yellow light of the moon, as it forced its way through the window shutters, I beheld the wretch - the miserable monster whom I had created. He held up the curtain of the bed; and his eyes, if eyes they may be called, were fixed on me. His jaws opened, and he muttered some inarticulate sounds while a grin wrinkled his cheeks. He might have spoken, but I did not hear; one hand was stretched out, seemingly to detain me, but I escaped and rushed downstairs. Realistic R e - w r i t e It was 4.08 a.m. when I awoke from my sleep and saw the monster standing by my bedside. My initial fear was caused by the monster's appearance and my uncertainty about his intentions. He was...

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Crusoe thinks that Friday's eagerness to eat his dead comrades is barbaric and totally uncivilised. What does the term 'uncivilised' mean to you? What would you regard as uncivilised behaviour in our society? Discuss with your classmates.

LINK

-[ to the world of television

When it was published in 1 719, Robinson Crusoe was a runaway success. Part of its appeal was based on the fact that readers believed that it was the true-life account of a shipwrecked sailor. People have always been fascinated by true stories and today's public is no exception. The phenomenal success of Reality TV programmes (television programmes based on real-life incidents) shows the public's continuing interest in the lives of others. Reality TV programmes come in varying formats but they all share one basic characteristic: they are about real people in real situations. Read the descriptions of popular Reality TV programmes in Britain and the USA, and say if you have ever watched them or similar programmes. What do you think the appeal of these programmes is? The advancement of printing technology in the seventeenth century made a best-seller like Robinson Crusoe possible. How has the advancement of technology (home video cameras, web cams, Internet access) contributed to the evolution of Reality TV? Many people enjoyed Robinson Crusoe because they identified with the values and morals of the story's hero. Do participants in Reality TV reflect the values and lifestyles of the people who watch them?

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COPS Cops takes you to the streets to witness real police in action as they confront the crime gripping a nation's cities and comfort the victims of violence. Mobile cameras follow these reallife cops around the clock, with no restrictions on taping. During offduty hours, the camera goes behind the scenes to capture the effects of the job on their personal lives.

BIG BROTHER A new show, with a new look at television. This concept wasfirstdeveloped in burope, but has been brought to North America by CBS. It's called Bis Brother. Ten contestants have to live with each other for 100 davs for a chance to win $500,000. The contestants have never met before and no one knows what's going to happen. It takes place in a special house somewhere in America. The Big Brother house isn't too large and is equipped with 28 cameras and 60 microphones watching the ten contestants constantly There is no privacy in this house. There are cameras everywhere! The contestants have to make their own food and grow their own vegetables Every other week one contestant will be voted out of the house through telephone polls 1 he last one to remain will win a jackpot of $500,000!

Writers' Gallery - Daniel Defoe

WRITERS'

mNsmsfmm

GALLERY Family education

background

and

Little is known

about the personal life of Daniel Defoe. Even his date of birth is not certain because his father, a Protestant Dissenter, did not accept the authority of the State Church and refused to register his son's birth. We do know, however, that Daniel Foe - he later changed his name to the more fashionable Defoe - was born in London, probably in September 1660. In his early years Defoe attended a school for Dissenters, where he got a solid education. When he finished his studies he went into trade and travelled extensively in Europe.

DANIEL DEFOE (16607-1731)

Career

On his return to England he got married and

established himself as a hosiery merchant. After the failure of his business he turned to writing to earn money. He was deeply

interested in politics and wrote pamphlets and essays on the political issues of the day. His writings were often critical of political institutions and the established Church; as a result of some of the opinions he expressed he was arrested and spent time in prison. Throughout his life Defoe was fascinated by trade and got involved in a number of mercantile projects. However, most of his business ventures failed and he found himself in financial difficulty. A helping hand came from Robert Harley, the leader of the Tory party, who offered him a job as a secret agent for the government. Harley also helped him to set up his own journal, The Review, on the condition that in his writings he would not attack the government. Later years

When he was sixty years old Defoe turned to novel-writing, and in 1719 he produced

his masterpiece, Robinson Crusoe. The next five years saw the appearance of four more novels and a pseudo-factual account of London during the plague, A Journal

of the Plague Year. In 1724 he

published a guide book in three volumes based on his travels around Britain, in which he gave a detailed description of Britain in the early part of the eighteenth century. He died in 1731.

WORKS

Early writings

Daniel Defoe was a prolific writer. His earliest

writings were political and largely consisted of pamphlets, essays

and articles for journals. He was well respected as a satirist and his satirical pamphlet The Shortest Way with the Dissenters won him great popularity. In it Defoe, a Dissenter himself, demanded the extermination of Dissenters, exaggerating and ridiculing views held by the State Church. He was fined, imprisoned and pilloried for the work. While in prison he wrote the poem Hymn to the Pillory, a mock-Pindaric ode* which was sold in the streets to his many supporters. Fiction

It was not until late in his literary career that Defoe turned to writing prose fiction. He had

read of the adventures of a sailor, Alexander Selkirk, who had been put ashore on the desert island of Juan Fernandez in the Pacific Ocean, where he survived for five years before being rescued. Defoe used Selkirk's story as the basis for his fictional work Robinson Crusoe. At the time when Defoe was writing, the public demand was for fact-based writings such as diaries, travel journals, biographies and letters. Fiction was viewed with suspicion by the Puritan middle-class readers, as it was considered to be a form of lying. Defoe found a way around this prejudice: he presented his work as a true story based on real events. He also made a direct appeal to Puritan readers by including moral

54


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•

Ü

K

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w

The poster for the film Moll Flanders (1996).

- w

w

•

ssm

mm

ROBIN

WRIGHT MORGAN

FREEMAN STOCKARD

CHANNING lessons in his work and showing that an ordinary man such as Robinson, who

SansÄI;:;

believed in God and in the principles of self-reliance

and

hard

work,

could

overcome any obstacle. In this way, Robinson Crusoe became the model of the middle class, a self-made man convinced that Britain had a right and duty to bring civilisation to other parts of the world. Following the success of Robinson

Crusoe

Defoe wrote four more novels between 1 7 2 0 and 1724: Captain

Singleton,

Moll

Flanders, Colonel Jack and Roxana. Features

All of Defoe's novels share the

same characteristics: • they are presented as memoirs

or

autobiographies and are narrated in the first person; • the setting is contemporary and realistic; • there is no real plot: the protagonist is presented in a chronological series of episodes; • the main character overcomes misfortune through self-reliance, hard work and belief in God; • each of the characters repents his evil actions and prays to God for salvation; • the prose style is plain yet powerfully effective.

TASK Cross out the false statements. a. Defoe's literary career started out with political pamphlets, essays and press articles. b. Defoe gained a reputation as a satirist. c. The Shortest Way with the Dissenters is a pamphlet suggesting a quick way of getting rid of Protestant Dissenters. d. Hymn to the Piilory is a satirical mock-Pindaric ode. e. Defoe used the diary of a sailor, Alexander Selkirk, as a basis for an epic poem.

f. Defoe wrote a novel that met the demand for fact-based writings. g. The Puritans did not receive the work well because of its immoral content. h. After Robison Crusoe Defoe wrote four more novels which have completely different features. i. Defoe's characters fight against difficulties by placing great faith in Cod and in their own resources.

A Modest Proposal - J o n a t h a n Swift

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A Modest Proposal by Jonathan Swift

Briefly d e s c r i b e t h e p h o t o . W h a t is y o u r reaction t o it? Do you think that child poverty could

be

e l i m i n a t e d in t o d a y ' s w o r l d o r is it p a r t of a p r o b l e m t h a t will always b e with us?

Children in Africa

INTRODUCTION • J o n a t h a n Swift was a complex character who showed how literature could be used to make man aware of his own and society's shortcomings. Read his proposals for the solution of the problem of child poverty in eighteenth-century Ireland.

A Modest Proposal

Text 1 ) 1 2

For Preventing The Children of Poor People in Ireland From Being A Burden 1 to Their Parents or Country, and For Making Them Beneficial to The Public It is a melancholy object to those who walk through this great town or travel in the country, when they see the streets, the roads, and cabin 2 doors, crowded with beggars3 « ! the female sex, followed by three, four, or six children, all in rags4 and importuning every passenger for an alms 5 . These mothers, instead of being able to work for their honest livelihood, are forced to employ all their time in strolling 6 to beg sustenance for their helpless infants: who as they grow up either turn thieves for want 7 of work, or leave their dear native country to fight for the Pretender 8 in Spain, or sell themselves to the Barbadoes 9 . I think it is agreed by all parties that this prodigious number of children in the arms, or on the backs, or at the heels o f 1 0 their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is in the present deplorable state of the kingdom a very great additional grievance 1 1 ; and, therefore, whoever could find out a fair, cheap, and easy method of making these children sound, useful members of the commonwealth, would deserve so well of the public as to have his statue set up for a preserver of the nation. (...) There is likewise 12 another great advantage in my scheme, that it will prevent those voluntary abortions, and that horrid practice of women murdering their bastard children, alas! too frequent among us! sacrificing the poor innocent babes I doubt more to avoid the expense than the shame 13 , which would move tears and pity in the most savage and inhuman breast. The number of souls in this kingdom being usually reckoned 14 one million and a half, of these I calculate there may be about two hundred thousand

GLOSSARY

10

15

20

25

•-

Burden: something too heavy to carry/to bear cabin: poor housing beggars: poor people begging in the street rags: old and torn clothes an alms: money strolling: walking around want: absence Pretender: James Stuart, son of James II (1688-1766) 9. Barbadoes: this is a reference to the fact that many Irishmen emigrated to the West Indies 10. at the heels of: following 11. grievance: problem 12. likewise: as well 13. shame: moral discomfort 14. reckoned: calculated

56


couples whose wives are breeders 15 ; from which number I subtract thirty thousand couples who are able to maintain their own children, although I apprehend 16 there cannot be so many, under the present distresses17 of the kingdom; but this being granted 1 8 , there will remain a hundred and seventy thousand breeders. 1 again subtract fifty thousand for those women who miscarry 19 , or whose children die by accident or disease within the year. There only remains one hundred and twenty thousand children of poor parents annually born. The question therefore is, how this number shall be reared and provided for 20 , which, as I have already said, under the present situation of affairs, is utterly 21 impossible (...). I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not be liable 22 to the least objection. I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance 23 in London, that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome 24 food, whether stewed 25 , roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee 26 or a ragout.

15. breeders: able to have children 16. apprehend: think 17. distresses: difficult conditions 18. this being granted: even supposing that 19. miscarry: lose an unborn child 20. reared and provided for: maintained and taken care of 21. utterly: totally 22. liable: subject 23. of my acquaintance: that I know 24. wholesome: healthy 25.stewed: cooked in sauce 26. fricassee: meat dish 27. for breed: to make more children 28. fore or hind quarter: front or back part 29. title: right 30. a prolific diet: food that encourages conception 31. Lent: forty days before Easter, when Catholics are not supposed to eat meat 32. glutted: full to excess 33. popish: Catholic 34. endeavoring: trying 35. relieving: helping

•

I do therefore humbly offer it to public consideration that of the hundred and twenty thousand children already computed, twenty thousand may be reserved for breed 27 , whereof only one-fourth part to be males; which is more than we allow to sheep, black cattle or swine; and my reason is, that these children are seldom the fruits of marriage, a circumstance not much regarded by our savages, therefore one male will be sufficient to serve four females. That the remaining hundred thousand may, at a year old, be offered in the sale to the persons of quality and fortune through the kingdom; always advising the mother to let them suck plentifully in the last month, so as to render them plump and fat for a good table. A child will make two dishes at an entertainment for friends; and when the family dines alone, the fore or hind quarter 28 will make a reasonable dish, and seasoned with a little pepper or salt will be very good boiled on the fourth day, especially in winter. I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best title 29 to the children. Infant's flesh will be in season throughout the year, but more plentiful in March, and a little before and after; for we are told by a grave author, an eminent French physician, that fish being a prolific diet 30 , there are more children born in Roman Catholic countries about nine months after Lent 31 than at any other season; therefore, reckoning a year after Lent, the markets will be more glutted 32 than usual, because the number of popish 33 infants is at least three to one in this kingdom: and therefore it will have one other collateral advantage, by lessening the number of papists among us. I profess, in the sincerity of my heart, that I have not the least personal interest in endeavoring 34 to promote this necessary work, having no other motive than the public good of my country, by advancing our trade, providing for infants, relieving 35 the poor, and giving some pleasure to the rich. I have no children by which I can propose to get a single penny; the youngest being nine years old, and my wife past child-bearing.

30

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A Modest Proposal - Jonathan Swift

COMPREHENSION 1 What, according to the writer, saddens people who walk through Dublin or travel in Ireland?

6 Who informed the writer about the nutritional potential of young children?

2 What do the children of the poor do when they grow up?

7 How many children of the poor will be reserved for breeding? What will the male/female ratio be among the breeders? What will happen to the remaining children of the poor?

3 How should the person who solves the problem created by poor children be honoured? 4 What are the main causes of the voluntary abortion or the murder of illegitimate children? (Paragraph 3) 5 Find the statistics in the fourth paragraph which refer to this information. Number of: - inhabitants in the kingdom of Ireland; - couples in which the wife is of child-bearing age; - couples who can maintain their children financially; - miscarriages/infant deaths per annum; - children born to poor parents.

8 Why should the children who are to be sold for consumption be well-fed in the last month of their first year? 9 Why does the writer think that landlords would make good consumers of children? 1 0 Why will infant's flesh be particularly plentiful in March? 1 1 What is the ratio between Catholic and nonCatholic children in Ireland? 1 2 What proof does the writer give of having no personal financial interest in his proposal?

ANALYSIS 1 In the opening paragraphs the writer seems to be sympathetic to the cause of the poor. He speaks of poor women who would like to have an 'honest livelihood', refers to the children of the poor as 'helpless' and 'innocent' and wishes to make them 'sound, useful members of the commonwealth'. Does the attitude expressed by the writer towards the poor at the beginning of the text prepare the reader for the suggestion he is about to make? Why does Swift want the reader to be 'unprepared' for the proposal in the sixth paragraph?

3 Some features that we normally associate with scientific, economic or political texts are included in the passage. Find examples of the following: - use of statistics; - references to authoritative sources.

2 The passage is written in the style of a scientific discourse. Divide the text into the following parts: - Identification of a principal and secondary problem to be addressed: paragraph(s) - Close analysis of the problem including relevant statistical data: paragraph(s) - Proposal of solution and its ramifications: paragraph(s) - Conclusion: paragraph(s)

5 What effect do the pseudo-scientific style of the text and the attention to detail create? Which ending would you choose for the following statement? The detached scientific style of the passage and the attention to detail ... a. ... makes the proposal less horrific. b . . . . makes the proposal even more horrific.

4 Focus on the attention to detail. Underline the number of ways a child can be cooked, according to the writer, in the sixth paragraph. Find another example in which the writer shows great attention to detail.

6 Find references in the text where the writer describes his proposal as 'modest' or 'humble'. Does the writer's insistence on the modest nature of his proposal make it seem even more outrageous?

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58


WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Satire

f

-

OVER T O Y O U

Satire is the art of ridiculing a subject through laughter and scorn. While comedy evokes laughter as an end in itself, satire uses laughter as a weapon against a vice. Satire may be directed at an individual, a type of person, a social class, an institution, a political ideology, a nation or even the entire human race. Satirists try to use their art to improve the world we live in. By making the vice they target contemptible and repulsive, they hope to contribute to its elimination ( • Visual Link D5). A satire may have several targets. Making references to Text D12 say which you would consider to be the objects of Swift's satire in A Modest Proposal. Which contemporary social injustice would you choose to satirise? What preposterous solution to the problem would you put forward as your 'modest proposal'?

Satire does not exist only in literature. It is also popular in films, TV shows, songs, comic strips, cartoons, etc. Can you think of any examples?

LINK

-[ to the world of music

After he had seen a documentary about the devastating effects of famine in Ethiopia, Irish pop singer Bob Geldof called upon his fellow musicians to join together to raise funds for the stricken people. He wrote the song Do they know it's Christmas?, which he recorded with a host of other pop celebrities including George Michael, Bono of U2 and Sting. The record was released in November 1984 and was a huge Christmas hit all over the world. All proceeds from the record were spent on helping famine victims in Ethiopia. ft

Read the lyrics of the song and then answer the questions below.

Do they Know it's Christmas? It's Christmas time There's no need to be afraid At Christmas time We let in light and we banish shade And in our world of plenty We can spread a smile of joy Throw your arms around the world At Christmas time But say a prayer Pray for the other ones At Christmas time it's hard

But when you're having fun There's a world outside your window And it's a world of dread and fear Where the only water flowing Is the bitter sting of tears And the Christmas bells that ring there Are the clanging chimes of doom Well tonight thank God it's them instead of you Feed the world Let them know it's Christmas time Feed the world Do they know it's Christmas time at all?

1 Both Bob Geldof's song and Jonathan Swift's essay address social issues. They both try to draw public attention to the problem of poverty and, in the case of Geldof's song, the devastating effect of famine. Is the tone of the two works similar? Which of the two would you consider to be harsher? 2 In the opening lines of the song Geldof underlines man's humanity. Find sentences in which mankind is described as warm and loving. Does Swift make any references to man's goodness in his work? Swift's is a biting attack on man's inhumanity to man. Geldof's work is an appeal to man's humanity. Which of the two is more effective, in your opinion? 3 Do you respond better when people criticise negative aspects of your personality or when they appeal to your more positive instincts?

Gulliver's Travels - Jonathan Swift

59

Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift

Does the perfect human being exist? Jonathan Swift certainly did not think so. He was an acute observer of human faults and frailties and pointed out in no uncertain way how imperfect we are. Here are some common faults: pride, greed, aggression, cruelty, jealousy. Add to the list and give a practical example of one of them. For example, greed: sometimes, even though people are very rich, they do not relax and enjoy their wealth but keep working to get even richer.

INTRODUCTION • Gulliver's Travels appeals to both children and adults for different reasons. Children are fascinated by the lone traveller who has adventure after adventure in strange lands peopled by tiny midgets, giants and talking horses. For an adult the book is a highly sarcastic and often funny condemnation of man's ignorance, cruelty and pride. THE STORY On being shipwrecked, Lemuel Gulliver swims to the island ofLillipid. He is amazed to find that all the inhabitants are no more than six inches (13 cm) tall. He then travels to other strange places, including Brobdingnag ( • Text D13), a land of giants, before ending his adventures among the Houyhnhnms, a sophisticated and highly intelligent race of horses.

The Benefits of Gunpowder »^•»«i Gulliver explains to the king of Brobdingnag how people in Europe use gunpowder, and offers to help make it for him.

GLOSSARY

•

l. But, great

TRAVELS PART II

allowances ... other nations: because the king knew nothing (altogether unacquainted) of the world outside his own kingdom (wholly secluded), we must have sympathy for him and make a special effort to understand him the want of: the lack of

A Voyage to Brobdingnag Chapter 7 (...)

But, great allowances should be given to a King who lives wholly secluded from the rest of the world, and must therefore be altogether unacquainted with the manners and customs that most prevail in other nations 1 : the want of 2 which knowledge will ever3 produce many prejudices, and a certain narrowness of thinking, from which we and the politer countries of Europe

5

are wholly exempted 4 . And it would be hard indeed, if so remote a Prince's

3. ever: always 4. exempted: free from 5. will ... belief: will be hard to believe In hopes ... favour: in order to make the king like me more heap: a massed quantity

notions of virtue and vice were to be offered as a standard for all mankind. To confirm what I have now said, and further to show the miserable effects of a confined education, I shall here insert a passage which will hardly obtain belief 5 . In hopes to ingratiate myself farther into his Majesty's favour 6 , I

10

told him of an invention discovered between three and four hundred years ago, to make a certain powder, into a heap 7 of which the smallest spark of fire falling, would kindle 8 the whole in a moment, although it were as big

I

kindle: set fire to

^

^

^

^

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as a mountain, and make it all fly up in the air together, with a noise and agitation greater than

is

thunder. That, a proper quantity of this powder rammed 9 into an hollow 10 tube of brass 11 or iron, according to its bigness, would drive a ball of iron or lead 12 with such violence and speed as nothing was able to sustain its force. That the largest balls

20

thus discharged 13 , would not only destroy whole ranks 1 4 of an army at once, but batter 1 5 the strongest walls to the ground, sink down ships with a thousand men in each, to the bottom of the sea; and when linked together by a chain, would cut through masts and

rigging 16 ,

25

divide hundreds

of bodies in the middle, and lay all waste 17 before them. That we often put this powder into large hollow balls of iron, and discharged them by an e n g i n e 1 8 into some city we were besieging 1 9 ,

30

which would rip up 2 0 the pavements, tear the houses to pieces, burst 21 and throw splinters 22 on every side, dashing out 2 3 the brains of all who came near. That I knew the ingredients very well, which were cheap, and common; I understood the manner of compounding

them 24 ,

35

and could direct

his workmen how to make those tubes of a size proportionable to all other things in his Majesty's 9. rammed: pushed 10. hollow: empty 11. brass: a soft metal 12. lead: a hard metal 13.discharged: shot 14. ranks: lines of soldiers 15.batter: beat, knock

kingdom, and the largest need not be above a hundred feet long; twenty or thirty of which tubes, charged with the proper quantity of powder and in a few hours, or destroy the whole metropolis, if ever it should pretend to dispute 25 his absolute commands. This I humbly offered to his Majesty as a small tribute of acknowledgment 26 in return of so many marks that I had received of his royal favour and protection 27 .

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16. masts and rigging: parts of a ship that hold up the sails 17. lay all waste: destroy everything

The King was struck with horror at the description I had given of those

18. engine: cannon 19.besieging: attacking 20. rip up: tear up

entertain such inhuman ideas, and in so familiar a manner as to appear

21. burst: explode 22. splinters: pieces of wood and stone 23. dashing out: smashing 24. the manner of compounding them: how to mix them 25. pretend to dispute: try to challenge or oppose 26. tribute of acknowledgement: thank you

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balls, would batter down the walls of the strongest town in his dominions

terrible engines, and the proposal I had made. He was amazed how so impotent and grovelling 28 an insect as I (these were his expressions) could wholly unmoved at all the scenes of blood and desolation, which I had

50

painted as the common effects of those destructive machines, whereof 29 he said, some evil genius, enemy to mankind, must have been the first contriver 3 0 . As for himself, he protested, that although few things delighted him so much as new discoveries in art or in nature, yet he would rather lose half his kingdom than be privy to 3 1 such a secret, which he commanded me, as 32 I valued my life, never to mention any more.

27.marks ... protection: the many favours he had done for me

28. grovelling: low, servile 29. whereof: of which 30. contriver: inventor

31.be privy to: know 32. as: if

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Gulliver's Travels - J o n a t h a n Swift

A strange effect of narrow principles and short viewsl that a prince possessed of every quality which procures veneration, love, and esteem; of strong parts 33 , great wisdom and profound learning, endued with 3 4 admirable talents for government, and almost adored by his subjects, should from a nice unnecessary scruple, whereof in Europe we can have no conception, let slip an opportunity to put into his hands, that would have made him absolute master of the lives, the liberties, and the fortunes of his people.

60 33. of strong parts: with a strong character 34. endued with: with

COMPREHENSION 1 According to Gulliver (paragraph 1) why should the king be excused for not being acquainted with the 'manners and customs' of other nations? 2 What are the negative repercussions of the king's 'confined education'? (Paragraph 1) 3 In which lines in the second paragraph does Gulliver define: - gunpowder? Line to - guns/cannons? Line - bullets/cannon balls? Line Why doesn't Gulliver refer to these inventions by name? 4 In the second paragraph Gulliver explains the uses of the powder to the king. Use the text to link the verbs in box A with the expressions in box B. A

destroy batter sink down cut through lay waste rip up tear dash out

5 Gulliver says that he knows the ingredients for the powder (paragraph 2). What does he volunteer to do for the king in return for the 'royal favour and protection' he has received? 6 Under what circumstances would the king need the powder, according to Gulliver? 7 How does the king react to Gulliver's proposal? 8 What does he command Gulliver never to do again? 9 What does Gulliver attribute the king's reaction to? (Paragraph 4) 1 0 What opportunity has the king let slip by, according to Gulliver?

the houses to pieces all before them whole ranks of an army at once B the brains of all who came near the pavements the strongest walls to the ground masts and rigging ships with a thousand men in each

ANALYSIS 1 From whose point of view is the episode narrated? • Gulliver's • The king's • An external narrator • Both Gulliver's and the king's 2 Focus on the first paragraph. a. Which expressions show that Gulliver feels that his culture is superior to the king's? b. How would you define Gulliver's attitude towards the king? • Sympathetic • Patronising II Respectful • Dismissive IS Other:

3 Focus on the second paragraph. a. In his speech on gunpowder Gulliver refers to numbers and measurements. Find examples in the text. b . How would you describe Gulliver's description of gunpowder and its uses? ft Logical • Scientific • Incoherent • Subjective • Practical IS Theoretical OS Other: c. What impression of Gulliver is created? Choose from the following adjectives. • Rational SB Passionate • Precise II Emotional S Scientific • Detached • Logical • Creative IS Other:

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4

Focus on the third paragraph.

a. Underline the words and expressions that convey the king's: - reaction to Gulliver's proposal; - assessment of Gulliver; - opinion of the creator of gunpowder. b. On the basis of his reaction to Gulliver's suggestions, which of the following adjectives would you choose to describe the king? • Narrow-minded • Detached • Passionate • Humane • Prejudiced • Conservative • Other: 5 Which of the two characters, Gulliver or the king, represents Swift's point of view? justify your answer. 6 In the first paragraph Gulliver accuses the king of having 'prejudices' and 'narrowness of thinking'. In the second paragraph he speaks of the king's 'confined education' and in the fourth paragraph he refers to his 'narrow principles and short views'. Are these accusations more appropriately applied to the king or to Gulliver? Justify your answer.

7 Re-read the first sentence of the second paragraph. Does the episode Gulliver recounts expose the 'miserable effects' of the 'confined education' of the king? Do you detect an ironic twist in this sentence? 8 Does the physical difference between the king and Gulliver take on another meaning in the light of your analysis? 9 • • • • • • • •

Which of the following are targets of Swift's satire? The British sense of superiority The British monarchy Western civilisation Gunpowder Man's insensitivity to the suffering of others Man's disregard for human life Man's obsession with power The British parliamentary system

Which target do you think he most successfully ridicules? 1 0 How would you define Swift's style? • Poetic • Figurative • Ornate • Complex • Clear • Simple

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Unreliable narrator

An unreliable narrator is one whose interpretation and evaluation of events do not coincide with the beliefs held by the author. The unreliability of a narrator is not always immediately obvious. The reader is often initially led to believe that the narrator is reliable, and encouraged to share his viewpoint. The delayed exposure of the fallibility of the narrator adds humour and bite to a satirical text.

TASK

In Text D1 3 Gulliver is a fallible narrator. At what point in the passage does it become clear that he is unreliable, i.e. that Swift does not share his beliefs?

OVER T O Y O U

The character in the passage who represents Swift's point of view is the king. Briefly re-tell the story from the king's viewpoint. Start like this: One day Gulliver informed me that he had something very important to tell me. He started to describe a powder which he said... Does the new version maintain the same level of humour and satirical bite as the original?

The king is amazed to hear that humans use gunpowder to kill each other and destroy each other's cities. Gulliver is amazed the king is so ignorant of the ways of the world and the realities of war. Organise a debate in which one side supports the view that in the future, through education and diplomacy, we will be able to build a world which will not need weapons or armies. The other side supports the view that there will always be armies, weapons and wars because man is by nature power-hungry and violent.

Writers' Gallery - J o n a t h a n Swift

WRITERS' GALLERY ••••••••I^HH

Family and education

Jonathan

Swift was born in Dublin of English parents. His father died before he was born and he was maintained by a rich relative. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was an unruly and uninterested student. Stella

In 1 6 8 9 he moved to England, where he b e c a m e a

secretary to Sir William Temple, a retired statesman. Frustrated in his expectations of a career, he returned to Ireland and was ordained a priest in the Church of Ireland. Life as a modest parish priest did not suit him, however, so he returned to Temple's home as a tutor to a young girl, Esther Johnson, who was to play an important role in his life and whom he would later immortalise as 'Stella' in his writings. In London

When his patron died in 1699, Swift returned to Dublin, where he was later joined by

Esther-Stella. During one of his frequent trips to London he met Addison and Steele ( • p. D104) who published Swift's A Tale of a Tub. Like most writers of the period, Swift was actively involved in politics and initially he supported the Whigs. Disgusted, however, by their alliance with the Dissenters, he joined the Tories. He became a close friend of Tory leaders and was introduced to writers of similar political views, such as Pope ( • pp. D23-27), Gay ( • p. D108) and Congreve ( • pp. D33-37). Together they formed the 'Scriblerus Club' to discuss topics of contemporary interest and collaborate on joint literary projects. It was during his time spent in London that he wrote a series of letters to Esther-Stella, which were posthumously (1768) published as the Journal to Stella. The letters, written in part in baby talk, show Swift's softer side and give a fascinating view of life in London at the beginning of the eighteenth century. While in London Swift started seeing another young lady, whom he called 'Vanessa' in the poem Cadenus and Vanessa. The relationship ended abruptly when 'Vanessa' demanded that he choose between her and Stella. The separation led to Vanessa's death 'of a broken heart' in 1723. Back in Ireland

In 1713 Swift moved back to Ireland where, outraged by the injustices he perceived

in England's treatment of Ireland, he used his writing skills to support Irish causes, producing some of his most memorable political pamphlets. The publication of A Modest Proposal for the Universal Use of Irish Manufacture (1720), The Drapier's Letters (1724) and his masterpiece Gulliver's Travels (1726) won him public acclaim. Swift's final years were spent largely alone and with serious health problems, which became even worse after Stella's death in 1728. He died at the age of seventy-eight and was buried in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, by the side of his beloved Stella. The man and the writer

Jonathan Swift was a complex, passionate individual. His biting satirical

writing has often given rise to the idea that he was a misanthrope. However, he showed great concern for his fellow human beings, spending a third of his income on charities and dedicating much of his time and writing to the causes of the poor and the victims of injustice.

TASK Jonathan Swift had a c o m p l e x personality. After reading about his life, what opinion have you formed of the m a n ?

ays 64

THE AUGUSTAN AGE

229THEAUGUSTANAGE-Fiction

WORKS

Jonathan Swift was a prolific writer who is best remembered for three great satirical works.

The Battle of the Books (1704) is a mock-heroic satire in which Swift imagines a real battle between iMfSgSt—.-I •*

-

iPlliSfft » 1

books at the Royal Library over the controversy about ancient and modern learning. The Ancients are led by Homer while the Moderns are under the leadership of Milton. A Tale of a Tub (1704) is a satirical allegory about the three major religious groupings in eighteenthcentury Britain: Roman Catholics, Anglicans and Dissenters. The narrator tells the story of a father who leaves each of his three sons a coat (the Christian religion) with strict instructions that on no account should they alter it. Peter (St - the Roman Catholic Church), Martin (Luther - the Anglican Church) and Jack (Calvin - the Dissenters) gradually disobey their father by altering their coats to make them more fashionable. Though the book was meant to defend the Church of England, many passages pour a torrent of ridicule on all three opponents. Gulliver's Travels (1726) is generally regarded to be Jonathan Swift's masterpiece, one of the great literary works and perhaps the greatest satiric work of all time. Like all of his other writings, Swift published the Travels under a pseudonym. Several of his writings had already incurred the wrath of important people, and there was enough criticism of the English government and monarchy to bring charges of sedition. Initially Swift set out to write a satire on the vices and follies of his time, but as the work proceeded he widened his aim to target virtually every aspect of human experience. Swift's satire is pointed and pessimistic: his task is to expose absurdities, not to provide remedies. The book takes the form of a parody of travel literature, which at the time was very popular. It is divided into four books: In Book I Lemuel Gulliver, a surgeon on a merchant ship, tells of how he was shipwrecked and washed up on the island of Lilliput, where the inhabitants are only six inches tall. Despite their diminutive size, the Lilliputians have delusions of grandeur, and the pomp of their emperor (representing the British monarchy) and their war with their neighbours across the channel (the war between England and France) are made to look ridiculous. In Book II Gulliver is in Brobdingnag, a kingdom of giants. In an interview with the king about European civilisation, Gulliver boasts about the marvels of gunpowder and the glory of the judicial system. To Gulliver's surprise, the king is horrified and says that what he has heard would lead him to believe that mankind is 'the most pernicious Race of little odious Vermin that Nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the Earth'. In Book III Gulliver visits Laputa, a flying island where the nobles literally have their heads in the cloud. Here the satire is directed against philosophers, men of science and historians. On Laputa Gulliver meets philosophers who have become so absorbed in their speculations that they are totally divorced from reality. In Book IV Gulliver travels to the land of the Houyhnhnms, rational horse-like creatures that are contrasted with the filthy humanlike Yahoos. The two races represent the two extremes of human potential: rationality and bestiality. When Gulliver returns home, he feels so alienated from his own species that he prefers to spend his time in the stable with the horses than with his own family.

TASK Condense the text 'Swift's works' into a thirty-second talk. As you do not have much time you should only c h o o s e the most significant information.

Pamela - Samuel Richardson

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Pamela by Samuel Richardson

People have many different ways of letting someone know they like them. Sometimes a smile or a wink is a way of saying you would like to know another person better. A more direct approach would be to say straight out, 'Where have you been all my life?' to someone you have never spoken to before. 1 Try to think of five different strategies that people use to attract the attention of someone they like. 2 Make a list of all the strategies on the board and vote to see which one most people in the class think is most effective.

INTRODUCTION • Samuel Richardson was one of the c h i e f e x p o n e n t s of the epistolary n o v e l in English. An epistolary novel was a series of letters between the main characters, that together made up a coherent story. Pamela

was the most successful of this type of novel in the eighteenth century and,

like many successful books and films today, encouraged Richardson to write a sequel, Pamela

II.

THE STORY Pamela Andrews is a poor, intelligent fifteen-year-old. When her kind employer, Lady B, dies,

• Pamela Andrews, a young servant girl • Mr B, Pamela's master

she has to work for her son, Mr B, who tries to seduce her in every possible way, but she rejects him indignantly. To break down Pamela's resistance, he takes her off to his country house and imprisons her for forty days. He continues to put pressure on her to give in to his desires ( • Text D14) and almost rapes her twice. In desperation Pamela thinks of committing suicide, but she realises that even though her master has treated her abominably,

she

quite likes many things about him. Mr B accepts that violence and harassment will get him nowhere, and is delighted to find that when he expresses his love for Pamela in gentler terms, she reveals her tender feelings towards him. She turns down his first offer of marriage but eventually accepts that she can trust him and agrees to become his wife. The novel is made up of letters, written mostly by Pamela, and her personal diary of events.

Lucifer in the Shape of my Master

Text D 1 4

This passage is taken from Pamela's diary. She is walking in the garden with Mr B. Wednesday Morning (...) He presently began by squeezing my hand; and then, truly, all the way we walked, he would put his arm about my waist. I would have removed his arm: but he called me little fool! and bid 1 me not distrust his honour. Had he not told me, he said, that I might rely upon it 2 ? And it would be better for me if I did. He then said abundance of kind and praiseful things 3 , enough to make me proud, had not his designs 4 been so apparent. After walking about, he led me into a little alcove 5 in the further part of the garden, which having a

GLOSSARY

•-

bid: ordered rely upon it: count on it 3. abundance ... praiseful things: a lot of compliments designs: objective alcove: a covered, hidden place

ST.,

^ ^,f* ^

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passage through it, I the less resisted 6 ; and still the less, as he had led me through o n c e without stopping; but then stopping in it, he began to be

10

very t e a z i n g 7 . He made m e sit on his knee; and still on my struggling 6. which having ... resisted: I agreed to go to the alcove because I knew there was a passage through it 7. teazing: (teasing) playful 8. I might: I should 9. and would ... him: and wanted to get away from him

m e that I might 8 . But then kissing me very often, though I resisted every time, I told him, at last, and would have got from him 9 , that I would not stay with him in this place. I would not be so freely used. And I wondered he should so demean

himself 1 0 .1

told him, moreover, that he would level

he was the son of my ever-honoured lady 12 . He held me fast 1 3 notwithstanding 1 4 , professing honour all the time with his mouth, t h o u g h his actions did n o t correspond. I begged and prayed that he would let me go: and had I not appeared quite regardless of 1 5 all he

11. reverence: respect 12. my ever-honoured lady: Lady B

would have proceeded:

15.and had I not ... regardless of: and had I not ignored 16. bold: courageous, less shy 17. use me thus: abuse me like this 18. haughty: arrogant 19. alike: equally 20.and perhaps ... did not: if I did not obey him he might use my disobedience as an excuse to punish me 21. disdain: it would be dishonourable for him to run after his servant girl 22. throwing abroad: throwing out 23. With unwilling feet: reluctantly, because I did not want to 24. endeavour: try 25. Command from me ... with pleasure: I do not mind dying if that is what you want 26. shew: show 27. seek not: do not try 28. fabric: my character and morals 29. affected: moved and touched emotionally 30.yards: 1 yard: 0.9144 m 31. attend him: wait for him

15

all distance between us, and I should lose all reverence 1 1 for him; though

10. demean himself: lower himself to my level

13. fast: tight and close 14. notwithstanding: despite what I had said

•

against such a freedom, he bid me rely on his honour, solemnly assuring

20

said, and resolved n o t to stay, if I could help it, I knew n o t h o w far he (...) He put his arm round me, and his other hand on my neck; which made me more angry and bold 1 6 ; and he said, ' W h o t h e n am I?' 'Why', said I,

25

(struggling from him, and in a great passion) 'to be sure, you are Lucifer himself in the shape of my master, or you could not use me thus 1 7 .' 'These are t o o great liberties,' said he, in anger; 'and I desire, that you will n o t repeat them, for your own sake: for if you have no decency towards me, I'll have n o n e towards you.'

30

I was r u n n i n g from h i m ; and had got at a little distance, w h e n he in a h a u g h t y 1 8 tone, called out, ' C o m e back! Pamela, c o m e back w h e n I bid you!' Too well I knew, as I told y o u before, that every place was alike 1 9 dangerous to me; and that I had nobody to run to for safety: and I stopped at his call; for he stopped too, as if to see if I would obey him, and perhaps

35

to have a pretence against m e if I did n o t 2 0 ; or in disdain 2 1 to run after a girl as me. 'How can I, sir,' said I, throwing abroad 2 2 my supplicating arms, 'how can I go back, to a gentleman who has so demeaned himself to his p o o r servant girl?' ' C o m e b a c k , ' repeated he in a m o r e h a u g h t y t o n e , throwing out in a threatening m a n n e r one arm, and looking taller than

40

usual, as I thought, and he is a tall, and very majestic man. What could I do? With unwilling feet 2 3 , and slow, I went back; and seeing h i m look angry, I held m y hands together, and wept, and said, 'Pray sir, forgive m e . ' (...) 'I will endeavour 2 4 , sir,' said I 'always to preserve t h a t decency towards you, that veneration for you, which is due from me to the

45

son of that ever-honoured lady, who taught me to prefer my honesty to my life. Command from me, sir, that life, and I will lay it down with pleasure 25 , to shew 26 my obedience to you. But I cannot be patient, I cannot be passive, when my virtue is in danger. For God's sake, sir, seek not 2 7 to destroy the fabric 28 which your good mother took so much pleasure in building up.' He seemed affected 2 9 , yet angrily said, he never saw such a fool in all his life! And walking by the side of m e some yards 3 0 without saying a word, he at last went in, bidding me attend h i m 3 1 in the garden after dinner.

50

Pamela - S a m u e l R i c h a r d s o n

67

COMPREHENSION 1 What did Mr B tell Pamela to rely on as she tried to resist his advances?

4 Why, according to Pamela, does Mr B stop running after her?

2 Pamela accuses Mr B of 'levelling all distances' between them (lines 16-1 7). Explain what she means in your own words.

5 Why does Pamela ask for forgiveness? (Line 44)

3 When Mr B asks 'Who then am I?' (Line 25) What reply does he expect? How does he react to Pamela's answer?

6 Why does Pamela go back when Mr B calls? 7 What is Pamela prepared to sacrifice for her master? What is she not prepared to sacrifice?

ANALYSIS 1 Find examples of the following narrative techniques in the passage: a. narration of events c. dialogue which is indirectly reported b. dialogue which is directly reported

d. description.

Which narrative techniques does Richardson use most? 2 From whose point of view* is the story told? Can we tell if Pamela is describing exactly what happened? Have we any direct insight into what Mr B is thinking? How are Mr B's thoughts indirectly presented in the text? 3 Focus on the character of Pamela. Which of the following adjectives best describe her? • Helpless • Obedient • Calculating • Innocent • Two-faced • Dignified • Independent • Moralistic • Determined • Diplomatic 4 Consider how Mr B is presented in the passage. How would you describe him? • Arrogant • Manipulative • Authoritarian • Patient • Tenacious 5 • • • •

• Intimidating

Pamela is told through a series of letters and a personal journal. What effect(s) does the journal style create? It helps the reader to understand what the narrating character (in this case Pamela) is thinking. It encourages the reader to identify and sympathise with the narrator. It gives the reader an objective account of events. It makes the reader the 'addressee' of the letters or journal and involves him more directly in the story.

, The novel

of incident and the novel of character

WRITERS W O R K S H O P T h e novel of i n c i d e n t and t h e novel of c h a r a c t e r are two broad categories that are widely used to classify novels. The novel of incident is story-driven: the plot is carefully developed and the reader's attention is held by the unfolding of events. The novel of character is character-driven and focuses on the character's motive for what he or she does and how he or she will turn out as a person. In this type of novel the reader finds psychologically complex characters, whose inner worlds of feelings and emotions are explored and analysed. In the extract you have read is the emphasis on what the characters do or the motives behind their actions? On the basis of your analysis, do you think that Samuel Richardson's Pamela is generally classified as a novel of incident or a novel of character? Most works strike a balance between the development of storyline and character analysis, but some genres favour one of the two: adventure or science fiction stories, for example, are generally story-driven, while love stories or stories exploring human relationships are usually character-driven. Can you think of a novel, play or film that you would consider to be predominantly story-driven or character-driven?

Do you admire Pamela for the way she deals with Mr B? Do you think her reaction is just right or should she have behaved differently? Discuss in groups.

i 68



Samuel Richardson

was born into a lower middle class family. When he was seventeen years old he was apprenticed to a printer, whose daughter he married, and in 1721 he set up his own printing business. He was extremely hard-working and his business prospered and grew. On the personal front, however, he suffered tragedy: six of his children died in infancy and his wife died in 1 7 3 1 . Two years later he remarried and had six more children, four of whom survived. Writing career

Richardson's career as a writer began at an early

age. By the time he was thirteen he was composing letters for

SAMUEL RICHARDSON (1689-1761)

young lovers and writing prefaces and dedications for booksellers. He started novel-writing almost by accident at the age of fifty-one. He was asked to compose a guide to letter-writing on the problems

of daily life for the poorly-educated. While writing the models he occasionally continued the same subject from one letter to another. One such 'series' of letters involved a father writing to his daughter in service on hearing that her master had tried to seduce her. The exchange of letters between father and daughter gave him an idea for a novel. He had heard the story of a young girl in service who had preserved her virtue and was rewarded by marriage, and he used this as his central theme. He interrupted his work on the letter-writing guide and set to work on Pamela, Rewarded

or Virtue

(1740) which he completed in just two months. The collection of model letters was

published a year later as Letters to and for Particular Friends. Richardson went on to write two more novels: Clarissa

( 1 7 4 7 - 1 7 4 8 ) and Sir Charles

Grandison

( 1 7 5 3 - 1 7 5 4 ) . In later life he suffered from nervous disorders which today would probably be identified as Parkinson's disease. He died in 1761.

WORKS

Pamela

Richardson, along with Defoe ( • pp. 4 4 - 5 4 ) and

Fielding ( • pp. 70-78), is credited with giving shape to perhaps

the most influential literary genre of the past three centuries: the novel. Written in an epistolary form and as a personal journal, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) became, by eighteenth-century standards, a best-seller. The epistolary form which he used in it was already popular in France but Richardson took it to new heights. The single-story plot, built on domestic conflict in familiar indoor settings, contrasted greatly with the episodic adventures in an exotic desert island setting of Defoe's Robinson Crusoe ( • pp. D44-54). Richardson also explored the psychological dimension of characters and showed a deep insight into the workings of the heart. The influential contemporary a»«

literary critic Dr J o h n s o n ( • p. D104), said, 'if you were to read Richardson for the story your impatience would be so much fretted that you would hang yourself... but there is more knowledge of the human heart in one letter of Richardson's than in all of Tom Jones.' In 1742, Richardson published a second part to Pamela, where the heroine is displayed as a perfect wife and mother, who writes long letters of advice on moral, domestic and general subjects. Although very successful at the time, today it is considered of less importance. Clarissa

Written again in the epistolary form, Clarissa, Richardson's second novel, tells the story of a

well-bred young lady who, against the advice of her family, elopes with an unscrupulous man who holds her prisoner and rapes her. When she realises she has made a mistake, she distances herself from

Writers' Gallery - Samuel Richardson

her persecutor and dies alone in shame and grief. Clarissa, the longest novel in the English language (over a million words), was very well received in England and on the continent, where it was translated into French, Dutch and German. Sir Charles G r a n d i s o n novel, Sir Charles

For his third and final

Grandison

(published in seven

volumes 1 7 5 3 - 1 7 5 4 ) , Richardson chose a male protagonist. T h e novel tells t h e story of t h e b e n e v o l e n t Sir Charles, who is torn between his love for a beautiful English woman, Harriet Byron, and an Italian noble lady, Clementina Porretta. Sir Charles is saved from his dilemma when, at the last minute, the Roman Catholic Clementina refuses to marry a Protestant heretic. Sir Charles remains loyal to his faith, returns to England and marries Harriet. Reputation

Samuel Richardson was a self-educated

tradesman who had little formal literary training, yet he made an impact on English literature which is nothing less than remarkable. His work, which in the nineteenth century was particularly criticised for excessive sentimentality and moralism, is today acknowledged as having been extremely influential in the development of the English novel. 'He held me fast notwithstanding, professii honour all the time with his mouth, thougl his actions did not correspond.' From Pam<

TASK Choose the correct option. 1 Samuel Richardson was ® aprinter b j a publisher

by trade.

2 He suffered [a] from extremely poor health, [bj devastating personal tragedies. 3 His first novel, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded, is [a~l made up of an exchange of letters between father and daughter. about a father struggling to persuade his daughter to preserve her virtue.

4 Pamela aims to !~a~l entertain readers with humorous situations. fb"l stimulate readers to meditate on the rewarding principles of virtue. 5 Richardson's second novel, Clarissa, is 1 a j a completely different novel, narrated in the third person. "b] also based on letters. 6 Sir Charles Grandison is the male protagonist of Richardson's third epistolary novel. [5] the main character of a play which Richardson wrote in later life.

70


Tom Jones by Henry Fielding

Think of a film where there is a fight scene and answer the following questions. 1 2 3 4 5

Who was fighting? Were they individuals or groups? Were they using weapons and, if so, what were they? Was anyone killed or injured? How did the fight end? Was it realistic or comic?

INTRODUCTION •

H e n r y Fielding described Tom Jones

as a ' c o m i c epic in prose'. It is i n d e e d epic

l e n g t h a n d d e s c r i b e s a h u g e c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f p e o p l e i n a h u m o r o u s way. F i e l d i n g h a d a n in-de knowledge of h u m a n nature and depicted his characters with all their vices and virtues. T o m Jones is n o m e a n s a p e r f e c t h u m a n b e i n g b u t , for all his faults, h e c o m e s across as o n e of t h e m o s t lova characters in English literature ( • Visual Link D5).

CHARACTERS • Tom Jones, Mr

Allworthy's nephew; Blifil's half-brother

• Mr AUworthy, a

country gentleman; Tom's and Blifil's uncle • Blifil, Tom's halfbrother • Squire Western, Mr

Allworthy's neighbour • Sophia, Squire Western's daughter • Thwackum, Tom's and Blifil's teacher

THE STORY As a new-born baby, Tom is abandoned and found in the bedroom of Mr AUworthy, a kind, gentleman who brings him up along with his dead sister's child, Blifil. The two boys are t different; while Tom is honest, brave and trustworthy, Blifil is insincere, cruel and scheming One of the boys' teachers is Mr Thwackum, a brutish and sadistic church chaplain. He an alliance with Blifil against Tom ( • Text D15) and manages to convince

MrAllwo

disown the boy. Tom is forced to leave his home and seek his fortune. During his travels Tom has many adventures and shows what a generous and able man is. He is also very handsome childhood sweetheart,

and many women fall for him, but he is still in love with

Sophia.

To his great surprise, Mr AUworthy finds out that Tom's mother was his own sister. He realises that he has been tricked into believing that Tom was wicked and welcomes

him

home. Tom marries Sophia and forgives everyone who has wronged him, including his b brother Blifil.

Text D15

A Battle Royal

Thwackum and Blifil have heard Tom talking to a girl in the woods and want to know H she is. The girl runs off while Tom faces his two opponents. ... And now Thwackum, having first darted 1 some livid lightning from his - > GLOSSARY 1. darted: flashed 2. Fie upon it!: archaic expression of disgust 3. wicked slut: immoral woman hath: has abridged ... tuition: you no longer need lessons from me

fiery eyes, began to thunder forth, 'Fie upon it! 2 Fie upon it! Mr Jones. Is it possible y o u should be t h e p e r s o n ? ' - 'You see,' answered J o n e s , 'it is possible I should be here.' - 'And w h o , ' said Thwackum, 'is that wicked slut 3 with y o u ? ' - 'If I have any wicked slut with m e , ' cries J o n e s , 'it is possible I shall not let you know who she is.'- T c o m m a n d you to tell me immediately,' says Thwackum: 'and I would not have you imagine, young man, that your age, t h o u g h it h a t h 4 somewhat abridged the purpose of tuition 5 , hath totally taken away the authority of the master. The relation

Tom Jones - Henry Fielding

of t h e m a s t e r .and s c h o l a r is i n d e l i b l e ; as,

71

10

indeed, all o t h e r r e l a t i o n s are; for t h e y all derive their original f r o m h e a v e n . I w o u l d have you t h i n k yourself, therefore, as m u c h obliged t o o b e y m e now, as w h e n I t a u g h t y o u y o u r f i r s t r u d i m e n t s . ' 'I b e l i e v e y o u w o u l d , ' cries J o n e s , 'but t h a t will

15

not

h a p p e n , unless you had t h e same b i r c h e n 6 argument t o convince m e . ' 'Then I must tell you plainly,' said Thwackum, 'I am resolved to discover the wicked wretch 7 .' 'And I must

20

t e l l y o u p l a i n l y , ' r e t u r n e d J o n e s , 'I a m resolved you shall n o t . ' T h w a c k u m t h e n offered to advance, a n d J o n e s laid h o l d of his arms; w h i c h M r Blifil e n d e a v o u r e d t o rescue 8 , declaring, 'he would n o t see his old

25

master insulted.' Jones now finding himself engaged with two, t h o u g h t it necessary t o rid h i m s e l f of o n e of his a n t a g o n i s t s as s o o n as possible. He, therefore, applied t o t h e weakest first;

30

a n d , l e t t i n g t h e p a r s o n go, h e d i r e c t e d a

'lories now finding himself engaged with two, thought it necessary to rid himself of one ...'

b l o w at t h e y o u n g s q u i r e ' s b r e a s t , w h i c h luckily taking place, reduced h i m to measure his length o n the ground 9 . T h w a c k u m was so i n t e n t on t h e discovery, t h a t , t h e m o m e n t he f o u n d h i m s e l f at liberty, he stept forward directly i n t o t h e fern 1 0 , w i t h o u t a n y great c o n s i d e r a t i o n of w h a t m i g h t , in t h e m e a n time, befal 1 1 his friend; b u t h e h a d a d v a n c e d a v e r y few paces i n t o t h e

thicket12,

before Jones

having defeated Blifil, overtook the parson, and dragged h i m backward by the skirt of his coat. This parson had b e e n a c h a m p i o n in his y o u t h , a n d had w o n m u c h

6. birchen: with a stick (Thwackum used to beat Jones) 7. wretch: evil person 8. endeavoured to rescue: tried to save 9. reduced him ... on the ground: he fell and lay on the ground

h o n o u r b y his fist, b o t h at s c h o o l a n d at t h e u n i v e r s i t y . He h a d now,

10. fern: a green plant with large leaves

indeed, for a great n u m b e r of years, declined the practice of that noble art;

11.befal: happen to

yet was his courage full as strong as his faith, and his body n o less strong t h a n e i t h e r . He was m o r e o v e r , as t h e r e a d e r m a y , p e r h a p s ,

have

c o n c e i v e d 1 3 , s o m e w h a t irascible in his n a t u r e . W h e n he l o o k e d b a c k , therefore, a n d saw his friend stretched

out14

o n t h e ground, a n d f o u n d

h i m s e l f at t h e same t i m e so roughly h a n d l e d by o n e w h o h a d formerly b e e n o n l y passive in all c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n t h e m , (a c i r c u m s t a n c e w h i c h h i g h l y aggravated t h e w h o l e ) his p a t i e n c e at l e n g t h gave way; he threw h i m s e l f i n t o a posture of o f f e n c e , a n d c o l l e c t i n g all his force, a t t a c k e d J o n e s in the front, with as m u c h impetuosity as he had formerly attacked h i m in the rear 1 5 . Our h e r o e 1 6 received the enemy's attack with t h e most u n d a u n t e d intrepidity17, and his b o s o m resounded with the blow18. This he p r e s e n t l y 1 9 r e t u r n e d w i t h n o less v i o l e n c e , a i m i n g 2 0 l i k e w i s e at t h e

12. thicket: a group of bushes and small trees 13.conceived: realised 14. stretched out: lying 15.in the rear: from behind (Thwackum used to beat him on the backside) 16. heroe: hero 17. undaunted intrepidity: fearless bravery 18.his bosom ... blow: you could hear a loud noise when his chest (bosom) was hit 19. presently: soon 20. aiming: targeting

4

72


21. dexterously: skilfully 22. belly: stomach 23.two pounds ... proceed: Thwackum had eaten so much (two pounds: one pound: 0.4536 kg) that (whence: from where) when Jones hit him in the stomach there was no noise (hollow: empty) 24. lusty: powerful 25. much more pleasant ... describe: it was more enjoyable and easier to see the fight than to write or read about it 26. the latter: Thwackum 2 7 . t h a t . . . dubious: there was no doubt who would win the fight 28. engaging: fighting

29.for though ... duet: although Thwackum (the pedagogue) had recently been used to beating his students individually (the human instrument: the human body), like a musician who plays on his own, he was still able to join Blifil in beating Jones, as if they were two musicians playing a duet 30.The victory ... numbers: the side which had more people would win the fight 31.on a sudden: suddenly 32. paid their compliments: hit 33.d-n'd: damned: an expression which shows you are angry with someone 34. ROYAL: a battle royal is a noisy confused fight 35. raged: continued 36. laid sprawling: knocked down 37.to apply for quarter: to surrender, to admit defeat 38.happening... the field: he was going through the field with some friends by chance

parson's breast; but he dexterously 2 1 drove down the fist of Jones, so that it r e a c h e d o n l y his b e l l y 2 2 , where two p o u n d s of beef and as m a n y of pudding were then deposited, and whence consequently no hollow sound could proceed 2 3 . Many lusty 2 4 blows, much more pleasant as well as easy

60

to have seen, than to read or describe 25 , were given on both sides: at last a violent fall in which Jones had thrown his knees into Thwackum's breast, so weakened the latter 2 6 , that victory had been n o longer dubious 2 7 , had not Blifil, who had now recovered his strength, again renewed the fight, and, by engaging 2 8 with Jones, given the parson a moment's time to shake

65

his ears, and to regain his breath. And n o w b o t h together attacked our heroe, whose blows did n o t retain that force with which they had fallen at first; so weakened was he by his combat with Thwackum: for though the pedagogue chose rather to play solos on the h u m a n instrument, and had been lately used to those only,

70

yet he still retained enough of his ancient knowledge to perform his part very well in a duet29. T h e victory, a c c o r d i n g to m o d e r n c u s t o m , was like t o be d e c i d e d by n u m b e r s 3 0 , w h e n , o n a sudden 3 1 , a fourth pair of fists appeared in t h e battle, and immediately paid their compliments 3 2 to the parson; and the

75

owner of them at the same time, crying out 'Are not you ashamed, and be d—n'd 3 3 to you, to fall two of you upon one?' T h e battle, w h i c h was of t h e kind, t h a t for d i s t i n c t i o n ' s sake is called ROYAL 34 , now raged 35 with the utmost violence during a few minutes; till Blifil b e i n g a s e c o n d t i m e laid s p r a w l i n g 3 6 b y J o n e s , T h w a c k u m condescended to apply for

quarter 3 7

80

to his new antagonist, who was now

found to be Mr Western himself: for in the heat of the action n o n e of the combatants had recognized him. In fact, that honest squire, happening, in his afternoon's walk with some company, to pass through the field 3 8 where the bloody battle was fought,

85

and having concluded from seeing three men engaged, that two of them must be on a side, he h a s t e n e d 3 9 from his c o m p a n i o n s , and with more gallantry 4 0 t h a n policy 4 1 , espoused 4 2 t h e cause of t h e weaker party. By which generous proceeding 4 3 , he very probably prevented Mr J o n e s from b e c o m i n g a v i c t i m t o t h e w r a t h 4 4 of T h w a c k u m , a n d to t h e p i o u s 4 5

90

friendship which Blifil bore his old master; for besides the disadvantage of such odds 4 6 , J o n e s had not yet sufficiently recovered the former strength of his broken arm 4 7 . This reinforcement, however, soon put an end to the action, and Jones with his ally 4 8 obtained the victory.

39. hastened: left quickly 40. gallantry: courage 41. policy: wisdom, sagacity 42. espoused: supported 43. By which generous proceeding: thanks to his help 44. wrath: anger

45. pious: hypocritical. Blifil seemed to be a perfect, virtuous boy, but he was insincere and calculating 46. odds: probability. In the fight the odds were against Jones winning because he

was up against two opponents 47. broken arm: Jones had broken his arm while rescuing Mr Western's daughter, Sophia, when she fell off her horse 48. ally: Mr Western

Tom Jones - H e n r y Fielding 238

COMPREHENSION 2 What expression does Thwackum use to refer to the lady who is hiding?

