q
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PatrickFitzgerald, M ar i eM c Cu l l a g ha n dC a r oTl a b or
En gl i shfor
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STUDIES in H igherE d u c a ti o nS tu d i e s
Course Book Series editor:TerryPhillips arnet
Publishedby Ltd. GarnetPublishing 8 SouthernCourt SouthStreet Reading RG14QS,UK Ltd. Copyright@ 2011GarnetPublishing MarieMcCullaghand CarolTaborto be identifiedasthe The right of PatrickFitzgerald, with the Copyright,Designand Patents authorsof this work hasbeenassertedin accordance Act 1988 All rightsreserved No part of this publicationmay be reproduced, storedin a retrievalsystem,or transmittedin photocopying,recordingor otherwise, any form or by any means,electronic,mechanical, Any personwho doesany unauthorized without the prior permission of the Publisher. act in relationto this publicationmay be liableto criminalprosecution and civilclaimsfor damages. Firstoublished 2011 lsBN978 1 85964519 2 Data BritishCataloguing-in-Publication A cataloguerecordfor this book is availablefrom the BritishLibrary Production Serieseditor:TerryPhillips Projectmanagement: ValeDominguez,ClaireForsyth Amandallic,KarenKinnair-Pugh Editorial team:KirstenCampbell, ClaireForsyth, review:JohnHawker Specialist Design:HenryDesignAssociates and Mike Hinks Photography: SallyHenryand TrevorCook,alamy.com, clipart.com,corbis,com, gettyimages.com, istockphoto.com dreamstime.com, Audio recordedat MotivationSoundStudiosoroducedbv EFSTelevision ProductionLtd Theauthorsand publisherwould liketo thank the followingfor permission to reproduce copyrightmaterial: lmageno. 7 on page7 reproduced with kind permission of SymantecCorporation;lmageC lmage2 on page 15 from www.apple.com;lmageno. on page 10 from www.euroncap.com; 4 on page23 reproduced with kind permission of Nokia;Screenshot on page24from SysTools; Resultsfistingson page35 with kind permission of Google;lmageno. 1 on page39 reproducedwith kind permission of StevenSengel,www.oldcomputers.net; lmageno. 3 on page39 reproduced with kind permission of TheInternetEncyclopaedia of Science; Graphson page39 reproduced with kind permission of RayKurzweil;lmageno. 1 on page40 reproduced with kind permission of The International SlideRuleMuseum;lmageno 3 on page40 reproduced with kind permission of the NationalArchives,lmageno. 4 on page40 from www.ibm com; lmageno 2 on page43 reproducedwith kind permission of BillDegnan, www.vintage-computer.net; lmageno. 3 on page43 from www.cisco.com; lmageno. 4 on page43 reproduced with kind permission of IntelCorporation;lmageno. 5 on page43 reproducedwith kind permission of BelkinLimited;lmageno 6 on page43 reproduced with kind permission of GeorgeMichael,www.computer-history.info; lmageno 7 on page43 from lmageno. 8 on page43 from www ibm.com;lmageson page COREMemory/MarkRichards; 49 from YouTube,Flickr@, Bloggerand Wikpedia;page58 (c)2010 Netscape page59 My SQLis a registered Corporation.Usedwith permission.; Communications trademarkof Oracleand/orits affiliates.Usedwith permission.; lmageson page59 from The ApacheSoftwareFoundation, www.apacheorg, Linux,www.linux.co.uk and The PHPGroup, wuruvphp net; Screenshots C on page63 reproduced with kind permission of Microsoftand with kindpermission Ubuntu;lmagesno 1 and 2 on page74reproduced of Nokia;lmageno 3 on page74 reproduced with kind permission of Hewlett-Packard Development Company, public L.P.;lmageno. 4 on page74 from Toshiba EuropeGmbH;Formon page79 contains sectorinformationlicensedunderthe OpenGovernmentLicencev1.0;Texton page83 O CengageLearning;lmageC on page87 from wannr.bodetech com; lmageson page91 reproduced with kind permission of GrahamTurner/Guardian News& MediaLtd 2006 Everyeffort hasbeenmadeto tracecopyrightholdersand we apologizein advancefor any unintentionalomission.We will be happyto insertthe appropriateacknowledgements in any subseouent editions. Printed and bound in Lebanonbv International Press:
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Introduction Englishfor ICT Studresis designedfor studentswho plan to take an ICTcourseentirely or partly in English. The principalaim of Englishfor ICT Studiesis to teach studentsto cope with input texts, i.e., listeningand reading, in the discipline.However,studentswill be expectedto produce output texts in speechand writing throughout the course. The syllabusfocuseson key vocabularyfor the disciplineand on words and phrasescommonlyusedin academicEnglish.lt coverskey facts and conceptsfrom the discipline,thereby giving studentsa flying start for when they meet the samepointsagain in their facultywork. lt alsofocuseson the skillsthat will enable studentsto get the most out of lecturesand written texts. Finally,it presentsthe skillsrequiredto take part in seminarsand tutorials and to produceessayassignments. English for ICTStudiescomprises: o studentCourseBook includingaudio transcriptsand wordlist o the Teacher'sBook, which providesdetailed guidanceon each lesson,full answer keys,audio transcriptsand extra photocopiableresources . audio CDswith lectureand seminarexcerpts Englishfor ICT Studieshas 12 units, each of which is basedon a different aspectof lCT.Odd-numbered units are basedon listening(lecture/seminarextracts).Even-numberedunits are basedon reading. Eachunit is dividedinto four lessons: Lesson1: vocabularyfor the discipline;vocabularyskillssuchas word-building,useof affixes,useof synonymsfor paraphrasing Lesson2: readingoi listeningteit and skillsdevelopment Lesson3: readingor listeningskillsextension.ln addition,in later units,studentsare introducedto a writing assignmentwhich is further developedin Lesson4; in later listeningunits, studentsare introducedto a spokenlanguagepoint (e.9.,making an oral presentationat a seminar)which is further developedin Lesson4 Lesson4: a parallel listeningor readingtext to that presentedin Lesson2 which studentshave to usetheir new skills(Lesson3) to decode;in addition, written or spokenwork is further practised The fasttwo pagesof each unit, Vocabularybank and Skil/sbank, are a usefulsummaryof the unit content. Eachunit providesbetween 4 and 5 hours of classroomactivity with the possibilityof a further 2-4 hours on the suggestedextra activities.The coursewill be suitable,therefore, as the core component of a faculty-specificpre-sessional or foundation courseof between 50 and 80 hours. It is assumedthat prior to usingthis book studentswill alreadyhavecompleteda generalEAP(Englishfor AcademicPurposes)coursesuchas Skillsin English(GarnetPublishing,up to the end at leastof Level3), and will have achievedan IELTSlevel of at least5. For a list of other titles in this series,seewww.garneteducation.com/
Book map Unit 1 what is lcT? Lis t ening .Sp e a k i n g
2 ICTin the workplace Reading' W ri ti n g
3 lntroductionto ICTsystems Lis t ening . Sp e a k i n g
4 ICTin education Reading . Writing
5 The historyof ICT Lis t ening ' Sp e a k i n g
6 The lnternet Reading . W ri ti n g
Software development Lis t ening .Sp e a k i n g
8 Efficiencyin computersystems Reading . W ri ti n g
9 Human-computer interaction(HCl) Lis t ening .Sp e a k i n g
1 0 E-commerce and e-government Reading . Writing
11 Computingand ethics Lis t ening ' S p e a k i n g
12 lc'l in the future Reading . W ri ti n g
Topics o definingICT . introductionto differentaspectsof ICT
. impactof ICTon business,includingcommunication,information managementand productdesign . impactof ICTon the natureof work, includingtelwvorkingand outsourcing
. . . . .
embeddedand generalpurposesystems data storageand management control systems communicationsystems functionsof ICTsystems(datacapture,processingand output)
. useof computersand the Internetin research and learning . computer-assisted learning(CAL),virtuallearningenvironments (VLEs) and theirimpacton teaching
. keystagesIn the development of the computer(inventions and innovations) . developmentof computercomponents(input, output, processingand storage) . foundationsof the Internet . Internetprotocolsand data transfer o Web 2 0 and the future of the Internet . socialnetworkingservices(SNS) . . o .
developmentmethodsand processes waterfall,iterativeand prototypingmodels planningthe development process open sourcesoftware
. efficiencyin computersystems o reliability,security,speedand cost
. o . .
importanceand scopeof HCI aspectsof human sciencesand computersciences differenttypesof interface hardwareand software
. typesof e-commerce:B2B,S2C,CZC, B2G . barriersto adoption of e-commerce
. lawsand regulations, includingcopyright o principles and ethics,includingprrvacyand surveillance . the roleof hacking
o . . .
virtualand mirrorworlds augmentedreality(AR) lifelogging usingtechnologicalgrowth curvesto predictfuture development
Vocabularyfocus
Ski l l sfocus
o wordsfrom generalEnglishwith a speclalmeaningin ICT . prefixesand suffixes
Listening . . . . .
Unit
preparingfOra lecture predictinglecturecontentfrom the tntroductton
1
understanding lectureorganization choosingan appropriate form of notes makinglecturenotes
Speaking . Speaking from notes . English-English dictionaries: headwords definjtions parts of speech phonemes stressmarKers countable/uncountable transitive/intransitive
. stresspatternsin multi-syllable words . prefixes
Reading . usingresearch questions to focuson relevantinformatjonin a text . usingtopicsentences to get an overviewof the text Writing
o writingtopicsentences . summanztng a text
Li s teni ng
. o . .
Speaking
. . o o
computerJargon abbreviations and acronyms discourse and stancemarkers verband noun suffixes
. word sets:synonyms, antonyms,etc . the languageof trends . commonlecturelanguage . synonyms, replacement subjects, etc, for sentence-level paraphrasing
preparingfor a lecture predictinglecturecontent makinglecturenotes usingdifferentinformationsources
. reportingresearch findings . formulatingquestions
Reading . identifyingtopicdevelopment within a paragraph . usingthe Interneteffectively o evaluatingInternetsearchresults writing
. reportingresearch findings
Listening . understanding 'signpostlanguage'in lectures . usingsymbolsand abbreviations in note-taking speaking . makingeffectivecontributions to a seminar Reading . locatingkeyinformationin complexsentences writing.
. reportingfindingsfrom othersources: paraphrasing . writingcomplexsentences . understanding speakeremphasis
o . . .
compoundnouns fixedphrases from ICT fixedphrases from academicEnglish commonlecturelanguage
Listening
. o . .
synonyms nounsfrom verbs definitions common'direction'verbs in essaytitles(discuss, analyze,
Readipg
. understanding dependentclauses with passives
Writing
o paraphrasi ng . expandingnotesinto complexsentences o recognizing differentessaytypeystructures: descriptiveanalytical comparison/evaluation argument o writingessayplans . wnttngessays
S peak i ng . askingfor clarification
. responding to queriesand requests for clarification
evaluate,etc )
. fixedphrases from ICT . fixedphrases from academicEnglish
A Z
Listening . usingthe Cornellnote-takingsystem . recognrzing digressions in lectures
9
speaking . makingeffectivecontributions to a seminar . referringto otherpeoplesideasin a seminar o'n e u t r a l 'a n d ' m a r k e dwo ' rds . fixedphrases from ICT . fixedphrases from academicEnglish
. . . o
wordVphrasesusedto link ideas(moreovecas a result,etc stresspatternsin noun phrasesand compounds fixedphrases from academicEnglish wordVphrases relatedto ethicsin computing
. verbsusedto introduceideasfrom other sources (X contendslsuggestslasseftsthat,l o linkingwordVphrasesconveyingcontrast(whereas),result (consequently), reasons(due to), etc . words for quantities(a significantminority)
Reading . recognizing the writerSstanceand levelof confidence or tentativeness . inferringimplicitioeas writing
10
o writingsituation-problem-solution-evaluation essays -. usingdirectquotations . compilinga bibliography/reference list
Listening . recognizing the speaker's stance . w fl trngup notesi n ful l Speak i ng o bui l di ng an argumenti n a semi nar . agreeing/disagreeing Reading
. understanding how ideasin a text are linked
Writing
o . r o
decidingwhetherto usedirectquotationor paraphrase incorporating quotations writing researchreports writingeffectiveintroductionVconclusions
11
guessingwords in context . prefixesand suffixes
A
n""l the text. The red words are probablyfamiliarto you in generalEnglish.But can you think of a different meaning for each word used in an ICTcontext?Changethe form if necessary(e.9.,change a noun into a verb). Anna phonedthe languageschoolto sayshehad a virus and was too ill to work. Shefound a little bit of chocolatein the fridge, pluggedin her CD player,and sat down to browsethrough her TV magazineand play with her pet mouse.On the table there was a menu for a local Chineserestaurant.Anna was choosinglunch when the postmanarrived with a packageaddressedto her. Shesteppedout to get it and the door closedbehind her.Anna realizedher kevswere insidethe houseand shewas locked out.
B nead these sentencesfrom ICTtexts. Completeeach sentencewith one of the red words from ExerciseA. Changethe form if necessary. 1 Selectan option from the drop-down
, short for binarydigit. from infection. softwareprotectscomputers
2 The smallestunit of data in a computeris a 3 Anti
4 High-levelprogramming numbersand symbols.
, suchas C and C++,are made up of letters,
5 To view information on the Internet you need a web 6 Clickon the
-
7 Thissoftware-.-, -.
twice to open the program. includesa number of programsthat businesses will find useful.
8 One way to protect data is to encrypt it so that only someonewith the correct , or password,can open it, 9 Most Internet
begin www.
10 Youmayneedto installa
c
to playmusicor watchfilmson your computer.
Studythe words in box a. 1 What is the connectionbetween all the words? 2 What is the baseword in each case? 3 What do we call the extra letters? 4 What is the meaningof each prefix? 5 Can you think of another word with each prefix?
D
Studythe words in box b. 1 What is the connectionbetween all the words? 2 What is the baseword in each case? 3 What do we call the extra letters? 4 What effect do the extra letters have on the baseword? 5 Can you think of another word with each suffix?
E
antivirus centimetre gigabyte hyperlink Internet kilobit microchip millisecond miscalculateoutput restart subnetwork superhighway telecommunicationsundetected
Usewords from this page to label the pictureson the opposite page. Add labelsfor other items in the pictures.
classify computerize connector developer digital downloading electronic instruction management mobility paperless performance software technology variable
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I pr epar ing f or a lec t u r e o p r e d i c t i n g l e c t u r e c o n t e n t o m a k i n g n o t e s
You are a student in the ICTFacultyof HadfordUniversity. The title of your first lectureis What is ICT? 1 Write a definitionof lCT. 2 How can you preparefor this lecture? Make some notes. G titt"n to Part 1 of the talk. What doesthe lecturer sayabout ICT?Tickthe bestchoice. a lt is about computers. b lt is about information. c lt is about playingcomputergames. d lt is more than just usinga computer. ln Part2 of the talk, the lecturermentionsvirus and driver. 1 What do thesewords mean in the contextof ICT? 2
G Listenand checkyour ideas.
In Part3 of the talk, the lecturerdescribes different placeswhere ICThasan impact. 1 How many different placescan you think of? 2 What are someof the technologiesusedin eachplace? 3
G Listenand checkyour ideas.
4 What will the lecturertalk about next? 6d tn tf'" f inal part of the talk, the lecturertalks about informationsystemsand communicationsystems. Listen and mark eachword in the box E if it is an examoleand D if it is part of the definition. communicate data e-mail process mobile phones store usingtechnology web page
Draw a flowchartto illustratelCT.Usesomeof the words from Exercise E in your flowchart. DescribelCT,usingyour flowchart. Look backat your notesfrom Exercise A. Did you predict: o the main ideas? . most of the specialvocabulary?
lectureorganizationo choosingthe best form of notes
A Wtratcanyou ... 1 develop? 2 process? 3 connect?
B
4 assemble? 5 install? 5 launch?
7 program? 8 computerize? 9 monitor?
Howcanyou organizeinformationin a lecture?Match the beginningsand endings. 1 questionand E a contrast 2 problemand I b definition 3 classification and c disadvantages 4 advantag"r.nOI d effect 5 comparison and I e events 5 causeand I f supportinginformation 7 sequence of I g process 8 stagesof a I h solution 9 theoriesor opinionsthen I i answer
C Howcanyou recordinformationduringa lecture? Matchthe illustrations with the wordsand phrases in the box. tree diagram flowchart headingsand not'es spidergramtable timeline two columns
T^
\^ \,\J!\,\
v\.^..^S
^\
1.=^-cl
D
Match each organization of information in ExerciseB with a method of note-taking from ExerciseC. You can use one method for different types of organization.
E
6) titt"n to five lecture introductions.Choosea possibleway to take notes from ExerciseC in each case. Example: You hear: ln today's session,we're going to look at tCTin business.We wilt be looking at a car manufacturingcompanyand discussing four areasof business:administration,finance, researchand development, and operations,to see what happensin each areaand how tCT supportsworkers in these areas. You choose: tree diagram
9
I m ak ing n o t e s o s p e a k i n gf r o m n o t e s
@
Studythe pictures. 1 What do pictures1-5 show?Usewords from the box. 2 What doeseachpictureA-C show?
engine rocket bug waterfall
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the oppositepage.Listento the lectureintroductionsfrom Lesson1.3again. 6d Couur. Make an outline on a separatesheetof paperfor eachintroduction. Look at your outline for eachlecture.What do you expectthe lecturerto talk about in the lecture? ln what order? 6d Llrt"n to the next part of each lecture.Completeyour notes. Uncoverthe oppositepage.Checkyour noteswith the model notes.Are yoursthe sameor different? Work in pairs. 1 Usethe noteson the oppositepage.Reconstruct one lecture. 2 Givethe lectureto another oarr.
I W}IATE
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administraf,on eg., Inlerrel, dalabases,wP, DTP, e-ntil, inlrar-el
e.g., CAD,simuiaiors
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l1b1 - ARPANET= sn'all networ*' o{ comwle.s fo, use dunrg r-t-alea, ali.ack
Eleclr onic nra;l(e-rnail) ftessagessnl/rernived in dgilal {orm via ,.,6,
using ARPANET l17Z- US scienfrsis ard academic^s 117 3 -ARPANETu*l ;rier-uliorully ea{y 80s - Inlenel - *o{d*ide comV.*ers {or mililary ue. + x-aiemic / x-ier*;f;c r ey-arch
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l;miled acc.ess Advar*aqesof e-r',arl
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Guessing words in context Using related words Sometimes a word in generalEnglish hasa special meaningin lCT. Examples: virus, bit, language, mouse lf you recognizea word but don't understandit in context,think: What is the basicmeaningof the word? Doesthat helpme understandthe specialmeaning? Example: A virus is somethingthat infeds you and makesyou feel ill, so a computer virus is somethingthat infeds a computerand hasa negativeeffect on how it works. Removing prefixes A prefix = lettersat the start of a word. A prefixchanges the meaningof a word. Examples: restart- start again miscalculate - calculatewrongly lf you don't recognizea word,think: ls thereis a prefix?Removeit. Do you recognizethe word now? What doesthat prefixmean?Add it to the meaningof the word. Removing suffixes A suffix = lettersat the end of a word. A suffixsometimes changes the part of speechof the word. Examples: develop) developer= v€rb ) noun vary) variable= v€rb ) adjective A suffixsometimes changes the meaningin a predictable way. Examples: paper+ /ess- without (paper) vary+ able- able to (vary) lf you don't recognizea word,think: ls therea suffix?Removeit. Do you recognizethe word now? What doesthat suffixmean?Add it to the meaningof the word.
12
Making the most of lectures Before a lecture ... Plan o Find out the topic of the lecture. o Researchthe topic. o Checkthe pronunciationof namesand key words in English.
Prepare o Getto the lectureroom early. o Sitwhereyou canseeand hearwell. o Bringanyequipment you mayneed. o Writethe date,topicand nameof the lecturerat the top of a sheet of paper. During a lecture ... Predict o Listencarefullyto the introduction.Think:What kind of lectureis this? o Write an outline.Leavespacefor notes. o Thinkof possible answers/solutions/effects, etc.,whilethe lecturer isspeaking. Produce o Write notes/copyfrom the board. o Recordsources- books/websites/names. o At the end,askthe lecturer/other studentsfor missinginformation.
Making perfect lecture notes Choosethe bestway to recordinformationfrom a lecture. advantages and disadvantages t two-columntable causeand effect ) spidergram classification and definition ) tree diagram/spidergram comparison and contrast ) table factsand figures ) table sequenceof events ) t ime lin e stagesof a process ) flowchart questionand answer t headings and notes
Speaking from notes you haveto givea shorttalk in a seminaron research Sometimes you have done. o Preparethe listenerswith an introduction.
o Matchthe introductionto the type of information/notes.
13
usingan English-English dictionary
helpyou understand dictionarlr and producespokenandwrittenEnglish? A Howcanan English-English
B
Studythe dictionaryextracton the oppositepage. 1 Why arethe two words(top left and top right)important? 2 How manymeaningsdoesinformationhave? 3 Why doesthe word input appeartwice in bold? 4 What do we callsomeonewho providesinformation? 5 What do the lettersICTstandfor? r 5 Whereisthe mainstresson inform?What aboutinformation? 7 What part of speechis internal? 8 What isthe pronunciation of o in eachboldword in this extract? 9 Which is correct?Badinformation islareresponsibleformanybusinessfailures. 10 Canwe write: Themanagerspoketo hisstaffand informed.Why (not)?
C took at the boldwordsin the dictionaryextract on the oppositepage. 1 What orderarethey in? 2 Writethe wordsin box a in the sameorder.
program log communication system text scan support notebook device robot process package servlce
D took at the top of thisdoublepagefrom an English-English dictionary. 1 Whichword from boxa will appearon thesepages? 2 Thinkof wordsbeforeand after someof the otherwordsin box a. E Lookup the red wordsin boxa. 1 Howmanymeanings canyou find for eachword? 2 Whichwordsare both a nounand a verb?What kind of verbsarethey? 3 Whatkindof nouniseachone? 4 How arethe wordsusedin ICT?
F Lookup the greenwordsin box a. 1 Whereisthe stressin eachword? 2 What isthe soundof the underlinedletter(s)in eachword? 3 How arethe wordsusedin ICT?
G
Testeachother on the wordsfrom box a. Givethe dictionarydefinitionof one of the words.Canyour partnerguesswhichword you aredefining?
H
Discuss the pictureson the oppositepageusingwordsfrom this lesson.
1 .1
2ICT 11{THE WORKPLACE
ICT
intranet
ICT iar sir 'ti:/ n lUl abb. for information and communications technology inform /rn'fclm/ v [T] give someone facts: He informed the staff of his decision. informant /rn'fclment/ n [C] someonewho gives information to others: We collected information.for our surys\ from 50 infonnants. information /lnfe'metJni n [U] 1. facts about someoneor something: There is a lot of infonnatiort about lcrptopsin this magazine. 2. data which is processed,stored,or transmittedby computer or electronic equipment: The contputer calculates the hours you work and uses tltis information to w,ork out how ntuclt to p0)'\,olr. information and communications technology / inf a' m er J n a n k e mj u l n r' k e l J n z te k ' n o l ad3i / n [U] (the study of) computersand elecrronic equipment used to handle information or to communicate with others: He teqc'hesICT et the universitv. information superhighway /infe'merJn s ur pa' ha rw e tln Is i n g .]th e n e tw o rk o f inf or m at i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a ti o n ss y s te ms, inc luding s a te l l i tec o mmu n i c a ti o n sa n d the Internet, used to store and transfer
lrr\
information around the world. i nput' /' rnput/ rr [C or U ] 1. data or i nformat ion which is put into a computer: There were several spelling ntistakesin the input whiclt causedsomeproblems with our deliveries. 2. the contribution that someone makes: The tllanoger thctnkedevenone .for tlleir input on the rtewpro.ject.3. the place where information entersa computer or electronic device: The video and DVD inputs are at the bac'kof the television. input' I'nptstl u [T] put data into a computer so that it can be stored or processed:I have to ittlttrt customer details ittto the computer. i nput devi ce /' rnput dr,vars/n [C ] anythi ng that allows data or information to be put into a computer, e.g., a keyboard. internal /rn'tslnl/ arlj inside a person,thing, or organization: We use the companv intranet for i ttI erna I conttnurti t ctli ons. Internet /' rntanet/ n Isi ng.]a publ i c netw ork which links computersaround the world: I did ntost oJ'tlte research on tlle Internet. intranet /'rntranet/ n [Cl a private network of computers,l i ke the Internet,w hi ch can onl y be used by people in a particular company or orsanl zatl on.
I us ing r es ear c hq u e s t i o n s
How do you use ICTin your work or studies?What are the advantages? Canyou think of any disadvantages? Look at the pictureson this page. 1 How is ICTbeing usedin the pictures? 2 Which pictureshowspeopleusingICTto communicate with other people? 3 Which picturesshow ICTsystemsdoing work that peopleoncedid? 4 How was this work done before ICTwas introduced? You are going to read a text. What shouldyou do before you read a text in detail? Thistext is about ICTin the workplace. 1 Think of someresearchquestionsbefore you read. 2 Compareyour questionswith those in the Hadford Universityassignmenton this page. from the text and answerthe Studythesetopic sentences questionsbelow. today ICT playsa key role in business
Firstly, ICT is a fasterand more eftlcient way tirr peopleto communicate.
ICT is alsousedto input,storeand manageinfbrnration AnotherareawhereICT is importantis the retailindustry. Manufacturers usenew technologyto designand build products.
New technology,then, offers a rangeof benefits. However,it is importantto understandthat there are costsas well as benefits. Modern technologyis here to stay.
1 What typesof businesses are discussed? 2 Where might you find the answerto eachquestionin the HadfordUniversityassignment? Where possible, write 1, 2 or 3 next to the topic sentence. 3 What do you expectto find in the other paragraphs? Readthe text on the oppositepage and checkyour ideas.
* ..HADFORD ..1 Foculty: ICT Assignment D o some reseorchi nl o l he use of IC T i n the w orK P roce. Moke notes to onsw er these questi ons . I
H ow i s IC T used i n the w orkpl oc e?
2
Whot ore the odvontoges for bus i nes s esof usi ng IC T?
3
Whot foctorsdo busi nessesho v e fo consi der before they i nvesti n IC T?
l(nformation and) C(ommunication)T(echnology)at Work ICT plays a key role in businesstoday.In fact, its useis now so widespread that it is diffrcult to succeedwithoutit. Rapid developmentsin the ICT sectorin the lasttwo decadeshaveproduceda hugerangeof new productsand services.Theseinclude products suchas personalcomputers(PCs),notebooksand fax machines,and servicessuchas e-mail, intranet and the Internet.Businessesof all sizesand types usecomputer-based systemslike thesebecause they offer a betterway to work - one which can savetime and money. Firstly,ICT is a fasterandmoreefficientway for peopleto cornmunicate. Businesses no longerhaveto rely on slow postalservices.They can sendand receiveinformation and documentsby text, e-mail or fax. Video-conferencingmeanspeopledo not needto travel long distancesto attendmeetings. ICT providesa way for peoplewithin an organizationto contacteachotherquickly and sharework. It also meansthat they can work with peoplearoundthe world. ICT is also usedto input, storeand manage information.One commonuseof office computers is to record,frnd and work with information.For (WP) or example,businesses useword-processing desktoppublishing (DTP) packagesto produce companydocuments,and databases to store customerdetailsand producemailing lists. In the past,thesetaskstook hours,daysor evenweeks and produceda lot of paperwork.With ICT they takelesstime andcostless.Suchelectronic systemsalso savestoragespace. Another areawhereICT is importantis the retail industry.Most items on salein shopshavea small black and white label called a bar code.Many shopscombinebar-codingwith electronic point-of-sale(EPOS)systems.The customertakes an item to the cashier,who usesa scanningdevice to readthe bar codeand find out the price of the item. The EPOSsystemlogs eachsaleand helps the shopmanagerto decidewhich productsto reorderfrom the supplier.SomeEPOSsystemsare evenprograrnmedto do the ordering.
Information and Communication Technology at Work
Manufacturersusenew technologyto designand build products.At the designstage,they use computer-aideddesign(CAD) softwareto produce new ideasand designs.In the productionstage, many companiesuserobots.Theseare machines that do the work ofpeople, and are controlledby computer-assisted manufacturing(CAM) programs.Robotscan carry out routine,complex and dangerousprocedures.They can work24 hoursa day and the standardof their work remains constantbecausethey do not get tired or bored.As a result,companiescan improve their production rateswithout losing quality. New technology,then,offers a rangeof benehts. Firstly, it savestime. Tasksthat oncetook a long time to do by handnow takea fraction of that time. Secondly,ICT improvescommunication betweenpeople,speedingup businesstransactions and decision-making,and openingup new markets aroundthe world. Thirdly, inexpensiveICT solutionscan often replaceexpensivepeople. Consequently,companiescan reducethe size of their workforce and their wagebills. Finally, ICT can increasethe quantity and improve the quality ofgoods produced,which may also increase profits. However,it is importantto understandthat there are costsas well as benefits.ICT systemscan be very expensive.Companieshaveto choose systemswhich suit their needsand are costeffectivebeforeinvestingin ICT. They haveto considerseveralfactors.Firstly, technologyis constantlydeveloping,which meansthat systems needto be regularly upgraded.Another issueis staff training.Thereis no point installing an ICT systemif workerscannotuseit. Lastly, thereis the cost of technicalsupport,suchas a helpdesk,to ensurethat everythingruns well on a daily basis. Modern technologyis hereto stay.It would be almostimpossibleto ignore computer-based systemsor to returnto working without them. However,successfuluseofICT requires investmentin both equipmentand skills. Businessesof all sizesneedto makethe right choicesbecausetherearerisks. as well as benefrts, involved.
95
17
. tOpicsentenges . summarizing
A Studythe words in box a. They are all from the text in Lesson2.2. 1 Look back at the text on page 17. Find the words which go together with the words in the box.
key fax publishingstore space combinelogs routine reduce
2 Do they make noun or verb,phrases? 3 What is the meaning of each phrase?Look at the context and checkwith your dictionary if necessary. B StuOythe words in box b. They are all from Lesson2.2. 1 What is the baseword in each case?What part of speechis the baseword? 2 Doesthe prefix/suffixchangethe part of speech?
lnternet video-conferencing manager reorder communication upgrade impossible
3 How does the prefix/suffixchangethe meaning of the baseword? C took back at the text on page 17.After each topic sentence,how doesthe writer continue the paragraph?Chooseone or more from the following list: . defining and describing . giving a list of points . giving (an) example(s) . giving more information r restatingthe topic sentence . concluding
D write a summary t!" text on page17.Paraphrase the topicsentences. Add extrainformationand 9-f examples. SeeSkitts hank
6He6lionsf writing topic sentences.summarizing
A Discuss thesequestions. 1 Canyou rememberhow ICTis usedin differenttypesof businesses? 2 What arethe benefitsof usingICT? 3 What arethe costs? B fne lecturerhasaskedyou to do someresearch into the changingnatureof work. 1 What effecthasICThad on the work that peopledo? 2 Thinkof good research questionsbefore you readthe text on the oppositepage. 3 Lookquicklyat the text on the opposite page.What isthe bestway to record informationwhile you are reading?
18
c Studythe text ori the oppositepage. 1 Highlightthe topicsentences. 2 Readeachtopicsentence. What will you find in the restof the paragraph? 3 Whichparagraph(s) will probablyanswer eachresearch question?Readthose paragraphs and makenotes. 4 Haveyou got allthe information you need? lf not, readother paragraphs.
D
Usethe Internetto find out moreabout how work is changingbecause of lCT.Explainhow thisseemsto fit an organizationor a person that you know. 1 Makenotes. 2 Write a seriesof topicsentences which summarize yourfindings. 3 Reportbackto the other students.Read out eachtopicsentence then add extra details..
I
2IC T IN TH E WOR K P LA C E
Chon g i nth g ew oy w e w ork job for the past, nrany people staved irr the sar.rre Jn l' Itheir whole life. When ICT first appeared in the n'orkplace,manv people feared thev r'r'ouldlose their jobs to machines.This was true ir-rsome cases For example, robots have replaced largc numbers of production line workers in the manufacttrring industry. Serviceindr"rstries, strch as banking, also cut jobs when they brought in automated systems Howe.",er,while technology has made some jobs disappear,at the sametime it has creatednew types of employment. These include jobs in areas such .rs softw.ue engineeringand website design. Nolarlavs, peoplehave to preparefor change,possiblvinvolving letraining more than orrce The introduction of modern technologyhas not causedhigh unemployment,but it has meant tl-rat workers need new skills. Many people have retraine'd so that they can find nerr, n'ork in customer sen ice industries,like call centres.Somehave nroved into the ICT industry to n ork as developersor trainers.Others have learnt to do theil old jobs in a rrew wav For example, typists and journalists rrorv r,r,ork n,ith computers instead of tvpewritc.rs.Sonre pcople find that new technology has changed tlreir w,ork and given them increasedresponsibilities.This can nrcan that their jobs are nor\/much more interesting ICT is not only changing the nature of rvork, it is Most alsostartingto changear/rcrcthat work is dor-re. office r,r,orkerstravel to and from rvork cvery clar'.Nor'r, companiesare starting to look at the possibilitiesof teleworking, or telecommuting, wherc staff r.r'orkat home or from a telecentre They use computers and telecommunications equipmentto stavin contactrvith their office. Telework has advantagesior both employers anci emplovees.Firms save monev becausethev do not need large offices They can recruit people who live fr-rrtherawav or n'ho r,r,ouldfinci it clifiicult to n'ork r-rormal office hours: for example, worncrr with children. Hower.e1,it does mean that thel' lose dilcct control over their workers. Employces save time becausethey do not have to commute long clistances ^-'{ ^^" ru lrzs or r ol r ^-^^^;-^ ur F) o l their work to suit themselves The disadvantasefor telervorkersis that they u',rrp o1,rt-r" or and may miss-sharingideaswith their collcagues, Tl-rey fincl it working as part of a team can also n'ork home lifc difficultto separate and
pogexii
t- --.'
