TEACHING WRITING: DEVELOPING CRITICAL LEARNERS
By: Emi Emilia
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Contents Foreword...... ...................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements............................................................................................ 4 Chapter 1: An overview of theories that inform this book ........................... 5 Chapter 2: A language and literacy program for the tertiary level .......... 39 Chapter 3: A language program at the secondary level .............................. 82 Chapter 4: The teaching of writing at the primary level of an Australian classroom ................................................................................... 129 Chapter 5: Conclusion, policy context and future research ..................... 160 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 164
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Foreword This book provides clear and well-informed guidelines and advice to teachers of English in Indonesia, though its arguments and proposals would be of value in any contemporary country seeking to teach English as a second or foreign language to its people. English is a very significant world language, widely used throughout the planet, and its impact is apparent in all areas of the contemporary globalised world community: in commerce, trade, tourism, inter-governmental co-operation, in international scholarship and in the exchange of research and ideas. It is important that English be well taught, both because of its significance in the modern world and because of the potential benefits and opportunities to anyone who gains a good control of the language. Emi Emilia is to be congratulated for the industry, initiative and enterprise she has displayed in researching and writing this book, based as it is on her own research and wide reading, developed over several years of work. She demonstrates a wide knowledge of the literature in several scholarly traditions, and she draws on all of these to advance a theoretical framework that can inform modern English teaching in Indonesia. Arguing the importance of critical thinking in modern schooling, she herself reveals a capacity to evaluate critically the research and theories of others, firmly stating her own views, while showing a scholarly concern for accuracy in judgment and in expression of opinion. In these ways she offers a model of good writing and scholarship to her readers. Frances Christie Emeritus Professor of language and Literacy Education University of Melbourne and Honorary Professor of Education and Linguistics University of Sydney
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Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge, first and foremost, Prof. Frances Christie from the University of Melbourne and the University of Sydney, who has contributed in many ways to the writing of this book. At various stages in its conception, development and birth, I have been most fortunate to receive her supervision, support, encouragement, guidance and advice to keep going. Thank you for your generosity in sharing with me your expertice and experiences in writing a book, and for being willing to read and to comment on every chapter of the book, since early drafts. I also thank you for writing the foreword for this book and your hospitality during my stay in Sydney. I would also like to thank Prof. Marie Emmitt, Dean of Faculty of Education in Australian Catholic University, for her supervision in my postdoctoral study under the Endeavour Program in 2007. The results of the study have been included in this book. I am also grateful to the schools and the teachers I have had the priviledged to work with. Thank you for your generosity in sharing your classrooms with me. I have been especially priviledged to have contact with the teacher in Indonesia, who was brave enough to have her class observed, and to try action research in her class and to open up her explorations to learn to better her teaching practices to help students gain better results in learning. My thanks to the students whose work conveys important pedagogical messages and have been included in this book. I thank you from the bottom of my heart. I would like to gratefully acknowledge the Directorate General of Higher Education, Department of National Education in Indonesia for the Academic Recharging scholarshipin 2009 that allowed me to recharge my understanding of my interests and thus has made the writing of this book a possibility. My particular thanks go to the authorities at the Indonesia University of Education, to the Rector and Vice Rectors, to the Dean of Faculty of Language and Arts Education, to the Director and Assistant Directors of School of Postgraduate Studies, to the Head of the English Department of Faculty of Language and Arts Education, for their support and permission for me to get involved in the Academic Recharging Program, despite so much responsibility that I had to leave. I am very grateful to my colleagues, especially Dr. Safrina, who was willing to fill in my “big shoes” during my absence. Thank you very much. My sincere thanks are due to my parents and sisters for their endless love, care and prayers for me that have contributed to my strength and spirit to make all efforts to finish the project. I particularly thank Teh Fei and Kak Upi for being my children‟s company in my absense. Finally, thank you to my wonderful supportive family: my husband Tizani, my son Mizan, and my daughter Najmi, for your understanding and thoughtfulness during difficult times. Not even one page of this book would ever have appeared without your support, encouragement and patience. Thank you, Yah, Kak, De!
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Chapter 1: An overview of theories that inform this book 1.1. Introduction One of the simple facts of life in the present time is that the English language skills of a good proportion of its citizens are seen as vital if a country is to participate actively in the global economy and to have access to the information and knowledge that provide the basis for both social and economic development (Burns & Richards, 2009: 1). Central to this enterprise, Burns and Richard further argue, are English teaching and English language teachers and thus there is consequently increasing demand worldwide for competent English teachers and for more effective approaches to help students learn English successfully. In the Indonesian context, apart from these matters, since the commencement of the Reform Era, which started with the retirement of President Soeharto on May 21st, 1998, increasing the general levels of performance in English is now seen as an important part of building a much more critical and independent community of people in Indonesia. The development of critical thinking and critical literacy in the workforce at all levels is now seen as of great national importance, and the teaching of English assumes a new significance as a means by which critical capacities can be promoted. This chapter brings together key concepts, insights, issues and debates that inform the practices of the teaching of English writing described in this book, based on three different classroom practices, two of which were in the Indonesian context and the other in the Australian context. The overarching principle of this book is that some synthesis of theoretical concepts described in this chapter is possible and desirable at all levels of education to help students – both children and adult learners - develop their English literacy, critical thinking and critical literacy. Overall, in fact. It is argued that this synthesis is relevant to education at all levels in modern Indonesia. This chapter will introduce the major traditions of research and theory that will be drawn on to offer accounts of good practices for teaching English as a foreign language in Indonesia. Research and theory in each area is explained and taken up again in later chapters in greater detail. These areas of theory concern:
Critical thinking (CT); Critical literacy (CL); Critical pedagogy (CP); Systemic functional linguistics (SFL), especially the systemic functional linguistic genre-based approach to teaching literacy (The SFL GBA); Whole language, especially the process approach to teaching writing; English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) pedagogy, especially to do with the use of students‟ L1 in ESL/EFL contexts.
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1.2 Critical Thinking (CT) Critical thinking has become more important as a skill because individuals are faced with having to make an increasing number of important decisions affecting themselves and society in general (Halpern, 1996,1998, cited in Renaud & Murray, 2008:85). In Indonesia, critical thinking has become a new buzzword over the last ten years, especially since the Reform Era. Critical thinking has been one aspect that has assumed a great importance in the policies of the government, especially in education (Depdiknas, 2001a,b, Alwasilah, 1998). The concept of CT that can be adopted by teachers of English in Indonesia can be drawn from the CT movement and is pursued more fully in Chapter 2. In the literature, there are two broad conceptions of CT in the CT movement. They are the general and the specific. Thus: The general conception says that CT is generalisable, that is, once someone learns CT, she/he will be able to apply it in other contexts and about other matters (Paul, 1993; Nosich, 2001; Moore and Parker, 1995). The subject specific conception argues that CT is context specific, dependent on the background knowledge involved and thus one might be critical in one subject matter but not in another (Mc Peck, 1981, 1990, 1992). Despite a heated debate on these two conceptions, this book argues that the two conceptions are complementary rather than contradictory. In this book it is argued that CT should be taught as a generalisable skill, although reference to specific contexts also makes it more powerful. Regarding this, Sternberg (1987) states: Thinking cannot occur in the absence of knowledge. One needs something to think about. It is a mistake to concentrate only upon knowledge to the exclusion of thinking skills, because such concentration risks generating students who know a lot but who are unable to evaluate their knowledge. It is equally a mistake to concentrate only on thinking skills, because the results may be students who know how to think but who have nothing to think about (1987: 254; see also Nickerson, Perkins and Smith, 1985: 4950; Reichenbach, 2001: 30 for a similar observation).
This has also been stated by one of the students in Emilia‟s (2005) study, who was aware of the importance of learning both critical thinking as a skill and having sound background knowledge about what she thought. She said: … by knowing CT we can explore the knowledge better than before we know CT. If we have knowledge without understanding CT, we will just take the knowledge as it is. We will never think about what is behind it, what makes it happen, etc., that relates to the knowledge. So, I think we need to know both (Riya).
Accordingly, the definitions of CT can be based on the work of both the general and the specific conceptions. From the general conceptionists the definitions are as follows:
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CT is a careful, deliberate determination of whether we should accept, reject, or suspend judgment about a claim - and of the degree of confidence with which we accept or reject it (Moore and Parker, 1995: 4). CT is based on articulately intellectual standards and hence is intrinsically subject to assessment by those standards … such as: clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, significance, fairness, logic, depth, and breadth, evidentiary support … There is an intimate interrelation between knowledge and thinking (Paul, 2002. 3). CT involves using knowledge to bring about reasonable changes (Lipman, 2003: 211).
On the other hand, the definition of CT from a subject specific conceptionist is below: CT is always thinking about X, manifests itself in connection with some identifiable activity or subject area and never in isolation (McPeck, 1981: 13, see also McPeck, 1990, 1992).
The definitions above suggest that the teaching of CT should emphasise the following aspects: CT standards, which can be regarded as a way of gauging how well CT skills are performed (Barnett, 1997:70-71), including: commitments to clarity in arguments, relevance of data and evidence used to the main point, accuracy of the quality of the arguments, depth and breadth and sufficiency in the arguments and precision in the sense of being specific about detail. Improvement of students‟ ability in making sound arguments (as argument is the heart of CT) and students‟ understanding of basic notions of CT, such as the issue, reasons, facts and opinion (Moore and Parker, 1995; Reichenbach, 2001; Picciotto, 2000). Development of CT dispositions, especially: to be well-informed - using and referring to credible sources; to be open-minded - considering seriously other points of view than one‟s own; to take a position or a stance (and change a position) when the evidence and reasons are sufficient to do so (which to Hyland, 1999:106, is an important feature of academic writing, especially at the tertiary level); to be systematic - following a line of reasoning consistently to a conclusion (Ennis, 1987; Beyer, 1997). This can be done through practice in writing, especially writing an argumentative text, as will be described in Chapter 2. Development of thoughtful, careful work habits (Nickerson, Perkins and Smith 1985). With respect to assessment, the teacher can use some of techniques for gathering information on students‟ CT as suggested by Norris and Ennis (1990). These, as will be described in Chapter 2, include use of journals, classroom observations and students‟ argumentative texts. To judge the enhancement of thinking skills, it is important that some criteria be used, regarding intellectual performance in a general way (Nickerson, Perkins and Smith, 1985), referring to some CT standards (Nosich, 1995; Hughes, 2000; Lipman, 2003), dispositions and abilities that a critical thinker usually has, as described above. Moreover, analysis of arguments using systemic functional grammar, as will be shown in Chapter 2, can 7
also be really useful to enable the teacher “to read representations in texts critically” (Threadgold, 1994: 22). Analysis of arguments can also be used to judge CT improvement using the criteria to assess arguments, including the structure of arguments (see Chaffee, 2000; Chaffee, et al, 2002; Hughes, 2000; Lipman, 2003) (and the use of evidence. As CT is the aim of critical pedagogy (Giroux, 1992a), it is of crucial importance that teachers understand CP. Therefore, some principles which can be considered relevant to the Indonesian context, as observed in Emilia (2005), will be taken up. 1.3 Critical Pedagogy The field of second or foreign language education, as with other areas of language teaching, has also been influenced by the issues posed by critical theory and critical pedagogy (Burns & Richard, 2009: 7; Hawkins & Norton, 2009). While the CT tradition is concerned primarily with criteria of adequacy in arguments, aiming at self-sufficiency, CP, as Burbules & Berk (1999:47) state, begins from a very different starting point. It regards specific belief claims, expressed in language, not primarily as propositions to be assessed for their truth content, but as part of systems of belief and action that have aggregate effects within the power structures of society. CP, Burbules & Berk further assert, asks first about these systems of belief and action, “who benefits?” and the primary preoccupation of CP is with social justice and how to transform inequitable, undemocratic, or oppressive institutions and social relations (see also Morgan 1997). Critical pedagogy is directly concerned with social action and educational change (Hawkins & Norton, 2009:31). However, the teaching practice which applies CP should be context-specific (Auerbach, 1996, 1999; Kincheloe and Steinberg, 1998; O‟Brien, 2001; Pari, 1999), working with the cultural and cognitive complexities represented by students‟ varying personalities, learning styles, genders, developmental levels, ideologies and backgrounds (Brookfield, 1995: 209). In the Indonesian context, the principles of CP that can be used are only those relevant to the current Indonesian condition, such as those used in Emilia‟ s (2005) study, which will be described in Chapter 2. There are three principles of CP, two of which are from Freire (Freire & Macedo, 1987), to do with “reading the world and the word” and “dialogic education” and the other from Giroux (1988b, 1997), concerned with “classroom as a democratic public sphere”. Each principle will be delineated below. Reading the Word and the World The principle of reading the word and the world (Freire and Macedo, 1987) has had a very influential impact on the practice of critical literacy and also the form of CL adopted in this book. To Freire, “reading and writing are transitive verbs; that is texts are always about something in the world. Reading, accordingly, always entails engagement with problems and values of the social world” (Freire, 1970, cited in Luke and Walton, 1994: 1195). Reading, for Freire is a means of achieving critical consciousness, an understanding of the forces and ideologies that shape one‟s life; writing is a means of clarification, articulation, and liberation of the oppressed‟s voice, position, interests, and possibilities for action (Freire and Macedo, 1987, see also Luke and Walton, 1994: 1195). In reading texts, it is said that students should 8
be encouraged to read the world, to read texts by focusing on how different audiences might respond to them, thus highlighting the possibilities of reading against, within, and outside their established boundaries (Giroux, 1992b: 30). Freire suggests the use of authentic materials, such as filmstrips, materials presenting propaganda - from advertising commercials to ideological indoctrination – as a problemsituation for discussion (1998: 93) and topics focusing on what is taking place today inside various social movements (Freire and Macedo, 1987; Freire and Faundes, 1998). Moreover, like a critical view of literacy and the GBA (which will be discussed later), Freire attaches importance to grammar, semantics and other linguistic aspects, saying “if I teach Portuguese, I must teach the use of accents, subject-verb agreement, the syntax of verbs, noun case, the use of pronouns, the personal infinitive …” (Freire, 1997: 75). Dialogic Education Dialogue refers to “the encounter between men (human beings), which is mediated by the world, in order to name the world” (Freire, 1993:69). Freire sees education as a question of establishing dialogue, of taking an anti-authoritarian and interactive approach. The teacher, like his/her students, is an apprentice, someone who is also seeking and learning (Freire, 1985; Freire and Shor, 1987; Gadotti, 1997; McLaren, 2000). Students should actively participate in their own learning rather than just passively accept what the teacher says (Degener, 1999), and the teacher should also be full of respect for what the students say, all the questions deserve to be answered, and the teacher may not have the answer, but possibly one of the answers (Freire and Shor, 1987). In the ESL context, a relationship of respect between the teacher and student plays a very important role, as Cummins notes: Techniques and strategies will be effective only when teachers and students forge a relationship of respect and affirmation; when students feel that they are welcomed into the learning community of the classroom and supported in the immense challenges they face in catching up academically; and when the students feel that their teachers believe in them and expect them to succeed in school and in life (1996: 74).
A question that has arisen in the literature on dialogic education centres on who selects the object to be known. Regarding this, based on her study in critical English for academic purposes (EAP), Benesch (2001), concludes: The most effective way to engage students might be to try a mix of teacher and student choice with whole class selection of a theme…. … whole-class selection of a shared topic requires democratic decision making, an important component of community building in a critical classroom (2001: 82).
Emilia (2005) also found out that it is necessary that some times the teacher gives students choice about the topic and some other times the teacher decides, which students think is really useful, as reflected in the following statements:
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The teacher always involved the students in making a decision regarding the learning teaching process, by asking for the students‟ agreement in doing the activities (Nia). When you asked about the choice of topics, it was part of the democratic atmosphere in this program, because you allowed us to make our choice based on what we liked (Wati).
Corresponding to the authority and the directive role of the teacher, in dialogic education the authority and directive roles of the teacher still exist (Freire and Shor, 1987: 101; Freire and Macedo, 1996: 199-228). In the teaching program outlined in Chapter 2, the directive role of the teacher is confirmed by the principle of explicit teaching and apprenticeship, in which the teacher should act as an expert and teach in an authoritative way, as suggested by the GBA which will be discussed later. The Classroom as a Democratic Public Sphere The term “public sphere” refers to a zone of connection between social systems and the “life world”, the domain of everyday living, in which people can deliberate on matters of social and political concerns as citizens and in principle influence policy decision (Habermas, 1984, cited in Fairclough, 2003: 44; Fairclough and Chouliaraki, 1999). Applied in education, this principle, which corresponds to dialogic education above, concerns the creation of conditions in classrooms, which are conducive to support individual freedom and social justice, regarding schools as democratic sites dedicated to forms of self and social empowerment (Giroux, 1988b: xxxiii, 1997). Giroux states: Schools are public places where students learn the knowledge and skills necessary to live in an authentic democracy. … Schools as democratic public spheres are constructed around forms of critical inquiry that dignify meaningful dialogue and human agency. Students learn the discourse of public association and social responsibility (1988b: xxxiii).
In applying the notion of the public sphere at university level, Giroux (1997) argues that teachers of higher education, or “public intellectuals”, to use Giroux‟s (1997) term, need to define higher education as a resource vital to the moral life of the nation. Students should be given opportunity to practise democracy in the classroom or in organisations. As critcal pedagogy can be realised in critical literacy classrooms (Kincheloe, 2000), the following discussion will centre around critical literacy. 1.4 Critical Literacy Critical literacy (CL) is open to multiple interpretations (Cheah, 2001) and may take a diversity of forms (Frye, 1997; Pennycook, 2001). The concept of CL that has informed the practices described in this book has been shaped by the work under the following theories: The CT movement, as discussed in Section 1.2, with special relevance to reading and writing.