6 When Tom was Thwackum's student, why was he passive in all conflicts between them? In what sense did Thwackum, the teacher, attack Tom from the rear?

3 What excuse does Blifil make for getting involved in the fight?

7 Why did no 'hollow sound' emerge from the parson's belly?

4 While Tom is fighting with Blifil what does Thwackum do? Is he concerned about Blifil's well-being?

8 What saved Thwackum from being beaten by Tom?

1 What does Tom Jones refuse to tell Thwackum?

5 How did Thwackum 'win honour' at school and at university?

ANALYSIS

9 Why does Squire Western feel that the parson should be ashamed of himself? TO Apart from the fact that he was fighting against two adversaries, what made Tom Jones's chances of obtaining victory slim?

1 Which narrative mode is used in the text? • Narration of events • Dialogue • Description

8 Find information in the text that suggests that Thwackum:

2 Is the narrator* internal or external to the story? Does the reader see the episode from more than one point of view*?

- is authoritarian; - has a fiery temper; - is gluttonous; - has no concern for others; - inflicts corporal punishment on his students; - has always enjoyed physical combat. Thwackum is a teacher and a parson. Is his behaviour fitting for an educator and a man of God?

3 Find a sentence in which the narrator addresses the reader directly. Find a line in the text where the narrator refers to the art of writing. Who does the pronoun 'our' refer to in line 54? Would you define the relationship between the narrator and the reader as close or distant? Which of the following words would you choose to define the narrator? • Detached • Unobtrusive • Omnipresent • Interfering • Objective • Humorous • Other: 4 Before becoming a novelist Henry Fielding was a successful playwright. What aspect of his novelwriting was clearly influenced by his experience in the theatre? What elements of the passage you have just read would make it suitable for a stage performance? 5 Are the characters in the passage presented through: - their words and actions? - their thoughts and feelings? Is there any evidence in the text that Fielding is interested in the inner worlds of his characters? 6 Which of the following adjectives would you choose to describe Tom? • Arrogant • Heroic • Gallant • Impetuous • Stoic 7 Fielding often plays with the names of his characters. Thwackum is a combination of 'thwack', which means 'to give a hard and noisy blow' and 'um' which means 'them'. Why does Fielding give the character this name?

9 Thwackum personifies hypocrisy, one of the vices that Fielding targets throughout his novel. How would you describe the way in which Fielding attacks Thwackum and what he represents? • Bitter • Sarcastic • Humorous • Effective • Pedantic • Heavy-handed 1 0 Focus on the description of the fight scene (paragraphs 2 - 8 ) . Find where the narrator: - describes the blows as pleasant to see; - compares fighting to playing music; - refers to blows as 'compliments'. Which of the following adjectives best suits the description in your opinion? • Light-Hearted • Violent • Other:

• Solemn • Realistic

• Graphic

1 1 What is the overall tone of the passage? • Satirical • Philosophical • Other:

• Light-hearted • Rational

• Detached

1 2 Fielding described his novel as a 'comic epic in prose'. Can you identify both epic and comic elements in the passage you have read?

239


WRITERS' W O R K S H O P The narrator

In a novel the person who is telling the story is referred to as 'the narrator'. The narrat may be first-person or third-person. • The first-person narrator has a part in the story. He speaks as 'I' and usually talks about himself although he may also narrate a story about other people. • The third-person narrator stands outside the story. He always refers to the characters by name or uses the third-person pronouns 'he', 'she' or 'they'. The third-person narrator may be omniscient or non-omniscient. • The o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t o r knows everything about the fictional world he is describing. He reports on all the characters and events and knows not only what characters do but also their thoughts and motivations. • The non-omniscient narrator tells the story in the third person, but limits himself to what is experienced, thought and felt by a single character or at most by a very limited number of characters in the story. The narrator may also be intrusive or non-intrusive. • The intrusive narrator has opinions about the characters and expresses his views on the personalities or events. • The non-intrusive narrator does not comment or evaluate. He remains impartial and describes without intruding. Referring to the definitions above and the passage you have read, explain why t h e narrator in Henry Fielding's Tom jones is defined as a third-person omniscient intrusive narrator.

OVER T Q Y O U

The intrusive narrator usually openly addresses the reader t o c o m m e n t or evaluate on what is happening in the story. He may summarise past events, anticipate future developments or offer moral generalisations on topics that are related or unrelated to the plot. Read the following extract from Tom jones.

Add an intrusion in which the narrator addresses

the reader directly. Example: Mr Allworthy had been absent a full quarter of a year in London. I regret, reader,

that I

cannot

tell you exactly what he was doing because it was a delicate matter of a private nature. From Tom Jones, Chapter III Mr Allworthy had been absent a full quarter of a year in London, on some very particular business (...) He came to his house very late in the evening and after a short supper with his sister, retired much fatigued to his chamber. Here, having spent some minutes on his knees (...) he was preparing to step into bed, when, upon opening the cloaths, to his great surprise, he beheld an infant wrapt up in some coarse linnen in a sweet and profound sleep, between his sheets. He stood some time lost in astonishment at this sight; but as good nature had always the ascendant in his mind, he soon began to be touched with sentiments of compassion for the little wretch before him.

Thwackum kept discipline in the classroom by beating his students, and in the text you have read Tom is, in s o m e ways, getting his own back on his old teacher. Do you think that corporal punishment might be an effective way of keeping students under control? W h a t do you think are the best ways to maintain discipline in a classroom? Discuss with your classmates.

Writers' Gallery - Henry Fielding


Henry Fielding

was born into an aristocratic family in Somerset, in 1707. He was educated first at Eton, then for two years at the Dutch University of Leyden. A decline in family fortunes obliged him to interrupt his studies and return to London where, in the nine-year period from 1728 to 1737, he wrote over twenty plays. Much of his work was satirical and targeted the leading political figures of the day, exposing political and social corruption. His last play, Love in Several

Masques,

enraged the government to the extent that it introduced the Licencing Act of 1737, according to which all plays had to be

HENRY FIELDING (1707-1754)

submitted for the censorship of the Lord Chamberlain. Career

Fielding decided to stop writing for the theatre and

turned his literary talents to novel-writing. He married a lady of

means and resumed his legal studies, qualifying as a court lawyer in 1740. In his legal work he came into contact with people of all social ranks, and this helped him to see the good and evil in society, which he describes in his novels. In 1744 his wife died and, three years later, in the face of much criticism, he married her former maid. He continued to be successful in his legal career. In 1748 he was made Justice of the Peace for Westminster and the following year London Magistrate. He was seriously concerned about social injustice and judicial corruption, and dedicated much of his time to improving prison conditions and fighting for judicial reform. He and his brother J o h n were responsible for London's first organised police force. Fielding's health was poor, so in 1754 he decided to move to Portugal, where he hoped the more temperate climate would help him recover. After a few months, however, he died and was buried in the English cemetery in Lisbon.

WORKS

Plays

Fielding was a successful playwright and wrote some

notable plays including Tom Thumb: a Tragedy (1730), which

ridicules one of the most popular forms of theatre at the time: the heroic tragedy. Novels

His true talent emerged, however, when he turned his attention to novel-writing. His first

novel is a parody of Samuel Richardson's best selling Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded ( • pp. D65-67). Fielding deplored the sentimentality, hypocrisy and middle-class moralising of Richardson's work. In his novel An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela

Andrews (1741) he depicts Richardson's central

character not as an innocent virtuous girl but as a scheming, devious social climber. His second novel, The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews (1742), tells the story of Pamela's good and modest brother Joseph, who has to defend his virtue from the attacks of his mistress, Lady Booby. In 1747 Fielding began work on his greatest literary achievement: The History of Tom Jones, A Foundling ( • pp. D70-74). Features

of Tom J o n e s

More than any other writer of his time, he saw the vast potential of the

novel as a new literary genre. Several features of his novel mark it out as a clear development of and improvement on the works of Defoe and Richardson: • the plot is no longer a series of episodes or a single story: it involves a large cast of characters, representing various social ranks, and the episodes are interwoven in a structured and organised way;


« «i • each of the novel's eighteen books is prefaced by an introductory chapter in which the reader is reminded that what he is reading is fiction, and instructions are given on how to approach what for contemporary readers was a relatively new literary form; • an

omniscient

third-person

narrator is used to c o m m e n t on the action. The reader is not asked to identify with the protagonists, and the detachment allows him to appreciate the comic episodes; • the story is not used as a vehicle for Puritan moralising. Tom is not, for example, criticised for his numerous sexual encounters. Fielding's belief that man, whatever his financial standing or social background, has a natural inclination towards goodness emerges indirectly from the action in the novel and the warmly h u m a n e manner in which the characters are portrayed. Fielding's classical education and aristocratic

family

distinguished

him

background from

other

novelists of the early eighteenth century, like Defoe and Richardson. He considered the novel to be a 'comic epic in prose', dealing not with heroic actions but with the trivial events of daily life. His final novel Amelia shows his deep concern for social issues. His humour and his innovations in the structure of the novel have earned him the title of 'father of the English comic novel'.

TASK Prepare to answer these questions in no more than 1 0 0 words: a. W h a t were Henry Fielding's most memorable works? b . W h a t are the innovative elements in his novels?

Tristram Shandy - L a u r e n c e Sterne

77

Tristram Shandy by Laurence Sterne

Can you explain the play on words and double meanings in the following sentences? In jail, convicts use cell phones. Santa's helpers are subordinate clauses. When a clock is hungry it goes back four seconds.

INTRODUCTION •

Tristram

Shandy

Math teachers have lots of problems. It is better to love a short girl than not a tall. To some, marriage is a word; to others, a sentence.

is u n i q u e in t h e history of English literature. In a period w h e n t h e

c o n v e n t i o n s for t h e n o v e l were b e i n g laid d o w n b y writers s u c h as Defoe, Fielding a n d R i c h a r d s o n , Laurence S t e r n e c h a l l e n g e d t h o s e c o n v e n t i o n s . U n f i n i s h e d s e n t e n c e s , b l a n k pages, e x u b e r a n t digressions, wordplay, dashes, diagrams and e c c e n t r i c typography are just s o m e of t h e i n n o v a t i v e features of this remarkable work. T h e m o s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y aspect, however, is t h e t i m e structure. S t e r n e does n o t present t h e reader with a c h r o n o l o g i c a l order of events, b u t follows t h e t h o u g h t patterns of t h e m a i n character. This m e a n s t h a t ideas and stories are m i x e d up together in a confused way just as t h e y are in our m i n d s ( • Visual Link D5). THE STORY In simple terms Tristram Shandy is an autobiography

in which Tristram tells the

story of his life from infancy,

and up to early

through adolescence,

manhood.

However, most of the book is a series of digressions which move away from the main story into areas which range from philosophy

and science to religion and

military

strategy. The reader is dragged away from the main story to such an extent that Tristram's birth is only described in Volume III. Tristram goes into great detail in describing his father, Walter, a man of great learning who tends to get lost in convoluted philosophising military fortifications.

and his Uncle Toby ( • Text D16) who is obsessed The book ends in Volume IX with yet another

with

digression

which leaves the reader wondering why the book should finish at that particular

point.

You Shall See the Very Place M S B When he was a soldier,

Uncle Toby was wounded

offers to show Mrs Wadman, Trim is Uncle Toby's

in his private parts. In this text he

whom he likes, where exactly he was wounded.

Corporal

CHARACTERS • Uncle Toby,

Tristram's uncle

servant.

• Mrs Wadman, a

lady Uncle Toby likes

Volume IX, Chapter XX

• Corporal Trim,

Uncle Toby's servant

GLOSSARY

•-

Note: the verbal suffix -erf was commonly spelt -'d

— You shall see the very place, Madam, said my uncle Toby. Mrs Wadman

blush'd1 —

look'd towards the door —

t u r n ' d pale

—

1. blush'd: became red in the face


blush'd slightly 2 again — recovered her natural colour — blush'd worse than ever; which for the sake of 3 the unlearned reader, I translate thus "L—d4! I cannot look at it

10

—

—

What would the world say if I look'd at it? 2. slightly: a bit 3. for the sake of: in order to help 4. L—d: Lord 5. drop down: faint 6. Whilst: while 7. parlour: sitting room 8. garret: small room in the attic 9. prithee: an archaic form of 'please' 10. step directly for it: get it now 11.Montero cap: a hunter's hat 12. lame: disabled 13. quoth: said 14. shews: shows 15.mere words: words alone 16.first springs: beginning 17. mist which hangs upon: fog that surrounds 18. endeavour: try 19. thrice: three times 20. emunctories: nasal passages 21. whereabouts: where 22. blow: injury 23. gave a slight glance: quickly looked at 24. waistband: the top part of his trousers 25.plush breeches: good quality trousers 26. It fell out otherwise: something different happened 27.St Nicolas: a fortification 28. salient: projecting 29. St Roch: a fortification 30. stick a pin: point to, using a pin 31.sensorium: brain 32.Namur: city in Belgium where Uncle Toby fought 33. purchased: bought 34. pasted down: stuck on 35. aid: help 36. lumber: material that has been stored away

I should drop down5, if I look'd at it I wish I could look at it

—

—

15

There can be no sin in looking at it. —I will look at it." Whilst 6 all this was running through Mrs Wadman's

imagination, my

uncle Toby had risen from the sopha, and got to the other side of the parlour7-door, to give Trim an order about it in the passage *

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

—

*

*

— *

20 *

*

*

I believe it is in the garret8, said my uncle

Toby — I saw it there, an' please your honour, this morning, answered Trim — Then prithee 9 , step directly for it 10 , Trim, said my uncle Toby, and bring it into the parlour.

25

The Corporal did not approve of the orders, but most chearfully obey'd them. The first was not an act of his will — the second was; so he put on his Montero cap 11 , and went as fast as his lame 12 knee would let him. My uncle Toby returned into the parlour, and sat himself down again upon the sopha. —

You shall lay your finger upon the place — said my uncle Toby. — I

will not touch it, however,

quoth 13

30

Mrs Wadman to herself.

This requires a second t r a n s l a t i o n : — it shews 14 what little knowledge is got by mere words 15 — we must go up to the first springs 16 . Now in order to clear up the mist which hangs upon 17 these three pages, I must endeavour 18 to be as clear as possible myself. Rub your hands

thrice 19

35

across your foreheads — blow your noses — cleanse

your emunctories 20 — sneeze, my good people! — God bless you — Now give me all the help you can.

Volume IX Chapter XXVI (...)

—

And whereabouts 21 , dear Sir, quoth Mrs Wadman, a little categorically,

did you receive this sad blow 22 ? — In asking this question, Mrs Wadman

40

gave a slight glance 23 towards the waistband 24 of my uncle Toby's red plush breeches 25 , expecting naturally, as the shortest reply to it, that my uncle Toby would lay his fore-finger upon the place — It fell out o t h e r w i s e 2 6 — for my uncle Toby having got his wound before the gate of St Nicolas21, in one of the traverses of the trench, opposite to the salient 2 8 angle the

45

demibastion of St Roch29; he could at any time stick a pin 30 upon the identical spot of ground where he was standing when the stone struck him: this struck instantly upon my uncle Toby's sensorium 31 — and with it, struck his large map of the town and citadel of Namur'2 and its environs, which he had purchased 3 3 and pasted down 3 4 upon a board by the Corporal's

aid 35 ,

during his long illness — it had lain with other military

lumber 3 6 in the garret ever since, and accordingly the Corporal was detached in to the garret to fetch it.

50

Tristram Shandy - L a u r e n c e Sterne

My uncle Toby measured off thirty toises 3 7 , with Mrs Wadman's

scissors,

from the returning angle before the gate of St Nicolas; and with such a vir-

ss

gin modesty laid her finger upon the place, that the goddess of Decency, if then in being — finger

wavering 3 9

if not, 'twas her shade 3 8 — across her eyes —

shook her head, and with a

forbid her to explain the mistake.

37. toises: units of measurement 38.if not ... shade: if she was not there, it was her shadow 39. wavering: shaking

COMPREHENSION 1 The passage revolves around a basic misunderstanding about the word 'place'. When Uncle Toby in line 8 offers to show Mrs Wadman the very place, he intends the place (on a map) where he suffered his injury. What does Mrs Wadman think he means? 2 What is Mrs Wadman's reaction to being shown the place? Is she at all curious? 3 In line 20 Uncle Toby gives Trim an order 'about it'. Is it immediately clear what 'it' refers to? 4 Uncle Toby orders Corporal Trim to 'step directly for it' (line 24). What physical handicap makes 'stepping directly' an act which is 'not of his (Corporal Trim's) will', i.e. something he cannot do even if he wants to?

5 In lines 3 0 - 3 3 the misunderstanding between Uncle Toby and Mrs Wadman continues. What is Mrs Wadman referring to when she says she will not touch 'it'? 6 Uncle Toby suffered his injury 'below the waist'. Where is this made obvious in the text? Does this explain Mrs Wadman's embarrassed reaction to Uncle Toby's suggestion that she should see the place? 7 Where and how was Uncle Toby injured? 8 What was the 'it' (referred to in question 3) that Corporal Trim was sent off to get? 9 Why didn't Mrs Wadman explain her misunderstanding to Uncle Toby?

ANALYSIS 1 The chapter opens with Uncle Toby and Colonel Trim calling upon Mrs Wadman. What do you think the asterisks at the beginning of text represent? • Bad language which is unprintable. • Gestures such as shaking hands, sitting down, etc. II The pleasantries exchanged by the characters. 2 Why does the narrator choose to use asterisks? Because: • what is said would be offensive to the reader. • the initial exchanges between the characters would be of little interest to the reader. • they liven up the page graphically. 3 In which line in the opening paragraph does the narrator refer to the readers? 4 In lines 8-11 the narrator describes Mrs Wadman's reaction to Uncle Toby's proposal, which he then translates into thoughts in lines 1 2 - 1 7 . Link each reaction to a thought.

Reaction Look'd towards the door Turn'd pale Blush'd slightly again Recovered her natural colour Blush'd worse than ever

79

Thought

5 Consider the exchange between Uncle Toby and Corporal Trim in lines 2 0 - 2 9 . Is the complete dialogue reported? What graphical devices does the narrator use to replace the missing information? 6 In lines 3 4 - 3 8 the narrator again addresses the reader. He announces that he is going to 'clear up the mist', implying that he is going to clarify some ideas that may not have been fully understood. He says he must clear himself. What does he invite the reader to do? In what way has the reader 'cleared' himself? Can you explain the play on word 'clear'?

Example:

7 It is not until Chapter XXVI that the misunderstanding about the word 'place' is resolved and the meaning of 'it' is revealed to the reader. How does delaying these revelations affect the text?

Reaction: Mrs Wadman blush'd Thought: L d! I cannot look at it.

• It intensifies the humour. • It builds up expectation.

• It frustrates the reader. • It confuses the reader.

80


8 Which adjective(s) would you choose to define the tone in which the narrator addresses the reader? • Friendly • Detached • Pedantic • Sarcastic • Playful • Serious • Other: 9 Laurence Sterne was influenced by the philosopher John Locke's theory on the associaton of ideas, which holds that man's thoughts are linked together irrationally, without any apparent logical connections. Are there any examples of incomplete, interrupted

ideas or illogical associations in the text that show the Lockean influence in Sterne's writing? 1 0 Laurence Sterne is generally acknowledged as an innovator of the highest originality who pointed the way for twentieth-century writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and Marcel Proust. Like his modern-day counterparts, Sterne transforms his readers from passive recipients to active contributors. In what way is the reader called upon to make an active contribution to the text you have just studied?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P The anti-novel

The term anti-novel refers to novels that break with the traditional conventions of the genre. Anti-novels rely for their effect on the confounding of the reader's expectations by: • the omission or annihilation of traditional elements (character, plot etc.);

I i Kill fits5

•

tf-V' I

• the introduction of innovative elements.

TASK

Laurence Sterne is widely considered to be the father of the English anti-novel. Some of the anti-novel features of his masterpiece Tristram Shandy include: - a non-conventional plot in which the hero of the story is born in the third volume of the book; - an eccentric narrator who, for example, tells the reader to turn back several pages and read a passage a second time; - syntactical, layout and typographical innovations such as unfinished sentences, blank pages and dashes or asterisks which the reader must interpret.

.

Jmk

>'

OVER T O Y O U

Which of the features of the anti-novel can you identify in the passage you have read? An example of a typographical innovation which Sterne used in Tristram Shandy can be seen in the following extract from Volume IX, Chapter 4: Whilst a man is free — cried the Corporal, giving a flourish with his stick thus

—

A thousand of my father's most subtle syllogisms could not have said more for celibacy.

Use a typographical feature to express an idea of your own. For example: I got the ball on the halfway line. I skipped past a midfield player and a defender. There was just the goalkeeper between me and the goal. I ran first to the left, dropped my shoulder, rounded him on the right and stuck the ball into the left hand corner of the goal.

In Tristram Shandy Laurence Sterne broke all the rules that had been established for novel writing. Do you know any form of contemporary comedy (films, TV shows, stand-up comedians) that you would consider unconventional? In what way are they innovative?

Writers' Gallery - Laurence Sterne

aisiia


Laurence Sterne

was born in Ireland of English parents. W h e n he was eleven years old his family settled in Halifax, in the north of England, and he attended the local grammar school. In 1731 Sterne's father died, leaving the family penniless. With the financial help of a generous relative, Sterne succeeded in entering Jesus College, Cambridge, as a sizar (poor student) and received his degree in 1737. He then entered the Anglican church and b e c a m e a vicar in a small parish in Yorkshire. Family

LAURENCE STERNE (1713-1768)

life

In 1 7 4 1 Sterne married Elizabeth Lumley.

However, their family life was not very happy. Despite personal misfortune, Sterne seemed to make the most of his situation. He spent his time playing the violin, reading widely, painting,

socialising with the local gentry and courting the local ladies. He earned a reputation as a preacher and his sermons were eagerly awaited. Writing career

In 1759 he began work on his novel The Life and Opinions of Tristram

Shandy,

Gentleman. The first version of Volumes I and II was rejected, but a revised version of the material was published in 1760. The novel was successful despite the fact that many influential men of letters, including Dr Johnson ( • p. D104), Richardson ( • pp. D65-69) and Goldsmith ( • pp. 38-43), expressed negative opinions. Sterne became a celebrity and was well received by London's fashionable society and invited to court. As a result of his literary success he was offered the curacy of Coxwold in Yorkshire, where he named his home, Shandy Hall. In 1761 he published four more volumes of Tristram Shandy, which again met with great success. He undertook a seven-month tour of France and Italy during 1765, which provided him with material for a second novel, A Sentimental Journey (published in 1768). After his travels he returned to London, where he fell in love with Mrs Eliza Draper, the young wife of an official of the East India Company, for whom he wrote a journal (Letters from Yorick to Eliza), which was published after his death in 1768. Soon after his burial Sterne's body was taken by grave robbers and used for an anatomy lecture in Cambridge. Someone recognised the body, and it was quietly returned to the grave. It is now buried close to Shandy Hall, which has become a museum.

•S^^^HfflPWRI^^^^^H

Tristram Shandy

Sterne's literary reputation is built mainly on

his masterpiece The Life and Opinions Gentleman.

of Tristram

Shandy,

Written in nine volumes, it is unquestionably one of the most original works in the

history of English literature. There is no plot in the conventional sense of the word (the reader has to wait until Volume III for the main protagonist to be born) and there is no clearly identifiable beginning, middle or end to the storyline. Essentially the book is a series of exuberant digressions on subjects as diverse as birth and death, joy and sorrow, wit and folly. The narrator, Tristram, introduces the reader to a series of memorable characters: • Walter, Tristram's father, whose obsession is science; • Uncle Toby, Walter's brother, whose passion is the recreation of military sieges; • Corporal Trim, who shares Toby's love for all things military;

82


• Parson Yorick, the argumentative yet amiable local vicar; • Dr Slop, the incompetent man midwife who delivers Tristam; • Mrs Wadman, the neighbour who wishes to marry Toby. Uncle Toby and Parson Yorick are generally regarded as two of the great comic characters in English literature. The cast of eccentric characters is only one example of originality in Tristram Shandy. Sterne seems to h a v e set o u t to d e l i b e r a t e l y u n d e r m i n e t h e rules for n o v e l w r i t i n g as e s t a b l i s h e d by D e f o e , Richardson and Fielding. Indeed, his work is often referred to as an anti-novel. Other examples of innovation are: • t h e f r a g m e n t e d storyline, in w h i c h t h e s e q u e n c e of events is deliberately disordered. S t e r n e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t this n o n - l i n e a r approach to storytelling was more successful in capturing t h e essence of h u m a n experience; • a new perception of time. Influenced by Locke's Essay concerning Human Understanding, Sterne believed that time as measured by the clock had little relation to time as perceived by the h u m a n mind; • typographical innovations which included blank pages, dots, dashes, passages in foreign languages, chapters reduced to one line and misplaced chapters. Sentimental Journey Sentimental

Journey

Sterne's second and last novel

through France and Italy ( 1 7 6 8 ) is

written in a similar style to Tristam Shandy. In it Sterne uses the character of Parson Yorick, who describes his j o u r n e y t h r o u g h France (he never actually reaches Italy). T h e novel is a parody of t h e travel literature which was popular at the time and, in particular, the work of Tobias Smollet, who is caricatured in the book

C (.''"raws

^

'vCliENOE v J»^;

-'/V//^, sj,,:

as Smelfungus. T h e e x t e n t of Laurence Sterne's creative genius was o n l y truly appreciated after his death. His great skill in creating comic characters influenced a host of later writers, including Charles Dickens ( • Module F). His e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h t h e n o t i o n of t i m e a n d free association of ideas foreshadowed Bergson's theory of 'la duree' and J a m e s Joyce's ( • Module G) 'stream of c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' . He is widely regarded as o n e of the truly outstanding figures in English literature. "'><• CapiiW. IW-« lit m Arr.v a I.JAM .

The title page for an early nineteenth-century edition of A Sentimental Journey.

TASK Prepare a brief report on the life and works of Laurence Sterne.

Puhlish'd by IS. I iufl-h<'8. Sulloll.- Strrrt. and mm/ /"• luiil
ontext Historical and Social Background

Britain 1625-1702 In order to understand the political and social developments in Britain in the seventeenth century, we must first have a clear idea of the religious make-up of the country. The vast majority of the population belonged to one of the following three religious groups: • The Church of England (Anglican Protestants). This was the official state Church as established by Henry VIII during the Reformation. It did not differ greatly from the Roman Catholic Church and had a hierarchical structure governed by archbishops and bishops. To many English people it was a living symbol of their country's independence from what they saw as a corrupt Pope in Rome. • The Roman Catholic Church (Catholics). A sizeable minority did not accept the Reformation and remained Catholic in the hope that the Reformation would be overturned and that their religion would become the religion of state as it had been in the past. • Puritans, Presbyterians and Dissenters. These groups, also known as nonconformists, started to form during the reign of Elizabeth I. They were Protestants who believed that the Reformation had not been radical enough and that the Church of England was still too close to the Roman Catholic Church. They elected their ministers and criticised as undemocratic the hierarchical structure of the other Churches. They had very strict moral principles and believed that the way to salvation lay in a life of hard work and avoidance of all forms of frivolous entertainment. As we shall now see, these religious differences were to have an enormous influence on seventeenth-century Britain. The Tudor m o n a r c h s had made it DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS clear, beyond any doubt, that it was the king or queen who ruled the country and not Parliament. This autocratic attitude was brought to even further lengths by J a m e s I and reached a high point during the reign of Charles I ( 1 6 2 5 - 1 6 4 9 ) , who believed he had a divine right to rule and his acts were answerable only to God. In 1629 Charles even dissolved Parliament and ruled for eleven years without one. 'ing Charles I.

/249 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

King v. Parliament

• Visual Links D1 and D2

The Civil War

The Puritans, however, refused to accept passively the systematic discrimination they were subjected to. The House of Commons gradually became a Puritan stronghold from which opposition to the king was organised. W h e n Charles was forced to reopen Parliament in 1640 to ask for taxes to finance a war in Scotland, Parliament refused to help him and insisted on having more say in the running of the country. They also accused him of not doing enough to suppress Catholics, though his unwillingness to do so may have been because his wife was Catholic. The breaking point between the two sides came when Parliament demanded control of the army (1642). Charles's refusal meant that Civil War was inevitable.

This is an illustration (1658) of Oliver Cromwell standing on Error and Fiction. The three figures on the column on the right are England, Scotland and Ireland.

Oliver Cromwell

A Puritan army, under the command of Oliver Cromwell, was organised to fight against the king's royalist forces, which included lords, nobles and members of the Anglican church. The Puritans were popularly known as 'Roundheads' because they had very short hair while the supporters of Charles were known as 'Cavaliers'. The war ended with a Puritan victory and Charles was executed on June 30th 1649.

The Republic

Cromwell and his followers set about founding a republic, which became known as the Commonwealth. The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished while the country was ruled according to Puritan principles. The new republic's greatest asset was Cromwell, a charismatic political leader and a brilliant military strategist at the head of the efficient 'New Model Army'. His military exploits included the suppression of rebellions in Ireland and Scotland and the defeat of both Holland and Spain. On his death in 1658 there was no one of the same calibre to follow him, so the Commonwealth fell into decline and eventually collapsed in 1660. After twenty years of political strife, the English people were happy to welcome back the monarchy in the form of Charles II, who had lived in exile in France. This period is known as the Restoration because the system of government returned to what it had been before the Cromwellian revolution. Opposition from Catholics and Puritans was suppressed but Charles, mindful of the mistakes his predecessors had made, was careful to consult Parliament before making decisions, and so managed to maintain a peaceful balance of power. The relative tranquillity of Charles' reign, which lasted twenty-five years, was interrupted when J a m e s II ( 1 6 8 5 - 1 6 8 8 ) came to the throne and once again religion was a catalyst for conflict. James was a Catholic and wanted to reestablish Catholicism as the main religion in the land. His policy of appointing Catholics to top government positions was a serious threat to a Protestant

The Restoration

• Visual Link D3

fames II

Historical a n d Social Background

establishment that feared losing power. They found a champion, however, in William III ( 1 6 8 9 - 1 7 0 2 ) , whose Protestant army forced James to flee from England to Ireland. William followed him across the Irish Sea and his victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 marked the definitive end to any Catholic hopes of ever again acceding to the English throne. William's victory became known as the Glorious Revolution because he was the first monarch to officially recognise the constitutional rights of Parliament. The Bill of Rights, an 'Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subjects' (1689) clearly marked the boundaries of the monarch's powers; for example: • no law could be passed or repealed without the approval of Parliament; • all taxation had to be approved by Parliament; • no armed forces could be kept within the kingdom without the consent of Parliament. With the passing of this bill the era of the divine right of kings had finally come to an end. ggspsgiP

IE PAST

THE DIVINE RIGHT OF

8 5 uUffl

William III

The Glorious Revolution The Bill of Rights

,,

-

,,

-v v '

•

KINGS

Read what fames I said about the Divine Right of kings. The kings were, before any Parliaments were holden 1 or laws made; and by them was the land distributed (which at the first was wholly 2 theirs), states erected and forms of government devised3 and established. And it follows of necessity the Kings were the authors and makers of the laws and not the laws of the Kings. And according to these fundamental laws it lies in the power of no Parliament to make any kind of law without his sceptre giving it the force of a law. (...) And as ye 4 see it manifest that the king is over-lord of the whole land, so is he master over every person that inhabiteth the same, having power over the life and death of every one of them (...) A good king will frame 5 all his actions to be according to the law, yet is he not bound thereto 6 but of his good will, and for good example-giving to his subjects. (1598) (...) The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth: for kings are not only God's lieutenants 7 upon earth and sit upon God's throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. In the Scriptures kings are called gods, and so their power after a certain relation is compared to the Divine power. (From a speech to Parliament - 1610) GLOSSARY 1. holden: held 2. wholly: completely

3. devised: planned 4. ye: you 5. frame: shape

6. bound thereto: obliged to do it 7. lieutenants: substitutes

TASK These sentences re-phrase the concepts expressed in the texts above. Put them in the order they appear in the text. The king is the supreme ruler of the land and of all its people. A good ruler will act according to the law not because he has to, but out of good will and to set a good example for his subjects. Parliament cannot make laws unless the king agrees. Monarchs existed before Parliaments and laws were created. Kings are God's representatives on earth and their power derives to them from God.

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THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

TASKS

—

—

1 The seventeenth century was an age of conflict. Match the opponents in columns A and B. A

B

Anglican protestants Kings Cavaliers Oliver Cromwell William III

James II Roundheads

THE ECONOMY AND EVERYDAY LIFE Improved

standard of living

Free time

London

Catholics Parliament Charles 1

2 Find words that match these definitions. a. Religious groups that distanced themselves radically from the Church of Rome. b. Principle stating that the monarch is only answerable to God. c. Republic founded by Cromwell. d. Return of the monarchy. e. Conflict with little bloodshed. f. Document limiting the monarch's powers.

W h a t was life like for the average English person in this century of religious and political conflict? In general, working life was very much as it had been in Tudor times, as eighty percent of the population continued to make a frugal living off the land. In the second half of the century, however, there was a marked improvement in the economy, mainly thanks to newly-created wealth being brought back from the colonies. The way in which spices were used to preserve meat is an example of how colonial expansion improved the quality of life in England. Previous generations only ate fresh meat because they had no way of preserving it and consequently, for long periods during the winter, they were limited to a vegetarian diet. When pepper and other spices were brought back from India and the East, meat was available all year round. How people spent their free time was greatly influenced by the political climate. When the Puritans came to power, all forms of public entertainment were banned and all theatres were closed. The Restoration produced a strong reaction against the moral rigidity of the Commonwealth and people started having fun again. London became a booming theatrical centre, while sports of various kinds were played, including fox hunting and a rudimentary form of football. London continued to be the country's main social, political and economic centre despite two events which greatly disturbed the life of the city. The outbreak of plague in 1 6 6 5 and the Great Fire of 1 6 6 6 decimated the population and destroyed most of the buildings. Gradually the city recovered from these two terrible blows and grew so quickly in the latter years of the century that by 1700 one tenth of the English population lived there. The economic prosperity that characterised this period can be seen in the construction of such public buildings as St Paul's Cathedral, which was started in 1675, the Bank of England (1694) and the Stock Exchange (1698). As we have seen, the e c o n o m i c boom of the second half of the seventeenth century was greatly helped by colonial expansion. This expansion was one facet of an economic policy called Mercantilism that was put into practice by successive governments from the end of the seventeenth century right through the eighteenth century. The acquisition of new colonies was encouraged because they provided cheap raw materials and new markets for goods produced in England.

ENGLAND AND THE REST OF THE WORLD Mercantilism

At war with Holland

In 1652 conflicting interests over control of sea trade led to a series of naval wars with Holland. After two years the Dutch were defeated and no ships challenged the English trade vessels on the seas.

№

m Historical a n d Social B a c k g r o u n d

William Penn (1644-1718), the founder of the state of Pennsylvania, negotiates the sale of land with a group of native Indians.

Expansion was b o t h towards the east and west. Migrations to the New World continued throughout the century. By 1640, the Puritans had started over twelve towns, home to 15,000 people, mainly along the eastern coasts. To the east lay the exotic riches of India. The East India Company, which had been established at the very start of the century, set in motion a highly profitable trade in tea, spices and other goods through the ports of Madras in the west and Bombay in the east. Although very few English people actually settled in India in the seventeenth century, the foundation was laid for colonial expansion in the following centuries. As the eighteenth century dawned, two of England's historic conflicts seemed to have been resolved: • The Church of England, following the failure of the Puritan C o m m o n w e a l t h and the victory of Protestant William over C a t h o l i c James, had established itself firmly as the dominant Church in the land.

Westward

Eastward

expansion

expansion

Summing up

• Parliament had gained power at the expense of the monarchy. William's Bill of Rights, which recognised the central role of Parliament in government, was a f u n d a m e n t a l step in t h e p r o c e s s t h a t e v e n t u a l l y led t o t h e c r e a t i o n of a parliamentary democracy. All in all, the seventeenth century in England, although it was a time of constant religious a n d p o l i t i c a l f i g h t i n g a n d feuding, was an age t h a t stabilised t h e relationships between Church and state, and between Parliament and monarchy, in a way that guaranteed a solid base for future economic and colonial expansion.

TASKS 1 Write sentences about seventeenth-century England. This was the century when ... This was a time when ... From an economic point of view ... From a religious point of view ... From a political point of view ... Despite wars, conflicts, disease and even a Great Fire, ...

2 Prepare a brief talk on the historical background to seventeenth-century English literature. Choose one of the topics below. a. Religion in seventeenth-century Britain b. King v. Parliament c. The Restoration d. Everyday life in the seventeenth century e. England and the rest of the world.

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Britain 1702-1776 rc FROM CONFLICT TO STABILITY

When Queen Anne, the last of the Stuart dynasty, acceded to the throne . „ . , ,. , . 7 '' , , in 1702, Britain was leaving behind a century that had seen it torn apart by religious and political divisions. These divisions having been resolved to a satisfactory degree if not totally, the country could look forward to a new century of relative peace, stability and prosperity.

r

AGRICULTURE

Land

enclosures

For centuries, agriculture had provided e m p l o y m e n t for most of the population. Over the years very little had changed, and in 1700 farmers and peasants still grew crops on small disorganised holdings or raised sheep on common land, open fields that nobody owned but anybody could use. In order to meet t h e ever-increasing demand for wool, the system of land enclosure was intensified. What had previously been common land was split up and fenced off into large farms that were bought by wealthy farmers.These farms, which could rely on new varieties of grass that enabled sheep and cattle to survive the winter, soon became highly efficient and provided the necessary raw material for the booming clothing industry. With wool now being produced in greater quantities than ever, new technologies and efficient labour organisation were needed to transform it quickly into the finished products that an expanding market demanded. To satisfy this demarid small factories were built.

THE START OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Mechanisation

The production process was split up so that every worker did only one specific job. This division of labour increased production dramatically and became accepted procedure in all factories. Along with innovative work practices, mechanisation was the key to success for the newly-born British industrial sector. Automatic looms that could make cloth far more quickly and in far greater quantities than ever before were first invented in the 1760s and marked a giant step forward in the Industrial Revolution. If wool and cloth were the prime sources of wealth during the early years of the Industrial Revolution, coal and iron were the foundation stones on which the revolution was built. Both were in plentiful supply and would provide respectively the energy and the tools for industrial expansion. Both industry and agriculture had met the challenges of a changing world by innovating and modernising. These changes improved the quality of life for many, but others found their lives turned upside-down and struggled to come to terms with a new world. As more and more land was enclosed and c o m m o n land became more scarce, thousands of peasants were forced to find other ways of making a living. Many went to work in the cities, while those who remained in the country often fell into poverty. In order to deal with the increasing number of poor peasants, workhouses were built all over the country. These were grim and often cruel institutions where the destitute were given just enough to eat in return for their labour. The workhouse was to remain a feature of British life right up to and during the nineteenth century.

THE DOWNSIDE OF PROGRESS

Working

conditions

Those who went to the cities did find paid employment, but they had to endure subhuman living and working conditions. Factories had an insatiable need for workers, so children were employed along with men and women. No allowance was given for their age and they had to work the same long hours and endure the same unhealthy environment their parents had to.


Cities found it difficult to cope with the new arrivals. Many families lived in overcrowded slums without any form of sanitation. Some people did not even have beds and slept on sawdust on the floor. It is of little surprise then that, on average, one in four babies died at birth. Despite the constant struggle to make a living in both city and country, the quality of people's lives improved in various ways. Hospitals b e c a m e a feature of most new towns, with the result that life expectancy increased for those who managed to survive birth. Many towns also collected a new tax called 'rates'. This m o n e y was used to improve living conditions and, where it was put to good use, a sense of civic pride developed among the inhabitants. In the country, farmers who had benefited from the agricultural revolution built fine brick houses that made their lives more comfortable and lessened the hardships of winter. Travelling also became easier as more roads were built, while a network of canals was used mainly to transport goods. Two drinks played a big part in everyday life in eighteenth-century Britain: gin and coffee. Drinking alcohol was a way to escape from the drudgery of the working day, so the gin palaces that sprang up in many towns became the favourite haunts of people in search of company and cheap liquor. The social effects of heavy drinking were devastating, however, as families were ruined and town centres were transformed into battlefields for drunken mobs. Coffee, brought in from the colonies, was a more genteel drink than gin. The first coffee house was opened in London in 1652, to be followed by many more in the eighteenth century. They were the favourite meeting places for the middle and upper classes, who exchanged information about politics, literature, business and the affairs of the day.

Living conditions

EVERYDAY LIFE Quality of life

Coffee houses

The voice of the middle classes was to be heard not only in the coffee THE RLSE OF houses but in society at large. They were the people who had become rich THE MIDDLE CLASSES thanks to the agricultural and industrial revolutions, and on whom the economic well-being of Britain increasingly depended. They were the farmers • Visual Link D8

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who had modernised their enclosed lands, the factory owners whose entrepreneurial spirit would transform Britain into the first industrialised country in the world, and the merchants who traded around the world. For centuries, power had rested with the aristocracy and had been handed down from father to son, but in eighteenth-century Britain power became increasingly associated with money, and those who had it became more and more influential in the fields of politics and the arts. Initiative, self-reliance, faith and patriotism were the qualities that helped the middle classes to become the driving force in Britain in the eighteenth and later centuries.

GOVERNMENT

Prime Minister

Tories and Whigs

The House of Hanover

Economic progress, powered by the middle classes, was greatly helped by the stable political climate of the time. The Glorious Revolution ( • p. D85) had limited the power of the monarch in favour of Parliament. This process was consolidated during the eighteenth century and led to the creation of a constitutional monarchy. Under this system the king or queen formally appointed ministers, but they were then answerable to Parliament. The monarch depended on Parliament for his income and could not suspend laws passed by it. The ministers formed a Cabinet that made major policy decisions. Gradually it was felt that one member of the Cabinet should act as leader to coordinate government strategy, and so the post of Prime Minister was created. Sir Robert Walpole, who was a member of the cabinet between 1721 and 1742, is regarded as being the first Prime Minister in British history. Another major development was the establishment of a two-party political system in parliament. The old aristocracy and the Church of England tended to support the Tory party, while the emerging middle classes generally supported the Whigs, who held a majority in parliament for sixty years from the reign of George I. The term 'Tories' is still used to refer to the Conservative party today. While Parliament ran the country, the monarchy remained a powerful symbol of British identity and a link with the past. After the reign of Queen Anne (1702-1714), George I came to the throne and started the dynasty of the House of Hanover, which lasted until 1837. A curious indication of how little the king counted in ruling the country was the fact that George I could not even speak English. Although the first three quarters of the eighteenth century were generally peaceful, parliament had to call out the army periodically to stifle rebellion at home and protect strategic interests abroad. The unification of England and Scotland in 1707 was not universally accepted north of the border. A rebel m o v e m e n t grew and fought for Scottish independence, but it was finally defeated at the battle of Culloden in 1745. Following wars with France and Spain, Canada and Florida in North America, Senegal in Africa and Grenada in the West Indies became British possessions, while the East India Company ( • p. D87) consolidated its monopoly over trade in the East. Although France and Spain did their utmost to thwart British ambitions, the number of colonies continued to grow. They supplied cheap and plentiful supplies of fur, sugar, tea, coffee, tobacco and silk, while Captain James Cook opened new horizons when he became the first white man to set foot in Australia in 1770.

AT HOME AND ABROAD Scotland

Colonial

expansion

Historical and Social Background256uUffl

The first blow to British colonial expansion occurred in 1776, when the THE MAKING OF A WORLD American colonies declared their independence from the mother country POWER ( • p. El 12). The loss of America was indeed a big shock, but it was to prove a minor setback in the economic and social development of the country. The e c o n o m i c growth and relative political stability that characterised the eighteenth century were to have lasting effects. America may have been lost, but the Industrial Revolution, the Agricultural Revolution and the strength of British trade made a solid foundation from which Britain could set its sights on being a major world power.

Ziive, the British nder, is greeted by the eader, Mia /affier; g the British victory at le of Plassey (1757).

TASK Answer these questions. a. What agricultural revolution took place in the eighteenth century? b . How was industrial productivity increased? c. How did the quality of life gradually improve? d. What social class emerged in the eighteenth century?


MECHANISATION This extract is from a petition written by workers in Leeds (a major wool manufacturing England). It appeared in a local newspaper in 1786.

centre in the North of

... the Scribbling-Machines 1 have thrown thousands of our petitioners out of employ 2 , whereby 3 they ... are not able to procure a maintenance for their families, and deprived them of the opportunity of bringing up their children to labour. ... The number of Scribbling-Machines ... being no less than one hundred and seventy ... as each machine will do as much work in twelve hours, as ten men can in that time do by hand ... one machine will do as much work in one day as would otherwise employ twenty men. ... We therefore hope, that the feelings of humanity will lead those who have it in their power to prevent the use of those machines, to give every discouragement they can to what has a tendency so prejudicial to their fellowcreatures. ... But what are our children to do; are they to be brought up in idleness 4 ? Indeed as things are, it is no wonder to hear of so many executions 5 ; for our parts, though we may be thought illiterate men, our conceptions are, that bringing children up to industry, and keeping them employed, is the way to keep them from falling into those crimes, which an idle habit naturally leads to. (...) Signed, on behalf of THOUSANDS, by Joseph Hepworth Thomas Lobley, Robert Wood Thos. Blackburn GLOSSARY 1. ScribblingMachines: automatic wool-making machines 2. employ: work 3. whereby: because of which 4. idleness: lack of activity 5. executions: death penalties

An employer keeps a close eye on his worke in this seventeenthcentury textile mill.

TASK In our automated world we take it for granted that machines and gadgets work for us. Think of one machine, gadget, home appliance or electronic device that is commonly used today. Describe what it does. Then say how long it took and how much work was needed to do the same job in the past.


MAIN EVENTS: The Puritan, Restoration and Augustan Ages 1625-1649 1629 1640 1642-1649 June 30th 1649 1649-1660 1652-1654 1660-1685 1666 1685-1688 1689-1702 1689 1690 1702-1714 1707 1714-1727 1727-1760 1721-1742 1745 1756-1763 1760-1820 1770 1776

Reign of Charles 1 Charles 1 dissolves Parliament and rules for eleven years without one Charles reopens Parliament Civil War Charles 1 executed The Commonwealth War with Holland Reign of Charles II The Great Fire of London Reign of James II Reign of William III The First Bill of Rights The Glorious Revolution Reign of Queen Anne (last of the Stuart dynasty) Unification of Scotland and England Reign of George 1 (first king of the House of Hanover) Reign of George II Sir Robert Walpole becomes first de facto Prime Minister Scottish rebels defeated at the battle of Culloden The Seven Years' War between England and France Reign of George III Captain Cook discovers Australia American Declaration of Independence

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The Literary Background Puritan and Restoration Literature POETRY

The Cavalier poets

The Metaphysical

poets

For a period after the Renaissance, poetry lost its originality and power and generally consisted of poor copies of Elizabethan models. There were, however, some poets who broke with the Elizabethan tradition. They are commonly divided into two groups: the Cavalier poets and the Metaphysical poets. The Cavalier poets defended the monarchy against the Puritans during the reign of Charles I. They included Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew, Robert Lovelace and Sir J o h n Suckling. They did not believe in an overly studious approach to the writing of poetry. They saw the ideal gentleman as being a lover, a soldier, a wit, a musician and a poet, and their poetry reflects their rather light-hearted approach to life. Their poems embodied the spirit of the upper classes before the Puritan Commonwealth. They wrote poetry for occasions such as births, marriages or great parties. They are remembered primarily as the first poets to celebrate the events of everyday life, and as such are the forerunners of an important tradition in English literature. The Metaphysical poets, who included George Herbert, Richard Crashaw and H e n r y V a u g h a n , followed in the tradition of J o h n D o n n e . The features of Metaphysical poetry are: • the use of conceits*: comparisons between objects which at first glance seem to have nothing in common; • the argumentative quality of the love poems, in which the poet tries to persuade his lover to share his point of view; • the dramatic quality of the language, which often seems to be one side of a dialogue between the poet and his lover, or God, or himself; • the wide range of subjects from which the poet draws his imagery. Metaphysical poets used, for example, the areas of the sciences, travel, medicine, alchemy and philosophy to create original imagery. This is in stark contrast with much of Elizabethan poetry which used the stock imagery of the period (birds, flowers, sun, moon, stars); • the use of wit*: wit in the seventeenth century referred to the ability to relate dissimilar ideas, and implied intellectual genius. The Metaphysical poets displayed this form of genius in the use of paradoxes*, conceits* and puns*. The term 'metaphysical', which was used by the literary critic Samuel Johnson ( • p. D104) in the eighteenth century, may be misleading because the poetry did not deal with philosophical speculation but with the themes of religion and love. J o h n s o n , who was not an admirer of this form of poetry, used the word 'metaphysical' to criticise what he considered to be the poets' desire to be original at any cost. He was not alone in his criticism and, in fact, the Metaphysical poets were unpopular throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was not until the beginning of the twentieth century that the admiration of the great modern poet T.S. Eliot helped generate new appreciation for Donne and his followers.

John Donne (1572-1631) Songs and Sonnets

The father of metaphysical poetry was J o h n Donne ( • pp. D2-9). Although he lived in the Elizabethan era, his poems were published posthumously and belong both thematically and stylistically to this period. In Songs and Sonnets Donne deals with the theme of love in a way that strongly contrasts with the Elizabethan tradition. Love is presented as an intensely


intimate and physical experience. The poems are addressed to a very real lover, often the poet's wife. The rhythm of the poems is the rhythm of natural speech and the language is dramatic. Striking and original images called conceits* associate dissimilar ideas, while paradoxes*, epigrams* and puns* are common features. The poet often tries to persuade his lover to share his point of view through poetry which appeals both to the intellect and the emotions. John Donne deals with religious themes in the Holy Sonnets in an equally original way. The poet addresses God in a tone that often borders on the irreverent, and uses the language of physical suffering and love to describe his spiritual crises and devotion.

Holy Sonnets

While some poets fall clearly into the categories of Metaphysical or Cavalier, one of the greatest poets of the era, Andrew Marvell ( • pp. D10-13), combined features of both schools. Marvell's style has the elegant sophistication of the Cavaliers while his use of intense imagery, paradox and wit* is reminiscent of the metaphysicals. Marvell was a prolific prose writer and essayist, but it is for his poems, which were first printed three years after his death, that he is best remembered.

Andrew Marvell (1621-1678)

The greatest seventeenth century poet J o h n Milton ( • pp. D 1 4 - 2 2 ) also defies c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Although some of his greatest works were p u b l i s h e d in t h e Restoration period, Milton belongs in spirit to the Puritan age of Cromwell's Commonwealth, which he supported fervently. He was educated as a Humanist ( • p. C54) and had a thorough knowledge of classical Greek and Latin literature. His masterpiece Paradise Lost (1667) is written in the style of the Aeneid or the Iliad and contains the classic conventions of the epic: elevated subject matter, an invocation to God, a beginning in medias res, and detailed lists of characters. Milton's passion for Greek and Latin made him very fond of long sentences - the very first in Paradise Lost runs to sixteen lines - and both his sentence structure and rich vocabulary are largely Latin-derived. His style and diction greatly influenced later English poetry.

John Milton (1608-1674)

Classical influences can also be seen in the work of J o h n Dryden. The son of a wealthy Puritan family, he received a classical education and had a thorough knowledge of Greek and Latin literature. He was inspired by the Latin poets Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Tibullus and tried to reproduce the balance and clarity of their work in his poetry. He became a master of the heroic couplet* - two r h y m i n g lines of i a m b i c p e n t a m e t e r s - and r h e t o r i c a l devices such as parallelism*, antithesis* and repetition*. His best work is political: Absalom and Achitophel (1681-1682), generally considered to be his greatest poem, was written in support of the court in a period of political crisis.

John Dryden (1631-1700)

Although he is best remembered for his poetry, Dryden also drama and is widely regarded as the father of literary criticism. essays on poetry and theatre, and tried to establish guidelines literature. He exercised a major influence on the poets of the century, in particular Alexander Pope ( • pp. D 2 3 - 2 7 ) .

• Visual Link D4

wrote prose and He wrote several for good taste in early eighteenth

TASK Write a name on each line Father of literary criticism . Father of Metaphysical poetry Wrote Paradise Lost Wrote Songs and Sonnets

Wrote poems combining features of both the Cavalier and the Metaphysical poets Was mainly inspired by Latin poets Wrote Absalom and Achitophel Wrote the Holy Sonnets

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DRAMA Theatres closed

New theatres

Restoration

theatres

• Visual Link D4

Heroic tragedy

The Comedy of Manners

No great dramatists emerged in the immediate post-Shakespearean period. Playwrights continued to write in the Shakespearean style but did not reach the same great literary heights or introduce innovations of any note. In 1642 the Puritans closed the theatres, declaring them improper places for decent people. Theatres remained closed for eighteen years and were not reopened until C h a r l e s II was restored to the t h r o n e in 1 6 6 0 . After the Restoration the frugal, sober and sombre society created by the Puritans was replaced by a more pleasure-seeking and licentious attitude to life. The immoral behaviour of the Court set an example that was readily followed by the upper classes. The king, Charles II, nicknamed 'the Merry Monarch', was a patron of the theatre and during his reign he commissioned the building of two new theatres: Drury Lane (1674) and the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden (1732). Restoration theatres were very different from Elizabethan playhouses ( • pp. C 5 8 - 6 0 ) . They were smaller and indoor. The audience no longer surrounded the stage but sat facing the actors, who did not enter the stage through doors at the back as they had in Elizabethan times, but from the sides. Painted scenery was used to reproduce settings. Performances took place at night: the audience sat in the dark while the stage was illuminated by candles and torches. Female roles, which in the past had been played by young boys, were now played by women.

Christopher Wren built St Paul's Cathedral (1675-1710) on the site of the building that had been destroyed by the Creat Fire of 1666.

The middle and lower classes, who still lived by a strict Puritan moral code, considered theatre-going to be immoral, so drama became a form of entertainment for the upper classes, and theatres became meeting places where socialites displayed their fashionable clothes and discussed the latest gossip. Restoration audiences favoured spectacular productions. Shakespeare's works continued to be performed but changes were often made to the original texts to make the productions more lavish and sensational. The Court had spent almost twenty years in France, and the French influence can be seen in a new type of drama called heroic tragedy, which became popular for a while. Heroic tragedies: • tried to emulate epic poetry; • were mainly about love and valour; the main character was generally a hero whose passionate love conflicted with the demands of honour and his patriotic duty; • were written in rhyming couplets and in an elevated style, both of which made the language extremely artificial. Dryden's All for Love is a good example of this type of drama. It was, however, in a type of play called the C o m e d y o f M a n n e r s that the Restoration found its peculiar excellence. Its main features were: • it reflected the life of the Court, which was portrayed as being immoral, corrupt and licentious but also elegant, witty and intelligent;

The Literary Background 262 97

• its main targets of criticism were middle-class values and ideals, conventions, hypocrisy and above all the institution of marriage. True love was rarely a theme as sex was favoured over feelings; • the dialogues were prose rather than verse. The comic effect was achieved primarily through the wit and sparkle of the dialogue, which was often in the form of 'repartee', a kind of verbal fencing match of witty comments and replies; • in Elizabethan drama comic characters were usually low and humble in origin. In the Comedy of Manners they were aristocratic ladies and gentlemen who were easily recognised by the audience as fashionable members of society; • two new male character types were created: the gallant and the fop. The gallant was usually the hero of the play. He was a witty, elegant, sophisticated yet cynical lover. The fop was a figure of fun, ridiculed for his stupidity and pompous pretentiousness; • the leading female characters generally had no feelings or morals. Their only interests were fashion and breaking their marital vows; • the characters usually had names that captured some aspects of their personality: Scandal, Lady Fidget, Petulant, Mrs Squeamish, Sir Fopling Flutter and Tattle. Although this form of character naming dates back to the Morality plays ( • p. B47), it is important to note that the Comedy of Manners had no moral didactic purpose. These plays were written purely to entertain theatre audiences. While the Comedy of Manners was a distinctly English form of drama, it was clearly influenced by Continental writers and trends. Restoration dramatists learned how to develop characters from the French playwright Moliere ( 1 6 2 2 1673), whose elegant style also became a model to be imitated. The Spanish writer C a l d e r o n de la Barca ( 1 6 0 0 - 1 6 8 1 ) showed them how to organise a complex plot that often involved multiple subplots. The Italian C o m m e d i a dell'Arte provided inspiration for the more farcical elements of the plays. The most outstanding writer of the Comedy of Manners was William Congreve ( • pp. D 3 3 - 3 7 ) . In his masterpiece The Way of the World he eliminated the coarser elements of the genre and pushed its literary limits to new heights of sophistication and refinement.

• Meanwhile, Elsewhere, p. D98

The Comedy of Manners has continued to be a popular form of theatre. In the eighteenth century, playwrights eliminated the indecency but maintained the wit and gaiety. In the early nineteenth century under Queen Victoria it declined, to be revived, however, by Oscar Wilde ( • Module G) at the turn of the century. Since then it has become popular again through the works of both British and American writers.

• Visual Link D5

TASK

William Congreve (1670-1720)

H OP

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MEANWHILE,

ELSEWHERE

LINK TO FRENCH LITERATURE: Moliere English Restoration comedy was greatly influenced by the works of the French playwright and actor Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, better known as Moliere. Like Congreve, he satirised the shortcomings and hypocrisy of his society, but went even further than his English counterpart in pointing out the idiosyncrasies of humanity at large. His comedies, which are still widely produced today, ridicule human vices as exemplified in his characters: Le Tartiiffe (1664) is a religious hypocrite, Le Misanthrope (1666) is antisocial, Le Malade Imaginaire (1673) is a self-centred hypochondriac and the main character in L'Avare (1669), Harpagon, is so greedy that he forces his children into unwanted but lucrative marriages. As well as pointing out the defects of individuals, Moliere also examined the relationships between people. In L'Ecole des Maris (1661), for example, an older husband tries, with disastrous results, to come to terms with his younger wife ( • Milton, p. D21). While Moliere's place is assured in the history of European theatre, he is also remembered every day in the French language because the names of his characters are used to describe a person who has a particular vice, e.g. a hypocrite is a Tartuffe and a miser is a Harpagon.

Le Malade (1673).

Imagine

TASKS 1 Link each person to a quote. Harpagon Tartuffe Le Malade Imaginaire Le Misanthrope The husband in L'Ecole des Maris

'Why did I ever get married?' 'I must have some rare disease.' 'Money makes the world go round.' 'If only everyone was perfect like me. 'Who needs friends anyway?'