-J
The sar.nesystenrsthat allor,r,people kr r,r'orkfronr homc also allou' enrplovers to outsource r.r,ork to cheaperareas.h-rBritair-r, firms have operredteleccntrcs outsicle tl-rcmajor cities They have optecl for ton'ns r,r,l-relc offrce space ancl labour are not so expensivc Hort'cver, there is no reason rvhv n'ork cannot Lre r.noveclto cheapcrparts of thc worlcl. Indeecl,ovcl the last fc.n'\'ears,a number oi nrultirr.rtiorral conrpanies have close.tlcall centresand tlata-pmcessingcentrcsirr Britain autl movecl tlre rr'ork to Inclia, n'here salaries are klrver. More recentlv however; sonre largc UK cor.npanies l-ravebrought their operationsLrackinkr the UK clue to customersen,iceissues.This is, perlraps,;r goocl exanrple oi companic.sthinking alrout ICT rn isolatrorr rvithotrt thinkirrg of r,r'hat'sbest for the businessor their cLlstonrcrs. Thc increasirrgtlenrand for goorl ICT skills in thc workplace has also l-rarlar-rimpact or-rthc worltl of eclucation.Manv governments have respondcd bt, invcsting rn ner'r,technologyfor schoolsso that pupils can leam both n'ith and about cornputer-Lrased systcrns Universitiesnor'r,offer a whole range of ICTrelatcdcoulses,r.r'hicl-r nrearrsthat teachershave had to learnto use ICT to deliverlessonsin the classroomor teach cntire colu'sesor-rline This kind of chauge is irrportar.rtlrecausevoung people r.r'hohavc computer skills r,r'illlrave an advantagert'l-renit conlcs to fiuding work How, whcn anci where wc work is cl-rangingancl n'ill continr-rcto changt' Succcssdcpenclsultinratelv on whethel we accept or relect this change. People have to be more f-lexibleaboLrtthe hours they n'ork and the tvpe of work tl-revdo Nowadays, job securitv no longer comesfrom finding a job anclstaving rr-rtl-rat job for lifc It cor.nesfrom having thc. skills ancl flexilrility to adapt to changc and being preparecltcr learu nerv things
Chongingthe woy we work
il
Using your English-English dictionary helpsyou actuallylearnEnglish. Thiskindof dictionary Using headwords and parts of speech 1 Findthe correctheadword. order.Lookat the Thesebold wordsin a dictionaryare in alphabetical wordson the top left and top right of the doublepage.Finda word whichcomesjust beforeand afteryour word. 2 Findthe correctmeaning. lf thereare differentmeaningsof the word,they appearin a numbered list.Lookat all the meaningsbeforeyou choosethe correctone in context. 3 Findthe correctpart of speech. the sameheadwordappearsmorethan once,followedby a Sometimes smallnumber.Thismeansthe word hasmorethan one partof speech, e.9.,n and v. Work out the part of speechbeforeyou look up a word. Clues: o Nounsoften comeafter articles(alanlthe)or adjectives. o Verbscomeafter nounsor pronouns. Learning to pronounce words Thesymbolsafterthe headwordshowyou how to pronouncethe word. Learnthesesymbols(the key is usuallyat the front or the backof the dictionary). the word. Thelittle line in the symbolsshowsyou how to stress Example: I n' b:m I but /mfa'me{4/ Learning to use words correctly in context Thisinformationis importantfor Nounscanbe countableor uncountable. Lookfor the symbol[C] usingarticfesand verbforms(e.9.,islare)correctly. or [U]. Someverbsneedan object.Theyaretransitive.Someverbsdon't needan Thisinformationis importantfor making object.Theyare intransitive. good sentences. Lookfor the symbol[T] or []. Somewordscanbe speltin BritishEnglish(e.9.,colour centre)or American Engfish(e.9.,color center).Choosethe correctspellingfor the text you are workingon.
Doing reading research Before you start reading ... o Thinkof research questions. In otherwords,askyourself : What mustI find out from my research? o Lookat headings, sub-headings, illustrations. Lookfor patternsor variationsin presentation, e.9.,a seriesof dates;wordsin bold or italicscript.Think:what information do they give me? o Decidehow to recordinformationfrom your reading.Chooseone or moremethods of note-taking.See Unit I Skills bank While you are reading ... o Highlightthe topicsentences. o Think:which paragraph(s)will probabtygive me the answerto my research questions? o Readtheseparagraph(s) first. o Makenotes. After reading ... o Think:Did the text answerall my researchquestions? o lf the ansWeris no, look at other paragraphs to seeif the informationisthere.
Using topic sentencesto summarize Thetopicsentences of a text normallymakea good basisfor a summary. Followthis procedure: o Locatethe topicsentences. o Paraphrase them- in otherwords,rewritethem in your own wordssothat the meaningisthe same.Do not simplycopythem.(Thisisa form of plagiarism.) o Add supportinginformation- onceagain,in your own words. Example: Topicsentence
When ICT first appeared in the workplace, many people feared they would lose their jobs to machines.
Paraphrase of topic sentence
The introduction of ICT in the workplace caused many employees to fear that they would be replaced by machines.
Supportinginformationand examples(summarized)
Many people have had to learn new skillsso that they can find jobs in computer-related fields ... t" people now ha.vemore interesting jobs ...
o checkyoursummary. checkthat the ideasflow rogically. checkspellingand grammar:lf your summaryisshort,it maybe just one paragraph,ForJlonger summary, divideit into paragraphs.
stresswithin words . prefixes
thesequestions. A Discuss 1 Whendo you useICTor seeICTbeingusedaroundyou in your everydaylife? 2 What are the benefitsof ICTto your life? 3 Are there any disadvantages?
B
alarm application automated biometric control device global machine monitoring online passport positioning protocol receiver remote system teller wireless
Studythe pictureson the opposite page. 1 What aspectsof life do they show?Talk about eachpictureusingwords from box a. (Youwill not need allthe words.) 2 How does each item work?
c
Look at the words in box a. 1 Underlinethe stressed syllablein eachword. 2 Which of these words hasthe samestresspattern as global? 3 Sort the other words into groups accordingto their stresspatterns.
D Completeeach sentencewith a word from box a. Changethe form if necessary. 1 The
systemwent off when someonetried to break into the house.
2 You need a personalidentification number (PlN)to take money out of the teller machine. 3 The microchipin a biometric suchas their fingerprintsor a face scan.
containsinformationabout an individual.
shoppingis a convenientway to buy things,but many peopleworry about lnternet fraud.
from satellites systems usesignals to triangulate their position. This informationcanthen be displayedin mapform to helpdriverstravelfrom one placeto another.
5 Global
to selectthe channelyou want to watch.
6 Usethe remote
devicesgive information which doctorscan useto treat a
7 Bodyfunction patient'scondition. 8 WAP phonesusewireless
..
protocol.
E Studythe words in box b. Findthe prefixand try to work out the meaningin eachcase.
automated automation automaton
F
binary bidirectional bia n n u a l
embed encode enable
output outsource outline
Completeeach sentencewith a word from box b. Changethe form if necessary. 1 Manufacturing processes which are controlled by computersare saidto be
2A
'1'and '0', system usesonlytwo numbers,
3 Laserprintersand VDU screensare examplesof
devices.
4 The latest computersare much faster than their 5 Most of today'swashing machineshave 22
predecessor preformat preprogram
ICTsystems.
I INTRODUCTION TO ICT SYSTEIUIS
T I \:::rvreweasxr I wrsHLrsrI tpr-llrltp-q!1. t,t,p
fi preparingfor a lecture. predictinglecturecontent. making notes
A
Studythe handout on the right from a lectureabout ICT systems. 1 What do you expectto hear in the.lecture?Make a list of points. 2 Write down some key words you expectto hear.
IIADFORD Uniuersity
Foculty: ICT lecture:IntroductionnoICTsystems
3 Checkthe pronunciationof the key words,with other studentsor with a dictionary. t...:t:::
4 How are you going to preparefor this lecture?
B
6d tirt"n to Part 1 of the lecture. 1 What exactlyis the lecturergoing to talk about today? Tickthe topic(s)you heard. . how people use ICTsystems . communicationssystems . what ICTsystemsare
. mR a
PrflsH
F133A1"".,,1, o -: @
_
r what ICTsystemsdo . different types of computers 2 What doesthe lecturergive definitionsof? 3 What is a good way to organizenotesfor this lecture?
c
6& tirt"n to Part 2 of the lecture. 1 What is the main ideaof this section? 2 What exampleof an information systemdoesthe lecturergive? 3 What does a control systemdo? 4 What three examplesof communicationchannelsdoes the lecturermention? 5 What do you expectto hear in the next part of the lecture?
gl
6d titt"n to Part 3 of the lecture. 1 How could you write notesfor this part? 2 What two componentsof ICTsystemsare discussed and what are their definitions?
E
60 tirt"n to Part 4 of the lecture. 1 Checkyour definitionsof the two components. 2 What isthe researchtask?
F
6
aretrue or falseaccordingto the lecture. 60 tirt"n and saywhetherthesesentences 1_ 2 3 4 5_ Look at the picturesin the HadfordUniversitylecturehandout. 1 What does each picture show? 2 Ask and answerquestionsabout each item.
24 '--
6_
stresswithin words o using information sources. reporting researchfindings
syllables. ldentifythe word below in eachcase.Numbereachword. 6d titt"n to somestressed Example: You hear:
1 lec llekl application
You write: database
management I
automated
electrical
binary
embedded
regulate
communicate
f unction
satellite
component
information
storage
control
instruction
system
process
i4 Where is the stressin eachmulti-syllable word in ExerciseA? 1 Mark the stress. 2 Practisesayingeachword. Work in pairsor groups.Defineone of the words in Exercise A. The other student(s)must find and saythe correctword. ,1
Look at the itemsin the photoson the right. 1 Decidewhether the ICTsystemsshown are input devices(l), output devices(O) or storagedevices(S). 2 Saywhat each item is usedfor.
5
3 How many other itemscan you add to eachof the thlee categories? Ilem
I/o/S
I Flashdnve
Usei
a
Portablenenory Oevt@
E
Beforeyou attend a lectureyou should do some research. 1 How could you researchthe lecturetopicson the right?
F
*, it y XtY HADFORDI' tti t'crs Foculty: ICT
2 What informationshouldyou record?
1
Encodingdoto
3 How could you recordthe information?
2
Microprocessors: o brief history
3
Doto processing
4
Computersof ihe future:quonlum computing
You are going to do someresearchon a particularlecture topic. You must find: 1 a dictionarydefinition 2 an encyclopedia explanation 3 a usefulInternetsite
StudentA o Do someresearch on encodingdata. o Tellyourpartneraboutyourfindings.
StudentB o Do someresearch on data processing. o Tellyour partneraboutyourfindings. 25
3.2. A Youare goingto listento a continuationof the lecturein Lesson 1 Makea listof pointsfrom that lecture. 2 What isthe lecturergoingto talk abouttoday?(Clue:Lesson 3.2.research task) 3 C) Listento the end of the.lastlectureagainand checkyour ideas. 4 Reportyour findingsfrom the research taskin Lesson 3.3,Exercise F.
B
c
D
Lookat the slidesfor todayt lectureon the oppositepage. 1 What isshownin Slide1? 2 What isshownin Slides 2 and 3? 3 What doesthe systemin Slides2 and 3 do? 6) titt"n to Part 1 of today'slecture. 1 What arethe threestagesthat datagoesthrough? 2 What isthe differencebetweendata andinformation? 3 What isthe bestway to makenotesfrom this lecture?Preparea pagein your notebook. askotherstudentsfor information. 6) tirt"n to Part2 of the lecture.Makenotes.lf necessary,
E
What isthe lecturergoingto talk about next? 1 C) Listento the beginningof Part3 and checkyour ideas. 2 6) Now listento the restof the lecture.Makenotes.lf necessaryaskother studentsfor information.
F
Matchthe wordsand definitions. 1 deviceE 2 instructionI 3 decodeI 4 transmitJ 5 control(v)I 5 componentI 7 cycleI 8 system6
moveinformationfrom one placeto another a setof connecteddevices whichwork together one of a numberof partsthat for,msomethingbigger process with no beginningor end a continuous an orderto do something regulateor instructsomething changefrom a codedform to a recognizable form h an objectinventedto performa function
a b c d e f g
G
Drawand labela simplediagramof a controlsystemcycle.Workingwith a partner,explainyour diagram,usingsomewordsand definitionsfrom Exercise F.
H
Thinkof a wordfrom thisunit for eachdefinitionin the bluebox.
i*--io
26
a binarydigit informationwithout a context changeinformationinto data a smalldevicewhichactson input data
Dolo informolion
Dolo sy$em
Sl i d e1
Volve opened lo leloulwoter
Sensor delecls woler levelistoohigh
Volve opened to let woler in
Sensor delects level isloolow
Sl i d e2
Flood control zone
volve ,------FloodOole
Minimum lanel 2Nm-
(onlrol uolu, I
Slide 3 This diagram shows a control program for a hydroelectric dam.
Stress within words Nouns,verbs,adjectivesand adverbsare calledcontentwords because they carrythe meaningin a sentence. One-syllable words somecontentwordshaveone syllabteor-sound. Thisis alwaysstressed. Exampfes:'screen,'texl' mouse Itro-syllable words somecontentwordshave_twosyltables.Two-syllable nounsand adjectives are often stressedon the first syilable.Two-syllibleverbs.r" oft"n stressed on the secondsyllable. Examples: Exceptions: Nouns Adjectives Verbs
'data,'storage 'modern,'central in'stall, con'trol
Nouns Adjectives Verbs
de'vice,ma' chine,re'sult u'nique,se'cure 'program,'input
Multi-syllable words somecontentwordshavethreeor moresyltables. Multi-syllable wordsare normallystressed threesyllables from the end. Example: Ooo o Ooo ooOo o Thisistrue for mostwordsendingin: -izel-ise -5lS
-ate
-ifv -ical -ity -ular -al
-ology -cy
'authorize,'summarise a'nalysis 'automate,'regulate 'classify,'specify 'physical,nu'merical u'tility, a'bility par'ticular, 'regular 'decimal,con'tinual metho'dology e'fficiency
Exceptions: Multi-syllable wordsendingin the followinglettersare normallystressed two syllables from the end. -lC
-ton
-ent -tial
28
auto'matig bio'metric app Ii' cation, con' versi on com'ponent,e'fficient diffe'rential
Getting information from other people From the lecturer We cansometimes aska lecturerquestions at the end of a lecture. lntroduceeachquestionin a politeor tentativeway. Examples: Couldyou go over the bit aboutdata storageagain? I didn't quite understandwhat you saidaboutencodingdata. I wonder if you could repeat the four hardware components,please. Wouldyou mind giving the definition of an embedded systemagain? From other students It isa good ideato askother studentsafter a lecturefor informationto completeyour notes. Examples: What did the lecturersay about applicationssoftware? Why did shesay that ICTsystemscanbe embeddedor generalpurpose? I didn't get the bit about the difference between systems software and appI icationssoftware. Be polite! It sometimes soundsimpoliteto askpeoplea directquestion.we often add a politeintroduction. Examples: How do computersstoredata? .) (polite) Do you know how computersstoredata? Whatdoes'encode' mean? ) (pofite) Canyou rememberwhat'encode' means? What is trilateration? ) (polite) Couldyou tell me somethingabout'trilateration'?
Reporting information to other people we often haveto reportresearch findingsto a tutor or otherstudentsin a seminar. Makesureyou cangive: . sources - books,articles,writers,publicationdates . quotes- in the writer'sown words . summary findings- in yourown words
,- ,* -
" ---J
cornputerjargon o abbreviationsand acronyms. verb and noun suffixes
A
Studythe wordsand phrases in box a. 1 Whichwordsor phrases relateto ICT?' Whichrelateto booksand libraries? Find two groupsof words. 2 Findpairsof wordsand phrases with similar meanings, one from eachgroup. 3 Checkyour ideaswith the first part of TheComputerJargon Busteron the oppositepage.
B
Completethe instructions for usingthe LearningResource Centrewith wordsor phrases from box a.
and acronyms c Studythe abbreviations in boxb. 1 How do you sayeachone? 2 Dividethem into two groups: o abbreviations . acronyms See Vocabularybank CAL CLI GUI HCI HTML HTTP IsP RAM ROM URL USB VLE WIMP V\A/VW
D
E
Testeachother on the itemsin Exercise C. 1 What do the lettersstandfor in eachcase? 2 What do they mean? 3 Checkyour ideaswith the secondpart of TheComputerJargon Busteron the oppositepage. Studythe nounsin boxc. 1 Makea verbfrom eachnoun. 2 Makeanothernounfrom the verb. class computer digit identity machine
30 .E
books browse/searchcatalogue close cross-referencedatabase electronicresourcesexiVlogoff hyperlink index library log in/logon look up menu open page searchengine table of contents web page World Wide Web
ADFORD Uniuersity leoming Resourte Cen|rre lnstructionsfor use: If you want to accessweb pageson the , you must first to the university intranet with your usernameand password.You can use anv
but the
defaultis Google. for web pagesby typing one or more keywordsin the searchbox and clicking on Search,or pressingEnter. When the resultsappear, (highlightedin click on a blue)to jump to the web page.Click on Back to return to the resultslisting. You can also usethe universiw of learningresources. Click on ICT Resourceson the main
ComputerWeekly
Internatlonrl
Mdgazlne
Ilrc Cornputer Jargor) Buster There are many
books
electronic resources
common words used
index
searchengine
about books and
cross-reference
hyperlink
libraries which are
catalogue
database
library
WorldWideWeb
table of contents
menu
translated into jargon words when we talk about using computers and the Internet for similar
look up
browse/search
PaSe oPen
web page
close
exit/log off
log in/log on
functions.
There are many abbreviations and acronyms in computing. Learn some useful ones.
Abbr./Acr. What it stands for CAL computerrassisted learning CLI GUI HCI
command line interface graphical user interface
What
it means
usingcomputers to help you learn a way to interact with a computer usinglinesof text a way to interact with a computer usinga mouse to point and click on images
HTML
human-computer the way that a user works with a computer system interaction hypertext markup language a way to write documentsso they can be displayed
HTTP
hypertext transfer protocol a set of rules for transfering files on the WVWV, usually
on a website includedat the beginningof a website address (e.g.,http://www ...)
ISP RAM ROM
URL USB
lnternet service provider random-accessmemory read-only memory
uniform resource locator universalserial bus
a companythat enablesaccessto the Internet the memory you can use to store your own information a type of permanentcomputer or disk memory that stores informationthat can be read or used but not changed a website address,e.g.,http://www.garneteducation.com a standardway to connect things like printers and scanners to a comPuter
VLE
virtual learning environment
a software program for computerized learning
WIMP
windows,icons,menus, pointers
a way to interact with a computer usingwindows,icons, menusand pointing devices(see GUI)
WIVIV
WorldWideWeb
a huge collection of documentsthat are connectedby hypertext link and can be accessedthrough the Interner
ComputerWeekly lntematlonal
Magazlne
preparation for reading research. topic development
Discuss thesequestions. 1 How are computersusedin educationtoday? 2 What are the advantagesof using computersfor learning?
administration
learningresources
VLE Look at the title of the text on the opposite page.
assessment
communrcauon
1 What does'computer-assisted learning' mean? 2 What sort of coursescan CALbe usedin? Make a list.
Virtuol LeorningEnvironment
3 Write somequestionsthat you would like the text to answer. Work in pairs.Look at the diagramon this pa9e. 1 Describeit. 2 What sort of things do you think each componentincludes? One studentwrote someideasabout CAL before readingthe text on the oppositepage. Write A (l agree),D (l disagree)or ? (l'm not sure)next to the ideason the right. Look carefullyat the topic sentencesin the text on the oppositepage. 1 ldentifythe topic and commentabout the topic. 2 What do you think eachparagraphwill be about? Readthe text carefully.Were your questions from ExerciseB answered? Doesthe writer of the text agreeor disagree with the ideasin Exercise D? Which ideasare not mentioned? Studythe notesa studentmade in the margin of the text on the oppositepage. 1 What ideasare in the other paragraphs? Write some key words. 2 Which words introducenew ideasin each paragraph?
CALhasalwaysbeen easylo use. Teachersdidnl like usirp CAL so{*ware produo+sa* firs*. CALis ius* anofhe, add'lionlo lradilional leachinq me*hods. CALhas,adically changedlhe way peo?leleam. In lhe {u}ure,leache.s will be
.eplacedby CAL.
*" \"7
HADFORDLn rt'ct'sitj'
Computer-Assisted leorning - o-?ulers educ-atio^ :a.\5
in
grobe.
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Computers havebeenusedin educationsincethe 1960s.Initially,theytendedto only be usedin computer-related subjectsbecausethey were, unfortunately, quite difiicult to use.This was because theyhadcommandline interfaces (CLI). Usershadto typelong linesof textin orderto getthecomputerto do something. However,the 1980ssawtheadventof thefirst graphicaluser interlaces(GUls) which weremuchmoreuser-friendly. This improvement in human-computer interaction(HCI), togetherwith new subject-specific software,made it viable to employ computersin moresubjects. Educationinstitutionsbeganto seethe valueof computer-assisted learning(CAL). Many investedheavilyin equipmentandtraining,theoutcomeof whichcanbe seentodayin manyclassrooms aroundtheworld. By the endof the 20thcentury,therewasa wholerangeof CAL softwareproductson offer. In general,the first CAL programswere not terriblyexciting.However,in the late 1980s,CDROMs and other multimediaproductsbecameavailable.Thesemadeit possibleto produce softwarewith sound and graphicswhich was also easy to distribute.As a result, more buSinesses becameinvolved in developingeducationalsoftware.The new productswere attractiveand many studentsenjoyed using them. Nevertheless, they were expensive.In addition,they wereoftenperceivedto be just a differentway of learningor testingthe same things.Teacherswho dislikedusingcomputerswere largelyable to ignorethem or conflne themto self-study. By contrast,it wasdifficult to ignorethe arrivalof the Internet,which heraldeda new phase in CAL and had a huge impact on education.Although slow links and downloadtimes characterized theearlydaysof theIntemet,thedevelopment of broadband technologyprovided much speedieraccess.The Internetprovidesan alternativeto textbook-based learningand accessto authentic,up-to-dateonline resources.Furthermore,it offers studentsa way to communicate with eachother,andwith theoutsideworld.Theycanevenpublishtheirwork on the Web for others.Now CAL is morethana 'bolt-on'to traditionalteaching.It requiresnew skills,suchastheabilityto find information, evaluatewebsites, or to collaborate with othersvia a network.
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CAL not only influences how andrrftl,tstudentslearn;it alsoaffectswheretheyleam.Many coursesnow incotporatea virtual learningenvironment(VLE), which is a set of computerbasedteachingand learningtools usedto teachdistance-learning programmes or ro suppon face-to-face courses. VLEs aresimilarto websitesin manyways.Like websites, they run on a serverandcan be accessed via an Internetconnection. VLEs containa numberof components which, typically, would include the following. Firstly, there is an adminisrrative elemenr providingcourseinformation,suchas studenttasksandhow to get help.Secondly, therearethe leamingresources usedto deliverthe course,includingmaterialsdesignedby the teacher,or links to sourcesof information.Thirdly,thereis a rangeof assessment toolswhichcanbe used to chartprogressduringthe course.VLEs alsohavecommunication tools,suchas e-mail,fbr students to contact,or correspond with, theirteachers or theirpeers. Clearly,CAL is setto play an importantrole in educationin the future.Somepeopleeven believethat it will eventuallyreplacethe needfor teachers or classrooms. However,it is more likely thatVLEs arethe futureof computer-assisted learning.This meansthat subjectteachers arefacedwith a newchallenge. Theywill not only needto be expertsin theirheld,for example historyor French,but theywill alsohaveto becomeconfidentusersof newtechnology.
A
B
c
Discussthese questions.
Il confains all of my keywords. -
2 What keywordswould yoi.ruseto make this search?Why?
Il is ;n lle f',rsl len.
Your searchproduces50 results.How can you selectthe most useful ones without reading all of them? Look at the list of criteria on the right and put a tick or'?'. You want to repearchthe following. Chooseup to three keywordsor phrasesfor each search. 1 invention of World Wide Web 2 typesof communicationtools found in a VLE 3 where to find online learningactivitiesfor ICT
D
Caleaa {or choosirp *o read a res.tll
1 You want to find out about computersin teachingand learning.Where would you look for the information?Why?
Tle, docw'rcnl cnrres from a iourrral. It has iAis year s dale. Il is a la"ge docuner*. TIe, websile addressends in .org T[e, websile address erds in .edu Tle,websile addresscontains .ac rl
^^tt $ a fut
al
tte. _
Il re{ers lo ICr Il ,e{e.s lo a oersonI doil kno*. Il refers lo an organizal.ion I know. -
Go to a computer and try out your chosenkeywords.
analypingInternet searchresults. reporting researchfindings
A Wfratinformationiscontainedin the resultslistingof a searchengine? 1 Makea list. I Cfrect< with the resultslistingon the oppositepage.
B
Scanthe resultslistings.Answerthesequestions. 1 What keywordswere entered? 2 Why wasjournalusedasa keyword?Why is it not in inverted commas?
c $nswerthesequestions. 1 Whichresultscontainabbreviations or acronyms?
6 Which resultsrefer to educational institutions?
2 Where is the website addressin each result?
7 Which resultsare commercialsites?
3 Which are PDFdocuments?
8 Which country does result 7 come from?
4 What do the different colouredfonts represent? 5 Which resultsrefer to journals?
9 What doessimilar pagesmean? 10 What does cachedmean?
D
learningby enteringthe keywordsinto a Continueyour research on computer-assisted searchengineand accessing threeof the results. 1 Makenotes. 2 Compareyour findingswith otherstudents.
E
Choosethe mostinterestingresult.Write a paragraphaboutthe informationyou discovered. markersandstancemarkers. Developthe topicwithin the paragraphwith discourse
34
Sign in Wcb
lmages
Groups tlews
Frooole Maps
!E@.
@iffiltr*P Web
Results 1 - 10 of about 289 for "Gomputer assisted learning" + joqftil
+ "latest technology"
Journalof ComputerAssistedLearning-Vol 26. lssue 5 The Journal of Computer Assisted Learning is a quarterly,peer-reviewed, internationaljournal which coversthe whole rangeof usersof informationand communication technology to supportlearningand knowledgeexchange. ^ttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10,11111%28lSSN%291365-2729 - Cached An evaluationof comouter-assisted learningin mathematics... 11 Jul 2010 -An evaluationof computer-assistedlearning in mathematics... International Journalof MathematicalEducationin Scienceand Technology,Vol 23 .';ww. informaworld. com/.. ./content-content=a746 869072 - Cached JOLT- Journalof OnlineLearningand Teaching 15 Dec 2009 -A USB donglesimilarto a flash driveservesas the wirelessreceiver... , Journalof ComputerAssisted Learning, 20(2),81-94.doi: 10.11111jJ365-27292004.00074 ... Journalof Research on Technologyin Education, 41(2),161-177. ... olt.merlot.org/vol5no4/klein_1209.htm - Cached- Similar E-Learning Journals - Journalswith a focus on EnglishStudiesand Technology ... Publishedthreetimes per year, 30 Jun 2O1O the magazinecontainsin-deptharticleson the latestlearningtrendsand developmentsas well as ... Journal of Computer-AssistedLearning ... ,vww.english.heacademy.ac.uk/.../technology/journals.php-Cached-Similar* IPDFITeachingComouterSciencein HigherEducation: EnablingLearning... 24 Jun 2010 - More than just the latesttechnologybuzzword,it's a transformativeforce that's ... in multimediaComputer Aided Learning. Journal (CALJ)... fie-conference.org/fie201 O/papers/'1 100.pdf- Cached- Similar Learninginteractionand networkedcommunities 20 Jul 2010 - A currentfocus is on designingtechnologiesthat incorporatelearninginteractionand dialogue design.Paperin Proceedingsof International Workshopon LearningInteractionand Learning Technology. ',vww.londonmet.ac.uk/ltri/research/interaction.htm - Cached- Similar AJET:AustralasianJournalof EducationalTechnology 15 Mar 2010- articlesin educationaltechnology,educationaldesign,multimedia,computer assisted learning, and relatedareas.AJET is publishedby the AustralasianSocietyfor Computersin Learningin TertiaryEducation(ASCILITE)... wwwascilite.org.au/ajeUabout/about.html - Cached- Similar IPDF]LEARNINGAND TEACHINGAWARDS 15 Feb 2010- Technology-enhanced learning, or computer aidedlearning (e-learning) can be institutionally ... assistedteachingsessions.Figure3 explainsthe processof learningfor all three ... the latest technology and e-learningpackageswhich ... establishingcriteriafor e-learningdevelopment. www becta.org.uk/page_docu pdateO2_04 pdf - Similarpages ments/research/ictres_u Promotingcomputerassistedlearningfor personswith disabilities... 6 May 2010- The currenttechnologies allowcomputerapplications ... with a higherdegreeof accessibility Computer Assisted Learning (CAL)solutionsfor peoplewith visualdisabilities. A basisof many accessible toolsfor ... iinkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877042810007597-Gached-Similar 'CAL'- Past.presentand bevond- Crook- 2010 - Journalof ComouterAssisted Learning... ...2002) nor to regardthe latesttechnology as a replacementfor more traditional... and distancelearning, Journal of Gomputer Assisted Learning, Vol. ... onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi|10.11111j.1365-2729.2009.00343.x/full - Similar oages *Note that this link refersto an institution that will no longer be fu nded f r om J uly20 1 1 ,s o l i n k i s l i k e l yto b e c o m ei nacti ve.
35
Understanding abbreviations and acronyms An abbreviationisa shorterversionof something.Forexample,PC/pi:si:/isan abbrevlation tor personalcomputer An acronymissimilarto an abbreviation, but it is pronouncedasa word. Forexample,CAL is for an acronym coniputer-assisted learning. /kel/ We normallywrite an abbreviationor acronymwith capitalletters,althoughthe full words havelower caseletters.However,there are exceptions,suchasvvww which is often written with lower caseletters. We pronouncethe vowelletters We normallypronouncethe vowel in abbreviqtions in thisway: lettersin acronymsin this way: A
E I
A
/eil litl latl
E
lel lel ltl
o
la
o
U
lju'^l
U
lol /t'l
Common suffixes Suffixes for verbs Thereare somecommonverbsuffixes. Theymakenounsinto verbs.The meaningis basically make+ noun. Examples: -tze
computerize,mechanize,digitize
-(i)ry
classify,specify, mod ify
-ate
navi gate, comm un i cate, i n novate
-en
broaden,lengthen, strengthen
Suffixes for nouns Manynounsare madeby addinga suffixto a verb.Thismeans: . Youcanidentifymanynounsfrom a suffix. . Youcanoften discoverthe verb by removingthe suffix. you haveto makechanges Sometimes to the end of the verb. Examples: Verb produce
Suffix
pertorm
+ nce
+ tion
Noun production pertormance
computerize* + tion computerization manufacture + tng manufacturing coordinate + ton coordination specify + ication specification *both -isel-ize (-isationl-ization)forms are acceptablein BritishEnglish. AmericanEnglishusageis -ize (-ization).
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Developing ideas in a paragraph lntroducing the topic In a text, a new paragraph indicatesthe start of a new topic. The topic is given in the topic sentence,which is at or near the beginningof the paragraph. The topic sentencegivesthe topic, and alsomakesa commentabout the topic. Example: By contrast, it was difficult to ignore the arrival of the lnternet, which heralded a new phase in CAL The topic is the lnternet.The comment is that this heraldeda new phasein CAL. The sentences that follow then expandor explainthe topic sentence. Examples: It hashad a huge impact on education ... The lnternet providesan alternative to textbook learning ... lt offers studentsa way to communicate... Now CALis more than a'bolt on'to traditional teaching ... lt requiresnew skills... Developing the topic A paragraphis normallyabout the samebasictopic (the 'unity'principle).Howeve[ within a paragraph,ideasoften developbeyondthe initialcomment.Thisdevelopmentis often shown by o a discoursemarker: but, howevet etc. . a stance marker: unfortunately, etc. Examples: However, the 1980ssaw the advent of the f irst graphical userinterfaces (GUls).Thesewere much more user-friendly. Slow links and download times characterized the early days of the lnternet. Thankfully, however,broadband technology soon changed this. Discoursemarkersgenerallymake a connectionbetweenthe previousinformationand what comesnext.They mainly introducecontrastsor additionalinformation. Stancemarkersshow the attitude of the writer to the information, i.e.,whether he/sheis surprised,pleased,unhappy,etc. about the information.
Recordingand reporting findings When you do your research,recordinformationabout the source.Referto the sourcewhen you report your findings. Examples: (2007)statesthat ... Tim Berners-Lee As Aydin, Harmsen,van Slooten& Stegweesuggestin their 2005articlein lhe Journalof DatabaseManagement,... Accordingto Brooksin his book The Mythical Man Month and Other Essays on Software Engineering(1995),... As the writer of the article on www.computerweekly.com(March 29,2009)says,... You shouldgive full informationabout the sourcein your referencelist or bibliography.For more informationabout this, seeUnit 10 Skills bank.
tf
word sets:rynonyms,antonyms,etc. o describingtrends
A
B
Lookat the pictureson the oppositepage. 1 Whatdo theyhavein common? 2 Putthem in the orderof development. Studythe wordsin box a. 1 Findpairsof wordswith similarmeanings. 2 What part of speechis eachword? architecture calculate change complex configure convert create design develop engine knowledge machine precision record set up sophisticated stage step store tolerance understanding work out
c Studythe HadfordUniversityhandouton thispage. Findpairsof bluewordswith similarmeanings.
D
Studythe wordsin box b. 1 Findpairsof opposites. 2 Groupwordstogetherto makesets. 3 Tryto givea nameto eachword set. academic addition analogue civilian commercial current decode decrypt digital division pncode encrypt fixed flexible limited military multiplicationmulti-purpose obsolete portable specializedsubtraction
E
F
Workwith a partner. 1 Choosean imageon the oppositepage.Usewords from box b to describeit. 2 Yourpartnershouldguesswhichimageyou are talkingabout. Lookat Figure1. 1 Howwouldyou describe the graph? 2 Whatdo eachof the lineson the graphshow?
ADFORDUziuersity
Foculty:ICT lecturc: Thehisnry ol compuling In order to fully understondthe currentstote of the computer,it is essentiolto know obout the key stogesin its technicolevolution.This introductorylecturewill look ot thesestoges, beginningwith the obqcus- firstusedto colculoietoxesin Bobylonin 2500 sceond continuingup to the present. The lecturewill exominehow, over time, new colculotingengineswere developedfor specificpurposesby inventors.lt will look ot the woy in which the orchitectureof the mochineswos limitedby the toleroncewith which portscouldbe mode,usingthe technologyot the time. The lecturewill olso explorehow mochines becomemorecomplexos inventors' understonding of computingdeveloped.This includesthe kind of mochines which hod to be configuredfor eoch tosk,os well os mochines whichwere progrommoble. In oddition, it will look ot how doto wos stored ond convertedinto inputtypessuitoblefor the computer.Finolly,it will exominewhy computershove becomenecessoryin wor ond how militoryneedsin the 20thcentury were responsiblefor so mony new developments.
Figure 2 shows changes number and cost of transistors 1.97'1.
1985. Up
to 1.979,there was a in the number of transistors. During the same period, prices . From 1979 to 1985, the cost of the transistors showed a
G Studythe descriptionof Figure2 on this page. Write one or two words in each space. 38
. At the same time, the number of transistors
o 5 E
35,000 20,000 10,0 0 0
o c
.^ lu
I g
'g1 o
E I
r,ooo 1oo 01 0 01 0.001 10
1920
1930
1940
1950
Figur e1
600 500 o Or
E8
400
9o
E?
300
ct c
200
fl o
100 0 Figur e2
4r-
Transistors (x 1,OOO)
-+
Cost per transistor USo
lecture organization . 'signpost' language
You are going to hear a lectureabout the development of computers.Look at the lectureslides.What will the lecturertalk about? Make a list of points. 6d tirt"n to Part 1 of the lecture.How will the lecture be organized?Numberthesetopics. o computingin the SecondWorld War o mechanicalcomputing o riseof the Internet O
pre-mechanical computing
a
electroniccomputing
S l i de1
B. Studythe topicsin Exercise 1 Write some key words for eachtopic. 2 Canyou matchthe topicswith Slides1-4? 3 What is a good way to make notes? 4 Make an outline for your notes. 6d tirt"n to Part 2 of the lecture. 1 Add informationto your outline notes. 2 Which of the topicsin Exercise B are discussed? ln what order?
S l i de2
3 Why was the JacquardLoom important? 6d tirt"n to Part 3 of the lecture.Make notes. B are discussed? 1 Which topicsin Exercise 2 Which topic has not been mentioned? 3 What challengehelpedcomputersdevelopin the late 19tncentury? 4 How did computerdevelopmentduring the Second World War movetechnologyforward? The lecturer usedthese words and phrases.Match synonyms. 1 key concept
a calculating
2 adding
b do
3 important people 4 jump ahead
c machine d important point
5 perform
e key figures
6 invented
t move forward
7 device
g created
S l i de3
S l i de4
note-taking symbols. stresswithin words . lecture language
Look at the student noteson the right. They are from the lecturein Lesson5.2.
