English Grammar Secrets

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English Grammar Secrets

by Caroline Caroline Brown and Pearson Brown Brown authors of Meeting Point Macmillan Education! Education!

Copyright Pearson Brown and Caroline Brown "#1#

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Table of Contents Present continuous..................................... continuous............................................................ .............................................. .............................................. .............................................( ......................( Present simple ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. .............................................) ......................) Present simple or continuous........................................ continuous............................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .......................... ...6 6 Past simple ............................................ ................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. .......................... ...* * Past continuous..................................... continuous............................................................ .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. ........................... .... + Past simple or continuous ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. ........................... .... , -rregular %erbs.............................................. %erbs..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ........................................ ................. 1# Present perfect ............................................... ...................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ...................................... ............... 1" Present perfect continuous ............................................ ................................................................... .............................................. ..............................................1 .......................1 Present perfect perfe ct simple or continuous ............................................ ................................................................... .............................................. ..............................1( .......1( Present Perfect Perf ect or Past Simple/.................... Simple/ ........................................... .............................................. .............................................. ........................................ .................1) 1) Past perfect ............................................ ................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. ....................... 1* Past perfect continuous ............................................ .................................................................... ............................................... .............................................. ........................... ....1+ 1+ Past tense re%iew 1 ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. ................................... ............ 1, Past tense re%iew " ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. ................................... ............ "1 Going to .............................................. ..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. .......................... ... " Going to .............................................. ..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. .......................... ... " 0ill  future ............................................. .................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ............................................ ..................... "( Going to or will ........................................................... .................................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. ......................... ") Present forms for the future ............................................................... ...................................................................................... .............................................. ......................... .. "6 0ill  other uses................................................... uses.......................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ................................."* .........."* Shall........................................... Shall.................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. .................................... .............", ", 2he imperati%e .............................................. ..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .......................................# ................# 2he Passi%e............................................... Passi%e...................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ............................................1 .....................1 2he ing form ............................................. .................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .........................................." ..................." Can.......................................... Can................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. .......................................( ................( Could..................................... Could............................................................ ............................................... ............................................... .............................................. ....................................... ................ 6 May 3 might ................................................................. ........................................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. ......................... * Should................................. Should........................................................ .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. ...........................................+ ....................+ Should " ............................................ ................................................................... ............................................... ............................................... .............................................. ........................... ...., , Must or ha%e to ............................................ ................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ........................................ .................(1 (1 4ero conditional ............................................. .................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ......................................( ...............( 2he first conditional ........................................................ ............................................................................... .............................................. ........................................... .................... (( Second conditional ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. ................................... ............ () 2hird conditional.................... conditional............................................ ............................................... .............................................. .............................................. ...................................... ............... (* 0ish ............................................ ................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. .................................. ...........(+ (+ 5ad better .............................................. ..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. ....................... )# sed to .............................................. ..................................................................... ............................................... ............................................... .............................................. ........................... ....)1 )1 7s&ing 8uestions 1 .......................................................... ................................................................................. .............................................. ........................................... .................... )" 7s&ing 8uestions " .......................................................... ................................................................................. .............................................. ........................................... .................... )( 9uestion tags.............................................. tags..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .......................................... ................... )) :eported speech ............................................. .................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ......................................)6 ...............)6 :eported speech " .............................................. ..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ..................................)+ ...........)+ Copyright Pearson Brown and Caroline Brown "#1#



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Table of Contents Present continuous..................................... continuous............................................................ .............................................. .............................................. .............................................( ......................( Present simple ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. .............................................) ......................) Present simple or continuous........................................ continuous............................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .......................... ...6 6 Past simple ............................................ ................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. .......................... ...* * Past continuous..................................... continuous............................................................ .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. ........................... .... + Past simple or continuous ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. ........................... .... , -rregular %erbs.............................................. %erbs..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ........................................ ................. 1# Present perfect ............................................... ...................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ...................................... ............... 1" Present perfect continuous ............................................ ................................................................... .............................................. ..............................................1 .......................1 Present perfect perfe ct simple or continuous ............................................ ................................................................... .............................................. ..............................1( .......1( Present Perfect Perf ect or Past Simple/.................... Simple/ ........................................... .............................................. .............................................. ........................................ .................1) 1) Past perfect ............................................ ................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. ....................... 1* Past perfect continuous ............................................ .................................................................... ............................................... .............................................. ........................... ....1+ 1+ Past tense re%iew 1 ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. ................................... ............ 1, Past tense re%iew " ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. ................................... ............ "1 Going to .............................................. ..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. .......................... ... " Going to .............................................. ..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. .......................... ... " 0ill  future ............................................. .................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ............................................ ..................... "( Going to or will ........................................................... .................................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. ......................... ") Present forms for the future ............................................................... ...................................................................................... .............................................. ......................... .. "6 0ill  other uses................................................... uses.......................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ................................."* .........."* Shall........................................... Shall.................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. .................................... .............", ", 2he imperati%e .............................................. ..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .......................................# ................# 2he Passi%e............................................... Passi%e...................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ............................................1 .....................1 2he ing form ............................................. .................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .........................................." ..................." Can.......................................... Can................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. .......................................( ................( Could..................................... Could............................................................ ............................................... ............................................... .............................................. ....................................... ................ 6 May 3 might ................................................................. ........................................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. ......................... * Should................................. Should........................................................ .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. ...........................................+ ....................+ Should " ............................................ ................................................................... ............................................... ............................................... .............................................. ........................... ...., , Must or ha%e to ............................................ ................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ........................................ .................(1 (1 4ero conditional ............................................. .................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ......................................( ...............( 2he first conditional ........................................................ ............................................................................... .............................................. ........................................... .................... (( Second conditional ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. ................................... ............ () 2hird conditional.................... conditional............................................ ............................................... .............................................. .............................................. ...................................... ............... (* 0ish ............................................ ................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. .................................. ...........(+ (+ 5ad better .............................................. ..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. ....................... )# sed to .............................................. ..................................................................... ............................................... ............................................... .............................................. ........................... ....)1 )1 7s&ing 8uestions 1 .......................................................... ................................................................................. .............................................. ........................................... .................... )" 7s&ing 8uestions " .......................................................... ................................................................................. .............................................. ........................................... .................... )( 9uestion tags.............................................. tags..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. .......................................... ................... )) :eported speech ............................................. .................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ......................................)6 ...............)6 :eported speech " .............................................. ..................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ..................................)+ ...........)+ Copyright Pearson Brown and Caroline Brown "#1#



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Suppose ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. ..............................), .......), Suppose "......................................... "................................................................ .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. ..............................6# .......6# 5a%e something done ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. ............................... ........ 61 Should ha%e ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. .............................................. ....................... 6" Can ha%e 3 Could ha%e ............................................... ...................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ..........................6 ...6 0ill be doing ............................................... ...................................................................... .............................................. .............................................. ........................................ ................. 6) 0ill ha%e done ........................................... .................................................................. .............................................. .............................................. ..........................................66 ...................66

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Present continuous 2he present continuous is used to tal& about present situations which we see as short term or temporary. 0e use the present simple to tal& about present situations which we see as longterm or permanent. -n these e
-t=s raining. 0ho is >ate tal&ing to on the phone/ ?oo&' somebody is trying to steal that man=s wallet. -=m not loo&ing. My eyes are closed tightly.

