Table of Contents About this Book Introduction
2 3
Chapter 1
Sentence
4
Chapter 2
Parts of speech Noun Pronoun
5
Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13
6 7-8
Adjective Degrees of comparison
9 - 10 11 - 13
Articles Verbs - Helping verbs Main verbs
14 - 15
Tenses Conjugation of verbs Voice of verbs Asking Questions and Question Tags (Making Statements, Negatives,
22 - 24
16 - 19 20 - 21
Questions, And Question Negatives)
25 - 29 30 - 33 34 - 35
Chapter 14
Reported Speech (Direct And Indirect Speech)
Chapter 15
Adverb
Chapter 16
Preposition Conjunction Interjection
40 - 42
Punctuation Subject, Predicate, Phrase and Clause Simple, Compound, Complex Sentences Conditional Clauses (If & Unless)
46 - 48
Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22
36 - 38 39 43 - 44 45
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49 50 51
About this Book This Book is designed for the benefit of the Non-English Medium students and for the teachers who teach to those students. It will be more helpful for the Telugu medium students and teachers who are in touch with the A.P. State Syllabus. Here I mentioned the page nos. of the academic text books for class VIII, IX and X also (A.P. State Syllabus) against the topic in the book, which are existed in the respective page nos. In future I will give page nos. for more text books. In this book I give only explanation and a few examples for better understanding. For the exercises I suggest some suitable links against the topic. I think that this book may be helpful to the teachers and the students to understand and achieve more marks in the examinations. You can use it as your hand book by copying the book for a print. Thank you very much for choosing my bool to read.
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Introduction In the present day rat racing for marks and ranks the students as well as the teachers neglect the importance of language skills. The result is that even the students who have high caliber in their respective subjects can‘t present their present their knowledge where ever necessary and lose the opportunities in the open market. They can‘t enjoy the essence of a language. In addition to this now-a-days using short massaging system, chatting and other latest technocommunicative factors may be the causes of great loss in feeling and sharing the values and making fun of English Language. To overcome this shortage of language skills one must learn at least the basic grammar and make a little bit practice, and I think this book will be helpful for that. It is helpful for you to make self study by learning little by little and if you are learned and want to make a speed recall among all the grammatical awareness, you make it as fast as you can. Try it as for your choice and make a call for me, if you have any doubt.
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Chapter 1 SENTENCE is a study of the rules for f or the words and structures of a language. GRAMMAR is The base for any language is sounds. The sounds appear appear in the forms of of LETTERS . The letters in English are divided into VOWELS andCONSONENTS andCONSONENTS VOWELS : A,E,I,O,U. CONSONENTS : B,C,D,F,G,H,J,K,L,M,N,P,Q,R,S,T, B,C,D,F,G,H,J,K,L,M,N,P,Q,R,S,T,V,W,X,Y,Z. V,W,X,Y,Z. A collection of letters, which gives some sense. WORD : e.g.: school, girl, write, beautiful, beside, fast, etc. SENTENCE : A group words, which gives complete meaning. e.g.: I go to school everyday. She is an English teacher. SENTENCES ARE OF FOUR KINDS 1. Assertive sentence 2. Imperative sentence 3. Interrogative sentence 4. Exclamatory sentence ASSERTIVE SENTENCE : It It starts with a subject and ends with full stop. e.g. I saw a snake. We got independence in 1947. IMPERATIVE SENTENCE : It starts with a verb and ends with full stop . (All commands, requests, orders, suggestions) e.g. Sit down, Stand up, Open the window, etc. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE : It appears appears in two ways. with a question words like ‘ what’, (a) It starts with what’, ‘where’ , ‘when’, ‘why’, ‘which’, ‘how ’ , etc. What is e.g. is your father? H ow old old are you? Who is your English teacher? (b) It starts with helping verbs like ‘is’, ‘was’, ‘does’, ‘has’ ‘have’ ‘will’ ‘won’t’ , etc. I s he your father? e.g. Have you had your lunch? D id you you finish your work? Note: Every Interrogative sentence must be ended with a Question Question Mark. (?). EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE : It starts with a question word or an exclamation word and ends with an exclamation mark (!) e.g. What a beautiful flower it is! Oh! My God, He is coming again.
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Chapter 2 PARTS OF SPEECH There are E I G H T kinds kinds of parts of speech. 1. NOUN → Name of a person, place or thing. 2. PRONOUN → Used instead of a noun. 3. VERB → What the subject is / has / does / what happened to it. 4. ADJECTIVE → Qualifies a noun. 5. ADVERB → Qualifies an adjective / a verb / another adverb. 6. PREPOSITION → Shows the relationship of a noun with another. 7. CONJUNCTION → Joins two things. 8. INTERJECTION → A strong and sudden feeling.
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Chapter 3 NOUN ANOUN is is a naming word. word. It indicates the name of a person, Place or thing. e.g. Syam, Ramya, Boy, Girl, Cattle, Bunch, Table, Fan, Love, Beauty, etc. NOUNS ARE OF FIVE KINDS NOUN 2. COMMON COMMON NOUN NOUN 3.MATE RI AL NOUN NOUN 1. PROPE R NOUN 4. CO COLLE LLE CTI VE NOUN NOUN 5. A B STR ST R AC T NOUN AND 1. PROPER NOUN is the personal name of a particular person, place or thing. SYA SY A M is her friend. e.g. RAMYA is a beautiful girl. girl. 1. COMMON NOUN is the name used commonly to all the things of same kind. e.g. Ramya is a beautiful GIRL. Her Mother is a brave WOMAN . 1. MATERIAL NOUN is the name used to the things made by any kind of material. e.g. The TABLE is made of wood. It is broken by an iron HAMMER . 1. COLLECTIVE NOUN is the name used to the things, when they appear collectively. e.g. The CATTLE is grazing there. I saw a BUNCH of of keys on the table 1. ABSTRACT NOUN is the name used to the feelings, ideas, qualities, etc., which are uncountable. We can‘t touch them, see them or show them. e.g. I can‘t express myLOVE. We can‘t bear this NEGLIGENCE.
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Chapter 4 PRONOUN A Pronoun is word, which is used instead of a Noun. e.g. Ramya is a beautiful girl. SHE plays plays tennis. NOTE : Pronouns, which are related to persons, are called PE RSONAL PRONOUNS PRONOUNS These are THREE kinds. kinds. st 1 PERSON: PERSON: The person person speaking (I, We) nd 2 PERSON: PERSON: The person spoken to (You) rd 3 PERSON: The person or thing spoken about. (He, She, It & They) PERSON
SINGULAR
PLURAL
1st PERSON
I
WE
2n PERSON
YOU
YOU
HE, SHE, IT.
THEY
r
3 PERSON
The personal pronouns appear differently depending on their placements.
PERSON
SUBJECTIVE
OBJECTIVE
POSSESSIVE
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
FIRST
I
We
Me
Us
My
Our
SECOND
You
You
You
You
Your
Your
THIRD
M He
F
N
She It
All
M
F
They
Him
N
Her It
All
M
Them
His
F
N
Her Its
All Their
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-IX class-IX – page-43 page-43 st 1 PERSON : I -My self; We -Ourselves; nd 2 PERSON : You -Yourself; You -Yourselves; 3rd PERSON : He -Himself; She -Herself; It -It self; They -Themselves The uses of the pronoun ‘IT’ : TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-X class-X – page-42 page-42 The pronoun ‗IT‘ is used 1. for things without life → Here is your book; tale it away. away. 2. For animals, unless we clearly wish to speak of them as male or female: → The horse fell and broke itsleg. 1. For a young child, unless we clearly wish to refer to the sex: → When I saw the child, it was was crying. 1. To refer to some statement going before; → He is telling what is not true; as he knew knew it . 1. As a provisional and temporary subject before the verb to be when the real subject follows: → I t is is easy to find fault. (To find fault is easy.) 2. To give emphasis to the noun or pronoun following: → I t was was you who began the quarrel. → I t was was at Hyderabad that the Afro-Asian Games were held. 1. As an indefinite nominative of an impersonal verb. 7
I t shows; I t thunders; → I t rains; rains; shows; thunders; The Pronoun ‗ it’ here seems to stand for no noun whatever, though this can be readily supplied from the verb. Thus, → ‘It rains’ means means ‘The rain rains’ . ‘It’ so so used is called an Impersonal Pronoun. So also the verb ‗rains‘ is here called an impersonal verb‘ 1. In speaking of the weather or the time; I t is I t is I t is ten O‘ clock. → is fine; is winter;
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Chapter 5 ADJECTIVE TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-VIII class-VIII – page-53 page-53 to 56 An Adjective is a word which qualifies a noun. e.g. I saw a WHITE elephant.She wears a NICE sari. KINDS OF ADJECTIVES: Adjectives are two types; 1. Descriptive Adjectives. 2. Limiting Adjectives. 1.Descriptive Adjectives : These can describe the state or quality of a noun. These are four types. Adjectives of Quality: 1. Adjectives Shape : round, square, circular, rectangular, oval, angular, triangular, etc. Size : long, narrow, thick, thin, huge, big, small, high, lengthy, little, etc. Color : red, blue, dark, green, light, white, black, purple, pink, alive, etc. Taste : sweet, sour, bitter, hot, salty, astringent, pungent, chili, etc. Condition : good, bad, dirty, weak, strong, smooth, rough, sick, dead, live, etc. Behavior : Kind, cruel, angry, gentle, harsh, nice, mischievous, naughty, etc. Feeling : hard, cold, smooth, rough, thorny, hot, sultry, easy, nice, etc General Impression : Pleasant, beautiful, excellent, great, nice, attractive, etc. 1. Proper Adjectives : formed from proper nouns; e.g.: Indian, American, Chinese, Japanese, Australian, Canadian, etc. TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – classVIII classVIII – page-99 page-99 1. Epithet Adjectives : A noun functioning as an adjective; adjective; e.g.: Express train, coir factory, master master key, etc. 1. Participle Adjectives: Present and past partciples functioning as adjectives e.g..: a sleeping dog,; a wounded soldier; a moving train; a jumping ball; 2. Limiting Adjectives: those that limit the scope of the noun. noun. e.g.: Latha and Devi are in the same the same class; Sujatha bought four saris; Limiting Adjectives are three types 1. Emphasising Adjectives Adjectives : there would be some stress in saying them; e.g.: I saw the same film five times; He saw the accident with his own eyes. 1. Quantitative Adjectives : show the quantity (any, no, many, much, a little, little, the little, etc.) e.g.: There are no fruits in the basket; I haven‘t much time to discuss it. The Usage of FEW & LITTLE : 1. Few and Little : they give negative meaning; few coins e.g.: I have few coins in my pocket. (I have no coins in my pocket) I have little hope of getting post. (I have no hope) 2. A Few and A Little : in the sense of some or some thing. thing. e.g.: I have a few coins coins in my pocket. ( some coins ) li ttle le hope of getting the post. ( some hope ) I have a litt 3. The Few and The Little : in the sense of that particular something.