Mechanical compulirg
1 What do the symbolsand abbreviations mean?
0)Hoi/eniA lale Cl7+h,IabulalirE machir:res usinggears&,paperiape. useduS Censusl88oard J +r" by 7 yrs
2 The notescontainsomemistakes.Findand correctthem.
Company becaueIBM. () l13Z- BusAmIT - D'fferenlial Aruly.". comm.use = elec. molors&
3 Make the correctednotesinto a spidergram. 5) titt"n to the final part of the lecture.
qears, binarv
J'T
1 Completeyour notes.
wwz
2 Why doesthe lecture have to stop?
Gi)WWZ- UK, Tunrg broke Germancode using Colossus= Ft elecl onic compuler,
3 What is the researchtask?
ayplogue,usedvalves* relays.
syllables. ldentifythe f) titt"n to somestressed word below in eachcase.Numbereachword.
Innovalive,eg., purched c,ard inV.^|, enory\pw impact on wac
Example:You hear: 1-crypt krrytl You write: arithmetic
chip
digital
programmability
addition
computation
magnetic
subtraction
calculation
cryptography
mechanical
transistor
I
Studythe extract from the lectureon the right. 1 Think of one word for eachspace. 6d Listenand checkyour ideas. 3 Matih words or phrasesfrom the blue box below with eachword or phrasefrom the lecture. 2
4 Think of other words or phraseswith similarmeanings.
The computer is
the most imoortant
pieceof technologyin modern societg but it has a very long history, in fact going back almost 5,000 years.It startswith the early Babylonians,who usedsimple arithmetic to count and keep a record of their goods. As their wealth grew and they had more and more
basically by that I mean for example for instance in fact possibly probably some people say that is to say to put it anotherway we can seethat we won't spendtoo muchtime on this
goods to record,it
that they would
try to developtools to make this work easier. A good
of one of thesetools is the
abacus,used as a basic calalator - in uords, a computer. What I is that, as in a computer,data is
Discuss the researchtask set by the lecturer. 1 What kind of informationshouldyou find?
input by moving the beads.It is stored by the position
2 What do you-alreadyknow?
of the beadsand the output or answerscan then be
3 Where can you find more information?
read off. Five beadsper line are often used,just as there are five fingerson a hand. moutnS
to the early 17th centurS we
find a different type of computer.
€ontributionsto a seminar
A
Studythe graphon the oppositepage. 1 What doesit show? 2 What isthe connectionbetweenthe graphand the development of the Internet?
B
5) titt"n to someextractsfrom d seminaraboutthe creationof the Internet. 1 What iswrongwith the contributionof th€ lastspeaker in eachcase?Choosefrom the following: o it is irrelevant o it is not polite o the studentinterrupts o it is relevantbut the studentdoesn'texplain the relevance o the studentdoesn'tcontributeanything to the discussion 2 What exactlydoesthe studentsay,in eachcase? 3 What shouldthe studentsayor do, in eachcase?
C
6) lirt"n to somemoreextractsfrom the sameseminar. 1 How doesthe secondspeakermakean effectivecontributionin eachcase? Choosefrom the following: He/she... o asksfor clarification o paraphrasesto checkunderstanding o bringsthe discussionback to the
o disagrees politelywith a previousspeaker o bringsin anotherspeaker o givesspecificexamples to helpexplaina point
mainpoint 2 What exactlydoesthe studentsay,in eachcase? 3 What otherwaysdo you know of sayingthe samethings?
D
Makea tableof Do's(helpfulways)and Don'ts(unhelpfulways)of contributing to seminardiscussions.
askpol;lelyfor inforrnlion
E work in groups. 1 Lookat the pictureson the oppositepage.Decidewhichsetsof data in Figure1 the picturesrelateto. 2 Whichof the threeelementsshownin the graphhelpedcontributemostto speedingup the development of the Internet?Lookat the graphand makesure you canjustifyyour decisions. 3 Conducta seminar. Ohepersonshouldact asobserver.
F
Reporton your discussion and presentthe feedbackfrom your group,giving reasons for your decisions.
G
Work in groupsof four. Eachpersonshouldresearch and discuss one of the four maintypes of research. Theteacherwill giveyou a discussion taskcardwith moreinstructions. o studentA: find out aboutsecondaryresearch (informationon page.|02) o StudentB:find out aboutprimaryresearch (informationon page102) o studentc:find out aboutquantitativeresearch (informationon page105) o StudentD: find out aboutqualitativeresearch (informationon page10G)
42
5 THE HISTORY OF ICT
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Vocabularysets It is a good idea to learn words which go together. Why? o lt is easierto rememberthe words.
o Youwill havealternativewordsto usewhen paraphrasing research findings. o lt is not good styleto repeatthe sameword often,sowriters,and sometimes makeuseof wordsfrom the samesetto avoidrepetition. speakers, Youcancreatea vocabulary setwith: synonyms antonyms hypernyms linkedwords
words with similar meanings,e.9., engine, machine
wordswith oppositemeanings, €.9.,analogue,digital a generafword for a set of words, e.9.,arithmetic = addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
e.9.,innovation,invention,advance
Describing trends Youcanusea varietyof phrases to discuss trendsand statistics. Examples: Go up nse increase grow improve soar
No change
Go down
stay the same remainat ... doesn'tchange is unchanged
fall decrease decline worsen d16p plunge plummet
Adverbs slightly gradually steadily significantly sharply dramatically
Stance Speakers often usecertainwordsand phrases to showhow they feel about what they are saying.Commonstancewordsare: adverbs
phrases
arguably naturally unfortunately of course,... it's essentialtolthat we might saythat ..
In manycases, differentstancewordsand phrases are usedin spokenand written language. Spoken anotherthing it seems unfortunately believe
Written additionally
evidently regrettably contend
Signpost language in a lecture At the beginningof a lecture, a speaker will usuallyoutlinethe talk.To helplisteners understand the orderof topics,the speakerwill usephrases suchas: To startwith I'll talk about ... ThenI'lldrscuss... After that, we'll look at ... I'll finishby giving a summaryof ... Duringthe lecture,the speakermay: indicatea new topic
saythe samething in a differentway returnto the mainpoint
Moving on (from this) WhatI mean is,... Thatis to say,... Toput it another way, Wherewas l? Oh, yes. Toreturn to the main point .. As I wassaying...
Seminar language The discussion leadermay:
askfor information
askfor opinions bringin otherspeakers
Whatdid you learnabout ...? Canyou explain...? Canyou.tellmea bitmoreabout...? Whatdo you makeof ...? Thisis interesting,isn'tit? What do you think, Majed? What's your opinion, Evie?
Participantsshould: be polite when disagreeing
Actually, I don't quite agree .
makerelevantcontributions
Thatremindsme ..
give examplesto explaina point
I can give an example of that.
Participantsmay:
agreewith previousspeaker
I agree, and that's why ... That's tr.le, so I think ... You're absolutely right, which is why ..
disagreewith previousspeaker
I don't think I agree with that. ln my opinion .. I'm not surethat's true. I think ...
linkto a previous speaker
As Jack said earlier ... Going back to what Leilasaid a while ago ..
Couldyou saymoreabout...? paraphrase to checkunderstanding So what you're sayingis .. referbackto establishrelevance Justgoing backto .
askfor clarification
Participants maynot be sureif a contributionis new or relevant: I'm sorry.Hasanybodymade the point that ...? I don't know if thisis relevantbut ...
paraphrasingat sentence level
Studythe words in the blue boi.
browser cache connection distribution host hypertext interaction layer link packet peer request response scale server spider stream visit
1 Copyand completethe table. Put the words in one or more boxes,in eachcase. 2 Add affixesto make words for the empty boxes. (Somewill not be possible.) 3 What is the specialmeaningof eachword in relationto the lnternet? 4 Finda synonymfor eachword in the blue box.
Noun
Verb
5 Groupthe words in the blue box accordingto their stresspattern.
visill
visit
StudyFigure'l on the oppositepage.Discuss these questionsusingwords from Exercise A.
StudentA
1 What do the screenshotsshow?
I
2 What are the similaritiesand differences between the two images?
Tle propo,},on of PZPlraffic Aas.isen conside.ably SrcE 2007.
Z By 2,010, daia usilg VoIP pro*ocols was decreas,ng rapidly.
StudyFigure2 on the oppositepage.
HTTP usage dec.eaed sAap/y belween Z0o/ 67f, 7991.
1 What doesthe graph show?
Gamirghas sArunkas a propo#,on of Laffic overall.
2 What connectionis there between Figure1 and Figure2?
S#eami1g npre ll'an halvedbelween 200-/
3 What use could be made of the data for each of the protocols? StudentA haswritten about changesin data transfersover the lnternet, but there are some mistakes.Changethe blue words,so the sentences are true. StudentB hasalsowritten about changesin data transfersover the lnternet. Match each sentence with a correctedsentencefrom ExerciseD. Look at Figures3a and 3b on the oppositepage. 1 What do the two diagramsshow? 2 Add the missingwords to the spacesin 3a and 3b, usingwords from the blue box and your own knowledge. 3 Write a descriptionof what is happeningat each stage,indicated by the number. 4 ldentifythe similaritiesand differences betweenthe two diagrams.
Adjective
ATM LUIU.
b PZPceasedtobelle mosfcomnon prolocol on lle lr*errel in zoto.
Student B o lfn 4O/O, +Ue ?R ?co+oco\ u:o.s .s*i\\ u.sed sofe *hon on$ o+hec ?io+oco\ on *he lJn-tecne*. r" *f+ec eOO7, *con.sfec.s of doto using P/P aco+oeo\s dec\ined .si6"ifieo^+tg. c -ft e co*io of do-to vsin.3 -eomin.f ?co+oco\s ho.s incFeosed ce\o*ive *o oveco\\ +coffie on -\he T61sa^.*. d -lue ?coloc*ion of :r5+4e^s+ do+o usi^.3 s+ceohin.A ?fo+oco\s n ?OOQ l.Jo.s ovef +dice os hueh o.s i* hod reen ' \
a-n1 d vu
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e Fcom ?OOT +o 4OO/, +here lJos o .3coduo\ dec\ine in *he v.se of +he \\-fTP aco*oeot. f
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Discuss thesequestions. File data lnformation on file location
1 What doesFigure1 show? 2 What advantagesdoesthis form of network havewhen transferringdata acrossthe Internet? 3 What typesof files might people transferover this type of network? 4 What reasonsmight there be for the declinein this type of data as a proportionof lnternettraffic? Look at the illustration,the title, the introductionand the first sentenceof each paragraphon the oppositepage. 1 What will the text be about?
!
A and 2 Usingyour ideasfrom Exercises 81, write someresearchquestions.
I
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Readthe text. Doesit answeryour questions? in the text. Studythe highlightedsentences Findand underlinethe subject,verb and objector complementin eachsentence.
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Figure1 Two studentsparaphrasedpart of the text. 1 Which part of the text are theseparaphrases of? 2 Which paraphraseis better?Why? StudentA rtn *ho*
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ongirlally inlroduced in 177b,Flashslarled out as a {ree aninalion ?rogram wh;ch could be run in a web b.owg,n when a new ,elease of FlashapVared in 200j, whic,h vdeo sLeam,rp, lhe plug-in was downloaded 'rr>luded by a large numbero{ web users.
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Work in groups.Write a paraphraseof a different part of the text.
5 THE IIITERI{ET
Web2.02 Reol chonge 0rhype?
ftoS.Q arepress
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\round the year 2005, a seriesof radical developments appeared to be changing the way the Internet was used. Large numbers of
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new online services such as video sharing and social networking rr'ere being developed, and huge numbers of people were signing up to use them. For some writers the changes were so significant
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they used the term 'Web 2.0' to describe them. In software engineering, when a new version of a software package is a huge
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the number before the decimal, so that 1.0 becomes 2.0, for
made them relativelv sloiv
erample. Where the transition is more gradual, one is added after
It was against this background that Flash and Ajax, the two
the decimal. Other writers, however, felt that the term Web 2.0 was
techrrologiesscen as key kr Web 2 0, emerged A major component
unhelpful and the changes were evolutionary rather than
of Web 2 0 rvas the wav in it'hich users could directly accessvisual
revolutionary. So, which view is correct? The best way to analyze
ancl audio-vistral material rn their browser The first release of
lVeb 2.0 is to identify its key technologies and services. By looking
Flaslr lvas introduced in 1996 as a freely available u'eb-based
at each service in the context of the developments in web
aninration program ivhich rvoultl run in a browser plug-in or
technology which made it possible,we can evaluate the nature of
add-on
the changes.
incremental changes and became increasingly popular When a
-fhe
Tlre softivare strbseqtrently went
through
many
first development we should look at is the creation of sfrzllc
vcrsion rvas rcleased in 2t)03which irrcluded video streaming, a
.. r'l'slfes.Initially, theseconsistedof mainly text-basedvTgbpagcs,
vely high proportion of web browsers had the plug-in installed
rr ith the occasionalimage The pagr-'swere written in HypcrText
Flash fundamentally altered the way in which users could access
\l.rrkup Language (HTML), which allowed the it,riter to vary the
visual and audio-visual material Flickr, the online photo album
'ize, colour ancl emphasis of the text, and to include hypeltext ljnks to other web pages Some websites contained forms which
sen,ice and YouTube, tlre video slraring service, i'r'hiclr both
. r l l o u ' e d u s e r s t o su b m it th e ir d e ta ils, b tr t o th cr wise the pages
the nen' featuresof the Flash package.By 2010,Flickr was hosting
h orL. fixecl ancl there rvas little rnteractivrtv Over time, static
five billion images and YouTube n,as serving over tu'o billion
rr cbsites bccame bigger, and web pages began to be spidered,
videos per day The other technology associatedwith Web 2.0 was
irrrlexing the pages so thcy could be found bv search e.ngirres
Ajax (Asynchnrnous JavaScriptand XML), a client-side scripting
Thev also began to Llsemore graphrcs, and to lirrk to document
language whiclr allor'ved elements of a page to be refreshed
ancl video files which could be downloaded by users and viewed
without reloading the whole page This allowed web pages to
r r n d e s k t o pa p p l i c atio n s
become almost as interactive as deskkrp applications
latrnched in 2005,were among the first to use and to benefit from
The next stage to corrsider is the. development of dynonric
An important effect of these technolcgies rvas on the use of
;r'cbsifcs These sites used server-side scripting languages to
peer-to-peer technologies for accessingaudio and video corrtent
o\tlact data from databases,which was then used to creatc lveb
Since the late 1990s,users have exchanged music and video files
pages One of the most popular languages was PHI' (Pre-
over these networks, much of it copvright material By making it
flvpertext
possible to listen to music and to watch video online, there was
Processor), an open source product
Fronr 1998
orrrr'ards,PHP was routinely used with three other open sollrce
Iessneed to download files using P2P irr order to share files, and
f.roclucts- the Lintrx operating system, Apache n'eb server and \lvSQL databasepackages- to power dynarnic websites, giving
so this type of lnternet traffic experienced a drop Howe'",er,the
r i s c t o t h e t e r m LAM P sfr ick. Se r ve r - sid escr ip tin g languages
video, games and other materials,as well as in geographical areas
nrerde it easv to move clata betu'een active web pages and
with lou, bantlwidth. Although not everyone agrees on hon'
tl.rtabases, making bullctir.r boards, blog ser.,'ices ancl early
significant techuologiessuch as P2P will continue to be, there is
rersions of social networking services possible Wikipedia, the
little doubt that the developments associatedwith Web 2 0 have
orrline encyclopedia, also grew fronr this technologv However,
changed the wav rve interact online for good
fall was p;radual and P2P remains popular for higher quality
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Studythe words in box a from the text in Lesson6.2.
radical version transition evolutionary development static dynamic extract product
1 What part of speechare they in the text? 2 Finda word in the text with a similarmeaningto eachword. Completethe summarywith words from Exercise A.
The term Web 2.0 comes from a convention
Studythe words in box b.
in numbering new software
1 What is eachbaseword and its ICTmeaning?
If
2 How doesthe affix changethe part of speech?
number after the decimal is changed.If they
3 What is the meaningin the text in Lesson6.2?
are
are
, the
, the number before is
changed.The developmentin which websites
Studysentences A-E on the oppositepage. 1 Copyand completeTable1. Put the partsof eachsentencein the correctcolumn. 2 Rewritethe main part of eachsentence,changing the verb from activeto passiveor viceversa.
changedfrom
to was very important in the
move to Web 2.0. Particularly important were such as PHP. which could createweb pagesby
Look at the 'Other verbs'column in Table1. 1 How are the clauseslinkedto the main part of the sentence? 2 In sentencesA-C, what does each relative pronoun refer to? 3 Make the clausesinto completesentences.
d a ta
from databases.
development revolutionary hypertext interactivity indexing asynchronous refresh reload
writing complexsentences
Make one sentencefor eachbox on the right, usingthe method given in red. Includethe words in blue.Write the sentences as one paragraph. Studythe noteson the oppositepage which a studentmade about the growth of socialnetworkingservices. 1 Dividethe notesinto sectionsto make suitableparagraphs. 2 Decidewhich ideasare suitable topic sentences for the paragraphs. 3 Make full sentences from the notes, joining ideaswhere possible,to make one continuoustext.
Open Diarylauncheda servicewhich made it possibleto createan online diary. Open Diarymade it freely availableto anybody. relative,passive In 1998 Userscould commenton other people'sdiary entries. Userscould decidewhether to make their entriespublic or private. Userscould add other usersas their friends. active,ellipsis Keyfeatures
Open Diarylaid the foundationsof blogging. Open Diarypioneeredkey featuresof socialnetworking. participle As a result
By 2010,Web 2.0 serviceswhich supported online video viewing were causing a drop in P2PtaI\_r--
Three of the many ways in which data transfer has I speededup will be describedhere. /-'--) -
I )
As well as fully supporting developmentssuch as bulletin boards, server-sidescripting made possibleservicessuch as Wikipedia. .Having promoted Flash as an essentialplug-in, by I 2003its owrlers saw a huge increasein the proportion I I of browsers using il .J---=----
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Reporting findings Youcannotuseanotherwriter'swordsunlessyou directlyquote.Instead, you mustrestateor paraphrase. Thereareseveralusefulwaysto do this: use a synonymof a word or phrase
active ) dynamic data using VolP protocols ) VolP traffic
change negativeto positiveand vice versa
sa/esrose slowly ) sa/esdidn't increasequickly
subject usea replacement
VolP traffic was increasing ) there was an increasein VolP traffic
changefrom activeto passiveor vice versa
the cache updated the page, the page was updated from the cache
changethe order of information
in the introduction phase, HTTP usage declined gradually ) there was a gradual decline in HTTP usage early in the cycle
you shoulduseall the methods Whenreportingfindingsfrom onesource, above,asfar aspossible. Example: Originaltext Report
Streaming more than doubled between 2007 and 2010. The proportion of lnternet data using streaming protocols in 2010 was over twice as much as it had beei in 2007.
lmportant youshouldaimto makesurethat 90%of the words Whenparaphrasing, you usearedifferentfrom the original.lt is not enoughto changeonlya few vocabulary items:thiswill resultin plagiarism. Example: Originaltext
Web 2.0 provided socialnetworking with the tools it needed to develop fully.
Plagiarism
Web 2.0 gave socialnetworking the tools it needed to develop fully.
Finding the main information Sentences in academic and technicaltextsare often verylong. Example: Following the debate at a conferenceorganizedby Tim o'Reiltyin 2004,a number of lnternet theoristsagreed that the term web 2.0 was usefulin explainingthe changesfrom a web where usersonly receiveddata,to one where they exchangedit. Youoften don't haveto understandeveryword, but you mustidentify the subject,the verb and the object,if there is one. Forexample,in the sentence above,we find: subject= the term Web2.0 verb = u/as compfement=useful Remember! phrases at this point to helpyou J9u.c9nremoveany leadingprepositional find the subject,e.g.,Followingthe debate... Youcanafsoremoveany introductoryphrase,e.g.a numberof tnternet theoristsagreedthat ... Youmustthen find the mainwordswhich modifythe subject,the verband the objectcircomplement. In the sentence abovewe find: What term?- Web2.0 why useful?= to explainthe changefrom usersonryreceivingdata,to usersexchanging data
Ellipsis sometimes, if the meaningisclear;wordsare impliedratherthan actually givenin the text. Examples: Thereare manyways(in which)data canbe transferred. The servicehad a numberof key featureswhichallowed usersto comment on diary entriesfrom other people,(whichallowedusersto) maketheir entriespublic or private,and (whichallowedusersto) add otherusersas their friends.
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compound nouns o fixed phrases
Studythe words in box a.
12
1 Match nounsin column 1 with nounsin column2 to make compoundnouns.
back client assurance design design end management 2 Which word in each phrasehasthe strongeststress? programming development production project requirements Studythe phrasesin box b. quality system specification tools 1 Completeeach phrasewith one word.
2 ls each phrasefollowed by: o a noun (includinggerund)? o subject+ verb? o an infinitive?
asshown... aswell ... in addition... in o rd e r. . . in s u c ha w a y . . . in the case... known... t h e e n d . . . t h e us e. . .
3 What is each phraseusedfor? Look at the pictureson the opposite page showing the production processfor developinga website. What happensat each stage? ReadextractsA-F on the right. They are from a leaflet by a web developmentcompany. 1 Match each extract with a picture on the opposite page. 2 Completeeach sentencewith one or more phrases from box b. Look at the Gantt chart on the opposite page. What does it show?
tVhen the protorypes are ready, the client meets the developers
_---
to decide which
*:lgl:P:11 s:i:::llir::*:i:::
of specialsoftwarefor the inidal layoutand HTML codingmeansthat a number ofprotorype sitescan be producedvery quickly. to develop the website, the company works with the client to produce a documen!
a statement ot
requirements. of the development process takes place when the site is uploaded to the
Readthe text under the Gantt chart. Match the phrases in box c with the highlightedphrasesin the text. Which part of the chart is not mentioned? Look at the web pages 1-3 on the opposite page. Completethis smallweb developmentcompany memo usingphrasesfrom boxesb and c.
...:::P..Tr-: Y.:9.::v-::: 1r1s::li::: . These requirements are then andyzed using UML (Unified Modelling Language), in che diagram, and detailed specifications are produced outlining the functiondiry
as the features of
the site.
My recommendationis that the design
in
developers will analyze the specifications
picture 3 should go into full production. My opinion is -..- personal preference,but also on other points. Firstly, -' . maximize traffic to the site, we need to -
younger age groups. The important for the successof this site.
--,.-,
that they can determine which technologiesare most suitable.
to - the
this type of visitor is of this
desigo the colours are very attractive for younger people. -,-,-- to this, the design emphasizesthe simple functionality of the site.
i-
of more complex sites, the
a number of a variety of at the sametime bear in mind basedon dealwith from the point of view of the beginning of the developmentof
Developing a website
Gantt chart: Developing a new piece of software Week I
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6
Week 7
Soecification document created Usinq UML to decide on desisn Decision on platform and designtools Mock-up of front-end design Demonstrate models to client for decision Production begins
A Gantt chart is a useful planning tool, especiallyfor project management.The chart makesit easyto handlea situation where different stagesoverlap. For example, this chart shows some stagesof the evolution of a new piece of software.The startof the processinvolvesthe creationof a specificationdocument.Then, using the specifications, UML models of the software are made.The developersuse various criteria to decide on the best platform and design tools. Simultaneously,mock-upsof the designare createdusing input from severaldesigners,and a numberof models are preparedfor the client to choosefrom.
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A
B
You are going to hear the lectureon the right. Write four questionsyou would like answered. 6) tirt"n to Part 1 of the lecture. 1 What is the lecturergoing to talk about today? Write yes,no or not meittioned. o production of code o design specification
-
o working prototype . costsof production
ADFOR.D Uniuersity
Fotulty:l(I Studiet (omputerSoftworeDevelopment (letturell leclule ovelview o Sofmore process developmenl o Terhnicol issues o Specifying feolures of softwore o Models forsofMore developmenl o Plonning production sofmore ondscheduling
o production methods o scheduling
2 What is project management?
c
6) tirt"n to Part 2 of the lecture. 1 Make notesin an appropriateform. 2 What is another word for software? 3 What activitiesare involved in defining user requirementsfor software development? Givesomeexamples. 4 Were your questionsin ExerciseA answered?
D E
Match each phrasein the first columnof the table on the right with the type of information that can follow. O tirt"n to Part 3 of the lecture. 1 Makes notes on the information that comes after the phrasesin ExerciseD. 2 Were your questionsin ExerciseA answered?
F
6) tirt"n for sentences1-4 below in Part 4 of the lecture.Which sentence(a or b) follows in each case?Why? See Skills bank 1 Modeltype one is the waterfall model. a In this type of model, each stage directly follows the other. b Eachstage directlyfollows the other in this type of model. 2 The iterative model addsfunctionality in stagesto software. a Examplesof this type of software are things like end-userapplicationsor operating systemversions. b End-userapplicationsor operating systemversionsare examplesof this type of software.
56
Fixedphrase
Followedbv .
1 An important concept (is) ...
a different way to think about the topic
2 What do I mean by ...?
an imaginary example
3 As vou can see.
a key statement or idea
4 Looking at it another way,
a concluding comment giving a result of something
5 In project management terms,...
a new idea or topic that the lecturer wants to discuss
5 Say.
a comment about a diagram, or stage
7 The point is .
an explanation of a word or phrase
8 In this way .
a general idea put into a specific context
3 The third model is calledthe prototyping model. a In prototyping, the important thing is that clientshave an opportunity to see a model before it is fully developed. b What's important about prototyping is that clientshave an opportunity to seea model before it is fully developed. 4 Lastly,there is the spiral model. a In the spiralmodel,a differenceis that it combineselementsof both the waterfall and prototyping models. b What's different in the spiral model is that it combineselementsof both the waterfall and prototyping models. G fnis lecturer is not very well organized.What problemsare there in the lecture?
stresswithin words . fixed phrasesr giving sentencesa specialfocus
A
6) tirt"n to some stressedsyllables,ldentify the word below in each case.Number each word. Example: You hear: 1 con lkonl You write: concept
B
c
I
requirements
dependent
f unctionality increment
documentation
proprietary
specification
features
prototype
spiral
2. 6d tirt"n to the final part of the lecturefrom Lesson 1 Completethe noteson the right by addinga symbolin eachspace. 2 What research task(s)areyou askedto do? Studythe phrases from the lecturein the bluebox. Forwhichof the followingpurposes did the lecturer useeachphrase? a o o a
to introducea new topic to emphasize a majorpoint to add points to finisha list
o to give an example . to restate LJ
Rewritethese sentencesto give a specialfocus. Beginwith the words in brackets. 1 HenryGantt cameup with an ideato help with scheduling.(/t)
resources ---
So#ware produclion plannirg comPrex _ l. sornefac*o.s -
develory.-
a.*side conLol o{
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req,irenenls Z. destgn-
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2 Gantt invented his chartsin the early 1900s.(/t) 3 The choiceof developmentmethodologyis critical. (What) 4 Planningsoftware production is complex because planningdecisionsare basedon a wide varietyof different factors.(Two sentences.First= /f second= The reason) 5 Gantt chartsshow what processes are happening at any one time. (Ihe advantage) See Skills hank
E
Chooseone sectionof the lecture.Referto your notes and give a spokensummary.Usethe fixed phrasesand ways of giving specialfocus that you have looked at.
et cetera In otherwords,... Let'stake ... Let me put it anotherway. I almostforgotto mention... Not to mentionthe fact that ... Plusthere'sthe fact that ... Thefact of the matteris,... You'veprobablyheardof ...
F Work with a partner. 1 Makea Ganttchartfor an activity,projector process. your chartto anotherpair.Practise 2 Present usingfixed phrases and waysof givingspecialfocus. See Vocabularybank and Skills bank 57
m ak i n g e f f e c t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o a s e m i n a r
Lookat the weblog and the pressreleaseheadlineson the oppositepage. 1 What doesooen sourcemean? contain? 2 What informationwill the pressreleases 3 What do the graphsshow? G tirt"n to the first extractfrom a seminarabout open sourcesoftware. 1 What questionwill the studentsdiscuss? decisionsurprising? 2 Why was Netscape's
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6ldtitt"n to Extract2 of the seminar.Are these true or false? sentences 1 Open sourcemakesprogramcodeavailableto everyone. 2 Anyone can contributeto open sourceprograms. 3 Open sourcesoftwareis the sameas free software. 4 Open sourceapplicationsoftwareis very user f riendly. 5 The potentialsocialbenefitsof open source softwareare considerable. Studytasksa-d below and the phrasesin the blue box. I Write a, b, c or d next to each phraseto show its use. a b c d 2
introducing askingfor clarification agreeing/disagreeing clarifying
G Listento Extract2 againto checkyour answers.
Work in groupsof four to researchthe main benefitsof open sourceprogramming.Eachpersonshouldchoosea different aspect. o StudentA: read about securityissueson page 102. o StudentB: read about costson page 105. o StudentC: read about flexibilityon page 105. o StudentD: read about socialrssues on page 106. After readingthe notes,report backorallyto your group. Usefixed phrasesto askfor and give clarification. Work in groups.Choosesomeof the itemsshown in the photographs.
l'd liketo maketwo points. First,... Canyou expandon that? The point is ... What'syour secondpoint? My secondpoint isthat ... Yes,but... I don't agreewith that because... Sorry,but who are we talking about, exactly? We need to be clearhere. l'd just liketo saythat ... In what way? What l'm tryingto sayis,...
1 Havea practiceseminarin which you decidewhich of the itemswould benefitfrom usingopen source software.
Canyou give me an example?
giving reasons 2 Reportto the classon your discussion, for your decisions.
Absolutely.
Look at it this way.
7 SOFTWARE DEVELOP'IENT
::/i .r.'..l/urIlI i u.ih I L/uI rJuI l''rurJ.:i IulJ.uul l Press Release: Netscape'sdecisionto go open source revisited
Press Release: Does open source'change the game' for software?
cashmachine desktop computer lottery machine ballpicking phone mobile airfield radarsystem
Recognizing fixed phrases from ICT (1) Thereare many fixed phrasesin the field of lCT. Examples: Phrase
Meaningin the discipline
back end
combinationof databaseand programminglanguage providingdata for dynamicweb pages
operating system
softwareon which the applicationprogramsrun
development tools
softwarewhich is usedto write other softwareprograms
open source
softwarewhere the sourcecode is freelv available
Keepa list of fixed phrasesusedin ICTand remindyourselfregularlyof the meaning.
Recognizing fixed phrases from academic English (1) Thereare alsoa large numberof fixed phraseswhich are commonlyusedin academic and technicalEnglishin general. Examples: Phrase
What comes next?
As we have seen
a reminderof previousinformation
An important concept is
one of the basicpointsunderlyingthe topic
As you can see,
a referenceto an illustrationOR a logicalconclusionfrom previousinformation
As shown in
a referenceto a diagramor table
. in such a way that ln addition to (X, Y) As well as (X, Y)
a resultof something X = reminderof lastpoint, Y = new point
ln the caseof .
a referenceto a particulartopic oL more often, sub topic
At the sametime, .
an actionor idea which must be consideredalonoside anotheractionor idea
. basedon .
a pieceof research,a theory, an idea
Bear in mind (that) .
key informationwhich helpsto explain(or limit in some way) previousinformation
The point is .
the basicinformationunderlyingan explanation
in order to (do X, Y)
X = objective,Y = necessary actions/conditions
ln project management terms,
the importancein relationto projectmanagement,of somethingpreviouslymentioned
ln other words, Looking at it another way,
the sameinformationput in a differentway
ln this way .
a resultfrom previousinformation
5ay .
an example
What do I mean by (X)?
an explanationof X
Make sureyou know what kind of informationcomesnext
'Given'and 'new' information in sentences In English,we can put important informationat the beginningor at the end of a sentence.There are two types of important information. 1 Information which the listeneror reader already knows, from general knowledge or from previousinformation in the text. This can be called 'given' information. lt normallygoesat the beginningof the sentence. 2 Informationwhich is new in this text. Thiscan be called'new' information.lt normallygoesat the end of a sentence. Example: In Lesson2, the lecturer is talking about production methods,so production methods in general = given information. Given
New
Modeltype 1
is the waterfall model.
ln this type of model.
eachstage directly follows the other.
Giving sentencesa special focus We sometimes changethe normalword orderto emphasize a particular point,e.9.,a pgrson,an object,a time. Examples: Normalsentence Focusingon person Focusingon object Focusing on time
Henry Gantt invented the Gantt chart in the 1900s.
It wasHenryGantt who invented.. It was the Gantt chaft which Henry Gantt invented .. It was in the early 1900sthat Gantt ..
Introducing new information We canusespecialstructures to introducea new topic. Examples: Softwareproduction methodsare my subjecttoday. ) What I am going to talk about today is software production methods. Agreeing a statementof requirementswith the client is very important. ) What is very importantis agreeinga statementof requirementswith the client. Clientchangescan causeproblemsto arise. ) The reasonwhy prohlemscanariseis client changes. Poorplanningleadsto projectfailure. il The resultof poor planning is project failure.
Clarifying points When we are speaking,we often have to clarify points.There are many expressions
whichwe canuse. Examples: Letme put' it anotherway ... Lookat it thisway ...
What I'm trying to sayis ... Thepointlthing is ...
frorn verbs. paraphrasing A,pl,rns
A
Lookat the picturesopposite. 1 MatchpicturesA-G with the appropriatelabels.l-7. 2 What functionsdo the itemsin picturesA-F perform in the FuTeksystemin diagramG?
B
Discuss the followingquestions. 1 What is meantby efficiencyin computersystems? 2 What can be usedto measurethe efficiencyof the itemsin boxa?
c
Lookup eachnoun in box b in a dictionary. 1 ls it countable,uncountable or both? 2 What is its meaningin ICT? 3 What isa goodsynonym? 4 What usefulgrammatical informationcanyoufind?
D
Studythe two listsof verbsin box c. 1 Matchthe verbswith similarmeanings. 2 Makenounsfrom the verbsif possible.
E
Lookat the HadfordUniversity handout. 1 How doesthe writer restateeachsectionheadingin the paragraph? 2 Findsynonyms for the bluewordsand phrases. Use a dictionaryif necessary. 3 Rewriteeachsentence to makeparaphrases of the texts.Use: . synonyms you havefound yourself o synonyms from Exercise C o the nounsyou madein Exercise D o passives wherepossible I anyotherwordsthat are necessary Example: Centralizing data-processing operationscanplaya role in developingefficientsystems. ) Thecentralizationof data-processing operations can contribute to greater efficiencyin a computer system.
F
62
Studythe picturesof the computersystemon the oppositepageagain. 1 What changesmight improvethe performance of the system? 2 What possibleproblemsmight resultfrom these changes?
interface network processors software storage support cost data centre function migration outage processor task utilization 1
2
cluster consume convert disrupt distribute drivedown ensure incorporate mask measure playa rolein
interrupt guarantee contribute(to) reduce in c lud e group transform balance, share assess use hide
AIDFORDUniaersity Efiiciency
in systems development
A Data centre migration Moving processingand storage operations to a centralized location can play a role in developing efficient systems.For example, by using multiple serversclustered together on one site, and softwarg to distribute the processingload acrossthem, higher utilization levels can be obtained. This drives down the cost of hardware, so systemsusing data centrescan deliver servicesmore cheaply. B Gapacity utilization 'Wecan measurehow well a systemis using its resources(i.e., processor,memory) like this: actual usagedivided by maximum potential usagetimes 100. All designerstry to lower the cost of processingin a system. One way to do this is to use efficient sofrware to minimize the amount of spare capacity.