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CP, especially “reading the word and the world”; Critical social literacy, that is literacy as a social construct (Heath, 1983; Luke and Walton, 1994; Kress, 2003), supported by critical language awareness (CL, Fairclough, 1992; Wallace, 2001; 2003); The SFL GBA, which assists students to gain a mastery of argumentative genres (genres of power). As a social activity, there are many types of literacy and the focus is always on literacies, as a plural set of social practices (Pennycook, 2001; Lankshear & Knobbel, 2006) in their social contexts, as social literacies (Gee, 1990; Lankshear et al, 1997); or multiliteracies (Cope and Kalantzies, 2000) or multiple literacies (Huot, Stroble, Bazerman, 2004). The theory also sees literacy involving not just the mastery of an arbitrary code for writing the meanings we make with language but also as a critical arena for cultural domination and social control. In this context, Luke and Freebody state: Writing and reading are social activities. That is, we are always reading something, written by someone or writing something for someone. These others are always in some relationship to us-often materially or symbolically unequal relationships of power but always relationships in which versions of „ourselves‟ and „others‟ are implicated and constructed. Even those texts we read or write that come from or are intended for people we do not know assemble versions of our identities and positions as readers - as men and women, students and teachers, taxpayers and newspapers readers, and so forth. … (1997b: 193).
One crucial work under this perspective which is relevant to the Indonesian context is the work in the EFL reading context in Great Britain by Wallace (1992a: 114, 1992b; 2001). Following Kress (1985a; see also 2003). Wallace suggests that students should be exposed to questions, as will be shown in Chapter 2, that lead them to have awareness of a text as a social construct and, among things, to consider other ways the topic might be approached. Regarding materials, theorists of CL, like those of CT and CP, argue for use of multiple texts (Luke and Freebody, 1997; Frye, 1997) which should be authentic (Wallace, 1992a,b; Varaprasad, 1997). For ESL /EFL contexts, Wallace (1992a:71) suggests that a text should also: Be a vehicle for teaching specific language structure and vocabulary; Present content which is familiar and of interest to the learners; and Be at the appropriate language level. In terms of topics, it is suggested that teachers should also engage with issues that are often controversial, certainly contemporary (Gilbert, 1993, cited in Lankshear et al, 1997: 47). This section and the previous sections have discussed theories to do with being critical from the perspective under the influence of the CT movement and critical theory. The following section will discuss the theory of linguistics which has informed this book: namely systemic functional linguistics (SFL). The theory has been influential in many contemporary English classrooms while the associated teaching, to do with SFL genre based approaches (GBA) to pedagogy, will be described in later chapters.
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1.5 Systemic functional linguistic theory Systemic functional linguistics falls within the definition of a general linguistic theory (Halliday, 2009:59). It is general, Halliday further argues, in the sense that is a general theory for particular description. It is linguistics, Halliday suggests, in the sense that it takes language as its object of inquiry. This does not mean, of course, that description has to cover whole languages: Most descriptive studies, to Halliday, especially comparative and typological, will be concerned with certain features of a language rather than with a language as a whole (2009:59). SFL is one of the main functional theories of language developed in the twentieth century and which continues to evolve in this century (Martin, 2010:14). SFL is a social theory of language which has been developed and influenced by previous linguists. SFL has been influenced by Malinowski, Firth, Pike and Hymes specifically in terms of the concept of context of situation and context of culture (as cited in Halliday, 1976; Halliday, 1985c; Christie, 1987; Matthiessen & Bateman, 1991; Bloor and Bloor, 1995; Matthiessen and Nesbitt, 1996; Martin, 2010). It has also been influenced by the Prague School of Linguistics, concerning its notion of functional sentence perspective, examining utterances in terms of the information they contain and the role of each part of the utterance in terms of its semantic contribution to the utterance as a whole (Halliday, 1994a; Paltridge, 1997; Connor, 1996). SFL also owes much to the work of Whorf in its focus on the relationship between language and culture, and Saussure and Hjelmslev, regarding interpreting linguistic theory as a semiotic system, specifically the notions “system” (the paradigmatic range of linguistic choices available to the user of a language) and “function” (syntagmatic combinations of linguistic structures described in terms of their functional role within the clause) (Bloor and Bloor, 1995; Paltridge, 1997; Butt, 1996; Matthiessen and Nesbitt, 1996). SFL has had an impact on educational studies throughout the world (Connor, 1996) and its most obvious impact has been on the teaching of writing (Wells, 1999) as revealed in the discussion in the SFL genre pedagogy later. SFL has several key aspects, which will be discussed below. 1.5.1 Key concepts and notions in SFL There are several key concepts of the SFL, will be summarised in the table below, taken from Feez, Iedema & White (2008:44). Table 1.1 Key aspects of systemic functional linguistics (From Feez, Iedema, & White, 2008:44) Language is a system of choices. Language users choose from the resources Language as a resource of the language system to make meanings which are appropriate to the social for meaning context. The social context constrains the choices that are made from the linguistic system. Language users communicate in texts, not isolated words or sentences. Texts as the basic unit of Texts, no matter how long or short, are the basic units of meaning in meaning language. The study of language should look at the structure and
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Systematic relationship between text and context.
Functional labels
organisation of language in texts – not at isolated and idealised extracts. All language occurs in social contexts. There is a symbolic relationship between language and the social context in which it is used. Social contexts exerts influence on the choices that are made from the linguistic system and language itself helps shape social contexts. SFL gives a detailed systematic account of the relationship between text and context. SFL identifies and labels elements of text according to the function they perform in making meaning. Terms such as participant, process, and circumstances are functional labels.
From a systemic functional perspective, language is a social semiotic (Halliday, 1985c:. 3; 1994c; Butt, 1996; Christie, 2002; Eggins, 1994). This is the crucial characteristic of SFL, which is also called the theory of language in context, that is its orientation outside linguistics towards sociology and this orientation brings with it a view of language as a social semiotic (Teich, 1999). We can only learn how language works if we consider the way it is used in particular contexts, both cultural and situational. Halliday argues “If we want to understand functional variation in language, for example, we will need to know something about the sociological foundation of human relationships and interaction” (Halliday, 2009:59). Drawn from Saussure‟s concept that language is a system of signs, “the union of a form which signifies (signifiant or signifier) and an idea signified (the signifie or signified)” (Culler, 1976: 19; 1975: 16), this principle implies that “a language is a signing system” (Halliday, 1985c: 4). SFL locates language, in its turn, as one among a wider class of systems called “semiotic” systems – system of meaning (Halliday, 2009:60). In Saussure‟s (1960) theory, semiotics, as described by Kristeva (1989: 296), refers to “the study of all verbal and nonverbal systems as languages, that is as systems in which signs are articulated by a syntax of difference”. Similarly, in SFL the term semiotics is also often used to refer to “the general study of meaning-making (semiosis), including not just meanings we make with language, but meanings we make with every sort of object, event or action in so far as it is endowed with a significance, a symbolic value in our community” (Lemke, 1995: 9). Halliday (2009:60) argues that language has the further property, that is a semogenic system: a system that creates meaning. To Halliday, not all semiotic systems are also semogenic: a system of traffic sygnals for example, is a system of meaning, its meaning potential is fixed-it cannot create meanings that are not built into it. By contrast, Halliday further argues, the meaning potential of a language is open ended: new meanings always can be, and often are being created. Regarding the social concept of language, Halliday (1985c) states that the term “social” suggests two things simultaneously. One is “social” used in the sense of the social system, which is synonymous with the culture. The other is the term “social” used to indicate that SFL is concerned particularly with the relationships between language and social structure, considering the social structure as one aspect of the social system. This principle, applied in the GBA as will be discussed later, has commonalities with the social theory of literacy discussed above.
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All the basic points of SFL have been summarized by Eggins, who notes: … common to all systemic linguists is an interest in how people use language with each other in accomplishing everyday social claims about language: that language use is functional; that its function is to make meanings; that these meanings are influenced by the social and cultural context in which they are exchanged and that the process of using language is a semiotic process, a process of making meanings by choosing (1994: 2).
In addition to the basic points above, there are some essential notions of SFL, including: text and context, and metafunctions of language, which will be delineated below. 1.5.1.1 Text and context The term text, comes from the Latin word for weaving, referring to “words and sentences woven together to create a single whole” (Christie and Misson, 1998: 8). The concept of text in SFL refers to “the socially and contextually complete unit of language” (Kress, 1993: 24), “which may be written or spoken” (Eggins, 1994:.5). The consideration of language as a text, has nothing to do with its size or length or form, but with meaning of the stretch of language working together as a unified whole (Feez and Joyce, 1998a:4). In addition, the word context originally meant being woven together, where the prefix con carried the sense of being together and over the passage of the centuries, it has come to refer to those elements that accompany a text (Christie and Misson, 1998: 8). Following Malinowski and Firth, Halliday identifies two types of context: Context of situation - referring to the immediate environment of language, and Context of culture - referring to a broader background against which the text has to be interpreted (Halliday, 1985c:46). Halliday argues that there are three aspects in any situation that have linguistic consequences: field, mode, and tenor, which are also called the register variables (Halliday, 1976, 1985c; Christie & Derewianka 2008; Feez, Iedema & White, 2008). . Field refers to the ongoing activity or subject matter, or what is happening, the nature of the social action that is taking place. In writing it refers to the topic that is written about. In activities, examples of fields, according to Martin (2010:16), are tennis, opera, linguistics, cooking, building construction, farming, politics, education and so on. Tenor refers to who is taking part, or the role relationship between interactants; their relative status and the amount and type of contact they have with each other. Tenor, to Martin (2010:16) refers to the way we relate to other people when doing what we do. Martin goes on to say: Our society, like other human societies we know of, is structured in such a way that people have power over one another. This power is various kinds: mature people tend to dominate younger ones, commanding their respect; bosses dominate employees; teachers dominate students and so on. There is no escaping this, however nice we try to be about it. When you think people are bossy or “above
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themselves” it is usually because they are asserting an inordinate amount of power over you. When you think someone is quiet, evasive and looking insecure, it is often because they are being overly diferential to you. And of course you can resist, as when feminists struggle to renovate the power relations between women and men. Renovation is hard work as we all know, and however democratic our ideals, there always seems to be a lot of power pushing us around (2010:16).
Mode refers the role played by language in a context, and the simplest distinction is between spoken and written language (Macken-Horarik, 2002: 24). Mode also refers to the channel of communication (Martin, 2010:16). The distance between the people communicating in terms of time and space, whether they are face to face or separated by time or space fundamentally determine the nature of the language (Feez and Joyce, 1998a). Context of culture refers to the broader cultural context in which any context of situation occurs. Any culture has accepted ways of conducting any socialactivities, all of which affect what occurs in the particular context of situation. For example, Australia and Indonesia both have context of situation in which people trade with each other. In the Indonesian culture, it is appropriate that one bargains, but that is not acceptable in the Australian culture in most situations. Context of culture also shapes purpose and meaning to a text (Eggins, 1994: 30), and this allows us not only to describe the register of the text, but also to suggest what the overall purpose or function of a text is, that is the genre the text belongs to (Eggins, 1994:. 26). Included in genre is the schematic structure or stages of a text, and therefore, genre has been defined as “A staged, goal oriented, purposeful activity in which speakers engage as members of our culture” (Martin, 1984: 25, cited in Eggins, 1994: 26). Regarding the relationship between text and context, Martin (2010) gives an example below: Suppose you are sitting in a room, and hear someone yell: “John, don‟t do it there mate!‟ (if you know about another language, think about how you would say this in that language). Now, however faithfully you translate this sentence into another language, it will still be the case that unless you know what John was doing, you can‟t really know what the person talking to him meant. You don‟t know what John was doing, what he was doing it to, and where he was doing it. If however you had a translation of this sentence, and a description of the context of situation in which it is uttered (say John dumping a load of broken mud bricks inro a drainage through), then you would be able to understand the text. So, in order to explain the meaning of a sentence, you need both a description of that sentence and of the context in which it was used (2010:15).
Halliday sees the relationship between text and context as dialectical: the text creates the context as much as the context creates the text. Meaning arises from the friction between the two (1985c: 47), and each variable of context interacts with the metafunction of language, which will be discussed below.
1.5.1.2 Metafunctions There are three metafunctions of language that SFL argues that all natural languages have. These three metafunctions are:
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The ideational metafunction concerns how language is used to represent experience, or to organize, understand and express our perceptions of the world and our consciousness. This metafunction can be classified into two sub-functions: the experiential function, which is concerned with content or ideas, and the logical function with the relationship between ideas. The interpersonal metafunction is to do with the use of language to set up and sustain interaction between people using language. The textual metafunction concerns how language works to create connected and coherent discourse (textual function) (Halliday, 1975; Christie and Unsworth, 2000; Bloor and Bloor, 1995). According to Halliday, there is a systematic correlation between the three metafunctions and specific contextual features - each function interacts with variables of context (field, tenor and mode, where field focuses on institutional practices, tenor on social relation, and mode on textual) and each metafunction has its own distinctive grammar (Christie and Unsworth, 2000, Colombi and Scleppegrel, 2002). The relationship between all various elements can be represented in the following in Figure 1.1 below from Christie & Derewianka (2008:7). C O N T E X T
L A N G U A G E
CONTEXT OF CULTURE Genres as social processes for achieving purposes within the culture. CONTEXT OF SITUATION Registers as particular configurations of the field, tenor and mode. FIELD TENOR MODE (eg subject matter or topic) (eg roles and relationships) (eg along a continuum from „most spoken‟ to „most written‟) IDEATIONAL INTERPERSONAL TEXTUAL METAFUNCTION METAFUNCTION METAFUNCTION Clause level Clause level Clause level Experiential metafunction: Resources for interaction (eg the Theme and Rheme (the The types of processes MOOD system: questions, „beginning‟ and „end‟ of the involved in the activity, the statements, commands, offers). clause). participants in those Beyond the clause Beyond the clause processes and the Resources for creating patterns of Cohesive devices to form text. surrounding circumstances. evaluation and engagement with the audience. Beyond the clause Logical metafunction: The logical relationships between events (eg where? when? how? why?). Figure 1.1 Relationship between language, register and genre (From Christie & Derewianka, 2008:7)
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Eggins (1994) summarises that the three types of meaning can be related both upwards (to context) and downwards (to lexico-grammar):
The field of a text can be associated with the realization of experiential meanings, realized through the Transitivity patterns of the grammar. The mode of a text can be associated with the realization of textual meanings, realized through the Theme patterns of grammar. The tenor of a text can be associated with the realization of interpersonal meanings, realized through the Mood patterns of the grammar (Eggins, 1994: 78).
Given the correlation between the organization of context with the organization of grammar, according to Martin (1993), if we know something about a text‟s context, we can make predictions about its grammar; and conversely if we analyse a text‟s grammar, we can recover information about its context. Each metafunction and and its system of grammar will be taken up in greater detail below. The Theme system will be discussed first, because it plays a significant part in constructing the flow of a discourse (text) (Halliday, 1994a;b) which is the first aspect looked at in texts analyses undertaken in the studies reported in this book. Then the section will go on to discuss the Transitivity system, to do with how the text organises experience, one part of the ideational function of language. This will be followed by the discussion of the Conjunction system - the other aspect of the ideational function, to do with the logical aspect – the logicosemantic relation of clauses. In addition, the discussion on interpersonal meaning will cover aspects of modality (including mood). The section will then be concluded by a brief delineation on grammatical metaphors, which also constitute an important signal of students‟ developments in various aspects investigated in this study. Examples of each pattern of grammar (except for few taken from Halliday, 1994a) have been taken from samples of students‟ texts analysed throughout this book. The significance of the presence of each pattern of grammar will not be discussed, as it will be alluded to later in Chapters 2,3,4. 1.5.1.2.1 The Theme system: The realisation of the textual metafunction The Theme system is concerned with “the organisation of information within individual clauses, and through this, with the organisation of a larger text” (Martin, 1992; Martin, Mathiessen, and Painter, 1997: 21). The Theme system is realised through a structure in which the clause falls into just two main constituents: a Theme and a Rheme. A Theme is “the point of departure of the message” or “the starting point for the message: what the clause is going to be about” and the Rheme is “the part of the clause in which the Theme is developed or everything that is not the Theme is the Rheme” (Halliday, 1994a: 37; Halliday and Mathiessen, 2004: 64). In connection with students‟ texts analysis in Chapters 2-4, several aspects will be approached, including: the boundary of Theme; longer unit Theme; Thematic progression and higher level Theme.
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The boundary of Theme There are three different types of Themes: topical (experiential), interpersonal, and textual elements (Eggins, 1994). The topical Theme is the first element in the clause that expresses some kind of “representational meaning” (Martin, Mathiessen and Painter, 1997: 24). It is realised in Transitivity structure, as: a Participant , a Circumstance or a Process (see the discussion on the Transitivity system below). If the first topical element of a declarative clause is also the Subject of the clause, including the Subject “it” it is called unmarked Theme, and if the Theme is non-Subject, it is called marked Theme. Examples of each type of Theme will be given in Table 1.2. Table 1.2 Examples of Topical Theme Did lots of flexible things.
Participant as a Theme
They
Circumstance as a Theme Process as a Theme
A couple of weeks ago
I went a nice café in Eltham.
Don‟t leave
any belongings on board (Halliday, 1994a: 47). Rheme
Topical Theme
the
aircraft!
The interpersonal Theme is the interpersonal part of the Theme, and to follow Eggins (1994), interpersonal Themes can be categorised into: The unfused finite (in interrogative structure), typically realised by an auxiliary verb, signaling that a response is needed; Some categories of Modal adjuncts, especially Mood Adjuncts (some of which realised in interpersonal metaphors of modality, such as I think) and Comment Adjuncts, (typically realised by an adverb, providing the speaker‟s comment or attitude towards the message, such as inevitably). Examples of interpersonal Themes are given in Table 1.3. Table 1.3 Examples of Interpersonal Theme You Please help Sacred Mission?
Unfused Finite as a Theme Modal Adjunct as a Theme: Mood Adjunct
Can
I believe
Capital punishment
Still neeeds to be implemented in Indonesia.