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e.g.: I have the few coins coins in my pocket that are given by my father. T he litt li ttle le hope I had, helped me in getting the post. 1. Pronominal Adjectives : these are made from the pronouns; five types. her book, 1. Possessive Adjectives : her book, their car, i ts mouth, etc. 2. Demonstrative Adjectives : that girl, girl, those fruits, this shirt, etc. 3. Distributive Adjectives : each bench, every boy, boy, either side, etc. how many, how how 4. Interrogative Adjectives : which question, what answer, how much, whose advice, etc. 5. Relative Adjectives: The man whose land we wanted to buy is here. This is the girl whom did I want to meet. NOTE : To show the differences in the forms of an Adjective, Degrees of comparison are to be used. There are three kinds of Degrees of Comparison
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Chapter 6 DEGREES OF COMPARISON Superlative Degree 1. Positive Degree. 2. Comparative Degree. & 3. Superlative Here, various forms of Adjectives are given. POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
RULE : Single syllable adjectives are added by „er‟ & „est‟.
High
Higher
Highest
Tall
Taller
Tallest
Bold
Bolder
Boldest
Kind
Kinder
Kindest
Hard
Harder
Hardest
Sweet
Sweeter
Sweetest
Small
Smaller
Smallest
Clever
Cleverer
Cleverest
Young
Younger
Youngest
Great
Greater
Greatest
Thick
Thicker
Thickest
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
RULE : The adjectives, end with „e‟, are simply added by „r‟ & „st‟
Brave
Braver
Bravest
Sure
Surer
Surest
Able
Abler
Ablest
Fine
Finer
Finest
Wise
Wiser
Wisest
White
Whiter
Whitest
Large
Larger
Largest
Noble
Nobler
Noblest
Dense
Denser
Densest
Pure
Purer
Purest
Rare
Rarer
Rarest
Hot
Hotter
Hottest
Slim
Slimmer
Slimmest
Fat
Fatter
Fattest
Thin
Thinner
Thinnest
Sad
Sadder
Saddest
Big
Bigger
Biggest
Easy
Easier
Easiest
Holy
Holier
Holiest
Happier
Happiest
Merrier
Merriest
Wealthier
Wealthiest
Heavy
Heavier
Heaviest
Worthy
Worthier
Worthiest
RULE: When an adjective ends with a ‗consonant‘, preceded by a ‗vowel‘, the consonant must be doubled and then write„er‟ & „est‟
Happy RULE : When an adjective ends with„y‟ preceded by a ‗consonant‘ „y‟ is replaced by Merry „ier‟ & „iest‟ Wealthy
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Some exceptions to the above
Silly
Sillier
Silliest
Lovely
Lovelier
Loveliest
Jolly
Jollier
Jolliest
Dry
Drier
Driest
Gay
Gayer
Gayest
Gray
Grayer
Grayest
Beautiful
More Beautiful
Most Beautiful
Difficult More Difficult Most Difficult Courageous
More Courageous
Most Courageous
Industrious
More Industrious
Most Industrious
Learned RULE :The adjectives of two or more syllables must be preceded by „MORE‟ & „MOST‟
Proper
More Learned Most Learned More Proper
Most Proper
Splendid More Splendid Most Splendid Sincere Diplomatic Fruitful
More Sincere Most Sincere More Diplomatic
Most Diplomatic
More Fruitful Most Fruitful
intelligent
More intelligent
Most Intelligent
Ideal
More Ideal
Most Ideal
Modest
More Modest Most Modest
Honest
More Honest Most Honest
DEGREES OF COMPARISON If we want to say about only one thing, we should write it in „Positive degree‟ . If we want to make comparison between two things we use „Comparative degree‟ . When we want say about the best of we use „Superlative degree‟ . of i ts kind ki nd we But, if a sentence is in comparative degree, we can change it into positive degree only. If it is in the Superlative degree, we can change it into comparative as well as positive degree, vise versa. The following tables will be helpful. Type
Type I
Degree
Comparative Degree Positive Degree
Type II
Positive Degree
Example
1st N+V+CDA+than+2n N
Structure Sentence
Hari is taller than Rama
Structure
2 N +V+not+so+PDA+as+2n
Sentence
Rama is not so tall as Hari
Structure
1st N+V+not+CDA+than+2n N
Sentence
Siva is not cleverer than Ravi
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n
AP state VIII 75&76 Type III
TM
–
Comparative Degree
Structure
2n N +V+as+PDA+as+2n
Sentence
Ravi is as clever as Siva
Superlative Degree
Structure
Sub+V+the+SDA+---
Sentence
Geeta is the youngest girl in the class
Structure
Sub+V+CDA+than+any other+---
Sentence
Geeta is younger than any other girl in the class
Structure
No other +---+V+so/as+PDA+as+sub
Sentence
No other girl in the class is so young as Geeta
Comparative Degree
Positive Degree
Superlative Degree Type IV
Comparative Degree Positive Degree Superlative Degree
Type V
Comparative Degree Positive Degree
Structure
Sub+V+ one of the+SDA+---
Sentence Shilpa is one of the most beautiful girl in the town Structure
Sub+V+CDA+than+many other+plu.N+---
Sentence
Shilpa is more beautiful than many other girls in i n the town
Structure
Very few+plu.N+---+V+as/so+PDA+as+sub
Sentence Very few girls in the town are as beautiful as shilpa Structure
Sub+V+not+the+SDA+of all+---
Sentence
Venkat is not the greatest of all Musicians
Structure
Sub+V+not+CDA+than+some other+---
Sentence
Venkat is not greater than some other musicians
Structure
Some+---+V+at least+as+PDA+as+sub
Sentence
Some musicians are at least as great as Venkat
N=Noun; V=verb; PDA=Positive degree of adjective; CDA=Comparative CDA=Comparative degree of adjective; SDA=Superlative degree of adjective.
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Chapter 7 ARTICLES Articles are like adjectives and are used before nouns . There are two kinds of articles in English language. Indefinite article : „A‟ or „An‟ ( because it leaves indefinite the person or thing spoken of.) e.g. I sawaman ( not a particular man ) Definite article : „The‟ (because it refers to some particular person or thing) e.g. I sawtheman, who helped him. (a particular man) Note: Generally, an article is used before a common noun, singular number. Indefinite Article : A / An : The choice between „A‟ and „An‟ is determined by sound. USAGE: vowel sound (a,e,i,o,u,) and before a silent silent An: → is used before a word beginning with a vowel ‘h’. e.g. an apple , an eye , an ink-bottle, an ox , an orange ,an ,anumbrella, anhour, an honest man, an honorable man, etc. A: → is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound and before ‘h’ when when it is pronounced heavily. a boy , a girl, a park , a street , , a road, a box, a pen, e.g. a hotel, a hundred , a hill, a hen. → Some times, even though though the word starts with the vowel„U‟, or „E‟, it pronouns like a consonant .(long U) e.g. a university, auniform, a European. → Some words start with „O‟ but pronouns the consonant sound „V‟. e.g. a one rupee note , a one eyed giant. → In the meaning of any , „a‟ is used. e.g. I want to havea cup of coffee.
Definite Article : The : is used 1. Before a singular noun representing a whole class. class . e.g. Thecow is a useful animal. 2. Before the names of rivers, oceans, seas, gulfs, groups of islands, islands , ranges of mountains, and descriptive nouns of countries and provinces. , theIndian Ocean, the Black sea, the Persian gulf, theAndamans , , e.g. The Godavari , theHimalayas , , the United states, the Punjab, the Central provinces 3. Before certain words of famous of famous books. books. e.g. The Ramayana , the Mahabharatha , the Bible , the Koran, 4. Before certain words which are unique. unique. e.g. the sun , the moon, the sky , the earth, the stars. 5. Before a proper noun only when when it is qualified by an adjective. e.g. thegreat Kalidasa, the immortal Shakespeare . 6. Before the superlatives the superlatives.. e.g. Rama isthecleverest boy in the class.