Parts of a system
esTek --:WhyUs I Guarantees Us HelpCentre sign Up I | (ontact
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User applications
and services
Client selected tools (e.9., PHP & MySQL & operating
Futek System
p""k.F."ol I
storage
lv'a.] I servers
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Client web interface
system)
system(s)
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I multiple operating sysrems 2 dedicated helplines 3 high-speed network connections 4 easy-to-use panel control 5 energy-efficient pr0cess0rs
System administration
Edmin d;tal | (secured) |
6 low-costdata storage 7 system diagram
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recognizing essaytypes o understanding complex sentenceswith passiveso defining terms
Look at the different examplesof systemsin the blue box.
air trafficcontrol e-mail nuclearpowerplant patientrecord search engine socialnetworking
1 What type of systemis each one (e.9.,e-mail= cofilryrunication system)? 2 How couldthe performanceof each systembe improved?
HADFORDT Jnircrsir),
3 What changescould be madeto each systemto bring about these improvements?
There are four main essay types in ICT:
Look at the four essaytypeson the right. 1 What shouldthe writer do in eachtype? 2 Match each essaytype with one of the questionsbelow the slide(A-D).
o descriptive o analytical o comparison/evaluation o arSument
3 What topicsshouldbe coveredin each essayquestion? \fhat are the advantagesand disadvantagesof virtualization for large commercial organizations?
Readthe title of the text on the opposite page and the first sentenceof each paragraph. 1 What will the text be about?
'Virtualization answersall of the questionswhich systemdesignershave to ask about hardware.'To what extent do you agreewith this statement?
2 Chooseone of the essayquestionsin B. Write four researchquestions Exercise which will help you to find information for your essay.
Explain why reducing system energy consumption is essentialto the successof virtualization.
Readthe text. 1 Usingyour own words,make notesfrom the text on informationfor your essay question. 2 Work with another personwho has chosenthe sameessayquestionas you. Compareyour notes. Studythe highlightedsentencesin the text. 1 Underlineall the subjectsand their verbs. 2 Which is the main subjectand verb for eachsentence?
What questionsdo designersneed to ask when consideringthe efficiencyof their systems? Describe how two companies have found different answers to some of these questions.
Word/phrase
2 data i ntegri ty
4 ' hot sw appi ng'
2 Underlinethe words or phrasesin the text which the writer usesto give the definitions.
ensuri ngthat devi cesopera t eef f icient ly w hether they are i dl e,opera t ingat lower usagel evel s,or at ful l capac it y
3 energy circuitson the computer'smotherboard proporti onal i ty provi di ngthe vol tagesrequir edby t he mi crochi ps
Studythe table on the right. 1 Match eachword or phrasewith its meanrng.
Meani ng
1 'out-of-the box' where physicalcomponentscan be added or removedwithout shutting down the system
systemssupplyingpower with built in storagecapacityso that during a power outage serverscan keep running
5 uni nterrupti bl e equi pmentprovi dedby the manuf act ur er pow er suppl i es w i thout modi fi cati on (U P 5) 6 voltage regul ator ci rcui try
ensuri ngthat data i s not cor r upt ed
thehordwore': 'Hiding Using virtuol mochines to improve system efficiency Good system design has always kied to balanceperformanceand cost.For designersof generalized commercial systems,this has meant a careful analysisof the specificationsof component parts, to ensurethat they can provide the necessaryfunctionatfy and reliability at the least possiblecost. Where systemsare a key elementof commercial organizations,the level of system efficiency can mean the difference between successand failure for a company. Here is a list of questions which have to be considered by systemsdesigners: o What can be done to minimize system hardware costs? o What is the best balance between the level of specification of hardware components in a system, and their cost? e What are the implications of these changeson the overall operation of the system? r How easily will the system architecture'scale up': that is, increaseproportionally,if it needsto be expanded? r How can systemsbe designed to minimize their effectson the environment? Some answers to the above questions have been provided by ttirtualization A key conceptof virtualization is clustering, which means locating the hardware elements of the system together in a data centre or server farm. This makes it easier to orovide an optimal environment for the hardware to woik in. System maintenance is also simplified by clustering, as it makes components easily accessiblefor repair or replacement.Another concept is masking, wlich involves rnaking the physical components of the system appear as one virfual device to system administrators. This makes it easier for them to manage the system. Virtualization can be used for servers,storage and networking. A key benefit of virtualization is that physical components can be added or removed without shutting down the system (this is known as'hof swapping'). This provides great flexibility for system designers as it means that processing,networking or storage capacity can be scaledup or down very quickly in responseto changesin the businessenvironment. In addition to flexibility in system size, virtualization allows flexibility in terms of the specification of system components which can be used, although there are limitations. The system developer's choice of components is limited by the level of reliability required by the system. For example, 'out-of-the-box' servers, which are those purchased from manufacturers without modificatio4 are typically both expensive and high specification. They are ideal for e-commercecompanies such as Arnazon which require very high levels of reliability and data integrity (ensuring that data is not
corrupted). For others, such as Google, reliability is less important than cost becausethe amount of revenue which they obtain from each searchis so small. For this reason,they have used enormous numbers of low-cost, low-specification PCs.These are less reliable, but using virfualization means that the failure of a component, such as a motherboard, will not disrupt the service overall. Any loss of data will only affect transactions taking place at the time. For searchengine systemssuch as Google, this may simply mean users not getting the optimum searchresults. For other types of systems,the effectsmay be more damaging. Large amounts of power are required to cool data centres,which has led to a widespread recognition of the impact of virtualization on global warming. The size of this impact can be seenin a 2006US EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) report. This stated that data centres accounted for 1,.5% of all US electricity consumption, and that the technology they used had to be improved if their rate of growth was to be sustained. For example, most data centresuse chillers, which are elaborate waterbased cooling systems,to maintaih an appropriate temperature for the hardware. Howeve4,some companies,such as Google, have begun an initiative to avoid the use of chillers and to reduce oower consumptionby relying on innovative data centre design. One approach is to use only DC current in the centres,avoiding conversion lossesfrom standard AC current. By using higher specification voltage regulator circuitry - circuits on the computer's motherboard providing the voltages required by the microchips more power savings can be made. In fac! all server components are designed to have a property called energy proportionality, which ensuresthat they operate efficiently whether they are idle (not doing any active work), operating at lower usage levels, or at full capacity. By giving each server its own battery Google avoids using uninterruptiblepower supplies(UPS),a term used for giant batteries which ensure that serverskeep running if there is a power outage. Theseconsume large amounts of energy.While Google has long been recognized as a leader in data centre energy efficiency, Yahoo is catching up. By 2074,Yahoo plans to have data centreswhich will be more energy efficient than those currently used by Google, according to a Yahoo corporate blog en !,QthJune 2009.
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passivesin dependent clauses. essayplans
Findthe words in the blue box in the text in Lesson8.2. 1 What part of speechis eachword? 2 Think of another word which could be usedin placeof the word in the text. Useyour dictionaryif necessary. A-D which relateto the text in Lesson8.2. Studysentences
component reliability scaleup key environment transactions widespread impact chillers appropriate initiative motherboard
1 ldentifythe dependentclause. 2 Copythe table under the sentences and write the partsof eachdependentclausein the table. 3 Rewritethe sentenceusingan activeconstruction. Example: Here is a list of questions which systemsdesigners have to consider. Readthe essayplansand extractson the oppositepage. 1 Match eachplan with an essaytitle in Lesson8.2.
Here is a list of questionswhich have to be consideredby systemsdesigners. Google has designed innovative systemsin which power consumption is reduced. Energy costs are high when data centres are cooled by chillers. Amazon uses thousands of servers which are orovided bv a number of different manufacturers.
2 Which essayis each extract from? 3 Which part of the plan is eachextractfrom? havelo be considered
Work with a partner.
sys+ems de5grer5
1 Write another paragraphfor one of the plans. 2 Exchangeparagraphswith another pair.Canthey identifywhere it comesfrom?
w r i t i n g c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e so w r i t i n g e s s a yp l a n s . w r i t i n g e s s a y s
Make complete sentencesfrom these notes.Add words as necessary. sggested - vi4ual'zal'on answer - all key qye.slor$ sys+err6 desgrers - ask sys+ems|ardware
eas - n.t,inlerarca - abl;Iy sysiem - respord - cl^arEe - answered ,W.t*ions "Try
addressurgWslion - key *ask delerrnire - g.res*;ons virlualizalion answers - wlelLe. qnslions - doesnl dnswer
qrest;ons - vitlualizaf'on rpl answer - corvern svr;{;ca*;on co^porcnls - rel'ab,l;ly- rssres ,elalirg - erergy cons.mglion
vrtualzalon
The sentencesin Exercise A are topic sentences for paragraphsin essayB in Lesson8.2. Put them in the bestorder for the essay. What is the main topic for eachparagraph? Look at the essayquestionon the right.
Essayquestion
1 What kind of essayis this? 2 Do someresearchand make a plan. 3 Write the essay.
Yahoo aims to overtake Google in energyefficiency in its data centres.Describethe stepsthat Yahoo will needto take in order to make this happen.
Essayplans
t Jntroduction: syslem
efficienc-yi
Z Define J
imgor[anc.e
eyete-
So-e
I
oS
queelione
z
[o be c-oneidere.dl
imporlarc-e o{ erwgy savilg
giye essdyaims.
aims oS eeeag.
e$Sicienc-g,
lrirodw-lion:
Def,n;,lton o{ virlualizalion.
3 widesyead recogni+ion o{ tle impaol of
ha.doare
c-oet v. need tor
virlual,zalion on global warmirp: Ierels o{
re\iabi\ilg,
minimi3in3 e$Tec-t on
ercrgy uv-,,c;lus+enE o{ lrardwarein daia ertlres, use of cAille.sfo, coolirE.
enYrronment, r-f Exa-y\eel ?Ce
lo
A-a3on
Goo3\e u€,in3 \o!c-€?ec-, minimi3e ha.Joa.e hi3h-€pec,,
to
c-o€|,
eneu.e
daLa
Inrpvalive lechniqyes Io improve efficercy:
use of bal*e;es lo ,eplac-e
UPS,AgAer-sfi.. comporer*s {or erargy
inte3ri[5,
tc,onomic- im?\ic.aLio^s in
savirgt use o{ DC pow* as s*andard.
ter-g
L.angac-lione,
Ircreasilg
of
5 Conc-\ueionl different recluiremente qnglcerg to
oi\\ 3o-e
c-omyany
diqgerenL -ean oT [he.ee
queelione,
impor*arr.e o{ globalwarmilg as
polilical iss.re.Need {o, ere*gy sayings wlere possible. Corrclusion: wilhoul ergr gy savirp, likely limifafiors on qro,,ih of virlualizalion.
Essayextracts It is importantto acknowledge that therehasbeenwidespread recognition of the impactof global pointed virtualization on warming.As a 2006US EPAreport out,at the time,data centreswereusing15% of the electricityproducedin the UnitedStates.Thereportalso recommended thatthe technologyusedby the datacentresneededto be improvedif their growthwasto continueat the samepace.However, becausevirtualization requireslarge amountsof hardware to be clusteredtogether,it wouldappearthat somemeansof coolingis necessary. Currently, a highproportionof datacentresusechillers- elaboratewater-based coolingsystems- to maintainan appropriate temperature for the hardware. Theevidence suggeststhatthesearenot alwaysrequired,as the exampleof Googlehasshown.
In considering thesequestions, it is worth lookingat the way in which Googlehas minimizedhardwarecostsby usinglow-costPCsratherthan'out-of-the-box' servers. Becauseof the low revenueper searchreceivedby Google,it is essential that the cost of eachtransactionis kept as low as possible.The effectof a lossof datafrom componentfailureis relativelylimited. At worst, it may meanthat the userhasto re-runa search. 67
Understanding new words: using definitions You will often find new words in academictexts. Sometimesyou will not be able to understandthe text unlessyou look the word up in a dictionary,but often a technicalterm will be defined or explainedimmediatelyor later in the text. Look for these indicators: ts or are
brackets or which
'Virtualization'is basicallyabout .. .. itsdata centre(serverfarms). ... most data centres usechillers,or water-basedcooling systems,to ... ... 'out-of-the-box' servers,which are those purchased from manufacturers without modification ...
a commaor ... uninterruptible power supplies(UPS)- giant a dash(-) batteries which ... immediately after the word or phrase phrases such ... component load rates:that is, the work performed as that is,in by each system component. ln other words, how often other words the components... Remember! When you write assignments,you may want to define words yourself. Learnto usethe methodsabove to give variety to your written work.
Understanding direction verbs in essay titles verbscalleddirectionverbsare usedin essaytitles.Eachdirection Special verb indicates a type of essay. Youmustunderstand the meaningof these wordssoyou canchoosethe correctwriting plan. Kind of essay Descriptive
Directionverbs State... Say... Outline ... What islare...?
Describe... Summarize..
Analyze... Explain... Commenton... Examine.. Givereasons for ... Why...? How ...? Comparison/ Compare(and contrast)... Distinguishbetween. Evaluation Evaluate... What are the advantagesandlor disadvantages of ...? Argument Discuss... Consider... (Critically)evaluate . Analytical
To what extent...? How far ...?
Choosing the correct writing plan you mustdecideon the bestwriting planbefore Whenyou are givena written assignment, you beginto write the outline.Usekeywordsin the essaytitle to helpyou choose- see Vocabularybank. Type of writing assignment- content
Possiblestructure
Descriptivewriting Listthe most important points of something:e.g.,a list of key eventsin chronologicalorder; historyof a computer system;a descriptionof a process,detailing eachstep and what the outcomeof eachstep might be. Summarizepoints in a logicalorder. Example: What are the key featuresof virtualization? Describethe impact of innovative systemdesign on reducing data centre power consumption.
. introduction o description of process/system o point/step 1/outcome o point/step 2/outcome . point/step 3/outcome o conclusion
Analyticalwriting Listthe important points which in your opinion explainthe situation. Justifyyour opinion in eachcase. Look behind the factsat the how and why, not just what/who/when. Look for and questionacceptedideasand assumptions. Example: Explain the appeal of virtualization to systemsdesigners.
o introduction o definitions o most important point: 1, example/evidence/reason 2, example/evidence/reason etc. . next point: 3, example/evidence/reason 4, example/evidence/reason etc. o conclusion
Comparison/evaluation(may incorporate casestudies) Decideon and define the aspectsto comparetwo subjects. You may usetheseaspectsasthe basisfor paragraphing. Evaluatewhich aspect(s)is/arebetter or preferableand give reasons/criteria for your judgement. Example: Compare the use of high- and low-spec componentswhen designing a system. Compare how Amazon and Google may have approached the design of their systemsto ensure user satisfaction.
o introduction o state and define aspects Eithen o aspect 1: subjectA v. B . aspect2: subjectA v. B Or: o subjectA:aspect1,2, etc. o subject B: aspect '1,2, etc. o conclusion/evaluation
Argumentwriting (may incorporatecasestudies) Analyzeand/orevaluate,then giveyour opinionin a statementat the beginningor the end. by Showawareness of difficultiesand disagreements mentioning counter-arguments. Supportyouropinionwith evidence. Example: 'Virtualizationcanprovide significantflexibility in systems design'.Drscuss this with referenceto two companies.
o introduction: statement of issue o statement giving opinion o define terms o point 1: explain+ evidence o point 2: explain+ evidence, etc. o conclusionimplications,etc. Alternativelll, o introduction: statement of issue o define terms o for: point 1, 2, etc. o against:point 1, 2, etc. o conclusion:statement of opinion
69
understandingfixed phrasesand HCIwords
Match the words to make fixed phrases.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
developmentI hardwareI project I qua lityI systemI userI visu a lI i nput E
a assurance
a
b development c device
to
d display
the
e interface
some
f
management
many r,_._ thrs
g method h specifications
that
Studythe words and phrasesin the blue box. 1 Completeeach phrasein column2 with a word from column 1.
... start with ... peoplethink on ... other hand to... extent on ... one hand ... real questionis on ... groundsthat ... would be great,except in ... caselike this in ... sort of situation
HADFORDUziuersity
2 Which phrase(s)can you useto: .
agreeonly partlywith a point?
o begintalking about severalpoints? o talk about a particularexample? o introducethe first of two ideas? o introducethe secondof two ideas? o focuson the most important point? o give a reasonfor a point? o talk about certaincircumstances? o mention a problemwith someone'sidea? On the oppositepage are somepeoplewho have an interestin a new productbeing developed.
HCI drawson psychologyand computersciencein order to provide user-friendlyinterfacesfor computers.For example: o Cognitivepsychologyprovidesmodelsof perceptual, motor andcognitivesystemsby which humansinteract with the world. . An engineeringapproachto the sensesseesvisual, aural and haptic dataas channelsfor input or output. o Designersofinput devicesneedto considertheir responsiveness, usabilityandergonomics. o Heuristicevaluationcanidentifyproblemswith the designof a userinterface. o Familiar metaphorsin interfacedesignhelp users creatementalmodelsof systemobjectsquickly. o User input which completesone or more tasksin an action sequence,to achievea specihcgoal within the domainthey are working in.
1 Match each personwith the correctjob title. 2 What aspectsof human-computerinteraction (HCl)is eachpersoninterestedin? Why? 3 Match each personwith the correctquote (A-F). 4 Replacethe words in italicswith a phrasefrom Exercise B.
Baseform constrain evaluation intuition manipulate
Readthe extractfrom the Hadford Universityhandout about human-computerinteraction. 1 Match the blue words in this extractwith the definitionsA-L on the oppositepage. 2 Useyour dictionaryto checkwords you do not know. Completethe table on the right.
measure navigate observe response sequence u5e
Otherrelatedforms Con€traint
con€trained
9 HUIVIAN.COMPUTERINTERACTION (HCI)
.
:--l#
\'{
I
1 c0mpany executive hardwear desrgner syslem Iesler interface desrgner psychologist pr0lecr manager
'Usuollyprototypeconsolesare not very intuitive,but I was ableto find rnostof the functionson this one really quickly.' 'There are severalthin-9sI have to consider Furstlr', what resonrces do I haveto deliverthis product?' 'We have increasedthe alnountof r.nemoly.brrtthe size of the processor is the same.'
'Theysut'thatwe jr.rsthaveto havebetteltechnolo-uy profits.I clou'tugree thanthe competitionto increarse toutplelelt',but it is clearthat improvedsystenr perfblmanceis a urajorfactorin sellin-elots of units' 'We havelots of new functionson the console.but tlte itttportuttttltirtgis whetherLlselscan accessthelr easily' 'l clidson'retestswith usersto evaluatevarious metzrphors the designerswant to use in the iuterface ' ltetousethesecould help irnproveintuitiveness
www
8oo
Definitions A a numberof actionswhichfolloweach other. usuallyin orderto attaina specificgoal
H this carriesinformation fromthe individual's to the cognitiveand motorsystems environment
B a specificareawithinwhicha goal is to be achieved
this is the partof the humansystemwhichis responsible for controlling movement
C an objectivewhichan individualor systemis tryingto achieve
this systemprocessesinformation to perform work suchas knowing,understanding, deciding and problemsolving
D data inputintoa computersystemby a user E datawhichis generatedby or relatedto touch F designof equipmentto reduceuserfatigue, discomfortand injury G designingthe interactions betweenend users and computersystems
K where a softwareobject representsa real-world object,or objectused in othersoftware (e.9.,scissorsiconto representcutting) L a methodfor findingthe usabilityproblemsin a userinterfacedesion
r '[, i!
' Wn
Fr=s1tili
i::,.'ffiffi"
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using the Cornell note-taking system
Studythe slideon the right. What questionsdo you think the lecturerwill answer?
*.
\'-v
L It t t t','rsi t t'
HADFORD
Humon-compufer
G tirt"n to Part 1 of the lecture.
interoction
o Humonsciences sociol - psychology, disciplines, orgonizotionol knowledge
1 Completethe Notessectionbelow. 2 What is the lecturer'sstory about? Why is it not given in the notes?
o Computersciences - hordwore,softwore, devices
3 Completethe Summarysection.
o Computer-bosed usobilityevoluotionmethods
4 Answerthe Reviewquestions.
1 Researchhasshown
1 Completethe Notes section.
2 It coul d be arguedthat ... 3 A s w e shal lsee... 4 Fromthe point of view
3 Completethe Summarysection. 4 Were your questionsin Exercise A answered?
of ... Increasi ngl y, w e f i nd that
6'dStuOythe phrasesin column 1 of the blue box. Listento somesentences from the lecture.Which type of information in column2 follows eachphrase?
information about a point the speakerw ill m ake lat er an aspectof a topic the speakerwants to focus on a statementthe speaker agreeswith
6 It'strue to saythat l l n terms of ... 8 S o i t shoul dbe cl earthat
a concl usi on an i deathe speakerm ay not agree with
tlotzs HCf : 2..l*4uan sei (H5) and co,r.rpqt€r sci. (C5)
HCz is 4
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2 Write someReviewquestions.
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*'i.@recognizingdigressionso understandingspokensourcereferences
Studythe words and phrasesin box a.
'l visual,input,design,haptic,output
1 Mark the stressedsyllables.
2 mentalmodel,userinput,visualdisplay,
z O tisten and checkyour answers.
input device,actionsequence generally, actually, ideally, usually, crucially
3 Which word or phrasein eachgroup hasa different stresspattern?
B
Studythe phrasesin box b. 1 Do you think the phrasesshow a digression (start or end) or a relevant point? Write D or R. 2 Look at the D phrases.Do they start or end the digression?
Now, where was l? It'sthe first of these points that l'm going to focuson now... By the way, ... Soto get backto the main part ... I have a little story to tell you ...
O tirt"n to the final part of the lecturefrom Lesson9.2.
lf we move on now to ... You don't needto take noteson this ...
1 Take notes using the Cornellsystem.Leave spacesif you missinformation.
The point of that story is ...
2 What topic doesthe lecturermentionthat is different from the main subject?
lf we turn now to ... When we look at tools from the computer sciences, we'll find ...
3 Why doesthe lecturermentionthis topic? 4 What is the researchtask?
5 Compareyour notesin pairs.Fill in any blank spaces. 6 Compfetethe Revietarand Summarysections.
D f) What informationdoesthe lecturerprovideaboutsources? Listento the extractsand completethe table below. Extract1
Extract2
Extract3
Extract4
Name of writer Title and date of source Location
Typeof reference Relevantto ...?
lntroducingphrase E Useyour notes to write 75-1OOwords about methodsof evaluating interfaceusability, drawing on the human sciences. F Work in groups.Studythe four methodsof usabilitytesting linkedto the human sciences in box c. Chooseone type you would like to find out more about and then discuss these questions. 1 What kind of informationwill you needto find? 2 What ideasdo you havealready?
task,userand environment analysis focusgroup cognitive walkthrough t h in k in ga lo u d
3 Where can you go to find more information? 7i
making effective contributions to a seminar
Look at the words in the blue box. ldentify their stresspatterns.
acceleration approach constraint evaluation innovation interaction interface limitation
Work in pairs. Student A: Think of good ways to take part in a seminar. StudentB: Think of bad waysto take part in a seminar. You are going to hear somestudentsin a seminar.They have been askedto discuss the question:'What can computer-based methods contributeto usabilitytesting?' 1 Cd Listento the four seminarextracts. Decidewhether eachcontributionis good or poor. 2 Givereasonsfor your opinion. 3 Think of somemore informationto add to the good contributions. Work in groups of three or four. your informationfor the topicsin 1 Discuss Lesson9.3, ExerciseF.Agree on the best definition. 2 Discusshow best to presentthis information. 3 Presenta definitionand descriptionof your topic to the whole class. StudyFigure1 and Figure2. 1 What do the picturesin Figure1 show? 2 Studythe informationin Figure2 on the oppositepage.In pairsor groups,discuss the following: a What doesthe informationshow about InteractivityUn Iim ited? b What other evaluationmethodscould InteractivityUnlimitedhave used? c Look at the usercomments.What problemswith the web interfacedesign could havecausedthese? d Which interfacesdo you think E-Tail shouldconcentrateon improving?Tell the classabout your decision,saying what it is basedon.
Fi gure1
metaphor
Interactivity Unlimited (IU) is a consultancywhich helps clientsget the best possible results from their websites and digital system interfaces.Our usability consultantsemploy a wide rangeof tools to find out what userswant from their interactions.and to ensurethat the interfacescan provide these in a user-friendly way. We also
"It took agesbefore the graphics appeared when I loaded a new page" smart phone user
considerthe ergonomicsof devices. E-Tail Ltd providesfour different versionsof its websitefor usersto access: computerInternet browser,conventionalmobile,smart phone and TV. IU recentlyconductedan evaluationof the usability of the E-Thil site. Our report highlights some of the important issuesto considerin websitedesign,particularly in relation to mobile devices.
"It was really text heavy and I had to read everything twice" mobile phone user
Our researchused a combination of computer-basedand human sciences-based methodologies.To begin with, a focus group of volunteersused the different interfaceson a regular basis.This was followed by an heuristic evaluation, using sets of five evaluators working independently. Theseare our suggestionsfor improving the usability of the smart
"I wasn't sure what to do to get onto the next page" TV user
phonesite: a
Useauto-completeto speedup filling in forms.
o o
Limit the sizeof the site,so that it fits on the screenmore easily. Keepthe number of clicksneededto getto information to a minimum. Ensurethat clickableitems areseparatedby enoughwhite space so the userdoesnot click on the wrong link.
-
PC
-TV
Mobile
-
Figure:Actual and projected changesin websitetraffic by device
Figure 2: HCI report on E-TailLtd website by lnteractivity Unlimited
Smart phone
"Ir took me a long time to find what I was looking for" PC user
Recognizingfixed phrases from HCI Makesureyou understand thesephrases from HCl. action sequence motor system aural data output device perceptualsystem cognitive psychology cognitive systems systemlogging cognitive walkthrough taskanalysis eye tracking thinking aloud focus group usability testing haptic data useranalysis heuristicevaluation userinput input device visualdata interface design
Recognizingfixed phrases from academic English (2) Make sure you understandthese fixed phrasesfrom general spoken academicEnglish. As we shallsee,... But the real question is ... From the point of view of ... ln a caselike this, ... ln terms of ... ln the sensethat... ln this sort of situation, ... That's the reasonwhy ... lncreasinglywe find that ... It could be argued that ...
ir i
It'strue to saythat ... Many peoplethink that ... On the groundsthat ... On the onehand,... On the other hand,... Research hasshownthat ... Soit shouldbe clearthat ... Thatwould be great, except... To someextent... To startwith, ...
Using the Cornell note-taking system There are many ways to take notes from a lecture.One method was developed by Walter Paukat CornellUniversity, USA. The systeminvolvesFive Rs. record
Take notes during the lecture.
reduce
After the lectureturn the notes into one- or two-word questionsor 'cues'whichwill help you rememberthe key information.
recite
Saythe questionsand answersaloud.
reflect
Decideon the best way to summarizethe key information in the lecture.
review
Look again at the key words and the summary(and do this regularly).
Recognizingdi gressions Lecturerssometimesmove away from the main point in a lectureto tell a story or an anecdote.Thisis calleda digression.You must be able to recognizethe start and end of digressions in a lecture. Sometimesa digressionis directlyrelevantto the content of the lecture, sometimesit has some relevancea nd sometimes, with a poor lecturer;it may be completely irrelevant. Sometimesthe lecturerpoints out the relevance. Don't worry if you get lost in a digression. Justleavea spacein your notesand ask people afterwards.
Recognizingthe start
That remindsme .. I remember once ..
By the way, . Recognizingthe end
Anyway, where was l? Back to the point. So,as I was saying ..
Understanding Of course,the pointof that storyis . the relevance I'm sureyou can all seethat the story shows...
Whydid ltellthat story?Well, Askingabout What was the point of the story about the digressions interface for a manufacturing system? Why did the lecturer start talking about note-taking? I didn't get the bit about ..
Referring to other people's ideas We often needto talk aboutthe ideasof other peoplein a lectureor a tutorial.We normallygivethe nameof the writerandthe name of the source. We usuallyintroduce the reference with a phrase;we mayquoted'irectly, or we may paraphrase an idea.
Nameand As Dix pointsout introducing phrase Toquote Dix . Where
in human-computer interaction .
What
we can think of feedback as .
10 ' neut r al' a n d 'm a r k e d ' w o r d s . e x p r e s sni g c o n f i d e n c e / t e n t a t l v e n e s s
Studythe words in box a. 1 Useyour dictionaryto f ind out the meanings' 2 What part of sPeechis eachword? Readthe HadfordUniversityhandout' 1 Useyour dictionaryor anothersourceto check the meaningsof the highlightedphrases' syllablesin each phrase? 2 Which are the stressed Which two phraseshavethe samestresspattern? Look at the pictureson the oppositepage' 1 What doeseachPictureshow? how e-commercenas 2 Foreachpicture,discuss or transactions which changedthe ways in the Use conducted' be procedurescan now 'f,igl'ttigt'tt"O B and words phrasesfrom Exercise A. from Exercise Studythe words in box b. brilliant collaPse enormous huge insignificant massive minimal outstanding Plummet Plunge rocket significant slumP soar suPerb tremendous 1 Checkthe meanings,partsof speechand stress Patterns. 2 Put the words into the correctbox in the table beloW as in the example. Neutral
Marked
rise,increase
rockel, soar
fall, decrease big, large gooo small Readthe scriptfrom a news programmeon e-commerce. 1 Usea markedword in placeof eachof the blue (neutral)words. 2 Look at the red phrases'How strongare they?
adopt bandwidth barrrer billing encrypt infrastructure legislation penetration procurement regulatory securitY transaction trust
* '.| " HnoPoRDi ,rrrr,'irr E-commerce
ond e-governmenl
E -commerceor el ectroni ccommerce des c ri bes commerci oltronsocti onsw hi ch toke pl oc e us i ng el eci roni ccommuni coti onmethodssuch os the Internet It tokes mony di fferentforms, such os th e s ol e of goods ond servi cesbetw een busi nesses(B 2B )' or from Lrr'n.rr", l o consumers(B2C ) For mony retoi l componi es,'bri cks ond mortor' shops o re bei ng repl oced by vi ri uol storefrontson the In i ernet, cfrol l engi ngthe stotusquo. C onsumersc on ol s o s el l to other consumers(C 2C ) usi ng onl i ne ouc ti on s i tess uc h os eBoy Thesesi tesdi spl oy the goods for s ol e, offer di soute resol uti onservi cesi n the event of di s ogreement ond ol so foci l i totePoymentcol l ecti on Gov ernmentsus e ei enderi ng for procurement(B2G) ond i nc reos i ngl ythey ore usi ng the some technol ogi esfor no n< ommerc i ol tronsocti ons,such os provi di ng govern menti nformoti on ond submi tti nggovernneni l orms
. lt's clearth.rtthe failureof Boo.comin the late 1990s l lt's gener'rlly : ] was largelydue to its technology' could and large pages were web that their ' acceptecl : I not be easilydownloadedby userswith small thatmorethana ] lt's Lrrrlrl'ely ] amountsof bandwidth. ' smallnumberof potentialcustomerswereableto : . uaa"r, the site.As a result,the company'sshare losinga largeamountof . pricefelldramatically, ($ million)' 130 ' investors'money owedmuch of its ' ' lt s fairto s.rythat lastminute.com . survivalto its goodwebsitedesign.Theirpageswere ' I easilynavigabieand weresmallenoughto downloadI providinga good userexperience, ich : ] Ouickly, . ;,rclorrlrtecllv to the risingnum of contributed : . sales.The differentproductssoldby the two ' online While tn.tyalsohavebeenafactor' ' companies ] salesof travelproductsgrewfrom the beginning, ' : ] onlineclothingsalestook longerto grow'
10 E-coMitERcE AtfD E-6ovERNtvtEt{T
...r.-l
.f-
d,
identifying stance and level of confidence . inferring implicit ideas
Studythe sentenceon the right. Eachphrasein box a could go in the space.What effect would eachone haveon the basemeaning?Mark from *** = Veryconfident to * = very tentative.
The redesign of our virtual shopfront the increasein sales.
( I I i
Surveythe text on the opposite page. 1 What will the text be about?
probably caused
2 Write three researchquestions.
may havecontributedto was possiblyone of the factorswhich contributed to _--
Readthe text. Doesit answeryour questions?
could have been a factor which led to
Answer these q uestions. 1 Accordingto what criteriacan we group factors affecting e-commercepenetration?
caused-- . seemsto have caused.-
2 Underwhat headingcould we categorize consumers'perceptionof quality? 3 What can localgovernmentdo to contributeto the developmentof e-commerce?
The evidenceindicatesthat
4 ls the levelof physicalinfrastructure developmentin a country likelyto affect equally? e-commercein goodsand services
A recent surveyhasfound
5 What legislationmight improvee-commerce penetration,accordingto the article?
Many writersseemto agree ...
It is obvious... Most writers agree The evidencesuggeststhat ... -
6 What benefitscan e-governmentdeliver; accordingto the article? Findthe phrasesin box b in the text. ls the writer confident (C)or tentative (T) about the information which follows?
Theirsurveyfound ... Example: Theavailabilityof browserencryptionI and I secure webserversI areusuallythoughtof I asgtobal factors,I while I nationalfactors I include I both I thelevelof Intemetpenetration andits speed...
Look at the writer's descriptionof the government's role in the developmentof e-commercein Singapore(paragraph5). 1 Underlinethe markedwords. 2 What doesthe choiceof thesewords tell you about the writer'sopinion of the government's actions? 3 Find neutralwords to use in their place,
A Developments in technicalinfrastructurecanoften be carriedout quickly,whereasotherinfrastructure which requirepoliticalinterventiory developments, take place over much longer timescales.
',;s Studythe examplesentenceon the right, and then A and B. sentences 1 Dividesentences A and B into smallparts,as in the examplesentence. 2 Underlineany linkingwords (e.9.,conjunctions). 3 Find the subjects,verbs,objects/complements and adverbialphraseswhich go together. which 4 Make severalshort,simplesentences show the meaning.
B This data shows how, by implementing a technical infrastructure to put Singapore'sregulatory frameworks online, the government could directly influence the take-up of e-commerceby businesses.
Overcomingbarriersto e-commerce E-commercehas tremendouspotential to speedup, simplify and reduce the cost of all kinds of commercial and non-commercialtransactions,and to provide easyaccessto global markets. Howevel, the evidenceindicates that there are significant barriers to e-commerce,resulting in huge variations between regions and countries.It is obvious, therefore,that by identifying thesebarriers and devising ways to overcomethem, significant benefits can be delivered. Bajajand Leonard [1] have suggestedthat factors affecting e-commercepenetration can be grouped under three headings:culture, technology and policy. Thesefactors can be further grouped in terms of whether they are global or local. A recentsurvey has found that the most important global cultural factor for international companiesis ensuring that their e-commerceweb interfacesappeal to different nationalities. Most writers agreethat key local cultural factors include the level of trust between individuals, and also between individuals and their institutions. Technicalfactors can aiso be global and local. The availability of browser encryption and secureweb serversare usually thought of as global factors,while national factors include the level of Intemet penetration and its speed which are both very low in many developing countries. Many writers seemto agreethat government legislatiory such as setting targets for Internet connectivity and bandwidth, can have a significant effect on e-commercepenetration.In addition, government has a role to play at all levels.As Haag, Cummings and McCubbrey [2] point out "Loaal, regional, and national govemments can play a key role in promoting the adoption of e-commerce".Local and regional government can identify savingswhich e-commercecan provide in the delivery of public services,and highlight the benefits it can bring to businesses.Developmentsin technicalinfrastructure can often be carried out quickly, whereasother infrastructure developments, which require political intervention, take place over much longer timescales. The evidence suggeststhat, in addition to the technical infrastructure, the legal, financial and physical aspectsof a country's infrastructure also need to be considered.Roubiah, Hassanienand Khalil [3] assertthat "well-developed legal and regulatory frameworks" are an important factor in the rapid adoption of e-commerce.Consumer protection legislation ensuresthat goods sold are good quality. The state of the physical infrastructure determineshow far and at what cost goods can be delivered. Similarly, the stateof the financial inJrastructurewill determine whether payments can be made quickly and securely.As Ou, Sia and Banerjee[4] point out, if trust in the quality of goods and servicesis low, there is likely to be less demand for online payment methods, as buyers may want to checktheir purchasesbefore paying. The evidencefrom a BBC report [5] on China's e-commerce supports this position. Lefs look at an example of government intervention to improve in-frastructure.In 2004 Teo and Ranganathan[6] examined e-commerceuptake among companiesin Singapore,which already had a huge level of Internet penetration.Their survey found an astonishinglevel of e-commerceuptake among traditional 'bricks and mortar' companies.Much of this was due to the tremendouswork by Singapore'sgovemment in promoting the benefits of e-commerceto thesecompanies.During the 1990s,the govemment funded a gigantic e-commercesystem for non-commercialtransactions, allowing companiesto submit import and export data. The system slashedtransactiontimes dramatically from four days to around two minutes, demonstrating to businessmanagersthat e-conunercecould be what Teo and Ranganathan[5] term a "strategicbusinessdecision and not just a technology decision." This data shows how, by implementing a technicalinJrastructureto bring 'e-corunerceto Singapore'sregulatory frameworks, the government could directly inlluence the take-up of e-commerceby businesses.
ii1
essaytypes . situation-problem-solution-evaluation essays
Readthe three essayquestions.What types of essayare they?