2 What modern vices would you ridicule in a play? What name would you give the characters that represent them? For example: A drunkard - Mr Beerall. Choose one of your characters and prepare a fifty-word plot for a play.


The great political and social turmoil of the first half of the seventeenth century was reflected in the prose writing of the time. The burning issues of religion, education, politics and philosophy were the subjects of pamphlets, essays and treatises. The language used in these prose works was heavily influenced by Latin, which was still the principal language of international culture. Sentences were long and complex in structure, vocabulary was Latinate and concepts were frequently repeated. Robert Burton and Sir Thomas Browne are perhaps the two most representative prose writers of the period. Robert Burton wrote The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621), a huge treatise of over half a million words. It is an analysis of the causes, symptoms and cures for melancholy, which was considered an illness at the time. Sir T h o m a s Browne wrote Religio Medici (1642), a spiritual autobiography in which he shows that religion and science can coexist. Although he preferred poetry (he described writing prose as writing with his left hand), J o h n M i l t o n also produced some excellent pamphlets including Areopagitica (1644), a defence of free speech and writing, and Of Education (1664) in which he expresses his opinions on how young people should be educated. All three of these writers were extremely familiar with Latin, and its influence is clear in their works: the sentences are long and c o m p l e x with numerous subordinate clauses which often lead to confusion. The writer who most successfully captured the Puritan spirit is undoubtedly J o h n Bunyan. A firm believer in Parliament, he joined Cromwell's army at the age of sixteen to fight against Charles I. W h e n the army disbanded in 1649 Bunyan returned h o m e to Bedford near London and started preaching. He was self-taught and based most of his learning on the Authorised Version of the Bible, which had been published in 1611. During the Restoration he was imprisoned for twelve years for preaching without a licence. He subsequently spent several spells in prison but finally obtained a licence and c o n t i n u e d preaching until his death in 1688. He started writing his great masterpiece The Pilgrim's Progress, which was published in 1678, during one of his periods in prison. It is a pow-

he first picture in John Bunyan's he Pilgrim's Progress, which he egan to write in 1675.

PROSE

Robert Burton (1577-1640) Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) John Milton (1608-1674)

John Bunyan (1628-1688)

The Pilgrim's Progress


The scientific

revolution

• Visual Link D6

The Royal Society

A new prose style

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) John Locke (1632-1704)

The diary

Samuel Pepys (1633-1703)

• Pieces of the Past, p. D102

John Evelyn (1620-1706)

erful allegory of man's quest for salvation that is widely considered to be one of the greatest works of religious literature of all time and a forerunner to the eighteenth-century novel. It tells the story of the main character, Christian, who travels from the City of Destruction to the City of God, has many adventures and faces many perils on his way. The language is simple and concise and accurately represents the speech of rural people at the time when Bunyan wrote. T h e book's engaging plot, humorous episodes and often ironic tone made it hugely successful in Britain and abroad. The scientific revolution, which took place after the Restoration, also played an important part in creating a new and clear, concise prose style. Charles II was fascinated by science and carried out his own e x p e r i m e n t s in a n a t o m y . Empiricism - the idea that scientific assertions had to be tested by experiment was becoming increasingly important. From 1697 weekly lectures were held in London on astronomy, geometry, medicine, law, divinity and music. These lectures - which strangely for the time were given in English and not Latin attracted some of the great thinkers of the time and prompted the foundation of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge. Interest in experimental science led to the discoveries of such great scientists as Isaac Newton, who demonstrated the laws of gravitation, and Edmund Halley, who published the first star catalogue based on the telescope, and calculated the orbit of many comets, including the comet of 1682 called 'Halley's comet'. The new studies in experimental science needed clear, concise language. English gradually abandoned the long and complex sentence structures which led to ambiguities and obscurities and replaced them with a simpler, more accurate style. The new prose style can be seen in the works of the two great philosophers of the period, Thomas Hobbes and J o h n Locke. Thomas Hobbes, in his work Leviathan (1651), expressed his support for absolute m o n a r c h y as the only form of government that can protect society from the destructive greed of the individual. J o h n Locke supported the opposite viewpoint in his Two Treatises of Government (1690), which greatly influenced the leaders of the American Revolution, and in which he suggested that a parliament elected by the people is the best form of government. Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding ( 1 6 9 0 ) made an important contribution to the development of English empiricism. Both Hobbes and Locke wrote with clarity and economy. The second half of the seventeenth century saw the emergence of a new literary form: the diary. As science started to explore the workings of the human mind, people became more interested in themselves, and started to keep records of their private thoughts and actions in diaries. The most famous diarist of the period was Samuel Pepys. He was an extraordinary man: he founded the Royal Navy, was an outstanding Civil Servant and became President of the Royal Society. It is not, however, the public side of the man that his diary reveals but the intimate details of his private life. He wrote the diary in eleven volumes between 1660 and 1669. He wrote for himself, in a secret code of shorthand, contractions and foreign words, and the texts were only deciphered in 1825. He spoke of the great events of the day such as the Great Plague (1665), the Great Fire (1666), the Dutch Wars (1664) and political intrigues. But it is his frank accounts of everyday life in a wealthy family, written in a simple style and rich in detail and humour, that make his work unique. Pepys's friend J o h n Evelyn, a country gentleman and one of the founders of the Royal Society, also kept a diary. He started writing it when he was only twenty-one

| Pppjl|j^ The Literary Background

The Great Fire of .ondon (1666).

years old and continued for most of his life. He was interested in gardens, travel and life at court. He wrote mostly about places and events and his diary is full of information and scientific observation. Unlike Pepys, he did not include intimate details about his personal life. Indeed, the more detached, impersonal tone suggests that he may have written the diary not purely for personal pleasure but for a possible future audience. Like Pepys', his diary is a valuable historical document. Seventeenth-century English literature will be remembered for the contribution of the Cavalier and Metaphysical poets and, in particular, for the work of J o h n Donne, Andrew Marvell and J o h n Milton. The great theatrical innovation was The Comedy of Manners, which has since become a standard of the English stage. The century's greatest achievement was, however, in prose writing, where the development of a straightforward, concise and accurate prose style provided the foundation on which the great novel writing of the eighteenth century could be built.

Summing up

TASK Choose the correct option. a. Most prose works in the seventeenth century were la] religious pamphlets, philosophical essays and scientific texts. ~b] collections of short stories and didactic novels. b. Prose writers wrote in a simplified form of Latin. ~b~| a Latinate form of English.

c. John Bunyan wrote The Pilgrim's Progress, [a] a humorous novel about the travels of an allegorical character. j~b~l a deeply religious pamphlet written in highly complex Latinised English. d. Samuel Pepys's diary deals with fa] great events and everyday life. fb] the history of The Royal Navy.

101

9

Q [ M

/102


SAMUEL PEPYS'S

DIARY

Samuel Pepys's diary includes interesting comments on the London theatrical scene. '(I went) To the Theatre, where was acted Beggars Bush; it was very well done; and here the first time that ever I saw woman come upon the stage.' (3rd January 1661) 'And here [at the King's Theatre] I sitting behind in a dark place, a lady spit1 backward upon me by a mistake, not seeing me, but after seeing her to be a very pretty lady, I was not troubled at it at all.' (28th January 1661) 'Saw The Scornful2 Lady now done by a woman which makes the play appear much better than ever it did to me.' (12th February 1661) 'To the King's Theatre, where we saw Midsummers Nights Dreame, which I have never seen before, nor shall ever I see in my life. I saw, I confess, some good dancing and some h a n d s o m e women, which was all my pleasure.' (29th September 1662) 'Here [at the King's Theatre] I saw ... Lady Cromwell, when the House began to fill she put on her vizard3, and so kept it on all the play; which of late is become a great fashion among the ladies, which hides their whole face. So to the Exchange, to buy things with my wife; among others, a vizard for herself.' (12th June 1663) 'To the King's House to The Mayd's Tragedy; but vexed 4 all the while with two talking ladies and Sir Charles Sedley, yet pleased to hear their discourse ... And one of the ladies... did sit with her mask on, all the play, and being exceedingly witty as ever I heard woman, did talk most pleasantly with him; but was, I believe, a virtuous woman, and of quality. He would fain 5 know who she was, but she would not tell; yet did give him many pleasant hints 6 of her knowledge of him, by that means setting his brains at work to find out who she was, and did give him leave to use all means to find out who she was but pulling off her mask. He was mighty witty, and she also making sport of him very inoffensively, that a more pleasant rencontre 7 1 never heard. By that means lost the pleasure of the play wholly ...' (18th February 1666) 'After dinner with my wife to the King's House, to see The Mayden Queene, a new play of Dryden's mightily commended 8 for the regularity of it and ... wit; and the truth is, there is a comical part done by Nell... that I never can hope ever to see the like done again by a man or woman ... but so great performance of a comical part was never, I believe, in the world before as Nell doth this, both as a mad girlie and then, most and best of all, when she comes like a young gallant 9 ... It makes me, I confess, admire her.' (2nd March 1667) 'To the King's House, and there, going in, met with [actress] Knepp, and she took us up [to the backstage and room where] Nell was dressing herself... she gave us fruit... But, Lord! to see how they were both painted would make a man mad, and did make me loath 1 0 them; and what base company of men comes among them, and how lewdly11 they talk! ... But to see how Nell cursed 12 , for having so few people in the pit 13 , was pretty; the other house [theatre] carrying away all the people at the new play.' (5th October 1667) GLOSSARY 1. 2. 3. 4.

spit: expelled saliva Scornful: showing contempt vizard: mask vexed: annoyed

5. 6. 7. 8.

fain: willingly hints: suggestions rencontre: unexpected meeting commended: recommended, praised

9. gallant: a fashionable gentleman 10. loath: loathe, feel disgust for 11. lewdly: obscenely 12. cursed: said obscenities 13. pit: the area in front of the stage

TASK Use a red pen to underline comments which apply only to the age when the diary was written (for example: 'the first time that ever I saw woman come upon the stage'). Use a blue pen to underline comments which could equally be used to describe the situation today. Look at the text now: Is there more red or blue?


Augustan Literature The seventeenth century was a period of tumultuous change, witnessing as it did a revolution, a civil war, major parliamentary reform and the emergence of a powerful new middle class. The extravagance of the Renaissance was replaced by Puritan pragmatism and although the Commonwealth failed, Puritan morality became an integral part of the English character. The scientific revolution and rationalist philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, Rene Descartes and J o h n Locke ( • p. D100) spread the idea that reason rather than religion was the key to the understanding of man and the world that surrounds him. It is not surprising, therefore, that the eighteenth century brought with it a general desire for order, clarity and stability. Writers of the period drew inspiration from the Latin poets Virgil, Horace and Ovid who, under the patronage of Emperor Augustus (27 BC-AD 14), created the golden age of classical literature. English writers tried to emulate the Latin poets, and indeed the early and mid-eighteenth century became known as 'the Augustan Age'. The influence of the classical writers is most clearly seen in the poetry of the first half of the century. The poets of the Augustan Age admired the harmony, concision, elegance and technical perfection of classical literature. They tried to adhere to the guidelines for good taste set out in Horace's Ars Poetica, which was widely studied at the time. In it the Roman poet established the basic principles for the writing of poetry. Evidence of the Augustan poets' self-control can be seen in their quest for perfect form. They imitated classical literary genres such as the epic, pastoral, satire* and Pindaric ode*. They paid great a t t e n t i o n to rhyme and metre: iambic pentameters* rhymed in pairs (heroic couplets*) became the standard poetic measure. They sought technical perfection rather than originality. The early eighteenth-century poets believed that the language of poetry should be far removed from everyday speech. They wrote for a cultured upper-class reading public in high poetic diction and Latinate sentence structures. The neo-classical poets, as they came to be called, did not write poetry to express their own feelings. They believed that the poet had a social role: to explore the universal human experience and expose society's evils. Not surprisingly, much of their greatest work came in the form of satire. The greatest poet of the Augustan age was Alexander Pope. When he was just sixteen he wrote his Pastorals, in which he displayed great skill in poetic metre. In 1714 he published his masterpiece, the mock-heroic poem The Rape of the Lock. In this satire of Augustan society he shows his unrivalled skill in the use of the heroic couplet. Most of the work that followed was moral and satirical. The Dunciad (1728) is a satirical attack on the debased moral values of eighteenthcentury society; the Essay on Man and Moral Essays are philosophical verse essays on the human condition. Pope was unquestionably the most popular poet of his day. In the nineteenth century his work was widely criticised as lacking poetic value and depending too heavily on imitation. The great twentieth-century poet and critic T.S. Eliot, however, re-appraised the work of Pope, stating that he preferred the conscious craftsmanship and attention to poetic form of the neo-classicals to the poetry of personal e m o t i o n s , which characterised the R o m a n t i c period of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century ( • Module E).

INTRODUCTION

'The Augustan Age'

POETRY Horace's Ars Poetica

Alexander Pope (1688-1744) • Visual Link D5

103

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PROSE

Journalism

The Tatler

Although the neo-classical poetry of the Augustan Age is still widely admired, the eighteenth century is best remembered for the development of prose-writing. The early part of the century witnessed a dramatic rise in prose output in the form of journalism, essay writing, political satire and pamphleteering. This proliferation of prose-writing can be attributed to a number of factors: • the advancement of printing technology, which made publishing more efficient and cheaper; • the expansion of the school system and the subsequent growth in the number of people who could read and write; • the opening of circulating libraries, which gave people access to newspapers, journals and books; • the growth in the number of middle-class readers. In previous centuries reading had largely been confined to the aristocracy and the upper classes. By the beginning of the eighteenth century the middle classes were better educated and wished to understand the world in which they had become a potent economic and political force; • the increase in the number of women readers. The Puritans considered their wives to be equal partners in marriage, business and spiritual affairs, and encouraged them to read. Time-consuming household tasks such as making bread, candles and clothes were n o longer necessary since most of these commodities could now be bought in shops, and consequently women had more time to dedicate to reading. The new middle-class readership was largely Puritan and showed a distinct preference for factual writing over I fiction (which they regarded to some extent as lying). In response to this taste there T H E was a remarkable proliferation of journalistic writing. S P E C T A T O R , Two great figures stand out in this field in the early part of the century: R i c h a r d № I. T H U R S D A Y , MARCH I, 1 7 1 0 - 1 1 . Steele and Joseph Addison. When Richard Steele started Non fumum ex fulgore, fed exfumo ilare lucem publishing his newspaper Cogitat, ut fpeciofa dehinc miracula promat. The Tatler in 1709, there HOR. Ars Poet. ver. 143. were already several newspaOne with a flafh begins, and endsinfmoke ; pers in circulation containThe other out of fmoke brings glorious light, And (without railing expettation high) ing information about home Surprifes u s with dazzling miracles. R O s co M M O N . and foreign affairs. Steele H A V E obferved, that a Reader feldom perufes understood that the new a book with pleafure, until he knows whether middle-class reader needed the writer of it be a black or a fair man, of a to be entertained as well as mild or choleric difpofition, married or a bachelor, with other particulars of the like nature, that informed, and so he includconduce very much to the right underftanding of ed in his newspaper articles an author. T o gratify this curiofity, which is fo natural to a reader, I defign this paper and my next on fashion, taste, gossip, as prefatory difcourfesto my following writings, and duelling and gambling as -hall give fome account in them of the feveral perfons that are engaged in this work. As the chief well as serious pieces on the VOL. I, f A trouble political issues of the day. Later Steele joined forces The first issue ofThe Spectator (1710).

I


with his old school friend Joseph Addison and together they published a new periodical called The Spectator (1711-1714). Like its predecessor, The Spectator was aimed at a middle-class reading public. However, it contained more essays on literary and moral issues and was less c o n c e r n e d with political news. It was written in clear, simple, almost conversational prose which could be understood by any reasonably educated person. Its appeal was increased by the introduction of a group of fictitious characters representing all walks of life in eighteenth-century England including commerce, the army, the country gentry, the Church and the town. It appeared daily and was immensely popular. Its articles were often the subject of debate in the fashionable coffee houses which had become centres of business transactions and social life. Samuel Johnson also started his literary career as a journalist, making contributions to various publications and eventually publishing his own periodical, The Rambler. A great classicist, J o h n s o n wrote poetry, drama, essays on political and moral matters, biographies and literary criticism of the highest order. However, he is perhaps best remembered for his Dictionary of the English Language (1755), the first attempt to standardise the pronunciation, definitions and meaning of over 40,000 English words. The eighteenth-century novel was, to a large degree, an evolution of the non-fictional prose-writing of the period. Prose fictional works of the previous centuries, based on old legends, ancient battles and chivalrous medieval adventures, had little appeal for the new middle-class readers who wished to read about themselves and the world they lived in. Five towering literary figures Daniel Defoe, Samuel R i c h a r d s o n , H e n r y Fielding, J o n a t h a n Swift and Laurence Sterne - moulded fictional prose into a literary form that appealed to the eighteenth-century reader. In doing so they created the dominant literary genre of the next three centuries: the modern novel. Not surprisingly, many of the early novelists started their literary careers in journalism. Daniel Defoe wrote for several periodicals and started his own newspaper, The Review, before turning to novel-writing at the age of sixty. His first novel, Robinson Crusoe (1719), was loosely based on the real-life experience of a shipwrecked sailor, Alexander Selkirk, and was presented as a true story in diary form told by the hero himself. The fact that it was published as a true story made it more acceptable to middle-class readers, who regarded fiction with suspicion. The hero of the story, Robinson, also had a strong appeal for the new readership as he was a perfect example of the Puritan ideal of a self-made man: an ordinary man who, through hard work and faith in God, overcomes adversity. Robinson Crusoe is generally regarded as the first novel in the English language. Defoe went on to write five more novels, Captain Singleton, Moll Flanders, Colonel Jack, Roxana, Memoirs of a Cavalier and a pseudo-factual account of London during the great plague entitled A Journal of the Plague Year. While Daniel Defoe showed little interest in the feelings and thoughts of his characters, Samuel Richardson's contribution to the development of the novel lies in the attention he paid to his characters' psychological profiles. His most successful novel, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740), tells the story of a young servant girl who, having resisted the amorous advances of her master, wins his heart and eventually marries him. The novel is composed of letters, mostly written by Pamela, and her personal diary of events. The epistolary form was already popular in France but Richardson raised it to new heights. It is, however, in the creation of characters with psychological depth that Richardson

The Spectator

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

THE NOVEL

Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) Robinson Crusoe

Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded

U) il 0 6


Henry Fielding (1707-1754) • Visual Link D5

Tom Jones

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)

shows his greatest skill. His characters are not simply men of action involved in perilous adventures: they have inner worlds of feeling and emotions which Richardson explores with insight and sensitivity. Pamela also shows Richardson's mastery of dialogue, which is presented in the form of long transcriptions of conversations in the letters. Pamela was greatly appreciated by the middle-class readership for its morality and realism, and by eighteenth-century standards it was a runaway best-seller. Richardson published two more novels, both in the epistolary form: Clarissa (1747-1748) and Sir Charles Grandison (1753-1754). Henry Fielding, the son of an aristocratic family, found the moralising in Pamela so offensive that he wrote An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews (1741), an irreverent parody of Richardson's work. Fielding was the first writer to consciously explore and define the new literary genre. Unlike his predecessors, he made no attempt to disguise his work as fact in the form of memoirs or letters. He considered the novel to be a 'comic epic in prose', dealing not with the heroic actions of the classic epic poems but with the unimportant and preferably humorous events of daily life. In 1749, he published what many consider to be his masterpiece, The History of Tom Jones, A Foundling. The novel tells the story of an orphan, Tom Jones, who after many adventures discovers his true identity and marries the lady he loves. Fielding was the first English novelist to create a well-structured complex plot involving many characters drawn from different social classes. His work is innovative and original and he is generally considered to be the father of the English comic novel. While Henry Fielding employed humour to criticise the failings of eighteenthcentury society, Jonathan Swift used hard-hitting and at times bitter satire. Swift, like Defoe, started his career as a journalist. He quickly gained a reputation as a satirist targeting, among other subjects, political corruption and English misrule in Ireland.

A scene from Gulliver's Travels (1996).

1


LINK TO FRENCH LITERATURE:

107

Voltaire

Jonathan Swift stands out among English writers of the eighteenth century as the one who attacked most fiercely the shortcomings of his society and of man in general. Satire was his most powerful weapon, a weapon that was also used to great effect in France by Voltaire. Francois-Marie Arouet (1694-1778), better known as Voltaire, was one of the leading intellectual figures behind the French Enlightenment. He was a great admirer of England and having been exiled there from 1726 to 1729, he wrote the Lettres Philosophiques (1773) which attacked the French monarchy. He was a tireless campaigner against evil, injustice and hypocrisy. In his most popular work, Candide (1759), the hero, a young man called Candide, travels around the world and tries to understand the evils of life. In the following text from Chapter 3 he is caught up in a war between the Bulgarians and the Arabs. Read it and answer the questions.

Chapter 3 Never was anything so gallant, so well accoutred 1 , so brilliant, and so finely disposed as the two armies. The trumpets, fifes 2 , hautboys 3 , drums, and cannon made such harmony as never was heard in Hell itself. The entertainment began by a'discharge 4 of cannon, which, in the twinkling of an eye 5 , laid flat about 6,000 men on each side. The musket 6 bullets swept away, out of the best of all possible worlds, nine or ten thousand scoundrels 7 that infested its surface. The bayonet was next the sufficient reason of the deaths of several thousands. The whole might amount to thirty thousand souls. Candide trembled like a philosopher, and concealed himself as well as he could during this heroic butchery. At length, while the two kings were causing Te Deums 8 to be sung in their camps, Candide took a resolution to go and reason somewhere else upon causes and effects. After passing over heaps of dead or dying men, the first place he came to was a neighbouring village, in the Arabian territories, which had been burned to the ground by the Bulgarians, agreeably to the laws of war. Here lay a number of old men covered with wounds, who beheld 9 their wives dying with their throats cut, and hugging their children to their breasts, all stained 10 with blood. There several young virgins, whose bodies had been ripped 11 open, after they had satisfied the natural necessities of the Bulgarian heroes, breathed their last; while others, half-burned in the flames, begged to be dispatched 12 out of the world. The ground about them was covered with the brains, arms, and legs of dead men. GLOSSARY 1. 2. 3. 4.

accoutred: equipped fifes: small flutes hautboys: oboes discharge: firing

5. 6. 7. 8.

TASK W h o is Voltaire attacking in this p a s s a g e ? Underline t h e words t h a t are ironic.

twinkling of an eye: one second musket: rifle scoundrels: bad and dishonest men Te Deums: religious songs

9. beheld: saw 10. stained: discoloured tl.ripped: torn 12. dispatched: sent

/108


Gulliver's Travels • Visual Link D5

Laurence Sterne (1713-1768) Tristram Shandy

DRAMA Licensing Act: 1737

John Gay (1685-1732)

Oliver Goldsmith (1730-1774)

His great satirical novel, Gulliver's Travels, was published in 1726 and was an immediate success. It has been interpreted at many different levels: as a travel book for children, a biting political satire and an indictment of a society that accepts war and corruption and rejects altruism and reason as a way of life. Perhaps the most innovative work in the new field of novel-writing was done by Laurence Sterne, an Anglican priest who seemed to adhere to none of the rules that had been established for the new genre. His Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1761), ostensibly an autobiography, includes so many digressions that by conventional standards the plot is preposterous. Add to this unfinished sentences, blank pages, pages containing just one word, and idiosyncratic syntax and it is clear that this novel is the work of a very original mind. Sterne seems to suggest that the orderly chronological narration of events which could be found in other novels of the period did not reflect the perception of time and space which exists in the human mind. In his attempt to capture human consciousness, Sterne foreshadows the work of twentieth-century novelists such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and William Faulkner ( • Module G). The eighteenth century was not a particularly interesting period for drama. The Licensing Act of 1737 allowed the Lord Chamberlain to censor theatrical performances, and many talented writers including Henry Fielding turned their attention from drama to the new literary genre of novel-writing. While theatre-goers in the seventeenth century were largely aristocratic, the eighteenthcentury theatre audience was predominantly middle class and dictated new trends: • the seventeenth-century Comedy of Manners ( • pp. D96-97) was rejected for its licentiousness and amorality; • Shakespeare c o n t i n u e d to be performed, but his plays were often cut or transformed to suit the public's taste; • melodramas - unimaginative sentimental pieces with strong didactic elements - became very popular but were of little literary value; • pantomime, a mixture of singing, dancing and knockabout comedy, which was clearly inspired by the Italian Commedia dell'Arte, was also very fashionable. Perhaps the most notable theatrical work of the early part of the century is J o h n Gay's The Beggar's Opera (1727). The play is a combination of prose and sixty-nine songs set to traditional or fashionable melodies of the day. In it Gay makes fun of the fashion for Italian opera and satirises contemporary politics. T/ie Beggar's Opera is generally considered to be the forerunner of the modern musical. Towards the end of the century a more refined version of the Comedy of Manners again became popular. Playwrights such as Oliver Goldsmith in She Stoops to Conquer ( • Text D9) and Richard Brinsley Sheridan in The School for Scandal maintained the witty dialogue of Restoration comedies and excluded the indecent and amoral elements. In the second half of the eighteenth century, the admiration for the classical ideals which had characterised the Augustan Age began to wane: • the grandeur, rationalism and elevated sentiments of the early part of the century gave way to a simpler, more genuine form of expression; • there was a renewed interest in nature and the simple rural life; • in France the influential philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau questioned the importance of reason and exalted man's emotional capacities and imaginative powers. In English literature the earliest evidence of this cultural shift can be seen in the poetry of Thomas Gray and the Graveyard Poets, and in Horace Walpole's Gothic novel, The Castle ofOtranto.

A PERIOD OF TRANSITION


A flier printed to attract people to one of the earliest productions of John Cay's Beggar's Opera.

fis-fxri

a/jusid v t j u v (//ifcA c/ta.rrri e/uL, agtc y entsr tastt/ tn, cfotinoJ t f c / e n t t ) & Monnv,

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w€r tfc i/czm~ onTV .

T h o m a s Gray's literary reputation rests on a handful of poems written in the middle years of the century. One of these poems, Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard ( • Text D7), is generally considered to be his masterpiece. In it the poet walks around a graveyard reflecting on the mortality of the villagers who are buried there. In the final lines the poet considers his own death and composes his epitaph. The sentimental, melancholic introspection of the poem was a clear shift from the neo-classical style, and foreshadowed what was to come during the Romantic period.

Thomas Gray (1716-1771)

Thomas Gray's work inspired a group of poets known as the 'Graveyard Poets'. Like Gray, they found inspiration in graveyards and wrote on the theme of mortality. In 1764, Horace Walpole, a close friend of Gray's, published a novel entitled The Castle of Otranto. This tale tells the story of a family curse and is full of ghosts, demons, torment, images of ruin and decay and violent emotions. Walpole was so unsure of how the public would react to his work that he published it anonymously, claiming that it was a translation of a work by a medieval Italian writer. The novel was, in fact, a great success and gave rise to a new literary genre: the Gothic novel (the word Gothic at the time was synonymous with the wild and barbarous). This genre was further developed by Ann Radcliffe and Mary Shelley in the Romantic period ( • p. E88-95).

The Graveyard Poets Horace Walpole (1717-1797)

The Gothic Novel

TASK Answer these questions. a. Why is the first half of the eighteenth century called 'The Augustan Age'? b . What factors encouraged authors to turn to prose writing?

c. What trends dominated theatrical tastes in the eighteenth century? d. What changes took place on the literary scene in the second half of the century?

109



-[to Art/Science/Mathematics

T h e S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y - An Age o f Discovery The seventeenth century in Europe was an age of research, discovery and i n n o v a t i o n in a wide range of fields. The m a t h e m a t i c i a n Leibnitz ( 1 6 4 6 - 1 7 1 6 ) devised calculus, Galileo ( 1 5 6 4 - 1 6 4 2 ) perfected the telescope, and the philosophers Hobbes ( 1 5 8 8 - 1 6 7 9 ) and Locke (1632-1704) examined how best to organise the state. Britain produced, in particular, a group of scientists, a mathematician and an architect whose work has had a lasting effect on their fields of study. They were: John Napier (1550-1617) mathematician - he invented logarithms. J o h n Ray ( 1 6 2 7 - 1 7 0 5 ) naturalist - he invented a new system of classification for plants. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) physicist, general scientist, Ian Vermeer, The philosopher. Not only did he (c. 1668). formulate Boyle's Law on gas pressure, but he also helped to separate the science of chemistry from alchemy.

Geographer

Robert Hooke ( 1 6 3 5 - 1 7 0 2 ) mathematician, physicist, astronomer and naturalist. Among his many inventions was the first pneumatic pump. Isaac N e w t o n ( 1 6 4 2 - 1 7 2 7 ) m a t h e m a t i c i a n and physicist - he formulated the Law of Gravity and developed calculus independently of Leibnitz. Christopher Wren ( 1 6 3 2 - 1 7 2 3 ) mathematician, astronomer and architect. A leading scientist of his day and president of the Royal Society. He is best remembered for his reconstruction of St Paul's Cathedral after the Great Fire of London (1666).

PROJECT a . Find o u t a s m u c h a s y o u c a n a b o u t t h e w o r k o f o n e of t h e a b o v e m e n . Y o u r r e s e a r c h will b e d o n e in Italian, b u t try t o g e t u s e d t o t a k i n g n o t e s in English. U s e a d i c t i o n a r y t o f i n d t h e t r a n s l a t i o n f o r key w o r d s . b . P r e p a r e a talk in English o n w h a t y o u h a v e r e s e a r c h e d . c . If y o u h a v e t i m e , d o s o m e m o r e r e s e a r c h o n d i s c o v e r i e s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t h a v e b e e n m a d e s i n c e t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y in t h e field y o u h a v e e x a m i n e d .



[ t 0 philosophy/History

The Age o f Reason Robinson Crusoe was a huge best-seller in the eighteenth century because it told the story of a man who, even though he believed in God, used his powers of logic and reasoning to resolve practical problems. He was an heroic figure for an age that wanted to free itself from the superstitions of the past and build a future based on man's ability to understand the world around him and change it. Philosophers in England and France, in particular, developed theories that were to change the political and social histories of their countries. Choose one of the following and do a research project as indicated below ( • Visual Link D6). J o h n Locke (1632-1704) In many ways he was the father of the Age of Reason. Among his many writings were Thoughts concerning Education (1693) on how to bring up young boys and his Letters on Toleration (1689-1704), which defend the right to freedom of religious belief and expression. David Hume (1711-1766) Hume wrote on a wide range of topics, including politics in Political Discourses (1752) and religion in Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779). Montesquieu (1689-1755) In his most influential work, De TEsprit des Lois, he argues against despotism.

A potrait of John Locke by Herman Vereist (16417-1690?).

A potrait of David Hume by lames Tassie (1735-1799).

Montesquieu.

PROJECT Find o u t w h a t t h e m a i n i d e a s a r e in t h e w o r k / w o r k s m e n t i o n e d . Explain w h y t h e s e i d e a s w e r e n e w a n d a b r e a k w i t h t h e p a s t . Explain h o w t h e s e i d e a s i n f l u e n c e d t h e s o c i a l a n d / o r political h i s t o r y o f t h e c o u n t r y .

111

THE ROMANTIC AGE 1776-1837 7 wandered lonely as a cloud, that floats on high o'er vales and hills.' From I Wandered

Lonely as a Cloud b y William Wordsworth

Robert Burns I N T R O D U C T I O N • Robert Burns is Scotland's national poet. He wrote b o t h in standard English and Scottish dialect. His prolific output includes thousands of songs and poems, the best known of which Auld Lang Syne w h i c h is sung all over t h e English-speaking world on New Year's Eve. T h e two that follow deal with love, a favourite t h e m e of Burns, who was famed for his amorous adventures.

In this p o e m Burns is trying to say in t h e m o s t c o n v i n c i n g way possible, 'I will always love you'. Read it a n d say i you think t h a t t h e w o m a n he is writing t o will be c o n v i n c e d .

Text E l

A Red, Red Rose

O My Luve ! 's like a red, red rose, That's newly sprung 2 in June O my Luve's like the melodie That's sweetly play'd in tune. As fair 3 art thou 4 , my bonie lass5, So deep in luve am I; And I will love thee 6 still, my dear, Till a' 7 the seas gang 8 dry. Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear, And the rocks melt wi' 9 the sun: I will love thee still, my Dear, While the sands o' life shall run. And fare thee weel 10 , my only Luve! And fare thee weel, a while 11 And I will come again, my Luve, — • GLOSSARY 1. Luve: love 2. newly sprung: just blossomed 3. fair: beautiful 4. art thou: you are 5. bonie lass: pretty girl 6. thee: you 7. a': all 8. gang: go 9. melt wi': liquefy with 10. fare thee weel: goodbye 11. a while: for the moment 12.Tho': even if

•

Tho' 1 2 it were ten thousand mile!

Alfred Chalon, Girl reading a letter.

10

Robert Burns

3

COMPREHENSION 1

W h o is t h e p o e t a d d r e s s i n g in t h e p o e m ?

2

W h a t is h e a b o u t t o d o ?

3

W h a t is h e telling his love?

ANALYSIS 1

T h e first q u a t r a i n c o n t a i n s t w o similes*.

Analyse

t h e m by filling in this t a b l e .

tenor

common ground

vehicle

M y Luve (line 1 ) m y Luve (line 3 )

2

In t h e s e c o n d a n d third q u a t r a i n s t h e p o e t says t h a t his love is everlasting. Underline t h e striking visual i m a g e s

h e uses t o underline t h e s t r e n g t h of his feelings. 3

T h e t a b l e b e l o w lists s o m e of t h e f e a t u r e s of medieval ballads*.

Tick t h e f e a t u r e s of t h e medieval ballad t h a t y o u

find in this p o e m a n d give e x a m p l e s .

A Red, Red Rose

The medieval ballad - narrates a story w h i c h b e g i n s in medias

tells t h e story of a m a n w h o m u s t leave his lover

res

- leaves t h e m o t i v e s b e h i n d t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s a c t i o n s unexplained - c o n t a i n s f e w descriptive details - is c o m p o s e d in s i m p l e t w o o r f o u r line stanzas - consists o f a l t e r n a t e f o u r a n d t h r e e stress lines - r h y m e s o n t h e s e c o n d a n d t h e fourth line - m a k e s e x t e n s i v e use of repetition - uses s t o c k descriptive p h r a s e s - includes a refrain

4 Find examples of alliteration* and assonance*. 5

H o w w o u l d y o u d e f i n e t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e p o e m ? Simple

• Conversational

• Direct

• Sophisticated

• Artificial

• Other:

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Hyperbole

Hyperbole (Greek for 'overshooter') is the use of exaggeration to draw attention to or u n d e r l i n e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of a particular s t a t e m e n t . It is o f t e n used to p r o v o k e a reaction, or for serious or comic effect. Perhaps the most famous example of hyperbole in English literature is when Christopher Marlowe's hero Doctor Faustus

( • pp. C 2 - 7 )

asks of Helen of Troy, 'Is this the face that launched a thousand ships ...?' Hyperbole is c o m m o n l y used in everyday speech: I'd give my right arm for a slice of pizza. A type of hyperbole in which the exaggeration is magnified so greatly that it refers to an impossibility is called an a d y n a t o n (from Greek a, 'without' and dynasthai, TASK OVER T O Y O U

Find t w o e x a m p l e s of a d y n a t o n in t h e p o e m A Red, Red

'to be able').

Rose.

C r e a t e y o u r o w n s e n t e n c e s using h y p e r b o l e o r a d y n a t o n .

Think of a love p o e m in English or into y o u r o w n l a n g u a g e y o u like a n d read it aloud t o t h e rest of t h e class.

4

THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

A kiss c a n m e a n d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s in d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s a n d c u l t u r e s . It c a n b e a sign of a f f e c t i o n or a s i m p l e g r e e t i n g . Read t h e following p o e m and say if you can associate with t h e feelings t h a t this particular kiss expresses.

o

E Humid Seal of Soft Affections Humid seal1 of soft affections, Tenderest pledge2 of future bliss3, Dearest tie of young connections, Love's first snowdrop, virgin kiss! Speaking silence, dumb 4 confession,

5

Passion's birth, and infant's play, Dove-like fondness 5 , chaste concession, Glowing 6 dawn of future day! - • GLOSSARY X. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

seal: mark pledge: promise bliss: happiness dumb: mute Dove-like fondness: pure affection Glowing: bright Sorrowing joy: joy that gives pain Lingering: not wanting to separate thine: yours

Sorrowing joy 7 , Adieu's last action, (Lingering8 lips must now disjoin),

10

What words can ever speak affection So thrilling and sincere as thine 9 !

The Kiss by Francesco Hayez (1867).

•

COMPREHENSION: 1

Circle t h e words in t h e first quatrain t h a t s u g g e s t

t h a t a kiss f o r m s a b o n d b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e . 2

Underline t h e phrases in t h e s e c o n d a n d third

3 W h i c h phrases in t h e t e x t would y o u associate with a relationship t h a t is in its early s t a g e s ? 4

W h i c h phrase(s) s u g g e s t ( s ) :

quatrains t h a t c o n v e y t h e idea t h a t kissing is a form of

a) h o p e

b) innocence

communication.

d) sadness

e) playfulness?

c ) affection/tenderness

ANALYSIS 1

T h e p o e m is very musical. Work out t h e

scheme*.

rhyming

Is it regular?

a . Listen t o t h e p o e m . Is t h e rhythm iambic*

b. Find e x a m p l e s of

c. W h a t is t h e d o m i n a n t c o n s o n a n t sound in t h e (an

p o e m ? D o you find it appropriate for a p o e m

unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable) or trochaic*

alliteration*.

a b o u t kissing?

(a stressed syllable followed by an

unstressed syllable)?

2

Find e x a m p l e s of oxymorons*

in t h e p o e m .

Think of names of songs or lines from songs where 'kiss' is used, and make a list on the board.

Writers' Gallery - Robert Burns

5g

illiSiSllli

WRITERS'

GALLER Robert Burns was b o r n in Scotland in 1759, the eldest

of seven c h i l d r e n . Although t h e family often had f i n a n c i a l difficulties, Burns received a good education and was well-read. A renowned lady's man from a young age, he wrote his first poems in praise of women when he was just fifteen years old. His m a n y casual r e l a t i o n s h i p s resulted in t h e birth of several illegitimate children and a series of legal actions. To avoid these legal difficulties he decided to leave Scotland and emigrate to the West Indies. However, just as he was about to leave, his first book, Poems,

ROBERT BURNS (1759-1796)

Chiefly

in the Scottish

Dialect,

was accepted for

publication and was an immediate best-seller. Burns decided to stay in Scotland and moved to Edinburgh, where he became a national celebrity. The second edition of his poems sold 3 , 0 0 0

copies, an enormous number by the standards of the day. The following year he married the woman with whom he had already had four children (and would have five more) and started to work on a c o l l e c t i o n of traditional Scottish folk songs w h i c h eventually ran to six volumes, The Scots Musical Museum. The collection included 160 songs by Burns himself, including the world-famous Auld Lang Syne (Old Times Past) and the poem A Red, Red Rose. Fame did not, however, bring a reliable income and Burns was obliged to take a job as a tax collector. Nevertheless, he continued transcribing traditional folk songs and writing songs. He had written 114 songs for his new book when he died, aged thirty-seven. Such was his popularity that over 10,000 people lined the streets on the day of his burial and Scots all over the world still celebrate the birth of their national poet on 25th January.

WORKS

For many people, Burns's work epitomises the romance and beauty of Scotland. In his poems he sings with great sincerity of the simple

joys of ordinary people, and the virtues of friendship, compassion and domestic life. He is at his best in the poems which celebrate the things he loved, especially women and drink, or those which express his love for the beauty of his native countryside. His passionate love for its country and its traditions have made him a symbol of national identity. Of his 368 songs the most famous are Scots, Wha Hae (1793), the rallying cry of Bruce to his men at Bannockburn and Auld Lang Syne, a sweet melancholic song about friendship. Some of Burns's songs have been set to music by great composers such as Mendelssohn, Schumann, Haydn, Shostakovich and Beethoven.

TASK Write a s u m m a r y of Burns's life a n d works in t h e f o l l o w i n g o r d e r : - family b a c k g r o u n d - difficulties in private life - s u c c e s s as a p o e t - m a i n t h e m e s in his p o e m s - Scottish nationalism a n d tradition

m THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

4

A kiss c a n m e a n d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s in d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s a n d c u l t u r e s . It c a n b e a sign of a f f e c t i o n o r a s i m p l e g r e e t i n g . Read t h e following p o e m a n d say if y o u can associate with t h e feelings t h a t this particular kiss expresses.

Q

—

GLOSSARY

•

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

•

seal: mark pledge: promise bliss: happiness dumb: mute Dove-like fondness: pure affection Glowing: bright Sorrowing joy: joy that gives pain Lingering: not wanting to separate thine: yours

COMPREHENSION 1

Circle t h e words in t h e first quatrain t h a t s u g g e s t

t h a t a kiss f o r m s a b o n d b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e . 2

Underline t h e phrases in t h e s e c o n d a n d third

3 W h i c h phrases in t h e t e x t would you associate with a relationship t h a t is in its early s t a g e s ? 4

W h i c h phrase(s) s u g g e s t ( s ) :

quatrains t h a t c o n v e y t h e idea t h a t kissing is a form of

a) h o p e

b) innocence

communication.

d) sadness

e ) playfulness?

c ) affection/tenderness

ANALYSIS 1 T h e p o e m is very musical. Work o u t t h e scheme*.

rhyming

Is it regular?

a. Listen t o t h e p o e m . Is t h e rhythm iambic*

b. Find e x a m p l e s of

c. W h a t is t h e d o m i n a n t c o n s o n a n t s o u n d in t h e (an

p o e m ? Do you find it appropriate for a p o e m

unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable) or trochaic*

alliteration*.

a b o u t kissing?

(a stressed syllable followed by an

unstressed syllable)?

2

Find e x a m p l e s of oxymorons*

in t h e p o e m .

H Think of names of songs or lines from songs where 'kiss' is used, and make a list on the board.

Writers' Gallery - Robert Burns

P

H

H

I

WRITERS'

GALLERY Robert Burns was born in Scotland in 1759, the eldest

of seven children. Although the family often had financial difficulties, Burns received a good education and was well-read. A renowned lady's man from a young age, he wrote his first poems in praise of women when he was just fifteen years old. His m a n y casual relationships resulted in the birth of several illegitimate children and a series of legal actions. To avoid these legal difficulties he decided to leave Scotland and emigrate to the West Indies. However, just as he was about to leave, his first book, Poems,

ROBERT BURNS (1759-1796)

Chiefly

in the Scottish

Dialect,

was accepted for

publication and was an immediate best-seller. Burns decided to stay in Scotland and moved to Edinburgh, where he became a national celebrity. The second edition of his poems sold 3 , 0 0 0

copies, an enormous number by the standards of the day. The following year he married the woman with whom he had already had four children (and would have five more) and started to work on a collection of traditional Scottish folk songs which eventually ran to six volumes, The Scots Musical Museum. The collection included 160 songs by Burns himself, including the world-famous Auld Lang Syne (Old Times Past) and the poem A Red, Red Rose. Fame did not, however, bring a reliable income and Burns was obliged to take a job as a tax collector. Nevertheless, he continued transcribing traditional folk songs and writing songs. He had written 114 songs for his new book when he died, aged thirty-seven. Such was his popularity that over 10,000 people lined the streets on the day of his burial and Scots all over the world still celebrate the birth of their national poet on 25 th January.

WORKS

For many people, Burns's work epitomises the romance and beauty of Scotland. In his poems he sings with great sincerity of the simple

joys of ordinary people, and the virtues of friendship, compassion and domestic life. He is at his best in the poems which celebrate the things he loved, especially women and drink, or those which express his love for the beauty of his native countryside. His passionate love for its country and its traditions have made him a symbol of national identity. Of his 368 songs the most famous are Scots, Wha Hae (1793), the rallying cry of Bruce to his men at Bannockburn and Auld Lang Syne, a sweet melancholic song about friendship. Some of Burns's songs have been set to music by great composers such as Mendelssohn, Schumann, Haydn, Shostakovich and Beethoven.

TASK Write a s u m m a r y of Burns's life a n d works in t h e following o r d e r : - family b a c k g r o u n d - difficulties in private life - s u c c e s s as a p o e t - main t h e m e s in his p o e m s - Scottish nationalism a n d tradition

,£

6


William Blake I N T R O D U C T I O N • William Blake was a visionary. He did not like the rational, materialistic world arou him, but dreamed of a wprld where imagination and feelings would be central to people's lives. In the th poems that follow he envisages a world where the colour of a person's skin will be irrelevant, and presents with two very contrasting images of God ( • Visual Link E5).

Living in a society w h e r e t h e colour of your skin is different from t h a t of nearly e v e r y b o d y else's a r o u n d you c a n c a u s e p r o b l e m s for a person in today's world. W h e n Blake w a s writing - t w o hundred years a g o - t h e s e p r o b l e m s w e r e a c c e n t u a t e d b e c a u s e societies w e r e less multicultural t h a n t h e y are today. In t h e p o e m you are g o i n g t o read, a black boy, with t h e help of his m o t h e r , tries t o find a way t o t e a r d o w n t h e barriers t h a t have b e e n built b e t w e e n him a n d white children. W h a t solution d o e s he c o m e up with?

Songs of Innocence Q m s m The Little Black Boy My mother bore 1 me in the southern 2 wild And I am black, but O! my soul is white; White as an angel is the English child: But I am black as if bereav'd 3 of light. My mother taught me underneath a tree

5

And sitting down before the heat of day, She took me on her lap 4 and kissed me, GLOSSARY 1. bore: gave birth 2. southern: a country in the southern hemisphere 3. bereav'd: deprived, without 4. lap: the upper part of your legs when you are sitting down 5. a little space: for a short time 6. to bear: to stand, to put up with 7. beams: shining lines of light from the sun 8. shady: not in the sun 9. grove: small wood 10. love and care: the person I love and look after

And pointing to the east began to say. Look on the rising sun: there God does live And gives his light, and gives his heat away.

10

And flowers and trees and beasts and men receive Comfort in morning joy in the noon day. And we are put on earth a little space 5 , That we may learn to bear 6 the beams 7 of love And these black bodies and this sun-burnt face

15

Is but a cloud, and like a shady 8 grove9. For when our souls have learn'd the heat to bear The cloud will vanish we shall hear his voice. Saying: come out from the grove, my love and care 10 , And round my golden tent like lambs rejoice.

20

f William Blake

T h u s 1 1 did m y m o t h e r say a n d kissed m e , A n d t h u s I s a y t o 'little E n g l i s h b o y ;

IX.Thus: in this way X2.When I ... free: when he no longer has a white cloud and 1 no longer have a black one X3.joy: rejoice X4. shade: protect him by blocking the sun X5.stroke: caress

W h e n I f r o m black and he f r o m white cloud free12, A n d r o u n d t h e t e n t o f G o d like L a m b s w e j o y 1 3 : I'll s h a d e 1 4 h i m f r o m t h e h e a t till h e c a n b e a r ,

25

To lean in j o y u p o n our father's knee. A n d t h e n I'll s t a n d a n d s t r o k e 1 5 h i s s i l v e r hair, And b e like h i m a n d h e will t h e n love m e .

COMPREHENSION 1 W h a t c o l o u r d o e s t h e black b o y believe his soul is? 2

W h a t d o e s he c o m p a r e t h e English child t o in line 3 ?

3 W h e r e , a c c o r d i n g to t h e black boy's m o t h e r , d o e s C o d live? 4 5

W h a t d o e s C o d give to t h e natural world and m a n ? W h y are w e put on earth, a c c o r d i n g to t h e black

6

W h a t d o e s s h e c o m p a r e their 'black b o d i e s ' a n d

'sun-burnt f a c e ' t o in t h e fourth stanza? 7

W h a t h a p p e n s w h e n p e o p l e die, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

black boy's m o t h e r ? 8

W h a t will t h e black b o y d o w h e n he and t h e

English b o y leave their ' c l o u d s ' ? 9

W h e n will t h e English boy love t h e black b o y ?

1 T h e p o e m is built a r o u n d a series of contrasts,

3

How would you define t h e relationship b e t w e e n

a. Put t h e following t e r m s from t h e p o e m into t h e

t h e black b o y and his m o t h e r ? justify your answer by

boy's m o t h e r ?

ANALYSIS referring t o t h e text.

appropriate c o l u m n , black

white

• Loving

black b o d i e s

sun-burnt f a c e

• Formal

• Simple

white a n g e l

shady grove

• Uncivilised

• Other:

black cloud

w h i t e cloud

4

shade

silver hair

with t h e sun.

brightness

darkness

• Detached

In t h e third stanza t h e boy's m o t h e r associates G o d

a. W h a t kind of G o d d o e s she d e p i c t ? Refer t o t h e t e x t in your answer. • A loving C o d • A G o d of mercy • A G o d of p u n i s h m e n t • A G o d of justice

b. Which c o l u m n refers t o t h e English b o y a n d which c o l u m n refers t o t h e black b o y ?

• Other: b . W h i c h line s u g g e s t s t h a t G o d views m a n as part of nature?

2 T h e black b o y is clearly aware t h a t t h e c o l o u r of his skin makes him different.

5

a. Which line in t h e first stanza conveys t h e idea t h a t

m e a n i n g of life t o her son. Does she view life as a

he is envious of t h e English child? b. Which lines s u g g e s t t h a t t h e black b o y is u n h a p p y with t h e colour of his skin?

In t h e fourth stanza t h e boy's m o t h e r explains t h e

joyous e x p e r i e n c e , or as a learning e x p e r i e n c e , or as an e x p e r i e n c e of hardship a n d suffering? Refer t o t h e t e x t in y o u r answer.

7


6

W h i c h i m a g e in t h e fifth stanza conveys t h e idea of

7

Although h e is a victim of discrimination, t h e little

black b o y s e e m s t o hold n o hatred for t h e English boy. Find e v i d e n c e in t h e last stanza of his willingness t o help t h e English boy. 8

9 T h e speaker in t h e p o e m is a little child. In part of t h e p o e m he speaks directly t o t h e reader, and in t h e

G o d as a s h e p h e r d ?

Focus on t h e f i n a l j i n e of t h e p o e m . T h e little black

boy is already resigned t o t h e fact t h a t he will n o t

rest he reports w h a t his m o t h e r says. In his poetry Blake often represents t h e s p e e c h of children by linking ideas with t h e simple c o n j u n c t i o n ' a n d ' . a. Find e v i d e n c e of t h e use of this t e c h n i q u e in t h e poem. b . Focus on lines 21 a n d 2 2 . Can you identify n o n standard usage of g r a m m a r a n d syntax? W h a t d o e s

receive t h e love of t h e English b o y in this life. He h o p e s t h a t w h e n he dies he will b e like t h e English boy, w h o will t h e n love him. a. Which adjectives would you c h o o s e to describe t h e little black b o y ?

this s u g g e s t a b o u t t h e person w h o is s p e a k i n g ? 10

Listen again to t h e recording of t h e p o e m .

Identify t h e rhyming s c h e m e . How would you define t h e rhythm of t h e p o e m ?

• Naive

• Soft a n d relaxing

• Self-loathing

• Prejudiced

Does it suit t h e c o n t e n t of t h e p o e m ?

• Victimised

• Innocent

• Loving

• Harsh and aggressive

• Other: b . In t h e title of t h e p o e m Blake underlines t h e f a c t t h a t t h e b o y is 'little'. How d o e s this affect your response t o t h e p o e m ?

LINK

[ to the world of music

Afro-American folksongs o r worksongs w e r e s o n g s t h a t w e r e sung by slaves in t h e British colonies b e f o r e slavery w a s abolished. At t h e t i m e he w r o t e The Little Black Boy, William Blake was deeply involved in t h e abolitionist m o v e m e n t . Read t h e folksong. Can you s e e any similarities b e t w e e n h o w t h e little black b o y in Blake's p o e m views t h e present a n d t h e future, a n d h o w t h e y are represented in t h e s o n g ? I want to go h o m e

"Dere'V no rain to wet you, O, yes, I want to go home. Dere's no sun to burn you, O, yes, I want to go home; O, push along, believers, O, yes, &c.2 Dere's no hard trials, 0, yes, &c. Dere's no whips a-crackin', O, yes, &c. My brudder on de wayside, O, yes, &c. O, push along, my brudder, O, yes, &c. Where dere's no stormy weather, O, yes, &c. Dere's no tribulation, 0 . yes, &c." GLOSSARY 1. Dere: there 2. Sc.: etc.

William Blake

f

Today w e a c c e p t it as natural t h a t t h e r e are m a n y theories, b o t h scientific and religious, t o explain h o w t h e world w a s m a d e . William Blake, like m o s t of his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , believed t h a t G o d m a d e t h e world. But w h a t is G o d really like? Here is t h e first of Blake's two, very different, depictions of G o d .

The Lamb H g U

Q

Little Lamb who made thee 1 ? Dost thou 2 know who made thee? Gave thee life & bid thee feed 3 . By the stream & o'er the mead 4 ; Gave thee clothing of delight, Softest clothing

wooly 5

5

bright;

Gave thee such a tender voice, Making all the vales 6 rejoice! Little Lamb who made thee? Dost thou know who made thee?

10

Little Lamb I'll tell thee, Little Lamb I'll tell thee! He is called by thy 7 name, For he calls himself a Lamb: He is meek 8 & he is mild,

15

He became a little child: I a child and thou a lamb, We are called by his name. Little Lamb God bless thee. Little Lamb God bless thee.

20

GLOSSARY 1. 2. 3. 4.

thee: you Dost thou: do you bid thee feed: told you to eat o'er the mead: over the meadow, field

5. 6. 7. 8.

wooly: woolly vales: valleys thy: your meek: very quiet and gentle

William Blake, The Lamb (1789).

COMPREHENSION 1 W h o is t h e p o e t addressing? W h a t question d o e s he ask t h e a d d r e s s e e ? 2 W h a t gifts has t h e Creator given t h e l a m b ? 3

Underline t h e words in t h e first stanza t h a t refer to

where t h e l a m b lives.

4

W h o is t h e p o e t referring t o as 'He' in line 1 3 ?

5

In line 1 4 t h e p o e t says t h a t t h e Creator calls himself

a ' L a m b ' . Can you explain this biblical reference? 6

W h a t d o e s t h e p o e t m e a n w h e n he says in line 1 6

t h a t t h e Creator ' b e c a m e a little child'?

9

0


ANALYSIS 1

T h e p o e m is f o r m e d b y a q u e s t i o n a n d an answer.

6

How w o u l d y o u d e s c r i b e t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e

In w h i c h lines is t h e q u e s t i o n p o s e d a n d in w h i c h lines

poem?

is it a n s w e r e d ?

• Sophisticated

• Refined

• Childlike

• Simple

• Poetic

• Scientific

2

Find descriptive details in t h e first s t a n z a t h a t

a p p e a l t o t h e reader's:

- sight: By the stream & o'er the mead - touch:

A m o o d of g e n t l e h a p p i n e s s is c r e a t e d in t h e first

s t a n z a . Underline t h e w o r d s t h a t c o n v e y this a t m o s p h e r e . W h a t kind of w o r l d is d e p i c t e d in t h e poem? 4

the theme? 7

- hearing: 3

In w h a t w a y d o e s t h e diction of t h e p o e m reinforce

a . Is t h e r h y m i n g s c h e m e regular? b . Find e x a m p l e s of alliteration* c. Find e x a m p l e s of assonance*

in t h e p o e m .

d . W h a t are t h e prevailing c o n s o n a n t a n d vowel s o u n d s ? W o u l d y o u c o n s i d e r t h e m t o b e harsh o r

b e t w e e n t h e Creator, t h e l a m b a n d t h e p o e t as a child.

gentle?

a . In w h i c h lines are t h e s e links m a d e ?

Listen t o t h e r e c o r d i n g a g a i n . W h i c h of t h e

b . W h a t qualities d o t h e Creator, l a m b a n d child

following is t h e p r e d o m i n a n t m e t r e ?

(poet) share?

• Iambic* • Trochaic* • Anapestic*

c. W h a t d o e s t h e Creator, w h o b e c a m e t h e child Jesus, h a v e in c o m m o n with l a m b s ? 5

in t h e p o e m .

E x a m p l e : Little Lamb

Example: By the stream & o'er the mead.

In t h e s e c o n d stanza t h e p o e t establishes a link

W h i c h of t h e following w o u l d y o u c o n s i d e r t o b e

t h e m a i n theme*

E x a m i n e t h e musical f e a t u r e s of t h e p o e m .

Is t h e r h y t h m of t h e p o e m s t r o n g a n d regular or

of t h e p o e m ?

• T h e i n n o c e n c e a n d j o y of t h e l a m b a n d c h i l d h o o d reflect t h e true n a t u r e of G o d . • G o d has c r e a t e d m a n y w o n d e r f u l t h i n g s , including l a m b s a n d children. • If m a n lives in c l o s e c o n t a c t with n a t u r e , h e b e c o m e s m o r e godlike. • M a n c a n only truly e x p e r i e n c e G o d t h r o u g h nature. • G o d is n o t r e s p o n s i b l e for all t h e evil t h a t exists in t h e world. Evil is t h e result of m a n ' s c o r r u p t i o n .

w e a k a n d irregular? f.

Underline e x a m p l e s of repetition*

in t h e p o e m .

Repetition a n d a s t r o n g t r o c h a i c r h y t h m p a t t e r n are typical o f nursery r h y m e s a n d prayers. In w h a t w a y is it a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t Blake's p o e m should r e m i n d t h e r e a d e r b o t h of a nursery r h y m e a n d a prayer?

f William Blake 11

Is G o d always kind and g e n t l e a n d helpful? Read this p o e m and find o u t w h a t Blake thinks.

Songs of Experience The Tyger

EH

Q

Tyger1 Tyger, burning bright, In the forests of the night; What immortal hand or eye, Could frame 2 thy fearful 3 symmetry 4 ? GLOSSARY

In what distant deeps 5 or skies

1. 2. 3. 4.

Tyger: tiger frame: make fearful: frightening symmetry: symmetrical form or shape 5. deeps: low, underground places 6. thine: your 7. dare: to be brave enough to do something 8. aspire: rise up, fly high like Icarus 9. seize: to take hold of something suddenly and violently; here it means 'steal the fire' like Prometheus 10. art: skill, ability 11. sinews: muscles 12. thy: your 13. dread: frightening 14. anvil: heavy iron block on which pieces of metal are shaped using a hammer 15.grasp: the way you hold something 16. clasp: hold tightly 17. spears: poles with sharp ends, used as a weapon in the past

Burnt the fire of thine 6 eyes! On what wings dare 7 he aspire 8 ? What the hand dare seize9 the fire? And what shoulder, & what art 10 , Could twist the sinews 11 of thy 1 2 heart?