-n these e
-=m loo&ing for a new apartment. 5e=s thin&ing about lea%ing his @ob. 2hey=re considering ma&ing an appeal against the @udgment. 7re you getting enough sleep/

-n these e
-=m meeting her at 6.#. 2hey aren=t arri%ing until 2uesday. 0e are ha%ing a special dinner at a top restaurant for all the senior managers. -sn=t he coming to the dinner/ e

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Present simple 0e use the present simple to tal& about actions we see as long term or permanent. -t is a %ery common and %ery important tense. 5ere' we are tal&ing about regular actions or e%ents. • • • •

2hey dri%e to the office e%ery day. She doesn=t come here %ery often. 2he news usually starts at 6.## e%ery e%ening. Ao you usually ha%e bacon and eggs for brea&fast/

5ere' we are tal&ing about facts. • • • •

0e ha%e two children. 0ater freees at # C or " D. 0hat does this e
5ere' we are tal&ing about future facts' usually found in a timetable or a chart. • • • •

Christmas Aay falls on a Monday this year. 2he plane lea%es at ).## tomorrow morning. :amadan doesn=t start for another  wee&s. Aoes the class begin at 1# or 11 this wee&/

5ere' we are tal&ing about our thoughts and feelings at the time of spea&ing. 7lthough these feelings can be shortterm' we use the present simple and not the present continuous. • • • •

2hey don=t e%er agree with us. - thin& you are right. She doesn=t want you to do it. Ao you understand what - am trying to say. e



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Present simple or continuous 2he Present Simple is used for • • • •

regular actions or e%ents 5e plays tennis most wee&ends. facts 2he sun rises in the east . facts &nown about the future 0e lea%e at +.# ne
2he Present Continuous is used for • • •

the time of spea&ing =now=! Shh' -=m trying to hear what they are saying . things which are true at the moment but not always 0e=re loo&ing for a new flat. present plans for the future 0e=re ha%ing dinner with them ne
?oo& at these e
- don=t usually ha%e cereals for brea&fast but -=m ha%ing some this morning because there is nothing else. - often cycle to wor& but -=m ta&ing the car this morning because it=s raining %ery hard. -=m thin&ing about ha%ing my hair cut short but - don=t thin& my husband will be %ery happy about it. My parents li%e in 0ashington but -=m @ust %isiting.

Fote how' in all these e



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Past simple 0e use the past simple to tal& about actions and states which we see as completed in the past. 0e can use it to tal& about a specific point in time. • • •

She came bac& last Driday. - saw her in the street. 2hey didn=t agree to the deal.

-t can also be used to tal& about a period of time. • • •

She li%ed in 2o&yo for se%en years. 2hey were in ?ondon from Monday to 2hursday of last wee&. 0hen - was li%ing in Few $or&' - went to all the art e
$ou will often find the past simple used with time e
$esterday three wee&s ago last year in "##" from March to ;une for a long time for 6 wee&s in the 1,+#s in the last century in the past e



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Past continuous 0e use the past simple to tal& about actions and states which we see as completed in the past. 0e can use it to tal& about a specific point in time. 0e use the past continuous to tal& about past e%ents which went on for a period of time. 0e use it when we want to emphasie the continuing process of an acti%ity or the period of that acti%ity. -f we @ust want to tal& about the past e%ent as a simple fact' we use the past simple.! • • • • • •

0hile - was dri%ing home' Peter was trying desperately to contact me. 0ere you e
0e often use it to describe a bac&ground action when something else happened. • • • • • •

- was wal&ing in the street when - suddenly fell o%er. She was tal&ing to me on the phone and it suddenly went dead. 2hey were still waiting for the plane when - spo&e to them. 2he company was declining rapidly before he too& charge. 0e were @ust tal&ing about it before you arri%ed. - was ma&ing a presentation in front of )## people when the microphone stopped wor&ing. e



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Past simple or continuous Both the past simple and the past continuous refer to completed actions in the past. Most of the time when we are tal&ing about such actions' we use the past simple. 2his is by far the most common way of tal&ing about the past. • • • •

- li%ed there for 6 years. - only found out a few moments ago. - as&ed her but she didn=t &now anything. 2he company made 1## people redundant last year.

Hnly use the past continuous when you want to emphasie the continuity of the action. • • • •

E%erybody was tal&ing about it all e%ening. 2hey were really trying hard but couldn=t do it. - was thin&ing about you the other day. 0ere you e
0hen we use these two forms in the same sentence' we use the past continuous to tal& about the bac&ground action and the past simple to tal& about the shorter completed action. • • • •

-t was raining hard when we left the building. - was reading the report when you rang. 5e was going out to lunch when - saw him. 2he company was doing well when - last %isited it. e



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-rregular %erbs 7ll new %erbs in English are regular. • • • •

- photocopied the report. She fa
2here are appro
stic& stuc& stuc& - stuc& the photo into my album.

7nother techni8ue is to classify the irregular %erbs into ( categories. 1. 7ll forms the same • •

set set set cost cost cost

". Similar sound groups • • • • • • • •

beat beat beaten eat ate eaten blow blew blown throw threw thrown drin& dran& drun& sing sang sung spea& spo&e spo&en wa&e wo&e wo&en




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. 2he second and third forms are the same. • • • • • • • • •

bend bent bent sleep slept slept spend spent spent bring brought brought buy bought bought teach taught taught ha%e had had pay paid paid say said said

(. 2he unclassifiables • • • •

come came come do did done go went gone show showed show

7s you meet new irregular %erbs' try to decide in which category they fall. e



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Present perfect Please note that British and 7merican English ha%e different rules for the use of this tense. 2he e
-=%e bro&en my watch so - don=t &now what time it is. 2hey ha%e cancelled the meeting. She=s ta&en my copy. - don=t ha%e one. 2he sales team has doubled its turno%er.

0hen we loo& bac& on the recent past' we often use the words =@ust= =already= or the word =yet= in negati%es and 8uestions only!. • • • • • • •

0e=%e already tal&ed about that. She hasn=t arri%ed yet. -=%e @ust done it. 2hey=%e already met. 2hey don=t &now yet. 5a%e you spo&en to him yet/ 5a%e they got bac& to you yet/

-t can also be used to loo& bac& on the more distant past. • • • •

0e=%e been to Singapore a lot o%er the last few years. She=s done this type of pro@ect many times before. 0e=%e mentioned it to them on se%eral occasions o%er the last si< months. 2hey=%e often tal&ed about it in the past.

0hen we loo& bac& on the more distant past' we often use the words =e%er= in 8uestions! and =ne%er=. • • • •

5a%e you e%er been to 7rgentina/ 5as he e%er tal&ed to you about the problem/ -=%e ne%er met ;im and Sally. 0e=%e ne%er considered in%esting in Me



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Present perfect continuous 2his tense is used to tal& about an action or actions that started in the past and continued until recently or that continue into the future 0e can use it to refer to an action that has finished but you can still see e%idence. • • •

Hh' the &itchen is a mess. 0ho has been coo&ing/ $ou loo& tired. 5a%e you been sleeping properly/ -=%e got a a stiff nec&. -=%e been wor&ing too long on computer.

-t can refer to an action that has not finished. • • •

-=%e been learning Spanish for "# years and - still don=t &now %ery much. -=%e been waiting for him for # minutes and he still hasn=t arri%ed. 5e=s been telling me about it for days. - wish he would stop.

-t can refer to a series of actions. • • •

She=s been writing to her regularly for a couple of years. 5e=s been phoning me all wee& for an answer. 2he uni%ersity has been sending students here for o%er twenty years to do wor& e
2he present perfect continuous is often used with =since=' =for=' =all wee&=' =for days=' =lately=' =recently=' =o%er the last few months=. • • • • • • •

-=%e been wanting to do that for ten years. $ou ha%en=t been getting good results o%er the last few months. 2hey ha%en=t been wor&ing all wee&. 2hey=re on stri&e 5e hasn=t been tal&ing to me for wee&s. 0e=%e been wor&ing hard on it for ages. -=%e been loo&ing at other options recently. 5e=s been wor&ing here since "##1. e



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Present perfect simple or continuous Hften there is %ery little difference between the present perfect simple and the present perfect continuous. -n many cases' both are e8ually acceptable. • •

2hey=%e been wor&ing here for a long time but 7ndy has wor&ed here for e%en longer. -=%e li%ed here for 1# years and she has been li%ing here for 1" years.