Compare the merhodswhich can be used by governments to support the developmentof e-commerce.
Look at text A on the opposite page. Copyand completeTable1.
Explain, with examples, how a company can use e-commerceto achieve a competitive advantage in its marketplace.
Look at text B on the oppositepage. Copyand completeTable2.
Describe,with some actual examples,the additional barriers which developing countries face on the uptake of Consider how governments can best solve e-commerce. B Look again at the solutionsin Exercise these difficulties. (Table1).What are their possibleadvantages
for consumers? and disadvantages Tabl e1
Situation Problem Solutions
Readthe title of essay3 again. 1 Make a plan for this essay. 2 Write a topic sentencefor each paragraphin the body of the essay.
Tabl e2
3 Write a concludingparagraph.
Solution Argument for Argument against
writing complex sentences. referenceso quotations
Add extra information.Usethe ideasin Lesson10.3. Expandthesesimplesentences. 1 E-commerce hasbrought many benefits. 2 Penetrationof e-commercehas been very uneven. 3 Technicalinfrastructurecan be upgradedquickly. 4 Developedcountrieshavestrong legalframeworks. were quick to take advantageof the benefitsof e-tickets. 5 'No-frills'airlines Look at text C on the oppositepage.Copyand completeTables1-3.
Table 1: Referencingbooks
Author(s) Place
Publisher
Date
Pages
Volume
What do the abbreviations in the blue box mean? Table 2: Referencingjournals
Look backat the text on page 81 (Lesson10.2). 1 Findall the directquotations(e.9.,Haag, Cummingsand McCubbrey). What punctuationand formatting is used beforeand within eachdirectquote?Why? What phrasesare usedto introduceeach directquote?Why doesthe writer choose eachphrase?
Nameof journal
Table 3: Referencingwebsites
@ cf. ed. Ed(s). et al. ibid. n.d. no. op. cit. p. pp. rev. suppl. vol.A/ol.
CaseStudy I Up to the early 1990s, travel agents sold airline tickets and passengerbooking details were stored on computers shared between airlines. Older companies dominated the industry, and it was very difficult for new companies to compete. The growth of the Internet made the e-ticket possible.Details of bookings could be stored on an airline's computers and printed off the Internet by customers.Ryanair, a 'no-frills airline', used this as an opportunityto gain market share.By
2002, around 9l7o of its passengershad purchasede-ticketsfrom its website,which it used as a marketing and promotion tool. It also increasedprofits by offering additional servicessuch as car hire and accommodation. This innovative use of Internet technologies enabledthe 'no-frills'airlines to increasesales while cutting costs.Ryanair'sgrowth has been so spectacularthat it has overtakenthe older, larger airlines and is now the largestairline in Europein termsof passengernumberscarried. (Source:Oz, E ManagementInformation SystemsCenqageLearning,2008)
I t i s g e n e ro l l y o g re e d th o t for e-commerce to grow qui ckl y i n o country, c o n s u me rsn e e d s e c u re m e th o d sfor moki ng pqymentsonl i ne. I n C h i n o , re l o ti v e ty fe w c o n sumershove credi t or debi t cords. D espi te the f o c t th o t e -c o mme rc tro e n s o c t i ons ore the qui ckest w oy to poy, evi dence from 0u, Sio ond Bonerjee (2005) suggests thot monyconsumersdo not wont to poy on l i n e . T h e y h o v e c o n c e rn so bout the quoti ty of the goods they ore orderi ng on d w h e th e r th e y w i tl o rri v e . B y poyi ng on del i very, they con check thot the goods ore os described ond hqve not been donogedduring tronsportotion.
References []
A. Bajaj and L. N. K. Leonard, "The CPT framework: understanding the roles of culture, policy and technology in promoting ecommercereadiness,"in ProblnnsandPerspectiaes in Managanail,vol. 3, 2004, pp.242-252.
t2l
S. Haag, M. Cummings, and D.J. McCubbrey, ManaganmtlrlformationSltstansforthe I4formation Age.New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002,p.214
t3l
K. Rouibah, A. E. Hassanien,and O. l{hali, Ernerging MarketsandE-Commuce in Deueloping Econombs. Hershey,PA, USA: Idea Group Inc. (IGI), 2009.
t4l
C. X.J. Ou, C. L. Sia, and P K. Banerjee, "What is hampering online shopping in Managanmt,vol. lB, 2007, pp. 16-32. China?," nJournal of l4formationTichnohglt
t5l
"China'yet to embracee-commerce',"BBC, Nov. 2005. [Online]. Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/l/hi/business/4446278.stm.[Accessed: Dec. 3, 2009].
t6l
T S. H. Teo and C. Ranganathan, 'Adopters and non-adopters of business-to-business -electroniccommerce in Singapore," tn l4formatiutI Managanmt,vol.42, Dec. 2004, pp. 89-102.
( I -J
Recognizing fixed phrases from e-commerce from lCT. Makesureyou understand thesekey phrases 'bricksand mortar' electronic commerce goods and services commercialtransactions government legislation consumerto consumer non-commercial transactions disputeresolution e-commercepenetration
payment collection regulatory framework technical infrastructure virtual storefronts
online payment methods
Recognizingfixed phrases from academic English (3) from generalacademic Makesureyou understand thesekey phrases English. One of the ... ln some circumstances,... Evenso, ... ... , ds follows: ... The write rs assertl mai nta i n I concl udel assumelstatelagreelsuggestthat ...
ln this sort of situation ... It is obviouslclear that ... It appearsto be the casethat ... The researchlAsurvey found that ... Researchhasshown ... The evidencedoes not support this idea.
Recognizing levels of confidence in researchor information In an academiccontext,writerswill usuallyindicatethe levelof confidencein information they are giving. There is a strong tendency alsofor writers to be tentative when statirig facts. Examples:
Beingtentative
It appearsto be the casethat .. This suggeststhat ...
Beingdefinite/confident
The evidenceshows that .. It is clear that ...
Recognizing'marked' words Manycommonwordsin English are'neutral',i.e.,theydo not implyanyviewon the partof However, whichare'marked'.They the writer or speaker. thereare often apparentsynonyms showattitude,or stance. Examples: Neutral Onlineclothingsa/esroseby 10%.
Marked Online clothing salessoared by 10%.
Soaredimpliesthat the writer thinksthis isa particularly big or fast increase. When you reada sentence,think: ls thisa neutral word, or is it a markedword?lf it is marked,what doesthis tell me about the writer'sattitude to the information? When you write a sentence,think: HaveI usedneutral wordsor markedwords?lf I haveused marked words,do they show my realattitudelthe attitude of the original writer? Extendyour vocabulary by learningmarkedwordsand their exacteffect. Examples: Neutral go up, nse, tncrease
84
Marked
go down, fall, decrease
soa?rocket slump,plummet
say, state
assert,maintain, claim,argue, allege
IO E-COIIiIERCEATIDE-GOVERI{MENT
ldentifying the parts of a long sentence Long sentences containmany separateparts.You must be able to recognizethesepartsto understandthe sentenceas a whole. Mark up a long sentenceas follows: . Locatethe subjects, verbsand objects/complements by underliningthe relevantnouns, verbsand adjectives. o Put a dividingline: r at the end of a phrasewhich beginsa sentence r before a phraseat the end of the sentence r betweenclauses o Put bracketsround extra piecesof information. Example: ln recent years, many writers have claimed that there is a significant need for lnternet third-party payment systemsin developing countries. but the evidence sugqeststhat demand for these systemsis low and will remain so for a significant period of time. In recentyears,I many writers haveclaimeaI tfrat there is a significant need I for Internet third-partypaymentsystemsI in developingcountries,I but lthe evidencesuggestslthat demandfor thesesystemsI is low I and will remainso | (tor a significantperiod of time).
Constructing a long sentence Beginwith a very simpleSV(OXC)(A) sentenceand then add extra information. Example: national governments As many recent case studies have shown,
national governments
can help in every part of the world
can help
promote tn many e-commerce different ways.
Writing a bibliography/reference list The IEEE*styleisthe most common in computerscienceand informationtechnology. Informationshouldbe given as shown in the following sourcereferences for a book, an Internetarticleand a journal article.The final listshouldbe precededby a numberindicating the order in which the itemsappearin the text. Seethe referenceliston page83 for a model. Author
Title of book
J. Close E-Com m erce Esse nti a ls.
Author
Title of lnternet article
BBC.
"PayPalto block 2007. unsafebrowsers"
Author
Title of article
Placeof publication
Publisher
London:
Allan & Unwin, 1999.
Date (or'n.d.')
Date
Full URL
Date of retrieval
http ://news.bbc.co.u k/1/ hi/7354539.stm
Available:[Accessed: June20081
Title of journal
Volumeand page numbers
A. Molla " E-government Journal of vol. 52,61-69, and and e-commerce, lnternational P.5. Licker partnersor rivals?" ElectronicCommerce
Date
2008.
*lnstituteof Electrical and Electronics Engineers More informationon referencing(includingother systemssuchas APA and MLA) can be found at: http://libguides.murdoch.edu.au/IEEE or http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2
link ing i d e a s
Look at the pictureson the opposite page. 1 Match each picture A-D to a label.What does each item do? 2 What benefitscan it deliver?
anotherpoint is asa result because finally firstly for example in addition moreover one resultof this is secondly since so
3 How might it be harmful?
B
Look at the words at the bottom of the spidergramon the oppositepage.Put the words in the correctspaces. Studythe linkingwords and phrasesin box a. 1 Put them into two groups for: a discussingreasonsand results b buildingan argument 2 ls each linkingword usedto join ideas: a within a sentence? b between sentences? 3 Canyou think of similarlinkingwords? 4 Put the linkingwords in 1b in a suitableorder to list points in support of an argument.
D
2 What is the stresspattern of each word? 3 What other words or phraseshave the same meaning?
F 86
Computer ethics Computers play an increasingly important role in our is that decisions made by computer
society.
professionalshave an people. -,
on a growing number of
IT contractors need to balance their
clients' demands with their obligations to society. to ethical reasonsfor this. there are also practical reasons why this is necessary.
Studythe words in box b. 1 Are the words nouns,verbsor adjectives?
B
beneficial censorship conflict ethical faulty harmful impact implication justify negligenceobligation reputation responsiblesurveillance
6) titt"n to a recordingabout computer ethics. Checkwhat you have heard againstthe text on the right.
errors in the design or construction of IT -, systemscan have profound economic or human consequences.
, Bynum, 2004, refers to a chemical company, Chemco, where faulty computer system design was
for an explosion which
resulted in significant loss of life and widespread environmental contamination. Becausethe system design was flawed, the designer'sprofessional -
was at
1 Completeeachspacewith a word or phrasefrom box a or box b. Changethe form if necessary.
risk. -, if found responsible for the death and destruction becauseof negligence,he faced a large fine
2 Can you think of other words or phraseswith the samemeaningasthe underlinedwords?
or imprisonment. This example of a failure in standards
3 Match the phrasesbelow from the text on the right with a later phrasethat refersbackto them.
sound principles which can be lustified.
illustrates the importance of making decisions based on
1 computer professionalsI
a death
a conflict of opinion can arise between a -, computer professional and his or her employer. The
2 lossof life E
b employee
employee may have a disagreementabout whether his or
3 environmentalE contamination
c failure in standards
her work is being put to beneficial or uses. one of this could be the construction,
4 negligencel
d destruction
maintenance or operation of systemsfor surveillance or
5 conflict of opinion I
e disagreement
5 computerprofessional!
f ficontractors
Do the generalknowledgequiz on the opposite pa9e.
censorship.
it is important that professionals
understand the ethical issues before entering into conuacts. Source: Adapted from T. \J7.Byntm, Computer Ethics and Professional Responsibility. Blackwell, 2004, pp. 60-86.
11 COilPUTING AT{D ETHICS
B odys c ann e r
I
D N A te s ti n gs y s te m
system 5urvei l l ance
C redi tcard reader
Leqislalion
Rules and requid+ions Prirlc,iple
Companypol'cy,Inlernalional lrealie.s,Naliona/laws,Pe.sonalbelie{s,Professionalcode o{ conducl, Relig,on
* '..,:r' HADFORD1 ;rir,';,rI Generol Knowlege Gluiz I
Who or what are these?
2 What do theseterms mean?
a
Di-citalMillenniurnCopyri-uht Act TDMCA)
it
cybel cri me
b
EulopeanUnion Copyri_eht Directive ( E UCD )
b
ernailfbrgely
c
keylog-uer'
CtlrxputerMisuseAct
d
rnalware
d
Hacker'sManif'esto
tr
UK DataPlotectionAct (DPA)
f
f
World IntellectualPropertyOrganization
(' colxputerll'itud
( w l Po) (DRM) sofiware Digital rightsrnanagement
hacker' Trojan
h
identitytheft
I
phi shi ng
J
botnet
recognizing the speaker'spoint of view . making notes o writing up notes ;,11'1:;'
You are going to listento a lecture by a guest Look speakerin the ICTFacultyat HadfordUniversity. at the posteron the right.
*, \:'/
HADFORD
1 What is the lecturegoing to be about?
['it i t.u' t tt,
VisilingSpeoker:Dr W Mifthell l5th Februory5.00 p.m.
2 Decideon how you are going to make notes. Preparea page in your notebook.
'Ethicsond computers: decision-moking for the computingprofessionol' Dr Mitchellwill explorekey foctorsin ethicoldecision-moking in todoy's ropidlychongingenvironment.
6d titt"n to Part 1 of the lectureand make notes. 1 What is the focusof the lecturer'stalk? 2 What are the two main aspectsthat the lecturerwill discuss? 3 What examplesof these aspectsdoes he give? 4 To which aspectdoeseachexamplebelong?
1 Why were many Americans worried about the effects of computers in the 1950s?
6d tirt"n to Part2 of the lectureand make notes.
2
Usingyour notes,answerthe questionsin the handout on the right. Referto the model Cornellnoteson page 104. 1 Checkyour answerswith the model. 2 Completethe Review and Summarysections of the Cornellnotes.
'What
evidencewas there to suggestthat their fear was justified?
3 \What examples of US government sources of data does the lecturermention? 4 \fhy was the 1974 Privacy Act criticized? 5 How did the UK Data Protection Act addressthesecriticisms? 5 Who was the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime aimed at?
6d ffr" lecturertalksabout the Digital Millennium CopyrightAct. Listenagain to part of the lecture. Which words tell us whether the informationis fact or opinion?
7 Why was it criticized?
b0 Studythe phrasesin the blue box. Which type of informationbelow follows eachphrasein the blue box? Listento somesentences from the lecture. o restatement o definite point o summaryof a source o example . statementof a topic o another point o tentativepoint o clarification . purposefor speaking
9 What types of contract does the speaker identify as relevant to computer professionals?
Write out one sectionof your notes in completesentences.
8 What example is given of possible problems wirh legislationarising from the Convention?
1
D on' t mi sunderstand me ...
2
To some degree...
3
l t i s fai r to say that ...
4
i n an attempt to ...
5 That is to say ... 6 To the extent that ... 7
Not only that, but ...
8
... givesa good descriptionof ... in ... Briefly,(he)explainshow ...
9
10 (He)hasno doubt that ... 11 With respectto ... 12 ... is a casein point ...
s t r es sin p h r a s e s . b u i l d i n g a n a r g u m e n t
Studythe phrasesin box a.
disciplinary action blackhat identity theft denialof service software exploit socialengineering illegalactivities bulletin board
1 Mark the stressed syllablesin each phrase. 2
6d Listenand checkyour answers. 3 Which phraseshaveadjective+ noun?Which word hasthe strongerstressin thesephrases? Look at the topicsbelow. o companiesand the law o justifyingillegalactivities o ethicalhacking 1 What would you like to know about these topics?
*, \'- v HADFORD Utti ucrsi r.v
2 Preparea page in your notebookto make somenotes. 3
6d Listento the final part of the lecture (Part3) and make notes.lf there is informationwhich you miss,leavea space.
4 Compareyour noteswith someoneelse.Fill in any blankspaces.
'What
does the lecturer seeas the purpose of company regulations? 1 What should Logistep employees L have been able to do? 3 How did the BBC appear to break the law in 2009?
Answerthe questionson the Hadford University handout,usingyour notes.
4 \fhy did the BBC avoid prosecution?
Studythe stagesof buildingan argument(a-f) in box b.
5 How does the lecturer describe ethical hacking?
1 Put the stagesin an appropriateorder.
6 \7hat is your researchtask?
2 Match eachstagewith a phrasefrom box c. Look at box b again. 1 6d Listento a sectionfrom the lecture. Make noteson what the lecturersaysfor eachstageof the argument(a-f). 2 Checkyour answersto Exercises D and E1. Useyour notesto write 75-100words about the main pointsin the final part of the lecture.
a b c d e f
giving a counter-argument givingyour opinion statingthe issue supportingthe reasonwith evidence rejectinga counter-argument giving a reasonfor your opinion
In groups,discuss the researchtask set by the lecturer.Talkabout thesequestions: 1 What are the three pointsin relationto hackingthat you will need to consider? 2 Which one will you choose? 3 What ideasdo you alreadyhave? 4 What kind of informationwill you need to find? 5 Where can you go to find more information? Reportbackto the classon your discussion. In Lesson11.4you will take part in a seminaron this topic.
It'squite clearthat ... But the questionis ... Research hasshown that ... l'm afraidthat just isn'ttrue. Somecomputerprofessionals claim ... Evidenceto supportthis ...
s t r e s si n p h r a s e s. m a k i n g e f f e c t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o a s e m i n a r
Studythe terms in box a. 1 Explainthe meaningof the terms. 2 Mark the main stressin eachterm. Studythe words in box b. Match the words in columns1 and 2 to make phrases. Studythe InnerWebSecurityConsultants intranetweb page on the oppositepage. 1 What is the purposeof the page? 2 Which guidelinesor policiesare shown in the pictures1-3? Choosefrom the services listed. Studythe phrasesin box c. 1 When would you usethesephrasesin a seminarand for what purpose? 2 Which phrasescan you usefor linkingyour new point to a contributionby another speaker? 6d lirt"n to somestudentstaking part in a seminar.They have been askedto discuss ethicalhackingand someof the new techniques.While you listen,make a note of:
blackhat hacker known softwareexploit technicallegal breach passwordprotection policy Internet safetyg uidance secureequipmentdisposal
2
1 client data legal penetration pnvacy reverse root I successfu target unpatched
testing system access protection outcome legislation exploit engrneenn9 consent situation
l'd like to start by explaining...
1 the main topic of eachextract
To carry on from this first point, I want secondlyto look at ...
2 further detailsof eachtopic
I don't think that is the main reason.
Studythe control panelfor InnerWebSecurity Consultants on the oppositepage and discuss thesequestions. 1 What is the purposeof this panel?
That seemslike a very good point X is making. l'm going to expandthe topic by mentioning...
2 What beneficialand harmful purposes could it be usedfor?
On the other hand,you might want to saythat ...
3 What is the purposeof the screenshot control?
As well as this issue,we can also look at a very different issue.
4 Which controlshavethe leastethical implications?
Soto sum up, we can saythat ...
your researchf indingson ethical Discuss hackingwith your group. One personfrom the group shouldreport the conclusions of the discussion to the class.
Doesanybodyhaveany opinionsor anythingthey would like to add? I think we need a different viewpoint. OK,to continuethen ... Followingon from what X hassaid ...
II COiIPUTIIIGATIDETHTCS
I n n er W e S b e c u r i tyG on su l tan ts Latest guidance and information on:
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Networksecurity
Generalsecurity
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EmploveeInternetsafew ouidance
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Buildinoentrvsecuritv
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Procedurefor emoloyeesubmissionof unsafesitesfor blockino
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Technicalouidanceon blockingunsafesites
Guidelinesfor memorystick use
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Guidanceon web monitorinoof emplovees
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Networksecurityguidelines
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Guidanceon emoloveee-mailmonitorino
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Anti-virussoftware
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Proceduresfor disciolinarvactionfor inaoorooriatelnternetuse
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ProsramsUsed + Pr-ogram(s) Logged
Options General StartupandAccess Settings
WebsitesVisited 0 Website(s) Logged N*vt
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i:-. ,,Screenshots
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LoggingSettings Logging Configure Options
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Linking words We use linkingwords and phrasesto join ideastogether in a sequence, to show how the ideasare related. Somelinkingwords can be usedto join independentand dependentclausesin a sentence: Examples: The decisionsmade by computer professionals Eecausecomputers play an increasingly have an impact on large numbers of people important role in society,the decisions OR becausecomputers play an increasingly made by computer professionals have important role in society. an impact on large numbers of people. Other linkingwordsjoin sentences in a text. Example: Computersplay an increasinglyimportant role in society.As a result. the decisionsmade by computer professionals have an impact on large numbersof people. when buildingan argument,it is a good idea to use linkingwords to add points: Examples: Firstly,... ln addition, ... For example, ... Moreove4... Another point is ... ... whereas... Secondly,... Finally,...
Using words with similar meanings to refer back in a text It is a good ideato learnseveralwords with similaror relatedmeanings.We often build cohesionin a text by usingdifferent words to refer backto somethingpreviouslymentioned. Examples:
Firstmention
Secondmention
Third mention
Fourthmention
lT workers
computer professionals
those working in the lT industry
people in ICT
more .
rising numbers of ..
growing ..
increased..
Recognizingfixed phrasesfrom academicEnglish (3) In Units7 and 9, we learntsomekey fixed phrasesfrom generalacademicEnglish. Hereare somemore to usewhen speaking. Don't misunderstand me. I'm afraid that just isn't true. ln an attempt to ... ... rsa casein point ... Not only that, but ... Somepeople say ... The effect of ...
The history of ... The presenceof ... Thereis a correlationbetween ... and ... To somedegree ... To the extent that ... What'smore ... With respectto ...
Writing out notes in full when makingnoteswe useasfew wordsaspossibre. Thismeansthat when we cometo write up the notes,we needto payattentionto: . the useof numbers and symbols for wordsand ideas,e.g., Notes: Ca) '€i3 €rother' c-ommerc-ia\ eqete-<
Tear<, +
?riva.J
Ac-t rar4, 3ovt, on\g _ no
A result of thlse 'Big Brother' fearswas the privacy Act of 1974,which apptied to government only and did not cover commercial systems... o makingsurethe grammaticalwords are put back in, e.g., Notes:
-)
\eqie\ation
copied
bq dk
Laten this legisiation was iopiedby the IJK. o makingthe impliedmeaningsclea4e.g., Notes: unauthori3ed ac-cee<,Q cri-e 4 uls Co-puter r-1ieueeAcl, t44o Concernsabout "unauthorizedaccessand crime gave' riseto the L)KComputer MisuseAct, 1990.
Building an argument A commonway to build an argument is: 1 First,statq the issue: Doesgrey hat hacking help improve the levelsof securityin company systems? 2 Next, give a counter-argument: ldeally, there should be no reasonto break the raw by accessingcomputer systemswithout their owners' permission. 3 Then give your opinion: ln fact, even white hat hackerscan break the law at times. 4 Then give evidencefor your opinion: The example of how grey hat hackershetped improve Apache securityin 2000 provides evidence to suppott this position.
Linking to a previous point when your contribution is new when you want to movethe discussion in a new direction,introduceyour commentswith phrases suchas: Followingon from what X said,I'd liketo talk about ... I'm going to expandthe topic by mentioning... As well as (penetrationtesting),we can alsolookat a verydifferent sortof issue.
Summarizing a source When we talk about the ideasof other people in a lectureor a semina4we often give a summaryof the sourcein a sentenceor two. Examples:A book by (name of writer) called (name of book) publishedrn (year) gives an explanation of how ... Briefly,(name of writer) explainshow ... An introduction to (topic) can be found rn (name of writer).
referringbackr introducingquotations/paraphrases
Studythe words in box a. 1 Findeight pairsof words connectedin meaning.They can be different parts of speech. 2 Someof the words can be changedfrom noun to verb or verb to noun. Changethe forms. 3 Checkthe stressand pronunciation. Readthe headingsof the textson the oppositepage.
anticipate archive augmentation contingency create demonstrate doubling eventuality geospatial locate mirror prediction produce propose reflect revolutionize show stable storage suggest transmit
1 What theme linksthe four textstogether? 2 Readtext A and look at the highlightedwords. Connecteach word to the noun it refersto. Example: They refersto previouslymentioned noun virtual worlds. Studythe verbsin box b. They can be usedto introduce quotations or paraphrases/summaries. 1 Checkthe meaningsof any words you don't know.
accept agree argue assert cite claim concede consider contend describe disagree dispute emphasize illustrate indicate insist note observe point out report show state suggest
2 Which verbshavesimilarmeanings? 3 Which verbsare not followed by that? 4 When can you use each verb? Example: accept= the writer (reluctantly)thinks this idea from someoneelseis true Readtext B on the opposite page. Look at the highIighted sentences. 1 What is the purposeof eachsentence? Example: Mirror worlds model the world ... = statement of fact 2 In an assignment, shouldyou refer to the highlighted sentencesby quoting directly or paraphrasing? 3 Choosean appropriate introductory verb and write out each sentenceas a direct quotation or a paraphrase.Add the sourcereferencewhere necessary. Readeach of the texts on the opposite page. 1 ldentify services(suchas Google Earth)which you use or know about, in each of the four categoriescovered by texts A-D. 2 Discuss which technologyyou find most usefuland write a short summaryof your conclusions.
o
Virtuol worlds Virtual
norlds
offer an alternative realitl;
distinct lrom
even'da1'life.
They
began as text-based
role-playing games, whose plavers rvere mainlv those u'itl-r lots of timc and a vivid imagination. As computer graphics improvt'd. thev rnadc it possible to create detailed visual representations of the virtual rvorlds in r'ririch thc sames or rolc-plavs take placc. A conrnon figure in almost all of these is the avatar. This can be a human or fantasy figure and represents a plaver n'ithin the rirtual l.orld. Tivo visions exist for the future development of virtual worlds. In the first vision all the activities of the real world can be carried out. Such a world can act as a platform lor the provision of training and education, and for the delivery of scn'ices and customer assistance. The second is more limited. It is simply somewhere individuals can have fun inte racting n itl-r other plavers in a varien' of role -plav acti\-ities. S. Green and T. Ashley,"Exploring the future of virtual worlds," Journal of Computer lnteraction,vol. 42, pp. 24-32, May 2OOa.
Predictive knowledge management using data from rnirror worlds
page 429
Mirror worlds model the world around us, mirroring the geospatial reality that we experiencein our everyday lives. They createan infrastructurewhich can capture,store,analyzeand managedata which is spatiallyreferencedto the Earth Other data,such as the locationof specificservicesor resources,can then be mappedonto thesemapsand images.An importantrole which has beenproposedfor mirror worlds is as a tool for managersto manageassetsin the real world. It is clear that mirror worlds can play a key role in helping managerswith contingencyplanning,so they can anticipateevents,ratherthan reactingwhen they occur.However,it appearsthat the successfuluse of mirror worlds for contingencyplanningis very dependenton the quality of the data used.As Ding' (2009) states,it will be some time before it is possible to "look into a computer screenand see reality". Relatively low-cost GPS and camera technology, such as that used for Google Streetview, show how it is possible to capture large quantities of high-qualityvisual data quickly. W. C h e n , " P r e d i c tive kn o wle d g e m a n a g e m e n tu sin g d atafrommi rrorw orl ds,"FutureD esi gnTechnol og,es,vol 14,pp.429-450,Jan.2010.
Explo rin g augme n ted realit y While mirror worlds make it possible for people to browse various types of information in a representation ofthe real world, augmented reality (AR) can bring that information to users in the real world. It doesthis by using a combinationof GPS(GlobalPositioningSystems),and varioushand-held or body-worn interfaces. Using GPS,relevant information can be found and displayed to the user. Existing mobile visual interfaces,such as touch phones,are alreadyusedto provideAR. By combining data from the built-in GPSand compass,they can map information onto imagesof a location, generatedby the built-in camera.It is still too early to predict the full rangeof developmentswhich AR is likely to generate. B.A. Skelly,"Exploring Computing, augmentedrcality,"Journalof Mobileand Pervasive vol.24,pp.239-245, Jan.2009.
The growth of lifelogging Lifeloggingis the term used to describethe processwhere informationon the locationand status of peopleand obiects is captured,stored and distributedautomatically.By makinginformation availablein this way, it is possiblefor individualsto update otherson their currentstatus,to share news of unusualeventswith them and to preservememoriesfor themselves. The drop in the cost of storage,processingand networkconnectivity,and the availabilityof ubiquitouscomputingdevicessuch as touch phones,with the capacityto gatherand storethis information,has made lifeloggingpossiblefor a wide rangeof individuals.The type of information gatheredcan rangefrom text notes,to streamedvideo footagefrom a mobilecamera. M.Richards,"ThegroMhof lifelogging," lnternational of UbiquitousComputing,vol.32,pp.349-387, Mar.2010. Journal
link ing id e a s i n a t e x t . q u o t i n g a n d p a r a p h r a s i n g
Discuss the following questions. 1 Why is the issueof growth ratesfor technical componentsparticularlyimportantfor the future of computing? 2 What factors other than componentsare importantwhen consideringthe success of new developments? Surveythe text on the oppositepage.What will the text be about?Write three questionsto which you would like answers. Readthe text. Doesit answeryour questions? Numberthe sentences on the right 1-8 to show the order in which they happened.
Twitterservicebegins. Googlelaunches1Gbe-mail SteveMann begins'lifecasting'. Gordon BellstartsMyLifeBits. Gordon Moore predictsa doubling of processingcapacityeverytwo years. Smartet al. make their predictionsfor the future of computing. SteveMann createsthe first wearable computer. Facebookextendsits serviceto anybody over the age of 13.
For eachparagraph: 1 ldentifythe topic sentence. 2 Think of a suitabletitle. Look at the underlinedwords in the text. What do they refer backto? Studythe highlightedwords and phrases. 1 What do they have in common? 2 What linkingwords or phrasescan you useto show: . contrast? o concession? o result? o reason? with the highlighted 3 Write the sentences itemsagain,usingother linkingwords or phraseswith similarmeani ngs.
As O'Brien and Ching' (2010)explainthat the growth of lifelogging bestreflectsthe increasein processingand storagecapacity. For example,when SteveMann createdthe first wearablecomputerin the early 1980s,it was extremelycumbersomep 59. According to O'Brien and Ching, they say that he was able to reducethe systemto the size of a pair of sunglasses and was able to useit for 'lifecasting'detailsof his everydaylife for othersto access.This clearly showsthe way in which hardwarecapacity growth "revolutionizedthe way in which datacan be
Readthe text on the right. A studenthaswritten about some of the issuesassociatedwith lifelogging,but someof the quotationsand paraphrases have not been correctlydone. Can you spot the mistakesand correctthem? Usingthe informationin the text on the right, write a paragraphfor a universitylecturer, summarizinghow hardwaregrowth has made it easierto captureand storedata. Decidewhether you shouldquote or paraphrasethe materialfrom the text.
captured"p 59. When Gordon Bell startedthe MylifeBits project in 1999,he aimed to capture and store as much data about him and his life as possible.He capturedand stored e-mails,web pages,documents,recordingsof meetingsand photosshot at 60-second intervals.
Future C omputi n g
growlhcurves terhnologicol Using to predktlhefuturedevelopment of servires By M. O'Brien qnd T. Ching THt nrrr oF GRowrHin the processingpower ond copocityof compufinghordworehos remoinedrelolivelystobleoverthe post 30 yeors.Populorlyknownos Moore'sLow,the prediclionmode by Gordon Moore in 1965 thot the numberof tronsistors on o single chip would double every yeor hos proved remorkobly resilient.For exomple,the numberof honsislorson o stondord chip in 1980 wos 30,000, ond by 2000, fiis hod grownfo 42 million.In reol lerms,thol represented o doublingof processing power every l8 months Another low, Kryder's[ow, predicts thot the copocityof hordworefo slore doto will double every two yeors,ond the growlh curve hos lorgelybeen in line with this. Memory copocitytoo hos followed o similorexponentiol growthcurve,os hos the growth in bondwidth,both wired ond wireless.Tokentogelher,these growth curves odd up fo on exponentiolincreosein the overollperformonce ond copocityof computersystems. A numberof intereslingpredicfionsfor woys in which this increosed performonce ond copocity will be used ore highlightedin o 20Q7 reporf by Smortet ol [1]. Drowing togethercurrenttrends in exisling Inlernetlechnologies,they idenfifiedthosewhich could be used fo creote shored sociol spoces.Thesespoceswould providetoolsto ollow individuolsto interoctwith eoch other, ond with the world oround lhem, in woys which hove not been possiblebefore.Thev put forword lhreekey developments os cenlrolto thisfuture.Thefirstwos lhe
'lifecosting',lronsmitlingimoges of his everydoy life to the Infernetfor otherslo occess Thisgrophicollydemonshotes how lhe growth in hordwore copocity revolutionizedthe woy in ,l999, which doto could be coptured. In Gordon Bell, o computer engineer ond reseorcher,storted fie MylifeBits proiect,which oimed to coplureond sloreos much informolion obouthimond hislifeos possible. Initiolly, he storedemoil,web poges ond sconneddocuments,buf os storogebecome more offordoble,he begon lo record his conversolions ond orchive fhem He then begon to sfore photogrophstoken every 60 seconds,usingo speciollydevelopedcomerowhich hunground his neck. Althoughhe storesvisuol ond oudio doto of oll his encounfers, thisextremelifeloggingonly tokesup opproximotely lGb of storogespoceper monlh. While exhemelifeloggingis relotivelyrore, Sellen[2] orgues convincinglythoi sociol networkingsites ore in focf "fhe emerging populorisotion"of lifelogging.Sociol networking ollowsusersfo shoredoto obout their lives,usingpholos,musrc ond video,os well os fheirthoughts ond commenfs in textform The growlh of the sociol networkingservicesoppeors to be linkedcloselywith the foll in the costof dofo sforoge.Therofeof the foll con be seen in the londmorkdecisionby Google in
2OO4 to provide lGb of storoge os port of its free emoil service.By 2006, this copocity hod reoched 2.7Gb, ot the somelime thotthe Focebooksociolnetworkingserviceextended develoomentof mirrorworlds.which would use online doto fo its free service to onybody over the oge of 13. Sociol mirrorthe physicolond spotiolreolitythot we experiencein our networkinglinkedto video begonto tokeshopeoroundlhis lime everydoylives.The secondwos ougmentedreolity,in which this olso,with the lounchof YouTube in lote 2005. However,not oll new developments doto would be mopped fo the geogrophicollocofion of on will dependon the some individuol.Thethird wos lifelogging,the coptureond storogeof technologicolgrowth. The Twitter service, which slorted in doto on eventswhich reloteto on individuol'slife 2006, hos been describedos o form of sociolnetworkingond Of the threekey futuredevelopments identifiedby Smortet ol. microblogging.As it usesvery shorttextmessoges, in conkostto it is perhops the growth in lifelogging which reflects the other sociol networking services, Twitter requires relotively little best [], increose in processing power ond storoge copocity of processingpower or storoge copocity As the key feoture of hordwore In the eorly 1980s, SteveMonn creoted the first Twitleris immediocy,it is possibleto suggestthot the rote of weoroble computer(WeorComp)io record detoils of his life. growlh of servicemirrorsfhe numberof individuolswith mobile However, os lhe size ond weight of WeorComp mode it web occess.The specloculorgrowlh of Twitter,with up to 100 extremelycumbersome, its functionolity wos very limited.So to million usersby the end ol 2009, shows thot while growth increoselhisfunctionolity, he begono processof developmenf to curvescon be shownlo influencenew services, theyore nol very moke il smollerond more powerful.Althoughlhis took some helpful in predicting them. While Moore's Low is likely to lime, eventuollythe weoroblecomputerwos reducedin size to confinueto remointrue for somelime to come, in one form or where it resembledo_poirof ordinorysunglosses. Consequently, onother,the shopeof the serviceswhichwill be developedin the in 1994. Monn wos oble lo use the weoroble comoulerfor neorfulureore stillto be reveoled.