Comment Adjunct
Inevitably
the death penalty
Interpersonal Theme
Topical Theme
has been imposed most frequently on the poor … . Rheme
The textual Themes are elements “which do not express any interpersonal or experiential meaning, but which are doing important cohesive work in relating the clause to its context” (Eggins, 1994: 281). Examples of textual Themes realised in conjunctions are illustrated in Table 1.4
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Coordination
Table 1.4 Examples of Textual Theme realized in instances of conjunctions. Let‟s put aside those benefits and drawbacks, and let‟s see it in an objective way.
Subordination
War cannot be approved, because it will leave nothing but misery.
Relative
… in order to realize his hidden agenda, which is [[controlling Iraq oil possession for U.S own favour]].
Conjunctive
Besides, the argument [[which is launched by the U.S government of attacking Iraq]] is not making any sense.
Examples of the interpersonal and textual Themes above indicate that while it is possible for a clause to realise only one Thematic element, (in which case it must be a topical Theme), it is far more common that a clause contains a sequence of Themes, with often several textual and/or interpersonal Themes occurring before the obligatory topical Theme (see Eggins, 1994; Thompson, 1996). Where there is a textual Theme, it always comes first. Longer unit Themes Apart from being represented by a single clause constituent, as examples above, Themes may also be constituted by a longer unit. Drawn from the work of Halliday (1994: 54-61) and Martin, Matthiessen and Painter (1997: 35), longer unit Themes, as also found in students‟ texts collected in Emilia‟s (2005) study, can be realised in: Embedded clauses (Wh-clauses, non-finite, and that-clauses); Long nominal groups, including those which extend beyond the main noun, and which may involve clause embeddings; Group and phrase complexes, or Appositions; Predicated Theme. Examples of longer unit Themes are provided in Table 1.5 below. Longer Unit Themes Embedded clauses: Wh-clause
Table 1.5 Examples of Longer Unit Themes Examples [[What no one seemed to notice ]]
was the writing on the wall (Halliday, 1994a, p. 45).
Non-finite Clause
Publishing academic books
is one of the programs [[applied by the Department of Education]].
That- clause
[[That participating in the Miss Universe Pageant can promote tourism of the participant‟s country]]
has also been stated by Miss St. Marten (2000).
Long nominal groups: Nominal groups which involves clause
The first argument [[proposed by the opponents of death penalty]]
is regarding deterrence.
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embeddings; Group and phrase complexes Predicated Theme
Javis, another opponent of the Miss Universe Pageant from India,
suggests … .
It is they themselves
who create the war [[and violate the peace… . Rheme
Topical Theme (unmarked)
From the examples in Table 1.5 above, it can also be noted that all longer unit Themes are unmarked. There is another type of longer unit Themes used in students‟ texts, but they function as marked Themes, realized in Wh-clause, finite and nonfinite clauses. They occur in hypotactic clause complexes, whose ordering of clauses is also marked, that is the dependent clause comes before the main clause, as will be shown in Table 4.5 below. Circumstance of time Dependent clause of condition Dependent Nonfinite clause
Table 1.6 Examples of Longer Unit Marked Theme After the bay‟s birth she was tired… If law discrimination persists, After looking at both sides of arguments,
it is improper [[to employ capital punishment]] I really believe
Topical Theme (marked)
Rheme
However, the clause complexes exemplified in Table 1.6, when each clause has its own Theme-Rheme structure, can also be analysed in the same way as in unmarked ordering of clauses above. Higher level Themes: Macro- and Hyper-Themes Apart from the Theme of a clause or a sentence as discussed above, there are also higherlevel Themes, which are called: hyper-Theme and macro-Theme. Hyper-Theme is the Theme of a paragraph. This is an introductory sentence or group of sentences which is established to predict a particular pattern of interaction among strings, chains. Macro- Theme can be defined as a sentence or group of sentences (possibly a paragraph which predicts a set of hyper-Themes). This is the introductory paragraph of school rhetoric (Martin, 1992: 437; 2002, see also Martin and Rose, 2003; Coffin, 1997: 218-219). Hyper-Theme can also be considered as the opening generalisation in a paragraph which predicts the pattern of clause Themes and elaboration, and macro-Theme in a text which predicts its overall development. The proportionalities, as Martin further describes, is as follows: Theme: clause; Hyper-Theme: paragraph; Macro-Theme: text (1992: 437).
In longer texts, Martin (1992: 443) further argues, the pattern of macro Themes predicting hyper-Themes can be extended, with hyper-Themes themselves functioning as macroThemes in their own right. Once texts develop to this level of internal complexity, titles, subtitles, headings and subheadings are commonly deployed to keep track of the composition
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structure being erected. Therefore, it is possible that a macro-Theme is labeled as macroTheme i, ii , up to macro-Theme n (Martin and Rose, 2003: 193-194). Schematically, the thematic relationships can be seen in Figure 1.2 below, with the proviso that a text may be organised thematically around more than the three levels shown. The lowest level hyperThemes in a text are referred to traditionally as Topic sentences and the highest level macroThemes as introductions (Martin, 1992: 443-444).
Macro-Theme Macro-Rheme Hyper-Themes Hyper-Rhemes Themes Rhemes
Figure 3. 1 Solidarity across levels of Theme (From Martin, 1992: 443)
Apart from being woven through Theme, the range of meanings in a text can be woven through New. While macro-theme, hyper-Themes and clause Themes project forward, scaffolding the text to its rhetorical purpose (i.e. its genre); macro-New, hyper-News and clause-News on the other hand, look back, gathering up the meanings which have accumulated to elaborate a text field (Martin, 1992: 456; 2002). As will be shown in Chapter 2, the Recommendation stage of a Discussion genre that students at the tertiary level wrote in the joint and independent construction stages, can be considered as the macro-New, as it accumulates the main points amassed (Martin, 1992: 457). This signals students‟ developments in writing skills, critical thinking and critical literacy developed in the program.
Thematic progression Based on the Theme choices in students‟ texts, there are three types of Theme progressions, in which the texts develop the ideas they present (Eggins, 1994; Ravelli, 2000). The thematic progression in students‟ texts can be classified into: The zig-zag pattern, or a linear thematic progression: The content of the Theme of the second sentence or clause derives from the content of the previous Rheme, the content of Theme 3 derives from Rheme 2, etc. For example:
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It especially should be focused upon drug trafficking and corruption cases Because those cases have a devastating impact toward society in large. The theme re-iteration: The Theme enters into relation with a number of different Rhemes, or the same element occurs regularly as Themes. For example: that such contests are against our values and morals, that they only demean women, rather than (they) benefit them”. The multiple Theme pattern or progression with derived Themes: The passage as a whole concerns a single general notion, and the Themes of the various constituent clauses all derive from that general notion, but are not identical to one another. On the other hand, the opponents of capital punishment adopt three positions, … The first argument… The second position … The last argument of the opponents of capital punishment … . Other examples of each type of thematic progressions will be revealed in Chapters 2-4, especially on analysis of students‟ texts. The next section will now turn to focus on another metafunction of language, that is the ideal metafunction with its grammar system, that is the Transitivity system. 1.5.1.2.2 The Transitivity system: The realisation of the experiential metafunction The Transitivity system belongs to the experiential metafunction and is the overall grammatical resource for construing or expressing what is going on (Martin, Mathiessen and Painter, 1997: 100). The term transitivity in functional grammar is related to the transitivity in traditional grammar, but it is dealt with to some extent differently. The transitivity in functional grammar is not a way of distinguishing between verbs according to whether they have an object or not, but refers to a system for describing the whole clause, rather than just the verb and its object (Thompson, 1996: 78).
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The Transitivity system construes the world of experience into a manageable set of process types (Halliday, 1994a:106), and it discriminates six different types of processes in English: material, mental, verbal, relational, behavioural and existential. Each process, Halliday (1994a, p. 107) further suggests, consists, in principle of three components: the process itself; the participants; and circumstances. Below is the discussion of process types, along with its participants, then a brief description of circumstances. Process types As mentioned above, in systemic functional grammar, process types in English can be categorised into: material, mental, verbal, relational, behavioural, existential. These process types, to follow Christie & Derewianka (2008) can be described in the following table 1.7.
Process type Material processes
Behavioural processes Mental processes
Verbal processes Relational processes
Existential processes
Table 1.7 Process types in English (Adapted from Christie & Derewianka, 2008:9) Aspect of experince Example taken from students’ texts described in the book Doings and happenings in Last school holiday we went to Yogyakarta. the material world– „outer‟ In Italy I played football. experience. The doctor examined my brother. Capital punishment is still needed to be imposed in our country. Law discrimination continues to happen in Indonesia Physiological and When she walked into the theatre people were still psychological behaviour laughing … . Wendy‟s dog licked the glass sliding door. I could smell coffee toast and pasta. Processes of consciousness I really liked the café – inner experience I believe that capital punishment should be implemented in Indonesia. Feminists think that the Miss Universe Pageant makes an unachievable standard for women Processes of saying and Dr. Khodijah said “there is still hope”… . „meaning‟ Statistics in the US, also reveal that of 3,860 persons executed in the US from 1930 up to the time of the writing of the article, 2,066 or 54 % were black. Processes of being and The spring roll felt oily but tasted nice. having, creating In the café they have a mini bookshop. relationships between Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant elements of experience to a sentence of death imposed by a competent court. Sacred Heat Mission is an organisastion… . She was sooo embarrased. Existing There have been 71 murders committed by people who have been released after serving “life sentences” in the same period
Particpants Each process type involves different set of Participants. In the case of material processes, potential participant roles are: an Actor (the Doer of the process), a Goal (or the Thing
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affected), a Range (or the Thing over which the whole process is completed), a Beneficiary (or the one to whom or for whom the process is said to take place). These can be seen in the examples below. Material process with an Actor and a Goal (active) II Actor
bought Process: Material
A lot of souvenirs Goal
In Yogyakarta Circumstance: Loc: Time
Material process with a Range and a Beneficiary: The so-called beauty queens Actor
have never done Process: Material
anything Range
for the nation … Beneficiary
Unlike material processes, “mental processes must always have two participants” (Eggins, 1994: 242). These are: a Senser, which must be realised by a human or at least conscious participant and a Phenomenon, by a nominal group or embedded clause summing up what is thought, wanted, perceived or liked/disliked. This can be seen in the example below: I Senser
Enjoyed Process: Affection
the holiday Phenomenon
Sometimes mental processes are used to project a clause as in: I Senser
do believe Process: Cognition
that capital punishment Goal
is still needed to be imposed Process: Material
In our country Circumstance: Location: Place
Moreover, participant roles of verbal processes, to follow Eggins (1994); Halliday (1994a) and, Halliday and Mathiessen, 2004) can be classified into: A Sayer: The participant responsible for the verbal process; A Receiver: The one to whom the saying is directed; it may be the Subject in a passive clause; A Verbiage: the function that corresponds to what is said (This may mean: content of what is said or name of the saying, like a question in „the expression „to ask a question‟);and A Target: the entity that is targeted by the process of saying. He
told
me
a story
Sayer
Process: Verbal
Receiver
Verbiage
Verbal processes can also project (quoting or reporting). This occurs, among others, in:
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The proponents of the Miss Universe Pageant Sayer that
this contest Actor
emphasises Process: Material
claim Process: Verbal three principles: Brain, Beauty, Behaviour Goal
The teacher
praised
the student
Sayer
Process: verbal
Target
In relational clauses, there are two main participant roles: Carrier + Attribute in attributive clauses, as in: Capital punishment All lives Carrier
is are Process: Intensive
against the value of humanity. valuable Attribute
Token (that which stands for what is being defined) + Value (that which defines) in identifying ones. Capital punishment
is
the most effective way [[to reduce crime Process: Material
Token
Process: Intensive
Goal
rather than life imprisonment]] Circumstance: Comparison
Value
Unlike attributive relational clauses, identifying relational clauses are reversible. So, the identifying clauses above can be changed into passive, as indicated below: The most effective way [[to reduce crime Pro: Material
Goal
is
capital punishment
Process: Intensive
Token
rather than life imprisonment]] Circumstance: Comparison
Value
Other types of relational processes occurring in students' texts are: circumstantial and possessive. Circumstantial relational processes encode meanings about circumstantial dimensions: location, manner, cause, etc., and relational possessive process of ownership and possession between clausal participants (Eggins, 1994, p. 262). Examples of each type of clauses are shown as follows: Causative clause: The gas chamber Token
causes Process: Cause
a slow and cruel death Value
Possessive clause: Capital punishment
has
a unique power [[to deter people Pro: Material
Possessor
Process: Possession
Goal
from [[committing
crimes]] ]]
Process: Material Circumstance: Matter
Goal
Possessed
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The last type of relational processes found in students' texts occur in a causative relational type, with causation expressed through a make + be (Process: intensive) structure, as in: The teacher Agent/Initiator
made Process: Cause
the students Carrier
Quiet Attribute
Moreover, participants in a behavioural process must be conscious beings and are called the Behaver (Eggins, 1994: 250), as in: The audiences Behaver
were still laughing Process: Behavioural
Finally, the only obligatory participant in an existential process which receives a functional label is called the Existent, and this can be seen in: There
have been
71 murders
[[ committed Process: Material
Process: existential
by people … ]] Actor
Existent
Circumstances Circumstance in functional grammar is the name given to those elements which carry a semantic load, but are neither process nor participant (Bloor and Bloor, 1995: 126). Halliday (1994a:151) identifies nine types of circumstances, as illustrated in Table 1.8 below, with examples (in italics) taken from students‟ texts.
Types of Circumstances Extent Location Manner
Table 1.8 Types and Examples of Circumstances (Adapted from Halliday, 1994a:151) Examples We had a holiday in Yogyakarta for five days. (duration). In Italy I played football. (place). In 1980 there was one murder for every 5,924 Texans (time). Indian people cannot get benefit from the fact [[that India’s contestant becomes the winner of the Miss Universe Contest]] (means). Some death sentences are carried out unfairly (quality).
Cause Contingency Accompaniment
We can‟t assure that the capital punishment will be effectively implemented in Indonesia if the condition of justice in Indonesia remains like today (comparison). My brother suffered from typhus. (reason). If the school policy changes it, then it will appear [[what we call a “fashion show”]] among the students (condition). Though it is not comfortable, it makes the students neat (concession). I went to Yogyakarta with my family. (accompaniment) … such contests, along with the portrayal of the ideal look in the fashion world, only serve to perpetuate the myth [[that women are only worth
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Role
Matter Angle
something [[if they are young, long legged and beautiful ]] ]]. The execution of capital punishment is considered as a real punishment (guise). The Miss Universe pageant can be used as an arena [[to promote business]] (product). … where the participants were questioned about their general knowledge and the way [[they think]]. According to David Hoekema, punishment is punishment… .
All aspects of the Transitivity system have been briefly discussed and now the discussion will turn on the other system, which is part of the ideational metafunction, that is the logical multifunction, realised in the conjunction system. 1.5.1.2.3 The Conjunction system: The realisation of the logical metafunction Conjunction helps to build cohesion (Halliday, 1994a: 324). The cohesive pattern of conjunction, or conjunctive relations, refers to “how he writer creates and expresses logical relationship between the parts of a text” (Eggins, 1994: 105). Conjunctive relations help to build clauses of elaboration, extension, and enhancement. Elaboration refers to a relationship of restatement or clarification, whereby one sentence is (presented as) a re-saying or representation of a previous sentence (Eggins, 1994: 105). Common conjunctions used to express this relation are: in other words, that is (to say), I mean (to say), for example, for instance, thus. Elaboration occurs, among others in: … the Miss Universe pageant covers a vast spectrum of academic fields. They are, for example, law students, aspiring journalists; …Thus, after examining all the arguments… Extension refers to a relationship of either addition (one clause adds to the meaning made in another), or variation (one sentence changes the meanings of another by contrast or by qualification (Halliday, 1994:105). Common conjunctions used to express this relation are: and, also, moreover, in addition, nor, but, yet, on the other hand. For example: Moreover, the Miss Universe pageant is also inappropriate to Indonesia‟s oriental values. Enhancement refers to ways by which one clause can extend on the meanings of another, in terms of dimensions such as time, comparison, cause, condition, or concession (Eggins, 1994: 106). Types of conjunctions used in enhancement and examples of clauses in which the conjunctions occur are given in Table 1.9 below. The presence of conjunctive relations as discussed above, according to Halliday (1994: 327) can enhance the texture of the text.
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Table 1.9 Types of conjunctions and examples of clauses used in enhancement Examples Clauses Using the Conjunctions in Students’ Texts then, next, afterwards, until, After she died, … ; at the same time, before, after …until she delivered her baby… a while, etc Comparative likewise, similarly, in a Similarly, Javis, another opponent of the Miss different way Universe pageant from India suggests…. Causal so, then, therefore, Therefore, we recommend Indonesia should not send consequently, hence, because an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant. of that, for, in consequence, as a result, etc Conditional If, if not, otherwise, e Only death can incapacitate murderers, otherwise the murderers can harm prison staffs, other prisoners and even the society. Concessive yet, still, even though, etc Even though it can incapacitate criminals,… Types of Conjunctions Temporal
Another system of grammar that relates to one of the metafunction is the MOOD system, related to the interpersonal metafunction. However, for reasons of space, and the fact that there are many aspects of grammar that are related to the interpersonal metafunction, in the subsequent section, the discussion will offer only modality as an aspect of the interpersonal metafunction. 1.5.1.2.4 Modality-As part of the realisation of the interpersonal metafunction Modality refers to a complex area of English grammar which concerns the different ways in which a language user can intrude on his/her message, expressing attitudes and judgments of various kinds” (Eggins, 1994: 179). These judgments can be of probability or certainty and usuality or of obligation and inclination (of the doing of something). The former is called modalisation (epistemic modality) and the latter modulation (deontic modality) (Halliday, 1994a; Halliday and Mathiessen, 2004; Fairclough, 2003). These two types of modality, as found in students‟ texts, can be subjectively or objectively oriented. Subjective orientation, or first person statement indicates the writer‟s commitment to what she/he is saying and objective orientation, or third person statement shows the writer‟s detachment to what she is saying, making statements on behalf of others (Halliday, 1994a; Fairclough, 2003:171). Moreover, the two types of modality can be expressed in different degrees of the writer‟s commitment, or different values, which are: low, median, and high, either in positive or negative polarity. There are several markers of modality found in students‟ texts, including:
modal operators: will, can, may, might; modal Adjuncts: really, inevitably, highly; modal operator +modal Adjunct: should undoubtedly; participial adjectives: needed; mental process clauses: I think, I believe; modal adjectives: possible, important; relational processes (processes of appearance): seem.