2o emphasie the action' we use the continuous form. • •

0e=%e been wor&ing really hard for a couple of months. She=s been ha%ing a hard time.

2o emphasie the result of the action' we use the simple form. • •

-=%e made fifteen phone calls this morning. 5e=s written a %ery good report.

?oo& at the difference in these e
-=%e been reading this boo& for two months but -=%e only read half of it. -t=s %ery difficult to read. She=s been trying to con%ince him for "# minutes but she hasn=t managed to yet. 2hey=%e been tal&ing about this for month and they still ha%en=t found a solution.

0hen an action is finished and you can see the results' use the continuous form. • •

2he phone bill is enormous. $ou=%e been calling your boyfriend in 7ustralia' ha%en=t you/ $ou=re red in the face. 5a%e you been running/

0hen you use the words =e%er= or =ne%er=' use the simple form. • •

- don=t &now them. -=%e ne%er met them. 5a%e you e%er heard anything so strange in your life. e



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Present Perfect or Past Simple/ :emember that British and 7merican English ha%e different rules for the use of the present perfect. 2he comments and the e
2hese sentences are in the past with no connection to the present. • • •

- first got to &now him 1# years ago. - started wor& here in 1,+,. - had too much to eat at lunchtime.

Fow loo& at these same situations seen from the present. • • •

-=%e &nown him for 1# years. -=%e wor&ed here since 1,+*. My stomach hurts. -=%e eaten too much.

0e use time e
0e spo&e to him yesterday. 5e came in a few moments ago. 0e made our last purchase from them o%er a year ago. She @oined the company in 1,,,.

0e use time e

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- li%ed in Paris for a couple of years before - mo%ed here. -=%e li%ed in Paris for a couple of years and still lo%e it. e



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Past perfect 0e use the past perfect simple to tal& about what happened before a point in the past. -t loo&s bac& from a point in the past to further in the past. • • • •

- hadn=t &nown the bad news when - spo&e to him. - chec&ed with the supplier and they still hadn=t recei%ed the contract. She had already told him before - got a chance to gi%e him my %ersion. 2he company has started the year well but was badly hit by the postal stri&e.

2he past perfect simple is often used when we report what people had said3thought3belie%ed. • • •

5e told me they had already paid the bill. 5e said he belie%ed that ;ohn had mo%ed to -taly. - thought we had already decided on a name for this product. e



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Past perfect continuous 0e use the past perfect continuous to loo& bac& at a situation in progress. • • •

-t was a good time to in%est. -nflation had been falling for se%eral months. Before - changed @obs' - had been wor&ing on a plan to reduce production costs. 0e had been thin&ing about buying a new house but then we decided to stay here.

0e use it to say what had been happening before something else happened. • • •

-t had been snowing for a while before we left. 0e had been playing tennis for only a few minutes when it started raining. 5e was out of breath when he arri%ed because he had been running.

0e use it when reporting things said in the past. • • •

She said she had been trying to call me all day. 2hey said they had been shopping. - told you - had been loo&ing for some new clothes. e



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Past tense re%iew 1 0e can use the past simple to tal& about actions and states which we see as completed in the past.   

- left school when - was si
0e can use the past continuous to tal& about past e%ents which went on for a period of time.   

0hile - was dri%ing home' Peter was trying desperately to contact me. - was thin&ing about him last night. - was wal&ing in the street when - suddenly fell o%er.

0e can use the present perfect when we want to loo& bac& from the present to the past.    

-=%e bro&en my watch so - don=t &now what time it is. She hasn=t arri%ed yet. 0e=%e been to Singapore a lot o%er the last few years. 5a%e you e%er been to 7rgentina/

2he Present Perfect Continuous can be used to tal& about an action or actions that started in the past and continued until recently or that continue into the future.   

$ou loo& tired. 5a%e you been sleeping properly/ -=%e been waiting for him for # minutes and he still hasn=t arri%ed. 5e=s been phoning me all wee& for an answer.

0e can use the past perfect simple to tal& about what happened before a point in the past. -t loo&s bac& from a point in the past to further in the past.  

- hadn=t &nown the bad news when - spo&e to him. - thought we had already decided on a name for this product.

0e can use the past perfect continuous to loo& bac& at a situation in progress.   

0e had been thin&ing about buying a new house but then we decided to stay here. -t had been snowing for a while before we left. She said she had been trying to call me all day.




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Past tense re%iew " 0e can use the past simple to tal& about actions and states which we see as completed in the past.   

- left school when - was si
0e can use the past continuous to tal& about past e%ents which went on for a period of time.   

0hile - was dri%ing home' Peter was trying desperately to contact me. - was thin&ing about him last night. - was wal&ing in the street when - suddenly fell o%er.

0e can use the present perfect when we want to loo& bac& from the present to the past.    

-=%e bro&en my watch so - don=t &now what time it is. She hasn=t arri%ed yet. 0e=%e been to Singapore a lot o%er the last few years. 5a%e you e%er been to 7rgentina/

2he Present Perfect Continuous can be used to tal& about an action or actions that started in the past and continued until recently or that continue into the future.   

$ou loo& tired. 5a%e you been sleeping properly/ -=%e been waiting for him for # minutes and he still hasn=t arri%ed. 5e=s been phoning me all wee& for an answer.

0e can use the past perfect simple to tal& about what happened before a point in the past. -t loo&s bac& from a point in the past to further in the past.  

- hadn=t &nown the bad news when - spo&e to him. - thought we had already decided on a name for this product.

0e can use the past perfect continuous to loo& bac& at a situation in progress.   

0e had been thin&ing about buying a new house but then we decided to stay here. -t had been snowing for a while before we left. She said she had been trying to call me all day.




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Going to 2here is no one =future tense= in English. 2here are ( future forms. 2he one which is used most often in spo&en English is =going to=' not =will=. 0e use =going to= when we want to tal& about a plan for the future. • • • • •

-=m going to see him later today. 2hey=re going to launch it ne
Fotice that this plan does not ha%e to be for the near future. • •

0hen - retire -=m going to go bac& to Barbados to li%e. -n ten years time' -=m going to be boss of my own successful company.

0e use =going to= when we want to ma&e a prediction based on e%idence we can see now. • • • •

?oo& outJ 2hat cup is going to fall off. ?oo& at those blac& clouds. -t=s going to rain soon. 2hese figures are really bad. 0e=re going to ma&e a loss. $ou loo& %ery tired. $ou=re going to need to stop soon.

0e can replace =going to go= by =going=. • •

-=m going out later. She=s going to the e



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0ill  future Some people ha%e been taught that =will= is =the future= in English. 2his is not correct. Sometimes when we tal& about the future we cannot use =will=. Sometimes when we use =will= we are not tal&ing about the future. 0e can use =will= to tal& about future e%ents we belie%e to be certain. • • • •

2he sun will rise o%er there tomorrow morning. Fe
Hften we add =perhaps=' =maybe=' =probably=' =possibly= to ma&e the belief less certain. • • • •

-=ll probably come bac& later. 5e=ll possibly find out when he sees ;enny. Maybe it will be H>. Perhaps we=ll meet again some day.

0e often use =will= with =- thin&= or =- hope=. • • • •

- thin& -=ll go to bed now. - thin& she=ll do well in the @ob. - hope you=ll en@oy your stay. - hope you won=t ma&e too much noise.