Future Computing
page 59
Future Computing, vol. 22(7), p. 59, 2010
)"
researchreports: introduction, method, conclusion
Studythe words in box a. 1 Checkthe pronunciationand grammar. 2 What are their meaningsin a research report? Readthe two Method paragraphson the right. 1 Copythem into your notebook.Put the verbs in bracketsin the correctform.
conduct data discussion findings implication interview interviewee interviewer limitation method questionnaire random recommendation researchquestion respondent results sample survey undertake
2 ldentifythe original researchquestions, the researchmethodsand other important information.
ReportA: Method A written questionnaire(design) to measurehow younger and older adults differ in their attitudes to new computer technologies.Six hundred questionnaires (send)to a random sampleselectedfrom eachof the two subjectgroups,of which 250(return).In addition, 25 young people(interaiew)in universitiesand libraries. Over 65%of the sample (be) male.
What are the sectionsof a researchreport? What order shouldthey go in? Readthe lntroduction and Conclusionto ReportA on the oppositepage. 1 Why was the report undertaken? 2 What are the elementsof a good introductionand conclusion?
ReportB: Method Growthin the performance of processors is sti[[ in line with Moore's Law.In orderto find out whetherthis rateof growth cancontinue,a literaturesearch(undeftoke) usingthe Science Directdatabase andthe Googte search engine. Thesearch terms which(use)weregrowthcurue,computingandprocessing.
r es e a r c hr e p o r t s : q u e s t i o n n a i r e s f, i n d i n g s , d i s c u s s i o n
Describethe data in Figures1 and 2 from ReportA. Look at the first paragraphfrom the Findings sectionof the report. 1 Completethe spaceswith quantity phrases. Put the verbsin the correcttense. 2 Write another paragraph,usingdata from Figure2. Look at the /iterature searchnotes on the oppositepage.What issuesdo you think are the most important in encouragingolder adultsto seethe benefitsof new developmentsin computing?Discuss.
Findings (20%)ofolderrespondents Firstly,a-, -, (state)that they felt that new developmentsin computing would not be generally beneficial.tn (70%)(say) that they addition, the -felt the developmentswould be generally beneficial (L1%)hadno opinion. The and a results from the sample of younger people were (80%)(indicate)that they similar.A felt that new developmentsin computing would be (20%) generally beneficial,while a -_-(feel) of younger respondents the developmentscould be more harmful than beneficial.
Coverthe Conclusionsectionon the opposite page. 1 What should the report writer say in the Conclusion? Make somenotes. 2 Readthe Conclusionagain and compare.
Report A: Inhoduction
Report A: Conclusion
Therehas been much debateabout the extent to which older people are excluded from the benefits of developments in computing technology. ln order that all age groups can benefit equally from these improvementg it is important that older people feel positive about new developments and how they can benefit from them. This report will describe a survey undertaken to examine the differences in the perception of new computer technologies between younger and older adults. Recommendations will be made on how older adults can be encouragedto feel more positive about new technological developments.
To conclude, it is clear that there are a number of differencesbetween the younger and older adults in terms of their perceptions of the benefits of new developments in computing. The evidence suggeststhat the issues idenffied should be taken into account when designing new computer devices and services. Older adults should be included in the groups used to test new prototypes, so that designscan take their requirements into account. In particulaq, these relate to the speed with which they can familiarize themselves with the product or serviceand the extent to which they feel control over it. More attention should also be given to publicizing the beneficial effectsof new computer developmentsfor older people. Unless theserecommendationsare put into practice, older adults will not fully realize the benefits of new developments in computing.
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Introductory verbs Choosingthe right introductoryverb is important.Your choiceof introductoryverb shows what kind of statementthe writer is making. Example: As Chen linsert ref no. in square brackets]argues,the quality of the data used is very important when using mirror worlds for contingency planning. Your choiceof introductoryverb alsoshowswhat you think of anotherwriter'sideas.Thisis an important part of academicwork. Example: SkellyIinsert ref no. in square brackets]claimsthat the first commercialusesfor AR will be found in tourist locations. Verb
The writer .
agree
thinksthis idea from someoneelseis true
accept, concede
reluctantlythinksthis idea from someoneelseis true
consider emphasize,note, observe, point out, state,suggest*
is giving his/heropinion
argue, assert,claim, contend, insist
is giving an opinion that othersmay not agreewith
cite
is referringto someoneelse'sideas
disagree, dispute
thinks an idea is wrong
suggest*
is giving his/herrecommendation
describe
is giving a definition/description
il lustrate, i nd icate,show
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report
is giving researchfindings
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Linking ideas in a text Linkingwords,whichjoin ideaswithin a sentenceor betweensentences, conveydifferentmeanings:
Contrast
Within sentences
Between sentences
but, whereas, while
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Concession although, despitel in spiteof the fact that
However,At the sametime, Nevertheless, Despite/lnspiteof + noun, Yet
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so,so that
So,As a result, Consequently,Therefore
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because,since,as
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12 ICT IT{THE FUTURE
Structuring a researchreport A researchreport is an accountof some researchwhich has been undertakento f ind out about a situationor a phenomenon,e.9.,What do older age groups think about social networking sitesT o Introduction o Methods
introducetopic; backgroundinformation;reasonsfor research researchquestions;how researchwas carriedout
o Findings/results answersto researchquestions o Discussion issuesarisingfrom findings;limitationsof research o Conclusion summaryof main findings;implications; possibi recommendations; lities for f urther research
Writing introductions and conclusions Introduction o Introducethe topic of the report. . Saywhy the topic is important. o Givebackgroundinformation. o Givean outline of the report plan. Note: No substantialinformation; this belongsin the body of the report.
Conclusion o Summarizethe main pointsin the report without repeatingunnecessarily. o Make someconcludingcommentssuchas likely implicationsor recommendations. Note: No new information;all the main points shouldbe in the body of the report.
Deciding when to quote and when to paraphrase you will need to decidewhether to quote directlyor to When referringto sources, paraphrase/su m marize. o Quote when the writer'swords are specialor show a particularlycleveruseof language. This is often the casewith strongly stated definitions or opinions. o Paraphrase/summarize descriptions and factual information.
Incorporating quotations o Usean introductoryverb.
o Copythe originalwords exactly.
o Don't forget the quotation marks.
o Add emphasiswith italicsand write'[emphasis addedl'.
o Make the quote fit the grammarof the sentence. o Show any missingwords with '...'.
o Add words which are not in the originalbut are necessary to fully understandthe quotation out of context.Put the extra word(s)in brackets.
Do not quote more than one sentencewithin the body of a paragraph.lf you want to quote put in a colon and write the quote as indentedtext, so that it clearly two or three sentences, standsout from the body of your essay. However,think very carefullybeforeyou includea long quote. lt is usuallybetter to paraphrasein this case.
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Student B | . Development costsof softwarecanbe lowerbecause of codereuse. . Old versions of softwarecanbe supportedindefinitelyso there is no forcedupgradeto new versions to ensuresupport. . Opensourcesoftwaretypicallyrequireslowerspecification hardware. . Higherlevelsof technical maybe requiredto maintain expertise opensourcesystems. . A wide rangeof free applications can be obtainedfor opensource operatingsystems, althoughthey may not be assophisticated as proprietarysoftware.
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Social o Because sourcecodecan be reused,there is lesswasteof effort and the benefitsof the softwarecanbe sharedby manywithout further cost. o Greaterdemocracy in termsof whichfeaturesaredevelopedin future versions. o code istransparent,not 'blackbox',so it can be easilytestedto ensure that softwaredoeswhat it is supposedto. o cost is not a barrierto usingopensourcesoftware,bringingcomputing to a wider userbase. o No limitson the distributionof opensourcesoftwaremeanthat good softwareisquicklyrecognized and widelyused.
9.3 Humansciences-based usabilitytestingmethods Task,userand environmentanalysis In taskanalysis, the objectiveisto focuson the users'goals- what theywant to achieveby usingthe interface,for exampleusinga web interfaceto locatea particularservicelocalto them.In orderto understandhow they approachthis,it is necessary to understand the personal, social,and culturalcharacteristics the users bringto the goal.Taskanalysis alsoinvolvesworkingout the specifictasksthat users mustcompletein orderto achieve theirgoalwhileusingthe interface. Depending on the resultsof the useranalysis, the interfacemayneedto be modifiedto take usercharacteristics into account,for exampleby usinglargerfontsfor thosewith poorvision.A third type of analysis, whichisoften (but not always)carriedout whichinvolvesunderstanding alongsidethe othertwo, is environmentanalysis, users'physical, social, culturalandtechnological environments. Forexample, one aspectof this might be examiningthe physicallocationin whicha systemisto be placed, to determine for the visualdisplay. the typeof light levelsavailable Focusgroups Althoughthe focusgrouphasits originsin marketing,it hasbecomea usefultool for obtainingfeedbackon an interfaceat an earlystageof development. a Usually, smallgroupof aroundsixusersisaskedto work with an interface.Underthe guidanceof a trairiedfacilitatonthey givetheir reactions to the interface. Dependingon the stageof development of the interface,this maybe a mock-upor a paperprototype(wherethe prototypehasnot beenbuilt,but existson paper for example only).Occasionally, focusgroupsare usedwith workingprototypes, wherea deviceisveryhigh profileand isexpectedto havea verywide appeal.Video recordings of the discussions are usuallymadesothat exactquotationscanbe put togetherto providea summaryof the obtained,and keyclipsare sometimes session. Cognitivewalkthrough Cognitivewalkthroughis a methodof testingthe designof an interfaceat a relativelyearlystageof development. Expertevaluators usethe specification of a prototypeto createscenarios Theythen for varioustasksand goalson the system. role-playthe part of a user,'walkingthrough'the differenttasksto determine whetherthereare any blockswhichpreventthe userfrom reachingtheir goal.lf the it canindicate sequence requiredto achievea goal isverylong and complicated, and replaceit with a simpler that there is a needto reviewthe actionsequence approach. Thinkingaloud Thinkingaloudisway of obtainingfeedback from the useroverthe courseof their interactionwith an interface.A userisgivenvarioustasksto performusingthe systeminterface.Theyare instructed to talk out loud asthey performthe task, Thetype explainingwhat they arethinkingaboutand the problemsthey encounter. of data gatheredfrom this type of testcaninclude: o the users'feelingsgenerallyaboutthe look and feel of the interface o whetherthey likethe colours o how easytheyfind it to carryout the taskthey havebeenassigned o what problemsthey encounter Thiscanprovideverydetailedin-depthdata,but it is not alwaysclearwhat usersare talkingabout.Bycombiningsystemloggingand a recordof the user'scomments, this difficultycanbe overcome. 107
Wordlist Note: where a word has.more.thanone part of speech,this is indicated in brackets.The part of speech given is that of the word as it is used in the unit. 'so,for example, advanceis listedas advance(n), although it can alsobe a verb.
Unit A acceleration access(n and v) actionsequence active adding machine addition adopt
9 4 9 5 5 5 10
advance(n)
5
Ajax (AsynchronousJavascript and XML) 6
Unit
U ni t
billing
10
binary
3
component
biometric
3
complex(adj)
5
computer-assisted (or -aided)
2
black hat (hacker)
1'l
blog
6
botnet
11
breakdown
8
'bricksand mortar'
computerize
1,5 3,4,9
1,4
concept
7
confidentiality
11
10
conflict
11
4
connect
1
broadband browse
communication
1,4
connectivity
browser
1
connector
10 ,|
1
consume
8
analogue
5
analytical
bug (n)
5
analyze
bulletin board
5
11
consumerprotection
business (B2B) to business
10
consumer to consumer (C2C) 10
business to consumer(B2C)
10
contingencyplanning
't2
control (n, v and adj)
3
control unit (CU)
3 6
annotationtools
12
antivirus
1 "l
application
c
10
applicationssoftware
3
approach
cache
9
6
convention
calculate
5
5
convert
call centre
3 't2
2
copyright
capability
6
core
5
capacity
8
cost
8
CPUboard
centralprocessing unit (CpU) 3
8
creator
5
change
6
criminallaw
chip (microchip)
5
cryptography
5
current
5
arithmetic arithmeticlogic unit (ALU) archive assessment asynchronous augmentation augmentedreality
4 6 12 12
censorship
aural data
9
automated
chiller
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civil law
avatar
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client client consent
B
cluster
backend
7
balance
code
8
cog
bandwidth barrier behaviour beneficial 'Big Brother' 108
10 10 9 11 't1
11
8 "t1 6
cybercrime cycle(n)
8 't 'l
11
11 3
11 8 5,7
D data
1
5
data centre
8
cognitive psychology
9
data integrity
8
cognitive systems
9
data processing
2
cognitivewalkthrough
9
data protection
11
commercial common
5,10 8
database decirnal
2,4 5
Unit decode decrypt denialof service
3,5 5 "l'l
eventuality
Unit 12
U ni t hard drive
3 1,3
evolutionary
6
hardware
expand
8
hardwarespecifications
9
dependability
8
exploit (n)
10
harmful
11
dependent
7
export
10
heuristic
9
designer
2
heuristicevaluation
9
desktoppublishing(DTP)
2
extensiblemark-uplanguage (XML) 6
host
6
hot swapping
8
development developmentmethod developmenttools device digit digital
5,6
eye tracking
9
9 7
F
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factor
10
3
faulty
11
1, 5
feature creep
7
features
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hyperlink
1,6
hypertext
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hypertext tra nsfer protocol (HTTP)
6
I
digital rightsmanagement (DRM)
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idle
flashdrive
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illegalactivities
f lexible
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immediate accessstore (lAS)
diskdrive disputeresolution
5 10
5,6
identitytheft
11 8 11 3
disrupt
8
f lexibility
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impact
8, 11
distribute
8
focusgroup
9
import
10
division
5
forgery
11
include
8
documentation
7
f raud
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incorporate
8
download driver
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f unction
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increase
8
functionality
7
increment
7
incremental
6
index
4
indexing
6
information
1
informationprocessing
5
G
e-commerce
10
general purposesystem
electronic
1,5
geospatial
electroniccommerce
10
gigabyte
electroniccommunication
10
global
electronicpoint of sale(EPOS)2
3 12 1 10
global positioningsystem
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8
graphical
engine
5
grey hat (hacker)
enhancing
9
growth curve
12
environment
8
encode encrypt energyproportionality
essential ethical evaluation
3 3,5
goods and services
5,10
governmentlegislation
5 11 9
H hacker hapticdata
10,12
initiative
12 10 10 4 11
embedded
infrastructure
11 9
8
innovation input (n and v)
5, 9 2,3, 4, 5
input device
9
install
1
instruction
1
intellectualproperty(lP)
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interaction
9
interactive
4
interactivity
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interface
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interfacedesign Internet intranet invention inventor iterative iterativemodel I job joystick junction K key (adj) keyboard keylogger keyword kilobit L LAMP(Linux,Apache, PHP) MySQL, laserprinter launch(v) layout leadto (v) legalinfrastructure legalsituation legislation lifelogging limited limitation link( n andv) Linuxoperatingsystem local log (n and v) log in/on log off l ogging
110
9 2 2 5 5 7 7
8 3 5
5 3 11 4 1
6 3 1 7 5 10 11 10 12 5 9 4 5 10 2 4 4 9
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Unit
Unit M machine(n) magnetic tape maintenance malWare mask measure memory mentalmodels men u metaphor microchip microprocessor migration military mirror mirrorworlds mock-up monitor(n andv) monitoringdevice Moore'slaw motherboard motor motor system mouse multiplication multi-purpose N negligence network(n and v) neuralnetworks non-commercial numerical
5
operatingsystem optimal optimum outage out-of-the-box outcome output (n and v) output device
9
outsourcing
5 5 8 11 8 8
8 I 8 8 7 1,3,4,5 9 2
1,4 9 1 3 8 5 12 12 7 'l 3 't2 8 5 9 3 5 5
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o objectoriented obligation obsolete onlin e opensource
7
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P payment paymentcollection (P2P) peer-to-peer personalcomputer(PC) penetration penetration testing perception perceptual system persistent trend phase
10 10 6 2 10 11 9 9 "12
6 p h is h in g 11 physical reality 12 positioning 3 portable 5 (n ) p lu g -in 1 prediction 12 (PHP) 6 pre-hypertext processor prevalent 8 privacylegislation 11 private 6 procedure 2 (n andv) process 1, 3,8 processor 3 procurement 10 product 6 program(n andv) 1, 5 programmer 1 projectmanagement 7,9 projector 2 promotion 10
proprietary protection protocol prototype prototypingmodel public punchcard purchase
7 10 3 7 7 6 5 10
a qualitative qualityassurance R radical reduce reflect refresh regulatoryframework relay(n) release reliability reload reputation requirements resources responsible restart resultin (v) reverseengineering revolutionary revolutionize robot role-play root access rule
6 7,9
5 8 't2 6 10 5 6 I 5 't'l 7 7 11 1 5 't1 5 12 2 12 11 6
s scaleup scan(n and v) scanner
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Unit
Unit
Unit scheduling screen(n) search(n and v)
7
T
3
searchengine searchresults
4
target system task taskanalysis technicalinfrastructure
4 4 10
securely security select sensor server serverfarm
10 6 3 4,6 8
share skills socialengineering socialnetworkingservices
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software softwareengineer softwareexploit softwarepackage
8 2 11 6 1 2 11 1,2
specific specificationdocument
4
specialized spider(n andv)
5
spiralmodel stable stack stage static statusquo storage(n) store(v) submit subtraction outcome successful surveillance switch system systemdeveloPment systemlogging software systems
7
..f 7 12 5 6,7 6 10 3,5,'12 1,2,5 10 5 11 11 5 1,5 9 9 3
technological technology tefecommunications teleworking testing text (n and v) theft t h in k in ga lo u d timescale tolerance tracking transaction transform transition t ra n s mit transistor Trojan troubleshooting trust U comPuting ubiquitous power uninterruptible (UPS) supplies unpatchedexploit upgrade(n and v)
11 2,8 9 10 5 1 'l, 2 2 9 2 11 9 7 5 9 8, 10 8 6 3,'l2 5 11 7 10
12 8 11 2
usability usabilitytesting
9
useranalysis userinput userinterface
9
utilization
8
V vacuumtube valve
5
9 9 9
5 111
U ni t 1,7 variable(adjand n) version 6 2 video-conferencing 4 virtual virtuallearningenvironment (VLE) 4 virtual storefront
10
virtualworlds
12
virtualization
8
virtuallyenhanced
12
virus
1
visualdata
9
visualdisplay
9
Voiceover lP (VolP)
6
voltage regulator circuitry
8
W waterfall model wearablecomputer web page website white hat (hacker) wireless
7 12 1,6 5 11 3
wi relessapplication protocol
(wAP) work out (v) World Wide Web (WWW) WP (WordProcessing)
112
3 5 5 2
Transcripts Unit 1, Lesson 2, Exercise g 6) t.t Part 1 Good morning, everyone,and welcome to the ICT faculty. I want to start by asking a simple question. What do the letters l-C-Tstand for? That'sa very simplequestion,isn't it? We all know the answel don't we? Informationand Communication Technology.But what is ICTabout? Well, if you ask most peopleto explainICTto you, they will probablysay it means'computers'. So if I use my computerto play a game of Solitaire, is that ICT?Not really.lt usesa computel certainly, and computersare often found in an ICT environment, but a computer is a component rather than the whole system.lt's an important component, as it's the part that processes data. But ICTis more than just using computers. Perhapsif we look at the intrinsicmeaningof the three words that make up Informationand CommunicationTechnology- three words that are used separatelyand together on an everydaybasis - we might get closerto understanding.
Unit 1, Lesson2, Exercise C fi t.Z Part2 Many words have an intrinsic,or basic,meaning. We might usethe sameword in different situationswith different surfacemeanings,but the intrinsicmeaningremainsthe same.Let'i take an exampfe,the word virus.lt comesfrom the Latin word for poisonand meansa smallorganismthat causesdisease,and sometimesdeath, in living things. ls there any connectionbetween that definition and the way that the word is used in ICT?Well, yes,there is. A computer virus is a program or a piece of code that stops a computer working normally.So we can easilyseethe link here. As we learn our first language,we alsoacquirea feeling for the basicmeaningof words.Thishelps us to understandthe sameword when it's used in a new context.So when we're learninganother language,we have to rememberto look for the basicmeaning of a woid becausethe direct translation in one context may not be the correct translation in another. For example,can you use the word in your language for driver in the context of printer driver, meaning the program routine which enablesa computerto usea printer?The abilityto look for the basicmeaning
of words is especiallyimportant in the field of ICL which is evolvingon a daily basisand needsnew words to describenew concepts,methods and applications. Knowingthe intrinsicmeaningof a word might not help you to understandthe exact meaning when you come acrossthe word in a new context, but it can be a good guide. Let'shave another fook at the word virus.You may know the word becauseyou were ill and the doctor told you that you had a virus. Howeve4even someonewho doesn'tusecomputers,or knows nothing at all about computerprograms,can guessthat when someonesays'My computer'sgot a virus,' it isn't a positivething.
Unit 1, Lesson2, Exercise O C) t.f Part3 Let me go backto my originalquestion:What is ICT?Well, let'stake some time to think about how and when we use lCT.ICTplaysa huge part in all aspectsof our lives.We use it at home, in schools and universities, and in hospitals.Most modernday business and commercecouldn'tfunction without some form of lCL and industry is becomingincreasingly dependenton information and communicationtechnology to produce goods. So what is the connectionbetween a car assemblyline, an accountancysoftware package,a computer game, or using the Internet to research an essayyou have to write for me, or sending a text messageto your friend to arrange a game of football? How do we use these examplesto define
rcT?
g 6) t.+ Unit 1, Lesson2, Exercise Part4 Let'slook at the intrinsicmeaningof our original three words: information,communicationand technology.OK. Iechnology meansthe tools and machineswe useto solveproblemsor do things efficiently. lnformation refers to facts about someoneor something.In the contextof ICL information is data that is input, stored, processed or transmitted.That informationcan be representedin different forms, for example as a list, a text document, a spreadsheet,a picture, or an audio or video file. So what sort of information are we talking about?Well, examplesinclude patient recordson a hospital database,a web 113
page advertisinga new product,or the information that is stored in your car'sGPSsystem that givesyou directionsand tells you when you've gone the wrong way. Now, let'sturn to communication. Communicationmeanssharing information with others.So how does ICThelp us do this?Well, there'sa whole range of waysthat many of us take for granted now. Somemethodsinvolve 'real-time'communicationsuchas telephones, mobile phones,teleconferencing, and Internet programs. Non real-time communication chat methodsincludefax, e-mailor voicemail. So ICTis about usingtechnologyto input, store, processand produceinformation,and about communicatingthis informationto others.
g fi t.S Unit 1, Lesson 3, Exercise Introduction 1 In today'ssession, we're going to look at ICTin business. We will be looking at a car manufacturingcompanyand discussing four areas of business: administration,finance,researchand development,and operations,to seewhat happensin eacharea and how ICTsupports workersin theseareas. Introduction 2 In this lecture,we're going to look at computer bugs.In generalEnglish,a bug is a very small insect,and there'sa popularstorythat the first time the term was usedin connectionwith computerswas in 1945,when a smallinsect crawledinto a computeLcausingit to fail. Today, when we talk about computerbugs,we don't mean insects;we mean a flaw or fault in a computerprogram.I'm going to look at the causes of computerbugs and the effects. lntroduction 3 OK. Are we all ready?Right,l'll begin.Today's topic is the informationsystemslife cycle.Systems developmentprojectsusuallyinvolvea number of people,often working in different locations.For a project to succeed,the goals and the procedures needed to achievethose goals need to be understood.Thereare many different developmentprocesses. Todaywe're going to look at the five stagesthat make up the waterfall model.
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lntroduction 4 The Internet,as we know it today, is a global computernetwork which connectsmillionsof peoplearound the world. Thisweek, I'm going to talk about the originsof the Internet.Who were the pioneers?When did it all begin?We could say that it reallybegan in the early 1990s,when Tim Berners-Lee developedthe conceptof the world wide web. But, in reality,it startedin 1957,with the launchof Sputnik1. Introduction 5 The subjectof today's lecture is CMC,computermediatedcommunication.We'll begin by looking at one particularform of CMC,electronicmail, or e-mailasit is more commonlycalled.In next week'ssession, we'll see how e-mailworks, but today we'll look at what we mean by e-mailand discuss the advantagesand disadvantages of e-mailas a form of communication.
Unit 1, Lesson4, Exercise D Lecture 1 6d 1.6 By administration,we mean the arrangementsand tasksthat securethe day-to-dayrunning of the company.Thismay includehiring and firing people,drawing up contractsfor workers,making surethat the companyfollows health and safety regulations,arrangingmeetings,and organizing training courses.So,what role does ICTplay in this?Well, companiesmay usethe Internetto advertisefor new staff, databasesto store staff records,word-processing and desktoppublishing packagesto draw up companydocumentation, e-mailto communicatewith employees,or an intranetto set up online training. ICTis also usedto managethe company's finances.There are software packagesto deal with paymentsand ensurethat staff and suppliersget paid on time. These,combinedwith computerized banking,are a much fasterway of handling paymentsthan writing individualcheques. Specialized softwareis also usedto monitor money coming in and going out and to analyzedata that helpswith decision-making. In order for a car companyto succeed,it must be able to keep providingproductsthat customers want to buy,which meansinvestingin researching and developingnew ideas.Computer-assisted design- CAD - packagesare usedto produce new ideasand draw up plansfor production.In some industries, simulatorsmay be usedto try out new ideasor to test a prototype product.
On the operationsside of things,ICTis usedin stock control, recordingstock coming into the companyand trackingthat stockthrough the productionprocessuntil the finishedproduct is sent to the customer.lt can also be usedto reorder stock.Computer-assisted manufacturing- CAM - is a feature of many of today's car manufacturing companies,where someor all of the machines usedin the productionline are computerized.In some cases,a computer systemwill also control the productionenvironment,for examplewhere a product needsto be kept at a certain temperature.
specification.This is the stage when a systems analystlooksat an existingsystem,either manual or computerized,to see how things can be improved.At this point, the systemsanalystwill watch people using the system,collect information from users,and look at documentation.Thiswill help him or her to identifythe shortcomingsof an existingsystemand produce a descriptionof what the new systemshould do. The secondstage is systemsand software design. lt is the responsibility of a software designe4or architect,to study the systemsspecifications and turn these into design documentsfor programmersto work from.
Unit 1, Lesson4, Exercise D
In the third stage,the developmentstage,a team of programmerscreatesthe new software. Each programmer is allocateda part of the software to produce,so, althoughthey are a team, they will be doing different things and progressingat different rates.For this reason,it isn't possibleto test the systemas a whole, so developerswill test their own work as stand-aloneunits.
Lecture z 6) t.Z 5o what are the causesof computer bugs?Well, bugs can occur in either a software program's sourcecode or in its design,and they are usuallya result of errors made by developers.For example, a programmermay have made a mistakewhen writing the sourcecode, or the different parts of a program may interact in a way that wasn't predicted at the design stage. The effectsof a computer bug can be mildly inconvenientor they can be catastrophic. In some cases,you might not even realize a software program has a bug - this is becausethe bug has no effect, or a very minimal effect, on the program's functionality. ln other cases,a bug may cause programsto crash- that is, stop working altogether.In suchcases,the bug will resultin considerableinconvenience to the user.Evenmore seriousthan this is the fact that bugscan cause securityproblems,laying a systemopen to viruses. There have been a number of caseswhere computerbugs have had extremelyserious consequences. In some cases,these have been financial.For example,a computerbug resultedin the lossof the billion-dollarAriane 5 rocket in 1995.Fortunately, this didn't resultin the lossof life. However,a software bug in the Therac-25,a radiationtherapy machine,is thought to have led to a number of cancerpatientsbeing given overdosesof radiation between 1985and 1987.
Unit 1, Lesson4, Exercise D Lecture 3 O 1.8 The term 'waterfall model' was coined bv Winston Royce,a software engineering researcher,in 1970. The waterfall model can be broken down into five basicunits. The first stage is requirements
The fourth stage is integration and systems testing. When all of the separateparts of the systemhave been finished,it should be possibleto integrate them - that means,fit them together, and test the systemto see if everything works. The final stageof the waterfall model is installation,operationand maintenance.At this point, the new systemis installedand staff are trained to use it. From then on, the day-to-day running of the new systemis the responsibility of the systemsadministrator.
Unit 1, Lesson4, Exercise D Lecture 4 6i 1.9 Sputnik1, the world'sfirst artificialsatellite,was launchedby the SovietUnion in 1957and marked the beginningof the 'SpaceRace'betweenthe United Statesand the Soviet Union. Facedwith losingthe lead in militaryscienceand technology, the USgovernment set up the AdvancedResearch ProjectsAgency,ARPA,in 1957.By 1969,ARPAhad createdARPANELa small network of computersin different citieswhich could communicatewith eachother.The technologybehind ARPANET gave the US Department of Defensea method of communicatingin the event of a nuclearattack, when normal methodsof communicationmight not be feasible. It rapidlybecameapparentthat ARPANET could have other peace-timeuses,and by 1972,scientists and academics around the U5 were usingthe systemto exchangeideasand information.In
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was extendedto includethe 1973,ARPANET internationalcommunity.The network continued to developand by the early 1980s,the 'lnternet' had grown to becomea worldwide network of military,academic,and scientificresearch computers. By 1986,the Internetwas opening up to the generalpublic.However,the real breakthrough that led to the Internetas we know it camewhen a scientistworking at CERN,a Tim Berners-Lee, nuclearresearchfacility,inventedHTML,a computerlanguagewhich made it easierto display text and images.He also invented HTTP,a reliable way of transferringinformationfrom computerto computer. Sincethose early days,the Internethascontinued to grow and grow. By September2009,according there were over 1.7 to Internetusagestatistics, bilfion people usingthe Internet,just over 25o/oof the world'spopulation.
D Unit 1, Lesson4, Exercise Lecture 5 601.10 Electronicmail, or e-mail,is a way of sendingand in digital form via a computer. receivingmessages E-mailscan be sentthrough an organization's network, known as an internalcommunications intranet,to which only membersof the organization have access,or they can be sent through the Internetto anyone,anywherein the world. So what are the advantagesof e-mailto the user?Well, firstly,comparedto writing a letter; it's very easy.You simply type a message,add the e-mailaddressof the recipient,and press'send'. And you can do all of this from your desk,or on the move usingyour laptop or mobile phone. e-mail is a very fast way to communicate: Secondly, will arrivewithin minutes in most cases,messages or sometimessecondsof being sent, whilst a letter may take severaldaysto arrive. lt's also comparativelycheap.You can attach large files with different formats such as documents,photos or video clipsto an e-mail.Finally,by setting up an e-mailgroup, or typing multiple e-mailaddresses into the addressbox, it's possibleto send the same messageto severalpeopleat the sametime. But of course,as with most things, there is a downside.Yes,e-mail is usuallyfast, but it's possiblefor an e-mailto get lost in the systemand not arrive.Sendingindividuale-mailsis cheap,but the set-up costscan be expensive:you need a
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computerand an Internetconnection.There'salso the problem of informationoverload- some receiveso many e-mailseachday businesspeople that they hardly havetime to respondto them all - this may resultin important e'mailsgoing unnoticed.Another problem is'spam'or'junk e-mail'.This is e-mailthat you haven'taskedfor but which is sent out to advertiseproductsor services.However,possiblythe biggest disadvantageof e-mail is that it can be usedto introducevirusesto a computer- the viruscan be sent as an e-mail attachment which activatesitself when the attachmentis opened,or it can be sent within the e-mail itself.
g Cl t.t t Unit 3, Lesson2, Exercise Part1 OK. ls everyonehere?Good,then let'sbegin. We've seen how ICTis used in pretty much all areasof modern life - it helpsus learn,do our work, communicatewith other people,spendour leisuretime, stay healthyand manageour day-today lives.We appreciatebeing able to watch satelliteTV,buy groceriesonline and communicate with friendsand family around the world. However,most people don't think about the technologythat enablesus to do thesethings. In today's lecture,we're going to look at ICTsystems, specificallythe different typesof ICTsystems,the componentsthat make up an ICTsystem,and the functionsthat ICTsystemsperform. There are basicallytwo types of ICTsystems: embedded and general purpose.We'll start with embedded systems.An embedded systemis one which is fixed insidethe devicethat it controls.l'll repeatthat: embeddedsystemsare found in all sorts of everydaydevices,from the automated teller machineoutsideyour bank,to the washing machinein your kitchenand the car in your garage.Embeddedsystemsare special-purpose systemsthat are pre-programmedto perform specifictasks.There is a big advantageto these They are relativelyinexpensive embeddedsystems. to producebecause,unlike a PCor a laptop,they are designedto perform a limited set of tasks.In other words,embeddedsystemscan only do one task or set of tasks. Now let'shave a look at generalpurposesystems. Theseare systemsthat can be set up to perform different tasks.They includesupercomputers, Think mainframecomputersand microcomputers. about your own laptop or PC.What are the different things you useyour computerfor? Well,
you could use it to play games,produce assignments, watch films, listento the radio or make phone calls.The list of things you can do with a general purposecomputer is pretty extensive.This is because,unlike embedded systems,general purposesystemscan be used for a whole range of things.Userscan extendthe range in a number of ways.They can reprogramthem, upgradethem, add on new hardware,or install new software to increasethe capabilitiesof the system. OK, we've talked about types of systemsthat exist.Now let'sthink about the functionsof ICT systems.
Unit 3, Lesson 2, Exercise c fi t.tz
preferto do our shoppingonline becauseit's more convenientand also becausethere's often more choice.A retail websitelistsinformationabout what productsare availablefor us to choosefrom. When an online order is placed,the systemdoesa number of things. Firstly,this may be generating an instructionto prepare the productsfor dispatch;secondly,requestingpayment from a credit card companyor a bank;thirdly,sendingan e-mailto the purchaserto confirm their order and, lastly,reordering new stock for the future. In this case,the systemcombinesinformation managementand communications. So we have three types of function that can be carried out by ICTsystems.In the next part of the lecture,we will considerthe componentsof an ICT system.