10

And when thy heart began to beat, What dread 13 hand? & what dread feet? What the hammer? What the chain, In what furnace was thy brain? What the anvil 14 ? What dread grasp 15 ,

15

Dare its deadly terrors clasp 16 ? When the stars threw down their spears 17 And water'd heaven with their tears: Did he smile his work to see? Did he who made the Lamb make thee?

20

Tyger, Tyger burning bright, In the forests of the night: What immortal hand or eye, Dare frame thy fearful symmetry?

COMPREHENSION 1 W h o is t h e speaker addressing in t h e p o e m ? 2

W h a t question d o e s he ask in t h e first stanza?

3 W h e r e d o e s t h e speaker think t h e creator m a y have found t h e fire of t h e tiger's eyes? (Line 5 )

4

According t o t h e fourth stanza, w h e r e was t h e

tiger's brain c r e a t e d ? 5

How did t h e stars react to t h e creation of t h e tiger?

6

W h a t question d o e s t h e speaker ask in line 2 0 ?

12


ANALYSIS 1

T h e p o e m o p e n s with a striking visual i m a g e of t h e

t i g e r ' b u r n i n g b r i g h t in t h e forests of t h e n i g h t ' (lines 1 - 2 ) . Explain t h e c o n t r a s t c o n t a i n e d in this i m a g e . 2

In line 4 t h e p o e t uses t h e w o r d ' s y m m e t r y ' .

a . W h a t d o y o u think h e is referring t o ?

W h y d o e s t h e p o e t ask if t h e s a m e C r e a t o r m a d e

b o t h t h e l a m b a n d t h e t i g e r ? (Line 2 0 ) 8

Apart f r o m o n e w o r d , t h e final s t a n z a is identical t o

t h e first stanza. W h i c h w o r d has b e e n c h a n g e d ? Have t h e p o e t ' s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of t h e C r e a t o r

• T h e g e o m e t r i c a l d e s i g n of t h e tiger's face/body.

b e e n a n s w e r e d in t h e c o u r s e of t h e p o e m o r has his

• T h e b a l a n c e of b e a u t y a n d d a n g e r in t h e tiger.

perplexity b e e n intensified?

• T h e g o o d a n d evil t h a t t h e t i g e r m a y r e p r e s e n t . b . Why, in y o u r o p i n i o n , d o e s t h e p o e t d e s c r i b e t h e s y m m e t r y as 'fearful'? 3

7

9

W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g e m o t i o n s d o e s t h e t i g e r

inspire in t h e p o e t ? You c a n c h o o s e m o r e t h a n o n e . • Fear

In t h e s e c o n d stanza t h e p o e t refers t o ' t h e fire' in

• Horror

• Awe

• Disbelief

t h e tiger's eyes.

• Admiration

• Confusion

a . W h a t a s s o c i a t i o n s d o y o u m a k e with fire? Are t h e y

•

positive or n e g a t i v e o r a m i x t u r e of b o t h ? b . Lines 7 a n d 8 m a k e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e l e g e n d s of Icarus a n d P r o m e t h e u s . W h a t links t h e t i g e r t o t h e two legends? W h a t characteristics d o e s the Creator of t h e t i g e r s h a r e with t h e t w o G r e e k h e r o e s ? 4

Does

t h e third stanza f o c u s o n t h e C r e a t o r ' s

p s y c h o l o g i c a l profile or o n his physical a t t r i b u t e s ? W h i c h w o r d in line 1 2 underlines t h e potential d a n g e r of t h e t i g e r ? 5

1 0 E x a m i n e t h e musical f e a t u r e s o f t h e p o e m . a . Work o u t t h e r h y m i n g s c h e m e . Is it regular?

b. Find examples of alliteration* and assonance*. Listen t o t h e r e c o r d i n g a g a i n . W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g is t h e p r e d o m i n a n t m e t r e ?

• Iambic* • Trochaic* • Anapestic* Is t h e r h y t h m of t h e p o e m g e n t l e a n d s o o t h i n g or

T h e fourth s t a n z a s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t i g e r w a s

c r e a t e d in a f o r g e . W h i c h of t h e following c o n c e p t s d o y o u a s s o c i a t e with a f o r g e ? • Light

Panic

s t r o n g a n d striking? Is it a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e t h e m e of the p o e m ? d . U n d e r l i n e e x a m p l e s of repetition*

• Dark

in t h e p o e m .

e . W h a t is t h e m a i n syntactical s t r u c t u r e ?

• Heat

• Cold

• Danger

• Security

1 1 Compare and contrast The Lamb and The Tyger in

• Fire

• Power

t e r m s of:

Have t h e c o n c e p t s y o u h a v e c h o s e n already b e e n used in t h e p o e m ? 6

Identify t h e use of personification*

The Lamb musical f e a t u r e s

in lines 1 7 - 1 8 .

syntax

H o w w o u l d y o u explain t h e reaction of t h e stars w h e n

diction

t h e y w i t n e s s e d , t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e t i g e r ?

the animal

• They wished to defend themselves against t h e

the Creator

d a n g e r s p o s e d by t h e tiger. • T h e y felt insignificant a n d helpless b e f o r e t h e m a g n i f i c e n c e of G o d ' s n e w c r e a t i o n . • T h e y w e r e s a d d e n e d b y t h e d e s t r u c t i v e n a t u r e of t h e tiger.

the poet's response

The Tyger

f William Blake

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Symbols

A symbol is an example of what is called the transference of meaning: a writer takes a concrete item - an object, a colour, a person, a place, an animal - and attributes to it a deeper meaning. Sometimes writers use symbols which are part of their culture, water representing life, for example. Writers can also use non-conventional, private symbols. We usually understand their meaning from the context in which they occur. Blake relied heavily o n s y m b o l i s m in his p o e t r y . E x a m i n e t h e s y m b o l s of t h e l a m b a n d t h e t i g e r u s e d in t h e p o e m s y o u h a v e j u s t r e a d . D r a w a s p i d e r g r a m o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s y o u m a k e for e a c h animal. W h a t d o you think t h e y represent?

» a 3 a t H Y « H J

In o u r daily lives w e a r e s u r r o u n d e d b y s y m b o l s . C h o o s e a s y m b o l t h a t r e p r e s e n t s a c o u n t r y , a n i d e o l o g y , a c o m p a n y , a b r a n d of p r o d u c t s , e t c . , a n d p r e p a r e a s h o r t talk o n its o r i g i n s a n d meaning.

T h e link b e t w e e n m u s i c a n d Blake's p o e t r y is e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e title o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n s in w h i c h The Lamb

and

The

Tyger appear: Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. The

poems

have,

as y o u

have seen

through

your

analysis, m a n y musical qualities. C h o o s e t w o p i e c e s of m u s i c w h i c h y o u t h i n k in s o m e w a y w o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e p o e m s a n d b e p r e p a r e d t o justify y o u r c h o i c e s .

Title page for The Songs of Innocence (1794), by William Blake.

13


WRITERS'

GALLERY Early

years

in

London

William Blake was b o r n in London in 1757, where he was raised in a state of e c o n o m i c hardship and received very little formal education. He showed early signs of artistic talent and, at the age of fourteen, became an a p p r e n t i c e in an engraver's shop, where he worked and learned the craft for seven years. A period

of great

creativity

T h e year 1 7 8 3 marked the

b e g i n n i n g of a period of great creativity in Blake's life. He published his first v o l u m e of poetry, Poetical

Sketches,

and

invented a new method of printing, which he called 'illuminated printing', a mixture of engraving and painting which he claimed his dead brother Robert had revealed to him in a dream. In 1789 he engraved and published his first great literary work, Songs of Innocence, followed in 1794 by The Maniage of Heaven and Hell and Songs of Experience. His output was outstanding: he made hand-coloured engravings for b o t h his own poems and other authors'. However, his books were not printed and circulated in sufficient numbers to make his work profitable. Depression

and mysticism

His disappointment at this lack of recognition led Blake to depression

which verged on insanity. This gloomy period lasted seven years, from 1810 to 1817. He lived in a dirty studio, completely alienated from the material world and claiming that visions of angels, spirits, prophets and devils were inspiring his work. The last years

After 1 8 1 8 he stopped writing poetry but c o n t i n u e d to produce engravings,

including the illustrations for Dante's Divine Comedy, which he left uncompleted at his death in 1827. He was buried in a common grave in relative obscurity. Songs of I n n o c e n c e and Songs of Experience

Blake's greatness

as o n e of the leading poets of English R o m a n t i c i s m is best expressed in his 'illuminated books' - Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of Experience (1794) - which h e re-printed several times. They are visual and p o e t i c masterpieces where art and t e x t are inextricably linked and mutually enrich each other. The lyrics in the Songs of Innocence are fresh, direct observations and show life as perceived by children; they read like simple, tender poetry written in a natural, unaffected style. However, these simple poems and illustrations often hide deeper meanings and more intricate patterns than first appear. The poems in the Songs of Experience reflect a gloomier vision of the world, where Evil has the upper hand over Good. Innocence and Experience, 'the two contrary states of the human soul', are shown in direct contrast in such poems as The Lamb ( • Text E4) and The Tyger ( • Text E5). Prophetic Books

In the so-called Prophetic Books, a series of long symbolic poems which he started

writing in 1789, Blake expresses his c o n d e m n a t i o n of eighteenth-century political and social tyranny. The inspiration for these poems, which reflect Blake's view that the poet/artist is a prophet inspired by visionary messages, is Milton ( • pp. D14-22), of whose spirit Blake himself believed to be the living embodiment. The Prophetic Books, which contain some of his most powerful images, denounce authority in often abstruse language through a cast of imaginary mythological characters.

Writers' Gallery - William Blake

^

The Marriage of Heaven and Hell

- M m m m m

• m

m

m

*

m

m

In the same years a prose work, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell,

develops Blake's idea that 'without Contraries is no progression'. The work includes aphorisms, anecdotes and the 'Proverbs of Hell', such as 'The tygers of wrath are wiser than the horses of instruction'. A radical all of his life, Blake sympathised with the forces of revolution and he praised

The Profecies

the American War of Independence in America: A Prophecy (1793), and the French Revolution in Europe: A Prophecy (1794). Tyranny and freedom are also the themes of the Book ofUrizen (1794). Milton and J e r u s a l e m

Blake's mature work includes visionary epics written and illustrated

between 1804 and 1818. The most outstanding works are Milton and Jerusalem.

In both works Blake

chose to have no conventional theme, characters, rhyme, or metre. He based his works on a series of highly personal symbols which are often difficult to interpret. A romantic poet and a philosopher

Appreciated only by his close circle of friends and admirers

such as Coleridge ( • pp. E24-31) and Keats ( • pp. E52-63), Blake went largely unnoticed in his own time and in the Victorian period. Critics only discovered his work a full century after his death, and gave due recognition to its originality. Today Blake is acclaimed as one of the most inspired and original poets and painters of his time. His belief in the absolute predominance of Imagination over Reason subverted all the rules that governed eighteenth-century art and poetic forms ( • Visual Link E5). He rejected the basic principles of the Age of Reason and the classic models that restricted free artistic and poetic expession. A revolutionary

spirit

Blake lived in a period of great

social c h a n g e s : the American, F r e n c h and Industrial Revolutions all took place during his lifetime. Embracing these revolutionary ideas, he became a bitter critic of his own t i m e .

He asserted t h a t religion,

politics

and

industrialism were 'dark Satanic Mills' and 'Prisons are built with stones of Law, Brothels with bricks of Religion'. He called the new industrial England a 'land of poverty' and expressed his bleak vision in many poems. Unlike other British radicals of his time (Wordsworth, • pp. E l 6 - 2 3 ) he never disowned his views. He was not daunted by the Reign of Terror in France and continued until his death to believe that 'Active Evil is better than Passive Good'.

William Blake, The Ancient of Days (God as an Architect), 1794.

TASK U s e t h e f o l l o w i n g key c o n c e p t s t o p r e p a r e a r e p o r t a b o u t t h e life a n d w o r k s of William Blake. - Born into e c o n o m i c hardship - Early artistic t a l e n t

- Songs

of Innocence

of Experience

- Engraver's a p p r e n t i c e

- Lack o f r e c o g n i t i o n

- Illuminated printing

- Radical politics

a n d Songs

- Largely u n n o t i c e d d u r i n g his time - Literary a n d artistic i n n o v a t o r

(IE)

16


William Wordsworth I N T R O D U C T I O N • William Wordsworth is best known as a nature poet w h o found beauty, comfort and moral strength in the natural world. If he were alive today he would probably be a member of an organisation that campaigns to protect the e n v i r o n m e n t . For him the world of nature is free from corruption and stress, and offers man a means of escape from industrialised society ( • Visual Links E2 and E3).

Have you ever felt you study t o o m u c h o r t h a t t h e r e is t o o m u c h to study? Well, read t h e following p o e m b e c a u s e William Wordsworth has s o m e advice for you!

Text E 6

The Tables Turned

(...)

Up! up! my Friend, and quit 1 your books; Or surely you'll grow double 2 : Up! up! my Friend, and clear your looks 3 ; - • GLOSSARY 1. quit: leave 2. you'll grow double: you will not be able to stand up straight 3. clear your looks: give your eyes a rest 4. toil: hard work 5. lustre: light 6. mellow: soft 7. dull: boring 8. strife: struggle 9. linnet: small brown singing bird 10.my life ... in it: there is more to be learned from the linnet than from books 11. hark: listen 12. blithe: cheerful 13. throstle: singing bird 14.no mean preacher: a good teacher 15. forth: out 16. ready wealth: riches ready to be enjoyed 17. breathed: expressed 18. vernal: connected with spring 19. sages: wise people 20. lore: knowledge 21. meddling: interfering 22. Mis-shapes: changes the natural form 23. dissect: analyse in detail

Why all this toil 4 and trouble? The sun above the mountain's head, A freshening lustre5 mellow 6 Through all the long green fields has spread, His first sweet evening mellow. Books! 'tis a dull7 and endless strife 8 : Come, hear the woodland linnet 9 ,

10

How sweet his music! on my life, There's more of wisdom in it 10 . And hark 11 ! how blithe 12 the throstle 13 sings! He, too, is no mean preacher 14 : Come forth 15 into the light of things,

is

Let Nature be your Teacher. She has a world of ready wealth 16 , Our minds and hearts to bless Spontaneous wisdom breathed 17 by health, Truth breathed by cheerfulness.

20

One impulse from a vernal 18 wood May teach you more of man, Of moral evil and of good Than all the sages19 can. Sweet is the lore 20 which Nature brings; Our

meddling 21

intellect

Mis-shapes22 the beauteous forms of things: We murder to dissect 23 .

25

A detail from Wivenhoe Park, Essex, by John Constable (1816).

William Wordsworth

Enough of Science and of Art; Close up those barren 24 leaves 25 ;

30

24.barren: not fertile 25. leaves: pages of a book

Come forth, and bring with you a heart That watches and receives.

COMPREHENSION 1

In t h e first stanza t h e p o e t describes t h e negative

6

W h o or w h a t d o e s ' S h e ' refer to in line 1 7 ? W h a t

effects of studying t o o hard. W h a t negative physical

' w e a l t h ' can nature give us, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o e t in

effect a n d psychological effects d o e s he m e n t i o n ?

t h e fifth stanza?

2

W h a t t i m e of t h e day is it? How has t h e poet's

7

W h a t can a 'vernal w o o d ' t e a c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

friend s p e n t t h e day?

sixth stanza?

3 Which adjectives d o e s t h e p o e t use t o describe t h e

8

evening sun? In w h a t way can t h e light b e

perception of t h e b e a u t y a n d k n o w l e d g e of n a t u r e ?

f r e s h e n i n g ? W h o d o e s 'His' refer t o in line 8 ?

(Seventh stanza)

4

W h a t adjective d o e s he use t o describe life s p e n t

9

studying b o o k s in t h e third stanza? 5

W h i c h is t h e effect of t h e h u m a n intellect on o n e ' s

W h i c h line in t h e first stanza d o e s line 3 0 e c h o ?

1 0 W h a t d o e s m a n n e e d t o bring with him in order

W h o d o e s 'He' refer t o in line 1 4 ? W h a t d o e s t h e

t o a p p r e c i a t e nature? (Eighth stanza)

p o e t hear in t h e linnet's s o n g ?

ANALYSIS 1 T h e p o e m explores t h e t h e m e of man's c o m m u n i o n with Nature. W h i c h p o e t i c device d o e s t h e p o e t use t o draw m a n a n d nature closer t o g e t h e r ? • Rhetorical questions 2

• Irony

K

Personification*

5

Explain t h e pun* in line 3 0 .

6

Find examples of exclamations and imperatives in t h e

p o e m . Identify t h e rhyming s c h e m e . W h i c h adjective(s) would you use to define t h e m o o d of t h e p o e m ?

T h e relationship b e t w e e n m a n a n d nature as

7

described in t h e p o e m is almost religious in its intensity. Find e x a m p l e s of religious t e r m s used in t h e t e x t . 3

In t h e p o e m t h e dull, colourless world of b o o k s is

which The Tables

t h e text. Examine t h e table below.

people

wisdom truth

teacher

moral evil a n d g o o d

sage

Turned first a p p e a r e d . In it

There will also be found in these volumes little of what is usually called poetic diction; I have taken as much pains to avoid it as others ordinarily take to produce it; this I have done (...) to bring my language near to the language of men (...)

Find r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e light a n d colour of nature in

abstract concepts

to The

Wordsworth c o m m e n t s on t h e l a n g u a g e of his poetry.

c o n t r a s t e d with t h e bright, colourful world of Nature.

4

Read t h e following e x t r a c t from T h e Preface

Lyrical Ballads ( • p. El 18), the collection of poems in

O n e of Wordsworth's o b j e c t i v e s was t o write poetry in

preacher

t h e l a n g u a g e used by c o m m o n m e n . How would you

define the language of The Tables Turned? Do you think he r e a c h e d his goal of writing in t h e l a n g u a g e

Do w e normally a s s o c i a t e t h e s e c o n c e p t s a n d p e o p l e

of m e n ?

with t h e world of b o o k s or t h e world of n a t u r e ?

8

C h e c k t h e r e f e r e n c e s in t h e p o e m . Is t h e usual

or ' t o c h a n g e a r o u n d ' . How would y o u relate t h e title

association u p h e l d ?

of the poem The Tables Turned to its contents?

T h e expression ' t o turn t h e t a b l e s ' m e a n s ' t o invert'

Wordsworth says t h a t t h e world of nature is a source of k n o w l e d g e a n d learning. Look at t h e following list of sources of learning in today's world a n d rank t h e m in order of i m p o r t a n c e . C o m p a r e and discuss your order of i m p o r t a n c e with your classmates. The h o m e

• T h e mass media

• T h e school

• T h e Internet

•

4

mill

. 18


While out walking in t h e c o u n t r y on a bright, windy day, Wordsworth saw fields of daffodils stretching o u t b e f o r e h i m . His s i s t e r D o r o t h y w a s w i t h h i m a n d s a y s in h e r Journals,

'I n e v e r s a w d a f f o d i l s s o b e a u t i f u l ' . D o e s

Wordsworth m a n a g e t o c o n v e y t h e b e a u t y of t h e flowers t o y o u ?

Q BEES I Wandered Lonely As A Cloud I wandered 1 lonely as a cloud That floats 2 on high o'er vales 3 and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host 4 , of golden daffodils 5 ; Beside the lake, beneath 6 the trees, Fluttering 7

5

and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle 8 on the milky way 9 , They stretched in never-ending line Along the margin of the bay:

10

Ten thousand saw I at a glance 10 , Tossing 11 their heads in sprightly 12 dance. The waves beside them danced; but they Outdid 13 the sparkling 14 waves in glee 15 ; A poet could but not be gay 16 ,

15

In such a jocund company; 1 gazed 17 - and gazed - but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought: For oft 18 , when on my couch 1 9 I lie In vacant or in pensive mood 2 0 ,

20

They flash upon that inward 21 eye Which is the bliss 22 of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils.

GLOSSARY 1. wandered: moved slowly 2. floats: moves slowly in the air 3. o'er vales: over the valleys 4. host: large number 5. daffodils: yellow spring flowers

6. beneath: under 7. Fluttering: moving quickly like a bird's wings 8. twinkle: shine intermittently 9. milky way: white band of stars that can be seen across the sky at night 10 . glance: quick look

11. Tossing: moving in an uncontrolled way 12. sprightly: energetic 13. Outdid: did better 14. sparkling: shining brightly 15. glee: happiness 16. gay: happy 17. gazed: looked attentively

for a long time 18. oft: often 19. couch: sofa 20.In vacant ... mood: not thinking about anything or thinking deeply about something 21. inward: inner, inside 22. bliss: perfect happiness

William Wordsworth

COMPREHENSION 1

W h e r e is t h e p o e t in t h e first stanza a n d w h a t is h e

d o i n g ? Is h e a l o n e o r in c o m p a n y ? 2 3

4

In w h i c h line d o e s t h e p o e t d e s c r i b e his r e s p o n s e

to the scene?

W h a t does he unexpectedly c o m e across? Find r e f e r e n c e s in t h e t e x t t o t h e colour, t h e

l o c a t i o n , n u m b e r a n d m o v e m e n t of t h e daffodils.

5

W h e r e is t h e p o e t in t h e fourth stanza, a n d w h a t is

he doing? 6

W h a t 'fills' t h e p o e t ' s ' h e a r t with p l e a s u r e ' a n d

m a k e s it ' d a n c e ' ?

ANALYSIS 1

I

In t h e o p e n i n g t w o lines t h e p o e t says t h a t h e

7

In t h e f o u r t h stanza t h e setting*

has c h a n g e d . Is

' w a n d e r e d lonely' a n d c o m p a r e s himself t o a ' c l o u d

t h e t e n s e of t h e verbs in this s t a n z a t h e s a m e as t h e

t h a t floats o n h i g h ' . W h a t s t a t e of m i n d is h e in?

o t h e r s ? T h e m o o d has also c h a n g e d . W h i c h w o r d s in

2

T h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e daffodils c o n t r a s t s with t h e

p o e t ' s feelings. Find w o r d s in lines 3 - 6 t h a t c o n t r a s t with ' l o n e l y ' a n d ' w a n d e r i n g a n d f l o a t i n g ' . 3

Identify t h e simile* t h a t o p e n s t h e s e c o n d s t a n z a .

Find t h e w o r d s in this s t a n z a t h a t c o n v e y t h e idea of a) multitude, b ) b r i g h t n e s s a n d c ) m o v e m e n t . 4

Find e x a m p l e s of personification*

in t h e s e c o n d

a n d third s t a n z a s . W h a t is t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e daffodils c o m p a r e d t o ? 5

Find t h r e e s y n o n y m s in t h e third s t a n z a f o r ' h a p p y '

lines 1 9 - 2 0 s u g g e s t a m o o d t h a t is m o r e : a ) static, b) melancholy, c) meditative? 8

W h a t metaphor*

d o e s t h e p o e t use for h u m a n

i m a g i n a t i o n in line 21 ? W h i c h w o r d recalls t h e sparkling b r i g h t n e s s o f t h e daffodils? 9

W h i c h w o r d s in lines 2 3 - 2 4 r e c a p t u r e t h e e m o t i o n

a n d m o v e m e n t of t h e first t h r e e s t a n z a s ? T O Read W o r d s w o r t h ' s definition of a p o e t : He is a man ... who rejoices more than other m e n in the spirit of life that is in him. (...) he has (...) a disposition to be affected more than other men by

a n d ' h a p p i n e s s ' . T h e s o u n d s of t h e w o r d s t h a t t h e

absent things as if they were present; an ability of

p o e t c h o o s e s t o d e s c r i b e t h e daffodils also c o n v e y t h e

conjuring up in himself passions, which are indeed far

s e n s e of j o y t h e y inspire. W h i c h w o r d s in t h e first

from being the same as those produced by real events,

t h r e e stanzas w o u l d y o u c o n s i d e r j o y o u s - s o u n d i n g ?

yet do (...) more nearly resemble the passions

6

produced by real events, than any thing which (...) Focus o n line 1 7 . T h e daffodils h a v e had an a l m o s t

other men are accustomed to feel in themselves.

h y p n o t i c e f f e c t o n t h e p o e t . How is this idea

Explain how I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud supports

conveyed?

this definition of t h e p o e t .

W h e n W o r d s w o r t h calls u p t h e i m a g e of t h e daffodils in his m i n d , h e relives t h e s e n s a t i o n s of w o n d e r a n d j o y h e felt w h e n h e first s a w t h e m . Think o f a natural setting w h i c h y o u particularly liked a n d write a s h o r t a c c o u n t of t h e e m o t i o n s it stirs u p in y o u .

!0


In English t h e r e is a saying, ' S t o p t h e world, I w a n t t o g e t off'. People use it w h e n t h e y are u n d e r g r e a t stress a n d would literally like t h e world to stop m o v i n g , so t h a t t h e y can have a rest. Wordsworth feels like this in t h e following p o e m and would like to see a radical c h a n g e in his life.

Q

Text E 8

The World Is Too Much With Us

The world is too much with us; late and soon 1 , Getting and spending, we lay waste 2 our powers; Little we see in Nature that is ours; We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon 3 ! The Sea that bares her bosom 4 to the moon; The winds that will be howling 5 at all hours, And are up-gathered 6 now like sleeping flowers; From this, for everything, we are out of tune 7 ; It moves us not 8 . - Great God! I'd rather be A Pagan suckled9 in creed outworn 10 ; GLOSSARY 1. late and soon: all the time, forever 2. lay waste: lose 3. sordid boon: squalid benefit 4. bares her bosom: shows her breasts 5. howling: making a lot of noise 6. up-gathered: quiet, closed 7. out of tune: playing or singing higher or lower than the correct musical note 8. It moves us not: it (the world) has no emotional effect on us 9. suckled: fed (with milk from the breast) 10. creed outworn: an old-fashioned religion 11. lea: area of grassy land 12. glimpses: visions 13. forlorn: sad 14. Have sight of: see 15. Proteus: Greek sea god 16. Triton: Greek sea god who played a trumpet (horn) made from a shell which was covered in flowers and leaves (wreathed)

So might I, standing on this pleasant

10 lea 11 ,

Have glimpses 12 that would make me less forlorn 13 ; Have sight of 14 Proteus 15 rising from the sea Or hear old Triton 16 blow his wreathed horn.

William Wordsworth

COMPREHENSION 1

In line 2 t h e p o e t says t h a t w e h a v e lost ' o u r

4

p o w e r s ' . W h a t p o w e r s is h e referring t o a n d w h y h a v e w e lost t h e m ? 2

g a t h e r e d n o w like s l e e p i n g f l o w e r s ' . W h i c h i m a g e d e s c r i b e s h o w t h e w i n d s w o u l d like t o b e ? W h i c h i m a g e

W h i c h line c o n f i r m s t h a t m a n h a s b e c o m e

d e s c r i b e s h o w t h e w i n d s are d u e t o m a n ' s i n d i f f e r e n c e ?

alienated from nature? 3

In lines 6 - 7 t h e p o e t gives t w o c o n t r a s t i n g

d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e w i n d s : ' h o w l i n g a t all h o u r s ' a n d ' u p -

5

W h o or w h a t witnesses t h e b e a u t y of t h e sea,

W h i c h lines s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p o e t w o u l d like t o

r e t u r n t o a m o r e p r i m i t i v e a n d childlike s t a t e ? W h a t

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o e t in line 5 ?

would he h o p e to gain from returning to a simpler w a y o f living?

ANALYSIS 1

T h e p o e m is w r i t t e n in t h e f o r m o f a sonnet*.

Is it a

idea o f n a t u r e c o n c e a l i n g h e r b e a u t y ? W h a t d o t h e

Petrarchan o r a S h a k e s p e a r e a n s o n n e t ? Identify t h e r h y m i n g s c h e m e . Explain t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p o e m in terms of quatrains and sestets. 2

W h i c h figure

of speech*

still w i n d s a n d t h e s l e e p i n g f l o w e r s h a v e in c o m m o n ? W h e r e is t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t in t h e p o e m ? H o w is t h e

4

reader's a t t e n t i o n d r a w n t o it? H o w d o e s t h e

d o e s t h e p o e t u s e in lines

e x p r e s s i o n 'it m o v e s us n o t ' c o n t r a s t w i t h w h a t f o l l o w s ?

5 - 6 to suggest that man and nature should b e o n e ?

5

T h e final six lines o f t h e p o e m c o n t a i n several

Line 5 s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e a r e v e a l s h e r b e a u t y t o

references t o g o d s and religion. Underline t h e m .

m a n k i n d , w h o is i n d i f f e r e n t a n d p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e

W h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n religion a n d n a t u r e is

m a t e r i a l w o r l d . W h a t i m a g e in line 7 r e i n f o r c e s t h e

e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e s e l i n e s ?

3

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Oxymoron

An o x y m o r o n is the combination of words which at first sight seems to be contradictory or incongruous, but whose surprising juxtaposition emphasises a contrast, expresses a truth or creates a dramatic effect. Oxymorons are paradoxical metaphors that are reduced to two words, usually a d j e c t i v e - n o u n ( ' b u r n i n g ice') or a d v e r b - a d j e c t i v e ('painfully beautiful'). Identify a n o x y m o r o n in line 4 of The World Is Too Much

With

Us.

Is it a n a d j e c t i v e - n o u n c o m b i n a t i o n o r a n a d v e r b - a d j e c t i v e c o m b i n a t i o n ? W h a t p u r p o s e d o e s it s e r v e ?

OVER T O YOU

II To express a truth

• To c r e a t e a d r a m a t i c e f f e c t

• To emphasise a contrast

• All o f t h e a b o v e

C r e a t e t h r e e o x y m o r o n s of y o u r o w n .

•DD Is W o r d s w o r t h ' s m e s s a g e in t h i s p o e m r e l e v a n t t o d a y ? D o w e l e a d s u c h s t r e s s f u l lives t h a t w e h a v e n o t i m e t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e w o r l d a r o u n d us? W h a t c r e a t e s s t r e s s f o r us t o d a y ? D i s c u s s w i t h y o u r c l a s s m a t e s .

I,

•

v

A

M

22


WRITERS'

GALLERY Early years

William Wordsworth

was born in 1770 in a little town in the Lake District in the north-west of England. When he was

M B WLs

%

just eight years old his mother died, and he also lost his father

IFL^H

five years later. T h e c h i l d r e n were separated and raised by guardians. In 1 7 8 7 Wordsworth entered Cambridge, b u t he was n o t particularly interested in his studies. While still a university student he went on a three-month walking tour of France, the Swiss Alps and Italy, and was greatly impressed by the beauty of t h e landscape. W h e n he f i n i s h e d his degree he returned to

W I L L I A M WORDSWORTH (1770-1850)

France for a year and b e c a m e a passionate supporter of t h e democratic ideals of the French Revolution. Financial problems, however, forced him to return to England, where he went to live

with his sister Dorothy in a small village in Dorset. In 1793 he published his first two books of verse, which received little notice from either the critics or the public. The friendship

with Coleridge

Two events then changed his life forever: he inherited a sum of

money which covered his daily necessities and, in 1795, he met Samuel Taylor Coleridge ( • pp. E24-31), a poet with similar radical political and literary views. This friendship had a lasting impact on b o t h poets. William and Dorothy went to live close to Coleridge. Together they discussed political issues, read, wrote, exchanged theories on poetry and commented on each other's work. In this period of intense creativity they produced the Lyrical Ballads (1798), a landmark in English Romanticism. Coleridge contributed four poems and Wordsworth nineteen to the collection. The collection was not well-received by the literary critics of the day. Later that year Wordsworth, his sister Dorothy and Coleridge travelled to Germany. Coleridge continued his studies in philosophy, while Wordsworth wrote several of his finest lyrical poems and started work on The Prelude,

an

autobiographical poem which he continued to revise throughout the rest of his life. Two years later a second edition of the Lyrical Ballads appeared, with new poems by Wordsworth, who also provided a prose Preface illustrating his and Coleridge's principles of poetry. The Lake District,

home and marriage

William and Dorothy moved to Grasmere, one of the

loveliest villages in the Lake District, a region which Wordworth immortalised in his poetry. In 1802 Wordsworth married a childhood friend and together they had five children. During this period he produced Poems, in Two Volumes (1807), a collection which includes some of his finest verse and most famous sonnets. His reputation began to grow and his work became increasingly popular. He did, however, suffer personal tragedy when two of his children died. His close friend Coleridge was experiencing serious health problems and the two became estranged and never fully reconciled. Maturity

and conservatism

As his fame as a poet grew, Wordsworth became more conservative

politically. He was given a well-paid government job and openly campaigned for the conservative Tory party. The younger generation of Romantic poets criticised him for abandoning the radical politics and idealism of his y o u t h , while recognising t h e debt t h e y owed h i m for t h e great innovations of his poetry.

Writers' Gallery - William Wordsworth

'

'

•

As he advanced in age, however, his poetic vision grew weaker and his output was largely uninspired and written in the 'elevated' artificial style against which he had rebelled. In 1840 he was awarded a government pension and the title of Poet Laureate, in recognition of his contribution to English literature. He died in 1850, a few days after his eightieth birthday. T h e Lyrical Ballads

WORKS

Wordsworth's contribution to English

poetry cannot be overestimated. His work with Coleridge on the

Lyrical Ballads established Romanticism as a literary movement in England, and the prose Preface to the second edition came to be considered as a Romantic manifesto ( • p. El 18). Many critics consider the long poem The Prelude, published posthumously in 1850 in twenty-four books to be his greatest achievement. The poem describes the crucial experiences and stages of the poet's life and is an introspective account of his emotional and spiritual development. Further evidence of Wordsworth's genius can be found in Poems, in Two Volumes (1807), which contains, among other celebrated poems, 'I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud' ( • Text E7). Nature

Wordsworth was a great innovator. He found his

greatest inspiration in nature, which he believed could elevate the human soul and exert a positive moral influence on human thoughts and feelings. He identified Nature with God and was more pantheistic in his vision than Christian. His poetry celebrates the lives of simple rural people, whom he sees as being more sincere than people living in cities. Children are also regarded as pure and innocent, uncorrupted by education and the evils of the world ( • Visual Links E2 and E3). Poetry as intuition

Wordsworth believed that intuition,

not reason, should guide the poet. Inspiration should come from the direct experience of the senses. Poetry, he wrote in the Preface, originates from 'the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings' which is filtered through ' e m o t i o n recollected in tranquillity'. Reputation

Wordsworth renewed English poetry both in

content and style. He started writing at a time when poetry was constrained by literary conventions, affected diction and emphasis on form. By rejecting these restraints, Wordsworth permanently extended the range of English poetry.

A drawing of Tintern Abbey, by the great romantic painter I. W. Turner (c. 1794). After a visit to Tintern Abbey William Wordsworth wrote one of his bestknown poems.

TASK W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g d o y o u find in W o r d s w o r t h ' s b i o g r a p h y ? • Political p a s s i o n a n d i n v o l v e m e n t

• Personal t r a g e d y

• Academic excellence

•

Hostile criticism

• I n t e r e s t in f o r e i g n c u l t u r e

• Consistency of views

•

Lack o f m o r a l s t a n d a r d s

• I n t e n s e C h r i s t i a n beliefs

• Literary i n n o v a t i o n

• L o v e of n a t u r e

• Idealism f o l l o w e d b y c o n s e r v a t i s m

• T a l e n t a s a satirist

23


The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge I N T R O D U C T I O N • While walking in the hills in the Lake District, William Wordsworth suggested to close friend, Coleridge, that he write a story about an adventure at sea. Coleridge took up the suggestio and the result was The Rime of the Ancient

Mariner.

Of the Romantic poets, Coleridge was one of the most imaginative, and in the Rime he transports t' reader into fantastical, unforgettable settings ( • Visual Link E4).

W e s o m e t i m e s a s s o c i a t e certain t h i n g s with g o o d luck a n d bad luck. For e x a m p l e , a rabbit's f o o t is t h o u g h t t o bring g o o d luck while walking under a ladder m e a n s trouble in store. Such h u m a n superstitions play a big part in t h e p o e m you are a b o u t t o read.

THE STORY The Rime, or story, is told by the Ancient Mariner to a man who is on his way to a wedding. The Mariner was working as a sailor on a ship that was blocked in by ice near the South Pole. Suddenly an albatross appears out of the fog and is welcomed as a sign of good luck by the crew. Not long after, the ice splits and the bird flies alongside the ship as it continues its voyage. Then, one day, for no apparent reason, the Mariner shoots and kills the albatross. The ship is blown north to the Equator into a honible sea where there is no wind. The sailors say it is the Mariner's fault for bringing about their bad luck, and hang the albatross around his neck so that he will never forget what a terrible thing he has done ( • Text E9). All the sailors die and he sees no way out of a hopeless until, one night, he is so struck by the beauty of the watersnakes

that are

situation swimming

around the ship, that he blesses them. The albatross falls from his neck ( • Text E10) and the ship sails home. He is saved, but as a penance he has to travel around the world and tell his story, which serves as a warning to everyone to love all God's creatures. Note: The notes in a smaller font are a summary of what happens in the poem. The killing of the albatross as illustrated by Custave Dore (1875).

Text E9

Water, Water, Every Where

The Ancient Mariner has just killed the albatross.

Part II (...) (The shipmates cry out against the ancient Mariner for killing the bird of good luck.) - • GLOSSARY 1. hellish: evil 2. work 'em woe: bring them bad luck 3. averred: claimed 4. wretch: evil person 5. slay: kill

And I had done a hellish 1 thing. And it would work 'em woe 2 : For all averred 3 1 had killed the bird That made the breeze to blow. Ah wretch 4 ! said they, the bird to slay5, That made the breeze to blow!

5

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner - Samuel Taylor Coleridge 303

(But when the fog cleared off, they justify the same, and thus make themselves accomplices to the crime.)

Nor dim 6 nor red, like God's own head, The glorious Sun uprist 7 : They all averred I had killed the bird That brought the fog and mist 8 .

10

'Twas right, said they, such birds to slay, That bring the fog and mist. (The fair breeze continues; the ship enters the Pacific Ocean, and sails northward, even till it reaches the Line.)

The fair breeze blew, the white foam 9 flew, The furrow 10 followed free; We were the first that ever burst 11

15

Into that silent sea. (The ship hath been suddenly becalmed.) Down dropped 12 the breeze, the sails dropped down, 'Twas sad as sad could be; And we did speak only to break 20

The silence of the sea! All in a hot and copper 13 sky, The bloody Sun, at noon, Right up above the mast 14 did stand, No bigger than the Moon. Day after day, day after day,

25

We stuck 15 , nor breath 16 nor motion 17 ; As idle 18 as a painted ship Upon a painted ocean. (And the Albatross begins to be avenged.)

Water, water, every where, And all the boards 19 did shrink 20 ;

30

Water, water, every where, Nor any drop 21 to drink. The very deep 22 did rot 23 : O Christ! That ever this should be! Yes, slimy things 24 did crawl 25 with legs

35

Upon the slimy sea.

6. 7. 8. 9.

dim: dark uprist: rose up mist: light fog foam: white spray on the top of waves 10. furrow: track that a boat leaves behind it in the sea 11. burst: moved suddenly 12.dropped: fell 13. copper: reddishbrown metal 14. mast: tall pole on which the sails of the ship are hung 15. We stuck: we did not move 16. breath: wind 17.motion: movement 18. idle: not moving 19.boards: the wood from which the ship was made 20. shrink: become smaller 21. drop: very small amount of liquid 22. deep: the bottom of the sea 23. rot: start decomposing 24. slimy things: slippery, unpleasant creatures like snakes 25. crawl: move very slowly 26. in reel and rout: as if they were dancing 27. death-fires: optical illusions created by an electrical storm. They were known as St Eimo's fires and were believed by sailors to mean that death was on the way 28. assured were: were sure 29. plagued: caused continual suffering 30. fathom: one fathom is 1.8 metres

About, about, in reel and rout 26 The death-fires 27 danced at night; The water, like a witch's oils, Burnt green and blue and white.

40

And some in dreams assured were 28 Of the Spirit that plagued 29 us so; Nine

fathom 3 0

deep he had followed us

From the land of mist and snow.

We stuck, nor breath nor motion; as idle as a painted ship upon a painted ocean.'

26


(A Spirit had followed them; one of the invisible inhabitants of this planet, neither departed souls nor angels; concerning whom the learned Jew, Josephus, and the Platonic Constantinopolitan, Michael Psellus, may be consulted. They are very numerous, and there is no climate or element without one or more.)

31. utter: total 32. drought: period when there is no rain 33. withered at the root: their tongues were dying like a plant that does not get any water 34. choked: suffocated 35. soot: black powder produced when something is burnt 36. well a-day: exclamation expressing displeasure at what happened on that day •

And every tongue, through utter 31 drought 32 ,

45

Was withered at the root 33 ; We could not speak, no more than if We had been choked 3 4 with soot 35 . (The shipmates, in their sore distress, would fain throw the whole guilt on the ancient Mariner: in sign whereof they hang the dead sea-bird round his neck.)

Ah! well a-day 36 ! what evil looks Had I from old and young!

50

Instead of the cross, the Albatross About my neck was hung.

COMPREHENSION 1 W h a t 'hellish t h i n g ' had t h e mariner d o n e ? How

4

did t h e o t h e r c r e w m e m b e r s react t o t h e mariner's

s p e c t a c l e did he witness at n i g h t ?

d e e d ? W h a t m a d e t h e m c h a n g e their reaction? 2

In w h a t w a y did t h e o t h e r sailors b e c o m e

' a c c o m p l i c e s to t h e c r i m e ' ? S e e t h e s e c o n d n o t e . 3 W h a t path did t h e ship t a k e ? W h a t did t h e sailors run out of?

W h a t type of animals did t h e mariner s e e ? W h a t

5

What was causing the sailors' misfortune? (Stanza 1 0 )

6

W h y could t h e y no longer speak?

7

W h a t did t h e o t h e r sailors d o to punish t h e mariner

for his c r i m e ?

ANALYSIS 1 Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner in t h e form of a ballad*. a medieval ballad.

a. Tick t h e features t h a t you identify in Coleridge's work a n d find e x a m p l e s . A ballad: • narrates a story.

recounts the adventures of the ancient mariner • is c o m p o s e d in simple t w o or four line stanzas. • consists of alternate four and t h r e e stress line. • rhymes on t h e s e c o n d a n d fourth line. • c o n t a i n s f e w descriptive details. • leaves t h e motives b e h i n d t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' actions unexplained. • makes extensive use of

for his w o r k ? 2

Underline s e n t e n c e s in t h e t e x t w h e r e t h e sun or

t h e sea are m e n t i o n e d . Are t h e y described in a realistic or s y m b o l i c w a y ? 3

Find religious references in t h e s e c o n d , eighth a n d

twelfth stanzas, and a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e supernatural in t h e t e n t h stanza. Do you think t h e sea-animals described in t h e eighth stanza are real o r supernatural, or could t h e y b e either? 4

How would you define t h e a t m o s p h e r e created in

the poem? repetition*.

• uses stock descriptive phrases such as 'milk-white s t e e d ' for a w h i t e horse, etc. • includes a refrain. b. Medieval ballads are generally divided into five categories, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r of their stories. W h i c h of t h e following c a t e g o r i e s d o you

think The Rime of the Ancient Mariner could be

W h a t e l e m e n t s c o n t r i b u t e to t h e creation of t h e atmosphere? 5

• Crime and p u n i s h m e n t

• Historical ballads • Outlaws and bad m e n K Ballads of t h e supernatural

Consider t h e simile* in lines 27-28.

W h a t d o e s it

convey? • A s e n s e of paralysis

• A s e n s e of b e a u t y

• T h e idea of colour

• T h e idea of an unreal world

• Other: 6

classified u n d e r ? • Love stories

c. W h y d o you think Coleridge c h o s e t h e ballad form

Here are s o m e of t h e features of

Explain t h e paradox*

c o n t a i n e d in t h e i m a g e in t h e

seventh stanza. 7

Find e x a m p l e s of end-of-line

rhythm patterns and

rhymes*,

alliteration*.

regular

mmmm

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner - Samuel Taylor Coleridge

27

WRITERS' WORKSHOP Internal rhymes

Internal rhymes are rhymes that occur within a line. Like the more frequently used end rhymes (the rhyming of final words) they are used to add a musical quality to the language. T h e r e are several e x a m p l e s of internal rhyme in t h e t e x t you have just read. Example: For all averred I had killed the bird Find o t h e r e x a m p l e s in lines 5 and 1 5 .

OVER TO YOU

E x p e r i m e n t with internal rhyme. Think of t w o or t h r e e words t h a t rhyme and try t o include t h e m in t h e s a m e s e n t e n c e . Example:

same, name He told me his name, which was the same

Alone On A Wide Wide Sea!

Text E10

The Ancient Mariner observes the awfid situation he finds himself in.

Part IV (•••)

Alone, alone, all, all alone, Alone on a wide wide sea! And never a saint took pity on My soul in agony. (He despiseth the creatures of the calm.)

The many men, so beautiful!

5

And they all dead did lie: And a thousand thousand slimy1 things Lived on, and so did I. (And envieth that they should live, and so many be dead.)

I looked upon the rotting 2 sea, And drew my eyes away;

10

1 looked upon the rotting deck 3 , And there the dead men lay. I looked to heaven, and tried to pray; But or ever4 a prayer had gusht 5 , A wicked6 whisper7 came, and made

15

My heart as dry as dust. I closed my lids8 and kept them close 9 , And the balls 10 like pulses 11 beat; For the sky and the sea, and the sea and the sky Lay like a load 12 on my weary 13 eye, And the dead were at my feet.

20

many men, so beautiful! And they all dead did lie...'

GLOSSARY

•

1. slimy: slippery and unpleasant like snakes 2. rotting: decomposing 3. deck: top level of a ship 4. or ever: before 5. gusht: (gushed) come out 6. wicked: evil 7. whisper: very quiet voice 8. lids: eyes 9. close: closed lO.balls: eyeballs tl.pulses: pulsations 12.load: heavyweight 13.weary: tired

28


(But the curse liveth for him in the eye of the dead men.)

The cold sweat 14 melted 15 from their limbs 16 , Nor rot nor reek 17 did they: The look with which they looked on me Had never passed away.

25

An orphan's curse 18 would drag19 to hell A spirit from on high; But oh! more horrible than that Is the curse in a dead man's eye! Seven days, seven nights, I saw that curse,

30

And yet I could not die. (In his loneliness and fixedness he yearneth towards the journeying Moon, and the stars that still sojourn, yet still move onward; and every where the blue sky belongs to them, and is their appointed rest, and their native country and their own natural homes, which they enter unannounced, as lords that are certainly expected and yet there is a silent joy at their arrival.)

The moving Moon went up the sky, And no where did abide 20 : Softly she was going up, And a star or two beside -

35

Her beams 21 bemocked the sultry main 22 , Like April hoar-frost 23 spread; But where the ship's huge 24 shadow lay, The charmed 25 water burnt alway 26 'Oh happy living things! no tongue their beauty, might declare...'

A still and awful red. (By the light of the Moon he beholdeth God's creatures of the great calm.)

Beyond the shadow of the ship, I watched the water-snakes. They moved in tracks of shining white, And when they reared27, the elfish 28 light Fell off in hoary flakes 29 . Within 30 the shadow of the ship 14.sweat: liquid that comes through your skin when you are hot or frightened 15.melted: disappeared 16.limbs: bodies 17.reek: have an unpleasant smell 18.curse: condemnation 19.drag: pull down 20.abide: stop 21.beams: shining lines of light

I watched their rich attire 31 : Blue, glossy green, and velvet black, They coiled 32 and swam; and every track Was a flash of golden fire.

22.bemocked the sultry main: made fun of the hot and windless sea 23.hoar-frost: white powdery ice 24.huge: very big

25.charmed: under a magic spell 26.alway: always 27.reared: came up out of the sea 28.elfish: magical

29.hoary flakes: small icelike pieces 30.Within: inside 31.attire: clothes 32.coiled: twisted and turned

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner - Samuel Taylor Coleridge 307

(Their beauty and their happiness.) (He blesseth them in his heart.) O happy living things! no tongue Their beauty might declare 33 : A spring of love gushed 34 from my heart, And I blessed them unaware 35 : Sure my kind saint took pity on me, And I blessed them unaware.

33.no tongue ... declare: nobody would be able to put into words how beautiful they were 34.gushed: came out quickly and in large quantities (like water from a pipe)

55

35.unaware: without realising what I was doing 36.sank: went down below the surface of the water 37.lead: a heavy metal

(The spell begins to break.)

The self-same moment I could pray; And from my neck so free The Albatross fell off, and sank 36 Like lead 37 into the sea.

60

COMPREHENSION 1 W h y was t h e mariner alone? W h a t h a p p e n e d w h e n

4

he tried to pray? Did he g e t relief from closing his eyes?

m o o n ? W h a t colour was t h e sea in t h e s h a d o w of t h e

2

Had t h e bodies of t h e d e a d c r e w m e m b e r s b e g u n

to d e c o m p o s e ?

boat? 5

3 W h i c h w a s worse, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e mariner: t h e curse of an orphan or t h e curse of a dead m a n ' s e y e ?

W h a t colour did t h e sea b e c o m e in t h e light of t h e

W h a t did t h e mariner see in t h e w a t e r ? W h a t did

he unconsciously d o ? 6

W h e n did t h e albatross fall from t h e mariner's n e c k ?

T h e sun a n d t h e m o o n are t w o of t h e central

ANALYSIS 1 This section of t h e p o e m m a y b e divided into t w o

5

parts. In t h e first part t h e mariner looks inwards, at his

symbols*

o w n condition and l a m e n t s his misfortune. In t h e

t h e y are m e n t i o n e d in t h e t w o texts you have read.

s e c o n d part he looks outwards at his surroundings

W h i c h is associated with pain and suffering a n d w h i c h

and finds a sense of h a r m o n y with nature. Identify t h e

with g e n t l e n e s s and forgiveness?

turning point in t h e t e x t . 2

6

T h e t h e m e s of religion a n d t h e supernatural are

in t h e p o e m . Underline t h e lines in which

T h e albatross is also an i m p o r t a n t symbol in t h e

p o e m . T h e killing of t h e albatross has b e e n

strongly present in this section of t h e p o e m . Find

interpreted in several different ways:

references t o religion in t h e first, fourth, seventh a n d

- man's indifference towards nature;

twelfth stanzas. Identify t h e supernatural e l e m e n t s in t h e text. 3

Explain t h e use of personification*

- t h e crucifixion of Jesus Christ; in t h e eighth

stanza. W h i c h words/expressions (also c o n s i d e r t h e n o t e ) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e m o o n is a b e n i g n natural element? 4

- man's lack of Christian values;

Focus o n t h e description of t h e watersnakes in t h e

tenth and eleventh stanzas. Underline t h e colours a n d the verbs of m o v e m e n t t h e mariner uses. D o you

- t h e betrayal of basic h u m a n values and instincts; - t h e suppression of t h e creative drive a n d imagination in m a n . Do you a g r e e with any of t h e s e interpretations or d o you have your o w n personal view? Justify your response. As you read Text El 0 again, listen t o t h e

think t h a t t h e watersnakes are real or magical animals,

recording and identify musical features such as

or could t h e y b e considered t o b e b o t h ?

alliteration*, repetition*, rhyme* and rhythm*.

Think of a c o m m o n superstition. Do s o m e research into its origin and explain your findings t o t h e rest of t h e class.

THE ROMANTIC AGE - P o e t r y

HJMHHHHH ^^^^^^^HwHHHU^^^H

Early years

Samuel Taylor

Coleridge was b o r n in 1 7 7 2 ,

the youngest of ten children. W h e n his father died he was sent away to a London charity school for children of the clergy. He was an avid reader and a b r i g h t s t u d e n t . In 1 7 9 1 he w e n t to Cambridge, but he suddenly interrupted his education to enlist in a regiment of light dragoons. Later he was re-admitted i n t o Cambridge, where he met the radical poet Robert Southey, whose sympathetic views on the French Revolution he shared. Together they planned the foundation of an egalitarian Utopian community in New England. The project was abandoned but the two friends collaborated on a verse drama, The Fall of

Robespierre

(1794). Marriage

C o l e r i d g e left C a m b r i d g e w i t h o u t a degree a n d ,

almost on impulse, married Southey's fiancee's sister. The marriage, which produced four children, was a failure: the couple lived apart for most of their lives. Encounter

with Wordsworth

In 1795 Coleridge met William Wordsworth ( • pp. E 1 6 - 2 3 ) , a poet

w i t h s i m i l a r p o l i t i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y v i e w s . T h e e n c o u n t e r p r o d u c e d o n e of t h e m o s t c r e a t i v e partnerships in English literature. The result of their collaboration was the Lyrical Ballads

(1798),

which opened with one of the four poems that Coleridge had contributed: The Rime of the

Ancient

Mariner ( • Texts E9 and E10). He also began, but never completed, three other ballads, the finest of which is Christabel,

and composed his celebrated opium-vision Kubla Khan. In 1 7 9 8 he travelled to

Germany with Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy. He had become disillusioned with the political radicalism inspired by t h e French Revolution and t u r n e d his a t t e n t i o n to G e r m a n philosophy, especially the ideas of the philosopher Immanuel Kant. He learned German, studied philosophy at Gottingen University and translated some works by the r o m a n t i c poet Friedrich von Schiller into English. Drug addiction

In 1800 he returned to England and went with the Wordworths to live in the Lake

District. By this time he had become addicted to opium, which was the only available relief for the pain he suffered due to various health problems. In 1804 he left for Malta, hoping to overcome his addiction and improve his health in a warmer climate. He worked as secretary to the governor of Malta for two years and then returned to England. In 1 8 0 8 he m o v e d back to t h e Lake District, close to t h e Wordsworths and

The Lake District

Southey. Together they became known as the 'Lake Poets'. He fell in love with Wordsworth's sisterin-law, a love that was to be a source of great suffering all through his life. The end of a friendship

In 1 8 1 0 his f r i e n d s h i p w i t h W o r d s w o r t h c a m e to a b i t t e r e n d . His

addiction to opium got worse, producing terrible m o o d swings and making h i m unable to work productively. In t h e a t t e m p t t o free h i m s e l f of t h e h a b i t he w e n t to live in t h e h o u s e h o l d of a physician in London. London

and fame

In the following years he slowly regained his health, worked as a journalist and

gave lectures that established his reputation as a distinguished literary critic.

Writers' Gallery - Samuel Taylor Coleridge

- 3 »

*

-

f

In 1 8 1 6 the publication of the poems Christabel

v

y

»

»

^mmm^mm^mm^

-

and Kubla Khan consolidated his fame. The

following year he wrote his m a j o r prose work, Biographia

Literaria

( • p. El 19), a series of

dissertations on subjects ranging from literary criticism and philosophy to sociology. He died in 1834. His epitaph, which he wrote to sum up a life of suffering, reads: Beneath this sod A Poet lies; or that which once was he. 0 lift one thought in prayer for S.T.C. That he, who many a year with toil of breath, Found Death in Life, may here find Life in Death. Lyrical Ballads

Coleridge's reputation as a poet is based on a

small but magnificent corpus of work. The best expression of his poetic vision can be found in his collaboration with Wordsworth in the Lyrical Ballads ( • p. El 18). The contribution to the collection by the two poets was very different. While Wordsworth wrote poetry inspired by the simple things of everyday life, Coleridge turned to the past for mystery and wonder and took the readers into the fantastic world of the imagination. Wordsworth asked the readers to enjoy his natural descriptions, Coleridge on the other hand asked them to 'suspend disbelief' and let him lead them into mysterious and supernatural worlds. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner

This can be clearly seen in The Rime of the Ancient

Mariner

( • Texts E9 and E10), where the juxtaposition of ordinary experience with supernatural events, and the use of powerful symbols (the sun, the moon) and striking images create an eerie, otherworldly atmosphere which stimulates the reader's imagination. Kubla Khan

Kubla Khan, started in 1798 and published unfinished in 1816, was apparently

inspired by a dream in an opium-induced sleep. Coleridge woke up with a clear image of the poem, but lost the vision, except for a few lines, when a visitor disturbed him. The poem's theme is the fabulous ancient Orient and its magic rites. Its most striking features are its suggestive imagery and musical rhythm. Christabel

In the same year Coleridge published another unfinished poem, Christabel, which he

had written over a period of time. The poem is a medieval romance of the supernatural, which includes many Gothic elements. Coleridge was very disappointed when Wordsworth refused to include it in the second edition of the Lyrical Biographia Literaria

Ballads.

Though he is best known today for his poetry, Coleridge wrote articles and

dissertations on philosophy, political analysis and theology. His treatises and lectures made him the most influential English literary critic of the n i n e t e e n t h century. In his Biographia

Literaria

( • p. El 19), considered his greatest critical work, Coleridge developed theories that were intended to be the introduction to a great philosophical work, which he never produced.

TASK Use t h e following h e a d i n g s t o t a k e n o t e s o n C o l e r i d g e ' s life a n d works a n d t h e n p r e p a r e a s h o r t r e p o r t . - Early life a n d e d u c a t i o n

- C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Lyrical Ballads

- Germany

- Friendship with W o r d s w o r t h

- Health p r o b l e m s

- Rehabilitation a n d final years

MHMM


George Gordon Byron I N T R O D U C T I O N • Byron is remembered as much for his life as for his poetry. His amorous adventures and wholehearted participation in political movements were just two aspects of a life that helped to make him a legendary, heroic figure. The poems that follow reveal Byron's many-sided nature. He praises a beautiful girl, he complains that he n o longer has the energy to e n j o y life as he used to and he resolves to give his support to the Greek independence movement.

Painters m u s t always pay close a t t e n t i o n t o t h e quality of light in their paintings. A little m o r e light or s h a d e c a n c h a n g e our impression of t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r greatly. In this p o e m Byron, like a painter, f o c u s e s his a t t e n t i o n o n light and h o w it can e n h a n c e beauty.