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7. Before an adjective when the noun noun is understood. e.g. The rich are enjoying life. (the rich people) 8. When we speak of of a thing as the best of its kind . e.g. This is the book on the subject. subject. (the best book) book) 9. With the force the force of a superlative. superlative. e.g. He is theleader today. ( he is the greatest greatest leader) 10. As an adverb with comparatives. e.g. The more you read, the better the marks. The higher you climb , the better the view. 11. With abbreviations. e.g. The U.S.A., TheU.K., The U.S.S.R ., ., TheU.N.O. 12. With ordinals. e.g. He isthe first boy to enter the class. 13. Before a proper noun used as a common common noun. e.g. Kalidasa istheShakespeare of India. 14. Before the Newspapers and ships. e.g. The Indian Express, TheHindu, The Mail, The Jala Usha, 15. To refer to a whole family. , the Kennedys e.g. The Nehrus , Articles should not be used in the following cases: 1. Before proper Before proper nouns, material nouns and and abstract nouns : nouns : e.g. Govind is is good boy; Cotton grows in Bombay. K nowled nowledgge is power. 2. Before „man‟ and „woman‟ when used in general sense. M an is mortal. Woman isman’s companion. e.g. Ma 3. Before names of substances like metals and fluids. fluids . e.g.: Gold is is a precious metal. I don‘t take coffee. 4. Before the names of single of single mountains or islands and town and and cities. cities . e.g.: E ver is the highest peak. Kakinada is small town. ver est is Primary purpose & secondary purpose Before certain places like temple, church, market, shop, prison, hospital, etc. we pri mary purpose. shouldn‟t write any article when that place is used for the pri purpose. When it is second nda ar y purpose used for the seco purpose we should use the article ‘the’ before before it. 1. She went totemple.(for worship). I went to the temple to bring her. 2. He went to church.(for prayers). She went to the church to meet him. markket to 3. I went tomarket (to buy goods). He came to the mar to talk to me. 4. She went to sho shop (to purchase). I wentthe shop to give some money to her. 5. He is admitted in hospital. (for treatment). They went tothe hospital to see him. Note: Repetition of the articles: articles: 1. She has a green and red sari. sari . (one sari) She has agreen and ared sari( sari( two saris) 1. Thesecretary and correspondent says it. (one person) it . ( two persons) The secretary and the correspondent say it.
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Chapter 8 VERB Verb is the chief part of a sentence. It tells what the subject is, what the subject does, subject does, what the subject subj ect has and what happene happened d to the the subj subject ect . ( state state / position of the subject ) ) e.g.: Raghuis a teacher. Sowmya wrote a letter. (work (work / action of the subject ) ) has two pens ( possession / ownership of the subject ) Amar has ) was ki k i lled by Sriram. ( something is done/ happened to the subject ) The snakewas CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION : Verbs are divided into two types. They are: 1. Helping verbs 2. Main verbs Helping verbs: These are also called Auxiliaries. These are ‗24‘ (Be, Been, Being ) „Be, forms : Am, Is, Was, Are, Were, (Be, „Do‟ forms : Do, Does, Did, (Done, Doing ) „Have‟ forms : Have, Has, Had, (Having ) „Will‟ forms : Will, Would „Shall‟ forms : Shall, Should „Can‟ forms : Can, Could „May‟ forms : May, Might „Must‟ : Must „Used‟ : Used (to) „Dare‟ : Dare (to) „Need‟ : Need (to) „Ought‟ : Ought (to) While using these verbs they must agree with the subject, which is called the agreement of the verb or verb or „concord‟. Subject I person II person III person
„BE‟forms
„Do‟forms
„Have‟forms
Present tense Past tense Past tense Present tense Present tense Past tense Past tense Present tense Present tense Past tense Past tense
Singular
Am
Was
Do
Did
Have
Had
Plural
Are
Were
Do
Did
Have
Had Had
Singular
Are
Were
Do
Did
Have
Had
Plural
Are
Were
Do
Did
Have
Had Had
Singular
Is
Was
Does
Did
Has
Had
plural
Are
Were
Do
Did
Have
Had
The usage usage of the helping verbs am, is, was, are, were, be, been, being) „Be‟ forms : ( am, e.g.: Iam a boy. She i s a girl. Hewas a student. They ar eactors. We were players. I will be there in a minute. You have been suffering from fever for the last two days. It, beinga rainy day, we were in doors.
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„Have‟ forms : forms : ( have, has, had ) hasa nice dress. e.g.: I havetwo pens. She has had a lot of money. They had Note: In the above sentences ‘have’ is is used to denote the possession of the subject. Apart from this ‗have‘ is used as the helping verb in the perfect tenses. been li ving ving in these house since 2002. e.g.: She has be They have come a few minutes ago. We had completed our our work before he came. „Do‟ forms: forms: the verb „do‟ has two functions. 1. as a main verb. verb. 2. as a helping verb. verb. As a main verb it is used: 1. in the sense of perform - e.g.: I shall do the work. 2. to avoid the repetition of the previous verb. e.g.: she wrote as carefully as you did.(wrote). 1. as an intransitive verb. - e.g.: you must do so.
1. 2. 3. 4.
As a helping verb it is used: for the sake of emphasis -e.g.: in asking questions. -e.g.: in replying to a question -e.g.: in negative sentences -e.g.:
I do say that it‘s wrong. you go to market? D id you Yes, I did. I di d not not go there.
Use of „SHALL‟ and „WILL‟ – „SHOULD‟ – „SHOULD‟ and „WOULD‟ 1. „Shall‟ and„should‟ in the first person represent futurity. shall go to Chennai; You sho should go to Hyderabad; e.g.: I sha b) „Shall‟ and „should‟ in the second and third person represent command command or compulsion, promise or threat, implying determination on the part of the speaker. TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-X class-X – page-15 page-15 e.g.: You shall shalldo it. or You sho should do it. He ( she, she, it or they) they) sha shall do it. or He ( she, she, it or they) they) sho should do it. 1. „will‟ and „would‟ in the first person represent determination and intention. e.g.: I willnever break my promise. or I would never never break my promise. d) „will‟ and „would‟ in the second and third persons represent futurity. e.g.: you will(would ) finish the work. He or she or she or or It It or or they will(would ) finish the work. Exceptions in the use of „Should‟ . Should is used in all the three persons: 1. after the conjunction „lest‟, irrespective of the tense of the verb going before. 17
1. c) d) e)
e.g.: I go ( have gone, went, will go) go ) there lestthey ( you, he, she) she) sho should misunderstand me. in the sense of „duty‟ ( meaning ‘ought to’ ). ). should begin it without postponement. e.g.: I feel, I ( you, he, she ) she ) should in conditional clauses. should e.g.: If, I ( you, you, she) she) sho perform this. „Should‟ signifies ‘advice’ and and refers to the immediate future. e.g.: you sho should, uld, on no account, miss seeing the film Sankar Dada MBBS. „should‟ signifies a wish. e.g.: I sho should very much like to meet your friend.
Exceptions Exceptions in the use of „will‟ and „would‟ : 1. „will‟ and „would‟ can be used in all the three persons to denote habit . will study the house-site before drawing a plan. e.g.: 1. An engineer will 2. I would go go on shire with her every evening. 3. I think you would be at the Sai Baba temple everyday. b) in the sense of „had willed‟ - e.g.: would god god I had died. c) in the sense of „wish‟ - e.g.: would to to god I were dead. d) in the sense of „it seems‟ e.g.: One would think, think, from his talk last night, that he had not liked it. Note: „Will‟ is not used at all in the first person in asking questions. e.g.: Will I go there? (wrong). Shall ShallI go there? (right) „May‟ and „Might‟ TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-VIII class-VIII – page-99 page-99 „May‟ and „Might‟ would mean is ‘to be allowed’ or or ‘to be permitted to’ . They are used: 1. to denote permission denote permission or or request e.g.: Youmay go go ; I come with you? Ma M ay I b) to denote possibility denote possibility -e.g.: It may rain rain today c) to express a wish - e.g.: Ma god bless you. M ay god d) to emphasis uncertainty in a question - e.g.: Who may this this girl be? e) to express a purpose -e.g.: we eat so that we may live. live. Note: Although „May‟ and „Might‟ both describe a future action, only „Might‟, can be used when it follows a verb in the past tense. e.g.: I thought that you might perform perform it. „Can‟ and „Could‟ or ‘to be able to’. „Can‟ means ‘to have the power to’ or e.g.: I can can speak English. It is generally used in the sense of ‗to ‗ to have permission’. e.g.: CanI come to your house? „Could‟ is the past form of „Can‟. But it is used to signify the present tense. e.g.: I could write write today. Note: „Can‟ is used between equals and suggests familiarity. 18
„Could‟ is very polite and is used when speaking with strangers or superiors. „Dare‟ „Dare‟ means ‘to have the courage to do something’ . It is always used as the Principle verb, because it expresses a distinct meaning of its own. own. It is used Even for the third person singular in present tense wit hout adding „s‟. e.g.: He dare not utter a single single word; How dareyou to tell me so? She dared to to accept the challenge. „Need‟: „Need‟: TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-IX class-IX – page-54 page-54 It is used in the sense of ‘require’ and ‗want’. ‘require’ and ‗want’. e.g.: The boy need not not go there. She needssome money. „Must‟: „Must‟: „Must‟ indicates ‘necessity’ or or ‘compulsion’ . It has no past tense, But the past tense meaning can be shown by ‘had’ or or ‘ought to have’ . e.g.: I must leave leave this place; We must not not speak falsehood. had to go. The bell rang, and the students had „Ought‟: TM TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-X class-X – page-15 page-15 & IX – page-54 page-54 & 55
The verb „ought‟ is the past participle form of „owe‟. It is now used only to express the sense the sense of duty. duty. It is a transitive verb and the infinitive following is its object. e.g.: She ought to to have done it; We ought to love to love our parents. „Used to‟: TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-VIII class-VIII – page-03 page-03 It is always in the past past tense form, it has no present tense form. form. It is used to represent the habitual actions in the past tense. Its always followed by an infinitive. e.g.: I used to to smoke; She used tolive tolive in Chennai.