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Illustration of modality system, drawn from Halliday (1994a) and Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) and examples from students‟ texts written in the three studies reported in this book will be given below in Table 1.10 In addition to the examples illustrated in Table 1.10, there are also cases of objectively oriented expressions, realised in projecting mental or verbal clauses, both in active and agentless passive constructions, especially in writing written by students at the tertiary level, such as: they say, they argue, they believe, they think, it is said, it is argued, it is claimed, it is revealed.
Types of Modality Modalisation: Certainty,
Probability
Table 1.10 Modality: Types, Orientation, Value and Polarity (Adapted from: Kress, 1985a, Halliday, 1994a: , Eggins, 1994) Examples Orientation Value
Polarity
The doctor said that my appendix was really bad
Subjective
High
Positive
It is obvious [[that Indonesia …
Objective
Median
Positive
Here, I can say … .
Subjective
Median
Positive
Those [[who murder whites]] were more likely to be sentenced to death… .
Objective
Median
Positive
Indonesia may have opportunity … .
Modalisation: Usuality Modulation: Obligation
Subjective
Low
Positive
The higher middle class will perhaps not feel any effect … .
Objective
Median
Negative
it is almost impossible [[for the prison system in Indonesia to gain public‟s confidence]].
Objective
Median
Negative
The US government never takes into account the misery … . Singapore always employs death penalty.
Objective
High
Negative
Objective
High
Positive.
On Monday morning I must go to school.
Subjective
High
Positive
Indonesia should undoubtedly take part in the Miss Universe pageant.*
Subjective
Median
Positive
It is improper [[ to employ death penalty]].
Objective
High
Negative
Objective
High
Positive
It is very important [[for us to heal reputation of our country… .
the
In response to this, I would like to share Subjective Low Positive Modulation: Inclination opinions. Note: the clauses with an asterisk indicate that both modalisation and modulation may occur in the same clause (see Eggins, 1994: 190).
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Another category of modality found in students‟ texts is modality of ability or potentiality (Halliday, 1994a: 359). This modality can also be subjectively or objectively oriented. Subjective orientation occurs, among others, in: [[ Participating in the Miss Universe Pageant]] can promote tourism of the participant‟s country, and objective orientation in: Unexecuted criminals will be able to commit further crimes; [[that some criminals [[who still serve their punishment in jail]] are still capable of [[committing crimes]]. From the examples above, it is clear that modality “signals that meaning is contingent and subject to negotiation” (Coffin, 2002:. 510). 1.5.1.2.5 Grammatical metaphor Metaphor in general involves “a transference of meaning in which a lexical item that normally means one thing comes to mean another” (Martin and Rose, 2003:103). Grammatical metaphor or metaphorical modes of expressions can be defined as “the expression of a meaning through a lexico-grammatical form which originally evolved to express a different kind of meaning” (Thompson, 1996: 163). There are two main types of grammatical metaphors in the clause and found in the students‟ texts: metaphors of transitivity (ideational metaphors) and metaphors of mood (interpersonal metaphors) (Halliday, 1994a: 343) which will be illustrated below. Ideational metaphor Ideational metaphor involves a transference from one kind of element to another, and can be classified into experiential, concerned with elements of figure, and logical, with reconstruing a conjunction between figures as if it were a process, quality circumstance or thing (Martin and Rose, 2003:. 104). Experiential metaphors in students‟ texts, as will be discussed in Chapter 2, can be seen mostly in nominalisations, “the conversion of a verb into a noun-like word, and semantically of a process into an entity” (Fairclough, 2003: 143) Nominalisations occur among others, Indonesian people still prefer the implementation of capital punishment. If we express this is in a more congruent way, it will be: Indonesian people still prefer that people be punished by being executed. Moreover, logical metaphors, as will be noted in Chapter 2, are found mostly in more mature texts. They are realised in some relational (causative) processes, such as: cause and lead to, as in: The gas chamber causes a slow and cruel death…; Capital punishment could lead to the execution of innocent people….
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Logically, in those expressions, there is a relation of consequence between the two participants: the gas chamber and a slow and cruel death; and the execution of innocent people, which is usually congruently expressed in “if … then” (Martin and Rose, 2003: 140141). In those examples, the relation is reconstrued as a process (causes, could lead to). Thus, such a sequence can be unpacked as that related by conjunctions: If the gas chamber is used, then people will die cruelly. If the death penalty is implemented, then innocent people may be executed. The strategy above, as Martin & Rose (2003:140) suggest, also compresses a sequence of two activities into a single figure, by means of experiential metaphor. Experientially, the participants a slow and cruel death; and the execution of innocent people, represent activities (“dying slowly and cruelly” and “executing innocent people) that are reconstrued as things. Regarding the logical metaphor, Martin & Rose (2003: 141) further state that the logical metaphor of „relation as process‟, as exemplified above, incorporates more than simply consequence. For one thing, Martin & Rose add, the probability of the result can be graded as could lead to (see the example above) in contrast to high probability, as will certainly lead to. So, to Martin & Rose, one of the reasons that writers use logical metaphors for conjunctions is that they can grade their evaluation of relations between events or arguments. This, Martin and Rose say, is a crucial resource for reasoning in fields such as science and politics, in which it is important not to overstate causal relations, until sufficient evidence has been accumulated (2003: 141). This is relevant to the the conmcept of critical thinking and some critical thinking standards and dispositions focused in this book, as taken up earlier in this chapter. Interpersonal metaphor Interpersonal metaphor, especially in persuasive texts (like those presented in Chapter 2), plays a very important role, as a powerful weapon in cases where the speaker or writer wishes, for whatever reason, to avoid negotiation, with its possible outcome of rejection (Thompson, 1996:172). According to Halliday (1994: 354-367), interpersonal metaphors are categorized into two: Metaphors of modality, where in each case the mental process that prefaces what is said is a metaphor for an adjunct expressing modality: I think…; I believe; I strongly argue or it is obvious that …; it is true that…; Metaphors of mood, occur especially in some commands, realised in statements (see clauses with must, should and impersonal it in modulation described in Table 1.10 above). After discussing SFL and SFG, it is now time to give an account to the SFL genre pedagogy and approach which was used in all the teaching programs described throughout the book.
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1.6 The SFL genre-based approach to teaching writing (The SFL GBA) The SFL GBA to teaching writing has been developed in Australia, based on SFL developed by Halliday (1975, 1985, 1994). The SFL GBA is also called an interventionist pedagogy (Rothery, 1996) or a pedagogy of overt instruction (The New London Group, 2000). The SFL GBA has influenced the entire state educational systems in Australia, and has been adopted in primary, secondary, tertiary, professional and community teaching contexts in programs for native speakers of English, ESL and academic literacy programs (see Martin & Rose, 2007:12). In the genre-based approach, genres have been defined as ways we get things done through language – the ways we exchange information and knowledge and interact socially (Callaghan, Knapp and Knobble, 1993: 193). Based on their obligatory and optional stages (as well as the social purpose), genre theorists have proposed a large number of genres (Christie & Derewianka, 2008; Martin & Rose, 2008). Many of them found in schools will be discussed in later chapters. 1.6.1 Major goals and principles in the SF genre traditions The goals of the GBA are basically to help students become more successful writers (and readers) of academic and workplace texts (Hyon, 1996: 700); and to help students make sense of not only the structure of texts but also a wide range of compositional concerns (Brooks, 2002). To realize its aims, genre pedagogy stresses several basic principles below. Language learning is a social activity This principle derives from Halliday‟s theory that learning is, above all, a social process, and knowledge is transmitted in social contexts, through relationships, like those of parent and child, or teacher and pupil, or classmates, that are defined in the value systems and ideology of the culture (Halliday, 1985: 5). This concept of learning is parallel to Vygotsky‟s view that learning is a social activity, that “Learning awakens a variety of internal development processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and in cooperation with peers”(1978: 90). Learning occurs more effectively if teachers are explicit about what is expected of students Under this principle, the GBA suggests that teachers should be more explicit in teaching several aspects, such as how language works to make meaning; the text organization; and linguistic forms that characterize different genres (Feez and Joyce, 1998a: 25). A strong text organisation and linguistic features, according to Christie & Dreyfus (2007), are an indication of development of students‟ ability in writing, as the result of explicit teaching.
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Students learn under the guidance of the teacher in apprenticeship Under this principle students learn as apprentices with the teacher in the authoritative role of expert on language system and function (Feez and Joyce, 1998a; Feez, 2002; MackenHorarik, 2002). There are some model of the SFL GBA, and the model used in the programs described in this book is basd on the work of Rothery, which covers four stages: Building Knowledge of the Field, Modelling, Joint Construction and Independent Construction. The explanation about each stage will be presented in Chapter 2. 1.7
Whole language philosophy as the umbrella of the process approach to teaching writing
Whole language is a philosophy that draws on knowledge of child development (Muijs & Reynold, 2005:204) and one of the most prominent architects of this philosophy is Goodman, (1976, 1985, 2005). Whole language also refers to the instructional philosophy that reflects consistently the view that meaning and natural language are the basis of literacy learning (Smith, 1988: 301; see also Barchers, 1998:50; and a critique of natural learning by Christie, 2004 and Cruickshank, 2006). Whole language, Goodman (2005) says, is not a dogma to be narrowly practised. It is a way of bringing together four pillars, to do with a theory of learning, a theory of language, a basic view of teaching and the role of teachers, and a view of curriculum. Each pillar will be described in the following subsection. A learning theory. Whole language builds on Piaget‟s constructivist theory and Vygotsky‟s learning principle, that is “children construct their own knowledge through approximating, practicing, and interacting with knowledgeable others” (Vygotsky 1977, cited in Wortman & Matlin, 1995). Vygotsky‟s view of learning is relevant to the concept that language learning is a social actitity and this been one of the basic principles of the SFL GBA, as mentioned above. Regarding the social constructivist view of learning theory, Susan Hill (2006) states that this view of learning, apart from drawing on the theories of Vygotsky (1978) draws on the theories of Dewey (1964). Both theorists, Hill suggests, view learning as social, collaborative, and active. This view of learning, as will be alluded to later in Chapter 3, is also put forward by Halliday (1985) and has been one of the basic principles of the SFL GBA, mentioned above (see Wells, 1999; Derewianka, 1990; Feez & Joyce, 1998). A language theory Whole language, as Goodman (2005: 26) argues, is also based on scientific knowledge and theories about language. Whole language believes the following: There is no language without symbols and system. Every dialect of every language has register and grammar.
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Whole language also considers language as whole.Language is inclusive and it is indivisible. Whole text, connected discourse in the context of some speech or literacy event, is really the minimal functional unit, the barest whole that makes sense. When teachers and pupils look at words, phrases and sentences, they do so always in the context of whole, real language texts that are part of real language experiences of children. A view of teaching Whole language, according to Goodman (2005), views that respect for understanding of learning and language is matched by respect for and understanding of teaching. Goodman says that whole language teachers regard themselves as professionals, draw constantly on a scientific body of knowledge in carrying out their work; know about language, learning, children, curriculum, and methodology; understand that learning ultimately takes place one child at a time; try to create appropriate social settings and interactions, and to influence the rate and direction of personal learning; and utterly convinced that teachers guide, support, monitor, encourage, and facilitate learning. More recent work of whole language also puts a strong emphasis on explicit teaching (see an edition on The explicit teaching of reading, edited by Hancock, 1999 and Hill, 2006). Which is one of the principles of the SFL GBA, as outlined above. A view of curriculum Whole language philosophy focuses on several key concepts in terms of curriculum. These, to Goodman (2005), include: Integration - language is learned best and easiest when it is whole and in natural context, then integration is a key principle for language development and learning through language. Language development and content become a dual curriculum” (2005: 30); Choice, Ownership and Relevance- authenticity is essential, that children need to feel that what they are doing through language they have chosen is useful, or interesting, or fun for them; Language across the Curriculum - whole language argues that language should be applied across the curriculum. Content area teachers are urged to consider how language is used in their fields and then think of their curriculum as a dual curriculum with the double agenda it implies. For example, maths teachers need to think of the language of maths as a special register and to help students learn to control it as they deal with math concepts and the solution of math problems. Thematic Units - whole of or a large part of the curriculum should be organised around topics or themes. They can be science units, social science units, literature units, or units that integrate all three.
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Under the whole language philosophy, there are a number of approaches and strategies in teaching English literacy. One approach that is relevant to the discussion in this book, is the process approach, that will be discussed in Chapter 4, in the account of the teaching of writing at the primary level in Australia. The last theory that has been drawn on in this book is related to the work under English as a Second or Foreign Language, that is reagrding the use of L1 or in this case bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL classrooms. 1.8 The use of native language (L1) in ESL(EFL) contexts It is probably fair to say that in EFL classes in general, at least until recently, there has been a tendency to discourage learners and teachers from using the students‟ first language (Wigglesworth, 2005:2). The reasons for this, Wigglesworth adds, are quite clear: teachers want classroom activities to maximise use of the target language in order to enhance learners‟ opportunities for interaction in their second language and to encourage learning of the target language. This has led to the policy of “English only” in the classroom which has been widespread both in ESL and EFL contexts, including Indonesia. In the literature, there have been a number of contributors to the pervasiveness of the policy of “English only” in the classroom. The first contributor is of course the work on ESL/EFL teaching methodology. Some teaching methods and strategies in ESL/EFL require teacher and students use only the target language, that is English. One of these methods is the Direct method. One main principle of this method is that no L1 use is allowed in the classroom (Larsen-Freeman, 2000). Another method of English teaching which require students and the teacher to speak English only in communicative language teaching (Wigglesworh, 2005). These methods have led to the prevalence of the teachers‟ belief in implementing an English only classroom. Other contributors, are to do with historical tradition and political imperative. Regarding this, Wigglesworth (2005) described several contributors below. First of all, English speaking countries have inevitably tended to be leaders in English teaching policy and research, and many of these countries – most notably Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand, and the United States – have also been the recipients of large numbers of immigrants from a wide variety of language backgrounds. In many ways, the English only classroom is a natural result of language classes composed of learners who have varied first languages, where the necessity of developing teaching approaches appropriate to multilingual classes has made the use of the first language is difficult. However, Wigglesworth argues, the use of L1 is not precluded simply because classroom participants come from multiple language backgrounds. Nevertheless, since research and theoretical underpinnings of language teaching pedagogy tend to come out of English speaking countries, there has been a tendency for English only classrooms to be seen as the most efficacious for language learning in EFL contexts as well.
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Another contributor, as Phillippson (1992, cited in Wigglesworth, 2005) is a rather pervasive linguistic imperialism, that is, the reason for the English only classroom has been staunchly maintained to the extent that native speakers are often preferred (and even required) in many EFL settings. According to Phillipson, The English only policy provides an advantage for native speaking teachers who are able, and often do, teach almost anywhere in the world without having to make the efforts to learn another language. Based on the description above, and results of research in ESL/EFL teaching (Wigglesworh, 2005; Murray & Wigglesworth, 2005; Emilia, 2005; Emilia et al, 2008; Macaro, 2003, 2009; Turnbull & Dailey O‟Cain, 2009; Evans, 2009) it is now timely to review the English only policy, especially when the students are generally homogenous, where the majority of learners in the classroom share their first language with the teacher, as in the Indonesian context. Evidence of the advantage of the use of L1, as Macaro (2009) suggests, can be seen from three perspectives. The first of these is cognitive processing theory, which says that both first and second language lexical items, in long term memory, are activated when a bilingual speaker is trying to process language. Since connections with the first language (especially in nonbalanced bilinguals) are going to be much stronger than connections with the second language, then to ignore the first language during the process of second language learning is to ignore an esssential tool as the learner‟s disposal (Macaro, 2009, see also Auerbach, 1993, 1996). The first language can be used to explain the meaning, to explain the aims of a lesson, to evaluate learner‟s understanding, or to discuss the main ideas of a piece after reading (Willis, 1981, cited in Wigglesworth, 2005). If the first language is not used at all, tasks and activities must be kept simple so that the instructions cannot be understood in the second language. This, Wigglesworth says, may mean that learners spend a lot of time trying to work out what to do rather than doing what the task requires. In adult classes, avoiding the first language, with low learners in particular, may make the learners feel that they are being treated like children. Thus, the use of first language allows the introduction of concepts and discussion of conceptually more demanding material which is of interest to adults (Gunn, cited in Wigglesworh, 2005). The use of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL contexts, as reported in Emilia (2005) can provide students with additional support that allows them to analyse English. Emilia‟s study supports previous study on the use of students‟ L1 in L2 contexts as reported by Storch and Wigglesworth (2003: 760) in that the use of bahasa Indonesia, can also enable students to work at a higher level than would be possible were they restricted to sole use of English, and to increase their basic understanding about how English and bahasa Indonesia work. The second theory supporting a first language facilitative effect, Macaro (2009) further says, is cociocultural theory, which suggests that inner voice and private speech are essential contributors to the way we think and act, and that they are almost always performed in the first language. Many studies, suggest the role of the first language interactions used by learners can function as a psychological tool that enables learners to construct effective
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collaborative dialogue in the completion of meaning-based language tasks by performing three important functions: construction of scaffolded help, establishment of intersubjectivity, and use of private speech (Anton & DiCamilla, 1998:337, cited in Wigglesworth, 2005:7; see also those working under critical pedagogy perspective, such as Auerbach, 1993, 1996; Cummins, 1996, 2000 about the benefits of the use of L1 in ESL/EFL contexts). From a CP perspective that has been described above, the inclusion of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL classrooms may provide a place where students use multiple discourses to comprehend their relations with the wider society and thus to ensure their active participation, without having to silence the language they brought to class. The last perspective is the perspective of codeswitching in naturalistic environments (language alteration which occurs in nonformal, noninstructional context, Macaro, 2009; Evans, 2009). The use of learners‟ language in code switching in the class room is really useful in terms of a pragmatic strategy. From a pedagogical perspective, Evans (2009) reports, many of the examples of code switching were an expression of the role of peer learning. Pupils often switch language either as a way of sharpening the interpersonal edge or a particular message or as a way of appealing for help with the language. Apart from those perspectives, the use of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL contexts is relevant, especially with the development of bilingual classes in a number of school in Indonesia. Bilingual education, which has existed for a long time (Fishman, 1976, cited in Gracia, 2009:12) and which encourages the use of both students‟ L1 and the target language, is considered to be appropriate for all levels of education and for all learners. Fishman says: Bilingual education is good for all – language majorities, that is, powerful ethno linguistic groups, as well as language minorities, those without power. An education that is bilingual is good for the rich and the poor, for the powerful and the lowly, for indegenous peoples and immigrants, for speakers of official and /or national languages, and for those who speak regional languages. Bilingual education is not only good for children in gifted and talented programs but also good for children in vocational and technical education, as well as for those in special education. … Bilingual education is also good for adults in lifelong language –learning situations, since bilinguals enjoy cognitive and social advantages over monolinguals (1976, cited in Gracia, 2009:12).