Part2 In the first part of this lecture, I defined ICT systemsas two different types:embedded systems and general purposesystems.But they can also be defined in terms of what they do. Broadly speaking,ICTsystemsperform three functions.The first is information storage and management. For example,doctors often use information systemsto store informationabout their patients.When a patient comesinto the surgery,the doctor can call up their record from a databaseand see what problemsand treatmentsthe patient has had in the past. The secondfunction is control. What do control systemsdo? Well, an ICTcontrol systemis an electronicsystemwhich usesdata to manage or regulatesomething;this could be a deviceor another system.An example of a control systemis the one found in your washingmachine.lt'sthe systemthat allows you to wash clothesat different temperaturesor use different programsby simply pressinga button. Finalfy,we have communicationssystems,which transmitdata from one placeto another usinga range of communicationchannelsincluding telephonelines,cablesand satellite.All kindsof data can be transmitted: not simply text documents,but also pictures,sound and video files.lf you have a mobile phone,the chancesare that not only can you speakto your friendson it you can also take and and send text messages, send picturesand short videos,pick up e-mailsand listento the radio. Of course,nothing is straightforward, particularly in the world of lCT,and many ICTsystemsdon't slot comfortably into just one category because they perform one or more functions. Many of us
Unit 3, Lesson2, Exercise O Q t.tg Part3 ICTsystemsare composedof hardware,software, data and users.In this section,we're going to focus on hardware and software. First,fet'sdefine what we mean by hardware.The word hardware refersto the physicalcomponents of an ICTsystem.ICTsystemshave four basic hardwarecomponentsand theseare input devices, processors, storage devicesand output devices. Input devicesare the devicesusedto capture data. They includekeyboards,microphones, digital cameras,scannersand devicessuchas mice, joysticksor touch screens.Next, we have the processor. This is the part of the systemthat controlsthe computer hardware and acts on the data that is put into the system.lt's called a microprocessoror CPU- central processingunit. Storagedevicesare usedto keep data that has been processedor will be processedat a later date. They includeinternalstoragedevices,suchas RAM - random accessmemory - and hard drives,and external devices,such as flash drivesor CDs.Finally, we have output devicessuch as printersor VDUsvisualdisplayunits- which are usedto displayor produce the -resultsof processing. Now fet's have a look at software. Software can be defined as the instructionsor programsthat tell the hardware what to do with data. Software can be divided into two categories:systemssoftware and applicationssoftware. Systemssoftware is the software that enablesa systemto work. lt tells the systemwhat to do and when to do it. Systemssoftware includesoperating 117
systems,compilers,networking systems, performancemonitoring software and utility programs.Applicationssoftwareis what enablesa userto do something specificwith an ICTsystem, i.e.,it allowsyou to do the things you want to do, whether that is designinga new product, organizingthe day-to-dayrunning of a company, or playinga computergame.
8 infor'mation 9 em'bedded 10 'process 11 'database 12 'satellite 13'automated 14'function
g Cl t.t+ Unit 3, Lesson2, Exercise Part4 So, to summarize,we can say that there are two types of ICTsystem:embedded and general purpose.ICTsystemscan also be defined by what they do, for exampleinformationstorageand managementsystems,control systemsand communicationssystems.Systemsare composedof hardware and software. The hardware refersto the physicalcomponentsof the system,while the software is the instructionswhich control what the computer does. OK, that's it for today. Next time we'll look at how ICTsystemswork. Don't forget to do a bit of researchon that before you come. Thanks.Seeyou soon.
2, Exercise f 6) t.ts Unit 3, Lesson 1 Embeddedsystemsare not expensiveto produce. 2 You can add new hardware and software onto an embedded system. 3 ICTsystemscan perform more than one function. 4 A personalcomputeris an exampleof an embedded system. 5 ICTsystemshave two basichardware components. 6 Operating systemsare examplesof applicationssoftware.
15 'regulate 16 appli'cation 17 in'struction 18'system
4, Exercise C 6) t.tZ Unit 3, Lesson Part1 OK. In the last lecture,we talked about different types of ICTsystems,the functions of ICTsystems, and the different partsthat make up an ICT system,i.e.,software and hardware. Todaywe're going to concentrateon what ICT systemsdo, and we can break this down into three stages:data capture,data processingand data output. But before we think about the different stages,it's important that you understandthe difference between data and information.Data is informationthat has no meaningor context.For example,if you seethe numbers281204written in a line, what do they mean?Well, it could be an important date, a price or a product code. We have no idea unless we have a context. This is data. lf I tell you that 281207is your coursenumbel you have a context, and the numbers become information. Alternatively,if there was a small spacebetween each pair of numbers,this could be a date - the 28thDecemben2007.And if there was another set of numbers in bracketsin front of this string, we might assumethat it is a telephonenumber. 5o we can saythat data + context = information. Informationis data which has meaning, somethingwe can use.
e 6) t.tO 3, Exercise Unit 3, Lesson 1 e'lectrical 2 'management 3 co'mmunicate 4 com'ponent 5 'storage 6 'binary 7 con'trol 1it"
o 6) t.tA Unit 3, Lesson4, Exercise Part2 Right, let's have a look at the first stage now data capture.We can also call data capture data input. /nput simplymeansputting data into a system.5o how do we do this? Well, data can exist in a number of forms, but all data that is input
into a system,whatever its original form, hasto be encoded.That meansconverted into a form that the systemcan store or process.Data, whether it is in the form of text, movement or sound, is stored as electricalsignalswhich have one of two states, either on or off. The figure 1 is on, while the figure 0 is off. Eachof these binarydigits is called a bit. Data that is input is then stored for later use,or processed.This is done by the microprocessor, also known as a CPU,or central processingunit. There are three parts to the CPU.Theseare the CU,or control unit, the ALU,which standsfor arithmeticand logic unit, and the lAS,or immediate accessstore.The IAS holds data and programswhich are needed for processing.The ALU performscalculations on data and the CU usesthe resultsof these calculations,together with instructionsheld in its own data and programs,to make decisionsabout what to do with the calculations. For example,the calculationsmay be usedto work out how much to pay employeesin a company,or they may be usedto switch on a systemsuch as a central heating system. Unit 3, Lesson 4, Exercise e f) t.tg Part 3 Let'smove on to output now. Output is what you get when a systemhas finished the processing stage. lt is the result of data processing,which is then transmitted, or communicated,to the user. Output is the stagewhen data is decodedand onc'eagain becomesinformationwhich can be used by a personor another device.lt might be a soundthat alertsthe policethat someoneis breakinginto your house,a pictureyou can print out and display,or informationabout product salesthat you can useto make decisionsabout the future of your company. Some ICTsystemsoperate as a cycle.A cycleis a continuouscirclewith no beginningand no end, although it can be broken if the systemis switched off, or if there's a problem. In a cycle,the output produced is used as feedbackto input more data into the system,which is then processed.One such systemis the cruisecontrol systemfound in many of today's cars.The systemkeepsthe car travelling at a steadyspeedby increasingor decreasingthe amount of fuel being fed into the car engine, dependingon the input it receives.
Unit 5, Lesson 2, Exercise g f) t.ZO Part 1 Good morning,everyone.This morning we're going to learn about the earlydevelopmentof computing.In this first talk, l'm just going to give you an overview of the history of the computer up to the late 20tncentury,and then other key conceptswill be dealt with in the next few lectures.Also, in your seminarsand assignments, you'll be able to coverall the important points in more detail. So ... er ... let's see- yes- to start with, we need to look back to the early days of pre-mechanical computing.In other words,we'll examinethe early inventionswhich led eventually to our modern computer.Thesewere 'manual computers',that is to say computerswhich were worked by hand.The first manualcomputerwas the abacus,which was in fact an extensionof the fingerson the hand.The ten fingersare the basis of the decimal system,of course.Another important pre-mechanical inventionwas known as Napier'sBones.Thiswas a seriesof rodswhich simplifiedand speededup multiplicationand division.Usingthe rods,it was possibleto multiply numbersby usingaddition and to divide numbers using subtraction.Secondly,I'll look atthe transformationto mechanicalcomputing,whereby computersused gearsand cogsto carry out calculations. Theseincludethe Pascaline, which was inventedby BlaisePascalin Francein 1645to calculatetaxes,and the DifferenceEngine,which was devisedby Babbageand is seenby many as the birth of modern computing.By the end of the 1gthcentury,many of these principleswere still being used in the tabulating machine,which used punchedcardsto processdata from the USCensus. The companymakingthese machineslater became lBM, which all of you will have heard ot. After that, l'lltalk about computingduring the Second World War, particularlyabout the work of Alan Turing,an Englishscientistwho deviseda machine which could break Germancodesso that the Englishcould read Germanmilitarymessages. The machine,known as Colossus, named after the noun 'colossus', which meansa personor thing of great size,was built usingelectronicvalvesand relays.lt worked very well and it was the world's first efectroniccomputer. Then I'll discussthe developmentof electroniccomputers.Theseused transistorsinsteadof valves,which greatly increasedtheir performanceand which would ultimately have a revolutionaryeffect on the speedand cost of computing. I'llfinish by mentioning some of the factors which led to the growth of the Internet. Theseincludethe speed of 119
developmentof different componentsusedin the Internetand the particularrequirementsof communicationin the Cold War.
2, Exercise O 6&t.Zt Unit 5, Lesson Part 2 The computer is arguablythe most important piece of technology in modern society,but it actuallyhasa very long history,in fact going back almost 5,000years.lt startswith the early Babylonians, who usedsimplearithmeticto count and keep a recordof their goods.As their wealth grew and they had more and more goodsto record,it follows that they would try to develop tools to make this work easier.A good exampleof one of thesetools is the abacus,usedas a basic calculator- in other words, a computer.What I mean is that, as in a computer,data is input by moving the beads.lt is stored by the position of the beadsand the output or answerscan then be read off. Five beadsper line are often used,just as there are five fingerson a hand.Anyway,moving aheadto the early 17thcentury,we find a different type of computer.While the abacuswas developed to speedup addition,Napier'sBoneswere created to speedup multiplication.The Boneswere a seriesof numberswritten on narrow stripsof material,originallybone,which allowed large numbersto be multipliedor dividedusingsimple arithmetic.While they worked well, they appearto have initiallybeen developedfor academicrather than commercialuse. Commercialrequirementswere the reasonfor the developmentof one of the first mechanical in calculatorsby BlaisePascal,that's P-A-S-C-A-L, France,in 1645.Calledthe Pascaline, it was a hand-poweredadding machinewhich could add numbersup to eight figureslong. lt usedgears and cogsto transferthe resultsof one wheel to another,a very simpleand cleverprinciple,which incidentallyis still usedtoday in electricityand gas meters. Therewere quite a few more calculators invented after that, which I won't discusshere, becauseI want to look at another type of machinewhich was linkedto the developmentof the computer.In 1801,Joseph-Marie Jacquard, that's J-A-C-Q-U-A-R-D, developeda very special type of weaving machineor loom, which was controlledby a set of cardswith holesin them. Usingthesepunch cards,the JacquardLoom could producefabricswith very intricatedesigns much more quicklyand efficientlythan by using 120
traditional hand-weavingtechniques.Thesecards introducedthe principleof programmability, which meant changingthe processby changing the input. Thiswas very importantto the developmentof modern computingand the punchedcard was to remain in usefor well over 150 years. By the early 19thcentury,more and more calculationwas requiredto conductgovernment, commerceand engineeringefficiently. Logarithmictables,which allowed large numbers to be multipliedand dividedusingaddition and subtraction,were increasingly usedto speedup calculations. CharlesBabbage,an English mathematicianand philosopher;discoveredmany errorsin existingtablesand felt that the calculations should be carriedout by machinefor greater accuracy.He was given money by the Britishgovernmentto designsucha machine. Unfortunately,the designfor this machine, which was calledthe DifferenceEnginewas very complexand the engineersmaking the parts were unableto manufacturethem with enough precisionto make it work. In addition,the governmentrefusedto continueprovidingthe funds to allow him to overcomethesebarriers and as a result,his DifferenceEnginewas never fully built as he designedit. lf the DifferenceEnginehad been built as designedby Babbage,it would haveworked perfectly.In 1991,a perfectlyfunctioning DifferenceEnginewas constructedfrom Babbage'soriginal plans.As a resultof his design,Babbagehas been creditedwith inventingthe first machinerecognizedas a modern computeLand so he is calledthe father of the computerby some people.In additionto the DifferenceEngine,he alsodesignedan AnalyticalEngine,a much more complicatedtype of mechanicalcomputerwhich would use punchedcardsto input programsto the machine and which would be powered by steam.Despite the fact that the AnalyticalEnginewas never built, it had programswritten for it - by a woman calledAda Lovelace.She is currently recognizedas the world'sfirst programmerand was honouredby havinga programming language,Ada - that's A-D-A,named after her in 1983. Incidentally, in additionto his work with computers,Babbagewas also a cryptographerwho worked for the Britishgovernment.He broke - or decoded- a number of codeswhich had been consideredunbreakableup until then, giving the Britishgovernmentconsiderable advantagesin
diplomacyand war. While this is the first time we find a link between computersand codes,it is not the last. Unit 5, Lesson 2, Exercise g 60 t.ZZ Part 3 Anyway,er ... to return to our story of the computer - we are now almost at the start of the 20thcentury,and the next important invention camefrom HermanHollerithin the USA.He developedthe TabulatingMachineto speedup the processing of informationfrom the USCensus,or populationcount. lt useda combinationof punchedcardsand mechanicalgears,and it was very successful, reducingthe time neededfor data processing from eight yearsfor the 1880Census, to one year for the 1890Census.Hollerithwent on to developmore complexmachinesand startedhis own companywhich leasedmachinesto governmentsand commercialorganizationsall around the world. The companywhich he founded eventuallywent on to becomelBM, International Business Machines,which playeda major role in the developmentof the modern computer. Other developmentswere alsotaking place, which were more academicthan commercial. Machinesfor calculatingdifferentialequationshad been in usefor sometime. Howeve1the Differential Analyzer,built in 1932by a scientist called Bushfrom the Massachusetts Institute of Technologyin the United States,was much more powerful and could perform large numbersof calculationsmuch more quickly.The calculations were carried out using different setsof gears, making it an analoguedevice,similarto those designedby Babbage.Howeve; it usedelectrical motorsand, unlike Babbage'sengines,it was not programmableand neededto be 'hard wired', that is,set up specifically for each new differential equation.The machinewas successfully used during the SecondWorld War to calculatethe pathsof missiles. The SecondWorld War also saw the creation of a machinewhich can be truly saidto mark the start of the modern era of computing.Thiswas a device calledColossus, developedby a British mathematician, Alan Turing,or T-U-R-|-N-G, in order to break Germancodes.lt usedelectrical relaysor valvesto perform calculations and alsoto store someof the data while it was being processed.lt was the first computer to do so, and becauseof this, it is regardedas the first electronic computer.Punchedtape was usedto input data
and was a very fast way of doing so. Unfortunately,the whole project was kept completelysecretuntil the 1970s,which meant that many peoplewere not properlyrecognized for their discoveries during their lifetimes,which was a great pity. Er...Where was l? Oh yes.Once the first Colossusproved successful, a number of othersfollowed, and by the end of the wa[ ten were in operation.By modern standards,Colossus machineswere very large and slow,but by allowing the Britishto read Germanmilitary communications, the impactwhich they had on the war was enormous.
g f0 l.Zf Unit 5, Lesson 3, Exercise Part 4 Now, we have seen how important the role of computerswas during the SecondWorld War; but it was not long after the end of the war that the power of computingwas turned towards business and administrativeproblems.The UNIVACwas the first Americancommercialcomputer.ln addition, it was the first computerto be specifically designed for businessratherthan scientificpurposes.lts calculations were performedusingvacuumtubes and readingfrom magnetictapes,a new technologywhich had been introducedfor storing data. UNIVACI used5,200vacuumtubes and weighed about 13 metrictons. lt could perform around 2,000operationsper second.While vacuumtubes offered a significantadvantageover mechanicalcomputers,the technologywas limited by cost,sizeand energyconsumptionin terms of how big computerscould get. The developmentof the transistorby the AmericanTelephoneand TelegraphCorporation in 1947showed a way around those limitations.Transistors could be made much more quicklyand cheaplyusinga very simpleand widely availableingredient,sand.In fact silicon,which is obtainedfrom sand,is the materialfrom which all modern electronic componentsare made.Transistors alsoconsumed very little power and were very smallcomparedto vacuumtubes.Computerswhich contained transistorsinsteadof vacuumtubes could be smallerand still deliveras much,or more, processingpower. With the arrival of the transistor-basedcomputer,the modern era of computinghad truly arrived.However... oh, dear ... sadly,I seethat we've run out of time. This meansthat l'll haveto talk about the development of the Internetnext time. In the meantime,l'd like you to do some researchon what made it possible for the Internetto developin the way it did. And 121
before you get started with your researchI want you to find out about primary,secondary, qualitativeor quantitativeresearch, and how each can help you with this task.We have looked at the developmentof computersup to the mid-2Otn century,so what I would like you to look at is the speedof developmentof the different components of computers,and the networkswhich link them together to make the Internet. We'll discusswhat you'vefound out the next time I seeyou.
Unit 5, Lesson 4, Exercise g 6i t.Ze Extract 1 Lecrunrn: Right,Leilaand Majed,what did you find out about the factorsinfluentingthe development of the Internet? Lern:Well, first of all, we talked to one of the computertechniciansin the library. Mnrro:lt's reallycold in the library. Extract 2
Unit 5, Lesson3, Exercise C fi t.Za 1 crypt'ography 2 'digital 3 compu'tation 4 programma'bility 5 a'rithmetic 6 a'ddition 7 calcu'lation 8 me'chanical 9 tran'sistor 10 mag'netic 11 sub'traction 12'chip
Unit 5, Lesson3, Exercise O f) t.ZS Thecomputer isarguably the mostimportant piece of technology in modern society,but it actuallyhasa very long history,in fact going back almost 5,000years. It startswith the early Babylonians,who used simplearithmeticto count and keep a recordof their goods. As their wealth grew and they had more and more goods to record, it follows that they would try to developtools to make this work easier.
LrcruRrR: And what elsedid you do? Lrrm:We talked to the librarian.Shewas quite helpful and showed us some bookswhich we used to get some data. Mereo:That'srubbish.Shewas obviouslyreally bored and didn't want to talk to us, Extract 3 LrcruRen: Leila,can you give us an explanationof your graph? Lerm:Well, yes,it hasa verticaland a horizontal axis:the horizontalaxisrepresentstime and the vertical axisspeedand capacity.As you can see, we've put some of the different elementsof computercomponentson it. LecrunrR: What do the rest of you make of this? Evie,what about you? Evre: Well, erm ... l'm not sure really. Extract 4 Lrcrunrn: Majed,can you explainhow you decided which componentsto includeon your graph? Mruro:Well, yes, it's basedon information the techniciantold us. Jncr: 5o it's secondary. Extract 5 LecrunEn: What do you mean by'secondary',Jack?
A good exampleof one of thesetools is the abacusas a basiccalculator- in other words a computer.
Jncr:I mean it's an exampleof secondaryresearch. They did two things - they askedsomeonefor informationand ...
What I mean is that, as in a computer;data is input by moving the beads.
Evrr:[interrupting]Actually,that's primary.
It is stored by the position of the beadsand the output or answerscan then be read off. Five beadsare often usedjust as there are five fingerson a hand.
Unit 5, Lesson4, Exercise C f) t.ZZ
Anyway, moving ahead to the early 17thcentury, we find a different type of computer. 122
Extract6 Lrcrunen: Let'sgo back to this graph for the moment to see how it can help with understandingthe groMh of the Internet. Firstof all, tell us about the tomponentsyou chose.
have been other falls which are not represented on the graph becausethe data is not detailed enough ...
Lerm:Well, the technicianexplainedthat componentsget faster or cheaperover time, or have more storagecapacity.5o we put speed and storagesize on the samescalebecausewe felt they were equallyimportant.lsn'tthat correct Majed?
Lrrn: I don't think I agree with that. In my opinion there is enough data on the graph to supportour conclusion.
Mnreo:Absolutely.There are other factorswhich are important too, but we felt that speed and capacitywere the most important.
Unit 7, Lesson2, Exercise A C0t.Zg
Extract 7
Part 1
Mrueo:The technicianexplainedthat, at first, hard diskswere a specializedform of storage,so they were very expensive.Later diskswere cheaper, eventhough they had lesscapacityto begin with.
Good morning,everyone.What l'm going to talk about today is a key aspectof what makes computingpossible- that is,the productionof the software which makescomputerswork. In other words, how is the productionof code managed? There are many different stagesin the developmentof software,beginningwith defining the problem.This includesrequirementsanalysis, agreeingdesignspecifications and systemdesign. Of course,this can also involvebuilding working prototypesfor the client.The next stage is actually producingthe software.This involveschoosinga model for development,allocatingresources such as programmersand computingfacilities,and controllingthe quality of what is produced.The final stageis documentingthe programand troubleshootingany problemswith it. Managing this whole processis also known as 'project management'.What I mean is ... it covers everything relating to how the software is actually produced by programmers,and it can affect everythingfrom what tools are used,how long the production takes,to the quality of the software. Anyway,we will look at project management later on.
Jncr: Sorry,I don't follow. Could you possibly explainwhy that's important? Mrro: Well, basicallythe cost of the product often dependson how many of them are being made at the time. Extract 8 Evte:I don't understandwhy the sizeof a hard drive shouldget smaller.Everythingelsegets faster or bigger. Leru:Well, as Majed explained,they were specialized. Thosedriveswere usedfor the IBM 3340 and the number of drives manufacturedwas so smallthat they didn't haveto worry so much about cost. Later,when cost becamemore important,it was cheaperto make driveswith less capacityto begin with. Extract 9 Mn.lro:Yes,especiallywhen computer companies beganto make smallercomputers,for example PCs. Jncr: lf I understandyou correctly,you're saying that to begin with, the new desktop computers were much lesspowerful than the older computers. Mrueo:Yes,that's right. Extract 10 Lecrunen: This is all very interesting,isn't it? Evrr:Yes,but if we just go back to the graph, we can seethat apart fr-omone fall in hard drive capacity,each of the componentsgets faster and larger. Lerm:Correct! Extract 11 Mereo:l'm not surethat'strue. I think there may
So,er... in later lectures,we'll alsogo on to considerhow developersapproachthe issueof balancingthe costsof software and hardware when designingsystems.Today,howeveL we will deal with general software production processes and methods.
C f) t.Zg Unit 7, Lesson2, Exercise Part2 As we haveseen in earliersessions, the computing processcan be thought of as the input of data to the system,its processingby the computer hardware and its output. As we knory the speed or rate of processingis largely determined by the processor and memoryavailable.Now, another term for the processorand memory is system resources, and a well-written piece of software makesthe best possibleuse of the system 123
resources.Computer software is also known as code,becauseit is written in specializedlanguages by trained programmers.Of course,as well as knowing how to write code,programmershaveto know what they are writing it for; in other words of the program.Once the functionalspecification this is known, decisionson systemdesigncan be made. In this case,systemdesignconsiderations will includethe choiceof operatingsystemor platform it will run on, the type of backend or databasetechnologywhich will be used,and what technicalstandardswill be usedby the front end. And then, finally,as we saw previously, once the systemdesign decisionshave been made, resource and schedulingissueswill need to be considered.
e fd t.f O Unit 7, Lesson2, Exercise Part3 Now, an important concept in software developmentis defining userrequirements- the need to ensurethat a statementof requirementsis agreed with the client before any work starts. What do I mean by client requirements? Well, to help you understandthis idea clearly,can you look for a moment at the leaflet I havegiven you from the SmallWeb DevelopmentCompany?As you can see,the first stage is agreeing a statement of requirements,after which there are severalstages before a decisionis made on what web designwill be produced.Lookingat it anotherway, it is only when agreementhas been reachedwith the client on the functionalityof the softwarethat the developerscan begin to work. lt is also important that the agreementon functionalityis clearly documented,as otherwiseproblemscan occur when more and more functionalityis addedto the project at the requestof the client. In project managementterms,this is called'feature creep', where the projectgets bigger and bigger as the client asksfor more and more functionsto be added to the software. When a web development companyproducesa number of mock-upsfor a client,they are loweringthe riskthat the site which is put into productionwill not meet the client'srequirements.Let'slook at an exampleof this. Saythe developersgo aheadand build a websitewithout taking into accountall of the They show it to the client client'srequirements. and he doesn'tlike it. The differencebetweenthe costof the total developmentand the cost of developinga prototype is likelyto be quite significant.Why is agreeingclient requirementsso important?Well, the point is that unlessthe
124
developersknow exactlywhat they have to do, then they can't choosethe best development technologiesor decideon a timescalewhich will deliverthe projecton time. In this way, resources can be allocatedto enable the project to be deliveredon time.
Unit 7, Lesson 2, Exercise f Cdt.gt Part4 Now... er... let'ssee... oh deal lsee we're running short of time ... but perhapsI shouldjust saysomethingabout modelsusedfor developing software. Thereare four main modelswhich I will outline. To start with, model one is the waterfall model.ln this type of model,eachstagedirectlyfollows the other. lt is calleda waterfall model becauseeach stageis dependenton the resultswhich flow on from the previousstage.lt is particularlyusefulfor simpleproblemswhich can be clearlydefined.The iterative model adds functionality in stagesto software. Examplesof this type of software are things like end-userapplicationsor operating systemversions.The first iterationusuallyprovides the core functionalityfor the program,and each successive incrementadds new functionalityand fixesanythingthat hasn'tworked properlyin the previousiteration. So the third model is called the prototyping model. What's important about prototyping is that clientshave an opportunityto seea model before it is fully developed.lt sometimeshappensthat clientsare not totally surewhat they want the software to do, but they feel they will recognizeit when they see it. lt is suitablefor projectswhich are relativelysmall,suchas websitedevelopment. The web developmentcompanywhose brochure we looked at usesthis model. lt meansthat full developmentonly goesaheadwhen the client can seewhat the outcomewill be. At the sametime, I think, of this systemis that the the disadvantage, designprocesscan take much longerthan with other models. Lastly,there is the spiral model. What's different in the spiralmodel is that it combineselementsof the waterfall and prototypingmodels.This means that the overall project is broken down into stages,as in the waterfall model. However,within each of these stages,the prototyping model is usedto produce prototype software. The spiral model is particularlygood for large,expensiveand complicatedprojects.
Now ... oh deal I was going to mention the advantagesand disadvantages of these models, but ... ah ... I seethat time is moving on. 5o instead,l'm going to ...
basedon the waterfall model,for example,work which is not ready in time can causea delay in the start of the next phase.So,although it was in the early 1900sthat Gantt inventedhis charts, they are still very much usedtoday.
Unit 7, Lesson3, Exercise n fd Z.t
To sum up, then, productionmust be carefully planned.Let me put it anotherway ... Planning must take into accountthe necessaryprocesses and variablesif the companyis to succeed. Remembelpoor planningcausesprojectfailure.
1 'concept 2 de'pendent 3 'spiral 4 'increment 5 documen'tation 6 'prototype 7 re'quirements 8 'features 9 re'sources 10 pro'prietary 11 specifi'cation 12 f unctio'nality
g fd Z.Z Unit 7, Lesson3, Exercise Part 5 l'm going to finish with somecommentson the planningof softwareproduction- in other words, schedulingas a part of projectmanagement. Now the fact of the matter is, it's a highly complextask to plan softwareproduction.The reasonfor this is that planningdecisionsare based on a wide variety of different factors- not to mention the fact that some of these factors are totally outside the control of the developer.Let's take clients:a changein the client'scompanycan causea change in the software requirements, which of coursethe developercan't control.Plus there's the fact that the development model used for the software affectsthe way in which production can proceed,as we've just seen. OK. Where was l? Oh, yes ... So scheduling meansworking out what the different processes are, when they start, when they finish, et cetera, in relation to other processes. You've probably heard about Gantt charts?lt was HenryGantt who came up with a very simpleidea to help with scheduling- the Gantt chart. Many organizationsuse Gantt chartsto help with organizingand planningthesetypesof software development projects.The advantageof Gantt charts is that they show what processes are happeningat any one time. In a projectwhich is
Oh, I almostforgot to mention your research topics.OK, what's very important in software development is the issueof whether software is open or closedsource.So l'd like you to find out what are the main advantagesand disadvantages of open sourcesoftware.
g fd Z.E Unit 7, Lesson4, Exercise Extract1 Now, as we know the decisionto make the sourcecode of their productsopenly availableis one of the most important decisionsthat softwarecompanieshaveto make. I askedyou to look at the caseof Netscape, a companywhich made the first successfulInternet browser.Why did they do this?The productwas very successful, and though it was free to individual users,it was generatinga large amount of money from corporate customers.Also, there were many risksrelatedto the decision.So, let's have some views.
Unit 7, Lesson4, Exercise C 6i Z.+ Extract2 Jncr:Well. I'd like to make two points.First, moving to open sourcewas a move to defend their product. Lrrn: Can you expandon that, Jack? Jncr:Sure,Leila.Netscapewas beginningto lose market shareto Internet Explorer;at least partly becauseit was losingits technicaladvantage. Lrrln:So? Jacr:So the point is that by making their product open source,Netscapecould includecode which had been written for other open sourceprojects. Thiswould improvethe producttechnicallyand would help them regaintheir technicaladvantage. 5o the point is that Netscapegained a huge advantageby makingtheir productopen source. Usingcode alreadywritten for other open source 125
projectssavedthem time and money, becausethey didn't haveto write everythingthemselves. And becausethe quality of the existing code was technicallyexcellent,they improvedtheir product very quickly. LecrunEn: OK. 5o, what's your secondpoint, Jack? Jncr:I was comingto that! My secondpoint is that' Netscapewanted to provide the opportunity for developersoutsidetheir companyto contribute code to the product. Lrrn: Yes,but there's no evidencethat that would happen.lf anything,programmersfrom Netscape were more likelyto be involvedin other open sourceprojects. Mrueo:Well, I don't agreewith that, Leila,because from what l've read, lots of people contribute to open sourcedevelopmentprograms. Evrr:Sorry but who are we talking about, exactly? Peoplewith good programmingskillsworking in their bedrooms,or peopleemployedby large software companieswho work on these projectsas part of their employment? Lrrn: Yes,we need to be clear here. lt must be a mixture of both. Anyway, l'd just like to saythat accordingto what l've read, open sourceproducts important for are becomingincreasingly commercialcompanies. Evre:In what way? Leila:Well, if you make your basicproductopen source,you can then providea premiumversion which customerspay for. Also, you can charge usersfor support serviceswhich they may want to use if they don't have good in-housetechnical support. Eur: I don't get that. How can you chargefor somethingif you are giving it away? Lrrm:What l'm trying to say is, some usersmay be happy with a basicproductwhich they get for free. Others may want a more advancedproduct or they may need to buy in expertisefor this particularsoftware. Mereo:I still don't understand.Can you give me an example,Leila? LErm:OK. Look at it this way. Companieswhich use a proprietary operating systemfor their servers, for exampleWindows, have to pay a fee for the software. lf they use an open sourceoperating system,such as Linux,they can get it for free. But their technicalsupport may not be trained in using Linux,so they may need to buy in technicalhelp while they are learning.So on the one hand,they may have to pay for support, but on the other,
they get the operating systemfree. And support is a lot cheaperthan the systemsoftware. Mnleo:So the software developersmake money by savingtheir customersmoney? Lecrunen: Absolutely.But it's not just about cost. In making a decisionon which type of softwareto use,companieshaveto think about other issues such as security,how quickly the software becomes obsolete and how easyit is to modify it to their own needs. Mruro:Yes,and l'd just like to saysomethingelse. As I mentioned before, lots of people help to write open sourceprogramsbecausethey want to help other people.Open sourcecan do a lot of good things for societyin generaltoo.
g 6i Z.S Unit 9, Lesson2, Exercise Part 1 Good morning,everyone.l'm going to talk to you this morning about human-computerinteraction, usuallyreferredto as HCl.The purposeof HCIas a field of study is to optimizethe performanceof humansand computerstogether as a system.In particular,l'm going to talk about the two different componentsof HCI- namely,the human sciences and the computersciences. l'm going to talk first about the human sciences, and I will outline someof the issuesin psychologyrelevant to HCl.After l've describedthese,I will go on and do the samefor the computingscience components.I will alsogive you a summaryof how they link together. But before we begin I have a little story to tell you ... I once spent six monthsworking on a project, designingan interfacefor a new manufacturingsystem.lt used state-of-the-art technologyand made good useof colour graphics to show the operatorwhat was happeningwith eachof the machineson the productionline. Sadly, when we cameto rolling it out, we hit a major problem.On the factoryfloot the operator had to wear protectiveclothing,with a specialface mask which turned everythingto blackand white. He wanted to be able to usethe interfacewithout taking off the mask,which meant that he couldn't seethe colour.Consequently,a lot of my six months' work was wasted.The point of the story is that it is reallyvery importantto considerall the human aspectswhen designinga userinterfacein this case,the work environment.So ... to get backto the main part of my lecture... NoW it's pretty clear that in order to be successful, systemdesignersneed to pay attention
to the way in which usersaccessinformation from a system.They also need to considerhow they can enter data or give instructionsto the system.In doing this, they can make useof a number of different tools and techniques.In fact, as we will see,systemdesignerscan adopt a number of methodsto ensurehigh-qualityinteraction between usersand the system.But I supposethe first point to note is that some of these tools are basedon the human sciences and othersare based on the computer sciences.lt's the first of these that l'm going to focuson nory but I think it's important to point out that both types of tools are essentialfor good HCIdesign. OK, so to start with let'stake a few moments to considerthe role of human sciences. What do we mean when we talk about the human sciences in relationto HCI?Well, researchhasshown that there are three important areaswhere human sciences can contributeto HCl.lt could be argued that these three aspectsalso exist for the computersciences. But as we shallsee,they tend to have a different emphasis- l'll come back in a little while and tell you how they fit together. The first important point to note here is that the human sciences can be usedto build modelsof the ways in which humansinteractwith their environment,that is to say how an individual interactswith the world in generaland with computersin particular.lts aim is to help system designersin developingthe most effective interactionsbetween usersand systems.In additionto cognitivepsychology, human sciences alsodrawson socialdisciplines suchas sociology and organizationalknowledge.Fromthe point of view of systemdesigners,it is fair to saythat it is cognitivepsychologywhich providestools for detailedapproachesto interfacedesign.One exampleof this is the modellingof human input and output channels,a conceptwhich is similarto input and output in computersystems.Examples of the human input channelsare the visual channelwhich corresponds to the senseof seeing, the aural channelwhich corresponds to the sense of hearing,and the hapticchannelwhich correspondsto the senseof touch. Another area that modellingcan help with is the type of metaphorswhich designerscan usewhen designingan interface.One exampleof a metaphorcommonlyusedis the folder icon to representa storage area for files. The main aim of the metaphorii to help cut down the amount of time neededfor the userto build a mental model of the systemobjectsin their mind. By usingtools suchas cognitivewalkthroughs,modellingcan also
help identify likely pointsof failure for userswhen they are trying to navigatethe system. Increasingly, we find that modellingis usedto provideevaluativetools to measurethe quality of systeminteractionsfrom the point of view of the user.lt's true to saythat measuringuser satisfactionin this way is a very important aspect of modelling.So,as we can see,modellinghas been usedto developtools which can help with interfacedevelopmentand the evaluationof the userexperience. The secondmajor point in relationto the role of cognitive psychologyin HCI is its contribution to a simplemodel of how individualsinteractwith their environment.In terms of understandinghow human cognitionworks,the Model Human Processor, or MHP,identifiesthree separate systems,namely,perceptual,cognitive and motor systems. The perceptualsystemsendsinformation to the cognitive systemwhich is responsiblefor processing that informationto enablepeopleto know and understandtheir environment.The motor systemis responsiblefor movement.This enablespeopleto interactwith the environmentin responseto their understandingof what is happening,basedon the informationthey receive from the perceptualand cognitive systems.A simpleexamplefrom everydaylife, suchas picking up an object,requiresmany complexinteractions within and between the systems.For example,as part of the cognitive system,physicalreactionsin the eye which detectthe colour and shapeof objects.Thesethen need to interact with the perceptualsystem,in order to make senseof what the object represents.In addition, each of these systemshas limits to its capacity.George Miller; a cognitivepsychologist, argued in his famous 1956 paper that working, or short-term memory is limited to holding betweenfive and nine itemsof informationat any one time. Miller referredto it as 'the magic number sevenplus or minustwo'. An understandingof these limitsis crucialwhen designing user-friendly interfaces. Thirdly,modelsof human interactioncan provide very effective ways of approachingthe design of interfaces,and of ensuringtheir quality.Usedin an appropriateway, they can improvethe usabilityof systemsand considerably enhancethe user experience.Crucially, they can be usedto optimize the representationof taskswithin the interface becausethey can help designersto understand how usersview the world. By modellingthe limitationsof the varioushuman systems,it is possibleto ensurethat the representationsof the 127
taskswill requirethe minimum amount of cognitiveprocessingin order to interactwith them. A good exampleof this is helping usersto rememberoptions by grouping them together.As we haveseen,sevenplus or minustwo puts a limit on what can be held in the short-termmemory. Good userinterfacedesignincorporates this knowledge.Sayan interfacehas25 different icons. It is not possiblefor the userto rememberall of theseat the sametime. Howevel the designercan group the iconsby function to make - say- five different groups,eachof which has a different function,suchas formatting.The userthen needs to remember in two stages- the first, to rememberwhich group the icon is likelyto be in, and the secondto decidewhich icon is required. Bad design,on the other hand, ignoresthis types of knowledge.By arrangingthe 25 iconsin no particularordel the useris likelyto be confused and find it very difficult to rememberwhere each one rs. Usingthesemodelswill ensurethat decisionsare empirical,which is to saythat they come from data obtained usingtechniquesbasedon these models. 5o it should be clearthat tools and techniques which draw on the human sciences are essential for systemdesigners, and in particularfor interface designers.On the other hand, it is also essential that tools which draw on the computersciences are usedand it is to thosethat we now turn.