19
Chapter 9 MAIN VERBS: Mainverbsor Principle verbs are divided into several types. Main verbs Finite verbs
Non-finite verbs
Infinitive (i) Transitive (ii)Intransitive To infinitive Plain infinitive
Participle Present participle
Past participle
Gerund
Finite verbs: The verbs that change according to the person and number of the subject and the tense of the verb. e.g.: Sita singssongs. They sing songs. Ramya sang sang songs. They have sung sung songs. Finite verbs are two kinds : transitive & intransitive The verbs that have objects after them are called the transitive Transitive verbs : verbs. These verbs transfer the action from subject to object. e.g.: she atean apple. Ravi loves cricket Intransitive verbs : These verbs don‘t have any objects and no transformation of action. e.g.: The birds fly. fly. The dogs bark. The trees gro gr ow. The verbs that don‘t change their forms according to the Non-Finite verbs : Person and number of the subject and the tense of the verb. These are three types: Infinitive, participle & gerund. Infinitive : These are two kinds: Plain/Bare Infinitive & To Infinitive Infinitive. Plain / Bare Infinitive : Every root form of the verb is called plain infinitive Sometimes it is used without changing its form. Irrespective of its subject and tense. This is used Generally after the verbs make, help, let, etc. e.g.: My father helped helped him him clear the the debts. She made him made him winthe match. They let him him go. To Infinitive : TM TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-X class-X – page-2, – page-2, class-VIII – page-11 page-11 & 14 Sometimes the root form of the verb is preceded by „to‟, irrespective of its subject and tense of the verb. e.g.: They asked him him to vote for their leader. She always begs him begs him to love her. The teacher has asked the the students to do the home work. Participle : These are two types; Past participle & Present participle. Past participle : The third form of the verb. It is always used in the passive construction and also in the perfect tenses. e.g.: The elephant is sho dead by the hunters. shot dead They have celebrated the the anniversary excellently. Present participle: The root form of the verb is added by an „ing‟ form. It is used for the on going actions at a particular point of time. 20
It is usually verbal adjective. e.g.: I saw I saw him him crossing the road. She has observed them them listening the lesson. Gerund : It isverbal noun. It is used as the subject or object of of the verb. It also appears with the „ing‟ form. Smoking ki ng is injurious to health. e.g.: Smo swimm ming; Collecting stamps was his habit. I like swim Note: The present participle form of a verb, present continuous form of a verb and Gerund appear alike. But there was a lot lot of difference in their usage. e.g.: Swimm Swimming makes a man healthy. (gerund) He saw his son swim swimm ming in the river. ( present participle) They are swim swimm ming in the river. ( present continuous tense) In the above sentences the word „swimming‟ worked as gerund, as gerund, present participle and present continuous. continuous. Gerund - verbal noun ; (used as subject or object) Present participle - verbal adjective; adjective; Present continuous - verb
21
Chapter 10 TENSES Generally tenses are three types- Present tense, Past tense and Future tense . But again the tenses are divided into four types. – types. – Simple tense, continuous tense get twelve tenses. perfect tense and perfect continuous tense. Then, we get 1. Present tense a) Simple tense 2. Past tense b) Continuous Continuou s tense 3. Future tense c) Perfect tense d) Perfect continuous tense various forms of forms of a verb and its structure must be as given bellow. per example various forms of the verb „eat‟ are as follows Tenses Present tense Past tense
Future tense
Simple tense Continuous tense Perfect tense Perfect continuous tense
V1/v+ Am/is/are+ v+ing Have/has+ v3 s/es eat/eats is eating have eaten
Have/has+been +v+ing have been eating
Was/were+ v+ing Had +v3 had was eating eaten
Had +been + v+ing had been eating
w/s/c/m+have w/s/c/m+v1 w/s/c/m+be+v+ing +eaten will will eat will be eating have eaten
w/s/c/m+have+ been +v+ing will have been eating
V2 ate
W=will; S=shall; C=can; M=may; V1=verb in present tense; V2=verb in past tense; V3=verb in past participle tense The uses of the tenses The simple present tense is used : 1. To express a habitual action : He takes milk every morning. 2. To express general truth : The sun rises in the east. 3. In the exclamatory sentences beginning with „here‟ and „there‟ . e.g.: Here comesthe bus! There she goe goes! 4. In vivid narrative, as substitute for the Simple past : e.g.: Akbar winsthe battle against Rana Prathap. 5. To indicate a future event that is part of a fixed programme programme or time table: e.g.: He retiresnext month; The match sta startsat 9 O‘ clock. says, ―A thing of beauty is a joy for ever.‖ 6. To introduce quotations : Keats say e ver.‖ Thepresent continuous Tense is used: 1. For an action going going on at the time of speaking: She is singing now. 2. For a temporary action which may not be actually happening at the time of speaking : I am reading a novel (but not at this moment.). 1. For an action that is planned or arranged to take pla ce in the near future: e.g.: I am going to the cinema tonight. 4. We use the present continuous tense with an adverb like always, continually, constantly, etc. e.g.: My dog is very silly; silly; he i s always running out into the road. The present perfect tense is used : To indicate completed activities in the immediate past. 22
has just gone gone; I have have fi nishe ni shed d the e.g.: Hehas the work. To express past actions whose time is not given and not definite; read d that book; Mr. Hari has been to Japan. e.g.: I have rea To denote an action beginning at some time in the past and continuing up to to the present moment: known n him for a long time. e.g.: I have know We haven’t seen Padma for several months. The following words can be used with the present perfect tense: Just, often, yet , never, ever, so far, till now, already, since, for, today, this week, this month, etc . The Present perfect continuous tense is used : for an action which began at some time in the past and is still continuing: e.g.: They have be bee en buildi bui lding ng the bridge for several years. They have been playing foot ball since four O‘ clock. The Simple past tense is used: TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-VIII class-VIII – page-64-66 page-64-66 & 70 To indicate an action completed in the past. e.g.: Ireceived his his letter a week ago; Sheleft school school last year. To indicate historical or time implied actions : e.g.: Babar defeated Rana Rana Sanga at Kanwaha; He learnt Hindi Hindi in Nagpur. For the past habitual actions Simple Past Tense is used with the ‗used to‘ construction; He used to smoke cigarettes. (but now, he stopped smoking). The Past Continuous Tense is used: TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-X class-X – page-34 page-34 To denote an action going on at some time in the past. The time of the action may not be indicated. wer e liste li steni ning ng to the radio all evening. e.g.: We wer Some times the Past Continuous Tense and Simple Past are used together, when a new action happened in the middle of a longer action. The Simple Past Tense is used for the new action. e.g.: The light went out while I was was r eadi adi ng . When I saw him, he was pla playying che chess ss. The Past Perfect Tense is used : TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-X class-X – page-23 page-23 To describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past e.g.; I had seen him last five years before. If two actions happened in the past, it may be necessary to show which action happened earlier than the the other. The Past Perfect is mainly used in such cases. e.g.: When I reached the station the train had had already sta star ted. I had written the letter before he arrived. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used : for an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to that time: e.g.: At that time he had be bee en wri wr i ting ting a novel for two months. When Mr. Mukherji came to the school in 2002, Mr. Anand 23
had had already been teaching there for five years. The Simple Future Tense is used for an action that has still to take place: shall see see him tomorrow; Tomorrow will be Sunday. e.g.: I shall Some times Future Tense is used with ‘going to+infinitive construction. to+infinitive construction. goi ng to build a e.g.; He is goi a new house. Future Continuous Tense represents an action as going on at some time in future. e.g.: When I get home, my children will be playing. This Tense is also used for future events that are planned: e.g.: I will wil l be stayi staying ng here till Sunday. Future Perfect Tense is used to indicate the completion of an action by a certain future time: e.g.: Before you go to see him, he will the place. wil l have left the The Future Perfect Continuous Tense indicates an action represented as being in progress over a period of time that will end in the future: shall hav have been living here for four years. e.g.: By next July we sha
24
Chapter 11 VERB AND ITS CONJUGATIONS A List of Strong Verbs
Sl.