Moreover, according to Gracia (2009), bilingual education has the potential of being a transformative school practice, able to educate all children in ways that stimulate and expand their intellect and imagination, as they gain ways of expression and access different ways of being in the world. To follow Bordieu (1982), Gracia (2009:12) further states that bilingual education can lead students to gain linguistic capital - ability to use languages effectively, to use appropriate norms of language. Being able to use languages effectively, Bordieu argues (cited in Gracia, 2009:12), increases one‟s wealth, because it allows one to interact with others in various social contexts. In a sense, knowing how to use a language is a way of gaining cultural and symbolic capital and by using a language effectively, one can gather information and build self-worth through social interactions. This follows that teachers and policy makers of English teaching in Indonesia should start to rethink about the English only policy and thus to allow the use of bahasa Indonesia in the classroom by both the teacher and the students to help students gain the benefits mentioned above. 37
1.9 Outline of the book The subsequent chapters will be framed as follows. Chapter 2 focuses on a teaching program, conducted at a tertiary EFL context in Indonesia. The program was informed by four broad main theories reviewed above, to do with critical thinking, critical literacy, critical pedagogy and systemic functional linguistics, especially the SFL GBA in teaching a Discussion text. Chapter 3 takes up a teaching program in the Indonesian context, based on action research between university researchers and a teacher of English at the secondary level. The program has been informed by the Indonesian curriculum of English and the SFL GBA in teaching a Recount text, while it also demonstrates how to use action research.. Chapter 4, looks at the teaching of writing in a native language context, based on the results of the writer‟s observation in a primary classroom in Australia. The chapter will show how the teacher in Australia tends to use an eclectic approach in teaching writing to five graders. Chapter 5 turns to conclude and propose recommendations based on the discussion in the earlier chapters.
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Chapter 2: A language and literacy program for the tertiary level This chapter will demonstrate how four major traditions of scholarship should inform the development of critical language and literacy programs for tertiary students of English. They are: Critical thinking – a tradition of scholarship that draws to some extent on psychology, philosophy and educational theory; Critical literacy – a tradition devoted to interrogation of texts with a view to analysis of the values, ideologies and interests of persons involved in texts; Critical pedagogy – a tradition devoted to dialogic education and interrogation of texts, democracy in the classroom and liberation; Systemic functional linguistic (SFL) theory- a linguistic tradition devoted to analysis of texts and identification of different text types or genres for teaching purposes.
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2.1 Introduction Students of English education at the tertiary level have a number of requirements if they are to succeed in their studies and become successful teachers. They must be competent readers and writers, and able to interpret arguments in written texts as well as being able to write independent texts of their own, showing capacity for critical thinking. This chapter outlines a program devoted to teaching skills of reading and writing critically and independently to tertiary students of English. The program proposed is based on a study (Emilia, 2005) which was conducted in an Indonesian tertiary institution, whose aim was to develop skills of critical thinking and critical reading and writing practices. The background theory drawn on to develop the program used work in critical thinking (e.g.Paul, 1993; Lipman, 2003; Wilks, 2004a,b), critical literacy (e.g. Luke & Freebody, 1997; Morgan, 1997) and SFL genre based theory (e.g. Feez, 2002; Christie, 2005), all of which were introduced in chapter 1. It is argued that we can develop a strong teaching program for the audience of tertiary level students which synthesizes elements of all these scholarly traditions, for they should all inform the professional preparation of teachers for teaching English as a foreign language in Indonesian schools. The proposed program to some extent can be considered similar to content-based language programs (Met, 1998; Gracia, 2009) because it emphasizes both the students‟ understanding of the content involved and the language in which it is expressed. A knowledge of content and of language is essential in the development of students‟ critical thinking dispositions. Critical thinking would be impossible without the knowledge of content or of the language that expresses it. The program proposed here focuses on language growth as a necessary aspect of development of analytical and argumentative skills. The proposed teaching program has these phases: A planning phase in which (i) topics to be taught and materials to be used are identified, and (ii) some principles for evaluation and assessment are established. A teaching phase devoted to active exploration of topics and texts, selected to engage students in learning critical and analytic skills, especially in their reading, where these are assessed in the process of teaching and learning. A teaching phase devoted to introduction to SFL-related concepts and genre-based pedagogy. A teaching phase devoted to writing discussion genres, drawing on both SFL theory and the critical and analytic skills developed in the earlier phase; evaluation and assessment are conducted qualitatively and quantitatively. Below, we shall discuss each of these phases, seeking to clarify how they should be implemented.
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2.2 Phase 1: Planning a teaching program devoted to teaching critical literacy skills at the tertiary level When working with students of foreign and second languages, as Met (1998) argues, planning must be based both on an understanding of the students and their prior knowledge and capacities, and an understanding of their needs, in this case in developing critical literacy skills. Planning must also consider the most effective texts students should read as well as write. Caudery (1998), Gibbons (2002), and Gracia (2009: 361) state that in choosing texts for students who learn English as a foreign language, it is important that they be authentic, and ideally, not specifically written to teach language, or to teach reading in particular. This is because analysis shows that many texts written specifically to teach reading to beginners are often poorly expressed and even difficult to read. Gracia proposes that the selected texts relate to students‟ backgrounds and reflect the bilingual realities of students‟ lives and their multiculturalism (2009: 362). In the contemporary world it is important in selecting texts that they be „multiple‟ in character (Luke and Freebody 1997; Frye 1997), and hence taken from various sources, such as magazines, newspapers, reports (Feez, 2002) and the Internet (Gibbons, 2002) to allow for more varied analysis of content and language (Varaprasad, 1997; Gibbons, Gracia 2009; Mohan 2001). Materials taken from the mass media provide “generative themes”, (Mazurek, 1999: 309) in that they can give topics that embody contradictions in contemporary ideology and explorations of these can potentially lead to critical reflection and even point to political empowerment. Similarly, texts from the Internet are important resources as they can ensure that all modes of communication (visual, as well as auditory) are fully exploited in the English language classroom (Gracia, 2009: 362). The Internet, it has been suggested, brings the entire world closer, and bilingual students must develop the ability to go beyond printed texts, including those provided by state authorities. Students can also be encouraged to find various sources themselves to enrich information for the English classroom, both in their reading and their writing. As the overall suggested program involves an important writing phase, it is essential that in the planning phase the teacher selects sample texts to model the target genre to be written. In the program outlined here the target genre, as already indicated, is the Discussion genre (to be explained more fully below). While the SFL theory devoted to teaching genres is by now quite extensive, there may not always be sufficient examples of target genres to use, so the teacher may need to develop appropriate models, being careful to ensure authenticity. The recent adoption of genre based pedagogy as part of the national English curriculum (Depdiknas, 2006) no doubt helps in this regard. In the study Emilia (2005) conducted, several sample discussion genres were created, and this was necessary even at the tertiary level. In the planning phase, attention needs to be given to principles of evaluation and assessment. In language education programs in general, there has been a long tradition of attaching particular importance to quantitative methods of evaluation, though as has been noted, there has been a „myth‟ about the values claimed for quantitative methods over qualitative methods (Best & Kahn, 1986; Fetterman, 1988). Both methods of evaluation have their role, though it
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is argued here that many of the capacities taught in the name of critical thinking or genrebased pedagogy are not readily evaluated in any quantitative way. For example, the teacher can observe and judge changed capacities in students in challenging the values of the texts they read, or in writing texts that sustain strong well supported arguments. In this context it is notable that Piaget (Best & Kahn, 1986) argued that changes in human behaviour are best assessed qualitatively. In summary, the planning phase addresses all matters of preparation, including identification of appropriate texts for work with students, both for reading and for analysis of target genres, and decisions about evaluation procedures to be adopted. Once these matters have been attended to, the teacher can proceed to the next phase of work, involving commencement of teaching, which initiates critical thinking as a theme and leads to eventual critical writing. 2.3 Phase 2: Critical thinking and critical literacy In order to build interest in topics selected for work, and in helping to build some critical reflection, students can sometimes be consulted about the topics for examination, research and discussion, especially in a program devoted to building independent thought. Alternatively, the teacher can select a list of possible topics and invite the students to consider those they would like to explore. Such a consultative approach is based on principles of dialogic education as advocated by (i) „de-schoolers‟ (e.g. Benesch, 2001; Berlin, 1993; Freire and Shor, 1987), (ii) some genre theorists (e.g. Derewianka, 1990), and certain ESL specialists (Nunan, 1988: 2-4). In Emilia‟s study, for example, the topics included, among others: The Miss Universe Contest, Abortion, Capital Punishment, Sex Education, Working Women, and the Implementation of Islamic Law in Indonesia. Those topics were selected because they were controversial, which seemed to suit the teaching of CT, critical reading and writing. The topics of Capital Punishment, Sex Education, Implementation of Islamic Law in Indonesia and the Miss Universe Contest were all current controversial Indonesian issues at the time of the study, and they remain so. CP has always declared that “a radical and critical education has to focus on what is taking place today inside various social movements …” (Freire and Macedo, 1987: 61). Since Indonesian students are not used to being consulted about the topics they will explore, they may insist that the teacher decide. Where this occurs, the teacher should nonetheless urge the students to exercise a choice, and this may be decided on a chorus of voices. Both Emilia (2005) and Auerbach (1996, 1999) had this experience. In Emilia‟s case, the topics selected over the various phases were the Miss Universe Contest, Working Women and Capital Punishment . 2.3.1 Introducing aspects of critical thinking. Before students commence work on their chosen topics, they should be given some direct teaching about principles of critical thinking, examining and learning about the following matters, already introduced in chapter 1: definitions of critical thinking; essential components and notions of CT: argument, the issue, reason (including faulty reasonings), facts and opinion;
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CT standards (including aspects contributing to the soundness of arguments); skills of CT, dispositions and abilities involved in CT (including capacity to identify fallacies in reasoning) activities that make up CT; the relationship between CT and CL (writing and reading), and how CT can be sharpened through reading, writing and collaboration in group work, as will be shown later. Identification of vague words, as in: “I had a nice time yesterday”; “This book is interesting.” The words nice and interesting are rather general and not very meaningful, and students should be advised to use more effective language. Identification of ambiguity in statements, such as in: “He fed her dog biscuits”; “The duck is ready to eat”. Identification of stereotypes, as in “Women are very emotional”; “Politicians are corrupt”. Moreover, students need to be taught expressions that suggest that opinion rather than prejudiced positions should be expressed. Thus, for example, they can use: Modality (possibly; maybe); Modal verbs (can, might, must, should). Students can also use generic deictic rather than specific (e.g. Some people believe … .; the boy said… .). In addition, students can use verbal groups (e.g: It seems to be the case… ; It appears to be true…). This helps students recognise certainties or credible arguments and distinguish the differences between absolute statements and statements of possibility. However, it should also be explained that continued use of the above expressions can lead to the reader‟s or listener‟s doubt about the writer/speaker‟s capacity regarding the topic communicated. Most exercises to promote critical thinking should be done in groups to encourage the students to share with and learn from friends and thus to develop their CT. From the perspective of EFL, this is useful to offer opportunities for cooperative learning and real English language practice (Hyland, 1991, cited in Lunt, 2001:18) with consequent gains in language proficiency (Bejarano, 1987, cited in Lunt, 2001:18; see also Nunan and Lamb, 1996). Students‟ CT development in this phase of the teaching program can be seen from their attempts to apply CT knowledge in their outside classroom activities, as revealed in a journal entry below:
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Outside we talked about movies, etc. and since we learned how to be a critical thinker, we tried to respond to what was being discussed from several points of view and to appreciate others‟ opinion (Nuri, 31st Jan, in Emilia, 2005)
Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death…; The journal entry above appears to show that explicit teaching of critical thinking can lead to students‟ awareness of at least some features of CT in focus. A desirable step after CT exercises have been introduced is to involve students in group activities as the following discussion reveals. 2.3.2 Observing critical thinking (CT) in social practice As CT is a social practice (Atkinson, 1997; Chaffee, 2000; Canagarajah, 2002), students should be encouraged to see how CT takes place in a social context. It should be made clear that one social activity to enhance CT is discussion, in which students can do the following: Listening to each other; Supporting their views with reasons and evidence; Responding to the points being made; Asking and trying to answer important questions; Trying to increase their understanding rather than simply winning the argument (Chaffee, 2000:70-73). Assessing the strengths and accuracy of reasons and evidence in each statement made by the participants, based on several aspects, including reference to authorities, factual evidence, and personal experience (Toulmin et al, 1984; Nosich, 2001). Assessing whether the participants “view situations from different perspectives” and “support diverse viewpoints with reasons and evidence” (Chaffee et al, 2002, Diestler, 2001; Lipman, 1991, 2003). Assessing whether the participants in the discussion “tell the readers, or show them by providing specific details and relevant examples” (Chaffee et al, 2002: 79). This awareness is very important especially when students are to write an argumentative text. Good writers try to persuade the readers by providing specific details as exemplified below, while weak writers only tell their readers. Regarding this, the following example can be given to the students. Telling: Michael Jordan is a great basketball player Showing: During the 1995-1996 seasons, Michael Jordan led the NBA with a scoring average of 30.4 points per game. That same season he ranked second on the Bulls for rebounding and assists. He was chosen for the NBA All-Star team in his first nine seasons. He has won four league MVP awards and two Olympic medals (Chaffee et al, 2002:79).
As the core of critical thinking is arguments, students should be exposed to argumentative texts to help them develp their CT and CL, and this will be exemplified in the subsequent section.
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2.3.3 Dealing with texts on argument: Developing students’ CT and CL This activity aims to engage students in extended discussion about issues, which is a very effective means for developing the CT dispositions and the CT strategies and tactics (Norris and Ennis, 1990:150; Perkins, 1987b), introducing students to CL and encouraging them to have diverse opinions without fear of being judged wrong. Most texts used should be in English to provide students with an opportunity to learn not only the content but also the language of the texts. The text below, about “Why own a 4WD” ( taken from Mc Gregor, 2002: 4) can be a good example for discussion because the topic and language are appropriate while the writer‟s stance is ironic and not necessarily obvious to the readers. This is useful to foster students‟ critical reading skills (Perkins, 1998, Gibbons, 2002: 82) as this kind of text allows students “to debate, to weigh and judge the writer‟s stance from the linguistic structure of the text” (Luke, O‟Brien and Comber, 1994), essential for students‟ CL development. The text, as can be seen below uses irony, the intertextual nature of which is that that “it echoes someone else‟s utterance” (Sperber and Wilson, 1986, cited in Fairclough, 1992b: 123) and “that words can imply more than is being said, and the actual intent can be expressed in words which carry the opposite meaning” (Saxby, 1993: 70). This use of language exists in bahasa Indonesia and the students must have learnt to recognise irony in the national language while they are at school. However, as the data below will reveal, some students, even high achievers, see the text just from the surface level, though this is probably because it is an English text. Understanding ironies in a foreign language can be very hard for a student. Thus, to help students understand the text more easily, scaffolding on cultural background knowledge may be needed to build up students‟ knowledge that is relevant to the text (Gibbons, 2002: 83). For example, such knowledge about Australians is important, particularly regarding the point that is mentioned in the text “You can pretend that you are actually going somewhere on weekends when you‟re just going to the shops”. This point suggests that Australians value adventurous activities, enjoy doing interesting things like a picnic than doing domestic things, driving through different country roads. Some vocabulary should also be explained, such as roos and a grate because some students might not know the meaning of these words. Why Own a 4WD Intelligent people know there are several good reasons why everybody should own a four-wheel drive. They are:
You pay less tax. You can see further down the road, but those behind you can‟t see ahead at all. You can feel you are really someone when you are up above everybody else. If you crash into an ordinary car, you are less likely to be hurt. You can pretend that you are actually going somewhere on weekends when you‟re just going to the shops. You can show you despise greenies and energy-conservers, by using twice as much fuel as
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they do. Although there are no bulls or roos in the area, you can have a grate attached to the front of your Urban Assault Vehicle for protection against pedestrians. Everyone knows they cost a lot. If you reverse over someone, you won‟t notice (cited from McGregor, 2002, p. 04).
Questions regarding CL, as suggested by Wallace (1992a,b) below can be very useful to guide students in reading such a text:
Why is this topic being written about? How is this topic being written about? What other ways of writing about the topic are there? Who is writing to whom and what is the topic?