0e use =will= at the moment we ma&e a new decision or plan. 2he thought has @ust come into our head. • • • •

Bye. -=ll phone you when - get there. -=ll answer that. -=ll go. - won=t tell him. - promise. e



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Going to or will 0hen we want to tal& about future facts or things we belie%e to be true about the future' we use =will=. • • • •

2he President will ser%e for four years. 2he boss won=t be %ery happy. -=m sure you=ll li&e her. -=m certain he=ll do a good @ob.

-f we are not so certain about the future' we use =will= with e
- hope you=ll %isit me in my home one day. She=ll probably be a great success. -=ll possibly come but - may not get bac& in time. - thin& we=ll get on well.

-f you are ma&ing a future prediction based on e%idence in the present situation' use =going to=. • • • •

Fot a cloud in the s&y. s&y. -t=s going to be another warm day. day. ?oo& at the 8ueue. 0e=re 0e=re not going to get in for hours. 2he traffic is terrible. 0e=re going to miss our flight. Be carefulJ $ou=re $ou=re going to spill your coffee.

7t the moment of ma&ing a decision' use =will=. Hnce you ha%e made the decision' tal& about it using =going to=. • •

-=ll call ;enny to let her &now. Sarah' - need ;enny=s number. -=m going to call her about the meeting. -=ll come and ha%e a drin& with you but - must let 5arry &now. 5arry' 5arry' -=m going to ha%e a drin& with Simon. e



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Present forms for the future 0e use the present continuous to tal& about things that we ha%e already arranged to do in the future. • • • •

-=%e got my tic&et. -=m lea%ing on 2hursday. 2hursday. -=m seeing ;ulie at ) and then -=m ha%ing dinner with Simon. 5e=s pic&ing me up at the airport. 2he company is gi%ing e%eryone a bonus for Christmas.

-n many situations when we tal& about future plans we can use either the present continuous or the =going to= future. 5owe%er' when we use the present continuous' there is more of a suggestion that an arrangement has already been made. • •

-=m going to see him.3-=m seeing him. -=m going to do it.3-=m doing it.

0e use the present simple to tal& about e%ents in the future which are =timetabled=. 0e can also use the present continuous to tal& about these. • • • • • •

My plane lea%es at 6 in the morning. 2he shop opens at ,.#. 2he sun rises a minute earlier tomorrow. My plane is lea%ing at +.#. 2he shop is closing at *.##. 2he sun is rising at 6." tomorrow. tomorrow. e



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0ill  other uses Hlder te
-f - spea& to her' -=ll tell her about it. -=ll probably %isit Sue when - go to H
-n these e
2he car won=t start. -f that=s the phone' -=ll get it. 0ill you ha%e another cup of coffee/

0hen we use =will= referring to the present' the idea being e
My baby won=t stop crying. -=%e tried e%erything and -=m really e
0e use =will= for re8uests' orders' in%itations and offers. • • • •

0ill you gi%e me a hand/ 0ill you please ta&e a seat/ 0ill you ha%e some ca&e/ -=ll help you.

0e use =will= to ma&e promises or threats. • • • •

-=ll do it at once. -=ll phone him bac& immediately. - won=t forget this. -=ll get my own bac& some day.

0e use =will= for habit. • •

7 cat will always find a warm place to sleep. My car won=t go any faster than this.




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0e use =will= for deduction. • •

- e
?oo& again at all of these e



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Shall 0e don=t use =Shall= %ery fre8uently in modern English' particularly in 7merican English. -t is used to ma&e offers and suggestions and to as& for ad%ice. • • • •

0hat time shall we meet/ Shall we %ote on it now/ 0hat dress shall - wear/ Shall - open the window/

$ou only really need to &now that about =shall= in modern English. :ead the rest of this only if you want to &now more about how some older spea&ers still use =shall=. Dormerly' in older grammar' =shall= was used as an alternati%e to =will= with =-= and =we=. 2oday' =will= is normally used. 0hen we do use =shall=' it has an idea of a more personal' sub@ecti%e future. •

- shall go to see the boss and - shall as& him to e
Fotice that the negati%e of =shall= can be =shall not= or =shan=t= I though the second one is now %ery rare in 7merican English. • •

- don=t li&e these people and - shall not go to their party. - shan=t ob@ect if you go without me.

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2he imperati%e 0e can use the imperati%e to gi%e a direct order. 1. 2a&e that chewing gum out of your mouth. ". Stand up straight. . Gi%e me the details. 0e can use the imperati%e to gi%e instructions. 1. Hpen your boo&. ". 2a&e two tablets e%ery e%ening. . 2a&e a left and then a right. 0e can use the imperati%e to ma&e an in%itation. 1. Come in and sit down. Ma&e yourself at home. ". Please start without me. -=ll be there shortly. . 5a%e a piece of this ca&e. -t=s delicious. 0e can use the imperati%e on signs and notices. 1. Push. ". Ao not use. . -nsert one dollar. 0e can use the imperati%e to gi%e friendly informal ad%ice. 1. Spea& to him. 2ell him how you feel. ". 5a%e a 8uiet word with her about it. . Aon=t go. Stay at home and rest up. Get some sleep and reco%er. 0e can ma&e the imperati%e =more polite= by adding =do=. • • •

Ao be 8uiet. Ao come. Ao sit down. e



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2he Passi%e 0e use the acti%e form to say what the sub@ect does. Dor e
- spea& English e%ery day at wor&. - repaired the flat tire on the car.

0e use the passi%e form to say what happens to people and things' to say what is done to them. Dor e
English is spo&en here. 2he car is being repaired.

0e use the passi%e form when we don=t &now who did the action. Dor e
2he car was damaged while it was par&ed on the street. 2he shirts were made in 2ur&ey.

0e use the passi%e form when what was done is more important than who did it. Dor e
-t was appro%ed by Gerry last wee&. - was informed by the 5uman :esources Manager only two days ago. e



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2he ing form 2he Iing form can be used li&e a noun' li&e an ad@ecti%e or li&e a %erb. • • •

Smo&ing is forbidden. - ha%e a long wor&ing day. - don=t li&e dancing.

0hen it is used li&e a noun it may or may not ha%e an article before it. • •

Mar&eting is a %ery ine
-t can also be part of a =noun phrase=. • •

Spea&ing to an audience is always stressful. Swimming after wor& is %ery rela
-n formal English' we would use a possessi%e with the Iing form. -n informal English' many people do not. • •

-=m angry about his missing the meeting. Ao you mind my coming/

7s an ad@ecti%e' the Iing form can be used before a noun. • •

- was met by a welcoming party at the airport. ?et=s go to the meeting room.

2he Iing form is used after prepositions. • • •

Before lea%ing' you need to spea& to Sarah. 7fter discussing it with her' -=%e changed my mind. -nstead of feeling sorry for yourself' do some wor& for charity.

Fotice that when =to= is used as a preposition' it is followed by the Iing form. • • •

- don=t ob@ect to wor&ing this Sunday. -=m loo&ing forward to seeing him again. -=m used to wor&ing long hours.

2here are many %erb K ing combinations. 5ere are some common ones • • • • • • •

- admit telling her. - appreciate ha%ing the raise. - a%oid spea&ing to him. - consider blowing your nose in public to be wrong. - delayed coming until the last possible moment. 5e denied telling her. - detest going to parties.



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- en@oy dancing. - feel li&e ha%ing a party. -=%e finished writing the report. -=%e gi%en up going to the gym. - can=t help thin&ing about it. - can=t imagine e%er lea%ing this company. - don=t mind doing that. 5e put off tal&ing to her as long as he could. - can=t stand drin&ing beer.