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past participle
1
Am / Is / Be
was
Been
2
Are
were
Been
3
Has / have
had
had
4
Do / does
did
done
5
Abide
abode
abode
6
arise
arose
arisen
7
awake
awoke
awaken
8
bear
bore
born
9
beat
beat
beaten
10
become
became
become
11
begin
began
begun
12
bend
bent
bent
13
befall
befell
befallen
14
beget
begot
begotten
15
behold
beheld
beheld
16
breed
bred
bred
17
beseech
besought
besought
18
bereave
bereft
bereft
19
bethink
bethought
bethought
20
bind
bound
bound
21
bite
bit
bit
22
bleed
bled
bled
23
blow
blew
blown
24
break
broke
broken
25
bring
brought
brought
26
build
built
built
27
burn
burnt
burnt
28
buy
bought
bought
29
catch
caught
caught
30
choose
chose
chosen
31
cling
clung
clung
32
come
came
come
33
creep
crept
crept
34
choose
chose
chosen
35
chide
chided
chidden
36
cleave
clove
cloven
25
37
crow
crew
crown
38
deal
dealt
dealt
39
dive
dove
dove
40
dwell
dwelt
dwelt
41
dig
dug
dug
42
draw
drew
drawn
43
dream
dreamt
dreamt
44
drink
drank
drunk
45
drive
drove
driven
46
eat
ate
eaten
47
fall
fell
fallen
48
feed
fed
fed
49
feel
felt
felt
50
fight
fought
fought
51
find
found
found
52
flee
fled
fled
53
fling
flung
flung
54
fly
flew
flown
55
forbid
forbade
forbidden
56
freeze
froze
frozen
57
foresee
foresaw
foreseen
58
foretell
foretold
foretold
59
forget
forgot
forgotten
60
forgive
forgave
forgiven
61
forsake
forsook
forsaken
62
get
got
gotten
63
give
gave
given
64
go
went
gone
65
gild
gilt
gilt
66
gird
girt
girt
67
grind
ground
ground
68
grow
grew
grown
69
hang
hung
hung
70
hear
heard
heard
71
hide
hid
hid
72
hold
held
held
73
keep
kept
kept
74
kneel
knelt
knelt
75
know
knew
known
76
lay
laid
laid
77
lead
led
led
26
78
leap
leapt
leapt
79
learn
learnt
learnt
80
leave
left
left
81
lend
lent
lent
82
lie
lay
lain
83
lie
lied
lied
84
light
lit
lit
85
lose
lost
lost
86
make
made
made
87
mean
meant
meant
88
meet
met
met
89
misspell
misspelt
misspelt
90
misdeal
misdealt
misdealt
91
misunderstand
misunderstood
misunderstood
92
mistake
mistook
mistaken
93
overcome
overcame
overcome
94
overtake
overtook
overtaken
95
oversee
oversaw
overseen
96
rebuild
rebuilt
rebuilt
97
rebind
rebound
rebound
98
relay
relaid
relaid
99
rend
rent
rent
100
repay
repaid
repaid
101
rewrite
rewrote
rewritten
102
ride
rode
ridden
103
ring
rang
rung
104
rise
rose
risen
105
run
ran
run
106
say
said
said
107
see
saw
seen
108
seek
sought
sought
109
sell
sold
sold
110
send
sent
sent
111
shake
shook
shaken
112
shine
shone
shone
113
shoot
shot
shot
114
shrink
shrank
shrunk
115
shrive
shrove
shriven
116
sing
sang
sang
117
sink
sank
sunk
118
sit
sat
sat
27
119
slay
slew
slain
120
sleep
slept
slept
121
slide
slid
slid
122
sling
slung
slung
123
slink
slunk
slunk
124
sleep
slept
slept
125
smell
smelt
smelt
126
smite
smote
smitten
127
speak
spoke
spoken
128
spell
spelt
spelt
129
spend
spent
spent
130
spill
spilt
spilt
131
spin
span
spun
132
spit
spat
spat
133
spring
sprang
sprung
134
stand
stood
stood
135
stave
stove
stove
136
steal
stole
stolen
137
stick
stuck
stuck
138
sting
stung
stung
139
stink
stank
stunk
140
stride
strode
stridden
141
strike
struck
stricken
142
string
strung
strung
143
strive
strove
striven
144
swear
Swore
sworn
145
sweep
swept
swept
146
swim
swam
swum
147
swing
swung
swung
148
take
took
taken
149
teach
taught
taught
150
tear
tore
torn
151
tell
told
told
152
think
thought
thought
153
throw
threw
Thrown
154
thrive
throve
thriven
155
tread
trod
trodden
156
unbind
unbound
unbound
157
undergo
underwent
undergone
158
understand
understood
understood
159
undertake
undertook
undertaken
28
160
wake
woke
waken
161
wear
wore
worn
162
weave
wove
woven
163
weep
wept
wept
164
win
won
won
165
wind
wound
wound
166
withdraw
withdrew
withdrawn
167
withhold
withheld
withheld
168
withstand
withstood
withstood
169
wring
wrung
wrung
170
write
wrote
written
The verbs having no change in their conjugation
Sl.
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past participle
1
bet
bet
bet
2
bid
bid
bid
3
broadcast
broadcast
broadcast
4
burst
burst
burst
5
cast
cast
cast
6
cost
cost
cost
7
cut
cut
cut
8
hit
hit
hit
9
hurt
hurt
hurt
10
knit
knit
knit
11
let
let
let
12
put
put
put
13
read
read
read
14
rid
rid
rid
15
set
set
set
16
shed
shed
shed
17
spread
spread
spread
18
slit
slit
slit
19
shut
shut
shut
20
thrust
thrust
thrust
21
wet
wet
wet
22
upset
upset
upset
23
quit
quit
quit
24
sweat
sweat
sweat
25
forecast
forecast
forecast
29
Chapter 12 VOICE OF VERBS Voice is a form of the verb. It shows whether the word denoted by the subject or has something done to it. There are two kinds of voice namely. 1. Active Voice.: The verb is said to be in the Active the Active Voice when Voice when the subject represents the doer. 2. Passive voice: The verb is said to be in the passive the passive voice when voice when the subject represents the person or thing that has something done done to him or it. e.g.: Raghu ate an apple. ( Active Active VoiceVoice- A.V.) ( In the above sentence „Raghu‟ is the ‘Subject’ in singular . „Ate‟ is the ‘verb’ in the past tense . „An apple‟ is the ‘Object’ of of the sentence ) An apple was eaten by Raghu. Raghu. ( Passive Voice – Voice – P.V.) voice, the following rules are to Note: While changing the verb from active voice to passive voice, be observed. TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-X class-X – page-52 page-52 1. Change the Object into Subject. number and pe per son of the subject . 2. Recognize the tense of the verb and the number 3. If the verb is in the present tense , „is‟ must be added to the ‘singular subject’ or „are‟ must be added to the ‘plural subject’ . If the verb is in the past tense,„was‟ must be added to the ‘singular subject’ , or „were‟ must be added to the ‘plural subject’ . 1. Then the past participle form of the verb must be added. 2. The preposition „By‟ must be added then. 3. Lastly, „Subject‟ must be changed into „Object‟ . If the subject has no object, we can‘t change the sentence into passive voice. AS FOR THE TENSES THE VOICE IS CHANGED AS FOLLOWES:
A.V. 1.
Simple Present tense
P.V.
A.V. 2.
Present Continuous Tense
P.V.
3. Present Perfect Tense
A.V.
Structure
Sub+v1/v1+s/es+Obj
Sentences
Sita sings a song Sita sings songs
Structure
Object+am/is/are+v3+by+Subject
Sentences
A song is sung by Sita Songs are sung by Sita.
Structure
Subject+am/is/are+v+ing+Object
Sentences
Sita is singing a song. Sita is singing songs
Structure
Object+am/is/are+being+v3+by+Subject
Sentences
A song is being sung by Sita Songs are being sung by Sita.
Structure
Subject+Has/Have+v3+Object
Sentences
Sita has sung a song Sita has sung songs
P.V. Structure
Object+Has/Have+been+v3+by Object+Has/Have+been+v3+by+Subject +Subject 30
A.V. 4.
Simple Past Tense
P.V.
A.V. 5. Past Continuous Tense P.V.
A.V. 6.
Past Perfect Tense
P.V.
A.V. 7.
Simple Future Tense
P.V.
A.V. 8.
Future Perfect Tense
P.V.
Sentences
A song has been sung by Sita Songs have been sung by Sita.
Structure
Subject+v2+Object
Sentences
Sita sang a song Sita sang songs
Structure
Object+was/were+v3+by+subject
Sentences
A song was sung by Sita Songs were sung by Sita.
Structure
Subject+was/were+v+ing+Object
Sentences
Sita was singing a song Sita was singing songs
Structure
Object+was/were+being+v3+ Object+was/were+being+v3+by+subject by+subject
Sentences
A song was being sung by Sita. Songs were being sung by Sita.
Structure
Subject+had+v3+Object
Sentences
Sita had sung a song Sita had sung songs
Structure
Object+had+been+v3+by+Subject
Sentences
A song had been sung by Sita Songs had been sung by Sita
Structure
Subject+w/s/c/m+v1+Object
Sentences
Sita will sing a song Sita will sing songs
Structure
Object+w/s/c/m+be+v3+by+Subject
Sentences
A song will be sung by Sita Songs will be sung by Sita.
Structure
Subject+w/s/c/m+have+v3+Object
Sentences
Sita will have sung a song. Sita will have sung songs
Structure
Object+w/s/c/m+have+been+v3+by+Sub
Sentences
A song will have been sung by Sita Songs will have been sung by Sita.
W=will; S=shall; C=can; M=may; V1=verb in present tense; V2=verb in past tense; V3=verb in past participle tense The following things are to be noted while changing the voice: 1. Subject : The doer of the action; 2. Object : The person or a thing, to which something has done; 3. Verb : Which denotes what the subject is/has/does/what happen to it; 4. Only EIGHT tenses can be changed into passive voice; voice; Perfect Continuous Tenses and Future Continuous Tense can‘t be changed. 5. In every passive sentence we can find past participle form of the verb; A.V. P.V. a) Simple present tense v1/v1+s/es am/is/are+v3 31
b) Present continuous tense am/is/are+v+ing am/is/are+being+v3 c) Present perfect tense has/have+v3 has/have+been+v3 d) Simple past tense v2 was/were+v3 e) Past continuous tense was/were+v+ing was/were+being+v3 f) Past perfect tense had+v3 had + been +v3 g) Simple future tense w/s/c/m+v1 w/s/c/m+be+v3 h) Future perfect tense w/s/c/m+have+v3 w/s/c/m+have+been+v3 In Future tenses the words ―will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, must‖ will be appear. Rules for changing Imperative sentences : e.g.: Bring me a cup of coffee. A.V. Let a cup of coffee be brought brought (to) me (by you). you). P.V. In the Imperative sentences the sentence starts with a verb and endswith a full stop. We can‘t find the subject here. But the subject ‗You‘ is always understood. We need not to change it as the object. object. While changing the sentences into passive voice the following things are to beobserved. 1. Start the sentence with „Let‟ 2. Change Change the ‗object‘ as the „subject‟ 1. Directly ‗Be‘ must be used instead of „Be‟ form. 2. The past participle form of the verb should be added. e.g.: Post this letter A.V. Let this letter be posted (by you). you). P.V. Note: Some times the imperative sentences starts with the word „please‟ then we should remove it and write „you are requested to‟ to change it. e.g.: Please, post the letter --- You are requested to post the letter. Interrogative sentences must be changed as follows: 1. Why did he write the letter? --- Why was the letter written by him? 2. How did they solve the problem? --- How was the problem problem solved solved by them? 3. Where did you hide the book? --- Where was the book hidden by you? 4. When did she bring the file? --- When was the file brought by her? Note: The Interrogative sentences should should be changed changed as the assertive sentences can be, with some changes. 1. We should write the question word (why, where, etc.) first. 2. The helping verb must be written before the subject. 3. Some of the questions start without a question word, e.g.: Did they finish the work?. work?. --- Was the work finished by them? Have you repaired the the box?--- Has the box been been repaired by you? you? Some times we may have two objects, for which we can make passive in two t wo ways. e.g.: He gave me a book. A.V. --- A book was given (to) me by him. P.V. I was given given a book book by him. P.V. We can change the sentences in passive passive voice into active voice by following the rules in rivers. But in some passive sentences we can‘t find the object then we have to adopt some words like, ‗some one, we, they, you, etc‘. as the subject. 32
e.g.: The thief was caught. --- Some one caught the thief. Promises should be be kept--- We should keep keep promises. Now let us see the above sentences, structure wise in a table:
A.V. commands
1.