Moreover, questions to analyse linguistic choices can be exploited, using systemic functional linguistic theory, to do with Field, Tenor and Mode. These questions are among others: Who takes what subject positions in sentences? What types of process and participants dominate? How are active and passive constructions allocated? What modal constructions are employed? (Cope, 2002; Fairclough, 1989; Wallace, 1992b). Then the discussion can go on to deal with questions regarding arguments, such as those proposed by Mc Gregor (2002:4) below:
What do you think is the writer‟s contention or stance on the issue of 4 WDs? In what ways does the letter support this stance? According to the writer, what attitude do 4WD owners have to other people? Which statement suggests this attitude? Imagine you are a 4WD owner. Would this argument annoy or upset you? Why or why not? If you think it would annoy you, which particular statements, words, or phrases, would have this effect. Why? Why do you think the writer uses the phrase „Urban Assault Vehicle”? Is the use of this phrase a hyperbole or irony? This letter is an example of an implied point of view which readers gather from reading the piece. The writer‟s stance is not stated. Why do you think the writer chose to present the argument in this form?
As Emilia‟s (2005) study shows, the students given the text on 4WD could generally answer all the questions above, but tensions can emerge due to variations in students‟ opinion, as shown in the following dialogue: Teacher : What do you think of the stance of the writer on 4 WD? Wati : (high achiever and articulate): I think he agrees with 4 WD and he mentions the benefits of 4WD for the owner. Teacher : Ok, Wati thinks that the writer supports 4 WD. Any other opinion? Candra : I don‟t think so. I think he doesn‟t agree with 4WD. Wati : But that‟s what he says, (mentioning what the writer says in the text). Candra : Yes, but actually the writer doesn‟t agree with 4WD. He says it in a cynical way.
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Teacher: Yes, that‟s right. Have you ever heard the term “irony” in Bahasa Indonesia? Wati: Oh ... yes.... yes... .
The excerpt above may suggest two aspects of the teaching of reading and critical literacy: (i) There are multiple interpretations of a text and “there is a wrong interpretation” (Gee, 1990: 111), which may be due to the students‟ lack of cultural knowledge of the text. Thus, scaffolding regarding cultural background of a text prior to the reading activity is important and should be more emphasised. (ii) A high achiever‟s interpretation, based on only the surface level, may reflect the teaching of reading in EFL so far, which is often considered “unproblematic” (Wallace, 1992b; Pennycook, 2001: 76). The use of irony, as mentioned above, exists in bahasa Indonesia, and the students must have learned it. The next activity to heighten students‟ awareness of other ways in which a topic could have been written about can be discussing and comparing two texts which deal with the same topic, comparing lexico-grammatical choices in the texts, and identifying the unspoken beliefs of the writers (Luke & Freebody, 1997; Perkins, 1998; McGregor, 2002a,b). Students should be encouraged to adopt the role of a text analyst and critic in that they are encouraged to recognize that all texts represent a particular view of the world and that readers are positioned in a certain way when they read them (Luke and Freebody, 1990: 8-14; 1997:214, see also Gibbons, 2002; Comber, 2002). This can be done, among others, by asking the questions below: What does this text do to me? (Luke and Freebody, 1997:114; Comber, 2002:1) Who would feel left out in this text and why? Do any of the claims made in this text clash with your values, beliefs, or experiences? How is the reader positioned in relation to the author (e.g. as a friend, opponent, someone to persuade, invisible, or someone who agrees with the author‟s views)? Are there gaps or absences, or silences in this text? If so what are they? Is there a group of people missing who logically should be included? (Thompson, 1998; Love et al, 2001).
From all these activities, in this phase students‟ development of critical literacy can be seen, for example in a journal entry written by a student after each session, in Emilia‟s (2005) study below: … I learnt that in every text we can analyse who the writer is, to whom the writer writes, why the writer writes, what the text is about, when the text was written, and perhaps the answers can be more than one … (Ina, in Emilia, 2005). When I read a text now, I can assess the clarity, accuracy, and relevance of a text. I can see that the writer of a text has an interest and so I don‟t think that I should always follow the text. I will see its relevance with my environment, my situation, in recent condition and the facts that support the writer‟s argument. This skill is very important in recent condition in Indonesia (Ira).
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In this phase, students also have a lot of opportunities to speak in English as they improve with practice and they can be encouraged to take risks. This is in line with the belief among ESL (EFL) students and teachers that they should use their English as much as possible in an ESL (EFL) setting (see the discussion in Storch and Wigglesworth, 2003: 760; Wigglesworth, 2005), without taking risks of being judged wrong in terms of English or ideas (Janks, 2001, see also Pari, 1999: 110). However, when students find difficulty in expressing ideas in English, students can be allowed to speak in their mother tongue or bahasa Indonesia in the Indonesian context. Regarding this, some teachers might find it confusing as there is an assumption that “English should be taught entirely monolingually”(Auerbach, 1993:12-15; 1996:18; Philips, 1993; Turnbull & Dailey-O‟cain, 2009) and the teachers should speak English all the time to show a good model, and this assumption is prevalent among Indonesian English teachers and students (see the discussion in Chapter 1). However, research by Emilia (2005) and Emilia et al (2008) shows that the use of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL classes is esssential, as “knowledge of the learners‟ first language should be considered an important teaching qualification” (Auerbach, 1996:15; see also Denise & Wigglesworth, 2005; Wigglesworth, 2005; and Dailey-O‟Cain & Liebscher, 2009). In addition, the use of the first language can give the following benefits: Providing students with additional support that allows them to analyse the second/foreign language; Enabling students to work at a higher level than would be possible were they restricted to sole use of English; Increasing students‟ basic understanding of how languages work; Promoting students‟ linguistic and cognitive development, because “the fact that bilinguals have two words for the same idea or object and two ways of expressing the same thought may lead them to objectify or become aware of their linguistic operations” (Vygotsky, cited in Cummins, 1996:105; see also Dailey-O‟Cain & Liebscher, 2009); Providing a place in the classroom where students use multiple discourses to comprehend their relations with the wider society and thus to ensure their active participation, without having to silence the language they brought to class (Thonis, 1990, cited in Auerbach, 1996:19), relevant to a critical pedagogy (CP) perspective. This can lead to the establishment of dialogue, of taking an anti-authoritarian and interactive approach where the teacher, like his/her students, is an apprentice, someone who is also seeking (Freire, 1985; Freire and Shor, 1987; Gadotti, 1997; McLaren, 2000). It can also lead to a relationship of respect between the teacher and student, which plays a very important role, as Cummins notes: Techniques and strategies will be effective only when teachers and students forge a relationship of respect and affirmation; when students feel that they are welcomed into the learning community of the classroom and supported in the immense challenges they face in catching up academically; and when the students feel that their teachers believe in them and expect them to succeed in school and in life (1996: 74).
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The teaching technique outlined above can promote students‟ awareness of the importance of freedom and courage to express ideas and to answer questions. In Emilia‟s (2005) study, this can be seen from a journal entry written by a student below: Learning needs courage. It won‟t do to have plenty of ideas in your head but no courage to speak up (Candra, in Emilia, 2005)
Upon explicit teaching of critical thinking and critical literacy, students understanding and skills in these aspects can be applied in writing. The treatment below will accordingly focus on the teaching of writing an argumentative text, especially a Discussion, using a genrebased pedagogy. This pedagogy, as the discussion will show, is compatible with classroom practices advocated by critical thinking and critical literacy theorists drawn in the program. 2.4 Phase 3: Implementation of the SFL genre-based approach This section will describe the implementation of the SFL GBA in teaching the Discussion genre. At this stage students‟ critical thinking and critical literacy can be further developed and applied through the classroom interactions. This phase can start with a brief explanation about some aspects of SFL and SFG, as mentioned in Chapter 1, to enable students and the teacher to interrogate texts in later stages, such as in the Building Knowledge of the Field stage, to debate, to weigh, to judge and to critique texts from different linguistic structures, which was a crucial part of text analysis. Introduction to systemic functional grammar can be useful, and in an EFL context, Functional grammar, as Wallace suggests: is part of the resources that students can put to use in the scrutiny of particular texts, more specifically in making judgments regarding the manner in which and the degree to which choices in texts, ideationally, interpersonally, or textually, challenge or confirm prevailing ideologies (2001: 216).
The teaching of SFL and SFG can also be useful to make the Modelling stage in the teaching cycle of the GBA not “so complicated and not too challenging” (DSP, 1989: 11), especially when the teacher and the students interrogate texts in terms of its SFG-based linguistic features. The role of the teacher at this stage should be mostly as the one who directs the teaching learning process (Butt et al, 2000) and who gives assistance in the form of “direct telling” (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988: 50). In implementing the teaching cycle of the genre-based approach, there are several models than can be followed. The oldest and best known model of genre-based pedagogy is set out in Figure 2.1
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Figure 2.1 A model of genre-based pedagogy (Rothery, 1996: 102)
The model in Figure 2.1, which is similar to that in Figure 2.2, and which is similar to the model offered by Feez (2002) is probably the model with which Indonesian teachers are most familiar. Martin (2010), as can be seen in Figure 2.2, represents essentially the same model though it has been a little revised over the years. Where the model proposed has four stages, Martin‟s model has reduced the four stages to three.
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Figure 2.2 A model of genre pedagogy (Martin, 2010)
Thus, Rothery‟s model has these stages: Building of the Field for writing; Modelling of the target genre; Joint Construction of a target text; and Independent Construction of the target genre. The model from Martin has three stages: Deconstruction; Joint Construction and Independent Construction. Both models aim to achieve the same general purpose, though it is probable that Rothery‟s model in Figure 2.1 is better for the Indonesian context. That is because Indonesian teachers and students need to devote a separate stage to Building of the Knowledge of the Field for writing. Indonesian students are learning English as a second language and they must be assisted to learn a great deal of relevant vocabulary about the field before they commence writing. The four stages in Figure 2.1 may be explained as follows: Building Knowledge of the Field (Negotiating Field) This phase, as the name indicates, aims to build students‟ background knowledge about the topic they are going to write. From the critical thinking and critical literacy perspectives, this phase in important as a core element of critical thinking, as argued by the critical thinking movement, is strong background knowledge. Modelling (Deconstruction) This phase is critical for the students‟ CL for it involves analysis and discussions about how and why examples of a particular genre are organized to make meaning. Deconstruction allows students to analyse the representations of a text, as suggested by a critical social theory of literacy. Deconstruction is also a critical element of a radical pedagogy (Giroux, 1977) to enable students to understand the world, one of the principles of CP.
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Joint Construction This phase provides a chance for students to practise writing in groups and apply their critical thinking skills in working in groups, in discussing with peers, which constitutes one of the ways to promote critical thinking. In this stage, students write several drafts in several sessions, at least three sessions, to make them aware that writing is a recursive process, and not a one shot activity. Independent Construction Independent constructions provide a chance to practice individually the CT and CL skills students have grasped from the previous stages. Like in the joint construction, the students write the independently constructed text in several meetings with several drafts before they come to a neat final draft. It is important to understand that throughout all four stages, there are plenty of opportunities for students to speak, to read and to listen in both languages, often crossing from one language into the other (Gracia, 2009:363) and all the stages do not go in a linear way, to meet the students‟ need and contextual condition (Feez, 2002). Moreover, the four stages should be extended over several lessons, some stages taking more lessons than others. The complete cycle should always in fact last for several lessons: genre based pedagogy is not to be conducted in just one or two lessons, as some people have wrongly concluded at times in the past. Hence, Building Knowledge of the Field should normally be conducted over at least two lessons prior to the Joint Construction and Independent Construction stages respectively, to allow the students not only to gain the content of what they are reading but also to develop their CT skills and CL. Often times only two stages may be conducted, such as Building Knowledge of the Field and Independent Construction, as reported in Emilia (2005) and Emilia et al (2008). Modeling and Joint Construction can be skipped (Feez, 2002: 67) but only if the students already have a relatively good control of the schematic structure and linguistic features of the text in focus. This can be a possibility in the Indonesian context, as students learn several types of texts both in junior and senior high schools. When students already learn a certain type of texts in previous grades, and they have a good control of those texts, the teacher will not need to explain again in detail about the text. This emphasises the flexibility of the GBA, and the idea that “the teaching cycle does not work as a lockstep sequence for the whole class” (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988: 48) and “there is no right way to sequence teaching learning activities” (Macken-Horarik, 2002: 26). In various stages of the teaching cycle, the directive role of the teacher can be obvious and scaffolding can be very strong, especially in some part of Building Knowledge of the Field and Modeling phases. Then the strong scaffolding is weakened (Feez, 2002) and gradually removed in the Joint and Independent construction stages, when the teacher begins to relinquish responsibility to the learners as the learners‟ expanding knowledge allows them to take over ( Feez, 2002). An example of the implementation of the genre-based approach, based on Emilia (2005) on teaching a Discussion text will be presented below.
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However, before moving on to the implementation of each stage of the SFL genre-based approach, it is necessary to provide an overview of grammatical features of the focal text, that is the Discussion genre. Therefore, the following section will be dealing with an overview of some of the major grammatical features of the Discussion genre. 2.4.1 An overview of grammatical features of a Discussion genre A Discussion is an argumentative genre that requires the writer to adopt a position and argue for it by debating two or more sides of an issue before reaching a conclusion (Christie & Derewianka, 2008: 133). In other words, a Discussion text discusses an issue in the light of some kind of “frame” or position and provides more than one point of view on an issue, as Macken-Horarik (2002: 23) suggests. Discussion genres build argument and opinion, so their tendency is to include these linguistic choices: Generic rather than specific participants (e.g. Proponents of capital punishment argue…); Verbal processes that report evidence (e.g. The study reports that … ); Causal relationship between events (e.g. Capital punishment can lead to execution of innocent people). One important aspect of Discussion genres worth mentioning here is the manner in which they build thematic progression, already referred to in chapter 1. Theme, it will be recalled, is part of the textual metafunction, and it has to do with the manner in which the overall text is organised and its meanings are developed. In a Discussion genre, since the purpose is to organise and progress arguments, thematic progression is most important. As in all genres, unmarked Theme choices are the most common, as in: Miss Indonesia contest was banned in 1996. However, Marked Themes have an important role in identifying relevant information and/or progressing the argument forward as in: In the report [[we read]] it is said that … ). These examples of Theme are important within each of the clauses in which they appear, but thematic progression also occurs across several longer passages in texts, helping to achieve the overall cohesive development of the text, making it function smoothly to make its meanings. The following is an example of what is called a “zig zag” pattern (see Chapter 1) The second argumment [[highlighted by the opponents of capital punishmnet]] is related to humanity. They believe
Another similar example, involving “reiteration” appears in:
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… that the death penalty is barbaric … and it is against the value of human life.
An example of thematic progession across a much longer passages of text is achieved, using a multiple Theme pattern, such as the following: Meanwhile the opponents of death penalty adopt three positions, concerned with deterence, humanity and injustice. The first argument [[proposed by the opponents of death penalty]] is regarding deternece. The second argument [[highlighted by the opponents of capital punishment is related to humanity. The last argument [[advocated by the opponents of capital punishment]] is to do with injustice.
With respect to the multiple Theme pattern above, students should be made aware that the use of ordinal numbers such as first, second and third help the text move forward, and this also shows that the text is “clearly-planned” (Eggins, 1994:305). Moreover, the teacher can explain some aspects of Transitivity, like different types of verbal processes such as „”proposed”, “argued”, “advocated”, to give the students a variety of process types that they can use when they write the same text type. This is important to avoid repetition of a process in the text they write. Modality is another issue worth introducing to students as they prepare to write Discussion genres. Modality is typically not used in the opening element of a Discussion genre, as we shall see below, because in that element the aim is to identify the issue to be discussed. However, later in the genre, and particularly in the final element, modality has an important role, because it is in this element that the writer must say “what he/she believes should be the case”, or “what should occur”, or perhaps “what might occur”. Apart from modal verbs, English provides many adverbs and adjectives of modality (e.g. “possible”, “probable”, “certain”,” possibly”, “probably”, “certainly”.) Finally, with respect to grammatical metaphor, which was introduced in Chapter 1, we can show that expressions like “The first argument, The second argument and The last argument” are examples of grammatical metaphor, which are expressed by using nominalisation. If they are expressed congruently, they will read: Firstly, they argue … and so forth. This is an important resource for building arguments as in a Discussion genre. Regarding the length of the text, students at tertiary level, especially those who will become teachers of English in Indonesia, should be made aware that although the length of a text is one indication of students‟ proficiency in writing (Gibbons, 2002) a longer text is not necessarily better than a shorter one. This should be made clear to student teachers as the study by Emilia et al (2008), (reported in Chapter 3 ), reveals that teachers may sometimes score a longer text higher than short ones, without taking into consideration the effectiveness of the language the writer uses.