Some %erbs can be followed by either the infiniti%e or Iing form but with different meanings. 5ere are some common ones • • • • • •

- stopped smo&ing last month. - no longer smo&e.! - stopped to smo&e a cigarette. - stopped what - was doing and had a cigarette.! - remember telling him. 7 memory of the past.! - must remember to tell him. Something to remember for the future.! -=m interested in finding out more details. -nterested about the future.! - was interested to read his report. -nterested in the past.!

Some %erbs can be followed by either the infiniti%e or Iing form but with the same meaning. 5ere are some common ones • • • • • •

- lo%e to go shopping. - lo%e going shopping. -=m afraid to fly. -=m afraid of flying. - started to learn English ) years ago. - started learning English ) years ago. e



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Can 0e use =can= to tal& about =possibility=. • • • •

Can you do that/ - can=t manage to do that. $ou can lea%e your car in that par&ing space. $ou cannot smo&e in here.

Fotice that there are two negati%e forms =can=t= and =cannot=. 2hese mean e
- can spea& Drench. - can=t dri%e.

0e use =can= to as& for and gi%e permission. 0e also use =may= for this but is more formal and much less common.! • • •

Can - spea& to you or are you too busy/ $ou can use my phone. $ou can=t come in.

0e use =can= in offers' re8uests and instructions. • • •

Can - help/ Can you gi%e me a hand/ 0hen you finish that' you can ta&e out the garbage.

0e use =can= with =see= =hear= =feel= =smell= =taste= to tal& about something which is happening now . 0here you would use the present continuous with most other %erbs.! • • •

- can smell something burning. Can you hear that noise/ - can=t see anything.




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0e can use =can=t= for deduction. 2he opposite of =can=t= in this conte
$ou can=t be hungry. $ou=%e @ust eaten. $ou must be hungry. $ou ha%en=t eaten anything all day. 5e was in ?ondon one hour ago when - spo&e to him. 5e can=t be here yet.

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Could =Could= can be used to tal& about the past' the present or the future. =Could= is a past form of =can= • • •

0hen - was li%ing in Boston' - could wal& to wor&. 5e phoned to say he couldn=t come. - could see him clearly but - couldn=t hear him and then the %ideoconference line went dead.

=Could= is used to ma&e polite re8uests. 0e can also use =can= for these but =could= is more polite. • • • •

Could you help me' please/ Could you lend me some money/ Could - ha%e a lift/ Could - bother you for a moment/

-f we use =could= in reply to these re8uests' it suggests that we do not really want to do it. -f you agree to the re8uest' it is better to say =can=. • • • •

Hf course - can. - could help you if it=s really necessary but -=m really busy right now. - could lend you some money but -=d need it bac& tomorrow without fail. - could gi%e you a lift as far as Birmingham.

=Could= is used to tal& about theoretical possibility and is similar in meaning to =might=. • • • •

-t could rain later. 2a&e an umbrella. 5e could be there by now. Could he be any happier/ -t could be Sarah=s. e



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May 3 might may

0e can use =may= to as& for permission. 5owe%er this is rather formal and not used %ery often in modern spo&en English • • •

May - borrow your pen/ May we thin& about it/ May - go now/

0e use =may= to suggest something is possible • • •

-t may rain later today. - may not ha%e time to do it today. Pete may come with us

might

0e use =might= to suggest a small possibility of something. Hften we read that =might= suggests a smaller possibility that =may=' there is in fact little difference and =might is more usual than =may= in spo&en English. • • • •

She might be at home by now but it=s not sure at all. -t might rain this afternoon. - might not ha%e time to go to the shops for you. - might not go.

Dor the past' we use =might ha%e=. • •

5e might ha%e tried to call while - was out. - might ha%e dropped it in the street.

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Should 0e use =should= for gi%ing ad%ice. • • •

$ou should spea& to him about it. 5e should see a doctor. 0e should as& a lawyer.

0e use =should= to gi%e an opinion or a recommendation. • • •

5e should resign now. 0e should in%est more in 7sia. 2hey should do something about this terrible train ser%ice.

=Should= e
- thin& they should replace him. - don=t thin& they should &eep the contract. Ao you thin& we should tell her. e



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Should " 0e can use =should= after =reporting %erbs= such as demand insist propose recommend suggest • • • • •

5e demanded that we should pay for the repair. She insisted that she should pay for the meal. - ha%e proposed that he should ta&e charge of the organiation. 2he committee recommends that ;ane should be appointed. 0e ha%e suggested that Michael should be gi%en a reward for his hard wor&.

5owe%er' it is also possible to say e
5e demanded that we pay for the repair. She insisted that she pay for the meal. - ha%e proposed that he ta&e charge of the organiation. 2he committee recommends that ;ane be appointed. 0e ha%e suggested that Michael be gi%en a reward for his hard wor&.

0e can use =should= after %arious ad@ecti%es. 2ypical e
-t=s funny that you should say that. - was thin&ing e
0e can use =should= in =if clauses= when we belie%e that the possibility of something happening is small. • • •

-f you should happen to see him before - do' can you tell him that want to spea& to him urgently/ -f there should be a problem' @ust gi%e me a call and -=ll sort it out. -f anyone should as& where - am' say -=m in a meeting.

0e use =should= in %arious fi


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2hey=re paying you compensation/ - should thin& so.

To express pleasure when you receive a gift •

0hat a fantastic present. $ou really shouldn=t ha%e.

To emphasize a visible emotion •

$ou should ha%e seen the loo& on her face when she found out that she had got the promotion.

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Must or ha%e to 0e can use =must= to show that we are certain something is true. 0e are ma&ing a logical deduction based upon some clear e%idence or reason. • • • •

2here=s no heating on. $ou must be freeing. $ou must be worried that she is so late coming home. - can=t remember what - did with it. - must be getting old. -t must be nice to li%e in Dlorida.

0e also use =must= to e
- must go to bed earlier. 2hey must do something about it. $ou must come and see us some time. - must say' - don=t thin& you were %ery nice to him.

0e can also use =ha%e to= to e
- ha%e to arri%e at wor& at , sharp. My boss is %ery strict. 0e ha%e to gi%e him our answer today or lose out on the contract. $ou ha%e to pass your e
-n British English' we often use =ha%e got to= to mean the same as =ha%e to=. • •

-=%e got to ta&e this boo& bac& to the library or -=ll get a fine. 0e=%e got to finish now as somebody else needs this room.

0e can also use = will ha%e to= to tal& about strong obligations. ?i&e =must= this usually means that that some personal circumstance ma&es the obligation necessary. :emember that =will= is often used to show =willingness=.! • • • •

-=ll ha%e to spea& to him. 0e=ll ha%e to ha%e lunch and catch up on all the gossip. 2hey=ll ha%e to do something about it. -=ll ha%e to get bac& to you on that.

7s you can see' the differences between the present forms are sometimes %ery small and %ery subtle. 5owe%er' there is a huge difference in the negati%e forms. • • • • •

0e use =mustn=t= to e



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0e use =don=t ha%e to= or =ha%en=t got to= in British English! to state that there is FH obligation or necessity. • • • • •

0e don=t ha%e to get there on time. 2he boss is away today. - don=t ha%e to listen to this. -=m lea%ing. $ou don=t ha%e to come if you don=t want to. 5e doesn=t ha%e to sign anything if he doesn=t want to at this stage. - ha%en=t got to go. Hnly if - want to e



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4ero conditional 0hen we tal& about things that are generally or always true' we can use -f30hen3nless plus a present form P?S present simple or imperati%e • • •

-f he gets there before me' as& him to wait. 0hen you fly budget airline' you ha%e to pay for your drin&s and snac&s. nless you need more space' a small car is big enough for one person.