P.V.
Imperative sentences
A.V. Requests
P.V.
A.V. Question words
V1+ Object
Sentences
Open the door.
Structure
Let+ object+be+v3
Sentences
Let the door be opened.
Structure
Please+v1+object
Sentences
Please open the door.
Structure
You are requested to+v1+object
Sentences
You are requested to open the door
Structure
Q.W.+H.V.+subject+v1/(v3)+ object?
Sentences
How did you finish the work? How had he finished the work?
Structure Q.W+H.V+object+(been)+v3+by+subject? P.V.
2.
Structure
Interrogative sentences
A.V. Helping verbs
P.V.
Sentences
How was the work finished by you? How had the work been finished by him?
Structure
H.V.+subject+v1/v3+object
Sentences
Did he complete the work Had he completed the work
Structure
H.V.+object+v3+by+subject
Sentences
Was the work completed by him Had the work been completed by him.
Structure
Subject+ V +IDO+DO Subject + V + DO + to + IDO
Sentences
She gave me a book She gave a book to me
Structure
DO + H.V.+ V3 + IDO + by + subject IDO+ H.V.+ V3 + to +DO +by+subject
Sentences
I was given a book by her A book was given (to) me by her.
A.V. 3.
Double objects
P.V.
QW=Question word, HV=Helping verb, DO=Direct object, IDO=Indirect object Usually in the passive construction the object is preceded by the preposition ‗by‘,but in some constructions ‗by‘is not ‗by‘is not suitable for them. them. In such cases we should should take the prepositions prepositions ‗in‘, ‗to‘, etc. as per the necessity TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-IX class-IX – page-87-89 page-87-89 .e.g.: The bottle contains water.--Water is contained in the bottle. I know him -- He is known to me. Some times there is no need of using any preposition after the verb because there isn‘t much scope for the object in passive voice; it may be unknown. e.g.: Some one has stolen my watch — My My watch has been stolen. 33
Chapter 13 ASKING QUESTIONS AND QUESTION TAGS (Making Statements, Negatives, Questions, And Question Negatives)
Asking Questions : Questions can be asked in two ways; 1. Started with question words like, ‗what‘, ‗where‘, ‗when‘, ‗why‘, ‗which‘, etc. e.g.: What is your your name? When did you come here? TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-VIII class-VIII – page-99-102 page-99-102 The structure must be — Q.W Q.W + H.V + Subject + M.V. + ----- + ? The answers for these questions must be in i n at least one or two sentences. 2. Started with Helping Verbs like, ‗do‘, ‗is‘, ‗can‘, ‗will ‘, ‗may‘, etc. e.g.: May I go home? Can I sit here? Do you remember? The structure must be --- H.V. + Subject + M.V. + ----- + ? These questions asked for making conformation, and we can answer them by saying simply ‗yes‘ or ‗no‘. What ever the question is we must put the Helping Verb before the Subject, where as in statements, after the subject; Some other Specific ways of seeking information: TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-VIII class-VIII – page-22,23,86 page-22,23,86 & 87 e.g.: How far, How long, How many, many, How much, How old, How big, etc. Structure : How------+ ( Adjective + ) Verb + Subject + ------- + ? Making Statements, Negatives, Questions, and Question negatives: Sl . no
1.
2.
3.
4.
Sentence
Structure
Example
Subject + Verb +-----
He wrote a book. He had written a book. He is writing a book.
Subject + H.V.+ not + Verb + ---
He did not write a book. He hadn‘t written a book. He is not writing a book.
H.V. + subject + Verb + -----?
Did he write a book? Had he written a book? Is he writing a book?
Statement
Negative
Question
Question negative
H.V. + not + subject + -?
Didn‘t he write a book? Verb + ---Hadn‘t he written a book? Isn‘t he writing a book?
Question Tags: TM
AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-X class-X – page-69 page-69 It is common practice in conversation to make a statement and ask for conformation; as, ―It‘s very hot, isn‘t it?‖ The later part, (‗isn‘t it?‘)is called it?‘)is called a question tag. The pattern is (i) Helping verb+ n‘t + Subject, if the statement is positive, (ii) Helping verb + Subject,if the statement is negative. 34
Negative Question TagsforPositive statements It‘s raining, isn‘t it? You are free, aren‘t you? Sita can swim well, can‘t she? Gopi broke the glass, didn‘t he? Your sister cooks well, doesn‘t she? I‘m alright, aren‘t I? He was brilliant, wasn‘t he? They were good boys, weren‘t they? You cross your limits, don‘t you? They have have committed a mistake, haven‘t they? She has listened the story, hasn‘t she? My mother had cooked the dinner, hadn‘t she? My father hadn‘t stopped smoking, s moking, had he? They will go to Chennai, won‘t they? t hey? She shall meet him, shan‘t she? Ravi can complete this, this, can‘t he? Positive Question Tags forNegative statements. You aren‘t busy, are you? She can‘t swim, can she? Mohan doesn‘t work hard, does he? They haven‘t come yet, have they? t hey? She isn‘t your aunt, is she? I‘m not a fool, am I? He wasn‘t there, was he? We weren‘t waiting, were we? You don‘t go there, do you? She hasn‘t believed him, has she? I won‘t do it again, will I? He shan‘t come again, shall he? Lalitha can‘t accept this, can she? Note: The subject of the question tag is always a pronoun, pronoun, never a noun and it starts with a small letter.
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Chapter 14 REPORTED SPEECH (Direct And Indirect Speech) In English speech is two types- Direct speech & Indirect speech Direct speech is always in the quotation marks TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-IX class-IX – page-21-23, page-21-23, 64 & 100 e.g.: Rama said to Krishna, “I am going to market” (Direct speech) Rama told Krishna that he was going to market. (Indirect speech) In the above example the words in the quotation marks marks are told directly by Rama. But in the the next sentence the words are told indirectly by indirectly by others. while changing the sentences from the direct speech into indirect speech the following things should be observed 1. The sentence in the direct speech is divided into two parts-Reporting part & Reported part 2. The part, which is out side of the inverted commas is the Reporting part. i.e. Rama said to Krishna. 3. The part, which is in the inverted commas commas is the Reported part of the sentence i.e. “I am going to market”. 4. If the „verb‟ in the reporting part is in the past tense there will be some changes in the reported verb as follows. Simple present tense - Simple past tense Present continuous tense - Past continuous tense Present perfect tense - Past perfect tense Simple past tense - Simple past tense/ past perfect tense Present perfect continuous tense - Past perfect continuous tense will, shall, can, may, - would, should, could, might.
e.g.:
Sita said, ―I goto school today‖ Sita said that she wentto school that day. Ramya said, ―I am teachingEnglish‖ Ramya said that she was teachingEnglish. Kumar said to Radha, ―I have metyour father‖ Kumar told Radha that he had mether father. Rahim said to Janaki, ―I completedmy work yesterday‖ Rahim told Janaki that he had completedhis completedhis work the day before. Kavya said to them, ―I have been livinghere for five years‖. Kavya told them that shehad been livingthere for five years. She said to him, ―I will goto Chennai‖ She told him that she would w ould goto Chinnai.
5. But when when the reporting verb verb is in the simple presenttense or in the simple futuretense no changes, required. e.g.: She says, ―My father is a doctor.‖ She says that her fatherisa doctor.
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He will say, ―I agree to this.‖ He will say that he agreesto that. 6. If the reported part is a universal truthor a habitual action, the tense is not changed even though the reporting verb is in the past tense. e.g.: My teacher said, ―The sun rises in the east‖ My teacher said that the sun risesin the east. 1. Generally „said to‟ is changed as „told‟. We should should not use „to‟ after „told‟. Some times as for the meaning, „said to‟is changed into ‘asked’, ‘enquired, ‘questioned’, ‘ordered’, ‘commanded’, ‘advised’, ‘requested’, ‘threatened’, ‘agreed’, ‘suggested’, ‘ignored’, etc . 1. Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives in First person and Second person should be into Third person. person. Observe the following table: Sl. No
Person
1.
Singular
Plural
Masculine
Feminine
I
He
She
---
2.
You (subject)
He
She
They
3.
You (object)
Him
Her
Them
4.
Me
Him
Her
---
5.
My
His
Her
---
6.
Myself
Himself
Herself
---
7.
Your
His
Her
Their
8.
We
---
---
They
9.
Us
---
---
Them
10.
Our
---
---
Their
11.
Ourselves
---
---
Themselves
Some times, if the person addressed, reports the speech, Second person is changed into First person. 1. While changing the speech, the two parts of the sentence should be connected with a conjunction. conjunction. There are four types of sentences in reported part. So the conjunctions should be used as follows. Sl. No.