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Finally, expressions that can be used in writing a Discussion genre below, based on the work of mainly DSP (1989) and Derewianka (1990) and was used in Emilia (2005) can be given to the students to help them create a better text with various linguistic resources in the stages Joint Construction and Independent Construction later. Some language features of a discussion genre: Focus on generic human and nonhuman participants, e.g. advertisements, newspapers, advocates of capital punishment or Miss Universe Contest, etc. Use of simple present tense.eg. are. Have, is, promote, compete, saves, sells, take up, etc. Use of logical conjunctive relations.eg. while, why, and, because, on the other hand, firstly, also. Use of material, relational, and mental and verbal processes. Some saying verbs that are usually used in a discussion genre: state, claim, argue, point out, point to ... , suggest, say, observe, assert, contend, ... put it ..., reiterate, write, provides a good example of ..., stresses that..., sees/ saw s.t as ... indicates, represents, highlights, focus.., recommends, comment, inform, discuss, maintain, believes. Conjunctions used to set contrasts between what goes before and what comes after (ways to introduce another point): however, but, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the other side, In contrast, On the reverse, In contrast to ... expert who assert the contrary are ..., on the opposite side, despite this, ultimately we must realize, however, … Ways to express arguments for: The proponents of ... claim ... positions Supporters of ..... say ........... The advocates of .... Those who are in favour of/defend ..... argue ... Abortionists .......; Those who argue for abortion/capital punishment/the Miss Universe Contest...; .... strongly supports ..The survey found out that..... favour abortion. The first argument claimed by supporters of .... is related to/regards, is concerned with, is to do with ...; The third position adopted by supporters of ... is .., It is argued that ...; The argument for ... is that ...; On one hand, some people agree that Ways to express arguments against: On the other hand, the opponents of ... adopt three positions.... To begin, ..... Those who are against ... argue .... Strong arguments against ... come from .... But then on the other hand, ...... On the other hand, there are a growing number of people in the community who oppose ... The first reason for the argument against ... stated by opponents of abortion is that .... On the other side some people say that ... On the against side some people believe.... Ways to sum up and to introduce recommendations: Thus, in summary, … To sum up, … In summary After looking at both sides … I believe that …; ... should/ need /must ..... Therefore after examining all arguments …, it is recommended that / it is important that .... The weight of evidence would suggest … My point of view is … My recommendation after looking at both sides …. It would appear reasonable to conclude then … It would seem that …
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Ways to write about cause and effect As a consequence of … An effect of … As result of … ... led to .. ... resulted in …
After an overview of linguistic features of the Discussion genre, each stage of the SFL genrebased approach can be implemented, as will be described below. However, before moving to the next section, it is of interest to note that students may find most information that they learnt at this phase unfamiliar, especially the concepts related to functional grammar, such as Themes, processes. One student in Emilia (2005) wrote in her journal entry as follows: It was excited to learn a lot of new information... Mrs Emi taught how to choose Themes in order to build the cohesion of the text…. And we also learn what a text is. At first I thought text had something to do with length in written form. But then I know that every kind of spoken or written language which has meaning is considered as a text (Ira, in Emilia, 2005).
Students may also find it interesting to learn functional grammar as reflected in the journal entry below. … I found it interesting to learn this new concept of grammar, since from the beginning I studied English, it was always about subject, object, etc. … (Elli., in Emilia, 2005).
2.4.2 Building Knowledge of the Field This stage, as the name indicates, is intended to build up background knowledge, and so the focus should primarily on the “content” of the topic (Gibbons, 2002: 61; Rothery, 1996). The teacher and students cooperatively build up a shared knowledge of the field, based on the texts compiled in the planning phase. Students can be encouraged to make a semantic web on the topic. For example, in Emilia‟s (2005) study, when students wrote a text on the Miss Universe Contest, they wrote a semantic web below: Participation, host sex objects ambassador tourist promotion eastern country feminist rate of rapes revenue charity physical beauty swim suit parade a waste of money business commodity arguments Brain, beauty and behaviour. contestant business point/perspective cultural, religious value and moral value
This stage can then be followed by a critical interrogation of several texts, as discussed above regarding critical literacy. A dialogical relationship with the students, and the teacher‟s role as a co - participant should be sustained, to encourage students to speak and express their ideas and to enable the teacher to learn from them (Freire and Shor, 1987, see also Wallace, 1992b, 2001). As the materials can be ample, the students should be encouraged to take notes about what they have read, so that they do not need to read the articles again when writing a jointly-or 56
independently constructed text later and thus to save their time. From the CT point, taking notes is also important to promote students‟ metacognition, which refers to their awareness and control of their own thinking (Costa, 2003:61). During the teaching learning process in this stage, it should be understood that some students might have a different level of understanding in terms of what they have learnt. Some students may need more assistance and more than one experience of explicit teaching about some learning materials. This emphasizes the idea that the relationship between teaching and learning is not identical to that of complementary transactions, such as giving and taking, buying and selling. When someone does some buying this means that some selling also occurs. When learning occurs, teaching may or may not be effective. When teaching occurs, learning may or may not take place ( van Lier, 1988, to follow Widdowson, 1981, 1983). When students already have a strong background knowledge about the topic, the students and teacher can move on to the next step, which is modelling of the text, which will be discussed below. Relevant to the genre in focus, the modelling stage will also exemplify the teaching of Discussion text. 2.4.3 Modelling (Deconstruction) This stage aims to introduce and to familiarize the students with the text in focus, in this case a Discussion genre. The students can read it and deconstruct it (Martin & Rose, 2008; Christie & Derewianka, 2008) and build up their understandings of the purpose, overall structure, and language features of the genre. Activities involved in this stage can include: Familiarising students with the function and social context of the text in focus, say Discussion genre; Presenting the schematic structure of the text; Presenting a model text (and one or two other texts in the same genre); Presenting an overview of grammatical features of a Discussion genre. Step 1: Familiarising the students with the function and social context of the text The first step should be familiarising the students with the social context of the text in English (which takes a similar form in Indonesian) and in the current Indonesian context. It should be made clear that the Discussion genre, which weighs up two or more sides of an issue, enables the students to practise “the concept of decision making and conflict resolution through rational debate, i.e. arguments for, arguments against and recommended course of action” (Anderson & Anderson, 1997; Christie, 2005; Christie & Derewianka, 2008: Martin & Rose, 2008). Step 2: Presenting the schematic structure of the Discussion genre
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In presenting and explicitly explaining the schematic structure of a Discussion genre, the teacher can use an overhead transparency (Gibbons, 2002:64, Emilia, 2005) or power point. This is important to enable the teacher and the students to share comments and to talk about the text as a class more easily. Each student can also be given a copy which they can use for their own reference on future occasions when they write a Discussion genre (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988: 40). A possible transparency on the schematic structure of a Discussion genre with the function of each stage can be seen in Table 2.2 below. Table 2. 1 Schematic structure of a Discussion genre Elements of structure/ Function stages of a Discussion genre Preview of the issue Tells the reader the problem and what will be argued about it. Gives information about the issue and how it is to be framed. Arguments for Tells the reader points to be developed Arguments against Tells the reader points to be developed Recommendation Tells the reader the position held by the writer. It is also presented as the most logical conclusion. Recommends a final position on the issue.
During this stage, students‟ attention can be drawn to learning how the genre works to achieve its social purpose through the function of its stages. When the students understand about the schematic structure of the text, the next step is presenting an example of a model text, which will be presented below, to show how the each element of the text works. Step 3: Presenting a model text of a Discussion genre The model of a Discussion genre can then be presented as a whole (Butt, et al, 2000; Feez and Joyce, 1998a; Gibbons, 2002) and the text can be taken from any source available. Text 2.1 below, from Christie (2002:62; 2005:174-175), can be used as model of a Discussion text, although it was written by a junior secondary student in Australia. Marked Theme choices are indicated on the text while some important linguistic features are referred to in the column to the right of the table.
Schematic structure
Text 2.1 A Model of a Discussion Text (From Christie, 2005:174-175) Should we use animals for entertainment? Linguistic Features
Statement of issue
“Should we use animals for entertainment” is the name of the topic we‟re talking about in this essay. Below I have stated the positive and negative points for this issue.
Use of the modal verb should indicates matters of judgment are involved. Personal opinion suggested with use of the first person (I).
Arguments for
In the report we read it is said that in order to let a particular species survive, we need to at least
Opening marked theme in the report [[we read]] and verbal process said,
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Arguments against
Recommen dation
capture a few to show to the public, to let them learn about the animals and then may be the public would do something to help the endangered animals. It said the animals are never tortured during training or the performances and they are kept in very clean, natural yards while not performing. At one stage it said that animals are the core element of circuses and the statistics proved that people like the animals best at the circus, therefore human circuses would not meet the public demand. Most people judge circuses on their old ways, not on the current, improved ways.
indicate some research. Other uses of verbal processes build sense of using research. Relevant field language expressed in noun groups : a particular species, the endangered animals. Uses of modality in we need to at least capture ... ; and maybe the public would do something...; human circuses would not meet ... Another marked theme (at one stage) helps progress the text forward.
But then on the other hand, animals like the elephants and bears are very prone to stress so they make a habit of standing in one place and rocking or swaying, which is bad for their joints and feet. Things like constant traveling and performing in front of very large audiences nearly every day affect this. They‟re nearly always in confined spaces and the biggest places they are ever in are the circus arena or tent, which is also really small. The animals are not usually kept in their natural habitat, which stops their basic instinct like fighting for mates, building nests, hunting, etc, from being used to such a large extent like they do in the wild. An alternative is to use humanism circuses because they can‟t exactly force people to join, they have to be voluntary.
Use of contrastive conjunction (but then) signals shift to new element, assisted by the marked topical theme: on the other hand.
After looking at all these facts, I believe that it‟s wrong for us to keep animals in circuses for our entertainment. We should be able to entertain ourselves, not rely on animals. For this reason, and the one I have mentioned before, I believe it is wrong for us to train and force animals to perform in circuses.
Marked theme in a dependent clause, to shift to a new element of structure: After looking at all these facts. Use of mental process of cognition (used twice) and first person I believe to stress opinion being stated. Use of modal verbs: we should be able to entertain ourselves.
Some large noun groups: animals like the elephants and bears; a habit of standing in one place and rocking or swaying; things like constant travelling and performing in front of very large audiences. Modal adverbs build expressions of judgment; they‟re nearly always in confined spaces; the animals are not usually kept in the natural habitat.
The teacher and the students can collaboratively identify the purpose, the schematic structure, the function of each stage in the model text and the linguistic features, as displayed at the right side of the text, including: Generic participants: Animals, circuses; Tense: Present tense: “Animals are never tortured, animals are the core element of circuses”; Patterns of process choices: Verbal processes: “I have stated …; It said …”; mental processes: “I believe …”; People judge circuses …”; relational processes: “Animals are very prone to stress…” Modality: “Should we use …” “ We should be able …” “ …The animals are not usually kept in their natural habitat…”;
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Conjunctions: “… and the one I have mentioned …”; “therefore human circuses would not meet the public demand; “because they can‟t exactly force people to join…”; “But then, on the other hand, animals, like the elephants and bears are very prone to stress; Reference: “ Animals … are very prone to stress … they make a habit …”; “...animals like the elephants and bears are very prone to stress... They’re nearly always in confined spaces...” Passive voice: “Animals are not usually kept ...”. It is also possible for the teacher and students to collaboratively highlight the significance of each linguistic feature in the text, to show how the grammar aspects function in “the context of language use” (Gibbons, 2002: 65). To enhance the students‟ CT, the text can also be interrogated using questions regarding CT and CL, to make the critical interrogation of texts a “routine” (Perkins, 1998) for them. The directive role of the researcher in this discussion can be limited to facilitate dialogue with the students. To strengthen students‟ understanding of the text in focus and to enrich the linguistc sources they can use in their own writing in the later stages, students can be presented with the second and third Discussion texts to strengthen students‟ understanding of the schematic structure and to show the students various linguistic features and expressions that could be employed in their writing later. Then it is important that students in pairs identify the schematic structure and linguistic features (as listed above) of each text, and with the whole class, the texts can be critically interrogated in the same way as mentioned earlier. A hand out on expressions used in each stage of the Discussion genre, based on the work of the DSP (1989), Derewianka (1990) and Emilia (2005) can be used. This is to help strengthen students‟ understanding of the power of language in persuasive writing, and to enrich their understanding of expressions to use in writing a Discussion genre in the Joint and Independent Constructions later. These expressions that students can use in their writing are really helpful for students even in tertiary level. Successful control of writing, as Christie (2010) suggests, depends on capacity to marshal and deploy a range of linguistic resources. When students already have a good control of the schematic structure and linguistic features of a Discussion genre or (other focal genre), the activity can move on to the Joint Writing/Construction of the text. 2.4.4 Joint Construction At this stage, as Gibbons (2002) suggests, students are ready to think about writing, although they will not yet write alone. This joint writing, as Derewianka (1990) suggests, can be done in two ways. The teacher can write together with the students, while the teacher acts as a scribe in front of the classroom, as is discussed in Chapter 4. Alternatively, students may write in groups of four or three, as happened in Emilia (2005) and Emilia et al (2008), and will be shown later. If the second alternative is used, four or five steps, as reported in Emilia (2005) can be involved:
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Grouping the students into threes and familiarizing them with the task they will do in the stage; Approaching each group at the start of the Joint Construction; Observing students‟ development in CT and control of the Discussion genre Observing students‟ perceptions of the Joint Construction; Consultation with each group on their draft. Step 1: Grouping the Students into Threes and Familiarizing Them with the Task They Will Do in this Stage The teacher can first of all ask the students to make groups of threes, the members of which can be entirely decided by them. Writing in groups allows the students to practise activities that make up CT, particularly “seeing an issue from various perspectives” “discussing ideas in an organised way”, which can best be nurtured by communicating with others and engaging in dialogue (Chaffee, 2000:154; Norris and Ennis,1989, Reid, 2002). Although in this stage the teacher is still a guide (Gibbons, 2002: 67), the students enter into a more active participation in learning to write the text in focus. The strong scaffolding of the teacher in some part of the Building Knowledge of the Field and Modeling stage can be gradually weakened (Feez, 2002:66). Step 2: Approaching Each Group at the Start of the Joint Construction At the beginning of the joint writing, the teacher can approach each group, asking some guiding questions, such as: What will you start with? How many arguments or points will be included in the arguments for and against? In this case, the researcher stressed that the arguments for and against should be balanced (Smith et al, 1995). Why will you take those arguments? Do you have enough data/evidence to support the arguments? When the students are half way through their writing, the teacher can approach each group again to make sure which group has gained what (Gee, 1992) or need more assistance (Derewianka, 1990; Callaghan and Rothery, 1988; Feez and Joyce, 1998a). Over the consultation, the teacher can remind the students about aspects of CT in writing and encourage the students to use some technical terms or language relevant to the issue, as a way “to develop students‟ vocabulary in a meaningful context” (DSP, 1989: 60). Each consultation with each group should be conducted in a context of shared experience (Painter, 1985; Rothery, 1996; Martin, Christie, and Rothery, 1994) with the teacher playing an authoritative role (Derewianka, 1990; Feez and Joyce, 1998a). Assistance in constructing texts can be of two kinds (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988:50): a direct telling of what to say, such as how and when to say some distancing devices such as “it is said”, “it is argued”, and
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the other might be questions and comments that provide scaffolding for the students to make the text better, such as: What do you mean with this statement? Is this already “showing” or just “ telling” the readers? Why do you take … say, “tourism aspect” in your arguments for the Miss Universe Contest? At this stage, it is crucial to encourage students to focus on all aspects of writing (Gibbons, 2002: 67), to give assistance “not only to shape the genre but also to use language that is appropriate for written text” (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988: 51). Students should also be encouraged to avoid awkward and irrelevant expressions to written texts, such as don‟t, aren‟t. This is important to create students‟ awareness that their writing is a formal piece, composed for readers with a distant social relationship and to bring about students‟ understanding of the difference in ways of formulating meanings that are usual in speech from those that are common in writing (Dudley-Evans, 2002: 230; McCarthy and Carter, 1994). In this joint construction stage, it should also be noted that scaffolding does not have to come from the teacher, as Muijs & Reynolds (2005: 64) suggest. Students, Muijs & Reynolds further argue, can effectively scaffold each other‟s learning in a small group task, like the joint construction of the text. Step 3: Observing Students’ Development in CT and Emergent Control of the Discussion Genre Monitoring students‟ progress should be conducted throughout the teaching learning process. However, because at this stage the teacher does not have to teach the whole class, he/she can more closely observe students‟ development from their group discussions. From the perspective of CT, this can be used to evaluate whether lessons specifically designed to encourage students‟ CT abilities and dispositions are meeting their immediate goals (Norris and Ennis, 1989:150). Regarding CT, the students can start to apply CT knowledge in their writing, as indicated in what a student said to his classmate, showing an instance of his development in reasoning skills and awareness of the necessity to support arguments with data (Lipman, 2003: 170). Ari: Don‟t take a social aspect of the Miss Universe Contest, because we don‟t have a lot of data to support it (Researcher‟s note, in Emilia, 2005).
Then in another group, the researcher could hear a discussion as follows: Cinta: What if we say that participating in the Miss Universe Contest, Indonesia will be famous like Botswana and Venezuela. Riya : No, … That‟s not a fact, that‟s opinion (Researcher‟s note, in Emilia, 2005).
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Riya‟s response reflects her consciousness of the difference between facts and opinions, and her capacity to recognize situational differences and sensitivity to context and to recognize a faulty reasoning, which is “a classic case of faulty analogy” (Diestler, 2001:185). What works in Botswana, does not or will not necessarily work in Indonesia. These constitute instances of inquiry skills, as described by Lipman (2003). Moreover, students‟ control of the linguistic features of the Discussion genre can be seen from their developing awareness of various verbal processes that they can employ, as represented in the following journal entry: Don‟t use the verb “argue” all the time (Researcher‟s note, Feb, 7 th, 2003).
Students at this stage may have been aware of a variety of conjunctions they can employ and thus try to avoid repetition of conjunctions, as represented in student‟s statement below: We were confused to use the conjunctions without doing repetition (Ira, Journal entry, Feb, 10 th, 2003).
In this joint construction, a handout of expressions usually used in a text in focus is really important to help them create a more-written like texts. This is also evidenced in the language program in secondary school which will be delineated in Chapter 3. Step 4: Observing Students’ Perceptions of the Joint Construction It is profitable to discuss with the students the ways they think they learn best at this stage, especially for Indonesian students who will mostly find this stage new. There is a possibility, that joint construction is not uniformly welcomed by all students. Some students may find the stage useful, as reflected in a journal entry below: It is important to discuss with my friends about how to arrange an essay. It seems easier if we work in groups. … Having a Joint Construction is a nice activity, because we can join our ideas to construct a good essay … discussing our ideas, rearranging an essay with friends are fun … (Puri, in Emilia, 2005).