Q

Text E l l

She Walks In Beauty

She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes 1 and starry skies; And all that's best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes: Thus mellow'd to that tender light Which heaven to gaudy day denies 2 . One shade 3 the more, one ray4 the less, Had half impair'd 5 the nameless grace Which waves6 in every raven tress7, Or softly lightens o'er her face;

10

Where thoughts serenely sweet express •

GLOSSARY

1 climes: regions or climates 2. Thus mellow'd ... denies: her beauty is soft (mellow'd). It is a tender light, not the harsh, bright light (gaudy) of daytime 3. shade: piece of darkness

How pure, how dear their dwelling-place 8 And on that cheek, and o'er that brow 9 , So soft, so calm, yet eloquent, The smiles that win 10 , the tints that glow 11 , But tell of days in goodness spent, A mind at peace with all below, A heart whose love is innocent!

4. ray: piece of light 5. Had half impair'd: would damage 6 . waves: undulates 7. raven tress: shiny black hair 8. dwelling-place: home 9. brow: forehead 10. win: conquer people's heart 11. tints that glow: soft colours that shine

4

Maria Bicknell (Mrs John Constable) by lohn Constable (1816).

is

George Gordon Byron

COMPREHENSION 1 What does the poet compare the lady's beauty to, in the opening two lines of the poem? 2 Which word in line 6 suggests that daylight is too strong?

ANALYSIS

Which phrase means 'beauty' in line 8 ?

4 Make a list of the physical features that are mentioned in the poem.

;

1 Contrast the phrase 'She walks in beauty' with 'She is beautiful'. What nuances of meaning does the phrase used by Byron suggest? • That the beauty he is describing is out of the ordinary, complex, mysterious. • That he is describing more than physical beauty. • That the lady he is describing is not only beautiful herself, but is also surrounded by beauty. 2

3

The opening simile* compares the lady's beauty to

3 The lady's beauty is compared to the perfect balance of opposites (line 3: 'best of dark and bright'). Find other examples of balancing opposites in the second and third stanzas. 4 Find words or phrases in the poem that associate the lady's beauty with softness, calmness and purity. 5

Find examples of personification*

in the poem.

6

Identify the rhyming scheme of the poem. Find

trying to capture in this simile?

examples of alliteration*, assonance* and run-on lines*.

• The undefinable quality of the lady's beauty. • The fact that her beauty is composed of different elements: darkness and light.

7 ft Listen again to the recording of the poem. How would you define the rhythm*? Is it in keeping with the theme of beauty in the p o e m ?

the light of a starry, cloudless night. What is the poet

• The delicacy and gentleness of the lady's beauty (contrast with the 'gaudy' light of day). • The fact that the lady's beauty contains something sinister, a dark quality.

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P P a r a l l e l i s m is t h e repetition in t h e same line or in close p r o x i m i t y o f similar syntactical structures. An e x a m p l e o f parallelism in She Walks in Beauty

c a n b e f o u n d in line 7:

One shade the more, one ray the less Parallelism is a s o p h i s t i c a t e d f o r m o f r e p e t i t i o n w h i c h is used t o e m p h a s i s e t h e m e a n ing o f t h e separate clauses. It also creates a h a r m o n i o u s syntactical b a l a n c e w h i c h adds a musical quality t o t h e language. Identify the repetition of conjunctions in the first verse of the poem. Find examples of parallelisms within the same line and in successive lines in the final verse of the poem. Parallelisms are often used in proverbs and sayings, for example: 'live and let live', 'all's well that ends well'. Think of some examples in your own language.

Byron associates the beauty of the woman with night-time. Which time of day do you particularly like? Do you look forward to a balmy summer's evening or do you thrill at a glorious sunrise on a frosty winter's morning? Tell the rest of the class.

34 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry rnMmmf:

Byron was only thirty-six w h e n he died, b u t in t h e following short p o e m he s e e m s t o n e e d a rest from t h e hectic life he has led.

So We'll Go No More A-Roving

Text E 1 2

So we'll go n o m o r e a-roving1 So late i n t o the night, T h o u g h t h e h e a r t b e still as l o v i n g , A n d t h e m o o n b e still as b r i g h t . F o r t h e s w o r d o u t w e a r s 2 its s h e a t h 3 , And the soul wears t h e breast, And the heart must pause to breathe, A n d L o v e i t s e l f h a v e rest. T h o u g h t h e n i g h t was m a d e for loving, And the day returns t o o soon,

10

Yet w e ' l l g o n o m o r e a - r o v i n g By the light of the m o o n . A portrait of Byron by Thomas Phillips (1835). GLOSSARY 1. a-roving: verb form used in poetry or songs (roving:

going out to enjoy ourselves) 2. outwears: lasts longer than

3. sheath: the covering for a sword

COMPREHENSION 1

Divide t h e p o e m into:

2

W h e n did t h e p o e t g o 'a-roving'? W h a t kind of

a. S t a t e m e n t of intent: lines

activities d o you think 'roving' included?

b . Explanation: lines

3

c. Reformulation of intent: lines

roving?

W h a t s e e m s t o have caused t h e p o e t to s t o p

ANALYSIS 1 T h e p o e t uses t h e p r o n o u n ' w e ' and n o t 'I'. W h a t effect d o e s this have on t h e p o e m ?

I

• It involves t h e reader m o r e directly. • It s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e 'roving' was d o n e in c o m p a n y . • It distances t h e reader from t h e p o e m . 2

Focus o n t h e metaphor*

in t h e o p e n i n g line of t h e

3

How would you define t h e t o n e of t h e p o e m ?

4

T h e p o e m is based on an old Scottish folk s o n g .

W h i c h of t h e following features of folk s o n g s can you identify in it? • Colloquial verb form • A refrain

s e c o n d stanza. T h e ' s w o r d ' represents t h e p o e t ' s

• Strong and regular rhythm*

spirit, while t h e ' s h e a t h ' represents his body. By

• Extensive use of

c o m p a r i n g his spirit to a sword, w h a t d o e s t h e p o e t

• A c h o r u s (a r e p e a t e d verse)

s u g g e s t a b o u t his attitude t o life?

repetition*

and rhyming s c h e m e

George Gordon Byron

In this p o e m Byron is saying t h a t he n o l o n g e r has t h e e n e r g y to live at t h e hectic p a c e h e has b e e n used to. Do y o u think t h e r e is a t i m e in life w h e n w e should or m u s t slow d o w n a n d give up s o m e of t h e t h i n g s w e like doing, or can w e keep g o i n g with t h e s a m e e n e r g y and enthusiasm of youth as w e g r o w older? Discuss with your classmates a n d find e x a m p l e s of people w h o you think have m a n a g e d t o live life to t h e full even in their later years (for e x a m p l e : Nelson M a n d e l a , Tina Turner).

Byron was never a m a n t o settle for a quiet h o m e life of easy c o m f o r t a n d was always looking for n e w adventures. This p o e m w a s written just a f e w m o n t h s b e f o r e he died. Read it a n d find o u t w h a t n e w project w a s to take up all his e n e r g i e s in his final days.

On This Day I Complete My Thirty-Sixth Year

Text E 1 3

'Tis 1 t i m e t h i s h e a r t s h o u l d b e u n m o v e d 2 , S i n c e o t h e r s it h a t h c e a s e d t o m o v e 3 : Yet, t h o u g h I c a n n o t b e b e l o v e d 4 , Still l e t m e l o v e ! M y days are in t h e yellow leaf5; T h e f l o w e r s a n d fruits o f l o v e are g o n e ; T h e w o r m 6 , t h e canker7, a n d t h e grief8 Are m i n e a l o n e ! T h e fire t h a t o n m y b o s o m p r e y s 9 Is l o n e 1 0 as s o m e v o l c a n i c isle;

10

N o t o r c h is k i n d l e d 1 1 at its b l a z e A funeral

pile12.

T h e h o p e , t h e fear, t h e j e a l o u s c a r e , T h e exalted portion13 of the pain And power o f love, I c a n n o t share,

15

But wear the chain.

But 'tis not thus14- and 'tis not here S u c h t h o u g h t s s h o u l d s h a k e m y soul, n o r

now,

W h e r e g l o r y d e c k s t h e h e r o ' s bier, Or binds his brow15.

GLOSSARY 1. 'Tis: it is 2. unmoved: not feel strong emotions 3. Since ... move: because my

20

heart (it) and emotions no longer cause passion in other people (hath ceased: have stopped) 4. beloved: loved by others

5. My days ... yellow leaf: I am getting older 6. worm: long, thin insect that is usually associated with death

7. canker: destructive infection 8. grief: great sorrow 9. The fire ... preys: the fire of passion that is eating away (preys) at my heart (bosom) 10. lone: alone 11. kindled: lit 12. funeral pile: large amount of wood on which a dead body is burnt 13. exalted portion: large amount 14.'Tis not thus: it is not in this way 15.Where glory ... brow: where glory can be seen on the hero's face (binds his brow) as he is carried away from the battlefield on a piece of wood (bier)

%3 6f


T h e sword, t h e b a n n e r 1 6 , a n d t h e field, G l o r y a n d G r e e c e 1 7 , a r o u n d m e see! The Spartan, borne u p o n his shield18, W a s n o t m o r e free. A w a k e ! ( n o t G r e e c e - s h e is a w a k e ! ) A w a k e , m y spirit! T h i n k t h r o u g h

25 whom

T h y l i f e - b l o o d t r a c k s its p a r e n t l a k e 1 9 , A n d t h e n strike h o m e 2 0 ! Tread t h o s e reviving passions d o w n 2 1 , Unworthy manhood22! - unto thee23 Indifferent s h o u l d t h e smile or

30

frown24

O f beauty be. 16. banner: a big flag used as a standard by an army 17. Greece: Byron helped the Greeks in their struggle against Turkish domination 18.The Spartan ... shield: when Spartans died in battle they were carried (borne) from the field on their shields (pieces of metal or wood that soldiers used to protect themselves from attack) 19.Think ... lake: think of your ancestors. Byron was descended from the kings of Scotland 20. strike home: attack the enemy, in this case the Turks 21.Tread ... down: repress (tread: walk on) these reawakened passions, i.e. thoughts of love 22. Unworthy manhood: you are not acting as a man should in these circumstances 23. thee: you 24. frown: an angry or unhappy facial expression 25.thou ... thy youth: you regret your youth 26. Seek out: look for 27. grave: a place in the ground where a dead body is buried

If t h o u r e g r e t ' s t t h y y o u t h 2 5 , why

live?

The land of honourable death Is h e r e : - u p t o t h e f i e l d , a n d g i v e

35

Away t h y breath! S e e k o u t 2 6 - less o f t e n s o u g h t t h a n f o u n d A soldier's grave27, for t h e e t h e best; Then look around, and choose thy ground, A n d t a k e t h y rest.

40

George Gordon Byron

COMPREHENSION 1 Why, according to the poet, should his heart no

4

longer be moved? (First stanza)

place for gloomy thoughts on lost love? Where is the

2

What awaits the poet in the future? (Second stanza)

3

Does the poet still feel passion? Is it shared by others?

(Third stanza) Which aspects of love can t h e poet no longer share? (Fourth stanza)

Why does the poet feel that this is not the time or

poet and what is he involved in? What, according to the poet, should give him the

5

strength to fight? 6

W h a t 'honourable death' does he desire?

ANALYSIS 1 The poem deals with several themes: love,

7

loneliness, ageing, valour and death. Find at least o n e

an honourable escape from the pain of living unloved.

line reference for each of t h e m .

Underline t h e euphemisms*

Analyse t h e metaphor*

2

used by the poet in line 5

using the table below. tenor

common ground

vehicle

In lines 6 and 7 which words convey the joys of

love and the pain of being without love? W h a t musical device is used in the phrase suggesting the joys of love? 4

The idea of fire is used in an e x t e n d e d m e t a p h o r

in t h e third stanza. W h a t does t h e fire represent? Which striking fire images represent t h e poet's loneliness and despair? 5

Which aspects of love does the poet focus on in

the fourth stanza? Are they the features of love that people generally wish to share? 6

he uses for death in the

last two stanzas. 8 The poem is written in the form of a soliloquy*.

ageing 3

In t h e final part of the poem the poet sees death as

In the sixth and seventh stanzas the poet refers t o

Greece's glorious past (lines 2 3 - 2 4 ) and to his own noble ancestry (lines 2 7 - 2 8 ) . How do these thoughts condition his attitude to death?

In the first part of the p o e m he uses the pronoun 'I'. Which pronoun does he use in the second part? What does this c h a n g e signal? • The poet's wish to cast off his g l o o m y thoughts. • The poet's uncertainty a b o u t being involved in battle. • The poet's desire to c h a n g e . 9

How would you define the t o n e of t h e p o e m ?

1 0 Identify t h e rhyming scheme*

of t h e p o e m .

Is it regular throughout? Each stanza is c o m p o s e d of three iambic

tetrameters*

(four feet) followed by a iambic dimeter* (two feet). What effect does the short final line of each stanza create? • It interrupts the flow of the poem and adds tension. • It makes t h e rhythm more dramatic. • It makes t h e rhythm more regular. • It adds variety.

a They make him more cheerful. • They make him see death as an honourable end.

Byron is regarded as a hero in G r e e c e for the part he played in t h e national liberation struggle against Turkish domination. From your studies of history and literature, find another writer w h o was actively involved in a political or social cause. Describe t h e cause which they supported and the part which they played in it ( • Visual Link E1).

.i316THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry


mm

George

background

G o r d o n Lord B y r o n was b o r n i n L o n d o n i n 1 7 8 8 . His p a r e n t s h a d b e e n l i v i n g in F r a n c e w h i l e hiding from their creditors, but just before Byron's birth his m o t h e r r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d . His f a t h e r s t a y e d o n i n F r a n c e , w h e r e h e died t h r e e years later, p o s s i b l y c o m m i t t i n g suicide. B y r o n was b o r n l a m e a n d l i m p e d all o f his life. Education

He was e d u c a t e d at H a r r o w a n d t h e n at C a m b r i d g e .

An avid reader of t h e classics, especially poetry, h e wrote and p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 0 7 his first work, Hours of Idleness,

GEORGE GORDON BYRON (1788-1824)

a collection of

s e n t i m e n t a l poems. T h e critics were n o t impressed and Byron r e p l i e d t o h i s d e t r a c t o r s w i t h a f a m o u s satire, English

Bards

and

Scotch Reviewers.

W h e n h i s great u n c l e d i e d t h e f o l l o w i n g year, B y r o n i n h e r i t e d t h e title ( B a r o n B y r o n o f R o c h d a l e ) , s o m e m o n e y a n d t h e B y r o n s ' a n c e s t r a l h o m e , N e w s t e a d Abbey. The 'Grand

In 1 8 0 9 h e set o u t o n h i s ' G r a n d Tour', t h e c u s t o m a r y trip a b r o a d t h a t a f f l u e n t

Tour'

e d u c a t e d y o u n g m e n w e n t o n . O v e r t w o years, h e visited all t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o u n t r i e s a n d started w o r k o n t h e p o e t i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h i s trip, Childe

Harold's

Pilgrimage,

w h i c h t o o k h i m e i g h t years t o

c o m p l e t e ( • Visual L i n k E6). Success

and scandal

Back in E n g l a n d h e p u b l i s h e d t h e first t w o c a n t o s o f Childe

Harold.

The poem

m e t w i t h i n s t a n t success a n d e s t a b l i s h e d B y r o n as o n e o f E n g l a n d ' s l e a d i n g R o m a n t i c p o e t s . He was just t w e n t y - f o u r years o l d w h e n h e ' a w o k e o n e d a y t o f i n d h i m s e l f f a m o u s ' . He was very o u t s p o k e n a b o u t h i s radical p o l i t i c a l views, a n d h i s private life was t h e source o f m u c h s c a n d a l . A r u m o u r t h a t a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i s h a l f - s i s t e r h a d led t o t h e b i r t h o f a c h i l d b e g a n t o c i r c u l a t e a n d o u t r a g e d f a s h i o n a b l e society. Marriage

and

self-exposed

exile

I n 1 8 1 5 B y r o n tried t o f i n d stability in marriage, b u t h i s wife left

h i m j u s t b e f o r e t h e b i r t h o f Ada, h i s o n l y l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d . At t h i s p o i n t h e h a d b e c o m e a s o c i a l o u t c a s t . He left E n g l a n d n e v e r t o r e t u r n a n d w e n t t o G e n e v a , w h e r e h e w a s j o i n e d b y P e r c y a n d Mary Shelley ( • pp. E 8 8 - 9 5 ) and Mary's stepsister Claire Clairmont, with w h o m Byron had a d a u g h t e r , Allegra. T h i s was o n e o f t h e m o s t p r o d u c t i v e p e r i o d s o f h i s life. He b e g a n t h e p o e m Prisoner Italy

ofChillon,

f i n i s h e d t h e t h i r d c a n t o o f Childe

Harold

a n d started t h e d r a m a

The

Manfred.

In 1 8 1 6 m o v e d t o Venice, w h e r e h e lived w i t h n i n e t e e n - y e a r - o l d C o u n t e s s Teresa Guiccioli a n d

her rich, aged h u s b a n d . T h r o u g h Teresa and her family he j o i n e d a b r a n c h of t h e Carbonari, conspirators fighting against t h e Austrian oppressors. He t h e n j o i n e d o t h e r British radical exiles, s u c h as S h e l l e y ( • p p . E 4 0 - 5 1 ) at Pisa, w h e r e t h e y p u b l i s h e d a p o l i t i c a l j o u r n a l , The Liberal.

In 1822, shortly

before Shelley d r o w n e d in a b o a t i n g accident, t h e group o f English expatriates w e n t t h e i r separate ways. Greece

B y r o n ' s h e a l t h was n o t g o o d , b u t w h e n h e h e a r d t h a t t h e G r e e k s w e r e p r e p a r i n g a r e v o l t

a g a i n s t t h e Turks h e j o i n e d t h e i n s u r g e n t s a t M i s s o l o n g h i . H e c o n t r i b u t e d m o n e y a t h e c a u s e a n d

Writers' Gallery - George Gordon Byron

•iMtiF

um&H

wm?

•

^

s

m

»

was m a d e c o m m a n d e r in c h i e f , b u t did n o t live l o n g e n o u g h t o take part i n a n y m i l i t a r y a c t i o n . In 1 8 2 4 his h e a l t h failed h i m , a n d h e died o n April 1 9 t h . He was o n l y t h i r t y - s i x years o l d . His r e m a i n s were s e n t b a c k t o E n g l a n d , w h i l e h i s h e a r t was b u r i e d at M i s s o l o n g h i .

Byron e x p e r i m e n t e d with different literary genres, including poetry and drama. B y r o n w r o t e p o e m s in a great v a r i e t y o f m e t r e s , s u c h as She Walks

Poems

in Beauty

( • Text E l l )

a n d Ode on Venice i n w h i c h t h e p o e t c e l e b r a t e s t h e city's b e a u t y a n d l a m e n t s its decay. Childe Pilgrimage,

Harold's

a p o e m in four c a n t o s written b e t w e e n 1 8 1 2 and 1 8 1 9 , tells t h e story of a y o u n g

d i s i l l u s i o n e d n o b l e m a n w h o travels t o t h e places t h a t B y r o n h a d visited o n his G r a n d Tour. H a r o l d is e n c h a n t e d b y t h e g l o r i o u s past o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s as r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i r m o n u m e n t s a n d a d m i r e s t h e w o n d e r s o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d . T h e u n f i n i s h e d p o e m Don Juan,

w h i c h m a n y critics consider his

m a s t e r p i e c e , is a p i c a r e s q u e verse satire w i t h several a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s . T h e h e r o ' s travels, a d v e n t u r e s , l o v e affairs, ideas, i m p r e s s i o n s a n d feelings are very close r e f l e c t i o n s o f w h a t B y r o n did, felt a n d t h o u g h t . T h e p o e m is also a satire a g a i n s t c o n v e n t i o n a l restraint, s o c i e t y a n d t h e R o m a n t i c p o e t s w h o h a d t u r n e d f r o m p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l i s m t o c o n s e r v a t i s m ( • pp. E 2 2 - 2 3 ) . T h e d r a m a Manfred

Drama

is inspired b y t h e f r u s t r a t i o n i n d u c e d b y t h e r e f l e c t i o n t h a t m a n is ' h a l f

dust, h a l f deity, alike u n f i t t o sink or soar'. T h e p r o t a g o n i s t is t h e s t e r e o t y p e o f t h e R o m a n t i c h e r o : a m b i g u o u s l y h a n d s o m e , t o r m e n t e d , passionate, m e l a n c h o l i c , e m o t i o n a l , solitary. Torn b e t w e e n n o b l e a s p i r a t i o n s a n d sin, a n d u n a b l e t o solve t h e d u a l i s m , h e c o m m i t s suicide. T h e t r a g e d y i n five acts Marino

Tragedy

Faliero,

Doge of Venice d r a m a t i s e s a n e p i s o d e i n V e n e t i a n

history, w h e n t h e d o g e f o r m e d a n a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e p e o p l e t o o v e r t h r o w t h e state. T h e m a i n i n t e r e s t o f Marino

Faliero,

Reputation

like in all his o t h e r t h e a t r i c a l works, lies i n its p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n t .

A l t h o u g h Byron's work was widely criticised o n m o r a l grounds and f r e q u e n t l y

a t t a c k e d b y critics, it was i m m e n s e l y p o p u l a r in E n g l a n d a n d t h e rest o f Europe; his sales were b e t t e r in G e r m a n y a n d F r a n c e t h a n i n B r i t a i n . As a R o m a n t i c i c o n his i m p o r t a n c e was e n o r m o u s . T h e p o e t T e n n y s o n ( • M o d u l e F) s u m m e d u p t h e g e n e r a l r e a c t i o n t o h i s d e a t h w h e n h e w r o t e o n h e a r i n g t h e n e w s : ' t h e w h o l e w o r l d d a r k e n e d t o m e ' . B y r o n e m b o d i e d t h e R o m a n t i c spirit a n d g a v e it a r e c o g n i s a b l e face. He left b e h i n d h i m t h e e n d u r i n g i m a g e o f t h e B y r o n i c h e r o : a g l o o m y , u n s a t i s f i e d social o u t c a s t , a w a n d e r e r i n f o r e i g n lands, a fighter a g a i n s t social i n j u s t i c e , w h o in his q u e s t for selfrealisation, refuses t o a c c e p t social c o d e s a n d c o n v e n t i o n s .

TASK Byron's life seems to reflect the essence of the typical Romantic hero'. Which elements do you find in his biography that support this statement?


Percy Bysshe Shelley INTRODUCTION •

At t h e e n d o f h i s e s s a y , A Defence

of Poetry

( 1 8 2 1 ) , Shelley w r o t e t h a t 'Poets are t h e

u n a c k n o w l e d g e d legislators of t h e world'. He believed t h a t poetry was a force for good, b o t h for t h e individ u a l a n d s o c i e t y . T h r o u g h h i s p o e t r y h e felt h e c o u l d c h a n g e h i s f e l l o w m a n a n d c h a n g e t h e w o r l d .

Natural s e t t i n g s or natural p h e n o m e n a c a n have a p r o f o u n d e f f e c t o n us. A glorious s u n s e t m i g h t fill us with a sense of p e a c e , while a very loud clap of t h u n d e r m i g h t m a k e us shake in fear. Shelley is sitting in a w o o d b e s i d e t h e river Arno n e a r F l o r e n c e at t h e e n d of s u m m e r . He is f a s c i n a t e d b y t h e p o w e r and majesty of t h e w e s t wind a n d h o p e s it will help him pull o u t of his depression.

Q InSgMEi Ode To The West Wind i O wild West W i n d , t h o u 1 breath of Autumn's being, T h o u , from w h o s e u n s e e n presence t h e leaves dead Are d r i v e n 2 , l i k e g h o s t s f r o m a n e n c h a n t e r f l e e i n g 3 ,

Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic 4 red, Pestilence-stricken 5 multitudes: O thou,

5

W h o chariotest 6 to their dark wintry bed T h e w i n g e d s e e d s 7 , w h e r e t h e y lie c o l d a n d low, E a c h like a c o r p s e 8 w i t h i n its g r a v e 9 , u n t i l T h i n e 1 0 azure sister o f t h e S p r i n g 1 1 shall b l o w

H e r c l a r i o n 1 2 o ' e r t h e d r e a m i n g e a r t h , a n d fill

10

( D r i v i n g s w e e t b u d s 1 3 l i k e f l o c k s 1 4 t o f e e d i n air) W i t h living h u e s 1 5 and odours p l a i n 1 6 a n d hill:

W i l d Spirit, w h i c h a r t 1 7 m o v i n g e v e r y w h e r e ; D e s t r o y e r a n d p r e s e r v e r ; hear, o h , h e a r !

•

GLOSSARY

I 1. thou: you 2. Thou, from ... driven: even though they cannot see you, the leaves are blown away by you

3. enchanter fleeing: running away from a magician 4. hectic: bright 5. Pestilence-stricken: diseased 6. chariotest: carries 7. winged seeds: seeds flying as if they had wings

8. corpse: dead body 9. grave: where dead bodies are buried in the ground 10. Thine: your 11. azure sister of the Spring: zephyr (gentle wind

announcing the arrival of spring) 12.clarion: trumpet 13.buds: young flowers 14. flocks: groups of birds 15. hues: colours 16. plain: flat land 17. art: are

Percy Bysshe Shelley

II T h o u on whose stream18, mid19

1 t h e s t e e p sky's c o m m o t i o n,20

15

41

Shelley portrayed at Caracalla Baths by Joseph Severn.

L o o s e c l o u d s like earth's d e c a y i n g leaves are s h e d 2 1 , Shook from the tangled boughs22 of Heaven and Ocean23, A n g e l s o f r a i n a n d l i g h t n i n g 2 4 : t h e r e are s p r e a d O n t h e blue surface of t h i n e aery surge25, Like t h e b r i g h t hair uplifted f r o m t h e h e a d

20

O f s o m e fierce M a e n a d 2 6 , even from t h e dim verge27 Of the horizon to the zenith's28 height, The locks29 of the approaching storm. T h o u dirge30 O f t h e d y i n g year, t o w h i c h t h i s c l o s i n g 3 1 n i g h t Will be the d o m e 3 2 of a vast sepulchre,

25

V a u l t e d 3 3 w i t h all t h y c o n g r e g a t e d m i g h t 3 4 Of vapours, from w h o s e solid a t m o s p h e r e B l a c k r a i n , a n d fire, a n d h a i l w i l l b u r s t 3 5 : o h , h e a r !

Ill T h o u w h o didst w a k e n f r o m his s u m m e r dreams T h e b l u e M e d i t e r r a n e a n 3 6 , w h e r e h e lay,

30

Lulled b y t h e coil of his crystalline streams37, Beside a p u m i c e isle38 in Baiae's bay39, And saw in sleep old palaces a n d towers Quivering within the wave's intenser day40, All o v e r g r o w n w i t h a z u r e m o s s 4 1 a n d f l o w e r s

35

So s w e e t , t h e s e n s e f a i n t s 4 2 p i c t u r i n g 4 3 t h e m ! T h o u For w h o s e p a t h t h e A t l a n t i c ' s l e v e l p o w e r s

II 18. stream: air-flow 19. mid: in the middle of 20. commotion: noisy confusion 21. Loose clouds ... shed: the sky is like a tree from which scattered (loose) clouds are dropped down (shed) like dying (decaying) leaves 22.Shook ... boughs: shaken down from the intertwined i tangled) branches (boughs) 23. Heaven and Ocean: they are interconnected because vapour from the Ocean evaporates up to Heaven, where it forms clouds 24. Angels of rain and lightning: the clouds are

the first, innocent signs that there will be a fierce storm 25. aery surge: powerful sea of air 26. Maenad: in Greek mythology, a female follower of the god of wine (Dionysus). During celebrations Maenads danced in a wild (fierce) way 2 7. dim verge: dark edge 28. zenith: the highest point reached by the sun or moon in the sky 29. locks: hair; here: the clouds 30. dirge: sad song (of the wind)

31. closing: approaching 32. dome: circular roof 33. Vaulted: covered 34. congregated might: assembled strength 35.Of vapours ... burst: from the thick solid clouds that the west wind has gathered together, a violent storm (fire: lightning, hail: frozen rain) will erupt (burst) III 36.Thou ... Mediterranean: during the summer the Mediterranean was calm and seemed to be asleep but then you woke (didst waken) him up

37.Lulled ... streams: the sea is made to feel sleepy (lulled) by the serpentine movement (coil) of crystal clear underwater currents (crystalline streams I 38. pumice isle: island of volcanic rock 39. Baiae's bay: bay near Naples that was popular with Roman emperors 40.And saw ... day: you could see the ruins of the old town shaking slightly (quivering) below the surface of the intensely blue sea (wave's intenser day) 41. moss: flat plant that grows on wet surfaces. Under the sea it looks blue 42. faints: loses consciousness overcome by emotion 43. picturing: looking at


44.Thou For whose ... chasms: when you blow, the Atlantic (Atlantic's level powers: the Atlantic when it is calm) makes a path for you between its giant waves (chasms: deep space between two rocks. In this case it is between two waves) 45. sea-blooms: sea flowers 46. oozy woods: the slimy, slippery plants that grow on the sea bed 4 7. sapless: sap is a liquid substance that carries food through a plant. Underwater plants do not have any sap 48. foliage: leaves of a plant 49. despoil: destroy IV 50. mightest bear: might carry 51. swift: fast 52. pant: breathe quickly 53. beneath: under 54. impulse: power

Cleave themselves into chasms 44 , while far below The sea-blooms 45 and the oozy woods 46 which wear The sapless 47 foliage 48 of the ocean, know

40

Thy voice, and suddenly grow grey with fear, And tremble and despoil 49 themselves: oh hear! IV If I were a dead leaf thou mightest bear 50 ; If I were a swift 51 cloud to fly with thee; A wave to pant 5 2 beneath 5 3 thy power, and share

45

The impulse 54 of thy strength, only less free Than thou, O uncontrollable! If even I were as in my boyhood, and could be The comrade 55 of thy wanderings 56 over Heaven, As then, when to outstrip thy skiey speed

50

Scarce seemed a vision 57 ; I would ne'er have striven 58 As thus 5 9 with thee in prayer in my sore need 60 . Oh, lift me as a wave, a leaf, a cloud! I fall upon the thorns 61 of life! I bleed 62 ! A heavy weight of hours has chained and bowed 63

55

One too like thee: tameless 64 , and swift, and proud.

55.comrade: companion 56. wanderings: travels 57. As then ... vision: when I was a boy I did not think (Scarce seemed) it was impossible (a vision) to run faster than (outstrip) the wind

V

58.1 would ... striven: I would never have tried

My spirit! Be thou me, impetuous one!

59. As thus: like I am doing now 60. prayer in my sore need: I am praying to you because I am in deep despair 61. thorns: sharp points (on a plant such as a rose)

Like withered 67 leaves to quicken 6 8 a new birth!

Make me thy lyre 65 , even as the forest is: What if my leaves are falling like its own! The tumult of thy mighty 6 6 harmonies Will take from both a deep, autumnal tone,

60

Sweet though in sadness. Be thou, Spirit fierce,

Drive my dead thoughts over the universe And, by the incantation of this verse,

65

Scatter 69 , as from an unextinguished hearth 7 0 Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind! Be through my lips to unawakened 71 earth

62.1 bleed: I am losing blood 63. chained and bowed: imprisoned and bent over in a sign of submission

The trumpet 7 2 of a prophecy! O Wind,

64. tameless: someone who will always be wild and free and cannot be brought under control

65. lyre: the Aeolian harp that produces music when the wind blows through it

If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? 67. withered: dead

66. mighty: powerful

70

68. quicken: stimulate

71. unawakened: still sleeping

69. Scatter: throw around a wide area 70. hearth: place where a fire is burning

72. trumpet: messenger. A trumpet is, literally, a musical instrument that you blow into


COMPREHENSION 1 The p o e m is divided into five stanzas. C h o o s e a

4

heading for each one.

a. Where was the Mediterranean sleeping before the

• The effect of the wind on the sea.

Focus on the third stanza. west wind awakened it?

• The relationship between the poet and t h e wind.

b . What can t h e wind see below the waves? (Line 3 3 )

• The effect of t h e wind on t h e land.

c. How does the Atlantic form a 'path' for the wind?

• The effect of t h e wind on the sky.

d . How does the underwater foliage react to the

• The relationship between the poet and t h e rest of mankind. 2

'voice' of t h e wind? 5

Focus on the first stanza.

a. The p o e m is written in the form of an ode*. W h o or what is the poem addressed to?

b . What does he wish to share with the wind? c. In what way was the poet's life different when he

b . What does the poet c o m p a r e to 'ghosts' (line 3) and 'pestilence-stricken multitudes' (line 5 ) ?

was a boy? d . If t h e poet were a leaf, a cloud, a wave or a boy

c. In what sense is t h e wind both and a 'destroyer' and a 'preserver'? 3

Focus on t h e fourth stanza.

a. What wishes does t h e poet express in lines 4 3 ^ 4 6 ?

again, what would he not have to do? e. W h a t qualities does t h e poet share with t h e wind? (line 5 6 )

Focus on t h e second stanza.

a. What, according to the poet, are like leaves shaken from 'Heaven and O c e a n ' ?

6

Focus on the fifth stanza.

In the final stanza the poet makes a series of requests.

b . In what sense are t h e clouds 'angels'/messengers?

Identify t h e line in which he asks the wind:

c. The stormy sky forms a sepulchral d o m e over t h e

- to transform him into a musical instrument: line

land. W h o or what has died?

- to b e c o m e his spirit: line - to carry his thoughts around the universe: line - to spread his words a m o n g men: lines

ANALYSIS 1 From a structural point of view the p o e m is a

5

combination of the sonnet* form and terza

are associated with death and destruction, and life

rima*.

Work out t h e rhyming s c h e m e of the p o e m and note down the n u m b e r of lines in each stanza. 2

The language used throughout the p o e m is highly

figurative. The poet piles metaphor*

upon metaphor

to create dense, elaborate imagery*.

Find t h e vehicles

for the following tenors in t h e first stanza: wind, leaves, earth. 3

Many of t h e images Shelley creates appeal to the

senses. Find the images that appeal to the various

and regeneration. Does the poet view destruction as: • a futile end to a life cycle? • a necessary step towards renewal and regeneration? 6

line 1 2

hearing

lines 2 3 - 2 4

sight

line 41

touch

line 5 4

4

The imagery in the p o e m is drawn from t h e

scientific, mythical and biblical spheres. Find an example for each.

In t h e fourth stanza the pronoun T appears for

the first time. Underline the expressions that suggest that t h e poet: - is in a state of suffering. - has qualities which will allow him to o v e r c o m e his suffering.

senses: smell

Underline words and expressions in the p o e m that

7

In his essay A Defence

of Poetry Shelley wrote:

'For the mind in creation is as a fading coal, which some invisible influence, like an inconstant wind, awakens to transitory brightness.' 'Man is an instrument over which a series of external and internal impressions are driven, like the alterations of an ever-changing wind over an Aeolian lyre.' In which lines of the fifth stanza are similar ideas expressed?

43

44

8


The central symbol* of t h e p o e m is the wind:

Focus on the musical features of t h e p o e m .

9

a natural force which causes destruction and rebirth.

Find examples of:

It can b e interpreted in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e p o e m :

-

- as the political force of revolution which destroys the old order and builds a new and better future; - as the creative force of t h e imagination, which

alliteration* assonance* end rhyme* run-on lines*

transforms the old and familiar into the new and

Listen again to the recording. How would you

beautiful; - as freedom, which rises up and overthrows any form

define the musicality of the p o e m ?

of tyranny. Do you find any of these interpretations particularly convincing?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Personification

P e r s o n i f i c a t i o n is a type o f m e t a p h o r in w h i c h h u m a n characteristics s u c h as e m o t i o n s , personality, b e h a v i o u r a n d so o n are a t t r i b u t e d t o an a n i m a l , o b j e c t or idea: The proud lion surveyed his kingdom. T h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n is t o m a k e a b s t r a c t ideas clearer t o t h e reader by comparing t h e m to everyday h u m a n experience. Humanising cold and c o m p l e x a b s t r a c t i o n s c a n b r i n g t h e m t o life, r e n d e r t h e m m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g a n d m a k e t h e m easier to understand.

TASK

Find o n e example of personification for each of the following in Ode to the West Wind and write the line references: wind

seeds

the Mediterranean

t h e Atlantic

sea foliage

wave

W h a t purpose does personification serve in Shelley's p o e m ?

OVER T O Y O U

Personify in o n e or more sentences o n e of the following abstract ideas: Boredom

Hatred

Pride

Kindness

Victory

Revenge

Poetry can be inspirational and affect the reader deeply. In Shelley's opinion, it can bring about 'a new birth' and be 'the trumpet of a prophecy'. Think of a p o e m in any language that you really like. Write down briefly why you like it and how it makes you feel.


45

T h r o u g h o u t history, kings and e m p e r o r s have built m o n u m e n t s to c o m m e m o r a t e their victories and a c h i e v e m e n t s a n d to leave a reminder of their g r e a t n e s s t o later g e n e r a t i o n s . Shelley asks t h e q u e s t i o n , 'Is all t h e effort t h a t is put into making t h e s e m o n u m e n t s t o posterity really w o r t h w h i l e ? '

Ozymandias1

Text E 1 5

I m e t a traveller from an a n t i q u e land W h o said: T w o v a s t a n d t r u n k l e s s 2 legs o f s t o n e GLOSSARY

Stand in the desert... Near t h e m , o n t h e sand, Half

sunk3,

a

shattered4

v i s a g e lies, w h o s e

frown5,

•

1. Ozymandias: Ramses II of Egypt (thirteenth century BC), who had huge monuments built during his reign and whose colossal tomb was shaped like a Sphinx

A n d w r i n k l e d 6 lip, a n d s n e e r 7 o f c o l d c o m m a n d , Tell t h a t its s c u l p t o r w e l l t h o s e p a s s i o n s r e a d W h i c h y e t s u r v i v e , s t a m p e d o n t h e s e lifeless t h i n g s , T h e h a n d that m o c k e d t h e m a n d t h e heart that fed8:

2. trunkless: without the upper part of the body 3. sunk: buried in the sand 4. shattered: broken into little pieces 5. frown: facial expression of displeasure 6. wrinkled: twisted or curled 7. sneer: facial expression showing contempt, as if you are superior to others

And on the pedestal these words appear: ' M y n a m e is O z y m a n d i a s , k i n g o f k i n g s : Look o n m y works, ye9 Mighty10, a n d despair!' Nothing beside remains. Round the decay Of that colossal wreck11, boundless12 and bare T h e l o n e a n d l e v e l s a n d s s t r e t c h far a w a y .

8. Which yet survive ... heart that fed: have outlived the sculptor who imitated/made fun of (mocked) them and the king who felt them 9. ye: you 10. Mighty: powerful 11. wreck: something that has been destroyed 12. boundless: limitless

A lithograph showing Ramses II temple.

COMPREHENSION 1 W h o did t h e p o e t m e e t ? 2

W h a t did t h e traveller s e e in t h e desert?

3 W h a t details did he n o t i c e on t h e f a c e ?

4

W h a t words a p p e a r e d on t h e pedestal?

5

W h a t surrounded t h e m o n u m e n t ?

•


ANALYSIS 1

Underline t h e words and expressions which

6

Note down the n u m b e r of lines in t h e p o e m . W h a t

describe Ozymandias as represented by t h e statue.

poetic form did Shelley use?

W h a t picture of the pharaoh e m e r g e s ? Do the

The p o e m can be divided into three parts. Which lines

c o n t e n t and t o n e of the inscription (lines 1 0 - 1 1 )

are dedicated to the description of the m o n u m e n t ,

confirm this view of the king?

the inscription and the surroundings?

2

Circle the words and expressions which describe

t h e landscape surrounding the statue. Which aspects

7

Focus on the musical features of t h e p o e m .

a. Work out t h e rhyming scheme*.

of t h e setting e m e r g e most forcefully? Does the

Is it regular

throughout?

setting in which the m o n u m e n t stands make it seem

b. Find examples of alliteration*

ridiculous?

c. The following words are taken from the final three

3

remains

highlighted in line 1 1 .

lone

a. Why did Ozymandias originally believe t h e mighty

bare

bareness of the desert.

his works today?

• A playful rhyming effect which suggests that t h e

How would you describe the tone of t h e

poet is making fun of Ozymandias.

inscription?

• A slow, mournful, clanging effect which suggests

5 What is t h e tone of the line that follows 'Nothing

that the poet is mourning t h e destruction of a

beside remains'?

• To underline the central irony of the p o e m .

boundless

far away

• An echoing effect which suggests the vast

b. Why should the mighty despair when they look on

• To highlight Ozymandias's magnificence.

round level

What effect is created?

should despair when they looked on his works?

What is t h e effect of the stark contrast in t o n e ?

lines*.

lines of the p o e m . Read them aloud:

The p o e m is built on an ironic situation which is

4

and run-on

magnificent work of art. 8

On the basis of your analysis, define the theme* of

the p o e m .

• To emphasise the destructive nature of time.

r H Would t h e world b e a poorer place if there were no forms of c o m m e m o r a t i o n ? W h a t do you think are t h e best ways to ensure that people will be r e m e m b e r e d ? Is t o o much time and m o n e y spent on remembering t h e past? Discuss with your classmates.


Shelley, like Byron, h a d a r e b e l l i o u s spirit a n d a t t a c k e d i n j u s t i c e a n d c o r r u p t i o n in early n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y England. In t h e following p o e m he paints a very n e g a t i v e picture of political a n d social life in t h e year 1 8 1 9 . Does he believe t h a t this situation can ever c h a n g e ?

England In 1819

Text E16

An old, m a d , blind, despised1, a n d d y i n g king2, Princes, t h e dregs3 o f their dull race, w h o flow T h r o u g h public scorn4, - m u d from a m u d d y spring5, R u l e r s w h o n e i t h e r see, n o r feel, n o r k n o w , But leech6-like to their fainting country cling7, Till t h e y d r o p , b l i n d i n b l o o d , w i t h o u t a b l o w , A people starved a n d stabbed8 in the unfilled9 field10, An army, w h i c h liberticide a n d prey M a k e s as a t w o - e d g ' d s w o r d t o all w h o w i e l d 1 1 , G o l d e n a n d s a n g u i n e 1 2 laws w h i c h t e m p t 1 3 a n d slay14; Religion Christless, Godless - a b o o k sealed15; A Senate - Time's worst statute unrepealed16, Are g r a v e s 1 7 , f r o m w h i c h a g l o r i o u s P h a n t o m m a y Burst, t o i l l u m i n e o u r t e m p e s t u o u s day.

A scene fr^,,, Madness of King George (1994).

GLOSSARY 1. despised: hated 2. An old ... king: George III, who was blind and mentally ill. He died in

1820

3. dregs: the lowest forms of human life who deserve no respect 4. scorn: the feeling that someone is stupid or useless 5. mud ... spring: these people are corrupt (mud: wet, dirty earth) like their

ancestors were (spring: a place where water comes up naturally from the ground). Lines 2 and 3 are also a reference to George Ill's disreputable son, who was Prince Regent from 1811 to 1820 6. leech: small soft creature that sucks blood from animals 7. cling: hold very tightly 8. stabbed: killed with a knife 9. unfilled: not cultivated 10. A people ... field: this is a reference to the Peterloo

Massacre in August 1819, when troops attacked peaceful protesters ( • p. E107) 11. An army ... wield: the army is like a sword with two edges. With one it kills freedom (liberticide), while with the other it hunts down and kills (prey) people (wield: hold the sword) 12. sanguine: stained with blood 13. tempt: lead into temptation 14. slay: kill

15.Religion ... sealed: the state Protestant religion is all-powerful and intolerant 16.Time's ... unrepealed: the statute is the law which prevented Catholics and Dissenters from holding office ( • p. E108) (unrepealed: not abolished) 17. graves: where people are buried when they die

47

.i48


COMPREHENSION 1

Here is a list of the targets of Shelley's attack in the

p o e m . Find the c o m m e n t s he makes a b o u t t h e m : King, Princes, Rulers, Army, Laws, Religion, Senate.

2

What are the subjects of the verb 'are' in line 1 3 ?

3

W h a t might the ' P h a n t o m ' (line 1 3) do?

4

T h e images that Shelley uses to attack the political

ANALYSIS 1

Note down the n u m b e r of lines in t h e p o e m .

W h a t poetic form does it take? Where does the

powerful. Which o n e do you find most effective and

turning point occur? 2

and religious leaders of his country are extremely

Focus on the sound and rhythm* of the p o e m .

why? The language throughout the poem is highly

a. Work out the rhyming s c h e m e . Is it regular?

5

b . Find examples of alliteration* and run-on

figurative. Focus on the following key images and try

lines*.

c. Consider the punctuation. How many full stops are there? Circle c o m m a s and dashes. Does the p o e m

to interpret t h e m . a. In what sense is the field in which t h e people starve

flow smoothly or is the rhythm irregular? d . What does the rhythm of the poem convey?

and are stabbed 'untitled'? (Line 7) b. In what way is the state religion 'a book sealed'?

• The poet's sad, reflective m o o d . • The poet's anger and frustration.

(Line 1 1 ) c. Why are the religious and political leaders

• The tumultuous state of English affairs. W The poet's passive resignation to what is

considered 'graves'? (Line 1 3) d. How do you interpret the 'glorious Phantom' (line

happening in England. 3

1 3) and in what sense might it 'illumine' the 'tempestuous day'?

Focus on the language used in the p o e m .

a. Does t h e poet favour: • short, sharp words?

6

Which adjectives would you c h o o s e to define the

tone* of the p o e m ? Is it the same throughout?

• complex, sophisticated words? Give examples. b . What does t h e choice of words suggest? • That in his anger and frustration the poet uses words as blows to strike against his targets. • That the poet wished to use simple terms that could be understood by the c o m m o n man.

In this p o e m Shelley c o n d e m n s t h e m a s s a c r e of u n a r m e d civilians by t h e army (The Peterloo Massacre 1 8 1 9 , • p. E107). Think of o n e other incident in history where innocent civilians were killed by troops. Explain the context in which the massacre happened.


LINK

{ to the world of music

OHIO Tin soldiers1 and Nixon 2 coming, We're finally on our own. This summer I hear the drumming 3 , Four dead in Ohio. Gotta get down to it 4 Soldiers are gunning 5 us down Should have been done long ago. What if you knew her And found her dead on the ground How can you run when you know? (twice) by Neil Young (from the album Deja Vu)

GLOSSARY 1. Tin soldiers: armed soldiers used to control marches 2. Nixon: US president during the protests against the Vietnam war 3. drumming: the sound of battle drums, i.e. conflict 4. Gotta get down to it: wake up to reality 5. gunning: firing, shooting

The four students who were killed at Ohio State University were protesting against the war.

TASKS 1 W h o is t h e t a r g e t of Neil Young's attack in t h e s o n g a n d w h y ? 2

At t h e t i m e this s o n g w a s written, US society was b o m b a r d e d by n e w s and i m a g e s of violence. How d o e s Neil

Young try t o personalise t h e events t h a t t o o k place in O h i o and t h e r e b y increase their i m p a c t o n t h e listener? 3

How would you d e s c r i b e t h e t o n e of t h e s o n g ? Is it similar to t h e t o n e of Shelley's p o e m ?

49

E

iA s jM fc0


WRITERS' GALLERY Early

years

Percy

Bysshe

S h e l l e y was b o r n i n 1 7 9 2 i n t o a p r o s p e r o u s a r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l y . He was e d u c a t e d at O x f o r d where his political and p h i l o s o p h i c a l readings led h i m to cow r i t e a d i s s e r t a t i o n , The

Necessity

of Atheism,

t h e first o p e n

profession of a t h e i s m to be printed in England, for w h i c h t h e Oxford authorities expelled h i m . Shelley's father d e m a n d e d a public retraction of the pamphlet, but Shelley refused and instead eloped to Scotland with the sixteen-year-old daughter of a coffee house proprietor. This caused a p e r m a n e n t break with his family.

P E R C Y BYSSHE SHELLEY (1792-1822)

Political

T h e c o u p l e s p e n t s o m e t i m e i n Ireland, w h e r e

writings

S h e l l e y g o t i n v o l v e d i n p r o m o t i n g p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s for C a t h o l i c s .

He r e t u r n e d t o Wales, w h e r e h e tried t o set u p a c o m m u n e o f Tike spirits'. D u r i n g t h i s period h e w r o t e p a m p h l e t s p r o m o t i n g 'free love' a n d c o n d e m n i n g , a m o n g o t h e r things, royalty, m e a t - e a t i n g a n d r e l i g i o n . In 1 8 1 3 h e p u b l i s h e d h i s first m a j o r p o e m , Queen Mab,

w h i c h c o n t a i n e d m a n y o f h i s early

p o l i t i c a l a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l ideas. A tempestous

life

In 1 8 1 4 h e m o v e d t o L o n d o n , w h e r e h e c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e

p h i l o s o p h e r W i l l i a m G o d w i n a n d fell in l o v e w i t h h i s s i x t e e n - y e a r - o l d d a u g h t e r , Mary. He left h i s wife, Harriet, w h o h a d just h a d t h e i r first c h i l d a n d was e x p e c t i n g a s e c o n d . T h e d e a t h of his grandfather temporarily solved Shelley's financial problems and allowed h i m and Mary to elope a b r o a d a c c o m p a n i e d b y Mary's f i f t e e n - y e a r - o l d stepsister, J a n e ' C l a i r e ' C l a i r m o n t . Having travelled a r o u n d Europe, t h e three settled in G e n e v a where, in t h e s u m m e r of 1 8 1 6 , t h e y w e r e j o i n e d b y L o r d B y r o n ( • p p . 3 2 - 3 9 ) , w h o b e c a m e C l a i r e ' s lover. It w a s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d o f relative tranquillity that Shelley c o m p o s e d s o m e of his best p o e m s . M a r y gave birth t o their son, W i l l i a m , a n d b e g a n w o r k o n h e r n o v e l , Frankenstein

( • pp. E 8 8 - 9 5 ) .

In t h e a u t u m n o f 1 8 1 6 Harriet d r o w n e d h e r s e l f i n Hyde Park in L o n d o n , so S h e l l e y was free t o m a r r y Mary. He r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d a n d tried t o w i n c u s t o d y o f h i s t w o c h i l d r e n b y his first marriage, b u t h i s r e p u t a t i o n as a n a t h e i s t w o r k e d a g a i n s t h i m . D u r i n g h i s t i m e in E n g l a n d h e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Keats a n d o t h e r literary figures, a n d w o r k e d o n p o l i t i c a l p a m p h l e t s a n d essays.

«SPSS

Self-exile

in Italy

D i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h Britain, in d e b t a n d suffering f r o m i l l - h e a l t h , S h e l l e y m o v e d

w i t h h i s f a m i l y t o Italy, w h e r e h e w r o t e t h e d e e p l y m e l a n c h o l i c Stanzas Prometheus

Unbound,

Written

in Dejection

and

a lyrical d r a m a in f o u r acts.

T h e d e a t h o f h i s a d o r e d s o n ' W i l l - m o u s e ' was a p e r s o n a l tragedy a n d c a u s e d h i s wife M a r y t o h a v e a n e r v o u s b r e a k d o w n . T h e f a m i l y settled i n Tuscany. T h e s u m m e r o f 1 8 1 9 w i t n e s s e d an e x t r a o r d i n a r y b u r s t o f c r e a t i v e e n e r g y . S h e l l e y w r o t e s o m e b e a u t i f u l l y r i c s i n c l u d i n g To a Skylark, p f ^ p l

p e r h a p s his b e s t - l o v e d p o e m , Ode to the West Wind

The Cloud

and

( • T e x t E 1 4 ) . His political writing was inspired b y

t h e news f r o m E n g l a n d a n d i n c l u d e d t h e s o n n e t England

1819

( • Text E l 6 ) . T h e period at Pisa saw t h e

b i r t h o f his y o u n g e s t son, Percy Florence, a n d t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f his f a m o u s A Defence

of Poetry

(1821).

I n 1 8 2 2 S h e l l e y m o v e d his f a m i l y t o Lerici. In August 1 8 2 2 h e was d r o w n e d i n t h e b a y o f La Spezia. iSgi

His b o d y was c r e m a t e d o n t h e b e a c h at V i a r e g g i o in t h e p r e s e n c e o f B y r o n a n d o t h e r close friends.

Writers' Gallery - Percy Bysshe Shelley

••

••

•

mm>

. u m m w m -

H f T I M i S H ^ H I B ^^^MIMBAiiliii^^^^^^H

Q u e e n M a b and T h e R e v o l t o f I s l a m

•mmm^^s&mm

S h e l l e y ' s early w o r k s are

characterised by i n t e n s e political passion. In t h e p o e m

Queen

Mab, for e x a m p l e , S h e l l e y attacks s u c h 'evils' as c o m m e r c e , t h e m o n a r c h y , m a r r i a g e , religion a n d t h e e a t i n g of m e a t . In place of these vices he p r o p o s e s r e p u b l i c a n i s m , free love, a t h e i s m v e g e t a r i a n i s m . The Revolt

of Islam

and

is a l o n g a l l e g o r i c p o e m w h i c h t r a n s p o s e s a h i g h l y p e r s o n a l i s e d

v e r s i o n o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n i n t o an O r i e n t a l setting. T h e p o e m c o n t a i n s m a n y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s , a n d i n t r o d u c e s t h e t h e m e o f struggle a n d r e n e w a l w h i c h is p r e s e n t i n m u c h o f h i s later work. Italian

period

Shelley's w r i t i n g s d u r i n g h i s p e r i o d in Italy i n c l u d e s o m e o f h i s f i n e s t

(1818-1822)

work: The Cenci

( 1 8 1 9 ) , a verse tragedy based o n the true story of Beatrice Cenci, w h o was e x e c u t e d for

m u r d e r i n g h e r f a t h e r in R o m e at t h e e n d o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e story, w h i c h i n v o l v e d i n c e s t a n d a t h e i s m , f a s c i n a t e d S h e l l e y a n d so h e m a d e it t h e b a s i s o f a p l a y w h i c h s h o w s

strong

Shakespearean influences. Prometheus

Unbound

( 1 8 2 0 ) : a lyrical d r a m a in four acts. P r o m e t h e u s , t h e giant w h o in Greek

m y t h o l o g y s t o l e fire f r o m h e a v e n a n d g a v e it t o m a n , b e c o m e s a h e r o w h o e m b o d i e s t h e m o r a l salvation of M a n from tyranny. Odes

T h e y e a r 1 8 1 9 also saw t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f s o m e o f Shelley's f i n e s t lyrics: Ode to Liberty,

Cloud,

To a Skylark

a n d Ode to the West Wind.

The

T h e latter is c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y critics t o b e Shelley's

greatest s h o r t p o e m . In it t h e p o e t asks t h e spirit o f t h e W e s t W i n d t o b e b o t h destroyer a n d preserver, a n d t o r e g e n e r a t e h o p e a n d e n e r g y i n N a t u r e , i n t h e p o e t h i m s e l f a n d i n m a n k i n d i n g e n e r a l . It is w r i t t e n i n five m a j e s t i c s t a n z a s , e a c h t a k i n g t h e f o r m o f a s o n n e t . T h e m u s i c a l p a t t e r n s , w h i c h are built o n internal A Defence

rhyme*,

of Poetry

assonance*

a n d run-on

lines*,

clearly s h o w t h e poet's m a s t e r y o f h i s art.

( 1 8 2 1 ) is an essay i n w h i c h S h e l l e y argues t h a t p o e t r y c a n r e f o r m t h e w o r l d . In it

h e c l a i m s t h a t t h e p o e t is a m i s s i o n a r y , a p r o p h e t a n d a leader w h o , t h r o u g h h i s q u e s t for t h e e t e r n a l t r u t h s o f beauty, c a n s h o w t h e w a y t o a b e t t e r society. Reputation

As a w r i t e r , S h e l l e y h a s b e e n c r i t i c i s e d f o r h i s o b s c u r e s y m b o l i s m ,

intellectual

a r r o g a n c e a n d i n t e n s e self-pity. However, in h i s g r e a t e s t w o r k s h e t r a n s c e n d s t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s a n d c o n v e y s a m e s s a g e o f h o p e a n d a s p i r a t i o n t h r o u g h strikingly b e a u t i f u l prose a n d poetry.

TASK The many personal tragedies he experienced did not deter Shelley from spreading his message of hope for a better world. Discuss this statement, making reference to the information you have read about his life and works.

52


John Keats

T h e world of virtual reality is an artificial world w h i c h s o m e t i m e s s e e m s m o r e real a n d satisfying t h a n o u r o w n everyday world. W h e n John Keats looks at t h e paintings on an a n c i e n t Grecian urn, he s e e m s t o lose himself in a p e r f e c t , u n c h a n g i n g reality of t r e e s t h a t n e v e r lose their leaves a n d love t h a t n e v e r e n d s . W h a t lesson d o e s he learn from his trip into this virtually perfect world?

Text E l 7

Ode On A Grecian Urn

I T h o u 1 still u n r a v i s h e d 2 b r i d e o f q u i e t n e s s , T h o u foster-child3 of silence and slow time, GLOSSARY Thou: you unravished: virgin, pure foster-child: adopted child Sylvan: rural who canst... rhyme: in this way (thus) your paintings can (canst) tell a story better than a poem 6. leaf-fringed: with leaves around the edges 7. haunts: moves like a spirit 8 What leaf-fringed ... both: what story (legend) about gods or men is told in your pictures 9. Tempe: valley in ancient Greece 10.Arcady: region in ancient Greece that is synonymous with beautiful countryside 11. maidens: young women 12. loth: reluctant, not wanting to do something 13.pursuit: chase, running after someone or something 14. pipes and timbrels: musical instruments

Sylvan4 historian, w h o canst thus express A flowery tale m o r e sweetly t h a n our r h y m e 5 : W h a t leaf-fringed6 legend haunts7 about thy shape

5

O f deities or mortals, or of b o t h 8 , In T e m p e 9 or t h e dales of Arcady10? W h a t m e n o r g o d s are t h e s e ? W h a t m a i d e n s 1 1 l o t h 1 2 ? W h a t m a d pursuit13? W h a t struggle t o escape? W h a t pipes a n d timbrels14? W h a t wild ecstasy?

10

II Heard m e l o d i e s are sweet, b u t t h o s e u n h e a r d Are s w e e t e r ; t h e r e f o r e , y e

15

soft pipes, play o n 1 6 ;

N o t t o t h e s e n s u a l ear, b u t , m o r e e n d e a r e d , P i p e t o t h e spirit d i t t i e s o f n o t o n e 1 7 : Fair y o u t h 1 8 , b e n e a t h 1 9 t h e trees, t h o u c a n s t n o t l e a v e T h y song, n o r ever c a n t h o s e trees b e

is

bare20;

B o l d 2 1 Lover, n e v e r , n e v e r c a n s t t h o u kiss, T h o u g h w i n n i n g near t h e goal22 yet, d o n o t grieve23; She c a n n o t fade24, t h o u g h t h o u h a s t 2 5 n o t t h y bliss26, Forever wilt27 t h o u love, a n d she b e fair28!