Fote that we are not tal&ing about a specific e%ent but something which is generally true. -n the condition clause' we can use a %ariety of present forms. -n the result clause' there can only be the present simple or imperati%e. • • • • • •

-f you %isit ?ondon' go on the ?ondon Eye. -f unemployment is rising' people tend to stay in their present @obs. -f you=%e done that' go and ha%e a coffee. 0hen you go on holiday' ta&e plenty of sun cream. -t=ll be %ery hot. 0hen -=m concentrating' please don=t ma&e so much noise. 0hen -=%e finished an article' - always as& >ate to read it through.

Fotice that =unless= means the same as =if not=. • • •

nless he as&s you politely' refuse to do any more wor& on the pro@ect. nless prices are rising' it=s not a good in%estment. nless you=%e been there yourself' you don=t really understand how fantastic it is. e



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2he first conditional 0e use the Dirst Conditional to tal& about future e%ents that are li&ely to happen. • • • •

-f we ta&e ;ohn' he=ll be really pleased. -f you gi%e me some money' -=ll pay you bac& tomorrow. -f they tell us they want it' we=ll ha%e to gi%e it to them. -f Mary comes' she=ll want to dri%e.

2he =if= clause can be used with different present forms. • • •

-f - go to Few $or& again' -=ll buy you a sou%enir from the Empire State Building. -f he=s feeling better' he=ll come. -f she hasn=t heard the bad news yet' -=ll tell her.

2he future clause can contain =going to= or the future perfect as well as =will=. • •

-f - see him' -=m going to tell him e
2he future clause can also contain other modal %erbs such as =can= and =must=. • •

-f you go to Few $or&' you must ha%e the cheeseca&e in ?indy=s. -f he comes' you can get a lift home with him. e



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Second conditional 2he Second Conditional is used to tal& about =impossible= situations. • • • •

-f we were in ?ondon today' we would be able to go to the concert in 5yde Par&. -f - had millions dollars' -=d gi%e a lot to charity. -f there were no hungry people in this world' it would be a much better place. -f e%eryone had clean water to drin&' there would be a lot less disease.

Fote that after - 3 he3 she 3it we often use the sub@uncti%e form =were= and not =was=. Some people thin& that =were= is the only =correct= form but other people thin& =was= is e8ually =correct= .! • • •

-f she were happy in her @ob' she wouldn=t be loo&ing for another one. -f - li%ed in ;apan' -=d ha%e sushi e%ery day. -f they were to enter our mar&et' we=d ha%e big problems.

Fote the form =-f - were you= which is often used to gi%e ad%ice. • •

-f - were you' -=d loo& for a new place to li%e. -f - were you' -=d go bac& to school and get more 8ualifications.

2he Second Conditional is also used to tal& about =unli&ely= situations. • • •

-f - went to China' -=d %isit the Great 0all. -f - was the President' -=d reduce ta
Fote that the choice between the first and the second conditional is often a 8uestion of the spea&er=s attitude rather than of facts. Compare these e
Htto I -f - win the lottery' -=ll buy a big house. Peter I -f - won the lottery' -=d buy a big house. Htto I -f - get promoted' -=ll throw a big party. Peter I -f - got promoted' -=d throw a big party. Htto I -f my team win the Cup' -=ll buy champagne for e%erybody. Peter I -f my team won the Cup' -=d buy champagne for e%erybody.

Fote that the =-f clause= can contain the past simple or the past continuous. • • •

-f - was still wor&ing in Brighton' - would commute by train. -f she were coming' she would be here by now. -f they were thin&ing of selling' - would want to buy.

Fote that the main clause can contain =would= =could= or =might. • • •

-f - had the chance to do it again' - would do it differently. -f we met up for lunch' we could go to that new restaurant. -f - spo&e to him directly' - might be able to persuade him.




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7lso note that sometimes the =if clause= is implied rather than spo&en. • • •

0hat would - do without you/ if you weren=t here! 0here would - get one at this time of night/ if - wanted one! 5e wouldn=t agree. if - as&ed him! e



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2hird conditional 0e can use the 2hird Conditional to tal& about =impossible= conditions' impossible because they are in the past and we cannot change what has happened. • • • •

-f - had wor&ed harder at school' - would ha%e got better grades. -f - had had time' - would ha%e gone to see him. But - didn=t ha%e time. -f we had bought that house' we would ha%e had to rebuild the &itchen. -f we had caught the earlier train' we would ha%e got there on time but we were late.

Fotice that the main clause can contain =would=' =could= or =might. • • • •

-f - had seen him at the meeting' - would ha%e as&ed him. But he wasn=t there so - didn=t.! -f - had seen him at the meeting' - could ha%e as&ed him.  But he wasn=t there so it wasn=t possible.! -f - had seen him at the meeting' - might ha%e as&ed him. But -=m not sure. Perhaps if the opportunity had arisen.! -f - had paid more attention in class' - would ha%e understood the lesson.

7lso notice that sometimes the =if clause= is implied rather than spo&en. • • •

-=d ha%e done it. if you had as&ed me but you didn=t.! - wouldn=t ha%e said that. if -=d been there.! 5e wouldn=t ha%e let him get away with that. if he had tried that with me.!

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0ish ?et=s start off with the easy part. = - wish to= can mean the same as =- want to= but it is much' much more formal and much' much less common. • •

- wish to ma&e a complaint. - wish to see the manager.

$ou can also use =wish= with a noun to =offer good wishes=. • •

- wish you all the best in your new @ob. 0e wish you a merry Christmas.

Fotice that when you want to offer good wishes using a %erb' you must use =hope = and not =wish=. • • • •

0e wish you the best of luc&. 0e hope you ha%e the best of luc&. - wish you a safe and pleasant @ourney. - hope you ha%e a safe and pleasant @ourney.

5owe%er' the main use of =wish= is to say that we would li&e things to be different from what they are' that we ha%e regrets about the present situation. • • •

- wish - was rich. 5e wishes he li%ed in Paris. 2hey wish they=d chosen a different leader.

Fotice that the %erb tense which follows =- wish= is =more in the past= than the tense corresponding to its meaning. • • • • • •

-=m too fat. - wish - was thin. - ne%er get in%ited to parties. - wish - got in%ited to parties. -t=s raining. - wish it wasn=t raining. - went to see the latest Star 0ars film. - wish - hadn=t gone. -=%e eaten too much. - wish - hadn=t eaten so much. -=m going to %isit her later. - wish - wasn=t going to %isit her later.

-n the case of =will= ' where =will= means =show willingness= we use =would=. • • •

5e won=t help me. - wish he would help me. $ou=re ma&ing too much noise. - wish you would be 8uiet. $ou &eep interrupting me. - wish you wouldn=t do that.

0here =will= means a future e%ent' we cannot use =wish= and must use =hope=. • •

2here=s a stri&e tomorrow. - hope some buses will still be running. - hope e%erything will be fine in your new @ob.




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-n more formal English' we use the sub@uncti%e form =were= and not =was= after =wish=. • • •

- wish - were taller. - wish it were Saturday today. - wish he were here. e



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5ad better 0e use Lhad better plus the infiniti%e without Lto to gi%e ad%ice. 7lthough Lhad is the past form of Lha%e' we use Lhad better to gi%e ad%ice about the present or future. • • •

$ou=d better tell her e%erything. -=d better get bac& to wor&. 0e=d better meet early.

2he negati%e form is Lhad better not. • • •

$ou=d better not say anything. -=d better not come. 0e=d better not miss the start of his presentation.