Sentence
Conjunction
1.
Assertive Sentence
That
2.
Imperative Sentence
to
3. 4.
Interrogative Sentence
Question word
Same Question word
Helping verb
If / Whether
Exclamatory Sentence*
That
* First Exclamatory sentence should be changed into Assertive Sentence and then the conjunction ‗that‘ should be added. 1. My teacher said to me, ―Open the door.‖ door.‖ (order) My teacher orderedme toopen the door. 2. He said to her, ―Please give me your pen.‖ pen.‖ (request) 37
He requestedher togive him her pen. She said to him, ―What is your name?‖ name?‖ (question) She askedhim whathis name was. 4. They said to her, ―Did you finish the project?‖(enquiry) They enquiredher whethershe had finished the project. 1. Giri said, ―How beautiful the flower is !‖ *(the flower is very beautiful) Giri exclaimedthatthe flower was very beautiful. 2. Words expressing „nearness‟ are generally changed into words expressing , „distance‟ , as given below.
DIRECT
INDIRECT
*
DIRECT
INDIRECT
Now/Just
Then
*
Thus
So
This
That
*
Here by
There by
These
Those
*
Today
That day
Here
There
*
Tomorrow
The next day / The day after
Hence
Thence
*
Yesterday
The day before / The previous day
Hither
Thither
*
Last night
The night before
Ago
Before
*
To-night
That night
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Chapter 15 ADVERB An ‗Adverb‘ is a word which modifies a verb or an ‗adjective‘ or another ‗adverb‘. e.g.: Sathish eatsslowly. – it it modifies a ‘verb’ . This is a very swe mango - it modifies an ‘adjective’ . sweet mango Madhavi reads quitecorrectly . – it it modifies an ‘adverb’ . Some Adverbs are formed by adding „ly‟ to some adjectives. e.g.: Sweet - Sweetly; Bitter – Bitter – Bitterly; Bitterly; Sad – Sad – Sadly; Sadly; Glad – Glad – Gladly; Gladly; Happy – Happy – Happily; Happily; Slow – Slow – Slowly; Slowly; Swift – Swift – Swiftly; Swiftly; Quiet – Quiet – Quietly, Quietly, Fine – Fine – Finely; Finely; Smart – Smart – Smartly; Smartly; Adverbs of Time:
Now, then, since, ago, before, already, soon, presently, immediately, instantly, early, late, today, tomorrow, yesterday, afterwards, etc. Here, there, hence, thence, hither, thither, in, out, within, Adverbs of Place : without, above, below, far, near, inside, outside, etc. Once, twice, thrice, again, seldom, never, sometimes, Adverbs of Number: always, often, firstly, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, four-fold, five-fold, etc. TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-X class-X – page-59 page-59 Adverbs of manner: This, so, well, ill, badly, probably, certainly, slowly, sadly, conveniently, agreeably, etc. Almost, quite, partly, wholly, rather, somewhat, Adverbs of Quantity : a little, half, little, almost, much, very much, etc. Yes, certainly, surely, by all means, definitely, etc. Adverbs of Affirmation : No, nay, not, at all, etc. Adverbs of Negation : : As, because, since, therefore, etc. Adverbs of Reason Interrogative Interrogative Adverbs : Where, what, when, how, which, why, etc.
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Chapter 16 PREPOSITION The word „preposition‟ means ‘that which is placed before’ . It is placed before a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word or words in the sentence. Make a special note of the use of the following prepositions . Among – Among – Between Between: ‗Between‘ is used for two things; ‗Among‘ is used for more than two . e.g.: She is sitting betweenher parents; He moves amongthe people of status. With – With – By By: instrument; ‗With‘ is used for an instrument ‗By‘ is used before the agent . him witha stick. e.g. The snake was killed by him From – From – Since Since: ‗Since‘ is used in perfect tenses ; ‗From‘ is used in all tenses. I have been working here since2004; e.g. fr om1st July 2005. He started writing this book fro Beside – Beside – Besides Besides: ‗Beside‘ means near, next to, at the side of ; ‗Besides‘ means in addition to. e.g.: He lived besidethe sea-side; besi side desstea. I take coffee be Till – Till – To To: ‗Till‘ is used for time; ‗To‘ is used for place e.g.: I wake up tilltwelve O‘clock at night; She walked tothe end of the street. Since – Since – For For: ‗Since‘ is used for „Point of Time‟ ; ‗For‘ is used for „Period of Time‟ . Both are used in perfect tenses. e.g.: I have been living here since2004. for the I have been living here for the last three years. In – In – within within: ‗In‘ is used in the sense „after the end of‟ ; ‗Within‘ is used in the sense ‗ before the end end of‟ e.g.: I shall come in an hour; I shall come withinan hour. On – Upon On – Upon: ‗On‘ is used in speaking of things at rest;
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‗Upon‘ is used in speaking of things in motion. e.g.: He stood onthe platform; The dog sprang uponhim. ‗About‘ is used for the following: the following: 1. Nearness of time : It is about to to dawn 2. Nearness of place : He had a friend about him. him. 3. Nearness of state : She is about to to die. 4. Occupation : He went about his his daily rounds. 5. Concerning: I know nothing about her her character. ‗Above‘ is used in the sense of : 1. Over : There is a roof aboveour aboveour head. 2. More than : She had to spend abovefive abovefive hundred rupees. 3. Superior to : The gentleman is aboveall aboveall such means. „After‟ is used in the sense of : 1. Sequence in place : She is placed after you. you. 2. Sequence in time : He returned after night night fall. 3. Pursuing/ following : They are always after power. power. 4. According to a name : The collage is named after him. him. 5. Resemblance : The son takes after father. father. „Against‟is used in the sense of: 1. Opposition of place : he beggar was seen leaning against the the tree. 2. Opposition of aim : A foolish person acts against his his own interest. 3. Promotion : A wise man stores up food against a rainy day. 4. Comparison : 5 persons got promotion this year against 2 last year. „For‟is used to mean; 1. In exchange for : I bought this book for book for ten ten rupees. 2. Purpose : She applied for applied for a job. 3. Destination: I am leaving for leaving for Hyderabad. Hyderabad. 4. On account of : She walked slowly for slowly for fear fear of disturbing him. 5. In spite of : For all all his efforts, he is unsuccessful. 6. To express a period of time: I have been living here for the the lost 20years. „Of‟is used to ; 1. Relationship : The dramas of Shakespeare Shakespeare are excellent. 2. division/measure : I wrote the story on a sheet of paper. I took 1metre of cloth cloth for his shirt. 1. to denote a subjective relation : The love of mother mother is great. 2. to express cause : She died of malaria. malaria. 3. to denote source : She comes of a rich family. 4. to indicate quality : He is a man of noble noble character. 5. to indicate contents: contents: She sent me a basket full of fruits. fruits. 6. to indicate material material : This table is made of wood. wood. 7. to indicate possession : This is the factory of her her uncle. 8. Point of reference : He is blind of one one eye. 41
9. to indicate concerning
: What What do you think of me? me?
„At‟is 1. 2. 3. 4.
used used to indicate ; a point of time : I shall meet you at 4 O‘ clock in the evening. a place or a position : She is at school. school. state or condition : India and Pakistan are at war. war. rate / degree : Sugar is selling at twelve twelve rupees a kilo. The car is going at full full speed. 1. aim : She threw a stone at the the cat. 2. In the sense of ‘being engaged’ in : They are at play. engaged’ in something 3. With the names of villages and towns : My friend lives at Rajampet. Rajampet.
1. „At‟is used in the following expressions. He is clever at mathematics; mathematics; I am quite shocked at the the news; She is good at music. music. „By‟is used to mean : 1. near and at the side of : She sat byher byher mother. 2. during : By night or byday, byday, he is a nuisance to his friends. 3. through the mean of / in the manner of of : The whole city was destroyed byan byan earth quake. I received my royalty bycheque. bycheque. 1. in measure of : She taller than you bytwo bytwo inches „To‟is used to indicate : 1. purpose : She came tomeet tomeet me. 2. place : He came tohis tohis own house. 3. limit : We shall pay tothe tothe last pie. 4. effect : Totheir Totheir utter surprise, she won the race. „On‟is used to indicate : 1. place : He kept the book onthe onthe desk. 2. the exact time : He was born onthe onthe 15th August 1975, at 8a.m. 3. a condition : He is on probation this year. 4. the relationship : There is book onthe onthe table. 5. membership : She is onthe onthe staff of the State Bank of India. 6. cause / base : She always acts onmy onmy advice. 7. concerning : This is book ongrammar. ongrammar. „In‟is used to indicate : 1. time : The cloth shop was opened inMay inMay 2002. 2. circumstances : My brother is inhurry inhurry to go to office. 3. dress : The young baby is dressed insilk. insilk. 4. activity : She spent her time inreading inreading books. 5. „In‟is used with the names of countries and large lar ge towns and cities : My brother lives in Bombay. in Bombay. My cousin has settled in America. in America. 42
Chapter 17 CONJUNCTIONS A „conjunction‟ is a word which is used to join words or sentences or phrases. There are three types of conjunctions. conjunctions. Let us see their usage usage in some sentences. Coordinating Conjunctions Conjunctions: TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-X class-X – page-02 page-02 & 78 class-IX – class-IX – pages-42,79 pages-42,79 & class-VIII – class-VIII – pages-32 pages-32 &43 1. Give me a ball point pen ora pencil. th 2. *Hari and Ravi are good friends. 8 32 3. I wish to see the officer, for I have to talk to him urgently. 4. She wrote to him, but he did not reply. 5. He worked very hard, still he could not get a first class. 6. She is rich, yetshe is unhappy. 7. *The patient‘s condition was bad, so they took him to hospital. 8th 43 8. You should run, otherwise you can not catch the train. 9. He has not come to see me, nor has he sent s ent me a message. 10. He has not come to see me, neither has he given me a ring. 11. Ram as well as his brother is studying medicine. Co-relative Conjunction : 1. I can neither read nor speak Urdu. 2. I can‘t saywhether she will come or not. 3. *She spokeso loudly that everyone in the hall heard her clearly. 9th 42 4. Mr. Ram‘s elder daughter is not soclever ashis younger daughter. daughter. 5. The old man was both blind and deaf. 6. Though he is rich, (yet) he is unhappy. 7. He lost not only his trunkbut also his bag. 8. No sooner did the peon ring the bell, than the boys left the class. Sub-coordinating conjunctions: 1. I did not think that he would come. 2. Tell me whereyou have put my watch. 3. She was not told whyshe was arrested. 4. The girl wanted to know howbirds fly. fl y. 5. They were shocked whenthey heard the news. 6. Although I invited her personally, she did not attend the dinner. 7. *Sinceshe was suffering from fever, she could not sit for the exam. 8. The bus started after the tyre was repaired. 10th 78 9. No one left the halltill (until) the national anthem was completed. 10. Do asI tell you. She writes better than she speaks. 11. *The examinations were postponed, becausethe courses could th th 10 78 & 9 79 finished. 12. *As the courses could not be finished, the examinations were postponed. 13. They reached the station, before the train arrived. 14. If you drop it, it will break. It looks as if he is going to jump.