II 15.ye: you 16. play on: continue playing 17.Not to the ... no tone: do not play real music for our ears (sensual ear: the real ear that can hear musical notes) but silent music (ditties of no tone) for our

spirit, which we like even more (more endeared)

20

even though you are very near the girl

18. Fair youth: good-looking young man

23. grieve: be sad

19.beneath: under

25.hast: have

24. fade: disappear

20. bare: without leaves

26. thy bliss: your happiness

21. Bold: confident, not shy

27. wilt: will

22.Though winning ... goal:

28. fair: beautiful

John Keats

III Ah, happy, h a p p y b o u g h s 2 9 t h a t c a n n o t s h e d 3 0 Your leaves, n o r ever bid t h e Spring adieu31; And, h a p p y melodist32, unwearied33, Forever piping34 songs forever new; M o r e h a p p y love! m o r e happy, h a p p y love!

25

F o r e v e r w a r m a n d still t o b e e n j o y e d , Forever panting35, a n d forever young; All b r e a t h i n g h u m a n p a s s i o n far a b o v e , T h a t leaves a heart high-sorrowful36 a n d cloyed37, A burning forehead, and a parching38 tongue39.

30

IV W h o are t h e s e c o m i n g t o t h e sacrifice? T o w h a t g r e e n altar, O m y s t e r i o u s p r i e s t , L e a d e s t t h o u 4 0 t h a t h e i f e r 4 1 l o w i n g 4 2 a t t h e skies, A n d all h e r s i l k e n f l a n k s 4 3 w i t h g a r l a n d s d r e s s e d ? W h a t l i t t l e t o w n b y river o r s e a s h o r e ,

35

Or m o u n t a i n - b u i l t with peaceful citadel, lohn Keats's drawing of a grecian urn.

Is e m p t i e d o f t h i s f o l k , t h i s p i o u s 4 4 m o r n ? And, little t o w n , t h y 4 5 streets for e v e r m o r e W i l l s i l e n t b e ; a n d n o t a s o u l t o tell W h y t h o u art46 desolate, can e'er47 return.

40 46. art: are 47. e'er: ever

O A t t i c 4 8 s h a p e ! Fair a t t i t u d e 4 9 ! w i t h b r e d e 5 0 Of marble m e n and maidens overwrought51, W i t h forest b r a n c h e s a n d t h e t r o d d e n 5 2 w e e d 5 3 ; T h o u , s i l e n t f o r m , d o s t t e a s e us o u t o f t h o u g h t 5 4 As d o t h 5 5 e t e r n i t y : C o l d P a s t o r a l 5 6 !

45

W h e n old age shall this generation waste57, T h o u shalt58 remain, in midst of59 other woe60 T h a n ours, a friend t o m a n , t o w h o m t h o u say'st61, ' B e a u t y is t r u t h , t r u t h b e a u t y , - t h a t is all Ye k n o w o n e a r t h , a n d all y e n e e d t o k n o w . '

Ill 29.boughs: branches 30. shed: let fall 31. bid the Spring adieu: say goodbye to the spring 32. melodist: musician 33. unwearied: not tired 34. piping: playing 35.panting-, desiring 36. high-sorrowful: very sad

50

37. cloyed: we are tired of it because we no longer get pleasure from it

IV 40. Leadest thou: are you leading

38. parching: thirsty

41. heifer: young cow

39.More happy ... a parching tongue: the eternal love on the urn is happier than our more passionate \ove that ends and leaves us sad

42. lowing: the deep sound that cattle make, mooing 43. silken flanks: shiny sides 44.pious: holy 45.thy: your

48. Attic: from Athens 49. attitude: disposition of figures in a painting 50. brede: intricate design 51. overwrought: elaborately decorated 52. trodden: stepped on 53. weed: wild plants 54.dost tease ... thought: takes us away (tease out: separate) from our serious thoughts 55. As doth: as does 56. Pastoral: work of art or literature about rural life 57. When ... waste: when this generation shall die 58. shalt: shall 59. in midst of: in the middle of 60.woe-, sorrow and sadness 61. thou say'st: you say

53

54


COMPREHENSION 1 W h o does 'Thou' refer to in line 1 ? 2 In the opening three lines the poet addresses the urn in three different ways. Identify them. 3 Through a series of questions the poet describes a Bacchanalian scene that is depicted on the urn. What is it? 4 In line 13 the poet says we cannot use the 'sensual ear' to hear 'unheard melodies'. What should we use to hear them, according to line 1 4 ?

6 In the third stanza why are the songs 'forever new' (line 2 4 ) and the love 'Forever warm' (line 2 6 ) ? Which lines describe the effect of human love? 7 In the fourth stanza the poet describes a second scene that is depicted on the urn. What is it? 8 In the final stanza the poet addresses the urn in four different ways. Identify them. 9 Underline the sentences that contain the message conveyed by the urn.

5 In the second stanza the poet describes the scene on the urn in more detail. What is the 'Fair youth' beneath the trees doing? What can the 'Bold Lover' never do?

ANALYSIS 1 Which words suggest the silence of the urn in the opening two lines? The silence of the urn is underlined by the use of the sibilant's' sound . Underline all the words in the opening two lines that contain a n ' s ' sound. Explain the paradox* in the silent urn expressing a tale 'more sweetly than our rhyme'. 2

Find an example of metonymy* in line 4.

3 As he looks at the scene depicted on the urn, the poet feels uncertainty and excitement. How is his heightened emotional state conveyed in lines 7 - 1 0 ? 4 The second stanza introduces the paradox of 'unheard' melodies. Which expression in line 1 4 repeats this idea? The poet says that unheard melodies are sweeter because they 'Pipe to the spirit'. How do you interpret this concept? 5 In the second stanza the poet suggests that the immobility of art has both positive and negative consequences. Say whether the following are positive (P) or negative (N) aspects. thou canst not leave/Thy song nor ever can those trees be bare _E_ Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss She cannot fade thou hast not thy bliss Forever wilt thou love she be fair 6 Find examples of the personification* in lines 2 2 and 2 7 . The contrast between the world of art and reality is continued in this stanza. Which adjectives describe love as it is depicted in the scene on the urn? From which semantic field are the images describing human love drawn (line 30)?

7 Extensive use is made of repetition* in the third stanza. Which words are repeated? What does the repetition of these words highlight? • The joy and permanence of the scene on the urn. • The poet's dissatisfaction with the transience of real life and love. 8 A sense of mystery surrounds the pastoral scene described in the fourth stanza. How does the sentence structure help to create this enigmatic atmosphere? 9

Find an example of synecdoche*

in line 39.

1 0 The poet uses four different expressions to address the urn in the fifth stanza. Which expression: -

indicates where the urn is from? underlines its beauty? highlights its silence? suggests that it is lacking in human warmth?

1 1 The poet's attitude toward the urn is ambivalent throughout the poem. He is fascinated by the timeless, youthful world represented on the urn which, however, he sees as lacking in human passion and the possibility of change. Which expressions describing the urn in lines 4 5 and 4 8 reiterate these conflicting views? 1 2 The final two lines of the poem have been the subject of much debate. Which of the interpretations below do you feel is closest to your own? • The world of art is superior to the real world of mankind. • An artist, by revealing beauty through his work, reaches man's highest achievement, i.e. truth. • Art can console man through its beauty. It cannot offer solutions to man's worldly problems. • Man should live his life truthfully and in the constant search for beauty.

Keats seems to fall in love with the perfect, never-changing world he sees on the urn. Think of a scene in a work of art or a photograph which makes you feel like Keats does. Consider the setting, the characters and the actions.

John Keats 333

W h e n s o m e o n e is in a state of ecstasy he or s h e s o m e t i m e s falls into a trance, a state in which a person s e e m s t o b e hypnotised. A t r a n c e can b e b r o u g h t on, for e x a m p l e , by an intense spiritual e x p e r i e n c e or by narcotic drugs. W h e n John Keats heard a nightingale sing o n e night, he was so e n c h a n t e d t h a t he fell into a trance. As you read t h e p o e m , notice h o w he gradually loses consciousness of t h e world around him only t o suddenly wake up at t h e e n d .

Ode To A Nightingale1

Text E18

o

M y heart aches, and a drowsy2 numbness3 pains M y s e n s e 4 , as t h o u g h o f h e m l o c k 5 1 h a d d r u n k , Or e m p t i e d s o m e dull o p i a t e 6 to t h e drains7 O n e m i n u t e past8, a n d Lethe-wards h a d sunk9:

15. Singest: sings 16. full-throated: at full voice

'Tis n o t t h r o u g h e n v y o f t h y h a p p y l o t , But b e i n g t o o h a p p y in t h i n e happiness10, T h a t t h o u , l i g h t - w i n g e d D r y a d 1 1 o f t h e trees, In s o m e melodious plot12 Of beechen green13, and shadows numberless14, Singest15 of s u m m e r in full-throated16 ease.

10

II O, for a draught of vintage17! that h a t h b e e n C o o l e d 1 8 a long age in t h e deep-delved earth19, Tasting of Flora20 a n d the c o u n t r y green, Dance, and Provencal21 song, and sunburnt mirth22! O f o r a b e a k e r 2 3 full o f t h e w a r m S o u t h , Full o f t h e t r u e , t h e

blushful24

is

Hippocrene25,

W i t h b e a d e d b u b b l e s w i n k i n g at t h e b r i m 2 6 , And purple-stained27 mouth; T h a t I m i g h t drink, and leave t h e world unseen, And w i t h t h e e 2 8 fade a w a y 2 9 i n t o t h e forest d i m 3 0 :

GLOSSARY 1. Nightingale: small brownish bird that sings beautifully, especially at night

6. dull opiate: narcotic drug containing opium which makes you want to sleep drains: drink to the very last drop past: ago

drowsy: sleepy numbness: sensation of being unable to think, feel or react in a normal way sense: all my senses, my being hemlock: a poisonous plant that causes death through paralysis

Lethe-wards had sunk: In Greek mythology, Lethe was a river that caused forgetfulness. The poet is saying that the opiate has made him forget everything 10.'Tis not... happiness: I have not become sleepy and forgetful because I am

20

jealous of you, but because you have made me very happy 11. light-winged Dryad: wood nymph who flies easily through the air. A nymph is a spirit of nature who, in Greek and Roman legend, appeared as a young girl 12. plot: piece of land 13.beechen green: green like beech trees 14. numberless: there are so many you cannot count them

17. draught of vintage: drink of wine 18. hath been Cooled: has been kept cold 19. deep-delved earth: deep down under the ground 20. Flora: Roman goddess of flowers 21. Provencal: from Provence, in southern France, home in the Middle Ages to the troubadours, who composed and sang love lyrics 22. mirth: happiness and laughter 23. beaker: drinking cup 24. blushful: red 25. Hippocrene: fountain on Mount Helicon that was sacred to the Muses and a source of poetic inspiration 26. With beaded... brim: the wine makes bubbles like beads (beaded) around the top of the cup (brim), which seem to be winking (to close and open one eye quickly, to send a message to someone). 27. stained: coloured 28. thee: you 29. fade away: disappear 30. dim: dark

,

mt5 6


III F a d e far away, d i s s o l v e , a n d q u i t e f o r g e t W h a t t h o u a m o n g t h e leaves h a s t 3 1 n e v e r k n o w n , T h e w e a r i n e s s , t h e fever, a n d t h e f r e t 3 2 H e r e , w h e r e m e n sit a n d h e a r e a c h o t h e r g r o a n 3 3 ; 25

W h e r e p a l s y 3 4 s h a k e s a few, sad, last g r e y h a i r s , W h e r e y o u t h grows pale, a n d

spectre-thin35,

a n d dies;

W h e r e b u t t o t h i n k is t o b e f u l l o f s o r r o w And l e a d e n - e y e d 3 6 despairs, W h e r e Beauty c a n n o t keep her lustrous3

eyes j 38 Or n e w Love p i n e at t h e m b e y o n d t o - m o r r o w

III 31. hast: has 32.weariness ... fret: tiredness, illness, and worry 33. groan: long, deep sound that you make when you are in pain 34. palsy: an illness that makes your arms and legs shake because you cannot control your muscles 35. spectre-thin: as thin as a ghost 36. leaden-eyed: with eyes that show a person is sad 37. lustrous: shining 38.Or new Love ... tomorrow: Love cannot desire (pine) the eyes of Beauty for more than one day IV 39. Bacchus and his pards: wine (Bacchus is the Greek and Roman god of wine and the pards are leopards who pulled Bacchus' chariot) 40. viewless: invisible 41.Poesy: poetry 42.Though ... retards: even though I am depressed and worried 43. haply: by chance 44. Clustered around: surrounded 45. Fays: fairies 46. verdurous glooms: green darkness 47. winding mossy ways: twisting roads that are covered in moss (a flat, green plant)

30

IV Away! a w a y ! f o r I will fly t o t h e e , Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards39, But o n the viewless40 wings of Poesy41, T h o u g h t h e dull b r a i n perplexes a n d retards42: A l r e a d y w i t h t h e e ! t e n d e r is t h e n i g h t , And

haply43

35

t h e Q u e e n - M o o n is o n h e r t h r o n e ,

C l u s t e r e d a r o u n d 4 4 b y all h e r s t a r r y F a y s 4 5 ; B u t h e r e t h e r e is n o l i g h t , S a v e w h a t f r o m h e a v e n is w i t h t h e b r e e z e s b l o w n T h r o u g h verdurous glooms46 and winding mossy ways47.

40

I c a n n o t see w h a t f l o w e r s a r e at m y f e e t , Nor w h a t soft i n c e n s e h a n g s u p o n t h e b o u g h s 4 8 , But, in e m b a l m e d 4 9 darkness, guess e a c h s w e e t 5 0 Wherewith the seasonable m o n t h endows51 T h e grass, t h e t h i c k e t 5 2 , a n d t h e f r u i t - t r e e w i l d ;

45

W h i t e h a w t h o r n 5 3 , and t h e pastoral eglantine54; Fast f a d i n g 5 5 v i o l e t s c o v e r e d u p i n l e a v e s ; And mid-May's eldest child, T h e c o m i n g m u s k - r o s e 5 6 , full of d e w y 5 7 w i n e , T h e m u r m u r o u s 5 8 h a u n t 5 9 o f flies o n s u m m e r e v e s 6 0 .

48. boughs: branches of trees 49. embalmed: perfumed 50.guess ... sweet: I try to make out what fragrances come from the various plants 51. Wherewith ... endows: which May (seasonable month) gives

52. thicket: group of bushes and small trees 53. hawthorn: small white tree that has small white leaves and red berries 54. pastoral eglantine: fragrant pink rose which is often referred to in pastoral poetry 55. Fast fading: dying quickly

50

56. musk-rose: a fragrant wti rose 57. dewy: dew is the drops < water that form during t night on plants and other objects 58. murmurous: noisy 59. haunt: place people like t goto 60. eves: evenings

John Keats

57

III Darkling 61 1 listen; and, for many a time I have been half in love with easeful Death, Called him soft names in many a mused rhyme 62 , To take into the air my quiet breath; Now more than ever seems it rich to die, To

cease 63

55

upon the midnight with no pain,

While thou art pouring forth thy soul 64 abroad 65 In such an ecstasy! Still wouldst thou 6 6 sing, and I have ears in vain 67 To thy high requiem become a sod 68 .

60

VII Thou wast 69 not born for death, immortal Bird! No hungry generations tread thee down 70 ; The voice I hear this passing night was heard In ancient days by emperor and clown: Perhaps the self-same song that found a path 7 1

65

Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home, She stood in tears amid the alien corn 7 2 The same that oft-times hath 7 3 Charmed 7 4 magic casements 75 , opening on the foam 7 6 Of perilous 77 seas, in faery 78 lands forlorn 79 .

70

An illustration for a nineteenth-century edition of Ode to a Nightingale.

VIII Forlorn! the very word is like a bell To toll 8 0 me back from thee to my sole self! Adieu! the fancy cannot cheat so well 81 As she is famed to do, deceiving 82 elf 83 . Adieu! adieu! thy plaintive anthem fades 84

75

Past the near meadows 85 , over the still stream 86 , Up the hill-side; and now 'tis buried deep In the next valley-glades 87 : Was it a vision, or a waking dream? Fled 88 is that music: - Do I wake or sleep?

VI 61. Darkling: in the darkness 62. mused rhyme: poem 63. cease: die 64.pouring ... soul: singing so beautifully at the top of your voice 65.abroad: over a wide area 66. wouldst thou: you would 67.1 have ears in vain: I would not be able to hear any more 68. To thy ... sod: you would

continue to sing while I would be dead (sod: a piece of earth)

80

her native home, Israel (alien corn: foreign land) 73. oft-times hath: often has 74. Charmed: entranced

VII 69. wast: were

75. casements: windows

70. tread thee down: oppress you 71. path: way

76. foam: white spray 77. perilous: dangerous

72.Perhaps ... corn: in the Bible, Ruth heard the song of the nightingale while she was crying nostalgically for

79.in faery ... forlorn: the nightingale's song is often a feature of romantic fairy tales (forlorn: sad)

78. faery: fairy

VIII 80. toll: call 81. the fancy ... well: my imagination (fancy) cannot trick (cheat) me anymore and I must return to the real world 82. deceiving: to deceive is to make someone believe something that is not true 83. elf: imaginary creature like a small person with pointed ears 84. plaintive anthem fades: your high, sad song dies away 85. meadows: fields 86. still stream: calm, small river 87. valley-glades: valleys 88. Fled: disappeared

•

58


COMPREHENSION 1

How does t h e poet feel, according to t h e opening

four lines of t h e p o e m ? Are these feelings caused by happiness or pain? Refer to line 6 in your answer. 2

W h a t does t h e poet long for in the second stanza?

5

In the fifth stanza the poet describes t h e luxuriant

undergrowth in the w o o d . Circle the names of the plants and flowers that are at his feet. Can he see t h e m ? How does he know they are there?

What would drinking 'a draught of vintage' help him

6

to do, according to lines 1 9 - 2 0 ?

considered as a possible escape from the suffering of

3

In the third stanza the poet describes t h e world

from which he wishes to escape. Find images for the following and q u o t e the line references: suffering illness 4

ageing

human life? Why does this particular m o m e n t seem suitable for dying? What t h o u g h t stops the poet from choosing the option of death? 7

sorrow and despair

Consider the sixth stanza. What has t h e poet often

W h o else has heard t h e nightingale's s o n g ?

What has t h e nightingale's song inspired?

ephemeral love and beauty

What, according to t h e poet in the fourth stanza,

8

What is imagination unable to do, according to

line 7 3 ?

will carry him t o t h e nightingale?

ANALYSIS 1 T h e languid feelings of the poet are mirrored by

5

t h e slow, flowing m o v e m e n t of the opening four lines.

portrayal of human misery. He uses metonymy*

Find examples in these lines of caesura*,

each other groan', line 2 4 ) and

run-on

lines*

In the third stanza t h e poet presents a graphic ('hear

personification*

and broad vowel sounds.

('Where palsy shakes', line 2 5 ) t o create striking

Which of these features:

images. Find another example of m e t o n y m y (for

- creates a flowing m o v e m e n t ?

ageing) in line 2 5 and personification in line 2 9 .

- slows the rhythm down? - creates pauses? 2

6

Examine the poet's choice of words in lines 2 3 - 2 8 .

Are they mostly monosyllabic or polysyllabic?

The poet attributes his dulled and drowsy m o o d to

Consider t h e rhythm* created by these words. How

happiness. Is there any suggestion, however, in this

would you define it? Does the rhythm mirror the

first stanza, that the poet is experiencing sorrow and

c o n t e n t of the stanza?

suffering? Consider his apparent need to forget ('and Lethe-wards had sunk', line 4 ) . 3

The description of the poet's state of mind is in

stark contrast to the description of the bird. Which words and expressions in lines 6 - 1 0 suggest t h e carefree happiness of the nightingale? 4

In the second stanza the poet creates an

atmosphere of warmth and merriment. By suggesting that the wine he wishes to drink should be 'cooled', he conveys the idea of a warm climate. a. Find other words and expressions that you would associate with the c o n c e p t s of warmth and merriment. b . The joyful playfulness of lines 1 1 - 1 8 is enhanced

by the use of alliteration*, assonance*, onomatopoeia*

and images which appeal to the

senses. Find examples of each of the above. c. The mood in the final two lines of the stanza has

7

In the fourth stanza t h e poet says that he will

escape from human suffering through poetry. a. Which images in this stanza suggest joyfulness? b. Which line introduces a note of sorrow? c. What word in the final line of the stanza reiterates the sense of sadness? 8

The beauty of the world of nature as described in

the fifth stanza contrasts sharply with t h e suffering of the human world in the third stanza. The poet piles image upon image appealing to all five senses. Say to which sense(s) t h e following images refer to. - flowers are at my feet - e m b a l m e d darkness - white hawthorn - fading violets - musk-rose full of dewy wine - the murmurous haunt of flies Note the onomatopoeia*

of line 5 0 . Which sounds

c h a n g e d . Which words create a darker, more

9

sinister atmosphere?

are repeated to suggest the buzzing of t h e flies?

|

John Keats

1 0 In the sixth stanza t h e poet considers death as a

1 2 What is t h e tone of t h e final stanza and how is it

possible e s c a p e from h u m a n suffering.

created? Has t h e nightingale's song provided a

a. What euphemism*

solution to human suffering or has it only provided

for death is used in line 5 4 ?

b . The climax* of t h e stanza c o m e s in lines 5 5 - 5 6 ,

temporary relief?

when the poet seems ready to e m b r a c e death.

In the light of your answer to question 11, how do

How would you describe t h e language he uses at

you interpret t h e final stanza of the p o e m ?

this m o m e n t of heightened e m o t i o n ? c. T h e poet refuses to c h o o s e death because he wishes to continue listening to the nightingale's

1 3 Focus on the structure of the p o e m . a. Note down t h e n u m b e r of lines in each stanza. T h e lines are written in iambic pentameter*,

song, which he calls 'high requiem' in t h e final line of the stanza. Which word contrasts sonically with 'high requiem' and suggests the inappropriateness

with the

exception of o n e line in each stanza. Which o n e ? b. Work out the rhyming s c h e m e of t h e first two stanzas. Is it regular?

of death? 11

59

In the seventh stanza t h e nightingale's song

b e c o m e s a symbol*. What does it symbolise? 18 Beauty

• The immortality of art

• Creative inspiration

• Imagination

Could it represent all of these concepts?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Assonance

Wmm

A s s o n a n c e is t h e u s e o f s i m i l a r v o w e l s o u n d s r e p e a t e d i n s u c c e s s i v e o r p r o x i m a t e w o r d s c o n t a i n i n g d i f f e r e n t c o n s o n a n t s . It creates v o w e l r h y m e as in t h e w o r d s ' n a m e ' , ' h a t e ' , 'favour'. Like a l l i t e r a t i o n , a s s o n a n c e gives p o e t r y a m u s i c a l quality. It also d e t e r m i n e s r h y t h m : • h e a v y , b r o a d s o u n d s 'o', ' u ' , ' a ' ( t h o u g h , t u r n , h e a r t , p a i n ) t e n d t o s l o w t h e r h y t h m down; • s l e n d e r 'i' a n d 'e' (this, let) s o u n d s c r e a t e a q u i c k e r p a c e . Examine lines 1 - 3 and lines 4 5 ^ 4 8 of Ode to a

Nightingale.

a. Find examples of assonance. W h a t vowel sounds dominate? • Long and broad

• Short and slender

b. W h a t kind of rhythm do they create? c. In lines 1 - 3 the poet is describing the suffering of human mortality, while in lines 4 5 - 4 8 he is describing t h e joys of nature. Explain why the rhythm of each section is appropriate to the contents.

OVER T O Y O U

Use broad vowel assonance to write a slow-paced sentence. Use slender vowel assonance to write a quick-paced sentence. Example: All the tall flowers surrounded the house.

She will miss him in spring.

Imagine you are standing near Keats when he says, 'I have been half in love with easeful Death'. He seems to be toying with the idea of suicide. What would you say to convince him not to do it.

. i 60


Have you ever felt t h a t there are just n o t e n o u g h hours in a day, or days in a week, t o d o all t h e things you would like t o d o ? John Keats had g o o d reason t o worry a b o u t h o w short life is b e c a u s e he knew that, b e c a u s e of ill health, he would die y o u n g . This p o e m was written in 1 8 1 8 , just three years before he died at t h e a g e of twenty-five.

Text

El9

When I Have Fears

W h e n I h a v e fears t h a t I m a y c e a s e t o b e 1 Before m y pen has gleaned2 m y t e e m i n g 3 brain, Before high-piled4 books, in charactery5, H o l d l i k e r i c h g a r n e r s 6 t h e full r i p e n e d 7 g r a i n ; W h e n I b e h o l d 8 , u p o n t h e n i g h t ' s s t a r r e d face, Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance9, A n d t h i n k t h a t I m a y n e v e r live t o t r a c e Their shadows, with the magic h a n d of chance10; A n d w h e n I feel, f a i r 1 1 c r e a t u r e o f a n h o u r , T h a t I shall never look u p o n t h e e 1 2 more, Never have

relish13

in t h e

faery14

10

power

O f unreflecting love; - t h e n o n the shore

15

Of the wide world I stand alone, and think Till l o v e a n d f a m e t o n o t h i n g n e s s d o s i n k 1 6 .

GLOSSARY 1. cease to be: die 2. gleaned: collected or gathered 3. teeming: full, prolific 4. high-piled: a large amount, one on top of the other 5. charactery: (archaic) writing

6. garners: buildings where grain is stored 7. full ripened: fully grown and ready to be gathered, mature 8. behold: see 9. high romance: great poem 10. And think ... chance: 1 think 1 may never be able to write (trace) about them

(Their shadows), inspired by my imagination (the magic hand of chance) 11. fair: beautiful 12. thee: you 13. relish: great enjoyment 14. faery: fairy (archaic speUin 15.shore: coast 16. sink: go down

COMPREHENSION T h e p o e m is written in t h e form of a sonnet*,

which can b e divided into t h r e e quatrains and a c o u p l e t . Link e a c h

division of t h e p o e m t o its s u b j e c t matter. first quatrain

T h e p o e t expresses his fear t h a t d e a t h will deprive him of his love.

s e c o n d quatrain

T h e t h o u g h t of d e a t h isolates t h e p o e t a n d paralyses his ability t o think.

third quatrain

T h e p o e t expresses his fear t h a t d e a t h will cut short his work as a p o e t . Writing poetry is

couplet

T h e p o e t fears t h a t death will n o t allow him to c o m p l e t e his work as a p o e t . Writing p o e t r y

c o m p a r e d to harvesting. is c o m p a r e d t o drawing night skies.

John Keats

ANALYSIS 1 The poet is fearful that death will deprive him of

6

artistic fulfilment. Which words in the opening

clauses, based on the words 'When I . . . ' . In which line

quatrain suggest abundance, and therefore make t h e

of the p o e m is the condition introduced by the

sense of deprivation stronger?

opening phrase c o m p l e t e d ? What punctuation marks

2

The poet chooses t h e night sky as a symbol* of

artistic inspiration. Link the words taken from the second quatrain with the aspect of artistic inspiration they convey. high (line 6 )

Vastness

magic (line 8 )

Superiority

huge (line 6)

Mystery

3

Underline the expression in the third quatrain

which suggests the transience of beauty. 4

The poet attributes magical powers to 'unreflecting

love'. What kind of love is 'unreflecting', in your opinion? 5

Which words/expressions in the final couplet

suggest: - the relative insignificance of the individual in the general s c h e m e of t h e universe?

The p o e m is constructed on a series of subordinate

signal the turning point? What effect does this postponing syntax have on the poem? • It creates tension and expectation. • It underlines the poet's despair. • It adds mystery to the p o e m . 7

Consider the syntax of lines 1 2 - 1 3 . W h a t device

makes the expression 'I stand alone' stand out? 8

Work out the rhyming scheme*

of t h e p o e m . Is it

regular throughout? Find examples of and assonance* 9

alliteration*

in the first two lines.

Find the expressions in the poem that capture the

following typically Romantic concepts: - the spontaneous, almost magical process of artistic creation: - the isolation of the poet:

- the alienation of the poet? - despair? How do you interpret the final two lines of t h e p o e m ?

Keats accomplished a great deal in his very short life. Think of a n o t h e r famous person w h o accomplished a lot even though he died young.

61


HfH^^^H^^H

Early

^ • • • • H I H I I ^ H

J o h n K e a t s was

years

b o r n in L o n d o n , w h e r e his

f a t h e r was t h e m a n a g e r o f a large livery stable. His early life was m a r k e d b y a series o f p e r s o n a l tragedies: h i s f a t h e r was killed in a n a c c i d e n t w h e n h e was e i g h t years old, h i s m o t h e r d i e d w h e n h e was f o u r t e e n a n d o n e o f h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r s d i e d i n i n f a n c y . He r e c e i v e d r e l a t i v e l y little f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a n d at age s i x t e e n h e b e c a m e a n a p p r e n t i c e t o an a p o t h e c a r y - s u r g e o n . His first attempts

at

writing

poetry

date

a p p r e n t i c e s h i p a n d i n c l u d e Imitation

from

the

of Spenser,

years

of

his

a homage to the

E l i z a b e t h a n p o e t h e greatly a d m i r e d . In 1 8 1 6 Keats o b t a i n e d a l i c e n c e to practise

JOHN KEATS

First

(1795-1821)

a p o t h e c a r y , b u t a b a n d o n e d t h e p r o f e s s i o n for poetry. He b e c a m e

poems

f r i e n d s w i t h S h e l l e y ( • p p . E 4 0 - 5 1 ) a n d i n M a r c h 1 8 1 7 h i s first b o o k o f p o e m s was p u b l i s h e d . A l t h o u g h it sold poorly, t h i s first v o l u m e o f w o r k i n t r o d u c e d h i m i n t o i m p o r t a n t l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s . He m e t several of t h e g r e a t l i t e r a r y figures o f t h e d a y i n c l u d i n g W o r d s w o r t h , w h o e x e r c i s e d a n i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e o n h i s a p p r o a c h t o w r i t i n g poetry. In 1 8 1 7 Keats left L o n d o n a n d t r a v e l l e d a r o u n d t h e Lake D i s t r i c t , S c o t l a n d a n d N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d , w h e r e h e was impressed by t h e beautiful rugged landscape. W h e n h e returned from his travels h e nursed his b r o t h e r T o m t h r o u g h t h e f i n a l stages o f t u b e r c u l o s i s . After h i s b r o t h e r ' s d e a t h h e m e t a n d fell in l o v e w i t h F a n n y B r a w n e , b u t h i s o w n h e a l t h was b e g i n n i n g t o fail. The great

year

Despite f r e q u e n t and persistent periods of illness, Keats dedicated h i m s e l f t o

w r i t i n g , a n d i n w h a t is o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o as t h e G r e a t Year ( 1 8 1 9 ) h e p r o d u c e d s o m e o f h i s f i n e s t works, i n c l u d i n g h i s five great o d e s . Death

in Italy

Keats's h e a l t h was n o w i n a critical state a n d S h e l l e y asked h i m t o j o i n h i m i n Pisa.

He did n o t a c c e p t S h e l l e y ' s i n v i t a t i o n b u t did d e c i d e t o m o v e t o Italy, w h e r e h e h o p e d t h e w a r m e r climate would improve his c o n d i t i o n . Before leaving, he m a n a g e d to publish a third v o l u m e of p o e m s , Lamia,

Isabella,

The Eve of St. Agnes

and Other Poems.

In 1 8 2 0 h e settled in R o m e , where h e

died in February 1 8 2 1 at t h e age o f t w e n t y - f i v e .

WORKS

In his s h o r t literary career J o h n Keats w r o t e s o m e o f t h e m o s t outstanding and best-loved p o e m s in the English language.

His e a r l y p o e m s i n c l u d e d t h e s o n n e t On First Looking

into Chapman's

Homer

(1816), w h i c h describes

t h e p o e t ' s d e l i g h t at first reading C h a p m a n ' s s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e G r e e k epic p o e m . Endymion

( 1 8 1 7 ) tells t h e s t o r y o f a y o u n g s h e p h e r d w h o m t h e m o o n - g o d d e s s S e l e n e p u t s t o s l e e p

e t e r n a l l y s o t h a t s h e c a n e n j o y h i s b e a u t y . A l t h o u g h t h e p o e m is s t r u c t u r a l l y w e a k a n d o f t e n o b s c u r e , it s h o w s f l a s h e s o f i m m a t u r e g e n i u s . The Eve of St. Agnes is a r o m a n t i c l o v e story w h i c h b l e n d s e l e m e n t s o f Shakespeare's Romeo

and

Juliet,

C h a u c e r a n d B o c c a c c i o . T h e r i c h s e n s u o u s n e s s o f t h e i m a g e r y in t h e p o e m is a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e greatness to c o m e . The

Odes

Nightingale

I n t h e f i v e o d e s o f 1 8 1 9 , Ode to Psyche, ( • T e x t E 1 8 ) , Ode on Melancholy

Ode on a Grecian

a n d To Autumn,

Urn ( • T e x t E 1 7 ) , Ode to a

Keats r e a c h e d t h e p i n n a c l e of his

Writers' Gallery - John Keats

; yw- vmm • wmmt* sm. mm c r e a t i v e p o w e r s . T h e y are l y r i c a l m e d i t a t i o n s on

art

and

real

life,

experience

and

aspirations, life a n d d r e a m s . T h e s e

odes,

w h i c h are s o r i c h i n e x q u i s i t e a n d s e n s u o u s detail, represent for t h e m a n y the c r o w n i n g a c h i e v e m e n t o f English R o m a n t i c i s m . L a Belle D a m e S a n s M e r c i

W r i t t e n at a b o u t

t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e Odes, t h e b a l l a d La Dame

Sans

Merci,

which

was

Belle

published

p o s t h u m o u s l y , in l i n e w i t h t h e R o m a n t i c taste for

Medieval

setting

and

describes

the

d e s t r u c t i v e side o f a n idyllic love. Apart f r o m poetry, Keats also w r o t e a

Letters

series o f letters, p u b l i s h e d p o s t h u m o u s l y , in w h i c h he recorded his t h o u g h t s on poetry, love, p h i l o s o p h y a n d p e o p l e a n d e v e n t s o f h i s day. M a n y o f t h e letters i n c l u d e

valuable

c o m m e n t a r i e s o n his work a n d give a p r o f o u n d insight into his artistic development.

The

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y l i t e r a r y c r i t i c T.S. E l i o t ( • M o d u l e G) described t h e letters as ' t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t ever written b y an English p o e t ' . Reputation

After a p a r t i c u l a r l y savage a t t a c k o n o n e o f h i s early works, Keats w r o t e t o h i s b r o t h e r

'I t h i n k I s h a l l b e a m o n g t h e E n g l i s h P o e t s a f t e r m y d e a t h ' . His p r o p h e c y h a s i n d e e d c o m e t r u e . Keats's r e p u t a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d s i n c e t h e n h e has, t o g e t h e r w i t h W o r d s w o r t h , b e e n t h e m o s t w i d e l y r e a d o f t h e E n g l i s h R o m a n t i c p o e t s . His Ode on a Urn, Ode to a Nightingale

a n d To Autiimn

Grecian

are as w e l l - k n o w n a n d l o v e d as a n y t h i n g b y S h a k e s p e a r e .

TASK Explain how the events of John Keats's life help us to understand the major t h e m e s of his poetry: - the passing of time; - the immortality of art; - death as an escape from human suffering; - beauty and art as a means of overcoming despair.

Emma by fane Austen

T h e t h e m e s of love a n d r o m a n c e have b e e n dealt with in every art form in every era. Today r o m a n t i c films, fiction and music are as popular as ever. Try t o r e m e m b e r a love story you have seen or read a n d c o m p l e t e t h e following notes: N a m e s of t h e main characters:

Setting:

An i m p o r t a n t e v e n t in t h e story:

Ending:

CHARACTERS • Emma Woodhouse • Harriet Smith, Emma's friend • Mr Elton, the local vicar • Mr Cole, a vicar's friend

THE STORY

Emma is a love story in which young men and women who live in the same area meet at dances, in each other's homes or while walking in the village. Emma, the main character, is a clever, pretty, twenty-one-year old, who lives alone with her father, Mr Woodhouse,

near the village of Highbury. She becomes friends with

year-old Harriet, who has been abandoned

seventeen-

by her parents. Emma decides that she will find a

suitable husband for Harriet, but stops her marrying Robert Martin, a local farmer,

because

she thinks he is not good enough for her. She believes that Mr Elton, the local vicar, would be a much better match. ( • Text E20) Her attempt to make a match between Harriet and Mr Elton fails miserably but, undeterred, she tries to pair Harriet off with Frank Churchill. • Visual Link E7

However, Frank announces

a surprise

engagement to Jane Fairfax, while Harriet herself believes that Mr Knightley, a close friend of Emma's, is in love with her. As it turns out, Mr Knightly is really in love with Emma

and

asks her to marry him. ( • Text E21) She accepts and decides to stop interfering in other people's lives. So, when she hears that Harriet has accepted Robert Martin's second proposal o marriage, she wishes the couple all the best.

Text E20 GLOSSARY 1. lane: narrow street 2. slight bend: small curve 3. took ... footpath: left the main road and walked down a side path 4. This would not do: this would not suit her plans 5. under pretence of having: pretending that she had 6. stooping down ... occupation of: bending over and completely blocking 7. begged ... walk on: asked them to keep walking

This Would Not Do!

Emma and Harriet bump into Mr Elton on the road. T h e y walked o n . T h e lane1 m a d e a slight b e n d 2 ; a n d w h e n t h a t b e n d was passed, Mr. Elton was i m m e d i a t e l y in sight.

(...) Emma wants Harriet and Mr. Elton to be

alone.

A n x i o u s t o s e p a r a t e h e r s e l f f r o m t h e m as far as s h e c o u l d , s h e s o o n afterwards took possession of a n a r r o w f o o t p a t h 3 , a little raised o n o n e side o f t h e l a n e , l e a v i n g t h e m t o g e t h e r i n t h e m a i n r o a d . B u t s h e h a d n o t been

there two minutes when

she found that

Harriet's habits

of

d e p e n d e n c e and imitation were bringing her up too, and that, in short, t h e y w o u l d b o t h b e s o o n after her. T h i s w o u l d n o t do4; s h e i m m e d i a t e l y stopped, under pretence of having5 s o m e alteration to make in the lacing of her half-boot, and s t o o p i n g d o w n in c o m p l e t e o c c u p a t i o n of6 the footpath, begged t h e m to have the goodness to walk

on7,

and she would

f o l l o w in h a l f a m i n u t e . T h e y d i d as t h e y w e r e d e s i r e d ; a n d b y t h e t i m e s h e

10

Emma - Jane Austen

j u d g e d it r e a s o n a b l e t o h a v e d o n e w i t h h e r b o o t , s h e h a d the

comfort

overtaken

9

of further

delay

in

her

power8,

being

by a child from the cottage, setting out10,

15

according to orders, with her pitcher11, to fetch b r o t h 1 2 f r o m Hartfield. To walk b y t h e side of this child, a n d talk to a n d q u e s t i o n her, was t h e m o s t n a t u r a l t h i n g in t h e world, or would have been t h e m o s t natural, had she b e e n acting t h e n without design13; and b y this m e a n s the others

20

w e r e still a b l e t o k e e p a h e a d , w i t h o u t a n y o b l i g a t i o n of waiting

for

her.

She

gained

on

them,

however,

involuntarily; the child's pace was quick, and theirs was s l o w ; a n d s h e w a s t h e m o r e c o n c e r n e d a t it, f r o m t h e i r b e i n g evidently in a c o n v e r s a t i o n w h i c h interested t h e m .

25

Mr. E l t o n was speaking w i t h a n i m a t i o n , Harriet l i s t e n i n g with a very pleased attention; and E m m a having sent the child on, was b e g i n n i n g to t h i n k h o w she m i g h t draw back a little more, w h e n t h e y b o t h looked around, a n d she was obliged to join them.

30

Mr. E l t o n was still talking,

still e n g a g e d in

some

'... She soon afterwards took possession of a narrow footpath... leaving them together in the main road.'

interesting detail; a n d E m m a e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e d i s a p p o i n t m e n t w h e n she f o u n d that he was o n l y giving his fair c o m p a n i o n

an account

of

yesterday's party at his friend Cole's, a n d t h a t she was c o m e in herself for14 t h e Stilton cheese, t h e n o r t h Wiltshire, t h e butter, t h e cellery, t h e beet-

35

r o o t , a n d all t h e d e s s e r t . 'This w o u l d s o o n have led to s o m e t h i n g better of course', was her c o n s o l i n g reflection, ' a n y t h i n g interests b e t w e e n t h o s e w h o love; and a n y t h i n g w i l l s e r v e as i n t r o d u c t i o n t o w h a t is n e a r t h e h e a r t 1 5 . If I c o u l d b u t h a v e kept longer away.'

40

T h e y n o w w a l k e d o n t o g e t h e r quietly, till w i t h i n v i e w o f t h e v i c a r a g e p a l e s , w h e n a s u d d e n r e s o l u t i o n , o f at l e a s t g e t t i n g H a r r i e t i n t o t h e h o u s e , made her again find something very m u c h amiss16 about her boot, and fall b e h i n d t o a r r a n g e it o n c e m o r e . S h e t h e n b r o k e t h e l a c e o f f s h o r t , a n d d e x t e r o u s l y 1 7 t h r o w i n g it i n t o a d i t c h 1 8 , w a s p r e s e n t l y o b l i g e d t o e n t r e a t 1 9

45

t h e m t o s t o p , a n d a c k n o w l e d g e d h e r i n a b i l i t y t o p u t h e r s e l f t o r i g h t s 2 0 so as t o b e a b l e t o w a l k h o m e i n t o l e r a b l e c o m f o r t . ' P a r t o f m y l a c e is g o n e , ' s a i d s h e , ' a n d I d o n o t k n o w h o w I a m t o contrive21. I really a m a m o s t troublesome c o m p a n i o n to you b o t h , but I h o p e I a m n o t so o f t e n i l l - e q u i p p e d . Mr. E l t o n , I m u s t b e g l e a v e t o s t o p at

50

y o u r h o u s e , a n d ask y o u r h o u s e k e e p e r for a bit of r i b b a n d or string, or a n y t h i n g just t o keep m y b o o t o n . '

8. she had ... power: she found another chance of distancing herself from the couple 9. overtaken: passed 10. setting out: starting a journey

11. pitcher: a kind of container 12. fetch broth: go and get broth (hot soup) 13.acting ... design: talking to the child not because it was part of a plan 14. she was come in herself

for: she herself had joined in the conversation only to hear about 15.any thing ... heart: any topic of conversation may help two people to get closer

16. very much amiss: completely wrong 17. dexterously: with great ability 18. ditch: long narrow hole dug alongside a road 19. entreat: ask 20.acknowledged ... rights: had to admit she was not able to fix the lace 21. contrive: put it right

65

THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

COMPREHENSION 1

How did Emma first try to separate herself from

Harriet and Mr Elton?

5

Why did she feel obliged to join the couple?

6 What were Harriet and Mr Elton talking about

2

Why did her first attempt to distance herself fail?

when she joined t h e m ?

3

W h a t did she then do to g e t t h e couple to

7

4

What did she do so that Mr Elton would invite

Harriet and her to his house?

overtake her? Why did she talk to t h e child w h o overtook her?

ANALYSIS 1

In this passage both the exterior world of Emma's

actions and the interior world of Emma's thoughts and

2

Emma feels a range of emotions in this passage. Find

a line reference for each emotion and explain its origin.

feelings are described. Make a list of the actions Emma takes to distance herself from Harriet and Mr Elton, quoting from the text and giving line references.

line

emotion

line 3

anxiety

She wants Harriet and Mr Elton to b e alone.

ACTIONS - she soon afterwards

origin

frustration

lines 3^1

concern

took possession of a

disappointment

narrow footpath

consolation 3

Can you find any evidence in the text that the social

setting* of t h e novel is t h e upper or middle class? 4

Which adjectives would you use to describe Emma?

justify your choices.

••mmm

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Third-person narrator: omniscient narrator and free indirect speech

E x c h a n g i n g letters, a diary or j o u r n a l , n a r r a t i o n b y o n e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s or b y s o m e o n e o u t s i d e t h e e v e n t s - a u t h o r s c a n c h o o s e f r o m m a n y d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f t e l l i n g a story. W h e n a s t o r y is t o l d b y s o m e o n e o u t s i d e t h e a c t i o n , h e is c a l l e d a ' t h i r d - p e r s o n n a r r a t o r ' ( b e c a u s e h e refers t o e v e r y b o d y i n t h e story in t h e t h i r d p e r s o n : ' h e ' , ' s h e ' or ' t h e y ' ) . I n this f o r m o f n a r r a t i o n t h e p e r s o n w h o is t e l l i n g t h e s t o r y is like a n o b s e r v e r w h o is w i t n e s s i n g or h a s w i t n e s s e d w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d , b u t plays n o part i n t h e e v e n t s . I n a c e r t a i n s e n s e t h e t h i r d - p e r s o n n a r r a t o r is a k i n d o f g o d ( t h e t e r m ' o m n i s c i e n t

Wm

n a r r a t o r ' is a l s o u s e d ) . W e h a v e t h e s e n s a t i o n t h a t h e k n o w s e x a c t l y w h a t is g o i n g t o h a p p e n a n d h o w e a c h c h a r a c t e r will b e h a v e . T h i s kind o f narrator was particularly

- m

p o p u l a r in t h e e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h centuries. T h e narrative t e c h n i q u e J a n e A u s t e n u s e s i n Emma

is a d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t h i r d - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e . S o m e t i m e s t h e

n a r r a t o r is o m n i s c i e n t , at o t h e r t i m e s h e sees t h i n g s f r o m t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r ' s p o i n t o f view. I n s e t t i n g t h e s c e n e , for e x a m p l e , t h e n a r r a t o r is i n d e p e n d e n t , l o o k i n g d o w n o n t h e c h a r a c t e r s f r o m a p o i n t o u t s i d e t h e a c t i o n . At o t h e r t i m e s it is clearly E m m a ' s p o i n t o f v i e w t h a t is e x p r e s s e d :

Emma - Jane Austen

67

But she had not been there two minutes when she found that Harriet's habits of dependence and imitation were bringing her up too, and that, in short, they would both be soon after her. This would not do; she immediately stopped, under the pretence of having some alteration to make in the lacing of her half-boot. (...) A l t h o u g h t h e n a r r a t i n g v o i c e r e m a i n s o u t s i d e t h e story, t h e p h r a s e ' T h i s w o u l d n o t d o ' is o b v i o u s l y a n e x p r e s s i o n o f E m m a ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , c o n v e y i n g h e r f r u s t r a t i o n a t Harriet's behaviour. The t e c h n i q u e of shifting the narrative v i e w p o i n t b e t w e e n an o b j e c t i v e a c c o u n t a n d s u b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is called f r e e i n d i r e c t s p e e c h . T h i s t e c h n i q u e m a k e s t h e reader feel less d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e story. Also, b e c a u s e m u c h o f t h e s t o r y is t o l d f r o m t h e partial v i e w p o i n t o f o n e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s , t h e reader gets t h e idea t h a t a n y t h i n g c a n h a p p e n in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e n o v e l , j u s t as it c a n i n real life. I n t h e c a s e o f E m m a it a d d s a n e l e m e n t o f h u m o u r , as t h e r e a d e r c o n t r a s t s t h e w a y E m m a sees t h e w o r l d a r o u n d h e r a n d h o w it r e a l l y is. Free i n d i r e c t s p e e c h is w i d e l y used i n m o d e r n n o v e l w r i t i n g . Read again lines 2 2 - 3 6 and examine how t h e point of view shifts from the omniscient narrator to Emma by identifying the following statements as objective view of events ( O ) or as Emma's view of events (E). I

I Mr Elton and Harriet are having a conversation.

L J The conversation between Mr Elton and Harriet is interesting. I

I Mr Elton is speaking with animation and Harriet is pleased by what she hears.

I

I Emma is gaining ground on Mr Elton and Harriet.

I

I Emma interrupts them at an interesting point in their conversation.

Mr Elton is talking about his friend's party.

Read the paragraph below, which is based on the events of Text E20. Which character's point of view is woven into the text? Justify your answer by referring to the text. Mr Elton continued to talk to the rather dull Harriet about the party he had attended at Cole's home. Meanwhile, the charming Emma had fallen behind and was talking to a child. Thankfully, the child was walking quickly and so Emma would soon rejoin the company. As the child overtook them, Mr Elton noticed that Emma was no longer with her. He turned to see where she was and, to his disappointment, noticed that she was still some distance away. He slowed his pace down and eventually she caught up with them. He could see that she was happy to be in his company again.

Has Emma any right to organise Harriet's life for her? Should she not mind her own business? Is she acting in her young friend's best interests? Discuss.

,68


More Than Just Friends

Text E 2 1

Having mistakenly

believed

that Mr Knightley

is in

love with Harriet, Emma is relieved to discover that he is, in fact, in love with somebody

else.

'But if you have any wish to speak o p e n l y to me as a friend, or to ask my opinion of any thing that you may have in contemplation 1 - as a friend, indeed, you may c o m m a n d me. - I will hear whatever

5

you like. I will tell you exactly what I think. 'As a friend!' - repeated Mr. Knightley. 'Emma, that I fear is a word 2 - No, I have no wish. - Stay, yes, why should I hesitate? - I have gone too far already for concealment.

10

- Emma, I accept your offer - extraordinary as it may seem, I accept it, and refer myself to you as a friend. - Tell me, then, have I no chance of ever succeeding?' He stopped in his earnestness to look the question 3 , and the expression CHARACTERS • Emma Woodhouse • Mr Knightley, a

close friend of Emma's

of his eyes

overpowered 4

is

her.

'My dearest Emma,' said he, 'for dearest you will always be, whatever the event of this hour's conversation, my dearest, most beloved Emma tell me at once. Say "No", if it is to be said.' She could really say nothing. 'You are silent,' he cried, with great a n i m a t i o n ; 'absolutely silent! at

20

present I ask no more.' - • GLOSSARY

Emma was almost ready to sink under the agitation of this m o m e n t .

1. have in contemplation: be planning 2. that I fear is a word: that is the word I do not want to hear from you

The dread 5 of being awakened from the happiest dream, was perhaps the

3. look the question: see how she would react 4. overpowered: shocked

what I am. - You hear nothing but truth from me.'

5. dread: terror 6. as was ... convincing: as he was able to use in order to persuade her 7. Bear with: try to accept 8. The manner... recommend them: the way I behaved with you did not really show what my feelings were 9. groundless: without substance, unreal

most prominent feeling. 'I cannot make speeches, Emma:' - he soon resumed; - and in a tone of

25

such sincere, decided, intelligible tenderness as was tolerably convincing 6 . - 'If I loved you less I might be able to talk about it more. But you know (...) 'Bear with 7 the truths I would tell you now, dearest Emma.' (...) 'The manner, perhaps, may have as little to r e c o m m e n d t h e m 8 . God

30

knows, I have been a very indifferent lover. - But you understand me. Yes, you see, you understand my feelings - and will return them if you can. At present, I ask only to hear, once to hear your voice.' W h i l e he spoke, Emma's m i n d was most busy, and, with all the wonderful velocity of thought, had been able - and yet without losing a word - to catch and comprehend the exact truth of the whole; to see that Harriet's hopes had been entirely groundless 9 , a mistake, a delusion, as complete a delusion as any of her own - that Harriet was nothing; that she was everything herself.

351

Emma - Jane

COMPREHENSION 1 At the beginning of the passage, what kind of

4 Why does Emma say nothing in answer to Mr

relationship does Emma believe exists between herself

Knightley's question?

and Mr Knightley?

5 What ' e x a c t truth' has Emma understood by the

2 Why does Mr Knightley fear the word 'friend'?

end of the passage?

3 What is Mr Knightley referring to when he asks if he would have 'no c h a n c e of ever succeeding'?

ANALYSIS 1

—

—

Focus on Mr Knightley's speech pattern. Find

4

Attribute the adjectives in the list below to Mr

examples of:

Knightley or Emma on t h e basis of the passage you

- hesitations: lines

have just read. S o m e adjectives may be included in

- interrupted, unfinished sentences: lines

both columns.

- repetition: lines

Shy Emotional Insecure Mature Sincere Perceptive Speechless

What does the unstructured, chaotic way in which Mr Knightley speaks reveal a b o u t his state of mind? 2

Mr Knightley

Emma

Find t h e line in which Mr Knightley refers to his

inability to express himself appropriately. 3

Does Mr Knightley ever directly state that he loves

Emma? Make a list of the sentences that help Emma to understand how Mr Knightley feels for her.

Throughout the novel Mr Knightley is portrayed as calm, mature and eloquent, while Emma is seen as immature, interfering and s o m e w h a t superficial. Is this how they are portrayed in this key passage?

Have attitudes to marriage c h a n g e d much since j a n e Austen's day? Are young people as anxious to g e t married today as Jane Austen's characters were? Discuss.


Pride and Prejudice by fane Austen

W h a t role s h o u l d p a r e n t s play in t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s c h o i c e of a p a r t n e r ? S a y w h e t h e r y o u a g r e e o r n o t with t h e following s t a t e m e n t s and explain why. I

I Parents should help their children find a partner.

I

| Parents have n o right w h a t s o e v e r to interfere in their children's relationships. 1 T h e a g r e e m e n t of parents t o a marriage is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e y will be m o r e willing to help t h e y o u n g c o u p l e financially.

[ 1 ] Arranged marriages, in which parents c h o o s e w h o their son o r d a u g h t e r is g o i n g t o marry, are t h e o n e s m o s t likely to s u c c e e d .

THE STORY The Bennets have five daughters and Mrs Bennet's driving ambition

is to see all of them

married ( • Text E22). Charles Bingley has come to live nearby with his friend Darcy. When • Visual Link E7

Darcy realises

that Charles likes Jane Bennet, he does his best to separate

them on the

grounds that her family are socially inferior. He himself likes Elizabeth Bennet, but when he says so to her, she says she can have nothing to do with someone who looks down on her family ( • Text E23). She changes her mind about him, however, when she learns that he has helped another sister, Lydia, who had eloped with a military officer, and the story ends happily with a double wedding between Charles and Jane, and Elizabeth and Darcy.

Text E22 CHARACTERS » Mr and Mrs Bennet • Elizabeth, Jane and Lydia Bennet, three of the Bennets' five daughters • Charles Bingley, a neighbour to the Bennets • Darcy, Charles's friend • Lady Catherine de Bourgh, Darcy's aunt and one of the richest people in the area

What A Fine Thing for Our Girls!

In the opening chapter Mrs Bennet tells her husband of the arrival in the of Mr Bingley, an excellent prospective

husband

for one of their

neighbourhood

daughters.

IT is a truth universally acknowledged 1 , that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of 2 a wife. However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered as the rightful 3 property of some one or other of their daughters. 'My dear Mr Bennet,' said his lady to him one day, 'have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last 4 ?' Mr Bennet replied that he had not.

•

GLOSSARY

1. acknowledged: recognised, admitted 2. be in want of: need 3. rightful: legal 4. is let at last: has finally been rented

'But it is', returned she; 'for Mrs Long has just been here, and she told me all about it.' Mr Bennet made no answer. 'Do not you want to know who has taken it?' cried his wife impatiently. 'You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it.' This was invitation enough.

Pride and Prejudice - Jane Austen

71

' W h y , m y dear, y o u m u s t know, Mrs L o n g says t h a t N e t h e r f i e l d is t a k e n b y a y o u n g m a n o f l a r g e fortune from the north of England; that he came d o w n o n M o n d a y i n a c h a i s e a n d f o u r 5 t o see t h e p l a c e , a n d w a s so m u c h d e l i g h t e d w i t h it t h a t h e

20

a g r e e d w i t h M r M o r r i s i m m e d i a t e l y ; t h a t h e is t o take possession before M i c h a e l m a s 6 , a n d s o m e of his servants are t o b e in t h e h o u s e b y t h e e n d o f next week.' ' W h a t is h i s n a m e ? '

25

'Bingley.' 'Is h e m a r r i e d o r s i n g l e ? ' ' O h ! s i n g l e , m y dear, t o b e sure! A s i n g l e m a n o f large f o r t u n e ; four or five t h o u s a n d a year. W h a t a f i n e t h i n g f o r o u r girls!' ' H o w s o ? H o w c a n it

affect7

30 them?'

' M y dear M r B e n n e t , ' replied his wife, ' h o w can y o u b e so t i r e s o m e 8 ! You m u s t k n o w t h a t I a m thinking of his marrying o n e of t h e m . ' 'Is t h a t h i s d e s i g n 9 i n s e t t l i n g h e r e ? '

35

' D e s i g n ! N o n s e n s e , h o w c a n y o u t a l k so! B u t it is v e r y l i k e l y 1 0 t h a t h e

may

fall i n l o v e w i t h o n e o f t h e m , a n d t h e r e f o r e y o u m u s t v i s i t h i m as s o o n as

m

The Bennet family from the film Pride and Prejudice (1995).

he comes.' 'I s e e n o o c c a s i o n f o r t h a t . Y o u a n d t h e g i r l s m a y g o , o r y o u m a y s e n d t h e m b y t h e m s e l v e s , w h i c h p e r h a p s w i l l b e still b e t t e r , for, as y o u a r e as

40

h a n d s o m e as a n y o f t h e m , M r B i n g l e y m i g h t like y o u t h e b e s t o f t h e party.' ' M y dear, y o u f l a t t e r 1 1 m e . I c e r t a i n l y have

h a d m y share of beauty, but I do

n o t p r e t e n d to be a n y t h i n g e x t r a o r d i n a r y now. W h e n a w o m a n has five g r o w n u p daughters, she o u g h t to give o v e r 1 2 t h i n k i n g o f her o w n beauty.'