0e use Lhad better to gi%e ad%ice about specific situations' not general ones. -f you want to tal& about general situations' you must use Lshould. • • •

$ou should brush your teeth before you go to bed. - shouldn=t listen to negati%e people. 5e should dress more appropriately for the office.

0hen we gi%e ad%ice about specific situations' it is also possible to use Lshould. • • •

$ou shouldn=t say anything. - should get bac& to wor&. 0e should meet early.

5owe%er' when we use Lhad better there is a suggestion that if the ad%ice is not followed' that something bad will happen. • • •

$ou=d better do what - say or else you will get into trouble. -=d better get bac& to wor& or my boss will be angry with me. 0e=d better get to the airport by fi%e or else we may miss the flight. e



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sed to sed to do We use 'used to' for something that happened regularly in the past but no longer happens. • • •

- used to smo&e a pac&et a day but - stopped two years ago. Ben used to tra%el a lot in his @ob but now' since his promotion' he doesn=t. - used to dri%e to wor& but now - ta&e the bus.

We also use it for something that was true but no longer is. • • •

2here used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn=t. She used to ha%e really long hair but she=s had it all cut off. - didn=t use to li&e him but now - do.

=sed to do= is different from =to be used to doing= and =to get used to doing= to be used to doing We use 'to be used to doing' to say that something is normal, not unusual. • • •

-=m used to li%ing on my own. -=%e done it for 8uite a long time. 5ans has li%ed in England for o%er a year so he is used to dri%ing on the left now. 2hey=%e always li%ed in hot countries so they aren=t used to the cold weather here.

to get used to doing We use 'to get used to doing' to tal about the process of something becoming normal for us. • • •

- didn=t understand the accent when - first mo%ed here but - 8uic&ly got used to it. She has started wor&ing nights and is still getting used to sleeping during the day. - ha%e always li%ed in the country but now -=m beginning to get used to li%ing in the city. e



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7s&ing 8uestions 1 2he basic rule for as&ing 8uestions in English is straightforward -n%ert the order of the sub@ect and the first au
-t is snowing. N -s it snowing/ 5e can spea& German. N Can he spea& German/ 2hey ha%e li%ed here a long time. N 5a%e they li%ed here a long time/ She will arri%e at ten o=cloc&. N 0ill she arri%e at ten o=cloc&/ 5e was dri%ing fast. N 0as he dri%ing fast/ $ou ha%e been smo&ing. N 5a%e you been smo&ing/

-f there is no au
$ou spea& fluent Drench. N Ao you spea& fluent Drench/ She li%es in Brussels. N Aoes she li%e in Brussels/ 2hey li%ed in Manchester. N Aid they li%e in Manchester/ 5e had an accident. N Aid he ha%e an accident/

Most 8uestions with 8uestion words are made in the same way • • • • • • •

5ow often does she use it/ 0hy don=t you come/ 0here do you wor&/ 5ow many did you buy/ 0hat time did you go/ 0hich one do you li&e/ 0hose car were you dri%ing/

Fote who' what and which can be the sub@ect. Compare • • • •

0ho is coming to lunch/ who is the sub@ect of the %erb! 0ho do you want to in%ite to lunch/ you is the sub@ect of the %erb! 0hat happened/ what is the sub@ect of the %erb! 0hat did you do/  you is the sub@ect of the %erb!




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Fote the position of the prepositions in these 8uestions • • •

0ho did you spea& to/ 0hat are you loo&ing at/ 0here does he come from/ e



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7s&ing 8uestions " -n the section 9uestions 1' we loo&ed at how to as& direct 8uestions. 2o ma&e a 8uestion' we in%ert the order of the sub@ect and the first au
0here is ;ohnny/ 5as he found it yet/

-f there is no au
0hat time did he arri%e/ 5ow often do you play tennis/

5owe%er' when we as& for information' we often say =Ao you &nowO/= or =Could you tell meO./= 2hese are indirect 8uestions and more polite. Fote that the word order is different. Dor e
Ao you &now where ;ohnny is/ 5a%e you any idea if he has found it/

Fote that we dont use do' does or did. Dor e
Could you tell me what time he arri%ed/ 0ould you mind telling me how often you play tennis/

se if or whether when there is no 8uestion word. • •

5as he done it/ N Ao you &now if he has done it/ -s it ready/ N Can you tell me if it is ready/

2he same changes in word order happen when we report 8uestions. Fote that in reported 8uestions' the %erb changes to the past • • •

0hat are you doing/ N 5e as&ed me what - was doing. 0hat ha%e you done about it/ N 5e as&ed me what - had done about it. Ao you wor& with Pamela/ N 5e as&ed me if - wor&ed with Pamela. e



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9uestion tags 0e use tags in spo&en English but not in formal written English. 2hey are not really 8uestions but are a way of as&ing the other person to ma&e a comment and so &eep the con%ersation open. Ma&ing a tag is %ery mechanical. 2o ma&e a tag' use the first au
-t=s beautiful' isn=t it/ 5e has been' hasn=t he/ $ou can' can=t you/ -t must be' mustn=t it/ $ou &now him' dont you/ 5e finished it' didn=t he/ 5e will come' won=t he/ -t isn=t %ery good' is it/ -t hasn=t rained' has it/ -t can=t be' can it/ ;enny doesn=t &now ;ames' does she/ 2hey didn=t lea%e' did they/ 5e wont do it' will he/

Fotice these • •

2here isn=t an 72M here' is there/ ?et=s ha%e a cup of coffee' shall we/

2o reply' use the same au
-t=s beautiful' isn=t it/ Q $es' it is. - thin& it=s fabulous. -t isn=t %ery good' is it/ Q Fo' it isn=t. -n fact' it=s terrible.

7lthough' the rules are %ery simple and mechanical' in order to use them easily in con%ersation' they ha%e to be automatic. So you need to hear and practice them %ery often. e


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:eported speech 0e use reported speech when we are saying what other people say' thin& or belie%e. • • • • • • •

5e says he wants it. 0e thin& you are right. - belie%e he lo%es her. $esterday you said you didn=t li&e it but now you doJ She told me he had as&ed her to marry him. - told you she was ill. 0e thought he was in 7ustralia.

0hen we are reporting things in the present' future or present perfect we don=t change the tense. • • •

5e thin&s he lo%es her. -=ll tell her you are coming. 5e has said he=ll do it.

0hen we tell people what someone has said in the past' we generally ma&e the tense =more in the past=. • • • • • •

$ou loo& %ery nice. N - told him he loo&ed %ery nice. 5e=s wor&ing in Siberia now. N She told me he was wor&ing in Siberia now. Polly has bought a new car. N She said Polly had bought a new car. ;o can=t come for the wee&end. N She said ;o couldn=t come for the wee&end. Paul called and left a message. N 5e told me Paul had called and had left me a message. -=ll gi%e you a hand. N 5e said he would gi%e me a hand.

5owe%er' when we are reporting something that was said in the past but is still true' it is not obligatory to ma&e the tense =more in the past=. 2he choice is up to the spea&er. Dor e
5e said the train doesn=t stop here. 5e said the train didn=t stop here.

- li&e Sarah. • •

She said she li&es Sarah. She said she li&ed Sarah.




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0hen we are reporting what was said' we sometimes ha%e to change other words in the sentence. 0e ha%e to change the pronoun if we are reporting what someone else said. Compare these two sentences. -n each case the person actually said - don=t want to go. • •

- said - didn=t want to go. Bill said he didn=t want to go.