43
not
be th
10 78
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
I will not attend the function, unless I am personall y invited. Whilehe was going through the forest, a wasp stung him. Can you tell me whether you can go there or not? Please remind me, lest I should forget it. Take some more money in case you need it. *I am studying hard so that I can get high percentage. 10th-02 You can stay with me as long as you continue this job. As soon as the peon rang the bell, the boys left the class.
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Chapter 18 INTERJECTION An „Interjection‟ is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or emotion. It expresses: TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-IX class-IX – page-34 page-34 joy ( hurrah!, huzza!, Hello!); ( Alas!); grief ( surprise ( Ha!, Ah!, What!, Oh!); approval(Bravo!, Hush!); Ah me!; For shame!; Well done!; Good gracious!
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Chapter 19 PUNCTUATION „Punctuation‟ means the right use of putting in pauses or stops writing. The following are the principle stops: greatest pause and separation. separation. It is used to: Full stop (.) : It represents the greatest (a) To mark the end of a declarative or imperative sentence; e.g. I have seen this book in the shop. (b) To mark abbreviations and initials e.g.: M.P., M.A., M.B.B.S., I.A.S., U N . N.O., S.R .Prasad, The Comma ( ,) : It represents the shortest pause, and it is used to: (a) To separate a series of words in the same construction; e.g.: England ,France, Russia and Italy formed an alliance. (b) To separate each pair of words connected by „and‟; e.g.: High and low, rich and poor , wise and foolish must all die. (c) After a Nominative Absolute; e.g.: The wind being favourable favourable , they sailed. (d) To mark off a Noun or Phrase Phrase in Apposition; e.g.: Milton, the great English poet , was blind. (e) To mark off the Nominative Nominative of Address; Address; e.g.: Lord of the universe, shield us and guide us. (f) Before and after phrases or clauses clauses in a sentence. e.g.: His behaviour , to say the least, was very rode. The people of Hyderabad , when they first saw Madhuri, Thought she was an angel.
(g) To indicate the omission of a word, especially a verb. e.g.: Rama received a fountain pen; Hari, a watch. (h) To mark off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence. e.g.; He said to his son, ―Don‘t waste your time‖. The Semicolon (;): It represents a pause of greater importance than that shown by the comma. It is used: used: (a) To separate the clauses that has a comma. e.g.: He was a brave, large-hearted man ; and we all honoured him. (b) To separate a series of loosely related clauses; e.g.: Today we love what tomorrow we hate ; today we seek what tomorrow we shun ; today we desire what tomorrow we fear. pause than that expressed The Colon (:) : It marks a still more complete pause by the Semicolon. It is used (often with a dash after it):(a) To introduce a quotation; quotation; e.g.: Bacon says:- ―Reading makes a full man, writing an exact man, speaking a ready man.‖ (b) Before the examples; e.g.: The parts of speech in English are: noun, noun, pronoun, verb, ---
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(c) Between sentences grammatically independent but closely connected in sense. e.g.: study to acquire a habit of of thinking: no study is more important. The note of interrogation (?): It is used, instead of the full stop, after a direct question; e.g. Have you written your exercise? Note: the note of interrogation is not used after an indirect question. e.g.: He asked me whether I had had written my exercise. The note of exclamation (!) : It is used after interjections and after phrases and sentences expressing sudden emotion or wish. e.g.: What a terrible fire this is! Alas! words of a speaker, Inverted Commas: These are used to enclose the exact words e.g.: “I‘d rather die,” he exclaimed, ―than join the oppressors of my country. The Dash ( ___ ) is used: (a) To indicate a sudden sudden stop or change change of thought; e.g.: I am waiting for ____ O, there she is now! (b) To indicate that a word has been intentionally left out; e.g.: Mr.____________ Mr.____________ was sentences to death. (c) To Resume a scattered subject; e.g.: Friends, companions, companions, relatives ___all ___all deserted him. dash – is is used to connect the parts The Hyphen (-) a shorter line than the dash – of a compound word; e.g.: Brother -in-law; Man-of-war; Passer-by; ( It is also used to connect parts of a word divided at end of the line.) The Apostrophe ( ‟): It is used: (a) To show the omission of a letter or letters; as, Don’t, as, Don’t, e’er, I’ve. (b) In the Genitive Case of of Nouns; as, The king’s crown (c) To form the plural of letters and figures. e.g.: Dot your i‘s and cross your t‘s; Add two 5‘s and four 2‘s. Parentheses or Double Dashes are used to separate from the main part of the sentence a phrase or clause which does not grammatically belong to it. e.g.: He gained from Heaven (it was all he wished) a wished) a friend. CAPITAL LETTERS: Capitals are used: (a) To begin a sentence. (b) To begin each fresh line of poetry. (c) To begin all Proper Proper Nouns and Adjectives derived from them e.g.: Delhi, R ama, ama, Africa, African, Shakespeare, Shakespearean. (d) For all nouns and and pronouns which which indicate the Deity; e.g.: The Lord, He is the God. (e) To write the pronoun „I‟ and the interjection „O‟. (f) At the beginning of the Quotations Quotations and Interjections. e.g.: She said, ―Bring me water‖. Alas! (g) For the Degrees, Degrees, Titles, Names of the Weeks, Months, Years, festivals, Sacred books, etc. 47
e.g.: B.A., M.A., Bharatha R atna, atna, Sunday, June, Bible, etc.
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Chapter 20 SUBJECT, PREDICATE, PHRASE AND CLAUSE Every sentence has two parts: Subject and predicate. names the person or thing we are The Subject : The part which names speaking about is called the subject of the sentence. sent ence. e.g. T he sun rises in the east. The predicate : The part which tells about the subject is called the predicate of the sentence. ses in i n the east e.g.: The sun r i ses Usually the subject comes first, sometimes it comes later also. In Imperative sentences the subject is left out. The Phrase : A group of words in a sentence, which gives some sense, but not complete sense is called a phrase. e.g.: The sun rises i n the east east . predicate and The Clause : A group of words which has a subject and a predicate gives some sense is called a Clause. Clauses are two types types : Main Clause and Sub-Clause. complete meaning. Main Clause : Its almost a sentence. It gives complete chai n, which is made of gold. e.g.: H e has a chai T he sun, which is a bright star, r i ses ses in i n the east Sub-Clause : It also like a sentence, but it doesn‘t give complete meaning. It always depend on the main clause. which is i s mad made of gold g old . e.g.: He has a chain, chain, which hi ch is i s a br i ght gh t star star , rises in the east. The sun, which
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Chapter 21 SIMPLE, COMPOUND, COMPLEX SENTENCES As for the clauses and phrases used in the sentence, the sentences are divided into three three types: types: Simple, Compound and Complex sentences. It has only one subject and one predicate ( the verb is always Simple sentence: in the predicate.) predicate.) It has only one finite verb. e.g.: She bought a computer system. They have met me at the auditorium. Compound sentence: It has two or more principal or main clauses. Each part has a subject and a predicate of its own, and forms part of a large sentence. Each part is therefore a clause and they are added by conjunction. e.g.: The moon was bright and we could see our way. Night came on and rain fell heavily and we all got got very wet. or Complex sentence : This sentence consists of one Main clause and one or more Sub-ordinate clauses. e.g.: Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. I have no advice that I can offer you.
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Chapter 22 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES (If & Unless) If is used in three conditions: TM AP state syllabus – syllabus – class-IX class-IX – page-33, page-33, 34, VIII-76 1. If you work hard, you will got first class; 2. If you worked hard, you would get first class; 3. If you had worked hard, you would have got first class; In the above sentences, when the ‗if -clause‘ is in the present tense, the main clause must be in ‗will/shall/can/may ‗will /shall/can/may + V1 construction‘; When the ‗if -clause‘ is in the past tense, the main clause must be in ‗would/should/could/might + V1 construction‘; When the ‗if -clause‘ is in the past perfect tense, the main clause should be in would/should/could/might would/should/could/might + have + V3 construction. ‗Unless‘ means ‗if -not‘: We can change them as follows. If you work hard, you will get first class. Unless you work hard, you will not get first class. Unless you hurry up, you can‘t catch the bus. If you hurry up, you can catch the bus. If you come, I shall help you. Unless you come I shall not help you. If you you don‘t follow my advice, you will be in trouble. Unless you follow my advice, you will be in trouble.
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