45

'In such cases, a w o m a n h a s n o t o f t e n m u c h b e a u t y t o t h i n k of.' ' B u t , m y dear, y o u m u s t i n d e e d g o a n d s e e M r B i n g l e y w h e n h e c o m e s i n t o the neighbourhood.' i t is m o r e t h a n I e n g a g e f o r 1 3 , 1 a s s u r e y o u . ' ' B u t c o n s i d e r y o u r d a u g h t e r s . O n l y t h i n k w h a t a n e s t a b l i s h m e n t it w o u l d

50

b e for o n e o f t h e m . Sir W i l l i a m a n d L a d y L u c a s are d e t e r m i n e d t o go, m e r e l y on t h a t a c c o u n t 1 4 , for in general, y o u k n o w t h e y visit n o n e w c o m e r s . I n d e e d 1 5 y o u m u s t g o , f o r it w i l l b e i m p o s s i b l e f o r us t o v i s i t h i m , if y o u d o n o t . ' ' Y o u are o v e r s c r u p u l o u s , surely. I d a r e s a y 1 6 M r B i n g l e y w i l l b e v e r y g l a d t o

55

see y o u ; a n d I will s e n d a few l i n e s b y y o u t o assure h i m o f m y h e a r t y c o n s e n t t o h i s m a r r y i n g w h i c h e v e r h e c h u s e s 1 7 o f t h e girls; t h o u g h I m u s t t h r o w i n a g o o d w o r d f o r m y l i t t l e Lizzy.' i d e s i r e y o u w i l l d o n o s u c h t h i n g . Lizzy is n o t a b i t b e t t e r t h a n t h e o t h e r s ; a n d I a m s u r e s h e is n o t h a l f so h a n d s o m e as J a n e , n o r h a l f so g o o d h u m o u r e d a s L y d i a . B u t y o u are a l w a y s g i v i n g her t h e p r e f e r e n c e . '

60

5. chaise and four: type of carriage pulled by a horse 6. Michaelmas: 29th September, St Michael's holy day 7. affect: be of interest for 8. tiresome: annoying 9. design: plan 10. likely: probable 11. flatter: say adulatory words 12. give over: renounce 13.1 engage for: I wish to promise 14. merely on that account: solely for that purpose 15. Indeed: surely 16.1 dare say: I think 17. chuses: chooses

,72


'They have none of them much 1 8 to recommend them,' replied he; 'they are all silly and ignorant like other girls; but Lizzy has something more of quickness than her sisters.' 'Mr Bennet, how can you abuse 19 your own children in such a way? You

65

take delight in vexing 2 0 me. You have no compassion on my poor nerves.' 'You mistake me, my dear. I have a high respect for your nerves. They are my old friends. I have heard you mention them with consideration these twenty years at least.' 'Ah! you do not know what I suffer.'

70

'But I hope you will get over it, and live to see many young men of four thousand a year come into the neighbourhood.' 'It will be no use to us, if twenty such should come, since you will not visit 18. They have none of them much: they have nothing special 19.abuse: insult 20. vexing: provoking 21. so odd a mixture: such a strange mix 22. quick parts: clever mind 23. mean: little 24. fancied: considered 25.solace: fun •

them.' 'Depend upon it, my dear, that when there are twenty I will visit them all.' Mr Bennet was so odd a

mixture 2 1

of quick

parts 2 2 ,

sarcastic humour,

reserve, and caprice, that the experience of three and twenty years had been insufficient to make his wife understand his character. Her mind was less difficult to develope. She was a woman of mean 2 1 understanding, little information, and uncertain temper. W h e n she was discontented, she fancied 24

herself nervous. The business of her life was to get her daughters

married; its solace 25 was visiting and news.

COMPREHENSION 1

W h a t , a c c o r d i n g to t h e o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e , are

wealthy y o u n g m e n in search of? 2

W h a t news d o e s Mrs B e n n e t give her h u s b a n d ?

5

Why, a c c o r d i n g t o Mrs Bennet, d o e s her h u s b a n d

' a b u s e ' his o w n children? 6

W h y d o e s Mr B e n n e t call his wife's nerves his 'old

W h a t information d o e s s h e have a b o u t Mr Bingley?

friends'? (Line 6 6 )

3

7

How d o e s Mr B e n n e t react to his wife's s u g g e s t i o n

t h a t he should visit Mr Bingley? 4

Which of his d a u g h t e r s s e e m s t o b e Mr Bennet's

M a k e a list of t h e words and expressions t h e

narrator uses in t h e final paragraph to describe: - Mr B e n n e t : - Mrs B e n n e t :

favourite?

ANALYSIS 1

T h e narrative t e c h n i q u e used in this p a s s a g e is free

indirect speech*.

W h i c h character's viewpoint is

r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e o p e n i n g line?

2

75

The passage contains third-person narration* and

dialogue. a . Which of t h e t w o narrative t e c h n i q u e s is used predominantly in: - lines 1 - 6 :

?

- lines 7 - 7 5 :

?

- lines 7 6 - 8 2 :

?

b . W h a t is t h e function of: - t h e o p e n i n g section of narration? • To describe t h e characters. • To describe t h e setting. • To outline t h e main t h e m e of t h e novel.

- t h e central d i a l o g u e ? • To introduce Mr a n d Mrs B e n n e t and reveal s o m e t h i n g of their characters. • To allow t h e a u t h o r t o c o m m e n t on t h e action. • To develop t h e storyline. • To introduce o p p o s i n g viewpoints on an issue which t h e a u t h o r believes to b e w o r t h y of serious consideration. - t h e final section of t h e narration? • To confirm w h a t has e m e r g e d a b o u t t h e characters in t h e preceding dialogue. • To draw conclusions a b o u t t h e topic under discussion. • To develop t h e storyline.

80

Pride and Prejudice - Jane Austen 351

3

Focus on t h e c h a r a c t e r of Mr B e n n e t .

a . Find e x a m p l e s in t h e dialogue of his 'quick parts'

4

Focus on t h e c h a r a c t e r of Mrs B e n n e t .

a. Find e v i d e n c e in t h e dialogue: - of her interest in material possessions:

a n d 'sarcastic h u m o u r ' . b . Mr B e n n e t asks his wife a series of questions.

- of her b e i n g 'of m e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' :

Underline t h e m in t h e text. Does he ask t h e questions b e c a u s e : • he is genuinely interested in w h a t his wife is

b . W h y d o you think Mrs B e n n e t is so p r e o c c u p i e d with finding h u s b a n d s for her d a u g h t e r s ?

talking a b o u t ?

Consider t h e historical period in which t h e novel

• he wishes to s h o w his wife t h e absurdity of w h a t

w a s written w h e n giving your answer.

she is saying? c . Mr B e n n e t s e e m s t o e n j o y teasing his wife by

5

Focus on t h e relationship b e t w e e n Mr B e n n e t a n d

deliberately misunderstanding her. Find e x a m p l e s

his wife. Would you consider it to b e a:

in t h e t e x t .

• flattering

• realistic

• depressing

• romanticised

d . Mr B e n n e t describes his d a u g h t e r s as 'silly a n d ignorant like o t h e r girls'. How d o you interpret this

view of life as a c o u p l e after t w e n t y - t h r e e years of

comment?

marriage? Justify your answer.

At t h e t i m e w h e n t h e novel was written, w o m e n w e r e a l m o s t totally d e p e n d e n t o n m e n financially, a n d t h e r e f o r e it w a s very i m p o r t a n t for a w o m a n to find a h u s b a n d . Jane Austen herself never g o t married a n d would have f a c e d considerable financial hardship if, after her father's d e a t h , she, her m o t h e r a n d her sister had n o t b e e n s u p p o r t e d by her brothers. Is it equally i m p o r t a n t for w o m e n t o g e t married t o d a y from a financial point of view?

You Are Mistaken, Mr Darcy

Text E23

Darcy has just told Elizabeth that, despite her inferior social background, he wants to marry her. She has said no. ' A n d t h i s , ' c r i e d D a r c y , as h e w a l k e d w i t h q u i c k s t e p s a c r o s s t h e r o o m , 'is

GLOSSARY

y o u r o p i n i o n o f m e ! T h i s is t h e e s t i m a t i o n i n w h i c h y o u h o l d m e ! I t h a n k y o u f o r e x p l a i n i n g it s o f u l l y . M y f a u l t s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n , are h e a v y i n d e e d ! But p e r h a p s , ' added he, s t o p p i n g in his walk, a n d t u r n i n g towards her, 'these o f f e n c e s m i g h t h a v e b e e n o v e r l o o k e d 1 , h a d n o t y o u r pride2 b e e n hurt b y m y h o n e s t confession of t h e scruples that had long prevented m y 3 f o r m i n g a n y serious design. T h e s e bitter accusations m i g h t h a v e b e e n s u p p r e s s e d , h a d I, w i t h g r e a t e r p o l i c y , c o n c e a l e d 4 m y struggles, and flattered you into the belief of m y being impelled by unqualified, unalloyed inclination5; by reason, by reflection, by every thing. But

10

d i s g u i s e 6 o f e v e r y s o r t is m y a b h o r r e n c e . N o r a m I a s h a m e d o f t h e f e e l i n g s I related7. T h e y were natural a n d just. C o u l d y o u e x p e c t m e t o rejoice in the inferiority of your connections? To congratulate myself o n the h o p e of r e l a t i o n s , w h o s e c o n d i t i o n i n life is s o d e c i d e d l y b e n e a t h m y o w n ? ' Elizabeth felt herself g r o w i n g m o r e a n g r y every m o m e n t ; yet she tried t o t h e u t m o s t 8 t o s p e a k w i t h c o m p o s u r e w h e n s h e said,

15

•-

1. overlooked: not considered 2. had not your pride: if your pride had not 3. long prevented my: for a long time stopped me from 4. concealed: hidden 5. flattered... inclination: convinced you that I was driven towards you without any reservations 6. disguise: dissimulation 7. related: told you about 8. to the utmost: with maximum effort

u g

74


Elizabeth Bennet (Jennifer Ehle) and Mr Darcy (Colin Firth) in the film Pride and Prejudice (1995).

Y o u are m i s t a k e n , M r D a r c y , if y o u s u p p o s e t h a t the m o d e of your declaration affected m e in any o t h e r w a y , t h a n as it s p a r e d m e t h e

concern

w h i c h I m i g h t h a v e felt in refusing y o u 9 , h a d y o u b e h a v e d in a m o r e g e n t l e m a n - l i k e m a n n e r . ' S h e saw h i m start at t h i s , b u t h e said n o t h i n g , and she continued. 'You could n o t have m a d e m e the offer of your h a n d in a n y possible w a y t h a t w o u l d

have

t e m p t e d m e to a c c e p t it.' Again his a s t o n i s h m e n t was obvious; and he l o o k e d at h e r w i t h an e x p r e s s i o n of m i n g l e d 1 0 incredulity and mortification. She went on: 'From

the

very

beginning,

from

the

first

m o m e n t , I m a y a l m o s t say, o f m y a c q u a i n t a n c e with you, your manners, impressing m e with the fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit11, a n d y o u r selfish disdain of t h e feelings of others, w e r e s u c h as t o f o r m t h a t g r o u n d - w o r k disapprobation, on which succeeding

of12

events

h a v e built so i m m o v e a b l e a dislike; a n d I h a d n o t k n o w n y o u a m o n t h b e f o r e I felt t h a t y o u were the last m a n in t h e world w h o m I c o u l d ever be prevailed o n 1 3 to marry.' 9. than as ... refusing you: other than it saved me from the preoccupation that I would have felt on rejecting you 10. mingled: mixed 11. conceit: feeling of superiority 12. ground-work of: basis for 13. whom I could ever be prevailed on: that I would ever be persuaded to 14. hastily: in a hurry 15.by every review of it: each time she was going over what had happened •

'You have said quite e n o u g h , m a d a m . I perfectly c o m p r e h e n d

your

feelings, and have n o w o n l y to be a s h a m e d of w h a t m y o w n have been. F o r g i v e m e f o r h a v i n g t a k e n u p so m u c h o f y o u r t i m e , a n d a c c e p t m y b e s t wishes for y o u r h e a l t h a n d happiness.' A n d w i t h t h e s e words h e h a s t i l y 1 4 left t h e r o o m , a n d Elizabeth h e a r d h i m the next m o m e n t open the front door and quit the house. T h e tumult of her m i n d was n o w painfully great. She k n e w n o t h o w t o support herself, a n d f r o m a c t u a l w e a k n e s s sat d o w n a n d c r i e d for h a l f a n h o u r . Her a s t o n i s h m e n t , as s h e r e f l e c t e d o n w h a t h a d p a s s e d , w a s i n c r e a s e d b y e v e r y review of it15. T h a t she should receive an offer of marriage from M r Darcy! T h a t h e s h o u l d have b e e n in love with her for so m a n y m o n t h s ! So m u c h i n l o v e as t o w i s h t o m a r r y h e r i n s p i t e o f a l l t h e o b j e c t i o n s w h i c h h a d m a d e h i m p r e v e n t h i s f r i e n d ' s m a r r y i n g h e r sister, a n d w h i c h m u s t a p p e a r at l e a s t w i t h e q u a l f o r c e i n h i s o w n c a s e , w a s a l m o s t i n c r e d i b l e !

COMPREHENSION 1 W h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o Darcy in t h e o p e n i n g

3

paragraph, should he have d o n e in order t o win

she first m e t Darcy?

Elizabeth's affections? 2 Was it t h e way Darcy m a d e his declaration t h a t m a d e Elizabeth refuse? (Lines 1 7 - 2 6 )

4

W h a t w e r e t h e first traits Elizabeth n o t i c e d w h e n

W h a t m a d e Darcy's proposal of marriage t o

Elizabeth ' a l m o s t incredible'?

45

Pride and Prejudice - Jane Austen

75

ANALYSIS 1

Focus on the character of Darcy.

be flattered by his attention? Does t h e final paragraph confirm or contradict what she has said

a. Is there any evidence in t h e text of what Elizabeth

previously in the passage?

describes as his 'arrogance', 'conceit' and 'disdain' of the feelings of others?

3

b. What does Darcy pride himself on? Which c o m m e n t m a d e by Elizabeth seems to offend him most profoundly? c. As a single, wealthy, socially superior young man, Darcy automatically assumes that Elizabeth will a c c e p t his proposal of marriage. Find evidence in t h e text of his disbelief at her refusal. W h a t does Darcy's reaction suggest a b o u t the social values and conventions of the time? 2

Consider the style of the passage. How would you

describe it? • Elegant

• Sophisticated

• Balanced

• Conversational

• Artificial

• Polite

• Dramatic

• Other:

4

Elizabeth and Darcy are involved in a passionate

row. T h e language they use does not, however, seem to reflect the emotionally-charged situation: there are no repetitions, incomplete sentences, short

Focus on t h e character of Elizabeth.

exclamations or incoherencies. What effect does t h e

a. Which of t h e following adjectives d o you think best describe her?

polished dialogue create? • It reminds the reader that both Darcy and Elizabeth

• Self-composed

• Intelligent

• Passive

• Vindictive

• Hysterical

• Independent

b. Is there any evidence in the text that she may have

belong to the refined upper and middle classes. • It helps maintain the light-hearted, ironic t o n e of the novel.

been impetuous in forming her opinion of Darcy?

• It makes the characters seem more realistic.

Which expression suggests that she is exaggerating

• It adds an e l e m e n t of humour to the novel.

her dislike of Darcy?

• It exposes the author's inability to write convincing

c. Consider t h e final paragraph. Is there any suggestion that Elizabeth may admire Darcy and

dialogues. • Other:

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Showing and telling

T h e r e are t w o b a s i c t e c h n i q u e s for r e v e a l i n g a c h a r a c t e r : ' s h o w i n g ' a n d ' t e l l i n g ' . A writer shows characters t h r o u g h dialogue, m o n o l o g u e or interior m o n o l o g u e . T h e reader is left t o i n t e r p r e t a n d draw c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m w h a t is said w i t h little or n o h e l p f r o m t h e narrator. A writer tells t h e reader a b o u t characters w h e n h e describes t h e i r personality, appearance, feelings a n d m o t i v e s for t h e i r behaviour. T h e reader does n o t h a v e m u c h f r e e d o m t o f o r m a n o p i n i o n a n d m u s t d e p e n d o n w h a t t h e n a r r a t o r says a b o u t t h e c h a r a c t e r . In Text E23 Jane Austen uses a mixture of showing and telling. Identify the lines where she: - shows character through dialogue: lines - tells the reader a b o u t t h e characters' feelings: lines In the final paragraph Jane Austen uses the technique of telling to describe Elizabeth's physical and emotional response to what has happened. Imagine you are re-writing this scene for the stage or cinema. Write a m o n o l o g u e for Elizabeth through which you show the contents of this paragraph. Include stage directions for physical actions.

What do the following types of pride mean to you? National pride

Civic pride

Family pride

Personal pride

Is pride a positive or negative emotion or b o t h ? Give examples.


Family

Jane

background

Austen was born

on

16th

D e c e m b e r , 1 7 7 5 , i n t h e village o f S t e v e n t o n , n e a r B a s i n g s t o k e , in Hampshire. The seventh of eight children of the Reverend G e o r g e A u s t e n a n d h i s wife, C a s s a n d r a , s h e w a s e d u c a t e d m a i n l y

j

at h o m e a n d n e v e r lived apart f r o m h e r family. Social

As a y o u n g w o m a n , s h e e n j o y e d d a n c i n g at

background

local balls, walking in t h e H a m p s h i r e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d visiting friends. S h e was a n avid reader. S h e read b o t h t h e serious a n d t h e | popular literature of t h e day (her father had a library of 5 0 0

j

b o o k s b y 1 8 0 1 , a n d s h e w r o t e t h a t s h e a n d h e r f a m i l y were 'great n o v e l readers, and n o t a s h a m e d of being so'). She was very

JANE AUSTEN (1775-1817)

j

familiar with eighteenth-century novels, including the works of Richardson ( • pp. D 6 5 - 6 9 ) and Fielding ( • pp. D 7 0 - 7 6 ) . 1

T h r o u g h h e r a c t i v e social life, s h e m e t m a n y m e n w h o w a n t e d t o m a r r y her, b u t s h e r e m a i n e d single

;

all h e r life. O n o n e o c c a s i o n , s h e did a c c e p t a p r o p o s a l o f m a r r i a g e f r o m t h e b r o t h e r o f o n e o f h e r c l o s e s t friends, b u t s h e c h a n g e d h e r m i n d t h e f o l l o w i n g day. Writing

career

S h e s t a r t e d w r i t i n g i n h e r e a r l y t e e n s . Her earliest w o r k s i n c l u d e d p a r o d i e s o f t h e

literature o f t h e d a y a n d were o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n for t h e a m u s e m e n t o f h e r family. M o s t o f t h e p i e c e s

j

are d e d i c a t e d t o h e r relatives or f a m i l y friends. In t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1 8 1 1 a n d 1 8 1 7 s h e w r o t e h e r

j

six m a j o r n o v e l s . S u c c e s s was n o t i m m e d i a t e . I n d e e d p u b l i s h e r s d e c l i n e d t o e v e n l o o k at t h e m a n u s c r i p t o f Pride and Prejudice

( 1 8 1 3 ) . However, w h e n h e r n o v e l s were e v e n t u a l l y p u b l i s h e d t h e y

w e r e g e n e r a l l y well-received. I n 1 8 1 6 h e r h e a l t h b e g a n t o fail a n d i n 1 8 1 7 s h e w e n t t o W i n c h e s t e r i n search o f m e d i c a l a t t e n t i o n , b u t s h e died t h e r e after t w o m o n t h s . Her b o d y was b u r i e d in W i n c h e s t e r c a t h e d r a l . •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

I

Background

In the period w h e n J a n e Austen wrote, great

c h a n g e s were o c c u r r i n g i n Europe. T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e collapse o f t h e ' a n c i e n r e g i m e ' i n F r a n c e were f o l l o w e d b y t h e N a p o l e o n i c wars. I n E n g l a n d , t o o , t h i s was a period o f political a n d social u n r e s t . M u s i c , literature a n d p a i n t i n g were also u n d e r g o i n g c h a n g e i n t h e f o r m o f t h e great R o m a n t i c R e v o l u t i o n ( • pp. E 1 1 5 - 1 1 6 ) . T h e r e is h a r d l y a n y m e n t i o n o f t h e s e e v e n t s in J a n e Austen's n o v e l s . Her n o v e l s deal w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n f a m i l i e s a n d individuals i n a rural setting. S h e herself said ' T h r e e or four families i n a C o u n t r y Village is t h e t h i n g t o w o r k o n ' . S h e c o n f i n e d h e r writing t o t h e w o r l d s h e k n e w f r o m f i r s t - h a n d e x p e r i e n c e . Novels

Her m a j o r n o v e l s are Sense and Sensibility

( 1 8 1 4 ) , Emma Setting

( 1 8 1 6 ) , Persuasion

( 1 8 1 1 ) , Pride and Prejudice

( 1 8 1 8 ) a n d Northanger

Abbey

( 1 8 1 3 ) , Mansfield

Park

(1818).

E m m a perfectly exemplifies t h e limited canvas o n w h i c h Austen chose to work. W i t h t h e

e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p i c n i c e x c u r s i o n t o B o x Hill, all t h e a c t i o n is c o n f i n e d t o t h e m i d d l e a n d u p p e r class h o m e s o f t h e village o f H i g h b u r y . T h e c h a r a c t e r s i n h e r n o v e l s are also d r a w n f r o m t h e social m i l i e u s h e k n e w b e s t . T h e y b e l o n g t o t h e aristocracy, g e n t r y a n d m i d d l e classes. Her greater u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e f e m a l e m i n d is also r e f l e c t e d in h e r w o r k ( • Visual L i n k E7). Themes

F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e o f J a n e Austen's p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h h e r i m m e d i a t e w o r l d m a y b e f o u n d

i n t h e t h e m e s o f h e r n o v e l s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l values o f t h e m i d d l e a n d u p p e r classes s u c h as p r o p e r t y .

Writers' Gallery - Jane Austen

decorum, m o n e y and marriage are h e r m a j o r c o n c e r n s . I n b o t h

and Pride and

Emma

marriage

provides

Prejudice the

basis

o f t h e p l o t . It is n o t s u r p r i s i n g that

marriage

preoccupation.

was

a

major

At t h a t

time,

w o m e n of the middle and upper classes were, o f necessity, t o t a l l y d e p e n d e n t o n t h e i r h u s b a n d s or fathers.

Jane

Austen

herself

e x p e r i e n c e d t h e risk o f b e i n g left unsupported. W h e n her father died, h e left h i s w i d o w a n d t w o daughters a very small a n n u a l i n c o m e . Life w o u l d h a v e b e e n difficult for the three w o m e n had

not

the

surviving

sons

contributed to their income. Characters

J a n e A u s t e n is p r o b a b l y b e s t r e m e m b e r e d f o r h e r a n a l y s i s o f c h a r a c t e r a n d c o n d u c t .

Her c h a r a c t e r s h a v e s t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s s e s , t h e y g o t h r o u g h t i m e s o f trials a n d t h e y learn l e s s o n s . T h e y are n o t d r i v e n b y w i l d p a s s i o n s . T h e s t r o n g i m p u l s e s a n d i n t e n s e l y e m o t i o n a l s t a t e s t h e y e x p e r i e n c e are regulated, c o n t r o l l e d a n d b r o u g h t t o order b y p r i v a t e r e f l e c t i o n . J a n e Austen's c o m m i t m e n t t o r e a s o n a n d c o m m o n sense r a t h e r t h a n great p a s s i o n s links h e r w o r k t o t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t r a d i t i o n o f c l a s s i c i s m . T h e r e is little e v i d e n c e i n h e r w o r k o f t h e p a s s i o n a t e R o m a n t i c t h e m e s of the turn of the century. Style

J a n e A u s t e n ' s n o v e l s g i v e t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f ease, b u t t h e y are in f a c t t h e r e s u l t o f c a r e f u l

t h i n k i n g b y t h e a u t h o r w h o was c o n s t a n t l y revising t h e m . Irony, wit a n d clear, b a l a n c e d , a p p a r e n t l y s i m p l e l a n g u a g e are all e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f h e r style. T h e v i v i d n e s s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s a n d t h e lively dialogue h a v e m a d e t h e n o v e l s e x c e l l e n t m a t e r i a l for t h e a t r e a n d c i n e m a a d a p t a t i o n . In fact, in recent years J a n e Austen has e n j o y e d renewed popularity, t h a n k s to hugely successful films and t e l e v i s i o n series b a s e d o n h e r n o v e l s .

TASKS 1 What kind of social background did Jane Austen

6

have?

contemporary social, political and cultural events?

2

What kind of literature influenced her as a

writer? 3

Did she lead a secluded life?

4

When did she start writing?

5

Were her novels accepted for publication

immediately?

7

As a writer, was she influenced by W h a t is t h e setting of her novels?

8 What are t h e major t h e m e s of her novels? 9

W h a t are t h e characteristics of her style?

1 0 Does her work belong more to t h e eighteenthcentury neo-classical tradition or to the turn-ofthe-century romantic tradition?

77


Ivanhoe by Sir Walter Scott

Stories b a s e d on heroic action have always b e e n very popular. a. Think of an a d v e n t u r e story o r action movie you have seen recently. W h i c h of t h e following characteristics would you attribute t o t h e hero of t h e story? • Brave •

Intelligent

•

Strong

•

Good-looking

•

Honest

•

Modest

• Others: b . Prepare a ten-line s u m m a r y of t h e plot.

CHARACTERS • Richard the Lion heart, king of England • Prince John, Richard's brother • Cedric, Saxon leader • Lady Rowena, Saxon lady • Athelstane, Saxon knight • Ivanhoe, Cedric's son • Brian de BoisGuilbert, Norman knight • Reginald Front-deBoeuf, Norman knight • Isaac, a Jew • Rebecca, Isaac's daughter

THE STORY Ivanhoe is set in England during the Middle Ages, towards the end of the twelfth cen when England's popidation was both of Saxon and Norman descent. While King Richard the Lionheart is fighting an unsuccessful crusade in the Holy La Prince John has usurped the throne of England. The Saxon leader, Cedric, still hopes restore a Saxon to the throne by arranging a marriage

between Lady Rowena a

Athelstane, both of whom are of royal Saxon descent. So, when Cedric's son, Ivanhoe, fc in love with Lady Rowena and threatens to ruin his plans, he sends him away on t crusades. King Richard and Ivanhoe return to England together. They take part, incogni in a tournament at Ashby and defeat the Norman heroes, Sir Brian de Bois-Guilbert and Reginald Front-de-Boeuf ( • Texts E24 and E26). Ivanhoe reveals his identity while Rich keeps his. The following day, Ivanhoe, Cedric, Rowena, Athelstane and the two Jewish characters, Is and his daughter, Rebecca ( • Text E25), are taken prisoner by Bois-Guilbert and held Front-de-Boeuf's castle. The castle is placed under siege by a force led by Richard and Rob Hood. After an epic battle, all the prisoners are freed, except Rebecca, who is kidnapped Bois-Guilbert. She is accused of being a witch but Ivanhoe, in true chivalric spirit, offers defend her name in battle against the Norman knight. Ivanhoe defeats Bois-Guilbert a Rebecca is freed. Richard reveals his identity at last and reclaims the throne, while Ivanhoe, who has b reconciled with his father, marries Rowena. Rebecca leaves England with her father for ever.

•

GLOSSARY

1. utmost: greatest 2. tide: winning trend 3. lists: sections of the arena

Text E24

Fight On, Brave Knights

T h e c h a m p i o n s t h u s e n c o u n t e r i n g e a c h o t h e r w i t h t h e u t m o s t 1 fury, a n d w i t h alternate success, t h e tide2 of battle s e e m e d to flow n o w towards t h e s o u t h e r n , n o w t o w a r d s t h e n o r t h e r n e x t r e m i t y o f t h e lists 3 , as t h e o n e o r

Ivanhoe - Sir Walter Scott

79

the other party prevailed. Meantime the clang 4 of the blows and the shouts of the

5

combatants mixed fearfully with the sound of the trumpets, and drowned the groans 5 of those who fell, and lay rolling defenceless beneath the feet of the horses. The splendid armour

of t h e

(Maced 6

combatants

was now

with dust and Wood, and %ave -way

10

at every stroke of the sword and battle-axe. The gay plumage, shorn from the crests 7 , drifted upon the breeze like snowfYakes. AW that was beautiful and graceful in the martial

array 8

15

had disappeared, and what

was now visible was only calculated to awake terror or compassion. Yet such is the force of habit, that not only the vulgar spectators, who are naturally

20

attracted by sights of horror, but even the ladies of distinction, who crowded the galleries, saw the conflict with a thrilling interest certainly, but without a wish to withdraw their eyes from a sight so terrible.

25

Here and there, indeed, a fair cheek might turn pale, or a faint scream 9 might be heard, as a lover, a brother or a husband was struck from 1 0 his horse. But in general, the ladies around encouraged the combatants, not

30

only by clapping their hands and waving their veils and kerchiefs 11 , but

nineteenth-century edition of Ivanhoe.

even by exclaiming, 'Brave lance! Good sword!' when any successful thrust or blow took place under their observation. Such being the interest taken by the fair sex 12 in this bloody game, that of the men is more easily understood. It showed itself in loud acclamations upon every change of fortune, while all eyes were so riveted 13 on the lists that the spectators seemed as if they themselves had dealt and received the blows which were so freely bestowed 14 . And between every pause was heard the voice of the heralds, exclaiming, 'Fight on, brave knights! Man dies, but glory lives! Fight on. Death is better than defeat! Fight on, brave knights! For bright eyes behold your deeds 15 .' The battle commences and the crowd roars on its heroes.

4. 5. 6. 7.

clang: metallic noise groans: expressions of pain defaced: dirtied shorn from the crests: cut from the top of the helmets

8. martial array: armour worn in battle 9. faint scream: weak cry of horror 10. struck from: forced to fall off

11. kerchiefs: handkerchiefs 12.Such being ... sex: if women showed such great interest 13.riveted: firmly fixed

14. bestowed: given 15.For bright... deeds: because beautiful women are watching your glorious actions


COMPREHENSION

—

—

1 Why is the battle referred to metaphorically as a 'tide'? (Line 2)

6 How did the ladies in the crowd react to the spectacle?

2 What sounds could the spectators hear?

7 How did the ladies encourage the combatants?

3 What defaced the armour of the combatants?

8 How did the men show their appreciation for the spectacle?

4 What happened to the coloured feathers that the combatants wore on their crests? 5 What reactions did the battle evoke from the spectators?

9 Why, according to the spectators, should the knights fight on?

ANALYSIS 1 Say whether the following descriptive details appeal to your sense of sight (S) or your sense of hearing (H): [~~~1 the tide of battle seemed to flow now towards the southern, now towards the northern extremity of the lists

A

B

the vulgar spectators,

[ 1 the clang of the blows j

a. Find the elements which provide balance in the first sentence of the second paragraph and complete the table.

who are naturally attracted by sights of horror,

I the shouts of the combatants

I | the groans of those who fell I | the splendid armour of the combatants was now defaced with dust and blood 1 | the gay plumage, shorn from the crests, drifted upon the breeze like snowflakes 2 This extract is typical of Walter Scott's elegant style which is often based on symmetrical patterns of syntax. Focus on the first sentence. The expressions in column A are balanced by the expressions in column B. A

utmost fury now towards the southern the one

B

alternate success now towards the northern the other party

saw the conflict with a thrilling interest certainly b. Can you find other examples of symmetrical patterns in the syntax of the passage? 3 When the narrator says, 'the vulgar spectators, who are naturally attracted by sights of horror', he is commenting on what he sees and becomes an obtrusive narrator*. Where else does the narrator comment on what he sees? Give line references.

WRITERS W O R K S H O P Descriptive passages try to recreate both the visual and emotive elements of a scene, situation or character. Through the careful choice of words and images, the writer tries to bring the scene to life for the reader. In descriptive passages, writers often try to communicate physical sensations. They choose words which recreate in the readers' imagination, sounds, smells, tastes, sight or tactile experiences. 1 In text E24 which senses does Walter Scott appeal to? Give examples from the text. 2 Which of the following does Scott try to convey to the reader in his description of the tournament scene? • Noise • Movement • Grace • Beauty • Horror • Confusion • Fighting technique

Ivanhoe - Sir Walter Scott 359

Writers often use figures of s p e e c h to m a k e their descriptions m o r e vivid. A figure of s p e e c h is a n e x a m p l e o f l a n g u a g e b e i n g u s e d i n a n u n u s u a l w a y . S i m i l e s

and

m e t a p h o r s are v e r y c o m m o n f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h . A s i m i l e is a n e x p l i c i t c o m p a r i s o n w h i c h u s e s ' l i k e ' , ' a s ' o r 'as if' t o c o m p a r e t w o e l e m e n t s w h i c h are unalike. A m e t a p h o r is a n i m p l i e d c o m p a r i s o n w h e r e t h e l i n k i n g w o r d is o m i t t e d . Find in Text E 2 4 : a ) a m e t a p h o r for a battle; b ) a simile for t h e shorn p l u m a g e .

OVER T O Y O U

Write a brief description ( m a x . 1 0 0 w o r d s ) of o n e of t h e following: a car crash

a m a j o r sporting e v e n t

a rock c o n c e r t

a political d e m o n s t r a t i o n

a busy city street

Your description should include details which appeal to t h e senses of sight and hearing. You m a y also include details w h i c h appeal to t h e o t h e r senses, if you wish.

Find a r e p o r t of a sports e v e n t . D o e s t h e writer include any descriptive e l e m e n t s ? Are t h e r e a n y a s p e c t s of t h e d e s c r i p t i o n t h a t a p p e a l t o t h e s e n s e s ? D o e s t h e j o u r n a l i s t use a n y similes o r m e t a p h o r s ? H o w e f f e c t i v e is t h e journalist in recreating t h e s c e n e he is describing? Prepare a short evaluation of t h e report.

e. Unhappy Israelites

a*'Ö

Text E25

One of the main characters in Ivanhoe is Rebecca, a Jewish girl who is accused of being a witch. In Text E25 Walter Scott explains the role of the Jewish community in Medieval England.

GLOSSARY

1. pretences: false reason, pretexts 2. groundless: without reason 3. every turn: every manifestation 4. however adverse: no matter how hostile 5. whom it was accounted ... hate: that religion itself taught to hate

( . . . ) for, e x c e p t p e r h a p s t h e f l y i n g f i s h , t h e r e w a s n o r a c e e x i s t i n g o n t h e earth,

i n t h e air, or t h e w a t e r s ,

w h o were the object of such

an

u n i n t e r m i t t i n g , g e n e r a l , a n d r e l e n t l e s s p e r s e c u t i o n as t h e J e w s o f t h i s p e r i o d . U p o n t h e s l i g h t e s t a n d m o s t u n r e a s o n a b l e p r e t e n c e s 1 , as well as upon accusations the most absurd and groundless2, their persons and property were e x p o s e d t o every t u r n 3 o f p o p u l a r fury; for N o r m a n , S a x o n , Dane, and Briton, h o w e v e r adverse4 these races were to each

other,

c o n t e n d e d w h i c h should look with greatest detestation u p o n a people w h o m it w a s a c c o u n t e d a p o i n t o f r e l i g i o n t o h a t e 5 , t o r e v i l e 6 , t o d e s p i s e 7 , to p l u n d e r 8 a n d to persecute. T h e kings of t h e N o r m a n race, a n d the

10

i n d e p e n d e n t n o b l e s , w h o f o l l o w e d t h e i r e x a m p l e i n all a c t s o f t y r a n n y , m a i n t a i n e d against this d e v o t e d p e o p l e a p e r s e c u t i o n of a m o r e regular, c a l c u l a t e d , a n d s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d k i n d . It is a w e l l - k n o w n s t o r y o f K i n g J o h n , that he c o n f i n e d a w e a l t h y J e w in o n e of t h e royal castles, a n d daily caused o n e of his teeth to be torn out9, until, w h e n the jaw of the u n h a p p y Israelite was h a l f d i s f u r n i s h e d 1 0 , h e c o n s e n t e d t o pay a large s u m , w h i c h it w a s t h e t y r a n t ' s o b j e c t t o e x t o r t f r o m h i m . T h e l i t t l e r e a d y

•-

15

6. revile: hate 7. despise: look down upon 8. plunder: steal their property 9. caused ... torn out: had one of the man's teeth extracted 10.the jaw ... disfurnished: the mouth was missing half of the teeth


m o n e y w h i c h was in the c o u n t r y was chiefly in possession of this persecuted people, and the nobility hesitated not to follow the example of t h e i r s o v e r e i g n i n w r i n g i n g 1 1 it f r o m t h e m b y e v e r y s p e c i e s o f o p p r e s s i o n ,

20

a n d e v e n p e r s o n a l t o r t u r e . Yet t h e p a s s i v e c o u r a g e i n s p i r e d b y t h e l o v e o f gain induced the Jews to dare t h e various evils to w h i c h t h e y were subjected, in consideration of the i m m e n s e profits w h i c h t h e y were e n a b l e d t o r e a l i s e i n a c o u n t r y n a t u r a l l y s o w e a l t h y as E n g l a n d . I n s p i t e o f 11. wringing: extorting 12. Exchequer: taxcollecting office 13. dispoiling and distressing: extorting money and causing suffering 14. bills of exchange: written promises to pay 15.for which ... indebted to them: commerce owes to the Jews 16. secured: made safe 17.in a measure ... opposition to: partly working against 18. watchful: careful to notice what is happening 19. uncomplying: inflexible •

every kind of discouragement, a n d even of the special court of taxations

25

already m e n t i o n e d , called the Jew's E x c h e q u e r 1 2 , erected for the very purpose of dispoiling and distressing13 them, the Jews

increased,

multiplied, and accumulated huge sums, w h i c h t h e y transferred from o n e h a n d to a n o t h e r by m e a n s of bills of e x c h a n g e 1 4 - a n i n v e n t i o n for w h i c h c o m m e r c e is s a i d t o b e i n d e b t e d t o t h e m 1 5 , a n d w h i c h e n a b l e d t h e m t o

30

transfer their wealth from land to land, that, when threatened with oppression in o n e country, their treasure m i g h t be secured15 in another. T h e obstinacy and avarice of the Jews b e i n g thus in a measure placed in o p p o s i t i o n t o 1 7 t h e f a n a t i c i s m a n d t y r a n n y o f t h o s e u n d e r w h o m t h e y lived, seemed to increase in proportion to the persecution with w h i c h t h e y were

35

visited; a n d t h e i m m e n s e w e a l t h t h e y u s u a l l y a c q u i r e d i n c o m m e r c e , w h i l e it f r e q u e n t l y p l a c e d t h e m in d a n g e r , w a s a t o t h e r t i m e s u s e d t o e x t e n d t h e i r influence, a n d to secure to t h e m a certain degree of protection. O n these terms t h e y lived; a n d their character,

influenced accordingly,

was

w a t c h f u l 1 8 , s u s p i c i o u s a n d t i m i d - y e t o b s t i n a t e , u n c o m p l y i n g 1 9 a n d skilful

40

in evading t h e dangers to w h i c h they were exposed.

COMPREHENSION 1

D o e s t h e narrator feel t h a t t h e persecution of t h e

Jews w a s justifiable? Refer t o t h e text. 2

W h i c h four ' r a c e s ' w e r e united in their persecution

t h e N o r m a n king a n d nobles different from

W h a t torture was inflicted on a wealthy Jew held

captive by King John, according to a well-known story? W h y w e r e t h e Jews often s u b j e c t e d t o e x t o r t i o n ?

ANALYSIS

6

W h a t was t h e Jew's E x c h e q u e r ?

7

W h a t i m p o r t a n t c o m m e r c i a l invention was m a d e

by t h e Jews?

persecution carried out by o t h e r g r o u p s ?

4

W h a t g a v e t h e Jews c o u r a g e ? W h y did t h e y remain

in England?

of t h e Jews? How was t h e persecution of t h e Jews by

3

5

8

Although t h e y w e r e often t h e victims of

discrimination a n d persecution, t h e Jews w e r e also influential and, t o s o m e e x t e n t , p r o t e c t e d . Explain this s t a t e m e n t , referring t o t h e t e x t .

—

1 T h e t a b l e divides t h e t e x t into t h r e e m a j o r points. Find material in t h e t e x t which exemplifies e a c h point. 1 Examples of persecution of t h e Jews 2 Reasons w h y Jews r e m a i n e d in Britain 3 A positive a n d a n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e of Jewish wealth

Their persons and property were exposed to every turn of popular fury...


Do the following words, which are used to describe

2

4

Consider Scott's style. Find examples of multiple

t h e jews, have positive (P), negative (N), or neutral

verbs or adjectives.

(NT) connotations? Write t h e appropriate

What effect does the technique of making lists of

abbreviation beside each word.

adjectives or verbs have on Scott's writing?

I

| Devoted

O

Obstinacy

f H Avarice

• It is easier to understand what he is trying to say.

I

| Suspicious

O

Timid

[

• If he used only one or two words, t h e writing

i

I Uncomplying

3

What effect does telling t h e story of King John and

Q

J Obstinate

Skilful

83

would not b e as effective.

t h e wealthy Jew have on the text? • The gory details make the passage more interesting. • T h e story helps t h e reader to understand t h e general point Scott is making. • T h e generalisations of the t e x t are supported by t h e specific detail of this story. • T h e t o n e of t h e passage is lightened by the storytelling.

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P Comment on political and sociaHssues

Fiction is often used to comment on political and social issues. By addressing a subject in a fictional text, the writer can enhance its interest and force. Because he chooses a non-journalistic approach, the writer is not obliged to base his writing exclusively on facts. He can add elements such as anecdotes or personal experiences and may generally distort reality to serve his purpose. In the passage you have read Walter Scott explains how the Jewish community lived in Medieval England. - Is his writing based purely on fact or does it also include other elements? - Is Scott fully sympathetic to the plight of the Jews? - Are there elements of humour in t h e text? - Is Scott's style pedantic or does he use a lighter t o u c h ? Would you consider his approach to b e subjective or objective? justify your answer. - Is Scott's main aim t o inform the reader, to entertain the reader, or a mixture of b o t h ? Can you think of any work of fiction you have read or film that you have seen that had a social or political message? Why do you think a writer would c h o o s e fiction and not straightforward journalism to make a political or social statement? Are there any ways in which it might be more effective? Would the two forms of writing reach the same kind of public?

In groups, make a list of ethnic, national or social groups which are discriminated against in today's world. Choose o n e of t h e groups and make a list of adjectives t h a t are c o m m o n l y associated with t h o s e people. Write a brief account of why you think they are t h e victims of discrimination.

84


The Tournament I Ivanhoe,

incognito,

knight

Sir

Brian

tournament

de

battle

knows

that

with

The

mixed

if he wins,

Norma

as the greatest

at

Norman

emotions

Rebecca,

will die, but if he loses,

be regarded

the

Bois-Guilbert

at Ashby.

enters

loves,

challenges

the

knigh

because

he

the woman

he

he will no

Knight

longer

Templar.

But I v a n h o e was a l r e a d y at his post, a n d had closed his visor1, a n d assumed his lance. Bois-Guilbert did the same; and his esquire remarked, as h e c l a s p e d h i s v i s o r , t h a t h i s f a c e , which

had,

notwithstanding

the

variety of e m o t i o n s b y w h i c h he had been agitated, c o n t i n u e d during the w h o l e m o r n i n g of an ashy2 paleness, was

now

becoming

very

much

flushed3. The

herald

then,

seeing

each

c h a m p i o n in his place, uplifted his v o i c e , r e p e a t i n g t h r i c e 4 - Faites devoirs,

preux

chevaliers5/

vos

After the

is

t h i r d cry, h e w i t h d r e w t o o n e s i d e o f t h e lists, a n d a g a i n p r o c l a i m e d t h a t none,

on

peril

of i n s t a n t

death,

s h o u l d dare b y word, cry or a c t i o n t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h o r d i s t u r b t h e fair f i e l d horse, was soon on foot, hastening to mend his fortune with his sword...'

of c o m b a t . T h e Grand Master, w h o h e l d i n h i s h a n d t h e g a g e o f b a t t l e 6 , R e b e c c a ' s g l o v e , n o w t h r e w it i n t o t h e lists, a n d p r o n o u n c e d t h e f a t a l w o r d s , Laisser

aller7.

T h e t r u m p e t s s o u n d e d , a n d t h e k n i g h t s c h a r g e d e a c h o t h e r in full c a r e e r 8 . T h e w e a r i e d h o r s e o f I v a n h o e , a n d its n o less e x h a u s t e d rider, w e n t d o w n , as all h a d e x p e c t e d , b e f o r e t h e w e l l - a i m e d l a n c e a n d v i g o r o u s steed o f t h e T e m p l a r . T h i s issue o f t h e c o m b a t all h a d f o r e s e e n 9 ; b u t a l t h o u g h t h e spear of I v a n h o e did but, in c o m p a r i s o n , t o u c h t h e shield of B o i s - G u i l b e r t , t h a t c h a m p i o n , t o t h e a s t o n i s h m e n t o f a l l w h o b e h e l d it, - • GLOSSARY 1. .Visor: protection for the eyes 2. ashy: like ashes 3. flushed: coloured 4. thrice: three times 5. Faites ... chevaliers: Do your duty, knights!

r e e l e d 1 0 i n h i s s a d d l e , l o s t h i s s t i r r u p s 1 1 , a n d fell i n t h e lists. Ivanhoe, extricating himself from his fallen horse, was soon o n foot, h a s t e n i n g to m e n d his fortune with his sword; b u t his antagonist arose

6. gage of battle: battle prize 7. Laisser aller: Let go 8. in full career: at full speed

9. This issue ... foreseen: everybody knew this was going to happen 10. reeled: turned violently

11. stirrups: metal loops attached to a saddle where a rider puts his foot for support


n o t . Wilfred12, p l a c i n g his foot o n his breast, a n d t h e sword's p o i n t t o his throat, c o m m a n d e d h i m to yield13 h i m , or die o n t h e spot. Bois-Guilbert returned n o answer.

35

' S l a y 1 4 h i m n o t , Sir K n i g h t , ' c r i e d t h e G r a n d M a s t e r , u n a b s o l v e d ; kill n o t b o d y a n d s o u l ! We allow

him

'unshriven15,

vanquished16.'

He d e s c e n d e d i n t o t h e lists, a n d c o m m a n d e d t h e m to u n h e l m

the

c o n q u e r e d c h a m p i o n . His e y e s w e r e c l o s e d ; t h e d a r k r e d f l u s h w a s still o n h i s b r o w 1 7 . As t h e y l o o k e d o n h i m i n a s t o n i s h m e n t , t h e e y e s o p e n e d ; b u t

40

t h e y were fixed a n d glazed. T h e flush passed f r o m his brow, a n d gave way to t h e pallid h u e 1 8 of death. U n s c a t h e d 1 9 by the lance of his enemy, he h a d died a victim to the violence of his o w n c o n t e n d i n g passions. ' T h i s i n d e e d is t h e j u d g e m e n t o f G o d , ' s a i d t h e G r a n d M a s t e r , l o o k i n g u p w a r d s - 'Fiat voluntas

tua20'.

45

12. Wilfred: Ivanhoe. Ivanhoe's full name is Wilfred of Ivanhoe 13. yield: surrender 14. Slay: kill 15. unshriven: before he has confessed his sins 16. We allow him vanquished: we claim victory over him 17. brow: forehead 18. hue: colour 19. Unscathed: untouched, not injured 20. Fiat voluntas tua: let your will be done

COMPREHENSION 1

Put t h e following series of events in t h e c o r r e c t

order: | Ivanhoe pointed his sword at Bois-Guilbert's throat.

I

I T h e Grand Master said, 'Fiat voluntas t u a ' . J Bois-Guilbert died.

•

Both knights fell to t h e g r o u n d . T h e Grand Master t h r e w R e b e c c a ' s glove into t h e lists.

2

4

W h a t did t h e Grand Master t h r o w into t h e lists?

5

Which of t h e t w o c o m b a t a n t s was e x h a u s t e d ?

Which of t h e t w o knights struck t h e b e t t e r b l o w ?

I T h e knights closed their visors.

•

W h a t would h a p p e n to a n y o n e w h o disturbed t h e

combat?

I

1

3

W h a t colour had Bois-Guilbert's f a c e b e e n all

morning?

6

W h y w e r e t h e spectators astonished w h e n Bois-

Guilbert fell f r o m his h o r s e ? W h i c h of t h e t w o knights recovered m o r e quickly from their fall? 7

W h o asked Ivanhoe n o t t o kill Bois-Guilbert?

8

W h a t w a s t h e c a u s e of Bois-Guilbert's d e a t h ?

ANALYSIS 1

Ivanhoe

is set in t h e Middle Ages. In this p a s s a g e

b. W h a t effect d o e s t h e inclusion of t h e s e figures have

Walter S c o t t refers to a n u m b e r of representative

on Scott's work?

figures from t h a t historical period.

• It makes it m o r e a u t h e n t i c .

a. Find t h e line reference t o e a c h of t h e m a n d try t o

• It makes it difficult for t h e readers t o understand. • It helps to recreate t h e a t m o s p h e r e of t h e period.

explain w h a t t h e y did in y o u r o w n words.

• It gives t h e reader an interesting insight into

- t h e esquire: line

medieval life.

- t h e herald: line - t h e Grand Master: line

2

Underline t h e words a n d expressions t h a t refer t o

t h e colour of Bois-Guilbert's face. W h a t d o you think t h e c h a n g e s in colour represent?

S c o t t ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e b a t t l e b e t w e e n t h e t w o h e r o e s is a l m o s t c i n e m a t o g r a p h i c in its a t t e n t i o n t o detail. Can you think of any g r e a t 'fight s c e n e s ' from films t h a t you have s e e n ?

85

,86


HVMHHH|H||

Family Walter

Sir

background Scott

was

born

in

E d i n b u r g h o n 1 5 t h August, 1 7 7 1 . W h e n h e was o n l y t w o years old h e got polio, w h i c h left h i m l a m e for t h e rest of his life. To convalesce, h e stayed w i t h his g r a n d p a r e n t s in t h e Scottish Border country, w h e r e h e read widely a b o u t Scottish history a n d tradition.

Ballads

and

poems

W h e n he returned to Edinburgh,

he

b e c a m e a lawyer, b u t his real l o v e was w r i t i n g . He c o l l e c t e d S c o t t i s h s t o r i e s a n d b a l l a d s in Minstrelsy

of the Scottish

Border

( 1 8 0 2 - 1 8 0 3 ) b e f o r e d e d i c a t i n g h i m s e l f t o p o e t r y . The Lay of ( 1 8 0 5 ) a n d The Lady of the Lake

Last Minstrel

the

( 1 8 1 0 ) are t w o o f h i s

most popular poems. The W a v e r l e y N o v e l s

He is b e s t r e m e m b e r e d , h o w e v e r , as t h e first great writer o f h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l s

i n t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e . His first n o v e l Waverley,

w h i c h deals with t h e Scottish rebellion o f 1 7 4 5 ,

a p p e a r e d a n o n y m o u s l y i n 1 8 1 4 a n d was i m m e d i a t e l y s u c c e s s f u l . T h e n o v e l s w h i c h f o l l o w e d w e r e p u b l i s h e d b y ' t h e a u t h o r o f Waverley' Financial

ruin

a n d so were called t h e Waverley

Novels.

S c o t t was v e r y p o p u l a r a m o n g his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . His n o v e l s r e a c h e d w i d e

a u d i e n c e s i n B r i t a i n a n d a b r o a d , a n d h e was a c c l a i m e d as o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g E u r o p e a n writers o f h i s day. I n r e c o g n i t i o n o f h i s w o r k , h e w a s m a d e a b a r o n e t i n 1 8 2 0 . At t h e h e i g h t o f h i s c a r e e r , t h e b a n k r u p t c y o f h i s b u s i n e s s a s s o c i a t e s b r o u g h t h i s o w n f i n a n c i a l r u i n . S c o t t r e f u s e d all o f f e r s o f a s s i s t a n c e a n d s p e n t t h e rest o f h i s life w r i t i n g t o p a y o f f a n e n o r m o u s d e b t . He d i e d o n S e p t e m b e r 21st, 1832.

•^••••••••H M M M B a i i B i i i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ B

Features

Scott was a b o r n storyteller. In his n o v e l s h e placed

vivid characters in violent, dramatic historical settings.

Ivanhoe

( 1 8 2 0 ) , for e x a m p l e , is set a g a i n s t t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n N o r m a n s a n d S a x o n s in E n g l a n d . S c o t t is also w i d e l y regarded as a m a s t e r o f d i a l o g u e . He c o u l d c a p t u r e t h e r e g i o n a l s p e e c h o f h i g h l a n d p e a s a n t s w i t h t h e s a m e e a s e as h e c o u l d r e p r o d u c e t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d , p o l i s h e d e l o q u e n c e o f k n i g h t s a n d aristocrats. S c o t t a r r a n g e d h i s plots a n d c h a r a c t e r s so t h e reader e n t e r s i n t o t h e lives o f b o t h great a n d o r d i n a r y p e o p l e . He b e l i e v e d t h a t e v e r y h u m a n w a s b a s i c a l l y d e c e n t r e g a r d l e s s o f class, r e l i g i o n , p o l i t i c s or a n c e s t r y , a n d w a s t h e first n o v e l i s t t o p o r t r a y p e a s a n t c h a r a c t e r s s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y a n d r e a l i s t i c a l l y a n d t o r e c o g n i s e t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e t h e y h a d i n h i s t o r y . I n Ivanhoe,

f o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e are m a n y

f a m o u s h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e s like R i c h a r d t h e L i o n h e a r t a n d R o b i n H o o d b u t t h e h e r o o f t h e n o v e l , I v a n h o e , is a n o r d i n a r y k n i g h t , n o d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o u s a n d s o f o t h e r s . T o l e r a n c e is a m a j o r t h e m e i n S c o t t ' s h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s . His h e r o e s r e p r e s e n t t h e ' m i d d l e c o u r s e ' b e t w e e n e x t r e m e s . I v a n h o e is a n e x a m p l e o f a h e r o w h o is b o t h t o l e r a n t a n d fearless i n h i s pursuit o f j u s t i c e . He r e m a i n s loyal t o R i c h a r d , t h e l e g i t i m a t e k i n g o f E n g l a n d , h e respects R o b i n H o o d b e c a u s e h e gives t o t h e poor, a n d h e risks h i s o w n life t o save R e b e c c a ' s . S c o t t was also v e r y o p e n - m i n d e d i n relation to the recent history of Scotland. O n the o n e hand, he recognised that his country's u n i o n with England would bring c o m m e r c i a l progress and m o d e r n i s a t i o n , but o n t h e o t h e r he m o u r n e d

iüAML

Writers' Gallery - Sir Walter Scott

? vw

- »mmm* a « mm

t h e loss of Scotland's I n d e p e n d e n c e a n d t h e d e c l i n e o f its n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y a n d t r a d i t i o n s . T h i s is o n e o f t h e m a j o r t h e m e s o f t h e Waverley w h i c h i n c l u d e d Waverley Mannering,

(1815),

( 1 8 1 6 ) , a n d Rob Roy Reputation

Novels

(1814),

The

Guy

Antiquary

(1817).

Scott created a

new

literary form, the historical novel, w h i c h is still p o p u l a r t o t h i s day. H e t o l d t h e stories o f f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s a n d real p e o p l e a g a i n s t

authentic

h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d s . His i n t e r e s t i n t h e past, his c o n c e r n for t h e c o m m o n m a n , his use of regional s p e e c h a n d his d e s c r i p t i o n s of b e a u t i f u l n a t u r a l s e t t i n g p l a c e d h i m f i r m l y i n t h e r o m a n t i c t r a d i t i o n . His i n f l u e n c e o n n o v e l i s t s s u c h as G e o r g e Eliot, t h e B r o n t e s , J a m e s F e n i m o r e C o o p e r a n d A l e s s a n d r o M a n z o n i was p r o f o u n d .

TASK Use these headings to prepare a short report on Walter Scott's life and works. - childhood - a career in law, literature and business

great and ordinary people literary acclaim and financial ruin

- Waverley and the birth of t h e historical novel

• Romantic elements in his work

- dialogue

• influence on other writers

87

,88


Frankenstein by Mary Shelley

Along with Dracula, Frankenstein has b e c o m e a figure of terror and horror for g e n e r a t i o n s of readers and c i n e m a g o e r s . But w h a t is a m o n s t e r ? T h e dictionary defines a ' m o n s t e r ' as: a. an imaginary beast, usually m a d e up of various animal or h u m a n parts; b . a person, animal or plant with marked deformity; c . a cruel, wicked or d e f o r m e d person. Try t o c r e a t e your o w n pen picture of a m o n s t e r using t h e h e a d i n g s below, and t h e n s e e if t h e creature you have imagined is in any way like t h e creature d e s c r i b e d in t h e texts. My F r a n k e n s t e i n Sex: Male

Female

Other

Physical a p p e a r a n c e Way of talking Way of walking Diet Reaction to t h e outside world ( t h e city, t h e countryside, e t c . ) Reaction t o p e o p l e

CHARACTERS • Victor Frankenstein, a

scientist

• The monster,

although he is not given a name in the novel he has come to be known as Frankenstein

——

THE STORY

Victor Frankenstein is born and grows up in Geneva before going to university in Ingolstadt. A brilliant student, he soon dedicates all his efforts to finding the secret of life ( • Text E27). After many years of work in his laboratory, the creature he has been working on comes to life, but Victor is horrified when he sees how grotesque it is ( • Text E28). The monster escapes and lives alone and isolated in a forest for many years. A small family live in a cottage nearby. He watches them secretly as they go about their daily business and gradually grows fond of them. From listening to them he eventually understands what they are saying. One day he finds a book written by Victor Frankenstein and realises how he has been created. He loses any faith he has ever had in humanity and sets out to get revenge on his creator. Meanwhile, Victor lives in constant fear that the monster will return. When he hears that

• Visual Link E4

his brother has been killed and a family friend is unjustly hanged for the murder, he realises that the monster is responsible.

While walking in the Alps near Chamonix,

he

unexpectedly meets his creation, who asks him to make him a wife so that he will not be so lonely. At first he agrees, but then he changes his mind when he thinks of the catastrophic consequences

of the couple having children. Consequently, the rampage of destruction

continues and the monster first kills Victor's wife, Elizabeth, on their wedding night, and then his best friend. The scientist follows the monster to the Arctic and vows to destroy him, but dies in the attempt to find him, while his monstrous creation wanders off into the icy wastes, never to be seen again.

Frankenstein

A Sudden Light Broke In Upon Me

- Mary Shelley

89

Text E 2 7

Victor Frankenstein tells us how he carried out research into the structure of the human body. O n e of the p h e n o m e n a which had peculiarly attracted m y attention was the structure of the h u m a n frame1, and, indeed, any animal endued w i t h life. W h e n c e 2 , proceed3?