0e ha%e to change words referring to =here and now= if we are reporting what was said in a different place or time. Compare these two sentences. -n each case the person actually said -=ll be there at ten tomorrow. • •

-f it is later the same day! 5e said he would be there at ten tomorrow. -f it is the ne
Fow compare these two sentences. • •

-f we are in a different place! 5e said he would be there tomorrow at ten. -f we are in the place he is coming to! 5e said he would be here at ten tomorrow. e



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:eported speech " 0e also use reported speech when we are saying what other people as&ed or wanted to &now. 0e do not use do or 8uestion mar&s in indirect 8uestions. • • • •

0hat time is it/ N 5e as&ed me what time it was. 0hy hasn=t he come/ N She wondered why he hadn=t come. 0hen will you be arri%ing/ N 5e wanted to &now when we would be arri%ing. 0hat were you doing/ N 2hey 8uestioned him about what he had been doing.

0e use the same structure when we report answers. • • • •

1(* Ha& Street. N - told him what my address was. - didn=t ha%e time to do it. N She e
$es3no 8uestions are reported with if or whether. • • •

Ao you want a ride/ N Mi&e as&ed me if - wanted a ride. 7re you coming/ N 2hey wanted to &now if - was coming. 0ill you be here later/ N She as&ed me whether - would be here later. e



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Suppose 0e often use =suppose= to mean =imagine= or =guess= • • •

- suppose you=ll be meeting Aanielle when you go to Paris/ 0hen you weren=t there' - supposed you must ha%e been held up. - suppose you two &now each other/

Fotice that =suppose= is not normally used in the continuous form. 0e do not usually say =- am supposing=. • • •

Fow - suppose we=ll ha%e to do something else. 0e=re waiting for ;ohn and - suppose he must be stuc& in traffic. 7t this moment - suppose it doesn=t matter.

Fotice that for =imagine not= or =guess not= that we ma&e =suppose= negati%e' not the other %erb. • • •

- don=t suppose you &now where Mary is/ - don=t suppose he=ll do anything. - don=t suppose you ha%e a Fo&ia phone charger here/

0hen responding to an idea with =suppose=' you can use =so= to a%oid repeating the idea that has already been e
-s Susan coming to this meeting/ Q - suppose so. e



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Suppose " =Supposed to be= can be used to mean =it is said3belie%ed=. • • •

2he new ;ames Bond mo%ie is supposed to be e
=Supposed to be= can also be used to tal& about what is arranged' intended or e
-=m supposed to get to wor& by +. ;ohn is supposed to turn off all the lights when he lea%es. -=m supposed to pay my rent on the first of the month. -t=s not supposed to be here.

Hften there is a suggestion that the action =supposed to= happen does not actually happen. • • •

-=m supposed to be there before + but -=m often late. $ou were supposed to phone me. -=m supposed to be getting on a plane to 2o&yo at this %ery minute.

=Fot supposed to= often suggests that something is not allowed or prohibited. • • •

$ou=re not supposed to smo&e in here. -=m not supposed to tell you. 0e=re not supposed to use the -nternet for personal reasons at wor&.

=Suppose= can also be used as a con@unction to mean =what if=. Fotice that the %erb which follows it is sometimes' but not always' put =more in the past=. • • • •

Suppose we ta&e the earlier train to Munich/ -t would gi%e us more time there. Suppose we too& the plane instead/ 2hat would gi%e us e%en more time. 2here=s nobody in reception to let our %isitors in. Suppose - sit there until somebody comes/ -=m going to as& him for a pay increase. Q Suppose he said =no=/ 0hat would you do/ e



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5a%e something done -f you =ha%e something done=' you get somebody else to do something for you. • • •

-=m going to ha%e my hair cut. She=s ha%ing her house redecorated. -=m ha%ing a copy of the report sent to you

-n informal English' we can replace =ha%e= by =get=. • • •

0e=re getting a new telephone system installed. 2hey will be getting the system repaired as 8uic&ly as they can. - got the bill sent direct to the company.

0e can also use =ha%e3got something done= in situations where something bad has happened to people or their possessions. 2his is not something they wanted to happen. • • •

;ohn had all his money stolen from his hotel bedroom. 0e had our car damaged by a falling tree. - got my nose bro&en playing rugby. e



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Should ha%e 0e can use =should ha%e= to tal& about past e%ents that did not happen. • • •

- should ha%e let her &now what was happening but - forgot. 5e should ha%e sent e%erybody a reminder by email. 2hey should ha%e remembered that their guests don=t eat por&.

0e can also use =should ha%e= to speculate about e%ents that may or may not ha%e happened. • • •

She should ha%e got the letter this morning. - e
0e can use = should not ha%e= to speculate negati%ely about what may or may not ha%e happened. • • •

She shouldn=t ha%e left wor& yet. -=ll call her office. 5e shouldn=t ha%e boarded his plane yet. 0e can probably still get hold of him. 2hey shouldn=t ha%e sent the report off for printing yet. 2here is still time to ma&e changes.

0e can also use =should not ha%e= to regret past actions. • • •

- shouldn=t ha%e shouted at you. - apologise. 0e shouldn=t ha%e left the office so late. 0e should ha%e anticipated this bad traffic. 2hey shouldn=t ha%e sac&ed him. 5e was the most creati%e person on their team. e



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Can ha%e 3 Could ha%e 0e can use =could ha%e= to tal& about something somebody was capable of doing but didn=t do. • • •

- could ha%e gone to H
Hften' there is a sense of criticism. • • •

$ou could ha%e phoned me to let me &now. 2hey could ha%e helped me instead of @ust sitting there. - could ha%e done more to help you. Sorry.

0e can use =couldn=t ha%e= to tal& about something we were not capable of doing. • • •

- couldn=t ha%e managed without you. - couldn=t ha%e got the @ob. 5e was always going to appoint his nephew. - couldn=t ha%e en@oyed myself more. 2han& you for a lo%ely day.

0e can use =could ha%e= to speculate about what has happened. 0e can also use =may ha%e= or =might ha%e= in these situations.! • • •

She could ha%e ta&en the earlier train. Simon could ha%e told her. 2hey could ha%e o%erheard what we said.

0e can also use =can ha%e= to speculate about what has happened but only in 8uestions and negati%e sentences and with words such as =hardly=' =ne%er= and =only=. • • •

Can she ha%e forgotten about our meeting/ 5e can=t ha%e seen us. 2hey can hardly ha%e thought that - was not interested in the @ob.

0e can also use =could ha%e= to speculate about something that didn=t happen. • • •

$ou could ha%e bro&en your nec&' @umping out the window li&e that. 5e could ha%e hurt somebody' throwing a bottle out of the window li&e that. - could ha%e done well in my e



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$ou can also use =could ha%e= to tal& about possible present situations that ha%e not happened. • • •

- could ha%e been earning a lot as an accountant but the wor& was @ust too boring. 5e could ha%e been Prime Minister now but he got in%ol%ed in a big financial scandal. 2hey could ha%e been the mar&et leaders now if they had ta&en his ad%ice. e



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0ill be doing 0e can use =will be doing= to tal& about something that will be in progress at a particular moment in the future. • • •

2his time ne
0e can use =will be doing= to tal& about future e%ents that are fi
-=ll be %isiting your country on a regular basis. -n fact' -=m going to be coming ne
0e can use =will be doing= to predict what is happening now. • • •

2ry phoning his hotel. 5e=ll probably still be ha%ing brea&fast. 2hey=ll be deciding who gets the contract at this %ery moment. -=m %ery ner%ous. She=s not in her office. She=ll be ha%ing lunch in the canteen.

0e can use =will be doing= to as& e
0ill you be eating with us this e%ening/ 0ill you be needing anything else/ 0ill they be @oining us for dinner/ e


English Grammar Secrets

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