Unit 9, Lesson2, Exercise C fd Z.O Part2 Let'sturn now to the contributionwhich the computersciences, as opposedto the human sciences, can make to tools and processes in HCl. The main focusof HCIis on ways in which data input and output can be optimized,within the limits of systemprocessingcapacity.As we have seen in other lectures,systemcapacitydependson the specifications of the hardwareand the efficiencyof the software.Togethe4these will determinehow much data can be input, processed and output at the sametime. As we saw earlier, there is a significantoverlapin the modellingof inputs,outputs and processing betweenthe human sciences, and the way in which computer systemsoperate.The systemlimitationsin a computerare similarto those in humanswhich are representedin the Model Human Processor. The most significantdifferenceis that processing capacityand speedsin computersystemscan be 128
improvedby increasingthe specification of the hardwareor enhancingthe efficiencyof the software, whereasof course,improvementsin the human processor are difficult if not impossible. The main focusof the computersciences models of HCIis on how the systemcan becomemore effectivewithin existingsystemconstraints. Choosingthe best combinationof hardwareand softwarefor input and output devicesis important if designersare to achievethis. The speedwith which feedbacktakes placeis also very important, as it can affect the user's perceptionof the responsiveness of the device, and the easeof interactivitywith the system. Again, choiceson the specification of the input and output devicescan affectthis. For example,if displayscreenswith a very high levelresolution are used,high levelsof systemresourceswill be requiredto updatethis in responseto useractions. Output deviceswhich havea much lower resolution,on the other hand,will requiremuch power and can be updated more lessprocessing quickly,making them appearmuch more responsiveto users.Becauseof the limits on processingpower overall,the right choiceof input and output devicescan have an enormousimpact on the quality of the userexperience. A good exampleof this is the NintendoWii and the innovativeinterfacewhich it introducedto gaming consoles. Priorto the Wii, almostall consolesusedcontrollerswhich were broadly similar.They were held in two handsand players usedtheir thumbs to control actionswithin the game, using buttonsor joysticks,and usedtheir indexfingersto pull triggers.lt's tempting to assumethat the designersfelt that this designwas ergonomicallyperfectand that no further innovationwas possible. Howeve4in their approachto the Wii controller; Nintendocompletelyrevolutionizedthe interactivitywhich was possiblebetween usersand the computersystem.While it lookslike a TV remote,the Wii controllercan senseits position relativeto the userand to the TV on which the game is played.Thisallowsit to registerspeedand acceleration, as well as changesin direction,which makesit an ideal user-inputdevicefor gamessuch as golf. Usingthe controller;the movementsthe playermakesare convertedinto speedand movementdata, which inputs into the game. Becauseof the intuitivenessand easeof use of its interface,the Wii becameone of the most successfulconsolesever,and expandedthe market beyondtraditionalgame players,to include
familiesand older generations.So the real question is, why have other consolemakers remainedwith the traditional interfacesand what will be the effects of this? NoW where was l? Oh yes,right, I was talking about how a systemcan become more effective within existingsystemconstraints... So what exactlyhavewe looked at this morning?Well, to sum up, we can group the ways in which the human and computersciences help us understand HCIunder three main headings.Firstly,by providingmodelsof an engineeringapproachto human behavioui the human sciences can help us to understandthe interactionbetween human and systemin a way which can be usedfor planning and quality assurance. Howevel the human sciencesapproachgoes furthel taking into account the broader context of the interactionbetween the individualand the system.Secondly, by modelling human systemsas channels,for examplethe visual channel,it is possibleto determine the effect of changesin the input and output of a system.The third major point is the need to considerthe effect of limitationson availableprocessingin both human and computersystems. Thesedifferences and similaritiesbetweenthe two approachesare reflected in the different ways in which the usabilityof a systemcan be evaluated...
Unit 9, Lesson2, Exercise o 6i Z.z
systems,namely,perceptual,cognitive and motor systems. 8 So it should be clearthat tools and techniqueswhich draw on the human sciencesare essentialfor systemdesigners, and in particularfor interfacedesigners.
Unit 9, Lesson3, Exercise e f) Z.g 1 'visual,'input, de'sign,'haptic,'output 2 mental 'model,'userinput, visualdi'splay, 'input device,'actionsequence 3 'actually,'generally,'usually,i'deally, 'crucially
Unit 9, Lesson3, Exercise C f) Z.g Part3 OK, so moving oh, ... Now, let'sconsidera question. How can we measurethe effectiveness of the designtools?To do this, we need methods to test the usabilityof systeminterfaces.Just like the tools,the methodscan be divided into two types- those which draw on the human sciences and those which draw on the computersciences. Todayl'm going to focuson three main evaluation tools which usethe computeras a meansof obtaining data on usability.These are heuristic evaluation, systemlogging, and eye tracking.
6 lt's true to saythat measuringuser satisfactionin this way is a very important aspectof modelling.
Let'sbegin then with heuristicevaluationwhich is perhapsthe most commonlyusedmethod.A website called useit.comdefines heuristic evaluationas "a method for finding the usability problemsin a userinterfacedesign... by judging its compliancewith recognizedusabilityprinciples, in other words,the heuristics."In practice,this involvesa smallgroup of evaluators,usually around six,each usinga standardchecklistto inspectthe interface.They note down how each feature matchesthe items on the checklist.lt's importantthat the evaluatorswork independently, so that they don't influence each other when makingtheir judgements.Howevel their reports can be put together to provideone overall usability.rating for the interface.This is a very simplemethod, but it can be a very powerful one. Qne possibledrawbackis that the method doesn't involvethe use of the interface in the way it would be used in 'real life', so some aspectsmay be missedout.
7 In terms of understandinghow human cognitionworks,the Model Human Processo6 or MHP,identifiesthree separate
By the way, I see that some of you are using the Cornell note-taking system.That'svery good. Do you all know about this? No? Right,well, if you
1 Well, researchhas shown that there are three important areaswhere human sciences can contributeto HCl. 2 lt could be argued that these three aspects also exist for the computer sciences. 3 But as we shall see,they tend to have a different emphasis- l'll come back in a little while and tell you how they fit together. 4 From the point of view of systemdesigners, it's fair to saythat it is cognitive psychology which providestools for detailedapproaches to interfacedesign. 5 Increasingly, we find that modellingis used to provide evaluativetools to measurethe quality of systeminteractionsfrom the point of view of the user.
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want to know more about it, I suggestyou look at How to study in college by Walter Pauk,the 9tn edition, publishedin 2007.lt's very good, and it should be in the universitylibrary.l'm surethat you all know the importanceof taking good notes - and this systemis particularlyuseful. The secondcomputer-based method of testing the usabilityof an interfaceis systemlogging. Now, we already know that it's important to be able to identify exactlywhere problemsoccurin carryingout a task.Systemlogging is particularly usefulfor this becauseit can provideactualdata on the user'sinteractionswith the interface.This meansit can indicatewhether or not an action sequencehas led to the achievementof a goal. Systemlogging can alsoshow any taskswhich the userwas unableto complete.Howevel basic systemlogging does not identifythe reasonfor failure.In fact, as Dix pointsout in Human computer interaction,one of your core texts - the 3'd edition,which was publishedin 2006,we can only rely on systemlogsto tell us what has why it has happened.A happened,not necessarily more advancedform of systemlogging is video logging. This createsa video of users'interactions with the interface,showingthe actionsof the user and how they tried to completethe task.While it can show how the userfailed, it still doesn't providethe reasonwhy - which could be two very similaricons,a confusinglabel or a hiddentab, for example. The third method is eye tracking.Thiscan be usedalong with a systemlogging method. lt can provideeven more detailedinformationon the user'sbehaviouras they interactwith the interface.In eye tracking,the useris providedwith a headsetwhich can measurethe point of gaze. Thissimplymeanswhere the individualis looking. We can usethis deviceto gather data that can be collectedon the point of gaze,which can show the choicesa userconsideredbefore decidingon a particularaction.This in turn givesa better understandingof the user'smental processes. Eye trackingcan also be usedseparatelyfrom system logging,for exampleto determinehow a user's attention is drawn to variouspartsof an interface. Thiscan be usedto identify distractingelementsof interfacedesign.Eyetrackingcan help bring us closerto what the useris thinking, as opposedto simplymeasuringtheir behaviour. OK, so now we can see that these three different testing methodsgather data on the usabilityof an interface,without actuallyaskingusersfor information.In the first method, heuristic evaluation,the likelyviewsof a userare 13C
representedby a checklistwhich an evaluatorthen usesto test the interface.In the secondmethod, systemlogging,actualdata on the user's behaviouras they interactwith the interfaceis gathered.However,there iSno data on what the useris thinking or how they feel as they are interactingwith the interface.The data collected by the third method, eye tracking,coversthe whole period of time the useris interactingwith the interface,not just while they are trying to completea task.This meansthat it can be usedto give some indicationof what the useris thinking during the interaction.However;while behaviour-based data is valuable,it must not be the only way of gatheringusabilityinformation.To quote Dix from the sametext as before, "analytic and informaltechniquescan and shouldbe used". Now I think that's all l'm going to sayfor the moment on the computer-based methodsof usabilityevaluation.Are there any questionsso far? (Pause)No, good. Now when I see you in tutorials,we'll look in more detail at the human sciences componentof HCl.In the meantime,l'm going to set you a researchtask. Right,now listen carefully... your task is to find out more about the methodsof evaluatingthe usabilityof interfaces which draw on the human sciences. l'd like you to work in groupsof four. Eachgroup shouldfind out about the variousmethodsthat are usedand report back on your findings.
Unit 9, Lesson 3, Exercise O 6dZ.tO Extract1 Let'sbegin then with heuristicevaluation,which is perhapsthe most commonlyusedmethod. A website called useit.comdefines heuristic evaluationas "a method for finding the usability problemsin a userinterfacedesign... by judging its compliancewith recognizedusabilityprinciples in other words,the heuristics." Extract 2 By the way, I seethat someof you are usingthe Cornellnote-takingsystem.That'svery good. Do you all know about this? No? Right,well, if you want to know more about it, I suggestyou look at How to Study in College by Walter Pauk, the 9tn edition, publishedin 2007.lt's very good, and it should be in the universitylibrary. Extract 3 Systemlogging can alsoshow any tasksthat the userwas unableto complete.However,basic systemlogging does not identifythe reasonfor
failure. In fact, as Dix points out in Human computer interaction, one of your core texts - the 3rdedition,which was publishedin 2006,we can only rely on systemlogs to tell us what has happened,not necessarily why it has happened. Extract 4 OK, so now we can seethat these three different testing methodsgather data on the usabilityof an interface,without actuallyasking usersfor information... Howevel while behaviour-based data is valuable,it must not be the only way of gatheringusabilityinformation.To quote Dix, from the sametext as before, "analytic and informaltechniquescan and shouldbe used". Unit 9, Lesson 4, Exercise C fd Z.t t Extract 1 It seemsquite clear that computer-basedmethods can contributea lot when evaluatingthe usability of an interface.From the point of view of system logging for example,there are three key points: firstly, it recordsusers'actual behavioul,rather than what they think happened;secondlyit can be used with many usersat very little extra cost;and thirdly, pretty importantthis ... Extract 2 Erm,I think one big differenceis the human sciencesapproach.This is very important. lt is possible,we can see,how this is very important. 5o let'slook at the slideand ... oh sorry,that'sthe wrong slide,just a minute ... right, so here is a differencebetweencomputerand human ... er you can see I think, this difference... do you have any questionsabout this slide?... Extract 3 We could askthe question:why would we want to use a psychologist?Usuallythis is very expensive, but it's necessarybecausea psychologistcan help to provide a view of how the userwill use the interface.In addition, a psychologistis also very important becausethey can show where the attention of a userwill be directedin the interface. Extract 4 So the main difference between the methods is the data. The human sciences-based methods provide us with data which is basedon what the userthinks is happening.The computer-based methodscan provideus with actualdataon how the useris interactingwith the system.This
differenceshows us one of the main advantages of computer-basedmethods,although they are not enough on their own. In fact, if we look at the chart l've prepared here, we can see how the various methods relate to each other. For example,we can seethat systemlogging can be usedalong with thinking aloud. Thisprovides data on what the useris actuallydoing with the system...
Unit 11,Lesson1, Exercise e O Z.tZ Computer ethics Computersplay an increasingly important role in our society.One result of this is that decisions made by computerprofessionals have an impact on a growing number of people.Moreover,lT contractorsneed to balancetheir clients'demands with their obligationsto society.In addition to ethicalreasonsfor this, there are also practical reasonswhy this is necessary. Firstly,errors in the design or constructionof lT systemscan have profound economicor human consequences. For example,Bynum,2004, refersto a chemicalcompany,Chemco,where faulty computersystemdesignwas responsible for an explosionwhich resultedin significantlossof life and widespreadenvironmentalcontamination. Because the systemdesignwas flawed, the designer'sprofessionalreputation was at risk. Furthermore,if found responsible for the death and destructionbecauseof negligence,he faced a largefine or imprisonment.Thisexampleof a failure in standardsillustratesthe importanceof making decisionsbasedon sound principleswhich can be justified. Secondly,a conflict of opinion can arise between a computerprofessionaland his or her employer. The employeemay have a disagreementabout whether his or her work is being put to beneficial or harmful uses.One exampleof this could be the construction,maintenanceor operation of systems for surveillance or censorship. So it is important that professionals understandthe ethicalissues before entering into contracts.
g 60Z.tg Unit 11,Lesson 2, Exercise Part1 Good morning.My name is Dr William Mitchell and much of my work relatesto computer ethics and professionalresponsibility. I am here today to give you an overview of issuesyou need to be aware of when making decisionsin a 131
professionalcapacity.That is to say,l'm going to look at ways in which you can justify your professiona I decisions. me, I don't want you to Don't misunderstand assumethat ethicsare relevantonly when making decisionsin the workplace.As we all know, to will form a some degree,ethicalconsiderations part of everydecisionyou make in your life. However,it is fair to saythat, in the workplace, haveto be carefulthat computerprofessionals they can't be accusedof negligencewhen designingor operatingsystemswhich have an effect on human life or property.Or, when developingsoftware,that they aren't producinga productwhich is not up to professionalstandards or which infringesthe legal rightsof copyright holders. on So in an attempt to keep the discussion professionalresponsibility reasonablysimple,l'm going to summarizea few of the more interesting pointsto do with the legal and regulatoryaspects in a work context. of professionaldecision-making
n E xe rci se C G Z .t+ U n i t 1 1 ,L e s so 2, Part 2 To start with, then, let's look at the different need typesof law which computerprofessionals to be aware of. Thesefall into two main categories- national lawsand international laws.lt is particularlyimportant for computer professionals to have a good knowledgeof which lawsare relevant,becausethey can then be clearabout when they are within the law or when they are at riskof breakingit. lf their activitiescan be seenas breakingthe law, then they will need to be in a positionto justify their actions.They may defend themselvesby using the principleof the 'greatestgood' - statingthat more peoplewill benefit from their actionsthan will sufferfrom them. Or they may want to rely on their personalbeliefsand principlesof what is right or wrong. Eitherway, it is importantthat they have a knowledgeof the different categoriesof law which can affect their decisionmaking. Well, first let'slook at national legislation,passed by countriesin responseto aspectsof computing which were seenas harmful or problematic.The passingof privacylaws in the US is a good exampleof this. By the 1960s,computershad becomesufficientlypowerful for many UScitizens to begin to seethem as a potentialdanger.The greatestfear initiallywas of a 'Big Brother'society, that is to saya societyin which the government
would know everythingabout its citizensand could exercisetotal control over them. By the early 1960s- and this may surprisemany of you - the US governmenthad alreadycreateda number of large databasescontainingdata from the US census,from tax payments,from militaryservice recordsand a range of other sources.By combiningall this information,the government could createa very detailedpictureof every individual'sactivities,giving the government unprecedentedpower over its citizens. Publicconcernregardinggovernmentuse of informationfrom citizensgrew to the extent that the PrivacyAct was passedin 1974.The Act was criticized,however,becauseit was difficult to enforceand, not only that, but becauseit excluded the collectionof data by companiesand organizationsother than government.Daniel Solovegivesa good descriptionof the issues around this in his 2004 book on technologyand privacyin the informationage. Briefly,in his chapteron informationprivacylaw, he explains how the many exemptionsand loopholesin the Act meant that it did not fully addressthe concernswhich had led to it being passed. However,it is fair to saythat legislationin other countries,suchas the UK Data ProtectionAct passedin 1984,addressedmany of thesecriticisms. The Act placeda responsibility on all organizations involvedin the processing of data relatingto identifiableindividuals, to meet the requirements of the Act by appointinga data controllerand registeringtheir databaseswith an information With the growth in networked commissioner. computers,the focusof concernbroadenedto includeunauthorizedaccessby hackers.An exampleof this type of legislationis the Computer MisuseAct, passedin 1990,which makesit an offence in the UK to access another person's computer,or alter data on their computer,without The growth of the Internet the owner'spermission. has given riseto the term cybercrime- the use of a computerto carryout criminalactivity- and increasingly, nationallawsare being passedto preventthis. This bringsus to another sourceof computerrelatedlegislation,namelyinternationaltreaties and conventions.A very good exampleis an internationalagreementcalledthe Councilof EuropeConventionon Cybercrime. Thistreaty was aimed particularlyat countrieswhich have not yet updatedtheir legalframeworkto reflectthe complexitiesof the Internet.The crimesare dividedinto a number of different categories: these are data crimes,network crimes,access
crimesand other related crimes.Data crimesrelate to the theft or deliberatemodificationof data. Network crimesinvolve interfering with a network to prevent accessor sabotaginga network. Access crimesincludegaining unauthorizedaccess to systemsand the introductionof viruses,Trojans, worms or other types of malware.The Other related crimescategory includesforgery, fraud, and other existingcrimeswhich are carriedout with the assistance of a computer.Thiscan include phishingattempts,where forged e-mailsare sent to trick usersinto logging on to fake websites which then stealtheir usernames and passwords.
Furnelland others,called"Dissecting the 'Hacker Manifesto',"givesan extremelygood insightinto what actuallymotivatesthese individuals.
Another area where internationaltreaty-based law is being createdis in relationto copyrightor intellectualproperty,which has been a controversial area for sometime. The World IntellectualPropertyOrganization- or WIPOfor short - is a UN organizationbasedin Switzerland and is responsible for a number of treatieswhich addresscopyright issues.However,some people saythat when these treaties have been passedinto law by governments,they have ended up protectingonly the rightsof the copyrightholders and ignoringthe rightsof those who purchase material protected by copyright. Of course, copyrightholdersmust be protected,but their rights need to be balancedagainstthe rightsof others.The evidenceshowsthat this is especially true with respectto the US.In my view,the Digital MillenniumCopyrightAct, or DMCA,which was passedin the USin 1998,is a casein point. By making it a criminaloffenceto produceor disseminate technologyto help usersavoid digital rights managementprotection,it hasdamaged innovation.lt has alsoactedas a directchallenge to those who believethat there shouldbe no restrictionson the copying of content, as a matter of principle.A very interestingarticleby Steven
the design,developmentor maintenanceof a computersystem.The employmentcontract determineswhat is expectedof employees,and if they don't meet theseexpectations, then they will be in breachof contractand can be sacked.Where two companieshave a contractfor the developmentof a system,there may be disagreements in terms of whether the quality of Where the systemwas in line with expectations. suchdisputesoccuLcontract law is what determineshow the agreement is interpreted. Civil Iaw canalso be usedin other ways.For example, individualsmay claimfor damagesunder civil law if they feel that they have been harmed by a productor service.They can also usethe civil courtsif they feel that their rights have been infringed,for examplein the caseof a breachof their privacy.An important point to note is that betweencountries, civil law variesconsiderably are and it's essentialthat computerprofessionals aware of the generalprovisionsof civil law in the countriesin which they are working.
In addition,there are those who believethat the legislationunfairlyinfringesthe individual'sright to back up materialwhich they have already purchased. Thishas been the subjectof a considerable number of legalchallenges. In the EU,the sametreatieshave been implementedin the EuropeanCopyrightDirective,or EUCD.This on directivealso imposesconsiderablerestrictions the rightsof individualsto copy digital content, and is seenby some peopleas infringing The Councilof EuropeConventionon Cybercrime considerably on personalfreedoms.Perhaps requirescountriesto respondto requestsfrom becauseof this,there was a considerable delay in other countriesto investigatebreachesof the law. implementingthe directiveinto the national law Howeve4this requirementhascausedconsiderable of individualcountries. controversyas there is no requirementthat the Thereare alsoa number of other pointsfor law in the investigatingcountry has been broken. computerprofessionals to take into account A spokesperson for the US-based Electronic regardingnon-criminalor civil law which I am FrontierFoundation,or EFl,gave the exampleof only going to touch on here.lf you want to look the Frenchgovernmentrequestingthe more closelyat these, a very good resourceis investigationof a UScitizenoffering Nazi Lloyd'slnformation Law - l'll give you the memorabiliafor saleover the Internet,which is referencelater.A key issuehere is contract law. legal in the US but illegalin France.The EFF Different types of contract which are relevant spokesperson went on to say,in an articleon a includean employmentcontract,which setsout an newswebsitecalledZDNetnews,that he has no agreementbetween a computerprofessionaland doubt that a countrywhich signsup to the treaty the companythat employshim or her,or a salesor is being asked,and lquote, "to spy on its citizens." maintenancecontractbetweentwo companiesfor
a
,:l
a
Now l'm going to pauseat this point and ...
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Unit 11,Lesson 2, Exercise f 6) Z.tS
Extract 6
Howeve4some people saythat when these treaties have been passedinto law by governments,they have ended up protecting only the rightsof the copyrightholdersand ignoring the rightsof those who purchasecopyrighted material. Of course,copyright holders must be protected, but their rights need to be balanced againstthe rights of others.The evidenceshows that this is especiallytrue with respectto the US. In my view,the Digital MillenniumCopyrightAct, or DMCA,which was passedin the US in 1998,is a casein point. By making it a criminaloffenceto produceor disseminate technologyto help users avoid digital rights managementprotection,it has damagedinnovation.lt hasalso actedas a direct challengeto those who believethat there should be no restrictionson the copying of content, as a matter of principle.A very interestingarticle by StevenFurnelland others,called"Dissecting the 'Hacker Manifesto'," givesan extremelygood insightinto what actuallymotivatesthese individuals.
Publicconcernregardinggovernmentuse of information from citizensgrew to the extent that the PrivacyAct was passedin 1974.
Unit 11, Lesson2, ExerciseC 6i Z.tO Extract1 Don'tmisunderstand me,I don'twant you to assume that ethicsare relevantonlywhen making in the workplace. decisions Extract2 As we all know to somedegree,ethical considerations will form a part of everydecision you makein your life. Extract3 Howevelit is fair to saythat, in the workplace, haveto be carefulthat computerprofessionals they can'tbe accused of negligence when whichhavean designing or operatingsystems effecton humanlife or property. Extract4 So in an attemptto keepthe discussion on professional responsibility reasonably simple,I'm goingto ... Extract5 Thegreatestfear initiallywasof a 'BigBrother' society, that isto saya societyin whichthe governmentwould know everythingabout its citizens and couldexercise total controloverthem.
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Extract 7 The Act was criticized,howevel becauseit was difficult to enforce and, not only that, but because it excludedthe collectionof data by companies and organizationsother than government. Extract 8 Daniel Solovegivesa good descriptionof the issuesaround this in his 2004 book on technology and privacyin the informationage. Extract 9 Briefly,in his chapteron information privacylaw, he explainshow the many exemptionsand loopholes in the Act meant that it did not fully addressthe concernswhich had led to it being passed. Extract 10 The EFFspokespersonwent on to say,in an article on a news website called ZDNet news,that he has no doubt that a countrywhich signsup to the treaty is being asked,and I quote, "to spy on its citizens". Extract 11 The evidenceshowsthat this is especially true with respectto the US. Extract 12 In my view,the Digital MillenniumCopyrightAct, or DMCA,which was passedin the U5 in 1998,is a casein point.
Unit 11,Lesson 3, Exercise e 6) Z.tZ 'action ,disciplinary 'black,hat i'dentity ,theft de,nialof 'service 'software ex,ploit ,socialengi'neering i,llegalac'tivities 'bulletin ,board
g 6dZ.tA Unit 11,Lesson 3, Exercise Part 3 Let'sturn now to the ways in which regulations, as opposedto law can be usedto help in As you will be aware,most decision-making. companieswill have a wide range of regulations. Theseare designedto provideguidancein decision-making in areaswhere there may be differencesof opinion.5o, how important is complyingwith companyregulations?Firstof all, there is no questionthat this is a good idea if you want to keep your job. We have to accept,as employees,that there are certainthings which computerprofessionals can and cannot do. But the questionis, is it enough to follow company rulesin order to ensurethat decisionsare ethical?Somecomputerprofessionals claimthat they don't haveto worry about breaking nationaland internationallaws if they follow an employer'sinstructions. But l'm afraid that just quite isn'ttrue. lt's clearthat companiescan and do do thingswhich are illegal.Research into lT companiesand the law hasshown that there are instances where companies'actionscan be seen as breakingthe law. Evidenceto supportthis comesfrom actuallegal cases.A companycalled Logistep,for example,was found to have infringedprivacylaws.Employeesposedas users of a peer-to-peerservicein order to gather evidenceof copyrightmaterialbeing downloaded. A peer-to-peerservice- if you're not familiar with this term - is a network of computersfor sharingmaterialsuchas music, film and computerprograms,without the need for a central server.When the Logistep employeesdemandedthe users'namesand addresses from their lSP,the judge found that the companyhad breachedthe privacyto which individualswere entitled.You can see,therefore, why it was importantfor computerprofessionals at Logistepto be able to show that their decisionswere reasonable, and within the law as they understoodit. A different aspectof this type of situation can be seenin the purchaseof a'botnet'for a BBC programmeon computersecurityin 2009. Botnets,a shortenedversionof robot networks, are groupsof computerson which hackershave managedto installsoftwarewithout their owners'consent.The computerscan then be used by the hackersfor illegalactivities.Theseusescan includespamming,denial of serviceattacksor as a basefor further attackson other computers. Apparently,botnetsare sometimesmade
availableto other hackersfor a fee. In this case, the BBCpurchaseda botnet and usedit to show how it could be usedfor spammingand denial of services. When they had finished,they left a messageon the computerswhich were part of the botnet, alertingthem to the fact that their computershad been hacked.However,as a number of expertspointed out, the BBChad clearlybroken the law by doing this. In the words of one securityexpert, "the Computer MisuseAct, passedin 1990,makesit an offence in the UK to access another person'scomputer,or alter data on their computer,without the owner's permission."Clearly,computerprofessionals employedby the BBCin relationto this project could try to avoid disciplinaryaction by arguing that they were following their employer's instructions. However,as a criminalprosecution was a possibility, they shouldalso be able to show that they had fully consideredthe implicationsof their decision.In the event,the BBCwas not prosecutedas it was felt that the useof real botnetsin the programmehad helped more home computeruserstake their online security more seriously. 5o, if employers'rulesare not enough,then what other typesof rulescan be used?Well, almostall havetheir own the main orofessional associations ethicalguidelines,and thesecan help in checking decision-making. Someexamplesof theseare the BritishComputerSocietyand the Instituteof Electrical Although and Electronics Engineers. some people may claimthat guidelinesare often ignored by their members,they offer a good way for computerprofessionals to evaluatehow ethical their decisionsare, regardless of their specific employmentcontext. A very good exampleof a situationwhere decisionshaveto be constantlyevaluatedis where computersecuritycompaniesengage in ethical hacking.This is where securitycompanyemployees with high-levelcomputerskillsare given the job of trying to break into their clients'systemsin order to test their security.Sometimesthis is done using socialengineering,pretendingto be somebodyin to usernames the companyin order to get access But sometimesit is technical, and passwords. where hackersmake use of known software exploits- that is,flaws in the softwarewhich allow them to take control of a system. The employeeswho participatein this sort of penetrationtesting are often known as 'white hat' hackers,like the good guys in the old cowboy movies.The hackerswho try to gain unauthorizedaccess to systemsin order to
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commit crimesare known as 'black hats',the bad guys.Blackhats routinelybreakthe law and engage in behaviourwhich is very questionable, ethicallyspeaking.Howeve[ there are times when some of a white hat hacker'sbehaviour crossesover the line and laws are broken. Hackers who find themselvesin this situationare called 'grey hat' hackers,and while they may break the law, researchhas concludedthat they provide a very valuable role. The evidencelies in the fact that'grey hat' hackerscontinueto be usedby large companiesin order to identifythe flaws in their own computer security. Now l'm going to set you a task which will involve investigatingsome of the points I've raised. I want you to do some researchinto the issues related to ethical hacking. I want you to focus, firstly,on someof the legal implicationsof ethical hacking,with respectto the legislationwe've I'd like you to think about discussed. Secondly, whether company rules and regulationscan cover when employeesare all of the possibilities engaged in ethical hacking,and if not, what companiescan do to make surethey are covered. Finally,I would like you to look at justificationsput forward by hackersfor their illegal activity.
Unit 11, Lesson3, Exerciseg 6) Z.tg Butthe questionis,is it enoughto follow companyrulesin orderto ensurethat decisions areethical?Somecomputerprofessionals claim that they don't haveto worry about breaking nationaland international lawsif theyfollowan instructions. But l'm afraidthat just employer's isn'ttrue.lt'squiteclearthat companies canand into lT do do thingswhichare illegal.Research companies andthe law hasshownthat thereare instances wherecompanies' actionscanbe seen to supportthis as breakingthe law. Evidence A companycalled comesfrom actuallegalcases. Logistep, for example,wasfound to have posedas users infringedprivacylaws.Employees of a peer-to-peer servicein orderto gather evidence of copyrightmaterialbeing downloaded.A peer-to-peer service- if you're not familiarwith thisterm- is a networkof computersfor sharingmaterialsuchas music, film and computerprograms, withoutthe need for a centralserver. Whenthe Logistep the users'namesand employees demanded from their lSP,the judge found that the addresses companyhad breachedthe privacyto which individuals were entitled.Youcansee,therefore, why it was importantfor computerprofessionals 136
at Logistepto be able to show that their decisionswere reasonable, and within the law as they understood it.
Unit 11, Lesson4, Exercisee 6) Z.ZO Extract1 Mrueo:The lecturerwe listenedto lastweek introduced a numberof interesting issues. In my partof the seminanl'd liketo startby explaining somerelevantlegalissues regardingethicalor white hat hackingtechniques. Youmightthink a clienthasgiventheir consentfor that because then it will be considered the hacking, a legalact. Forexample, when an ethicalhackerhacksa target systemin the UK,with clientconsent,they couldnot be prosecuted underthe Computer MisuseAct because they havethe owner's permission. Howeve[there are other waysin whichthe hackercanbreakthe law.Forexample, if the hackers installa keylogger on a computerto gain access to passwords and accidentally collect somepersonal informationbelongingto a companyemployee, they may be in breachof data protectionor privacylegislation. Soto sumup, we cansaythat it'sveryimportantthat there are guidelines in placeto makesurethat thereare no legalbreaches when carryingout penetration testing. Extract2 Evre: OK,Majedmadeit clearthat havinga isn'tenoughto ensurethat all client'spermission of an ethicalhacker's actionsare legal.Basically, what this meansisthat therewill be situations wherea white hat hackermaycrossthe line and temporarily becomea greyhat.ldeally, this shouldn'tbe the case,but there may be situationswhereit's necessary. lf this isthe case, then the hackershouldbe awareof the relevant legislation and the extentto whichtheir actions breachit. Sowhat this meansin practiceisthat a computersecurity companywill not only needto providetheir employees with guidance on the legalimplications of their actions, theywill also needto provideguidance on ethicaljustifications if employees do breakthe law.Thecomputer professional's codeof conductcanalsoprovide someguidance on what isand is not acceptable. Extract3 Jncr:OK,to continuethen,l'm goingto expand Thisis the topicby mentioninganotheraspect. the role of hackerswho are not directly Thesehackers employedby a company.
sometimesmake useof an opportunityto hack an unsecuredsystemin order to bring the lack of securityto its owner's attention. Let me give an example.ln 2000,some hackersgained access to the systemsowned by Apache and replacedthe Apache logo with a Microsoft one. This was very embarrassing for Apache,as a very large proportion of the websiteson the Internet use their software. However,even though the hackershad broken the law by accessing the Apache computers,Apache were happy that the hackershad made them take their systemsecurity more seriously.In fact, they even set up a meeting with some of the hackers,so that they could improvetheir securityfurther.Clearly,the principlesof the hackers,in not wanting to do any damage,were key to the successful outcome in this case.Doesanybodyhave any opinionsor anythingthey would like to add? Extract 4 Lrrm:Followingon from what Jackhassaidabout grey hats hackingsystemsto highlight security, we can also look at a related type of situation. Here,l'm going to explainthe ethicalissues around the discoveryof an exploit in a pieceof software. Many grey hat hackersreverse engineer software in order to discoverexploits. For a lot of software,this is technicallyillegal. Howeve[ they justify breaking the law because they saythat when they discoverexploits,they make them public.Oncethey are made public, the manufacturersthen have to provide patches for them to make sure the software is safe for peopleto use.lf blackhat hackersare the only people to discoverexploits by reverse engineering,they will not make them public,but will instead usethem to hack into systems.So even though they are technicallybreakingthe law by reverseengineering,grey hat hackers argue that they are doing good.
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