I o f t e n asked myself, did the principle of life

It w a s a b o l d

question,

and one which

has ever

been

c o n s i d e r e d as a m y s t e r y ; y e t w i t h h o w m a n y t h i n g s are we u p o n

the

b r i n k of b e c o m i n g a c q u a i n t e d , if c o w a r d i c e or c a r e l e s s n e s s did n o t 4

restrain our enquiries. I revolved these circumstances in m y mind, and determined thenceforth5 to apply myself more particularly to those b r a n c h e s of natural p h i l o s o p h y w h i c h relate to physiology. Unless I h a d been animated by an almost supernatural enthusiasm, m y application to this study would have been

irksome6,

to

a n d almost intolerable. To e x a m i n e

t h e causes o f life, we m u s t first h a v e r e c o u r s e to d e a t h . I b e c a m e acquainted with t h e science of a n a t o m y : but this was not sufficient; I m u s t also observe t h e natural decay a n d corruption of the h u m a n body. In m y e d u c a t i o n m y father h a d t a k e n t h e greatest p r e c a u t i o n s t h a t m y

15

m i n d should be impressed with n o supernatural horrors. I do n o t ever r e m e m b e r t o h a v e t r e m b l e d at a tale o f superstition, or t o h a v e feared t h e apparition of a spirit. Darkness had n o effect u p o n m y fancy; a n d a c h u r c h y a r d w a s t o m e m e r e l y t h e r e c e p t a c l e of b o d i e s d e p r i v e d o f life, w h i c h , f r o m b e i n g t h e seat of b e a u t y a n d strength, h a d b e c o m e f o o d for

20

t h e w o r m . N o w I was led t o e x a m i n e t h e cause a n d progress of this decay,

1. 2. 3. 4.

and forced to spend days a n d nights in vaults a n d charnel houses7. M y attention was fixed u p o n every object the most insupportable to the delicacy of the h u m a n feelings. I saw h o w t h e fine f o r m of m a n was degraded a n d wasted; I b e h e l d 8

25

t h e c o r r u p t i o n o f d e a t h s u c c e e d t o t h e b l o o m i n g c h e e k 9 o f life; I s a w h o w t h e w o r m inherited the wonders of eye and brain. I paused, e x a m i n i n g a n d a n a l y s i n g all t h e m i n u t i a e o f c a u s a t i o n 1 0 , as e x e m p l i f i e d in t h e c h a n g e f r o m life t o d e a t h , a n d d e a t h t o life, u n t i l f r o m t h e m i d s t o f t h i s darkness a s u d d e n light b r o k e in u p o n m e - a light so brilliant a n d wondrous11,

yet so s i m p l e ,

that while

I became dizzy12 with

i m m e n s i t y o f t h e p r o s p e c t w h i c h it i l l u s t r a t e d , I w a s s u r p r i s e d ,

30

the that

a m o n g so m a n y m e n o f g e n i u s w h o h a d d i r e c t e d t h e i r e n q u i r i e s t o w a r d s the same science,

that I alone should be reserved to discover

so

astonishing a secret.

35

Remember, I a m n o t recording t h e vision of a m a d m a n . T h e sun does n o t m o r e c e r t a i n l y s h i n e i n t h e h e a v e n , t h a n t h a t w h i c h I n o w a f f i r m is true

. S o m e m i r a c l e m i g h t h a v e p r o d u c e d it, y e t t h e s t a g e s o f t h e

discovery were distinct a n d probable. After days a n d n i g h t s of incredible labour and fatigue, I succeeded in discovering t h e cause of generation a n d life;

nay14,

more, I became myself capable of

lifeless m a t t e r .

bestowing15

animation upon

GLOSSARY

40

•-

frame: body Whence: from where proceed: come from upon the brink ... acquainted: very close to getting to know

thenceforth: from then on irksome: unpleasant charnel houses: storage places for bodies of dead people beheld: observed 9. succeed ... cheek: destroy a flourishing life 10. minutiae of causation: details of a process of cause and effect 11. wondrous: wonderful 12. dizzy: feeling confused 13.The sun ... true: my words are as true as the fact that the sun is shining in the sky 14. nay: no 15.bestowing: giving

,90


COMPREHENSION 1 What was Victor's attention attracted by? 2

What, according to Victor, had stopped people

from understanding the mystery of life? 3

Which areas of study did Victor dedicate himself to?

4

What m a d e Victor persevere in studies which for

most people would have been 'irksome and almost intolerable'?

5

What childhood experience m a d e Victor unafraid

of supernatural horrors? 6

Where did Victor carry out his research?

7

What did Victor witness while carrying out his

research? 8

Did Victor make his discovery without much effort?

9

What did Victor discover?

ANALYSIS 1

In the first part of the passage Victor describes his

a. Are the verbal phrases used by Victor strong or

great desire for knowledge and understanding. Underline words and expressions (lines 1 - 1 3) which

weak? b. Which of the following adjectives would you use to

relate to areas of study and Victor's curiosity and

describe Victor?

desire to know more.

• Cold

• Ambitious

How would you describe t h e type of language used

• Mad

• Eccentric

by Victor?

• Self-confident

• Fanatical

• Conversational

• Scientific

• Formal

• Essential

• Ornate

• Other:

2

From line 1 3 to line 2 9 Victor explains how he

4

From line 2 9 to line 4 0 Victor creates expectations

about his discovery. Underline the words and expressions that suggest that he has m a d e an enormous breakthrough.

investigated the causes of death. Underline all t h e

Do the impressions t h e reader has formed about

words in this section that deal with death and the

Victor make his extraordinary achievement more

supernatural.

credible?

a. Is Victor's description of his work sanitised or does it contain graphic and disturbing details? b. What does the fact that Victor was fearless and tireless in t h e pursuit of his work suggest a b o u t him as a m a n ? c. Does he c o m e across as average or extraordinary? 3

Consider t h e following phrases taken from the text: revolved these circumstances in my mind, and determined thenceforth... Unless I had been animated by ... Now I was led to examine ... and forced to spend days and nights... My attention was fixed ... I was surprised...

5

What image represents the discovery of t h e secret

of life in lines 2 9 - 3 0 ? Is it an original i m a g e ? Is it effective in this c o n t e x t ?

Frankenstein

- Mary Shelley

91

WRITERS WORKSHOP r First-person narrative SSifp

T h e p a s s a g e y o u h a v e r e a d is a n e x a m p l e o f a f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e . T h e s t o r y is t o l d b y t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r , Victor, w h o uses t h e first p e r s o n p r o n o u n T t o d e s c r i b e his e x p e r i e n c e . R e a d i n g a f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e is l i k e l i s t e n i n g t o s o m e b o d y t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s . It is o f t e n m o r e i n v o l v i n g b e c a u s e t h e e x p e r i e n c e is p r e s e n t e d as f i r s t - h a n d .

TASKS

l i f e

WL

In Frankenstein

it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e reader finds t h e first-person narrator, Victor,

c o n v i n c i n g b e c a u s e he is g o i n g to tell a story which could easily b e dismissed as incredible. 1

Find references in t h e t e x t t o Victor's u n o r t h o d o x upbringing, his u n e n d i n g thirst for

k n o w l e d g e , his passionate nature a n d his tireless pursuit of t h e understanding of t h e mystery of life. 2

Find e x a m p l e s of Victor's a t t e m p t s to reassure t h e reader t h a t w h a t he is saying really

happened. Do you think t h a t Victor's passionate nature and unconventional e d u c a t i o n m a k e him m o r e or less credible as a narrator? Justify your answer.

OVER T O Y O U

Briefly re-write (seventy w o r d s ) t h e main points of t h e p a s s a g e in a third-person narrative. Discuss h o w a different perspective can affect t h e reader's response.

Have you ever s p e n t 'days and nights of incredible labour a n d f a t i g u e ' pursuing a personal g o a l ? W e r e you successful and was it worth t h e effort?

The Accomplishment Of My Toils

iText £ 2 8 1 GLOSSARY

After years of work, Victor Frankestein finally sees his creation come to life. It w a s o n a d r e a r y 1 n i g h t i n N o v e m b e r , t h a t I b e h e l d t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of m y toils2. W i t h an a n x i e t y that almost a m o u n t e d t o agony, I collected t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f life a r o u n d m e , t h a t I m i g h t i n f u s e a spark o f b e i n g i n t o t h e l i f e l e s s t h i n g t h a t l a y a t m y f e e t . It w a s a l r e a d y o n e i n t h e morning; the rain pattered dismally against the panes3, and m y candle was nearly b u r n t out, w h e n , b y the g l i m m e r 4 of the

s

half-extinguished

l i g h t , I s a w t h e d u l l y e l l o w e y e o f t h e c r e a t u r e o p e n ; it b r e a t h e d h a r d , a n d a c o n v u l s i v e m o t i o n a g i t a t e d its l i m b s . H o w c a n I describe m y e m o t i o n s at this c a t a s t r o p h e , or h o w d e l i n e a t e the wretch5 w h o m with such infinite pains a n d care I h a d endeavoured to form6?

10

His l i m b s w e r e in p r o p o r t i o n , a n d I h a d s e l e c t e d h i s f e a t u r e s as

b e a u t i f u l . B e a u t i f u l ! - G r e a t G o d ! His y e l l o w s k i n s c a r c e l y c o v e r e d t h e work o f m u s c l e s a n d arteries b e n e a t h ; his hair was o f a lustrous black, a n d flowing; his teeth o f pearly whiteness; but these luxuriances o n l y formed a m o r e horrid c o n t r a s t to his w a t e r y eyes, t h a t s e e m e d a l m o s t o f t h e s a m e c o l o u r as t h e d u n - w h i t e s o c k e t s 7 in w h i c h t h e y w e r e set, h i s s h r i v e l l e d c o m p l e x i o n 8 a n d s t r a i g h t b l a c k lips.

15

•

1. dreary: dark and depressing 2. beheld ... toils: saw the result of my hard work 3. pattered ... panes: struck against the windows (panes: glass sheets of a window) in an incessant and gloomy way 4. glimmer: very weak light 5. delineate the wretch: describe the unfortunate creature 6. endeavoured to form: created through great effort 7. dun-white sockets: brownish-grey eye holes 8. shrivelled complexion: withered, dried out skin

92


T h e different a c c i d e n t s o f life are n o t so c h a n g e a b l e as t h e f e e l i n g s o f h u m a n nature. I h a d worked hard for

20

n e a r l y t w o years, for t h e sole p u r p o s e of i n f u s i n g life i n t o an

inanimate

body. For this I h a d deprived m y s e l f o f r e s t a n d h e a l t h . I h a d d e s i r e d it w i t h a n a r d o u r t h a t far moderation:

but

now

exceeded

that

finished, the beauty of the vanished, and

breathless9

I

25

had

dream

horror and

disgust filled m y heart. U n a b l e

to

endure the aspect of the being I had

30

created, I rushed out of the room, and c o n t i n u e d a long time traversing m y bedchamber, unable to c o m p o s e m y m i n d t o sleep. At l e n g t h l a s s i t u d e 1 0 succeeded to the tumult I had before

35

endured; and I threw myself on the bed in m y clothes, endeavouring to seek a few m o m e n t s of forgetfulness. B u t it w a s i n v a i n : I slept, i n d e e d , b u t was disturbed b y the wildest dreams. I

40

t h o u g h t I saw Elizabeth, in t h e b l o o m of h e a l t h , walking in the streets of Ingolstadt. D e l i g h t e d a n d surprised, I e m b r a c e d h e r , b u t as I i m p r i n t e d t h e first kiss o n h e r lips, t h e y livid with

the

hue

became

of death;

her

features appeared to change, and I t h o u g h t that I held the corpse of m y dead m o t h e r in m y arms; a shroud11 9. breathless: that causes one to stop breathing 10. lassitude: tiredness 11. shroud: sheet covering a dead body 12. folds of flannel: lines formed in the material 13. dew: drops of perspiration 14. chattered: made a noise 15.muttered: said in a low voice 16. grin: smile 17. wrinkled: formed lines on 18. seemingly to detain me: apparently as if to hold me back

e n v e l o p e d h e r form, a n d I saw t h e grave-worms crawling in t h e folds of f l a n n e l 1 2 . I started f r o m m y sleep w i t h horror; a cold dew13 covered m y forehead, m y teeth chattered14 and every limb b e c a m e convulsed: w h e n , b y t h e d i m o f t h e y e l l o w l i g h t o f t h e m o o n , as it f o r c e d its w a y t h r o u g h the w i n d o w shutters, I b e h e l d the wretch - the miserable m o n s t e r w h o m I h a d created. He h e l d up t h e c u r t a i n o f t h e bed; a n d his eyes, if eyes t h e y m a y b e c a l l e d , were f i x e d o n m e . His jaws o p e n e d , a n d h e m u t t e r e d 1 5 s o m e inarticulate sounds, while a grin16 wrinkled17 his cheeks. He m i g h t h a v e spoken, b u t I did n o t hear; o n e h a n d was stretched out, s e e m i n g l y to detain me18, but I escaped, and rushed downstairs. 1 took refuge in the courtyard belonging to the house which I inhabited; where I remained during t h e rest of t h e n i g h t , walking up a n d d o w n in t h e

greatest

a g i t a t i o n , l i s t e n i n g a t t e n t i v e l y , c a t c h i n g a n d f e a r i n g e a c h s o u n d as if it were to a n n o u n c e the approach of t h e d e m o n i a c a l corpse to w h i c h I had so m i s e r a b l y g i v e n life.

45

Frankenstein - Mary Shelley

COMPREHENSION — 1

How did Victor feel just before he gave life to the

monster? 2

What did Victor do, when he witnessed the horror

he had created?

What were t h e first m o v e m e n t s the monster m a d e

when it was brought to life? 3

4

How did Victor feel about his creation?

5

What did Victor dream about?

6

What did Victor see when he awoke from his

nightmare? 7

How did Victor spend the rest of t h e night?

4

Consider the dream s e q u e n c e in the third

ANALYSIS 1

Find t h e following in the opening paragraph of the

text.

paragraph. Which expressions link the description of

- the time of year:

Elizabeth's body to the description of t h e monster?

- the time of day:

What image of death links Victor's description of his work in Text E27 to the description of his mother's

- the weather conditions:

corpse in the dream s e q u e n c e ?

- the quality of the light: a. What kind of atmosphere does the description of

5

the setting create? Choose from the following: • Calm

• Excitement

• Expectation

a. Underline all t h e words and expressions that

• Terror

• Security

• Fear

b . Would you consider this a typical setting for a

describe how he felt. b. C o m p a r e Victor's state of mind in this text with how he felt in Text E27. What are the main

horror story? 2

Make a list of the aspects of t h e monster's

a p p e a r a n c e that Victor describes as 'beautiful'. Make a list of the features he finds particularly repellent. 3

In t h e course of this passage Victor experiences

various states of mind.

Consider the first two paragraphs. What is Victor's

differences? Are there any similarities? 6

Victor attributes his fear and repulsion to the

hideous appearance of the monster. Does it seem logical that at t h e m o m e n t of his greatest discovery Victor should be preoccupied with the physical

m o o d in the first paragraph? How does it c h a n g e in

aspects of his creation? Is there any evidence in the

t h e second paragraph? Identify the line which signals

text to suggest that Victor's anxiety may also be due

t h e c h a n g e in m o o d . Where else in the text does

t o the fact that he feels he has e x c e e d e d s o m e natural

Victor's m o o d c h a n g e suddenly?

boundary in his work?

93

,94


WRITERS' W O R K S H O P The setting of a novel refers to: - the physical locale in which the action takes place; - the time of day or year; - the climatic conditions; - the historical period. The setting helps the reader, to visualise the action and adds credibility and authenticity to the story. It may also be used to create atmosphere and to reflect the state of mind of the characters. In the text you have just read, the setting is Victor's h o m e on a dark rainy N o v e m b e r night. It is o n e o'clock in t h e morning and Victor is working by t h e half-extinguished light of a candle. Does t h e setting help to create expectation in the reader? W h a t kind of expectations does it create? Is Victor's emotional turmoil more convincing in this setting? Do you generally experience heightened anxiety and fear during daylight hours or at night? How would the impact of t h e passage differ if the setting had been, for example, a warm, sunny day? Choose o n e of the following situations and write a fifty-word description of the setting. Your description should include references to the physical location, the time of year and day, t h e atmospheric conditions and the quality of t h e light. The perfect date

The last day of t h e s u m m e r holidays

The funeral of a loved one

The day your team won a major trophy

The night before an important examination

Victor Frankenstein tried t o discover t h e secrets of h u m a n life with disastrous c o n s e q u e n c e s . In t h e twentieth century scientists discovered that most of t h e secrets of human life are to be found in our g e n e s . How mankind should use g e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g and h o w far w e should g o in t a m p e r i n g with nature are s u b j e c t s of h e a t e d debate. Tick the chart below: 1 a g r e e with

1 disagree with

1 d o not know

1 Human cloning 2 Animal cloning 3 Genetically-modified plants 4 Genetic testing of foetuses to discover malformation or disease 5 Choosing what your child is going to look like 6 Genetic fingerprinting by t h e police 7 Genetic testing of prospective employees by employers Copy the chart o n t o the board and write in the results for the whole class. Hold a class discussion on all the issues in t h e chart. Check if anyone has c h a n g e d their minds on any issue after the discussion and c h a n g e t h e class results accordingly.

Writers' Gallery - Mary Shelley

95


Mary

background

S h e l l e y was b o r n in L o n d o n i n 1 7 9 7 t o w e l l - k n o w n p a r e n t s . Her father, W i l l i a m G o d w i n , was a radical writer and philosopher, while her mother,

Mary

Wollstonecraft, was a p i o n e e r o f w o m e n ' s liberation. F r o m i n f a n c y , M a r y was s u r r o u n d e d b y f a m o u s p h i l o s o p h e r s , writers a n d poets, i n c l u d i n g W i l l i a m Blake a n d S a m u e l Coleridge. Elopement

with Shelley

At t h e age o f s i x t e e n , M a r y r a n a w a y

w i t h t h e t w e n t y - o n e - y e a r - o l d p o e t Percy S h e l l e y ( • p p . E 4 0 - 5 1 ) . Shelley personified the genius that she had admired her entire life.

M A R Y SHELLEY (1797-1851) Writing

and

personal

However,

the

poet

was

already

married

and

their

relationship s h o c k e d society. She b e c a m e a social outcast and even h e r o p e n - m i n d e d liberal father c o u l d n o t forgive her. She left E n g l a n d a n d w e n t w i t h S h e l l e y t o live o n t h e c o n t i n e n t . T h e i d e a o f w r i t i n g Frankenstein

misfortunes

c a m e w h e n Mary was o n

h o l i d a y in S w i t z e r l a n d i n 1 8 1 6 w i t h S h e l l e y a n d Lord B y r o n ( • p. E 3 2 - 3 9 ) . T h e y w e r e t e l l i n g e a c h o t h e r g h o s t stories a n d d e c i d e d t h a t e a c h of t h e m w o u l d write t h e i r o w n . In a h a l f - w a k i n g

m w l f e ä f

n i g h t m a r e , M a r y s t r u c k o n t h e i d e a o f a m a n - m a d e m o n s t e r , a n d i m m e d i a t e l y set a b o u t w r i t i n g Frankenstein,

w h i c h she t h e n finished in May 1 8 1 7 . She wrote the novel while being overwhelmed

b y a series o f c a l a m i t i e s i n h e r life. T h e worst o f t h e s e were t h e suicides o f h e r half-sister a n d Shelley's

•W'.' g -

wife. After t h e suicides, M a r y a n d S h e l l e y r e l u c t a n t l y m a r r i e d . P u b l i c h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d s t h e c o u p l e was fierce. T h e y m o v e d t o Italy, b u t t h e i r stay t h e r e was n o t a h a p p y o n e . T h r e e of t h e i r four c h i l d r e n d i e d . W h e n M a r y w a s o n l y t w e n t y - f o u r y e a r s old, h e r h u s b a n d d r o w n e d n e a r La Spezia, leaving her penniless with a two-year-old son. She returned to England, where she devoted herself to

a s f ®

h e r s o n ' s welfare a n d e d u c a t i o n a n d c o n t i n u e d h e r career as a p r o f e s s i o n a l writer. S h e died i n 1 8 5 1 .

WORKS

M a r y S h e l l e y w r o t e several works - Valperga

( 1 8 2 3 ) , a r o m a n c e set

in f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Italy a n d The Last Man

(1826), a vision of

t h e e n d o f h u m a n c i v i l i s a t i o n , set in t h e y e a r 2 1 0 0 - b u t s h e is b e s t r e m e m b e r e d as t h e a u t h o r o f Frankenstein,

or the The Modern

Prometheus

( 1 8 1 8 ) . In t h e n o v e l , e v e n t s s u c h as t h e loss o f h e r m o t h e r

at a n early age a n d t h e d e a t h o f t h r e e o f h e r four c h i l d r e n are reflected i n h e r interest i n t h e t h e m e s o f birth a n d c r e a t i o n . S h e d e d i c a t e d t h e n o v e l t o h e r father, w h o s e views o n property, social justice a n d e d u c a t i o n are r e p r e s e n t e d . S h e s h a r e d Percy S h e l l e y ' s i n t e r e s t in s c i e n c e a n d , in particular, in c h e m i s t r y a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y theories. S h e was in close c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r m a j o r p o e t s o f t h e d a y a n d was i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e i r writing, in particular b y Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient

Mariner

( • Texts E9

a n d E10), w h i c h is also t h e tale o f a c r i m e against n a t u r e . M a n y critics see t h e m o n s t e r as r e p r e s e n t i n g Rousseau's n o b l e savage ( • p. E 1 2 4 ) . T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f F r a n k e n s t e i n f r o m a gentle, l o v i n g b e i n g t o a m u r d e r o u s m o n s t e r reflects m a n y o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y beliefs regarding h o w social e n v i r o n m e n t affects m a n ' s b e h a v i o u r . M a r y Shelley's w o r k e m b o d i e s t h e spirit o f t h e age in w h i c h it was w r i t t e n . Her a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e m o n s t e r , b o t h l o v i n g a n d fearful, m i r r o r s t h e m i x t u r e o f f a s c i n a t i o n a n d a p p r e h e n s i o n t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l s o f t h e d a y felt t o w a r d s r e v o l u t i o n a n d c h a n g e after the events of the French Revolution.

mMmM

JSKKm m

1


The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe

Do y o u have any of t h e following irrational fears? Fear of: • flying

• mice/rats

• clowns

• small spaces

• b e i n g alone

• open spaces

• darkness

• dogs • clocks

• cats

• birds

• mirrors

• dentists

• crowds

• spiders/insects

Do p e o p l e ever b o t h e r you for illogical reasons? Have you ever m e t a n y o n e a n d taken an instant dislike t o t h e m for n o obvious r e a s o n ?

Text E29

The Eye

T R U E ! - n e r v o u s - very, v e r y d r e a d f u l l y 1 n e r v o u s I h a d b e e n a n d a m ; b u t w h y will y o u say t h a t I a m m a d ? T h e disease h a d s h a r p e n e d m y senses2 • Visual Link E4

n o t d e s t r o y e d - n o t d u l l e d 3 t h e m . A b o v e all was t h e s e n s e of h e a r i n g acute. I h e a r d all t h i n g s in t h e h e a v e n a n d in t h e e a r t h . I h e a r d m a n y t h i n g s in hell. How, t h e n , a m I m a d ? H e a r k e n 4 ! a n d observe h o w h e a l t h i l y - h o w c a l m l y I c a n tell y o u t h e w h o l e story. It is i m p o s s i b l e t o s a y h o w f i r s t t h e i d e a e n t e r e d m y b r a i n ; b u t o n c e c o n c e i v e d , it h a u n t e d 5 m e d a y a n d n i g h t . O b j e c t t h e r e w a s n o n e . P a s s i o n t h e r e was n o n e . I loved t h e old m a n . He h a d n e v e r w r o n g e d m e . He h a d n e v e r g i v e n m e i n s u l t . F o r h i s g o l d I h a d n o d e s i r e . I t h i n k it w a s h i s e y e !

•

GLOSSARY

1. dreadfully: terribly 2. sharpened my senses: made my senses more intense 3. dulled: made less intense 4. Hearken: Listen 5. haunted: persecuted 6. vulture: large bird which feeds on dead animals 7. rid: free fancy me: think I am 9. foresight: ability to imagine what will happen 10. latch: short metal bar used to block a door 11. thrust in: pushed in 12.cunningly: astutely 13. hinges: metal parts that join a door to the frame 14. creaked: made a noise

yes, it w a s t h i s ! H e h a d t h e e y e o f a

vulture6

io

- a pale blue eye, with a film

o v e r it. W h e n e v e r it fell u p o n m e , m y b l o o d r a n c o l d ; a n d s o b y d e g r e e s v e r y g r a d u a l l y - I m a d e u p m y m i n d t o t a k e t h e life o f t h e o l d m a n , a n d t h u s rid7 m y s e l f of t h e eye forever. N o w t h i s is t h e p o i n t . Y o u f a n c y m e 8 m a d . M a d m e n k n o w n o t h i n g . B u t

15

y o u s h o u l d h a v e seen m e . You s h o u l d h a v e seen h o w wisely I p r o c e e d e d with what caution - with what foresight9 - with what dissimulation I went t o work! I was never kinder to t h e old m a n t h a n during t h e w h o l e week before I killed h i m . A n d every n i g h t , a b o u t m i d n i g h t , I t u r n e d t h e l a t c h 1 0 o f h i s d o o r a n d o p e n e d it - o h so g e n t l y ! A n d t h e n , w h e n I h a d m a d e a n

20

o p e n i n g s u f f i c i e n t f o r m y h e a d , I p u t i n a d a r k l a n t e r n , all c l o s e d , c l o s e d , that n o light shone out, and t h e n I thrust in11 m y head. Oh, you would h a v e l a u g h e d t o see h o w c u n n i n g l y 1 2 1 t h r u s t it i n ! I m o v e d it s l o w l y - very, v e r y slowly, so t h a t I m i g h t n o t d i s t u r b t h e o l d m a n ' s s l e e p . It t o o k m e a n h o u r t o p l a c e m y w h o l e h e a d w i t h i n t h e o p e n i n g s o far t h a t I c o u l d s e e

25

h i m as h e l a y u p o n h i s b e d . H a ! W o u l d a m a d m a n h a v e b e e n s o w i s e a s this, A n d t h e n , w h e n m y h e a d was well in t h e r o o m , I u n d i d t h e l a n t e r n c a u t i o u s l y - o h , so c a u t i o u s l y - c a u t i o u s l y (for t h e h i n g e s 1 3 c r e a k e d 1 4 ) - I u n d i d it j u s t so m u c h t h a t a s i n g l e t h i n r a y fell u p o n t h e v u l t u r e e y e . A n d t h i s I did f o r s e v e n l o n g n i g h t s - e v e r y n i g h t j u s t at m i d n i g h t - b u t I f o u n d

30

The Tell-Tale Heart - Edgar Allan Poe

97

the eye always closed; and so it was impossible to do the work; for it was not the old man who vexed 1 5 me, but his Evil Eye. And every morning, when the day broke, I went boldly into the chamber, and spoke courageously to him, calling him by name in a hearty 16 tone, and inquiring how he has passed the night. So you see he would have been a very

35

profound old man, indeed, to suspect that every night, just at twelve, I looked in upon him while he slept. Upon the eighth night I was more than usually cautious in opening the door. A watch's minute hand moves more quickly than did mine. Never before that night had I felt the extent of my own powers - of my

40

sagacity. I could scarcely contain my feelings of triumph. To think that there I was, opening the door, little by little, and he not even to dream of my secret deeds 17 or thoughts. I fairly chuckled 18 at the idea; and perhaps he heard me; for he moved on the bed suddenly, as if startled 19 . Now you may think that I drew back - but no. His room was as black as pitch with

45

the thick darkness, (for the shutters were close fastened, through fear of

The Sleep of Reason produces Monsters by Francisco Goya (1797).

robbers), and so I knew that he could not see the opening of the door, and 1 kept pushing it on steadily 20 , steadily. I had my head in, and was about to open the lantern, when my thumb slipped upon the tin fastening 21 , and the old man sprang up in bed, crying

so

out - 'Who's there?' I kept quite still and said nothing. For a whole hour I did not move a muscle, and in the meantime I did not hear him lie down. He was still sitting up in the bed listening; - just as I have done, night after night, hearkening to the death watches in the wall. Presently 2 2 I heard a slight groan 2 3 , and I knew it was the groan of

55

mortal terror. It was not a groan of pain or of grief - oh, no! - it was the low stifled 2 4 s o u n d J h a t arises from the b o t t o m of the soul when overcharged with awe 25 . I knew the sound well. Many a night, just at

15. vexed: disturbed

m i d n i g h t , when alt T h e world slept, it has welled up from my own bosom 2 6 , deepening, with its dreadful echo, the terrors that distracted

60

me. I say I knew it well. I knew what the old man felt, and pitied him, although I chuckled at heart. I knew that he had been lying awake ever since the first slight noise, when he had turned in the bed. His fears had been ever since growing upon him. He had been trying to fancy them causeless 27 , but could not. He had been saying to himself - 'It is nothing

65

but the wind in the chimney - it is only a mouse crossing the floor, or 'It is merely a cricket which has made a single chirp.' Yes, he had been trying to comfort himself with these suppositions: but he had found all in vain. All in vain; because Death, in approaching him, had stalked 28 with his black shadow before him, and enveloped the victim. And it was the

70

mournful influence of the unperceived shadow that caused him to feel although he neither saw nor heard - to feel the presence of my head within the room.

lantern. So I opened it - you cannot imagine how stealthily 30 , stealthily -

23. slight groan: soft cry 24. stifled: suffocated 25. awe: terror 26. welled up ... bosom: built up inside me 27. fancy them causeless: think there was no logical reason for them 28. stalked: walked slowly like a hunter

When I had waited a long time, very patiently, without hearing him lie down, I resolved to open a little - a very, very little crevice 2 9 in the

16. hearty: friendly and sincere 17. deeds: actions 18. fairly chuckled: laughed to myself 19.startled: frightened 20. steadily: constantly 21. tin fastening: metal bar 22. Presently: then

75

29. crevice: opening 30. stealthily: slowly and secretly

O H M

i 9jJ


until, at length 3 1 a simple dim 3 2 ray, like the thread of the spider, shot from out the crevice and fell full upon the vulture eye. It was open - wide, wide open - and I grew furious as I gazed upon 3 3 it. I saw it with perfect distinctness - all a dull blue, with a hideous 34 veil over

80

it that chilled 3 5 the very marrow 3 6 in my bones; but I could see nothing else of the old man's face or person: for I had directed the ray as if by instinct, precisely upon the damned spot. And have I not told you that what you mistake for madness is but overacuteness of the sense? - Now, I say, there came to my ears a low, dull,

85

quick sound, such as a watch makes when enveloped in cotton. I knew that sound well, too. It was the beating of the old man's heart. It increased my fury, as the beating of a drum stimulates the soldier into courage. But even yet I refrained 37 and kept still. I scarcely breathed. I held the lantern motionless. I tried how steadily 38 I could maintain the ray upon the eye. Meantime the hellish

tattoo39

90

of the heart increased. It grew

quicker and quicker, and louder and louder every instant. The old man's terror must have been extreme! It grew louder, I say, louder every moment! - Do you mark 4 0 me well I have told you that I am nervous: so I am. And now at the dead hour of the night, amid the dreadful silence of that old house, so strange a noise as this excited me to uncontrollable terror. Yet, for some minutes longer I refrained and stood still. But the beating grew louder, louder! I thought the heart must burst. And now a new anxiety seized 41 me - the sound would be heard by a neighbour!

31.at length: finally 32. dim: not bright 33. gazed upon: looked at 34. hideous: hateful 35. chilled: froze

36. marrow: soft substance inside bones 37. even yet I refrained: even then I did not act

38. steadily: fixedly 39. hellish tattoo: infernal beating 40. mark: understand 41. seized: captured

COMPREHENSION 1

How had t h e disease affected t h e narrator's s e n s e

of h e a r i n g ? 2

W h i c h physical a s p e c t of t h e old m a n disturbed t h e

narrator? 3

How did t h e narrator treat t h e old m a n during t h e

w e e k b e f o r e he killed h i m ? 4

W h a t did t h e narrator d o for seven nights in a row?

5

W h y w a s he u n a b l e to d o his 'work'?

6

W h a t caused t h e old m a n t o wake up?

7

W h e n , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e narrator, did he himself

g r o a n with terror? 8

W h a t did t h e narrator s e e in t h e ray of light from

t h e lantern? 9

W h a t sound did t h e narrator fear would b e heard

by t h e n e i g h b o u r s ?

95

The Tell Tale He

ANALYSIS 1 W h a t kind of narrator tells t h e story? 2

How would you d e s c r i b e t h e way t h e story b e g i n s ?

• Dramatic

• Conventional

• Startling

• Confusing

• Unorthodox

4

Underline s e n t e n c e s in which t h e narrator:

- addresses t h e reader directly; - assumes t h a t he knows w h a t t h e reader is thinking. How would you define t h e relationship t h a t is established b e t w e e n t h e reader and t h e narrator?

• Other:

3 a . T h e narrator repeatedly rejects t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t he is m a d . In lines 2 - 3 he says t h a t m a d n e s s dulls t h e senses, while his senses are sharp. Find o t h e r

• Disconcerting

• Tense

• Relaxed

• Friendly

• Overpowering

• Other:

T h e narrator identifies t h e old m a n ' s eye as t h e

s t a t e m e n t s in w h i c h t h e narrator dissociates

5

himself from m a d n e s s a n d m a d m e n .

source of his discomfort.

b . He also makes several references to his s a g a c i t y j n line 1 6 h e says 'You should have seen h o w wisely I p r o c e e d e d ' . Find o t h e r s e n t e n c e s in which t h e narrator refers to his w i s d o m . c. Is t h e narrator's claim t o b e s a n e a n d wise

a . Circle references t o t h e eye in t h e t e x t . Does he ever refer t o both of t h e old man's eyes? How d o e s referring t o a single eye reinforce t h e association with a vulture's e y e ? b. W h a t effect d o e s focussing on a single eye have?

c o n v i n c i n g ? Is it s u p p o r t e d by his behaviour?

• It makes t h e old m a n s e e m ugly.

Justify y o u r answer by referring t o t h e text.

• It makes t h e c r i m e m o r e justifiable. • It d e h u m a n i s e s t h e old m a n . • Other:

The Old Man's Hour Had Come

Text E 3 0

T h e old m a n ' s h o u r h a d c o m e ! W i t h a loud yell1, I t h r e w o p e n t h e l a n t e r n a n d l e a p e d 2 i n t o t h e r o o m . H e s h r i e k e d 3 o n c e - o n c e o n l y . In a n i n s t a n t I dragged4 h i m to the floor, and pulled t h e h e a v y bed over h i m . I t h e n s m i l e d gaily, t o f i n d t h e d e e d so far d o n e . B u t , f o r m a n y m i n u t e s , t h e h e a r t b e a t o n w i t h a m u f f l e d 5 s o u n d . T h i s , h o w e v e r , d i d n o t v e x m e ; it w o u l d n o t b e h e a r d t h r o u g h t h e w a l l . At l e n g t h it c e a s e d . T h e o l d m a n w a s d e a d . I r e m o v e d t h e b e d a n d e x a m i n e d t h e c o r p s e . Yes, h e w a s s t o n e , s t o n e d e a d . I p l a c e d m y h a n d u p o n t h e h e a r t a n d h e l d it t h e r e m a n y m i n u t e s . T h e r e w a s n o p u l s a t i o n . H e w a s s t o n e d e a d . His e y e w o u l d t r o u b l e m e n o more.

10

If still y o u t h i n k m e m a d , y o u w i l l t h i n k s o n o l o n g e r w h e n I d e s c r i b e t h e wise p r e c a u t i o n s I t o o k for t h e c o n c e a l m e n t o f 6 t h e body. T h e n i g h t w a n e d 7 , a n d I w o r k e d h a s t i l y 8 , b u t i n s i l e n c e . F i r s t o f all I d i s m e m b e r e d t h e c o r p s e . I c u t o f f t h e h e a d a n d t h e a r m s a n d t h e legs. I then took up three planks9 from the flooring of the chamber, and

15

d e p o s i t e d all b e t w e e n t h e s c a n t l i n g s 1 0 . I t h e n r e p l a c e d t h e b o a r d s so cleverly, so c u n n i n g l y , t h a t n o h u m a n eye - n o t e v e n his - could have detected a n y t h i n g wrong. There was n o t h i n g to wash out - n o stain o f a n y kind - n o blood-spot whatever. I had been too wary for11 that. A tub12 had c a u g h t all - h a ! h a ! W h e n I h a d m a d e a n e n d o f t h e s e l a b o r s , it w a s f o u r o ' c l o c k - still d a r k as m i d n i g h t . As t h e b e l l s o u n d e d t h e h o u r , t h e r e c a m e a k n o c k i n g a t t h e s t r e e t d o o r . I w e n t d o w n t o o p e n it w i t h a l i g h t h e a r t , - f o r w h a t h a d I n o w

20

GLOSSARY yell: cry leaped: jumped shrieked: screamed dragged: pulled muffled: suffocated the concealment of: hiding waned: gradually disappeared hastily: in a hurry planks: wooden boards 10. scantlings: small pieces of wood 11. wary for: careful about 12. tub: large round container

Jjg0


to fear? There entered three men, w h o i n t r o d u c e d themselves, with perfect suavity, as officers of the police. A shriek had been heard by a

25

neighbour during the night; suspicion of foul play had been aroused 1 3 ; information had been lodged at 1 4 the police office, and they (the officers) had been deputed to search the premises 15 . I smiled, - for what had I to fear? 1 bade the gentlemen welcome 1 6 . The shriek, I said, was my own in a dream. The old man, I mentioned, was

30

absent in the country. I took my visitors all over the house. I bade them search - search well. I led them, at length, to his chamber. I showed them his treasures, secure, undisturbed. In the enthusiasm of my confidence, I brought chairs into the room, and desired them here to rest from their fatigues, while I myself, in the wild audacity of my perfect triumph, placed

35

my own seat upon the very spot beneath which reposed the corpse of the victim. The officers were satisfied. My m a n n e r had c o n v i n c e d t h e m . I was singularly at ease 1 7 . T h e y sat, and while I answered c h e e r i l y 1 8 , t h e y chatted of familiar things. But, ere 1 9 long, I felt myself getting pale and

40

wished them gone. My head ached, and I fancied a ringing 2 0 in my ears: but still they sat and still chatted. The ringing became more distinct: - It continued and became more distinct: I talked more freely to get rid of 21 the feeling: but it continued and gained definiteness - until, at length, I found that the noise was not within my ears.

45

No doubt I now grew very pale; - but I talked more fluently, and with a heightened voice. Yet the sound increased - and what could I do? It was a low, dull, quick sound - m u c h such a sound as a watch makes w h e n enveloped in cotton. I gasped for breath 2 2 - and yet the officers heard it not. I talked more quickly - more vehemently; but the noise steadily increased. I arose and argued about

trifles 23 ,

50

in a high key and with violent

gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased. W h y would they not be gone? I paced the floor to and fro 2 4 with heavy strides 25 , as if excited to fury by the observations of the men - but the noise steadily increased. Oh God! What could I do? I foamed 2 6 - I raved 27 - I swore 2 8 ! I swung 2 9 the

55

chair upon which I had been sitting, and grated it upon the boards, but the noise arose over all and continually increased. It grew louder - louder - louder! And still the men chatted pleasantly, and smiled. Was it possible they heard not? Almighty God! - No, no! They heard! - They suspected! T h e y knew! - T h e y were making a m o c k e r y 3 0 of my horror! - This I t h o u g h t , and this I t h i n k . But a n y t h i n g was better t h a n this agony!

13.suspicion ... aroused: he had suspected a criminal action was in progress

16.bade ... welcome: asked them to come in

22.gasped for breath: breathed with difficulty

26.1 foamed: drops of saliva fell from my

17. at ease: comfortable 18. cheerily: happily

23. argued about trifles: talked about unimportant

mouth 27.1 raved: I talked wildly

14. lodged at: passed to

19. ere: before 20. fancied a ringing: felt a ringing sound 21.get rid of: free myself of

things P a c e d t h e floor t o a n d walked up and down 25. strides: paces

28.1 swore: I used bad language 29.1 swung: I turned around 30. mockery: fun

15.deputed ... premises: sent to search the house

24-

fro:

60

The Tell-Tale Heart - Edgar Allan Poe379OHM

Anything was more tolerable than this derision! I could bear those h y p o c r i t i c a l smiles n o longer! I felt t h a t I m u s t s c r e a m or die! a n d n o w again! - Hark31! Louder! Louder! Louder! Louder! 'Villains!' I shrieked, ' d i s s e m b l e 3 2 n o m o r e ! I a d m i t t h e deed! - Tear up t h e p l a n k s ! H e r e , h e r e ! - It is t h e b e a t i n g o f h i s

hideous33

65

31. Hark: listen 32. dissemble: pretend 33. hideous: hateful

heart!'-

The End

COMPREHENSION 1

How did t h e narrator kill t h e old m a n ? How did he

4

Did t h e narrator believe t h e police officers could

dispose of t h e b o d y ?

hear t h e s o u n d as well? Why, in his opinion, did t h e y

2

n o t react t o t h e s o u n d ?

W h y did t h e police officers c o m e t o t h e h o u s e ?

3 W h a t s o u n d did t h e narrator hear as he s p o k e t o t h e police? How did he try t o block o u t t h e s o u n d ?

ANALYSIS 1

Underline words or phrases in t h e t e x t w h i c h

c. Consider h o w tension is built up t h r o u g h a

s u g g e s t t h e narrator's lack of remorse for w h a t he has

c r e s c e n d o e f f e c t . Focus on paragraph 7 a n d fill in

done.

t h e t a b l e below.

2

How would you define t h e narrator's response t o

t h e crime h e has c o m m i t t e d ? • Pride

• Pleasure

• Confusion

• Fear

• Indifference

• Other:

t h e m u r d e r a n d t h e c o n c e a l m e n t of b o d y ? • Clinical

• Passionate

• Apologetic

• Remorseful

• Other:

4

t h e disturbing s o u n d

1 talked more fluently, and with a heightened voice

Yet t h e s o u n d increased -

1 arose and argued a b o u t trifles, in a high key a n d with violent gesticulations 1 p a c e d t h e floor to a n d fro with heavy strides, as if excited t o fury 1 swung t h e chair upon which 1 had b e e n sitting,

Is t h e narrator's primary c o n c e r n :

• t o justify his actions and win t h e s y m p a t h y of t h e reader? • t o explain to t h e reader t h a t he p r o c e e d e d in a logical m a n n e r a n d t h e r e f o r e should n o t b e

and grated it upon t h e boards d. Which s e n t e n c e structures are used in t h e final part of t h e story t o increase t e n s i o n ?

considered a m a d m a n ? 5

Tension is c r e a t e d in t h e story t h r o u g h several

t e c h n i q u e s : repetition*,

syntax and a

crescendo*

effect. a. Underline e x a m p l e s of repetition. b. Are t h e s e n t e n c e s in t h e t e x t primarily: • long a n d flowing? M short a n d a r h y t h m i c ?

and w h a t could 1 d o ?

1 talked m o r e quickly more v e h e m e n t l y

3 W h a t t o n e d o e s t h e narrator use w h e n describing is M a t t e r of f a c t

the narrator's behaviour

6

W h i c h of t h e following b e s t describes Poe's main

interest in writing The Tell-Tale

Heart?

• T h e in-depth analysis of t h e t h w a r t e d relationship b e t w e e n t h e old m a n and t h e narrator. • T h e haunting and disturbing description of an eerie setting. • T h e detailed a c c o u n t of w h a t w a s a l m o s t t h e p e r f e c t murder. № T h e e x p o s u r e of t h e workings of an unstable m i n d .

,102

7


By his own definition, Poe's style is based on the

8

The term Gothic* is often used to refer to Poe's

choice of 'the curt, the condensed, the pointed', a style

work. The principal aim of Gothic fiction is to evoke

in which every single word counts towards creating

chilling terror by exploiting mystery, cruelty and

that 'certain unique or single effect' around which the

nightmarish horrors. Can you identify any Gothic

tale revolves. In The Tell-Tale Heart, does Poe dedicate

elements in The Tell-Tale Heart?

his attention t o traditional elements of storytelling, i.e. setting, physical descriptions, characterisation? Does he succeed in eliminating all that is superfluous to his main objective in writing this story?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P First-person

In a first-person narrative the reader sees events unfold through the eyes of a single

narrator

character who refers to himself as T'. The reader's vision of the story, or point of view, is limited to what the first-person narrator himself knows, experiences, infers or can find out by talking to other characters. The reader cannot see events as they actually are, but only as they appear to be to the mediating consciousness of the 'I' narrator. An author may choose the first-person narrative for very different artistic purposes: • first-person narration may lend authenticity to a fictional work, creating the illusion that the narrator is relating events that he has personally witnessed or experienced. The narrator may be presented as likable, perceptive, intelligent and reliable, and therefore the reader may be encouraged to accept what he relates and sympathise with his views; • the reader may be encouraged to question the reliability of the narrator. This occurs when the narrator's vision of the world or interpretation of events is clearly different from the reader's. The unreliable narrator may be used to add humour or a satirical edge to a text ( • Swift, p. D58), or the psychological make up of the narrator himself may be the focus of the writer's attention.

TASK

Analyse the narrative technique in The Tell-Tale

Heart.

a. Is t h e protagonist of the story referred to as: • T (first person)

or

• 'He' (third person)?

b. Does he relate events that he has personally experienced? c. Is he presented as likable? d. Is t h e reader encouraged t o sympathise with his views? e. Are there unbelievable or unlikely elements in his storytelling? Is he a reliable narrator? f. Why did Poe c h o o s e the first person narrative technique? • To lend authenticity to his work. • To add humour and satirical bite. • To examine the psychological make-up of the narrator.

OVER T O Y O U

In The Tell-Tale Heart, Edgar Allan Poe explores t h e mind of a psychopathic murderer. Although there is no direct reference to the narrator's state of mind in t h e text, numerous clues warn t h e perceptive reader of t h e storyteller's mental instability. Discuss with your classmates t h e elements in t h e story that help the reader realise that the narrator is insane.

r'vstrr; %

103 The Tell-Tale Heart - Edgar Allan Poe381OHM

LINK

-[ to the world of music

In 1 9 7 7 N e w York-based rock b a n d Talking Heads w r o t e t h e s o n g Psycho

Killer, in response t o a series of murders

carried o u t by t h e serial killer David Berkowitz (also known as ' S o n of S a m ' ) . Read t h e lyrics. Underline t h e s e n t e n c e s in which t h e p s y c h o killer describes his state of mind. D o e s he share a n y characteristics with Poe's narrator in The Tell-Tale

Heart?

W h a t is t h e source of t h e p s y c h o killer's frustration? Would t h e a v e r a g e person find t h e s e ' d e f e c t s ' serious or trivial? Do y o u find any similarity with Poe's narrator's fixation o n t h e old man's e y e ? Psycho Killer

Psycho Killer Qu'est-ce que c'est? Fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa far better Run run run run run run run away (2)

I can't seem to face up to 1 the facts I'm tense and nervous and I can't relax

Ce que j'ai fait, ce soir la Ce qu'elle a dit, ce soir la Realisant mon espoir Je me lance, vers la gloire 5 ... OK

I can't sleep 'cause my bed's on fire Don't touch me I'm a real live wire 2 Psycho Killer Qu'est-ce que c'est? 3 Fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa far better Run run run run run run run away (2)

We are vain and we are blind I hate people when they're not polite

You start a conversation, you can't even finish it. You're talkin' a lot, but you're not sayin' anything. When I have nothing to say, my lips are sealed 4 . Say something once, why say it again?

Psycho Killer Qu'est-ce que c'est? Fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa far better Run run run run run run run away (2)

GLOSSARY 1. face up to: be able to deal with 2. live wire: wire charged with electricity

3. Qu'est-ce que c'est?: (French) What is it? 4. sealed: tightly closed 5. Ce que ... gloire: (French) What I did,

that evening, what she said, that evening, seeing my hope I throw myself towards glory

Can y o u think of a n y p s y c h o p a t h i c c h a r a c t e r s in films y o u have s e e n o r b o o k s y o u have r e a d ? W h y are p e o p l e fascinated by t h e s e characters, in your o p i n i o n ?

m

» 104


WRITERS' GALLERY A foster family

Edgar

Poe was b o r n in Bost 1 8 0 9 . W h i l e h e was still a y o u n g c h i l d , h e lost b o t h h i s p h i s father, w h o was a n a l c o h o l i c , a b a n d o n e d t h e f a m i l y a m o t h e r d i e d o f c o n s u m p t i o n . He was p l a c e d i n a foster fa R i c h m o n d , V i r g i n i a ; h e later a d o p t e d t h e i r f a m i l y n a m e , . as h i s m i d d l e n a m e . He was, h o w e v e r , n e v e r o f f i c i a l l y ad a n d h i s life was m a r k e d b y b i t t e r c o n f l i c t s w i t h h i s foster fa Studies

and military

career

B e t w e e n t h e ages o f six a n d e

Poe s p e n t t i m e w i t h t h e Allans i n E n g l a n d , w h e r e h e a t t e n boarding school. W h e n he returned to R i c h m o n d he c o m

EDGAR ALLAN P O E (1809-1849) '

h i s s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n a n d e n t e r e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Vir He r a n u p h e a v y g a m b l i n g d e b t s w h i c h h i s f o s t e r f a t h e r re t o pay, so h e q u i t h i s studies a n d travelled t o B o s t o n t o p u

l i t e r a r y c a r e e r . I n 1 8 2 7 h e p u b l i s h e d h i s f i r s t b o o k , Tamerlane

and

other

Poems,

which

u n n o t i c e d . Totally p e n n i l e s s , Poe enlisted in t h e Army, w h e r e his g o o d record persuaded h i pursue a m i l i t a r y career. I n 1 8 2 9 h e e n t e r e d t h e a c a d e m y o f West P o i n t , b u t after o n l y six m o n t d e c i d e d t o leave. Little is k n o w n o f w h a t h a p p e n e d i n t h e n e x t few years. He lived i n N e w York for a

Poverty

o f t i m e in e x t r e m e poverty, b e f o r e d e c i d i n g t o g o a n d stay w i t h a n a u n t a n d h e r daughter, Virj i n B a l t i m o r e . T h e r e h e p u b l i s h e d a s e c o n d c o l l e c t i o n o f p o e m s a n d m a d e a m e a g r e l i v i n g wri a n d selling tales t o m a g a z i n e s . I n 1 8 3 6 h e m a r r i e d h i s c o u s i n Virginia, w h o s e pale, fragile, c h i l b e a u t y is o f t e n f o u n d in t h e h e r o i n e s o f his p o e m s . H e was t w e n t y - s e v e n , s h e was t h i r t e e n . Nervous

disorders

and alcohol

addiction

T h i s p e r i o d o f relative stability did n o t last. He b e g a n

s h o w s i g n s o f n e r v o u s d i s o r d e r s a n d b e g a n t o d r i n k h e a v i l y . He l o s t h i s j o b as e d i t o r a n d cri H o w e v e r , h e c o n t i n u e d w r i t i n g . In 1 8 3 9 h e p u b l i s h e d a c o l l e c t i o n o f s h o r t stories, t h e Tales of Grotesque

and Arabesque,

w h i c h b r o u g h t h i m very little f a m e or m o n e y . His n e x t b o o k o f c r i m e

d e t e c t i v e stories, The Murders Fame

in the Rue Morgue

( 1 8 4 1 ) , was m o r e successful.

U n a b l e t o find e m p l o y m e n t , h e b e c a m e a f r e e l a n c e writer, e d i t o r a n d critic. His long-awai

f a m e c a m e w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f a p o e m , The Raven

( 1 8 4 5 ) w h i c h , however, did n o t p r o d u c e m

m o n e y d u e t o lack o f a d e q u a t e c o p y r i g h t p r o t e c t i o n i n t h o s e days. D u r i n g t h e w i n t e r o f 1 8 4 6 - 1 h i s wife Virginia died. Poe b e g a n t o lose h i s struggle w i t h d r i n k i n g , a n d a t t e m p t e d suicide.

WB& ft

Mysterious

death

In S e p t e m b e r 1 8 4 9 h e left R i c h m o n d for B a l t i m o r e , b u t h e n e v e r c o m p l e t e d

j o u r n e y . H e w e n t m i s s i n g a n d , a f t e r f i v e d a y s , was f o u n d u n c o n s c i o u s o u t s i d e a t a v e r n w e a c l o t h e s w h i c h were n o t h i s o w n . He was t a k e n t o h o s p i t a l w h e r e h e died a few days later, aged thf n i n e , o f u n k n o w n c a u s e s . I n a c e r t a i n s e n s e , h i s l o n e l y d e a t h , s h r o u d e d i n m y s t e r y a n d sufferi h a d i m i t a t e d his art.

5

WORKS

Tales

of ratiocination

P o e is w i d e l y r e g a r d e d as t h e f a t h e r

the m o d e r n detective story. Murder stories were already

e x i s t e n c e at t h e t i m e h e w r o t e . H o w e v e r , h e s h i f t e d t h e e m p h a s i s f r o m t h e a c t i o n t o t i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d s o l u t i o n o f t h e c r i m e . He c r e a t e d a d e t e c t i v e , M o n s i e u r D u p i n , w h o , t h r o u

Writers' Gallery - Edgar Allan Poe

/>

mm-

\ • ^mmmm

- .WMmmm--'

mmm^mmmm

i n t u i t i o n , o b s e r v a t i o n o f detail, reason a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l analysis c o u l d solve e x t r e m e l y c o m p l i c a t e d cases. He c a l l e d h i s stories 'tales o f r a t i o c i n a t i o n ' . The Murders

in the Rue Morgue

( 1 8 4 1 ) is o n e o f t h e

f i n e s t e x a m p l e s . In c r e a t i n g t h i s g e n r e h e p a v e d t h e w a y for d e t e c t i v e s t o r y writers like Sir A r t h u r C o n a n Doyle and Agatha Christie. He also w r o t e tales o f terror, w h i c h h e c a l l e d ' a r a b e s q u e s ' . G o t h i c f i c t i o n was p o p u l a r at

Arabesque

t h e t i m e a n d p r o v i d e d s u c h b a s i c e l e m e n t s as c a s t l e s , a n i m a t e d p o r t r a i t s , p h y s i c a l d e c a y , s t o r m y w e a t h e r a n d h o w l i n g w o l v e s . His c h a r a c t e r s are o f t e n i n v o l v e d i n a l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g s i t u a t i o n , a b o u t t o b e e x e c u t e d or t o h a v e a fatal a c c i d e n t . I n The Premature

Burial

( 1 8 4 4 ) h e explores the terror of a

m a n w h o r e g a i n s c o n s c i o u s n e s s o n l y t o d i s c o v e r h e h a s b e e n b u r i e d alive. O t h e r o u t s t a n d i n g tales o f t e r r o r are The Fall of the House

of Usher

( 1 8 3 9 ) , The Black

Cat ( 1 8 4 3 ) a n d The Pit and the

Pendulum

( 1 8 4 3 ) , in w h i c h Poe uses h i s great t a l e n t t o m a k e i m a g i n e d h o r r o r b e c o m e t o t a l l y p h y s i c a l . Psychological

thrillers

P o e was also a m a s t e r o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l thriller. M a n y o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s

show s y m p t o m s of paranoia a n d have to deal with obsessions, n i g h t m a r e s a n d nervous disorders. His a n a l y s i s i n William

Wilson

is a n i n t r i g u i n g e x p l o r a t i o n o f a split p e r s o n a l i t y l o n g b e f o r e Freud

studied the subject. He was also a n i n f l u e n t i a l p o e t a n d literary critic. I n h i s w o r k s o f literary t h e o r y h e o u t l i n e d

Poetry

a series o f p r i n c i p l e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h h e b e l i e v e d h a d t o b e a p p l i e d in t h e w r i t i n g o f poetry. He b e l i e v e d t h a t p o e t r y s h o u l d b e d e v o i d o f a n y m e s s a g e or m o r a l t e a c h i n g , its o n l y p u r p o s e b e i n g t o give pleasure. He i d e n t i f i e d t h e n e e d for a ' c o n d e n s e d ' style, a n d p a i d particular a t t e n t i o n t o i m a g e r y a n d s o u n d . He also u n d e r l i n e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e m u s i c a l e l e m e n t s i n p o e t r y w h e n h e d e f i n e d it as ' t h e r h y t h m i c c r e a t i o n o f b e a u t y ' . T h e b e s t e x a m p l e s o f t h i s a p p r o a c h are The Raven Annabel

(1845) and

Lee ( 1 8 4 9 ) , a p o e m d e d i c a t e d t o h i s wife a n d i n s p i r e d b y o n e o f h i s f a v o u r i t e t h e m e s , t h e

d e a t h o f a b e a u t i f u l w o m a n . His p o e t r y a n d literary t h e o r y p a v e d t h e w a y for s y m b o l i s t p o e t r y a n d inspired s u c h F r e n c h p o e t s as R i m b a u d a n d Baudelaire. Reputation

Poe's reputation in America during his lifetime was u n d e r m i n e d b y a c c u s a t i o n s of

p a e d o p h i l i a , sadism, a l c o h o l i s m a n d drug a d d i c t i o n . It was t h e F r e n c h p o e t Baudelaire, t h r o u g h his e x c e l l e n t t r a n s l a t i o n s , w h o e n c o u r a g e d a p p r e c i a t i o n o f h i s w o r k in Europe. S i n c e t h a t t i m e , P o e h a s b e e n g i v e n b o t h t h e p u b l i c a n d c r i t i c a l r e c o g n i t i o n h e d e s e r v e s . W r i t e r s s u c h as O s c a r W i l d e ( • M o d u l e F) a n d W . B . Yeats ( • M o d u l e G ) h a v e i d e n t i f i e d h i m as a n i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e , h i s w o r k has b e e n interpreted by t h e c o m p o s e r s R a c h n i a n i n o v a n d Debussy, a n d several films h a v e b e e n b a s e d o n h i s stories. His w o r k c o n t i n u e s t o inspire artists i n every field o f e x p r e s s i o n .

TASK What events in Edgar Allan Poe's life most affected him as a writer? How did he contribute to t h e development of a new literary genre?

105

Fields of Vision

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