Other students, however may complain that the stage is time consuming, as represented by a journal entry below: The Joint Construction took a longer time than writing alone. It was very difficult even to write a statement of issue (Elli, in Emilia, 2005).
Regarding this, there are several aspects that a teacher should pay attention to: Grouping can be problematic (see Nunan and Lamb, 1996, Leki, 2001 in an ESL context) and one potential problem is that “quieter or less confident students may contribute nothing” (Doughty and Pica, 1986, cited in Wallace, 1992a:96; see also the
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discussion on small group work as a teaching strategy by Killen, 2007:162). This is exemplified in the following journal entry by a high achiever. I felt that Joint Construction is helping but not helping too much. We didn‟t really discuss something … when I said something, they only said “yes, that‟s good”… (Ina, in Emilia, 2005).
The problem of group work can be related to the Indonesian education system so far, which to some degree “has fostered passivity for a long time” (Shor and Freire, 1987; Shor, 1992, cited in Boyce, 2003). This may have created the students‟ assumption that learning is information gathering from the teacher „„who knows it all” (Frye, 1999; Boyce, 1996) and thus students‟ resistance to practices that required engagement, and listening to classmates (Boyce, 1996; Auerbach, 1996), as represented by a journal entry below: I know that we should share ideas and listen to others. But it‟s hard for me to listen (to friends) more than speak up until now. Anyway I hope it will change as time goes by while I am joining this class, because in this class we are learning to discuss and correct each other (Nuri, Feb, 13 th, 2003).
Regarding this, it should be noted that although joint construction or group work can be problematic, this does not mean that we have to abandon it. Working in groups, as Gibbons (2002:26) says, “is a learned skill – even some adults are not good at it” If learners are unable to work collaboratively, Gibbons further says, even the best-designed teaching activities are unlikely to be successful (see also Muijs & Reynolds, 2005 and Killen, 2007 on problems in small group work). Students should thus be made accustomed to working in groups, helping each other, discussing the topic, writing a good text collaboratively. Step 5: Consultation with each group on their draft Consultation is important to give students feedback about their writing, which is really important for the students‟ writing development. However, when a teacher is doing a consultation with a group, she/he needs to remain aware of whatever else is happening in the room (Killen, 2007:173). Teachers, as Stringer et al (2010: 8) suggest, must be alert to the nuances of action and behaviour and need to constantly be aware of what is happening, what the students are doing and how well they are accomplishing the assigned activities. Regarding this, Stringer et al (2010) suggest that teachers need to engage in conversation and discussions with students to ascertain the degree of understanding they have attained, or to understand why students are unable to perform adequately or appropriately. According to Killen (2007:173), it would be better that the teacher move close to a group that she/he anticipates will experience a problem. In this consultation, the teacher should focus first of all on the strengths of the students‟ writing (Feez and Joyce, 1998a) to encourage and reinforce students‟ first attempts at approximating the genre, even though the text produced may not contain all the ideal language features or show full control of the generic structure (DSP, 1989: 60). Assistance can be made available in both “direct telling on what to say or comments or questions that provided scaffolding for the students to create a better text” (Callaghan and Rothery, 64
1988:50) and covers all aspects of writing, including CT-related aspects, and modelled the process of writing, when she can cross out, amend and add words. This consultation is very useful for both the teacher and students. For the teacher it can be “an appealing way to respond to the students‟ work” (Celce-Murcia and Olshtain, 2000, :160), and to find out clearly “which group had gained what” (Gee, 1990), and “to help promote students‟ thinking” (Baron, 1987: 232). From a perspective of writing process, it provides many opportunities “to teach drafting, editing and proofreading skills” (DSP, 1989: 60) which might not be possible to teach in a discrete way. From the perspective of English as a second or foreign language teaching, this consultation, in which the teacher provides feedback to students‟, is really important as providing feedback to students has come to be recognised as one of the ESL (EFL) teacher‟s most important tasks (Hyland & Hyland, 2006: xv; Macaro, 2003). Feedback is to a teacher, Macaro (2003:239) argues, as swimming is to a fish. Pursuant to the consultation, the students can revise the text and the benefit of this revision can be twofold: to show students that “writing is a process” (Gibbons, 2002:67, Butt, et al, 2000: 267; Bizzell, 1992), that it is not unusual for a writer to write several drafts before she/he comes to the neat, finished one, as mentioned above, and to enhance their metacognition (Marzano et al, 1988). When no student needs further assistance, it is time to move to the Independent Construction, described in the subsequent section. An example of a Discussion text written in this joint construction (Text 2.2), based on Emilia‟s (2005) study can be presented below. The text was written in several sessions and the students wrote several drafts before they had a neat final draft. Embedded clauses are shown with squared brackets, ([[.]], and enclosed phrases are shown thus: <…>, as expained in chapter 1. Text 2.2 responds to the question “Should Indonesia Send An Envoy to the Miss Universe Contest?” Text 2.2: Should Indonesia Send An Envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant Statement of Issue Miss Indonesia contest was banned in 1996. But since 2000, the government has allowed Yayasan Putri Indonesia (Puteri Indonesia Foundation) to re-organize the contest. This means [[that the winner of this contest owns a ticket [[to participate in the Miss Universe Pageant ]]b ]]a. However, there has been a heated debate [[whether or not Indonesia sends an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant]]. This essay will discuss the arguments for and against Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant. Arguments in favour Supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant claim three positions, to do with the concept of Brain, Beauty, and Behaviour, tourism aspect, and business point of view. The first argument is related to the concept of Brain, Beauty, and Behaviour. The proponents of the Miss Universe Pageant claim that this contest emphasises on („on‟ should be omitted) three principles, Brain, Beauty and Behaviour, not merely on („on‟ should be omitted) beauty and behaviour. This, it is argued, has been proved by the fact that there is
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an interview session in the Miss Universe Pageant here the participants were questioned about their general knowledge and the way they think . This has been justified by a participant from Egypt who says, “We were questioned on everything, whether on the status of women over the last century, or on general knowledge or simply, on the way we think.” (Al Ahram weekly online, 10-16 May 2001/issue no.533). Besides that, the Miss Universe Pageant, it is said, covers a vast spectrum of academic fields. They are, for example, law students, aspiring journalists, would-be clinical psychologists, etc. Secondly, those who are in favour of the Miss Universe Pageant argue that Indonesia‟s participation in the contest will be beneficial for the country, especially for the development of tourism. In this context, Alya Rohali, a contestant from Indonesia in 1996, says, “We can introduce our own country to the world community especially when the situation in Indonesia is not stable. It is very important [[for us to heal our reputation from any media including the Miss Universe Pagean” (http://ferondi.triped.com/missindonesiadunofficial/id15.html). That participating in the Miss Universe Pageant can promote tourism of the participant‟s country has also been stated by Miss S. Marten (2000) as saying, “ I see my participation in the pageant as a good promotion for the island. … to me the true meaning of a pageant like this is young women proudly representing their home nations [[and inviting others to have a visit” (http://www.internatonalspecialreport.com/archieves/00/smaarten/17.html). Therefore, the proponents of the Miss Universe Pageant believe that Indonesia should undoubtedly take part in the Miss Universe Pageant so as to promote the country in order to create a good image throughout the world, which can eventually invite visitors to Indonesia. The third argument proposed by the supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant]] is concerned with business. It is argued that the Miss Universe Pageant can be used as an arena to promote business. In relation to this, Madhu Kishwar, an Indian Journalist, states, “Big national and international companies spent millions of dollars of promoting their products and images through association to the contest and the winner” (http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/users/sawwab/sawnet/beauty.html). A good example can be seen from the 1999 Miss Universe Pageant held in Trinidad and Tobago, where 26 investment representatives from Europe, the United States and Latin America were invited (http://www.tidco.co.tt/corporate/tidcotimes/august99/business.html). So, the supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant assert, that participating in this contest particularly if Indonesia becomes the host country, Indonesia may have opportunities [[to invite investors, [[who can help to develop the business life of the country. Arguments against On the other hand, the opponents of Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant adopt three positions related to oriental value, social aspect and feminism point of view. To begin, those who are against Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant highlight Indonesia‟s oriental values, regarding Indonesia‟s culture and religion background. For Indonesia, they claim, as the biggest Moslem Country in the world, [participating in such contest, in which each participant should participate in a swim suit, is a disgrace. In addition, that participating in the Miss Universe Pageant does not suit Islamic value has also been heralded by Gamal Hesmat, a member of Egypt Muslim Brotherhood. He says “I believe that such contests are against our values and morals, that they only demean women, rather than benefit them”. Moreover, the Miss Universe Pageant, they say, is also inappropriate to Indonesia‟s oriental values. This is stated by the Indonesian Minister for woman‟s role, “Taking part in the Miss Universe Election is against our oriental values” (http://compositeuqam.ca/videaz/doc5/hesien.html). Another argument put forward by the opponents of the Miss Universe Pageant is that participating in the Miss Universe Pageant does not bring any advantages to the society They point out that Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant will not give any significant effect for Indonesia especially for eradicating poverty. In this context, they point to what has happened in India, which has won the Miss Universe title several times. India‟s poor people cannot get benefits from the fact that India‟s contestant becomes the winner of the Miss Universe Pageant. In this context, Viviek Sharma, an opponent of the
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Miss Universe Pageant from India, says “The Miss Universe Pageant does not mean anything to the poor population… But personally to me it is the absolute wastage of time and money which should rather be spent on the elimination of poverty in the nation and on education. Moreover, the so-called beauty queens have never done anything for the nation in terms of social service or national pride” (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/talking-point/debates/south_asian/1037264.stm). Similarly, Javis, another opponent of the Miss Universe Pageant from India, suggests, “All beauty pageants are a waste of money. With that money the poor can be well supported.” The last argument against the Miss Universe Pageant is revealed by feminists. Feminists think that the Miss Universe Pageant makes an unachievable standard for women. The feminists believe that “such contests,
, only serve to perpetuate the myth [[that women are only worth something if they are young, long legged and beautiful (http://news.btt.co.uk/1/hi/talking-point/33749.stm) Regarding this, Imran Ahmad, an Indonesian opponent of beauty pageants, states, “These competitions unrealistically standardise the standard of feminine beauty (http://news.bbc.uk/1/hi/talking_point/debates/south_asian/1037264.stm). . Recommendation In summary, after looking at both arguments for and against the Miss Universe Pageant, it is obvious [[that Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant]]. Although Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant may bring advantages in terms of women‟s quality, tourism aspect and business, it seems not to suit Indonesia‟s religious, cultural and oriental values. In addition, Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant will not contribute to the attempts of poverty eradication in Indonesia. Furthermore, [[participating in the Miss Universe Pageant]] may create a bad impact on Indonesian women due to the possible emergence of women standard, which emphasizes beauty. Therefore, we recommend Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant. It will be better if Miss Indonesia concentrates on domestic social service so that she can share the benefit of [[being Miss Indonesia]] with the society.
Text 2.2 functions essentially to discuss the issue whether Indonesia should send an envoy to the Miss Universe Contest (henceforth called MUC). In the interest of space and because of the fact that the text is quite long, an evaluation of this text will only be concerned with its schematic structure. An example of evaluation of linguistic features will be given below in discussing Text 2.3, written in the Independent Construction stage. The two texts have similar characteristics in both their schematic structures and linguistic features. The schematic structure of the text suggests that the text has the essential elements of a Discussion genre as mentioned above. These are: Preview of issue: introduces the issue and establishes the existence of the debate about the issue. This introductory element can successfully function as “the opening generalisation in a text which predicts its overall development” (Coffin, 1997: 218). The introductory paragraph also successfully predicts a set of Themes in the following paragraphs. This is done by explicitly stating: Miss Indonesia contest was banned in 1996. But since 2000, the government has allowed Yayasan Putri Indonesia (Puteri Indonesia Foundation) to re-organize the 67
contest. This means [[that the winner of this contest owns a ticket [[to participate in the Miss Universe Pageant ]] ]]However, there has been a heated debate [[whether or not Indonesia sends an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant]]. This essay will discuss the arguments for and against Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant. In fact, the whole element constitutes what Martin (Martin and Rose 2007: 197-8) calls a macro-Theme, a term he uses to indicate the main preoccupation (or „topic) of the whole text, and this preoccupation is returned to periodically in „waves‟ as the text unfolds. The text is to be primarily concerned with the Miss Universe Contest (henceforth referred to as MUC) and arguments about whether Indonesia should participate in it. Arguments in favour: presents three arguments in favour of the MUC. These three arguments constitute the hyper-Themes (Martin and Rose 2006: 197-8) of this element of the text. The term hyper-Theme is used to capture that the three both refer back to the macroTheme for the element, and forward to the matters to be discussed in this element. They thus serve to give structure and order the text. The hyper-Theme is: Supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant claim three positions, to do with the concept of Brain, Beauty and Behaviour, tourism aspect and business points of view. This provides a general statement and it predicts what is to come. In this sense, this statement also functions as a macro-Theme (i) for the element (Martin, 2007: 198). To make this clear, the same pieces of the text can be, on the one hand, hyperThemes, in that they look back to the opening macroTheme in the first element, and a macroTheme (i) within this element itself. Each of the three arguments is explained in some detail. Arguments against: This stage has a similar element to that in the previous one. Thus, its hyper-Theme is: On the other hand, the opponents of Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe contest adopt three positions related to oriental value, social aspect and feminism point of view. These three positions become the arguments developed in this element and they are thus both he hyper-Themes for this element, in that they link back to the opening macroTheme in the first element, while they also constitute macro-Theme (ii), meaning they create a macro-Theme for this element.
Recommendation: presents the writers‟ critical stance or position as it is based on the arguments for and against the issue (Barnett, 1997). The element begins: In summary, after looking at both arguments for and against the Miss Universe Pageant, it is obvious [[that Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe pageant]]. Although Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss UniversePageant may bring advantages in terms of women‟s equality, tourism aspect and business, it seems not to suit Indonesia‟s religious, cultural and oriental values. This statement constitutes hyper-Theme for this element in that it identifies three matters (Indonesia‟s religious, cultural and oriental values), which refer back to
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matters discussed earlier. In addition, the element concludes with the writer‟s recommendation: Therefore, we recommend Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant. It will be better if Miss Indonesia concentrates on domestic social service so that she can share the benefit of being Miss Indonesia with the society. In Martin‟s terms (2007: 198) this whole element constitutes macroNews, because it both refers back to the opening element with its macro-Theme, and it brings the text to a close, by reviewing the points amassed as well as draws conclusions from what has been discussed in the previous stages, i.e. the possible advantages and negative impacts of Indonesia‟s participation in the MUC. (See Chapter 1 for discussion of higher level Themes). From the review of the schematic structure, Text 2.2 shows students‟ understanding and mastery of the demands of generic form of a Discussion genre, showing that they understood and achieved the purpose and the function of the genre. In terms of CL, this relates closely to the students‟ awareness of “why the text was written – that is its communicative function” (Wallace, 1992a: 34). The schematic structure indicates that the text is “interactive”, involving the management of the flow of information and thus serves to guide readers through the content of the text (Thompson, 2001: 59), with the elements of the schematic structure overtly marked by appropriate Themes (as the detailed grammatical analyses will also reveal). As indicated above, and will be shown later, the text projects forward through the employment of the introductory paragraph. It also projects back through the use of Recommendation, as they unfold. This results in a “textured sandwich” (Martin, 1992: 456), which suggests real improvement in writing and an instance of indications of good writing (Ibid: 397; Thompson, 2001), relevant to the genre (Coe, 2002). Over all, the schematic structure of Text 2.2 suggests that the text is a reasonably effective example of a Discussion genre. The text signals the shift in the discussion from clause to clause. In addition, as the analysis of macro-Theme, hyper-Themes and macro-New has shown, the overall organisation of the text flows clearly in waves as certain information is introduced, then reintroduced and finally the text is concluded. As far as CT is concerned, the schematic structure shows a good sense of clarity, precision and relevance at text level. This also indicates the students‟ capacity in “discussing ideas in an organised way” (Chaffee, 2000) or “information-organizing skill” (Lipman, 2003) taught in the teaching program. The presence of the arguments for and against, revealing various arguments from different perspectives also suggests sufficiency and breadth – two key aspects of CT standards, as well as the writer‟s capacity to cluster information in terms of their similarities and thus their grasp of the concept (Lipman, 2003, p. 180-181) of the MUC. In addition, because of the text‟s genre, the text signals the writers‟ willingness “to listen to other people‟s ideas” (Ennis, 1987; Lipman, 2003) and the writers‟ awareness of multiple perspectives or “multiple interpretation” (Gee, 1990) on the MUC – a signal of a movement toward CL. The balanced arguments also signal the writers‟ endeavour to provide “a fair presentation” (Norris and Ennis, 1989: 140), “to treat various arguments as equal” (McPeck, 1990). This suggests objectivity or “impartiality” (Lipman, 2003: 58) – one aspect of a good disposition, with which a good critical thinker would have strived to think about an issue (Langrehr, 1994: 76). Finally, the presence of a recommendation suggests students‟ ability in CT is developing, regarding their capacity to decide on a course of action, where they often
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do this best by “tentatively deciding what to do” (Ennis, 1987: 15; see also Nickerson, 1987 on characteristics of a critical thinker). 2.4.5 Independent Construction of the Text This is the final stage when students write individually or in pairs (Gibbons, 2002; Gracia, 2009) and “the teacher reminds them of the process” (Gracia, 2009:363). For an example here, which is still to do with writing a Discussion genre, students can choose another topic which is also controversial such as Working Women or Capital Punishment and the issue can be Should Women Work out side the Home? or Should Women Become Homemakers? Or Should capital punishment be implemented in Indonesia? The steps taken in this stage will include: Building Knowledge of the Field to build students‟ background knowledge and in particular the necessary English vocabulary, to enable them to write a sound and successful Discussion text and the Independent Construction itself. Students‟ achievement can be seen from the schematic structure and linguistic features of the text. An example of a student‟s text written at this stage, Text 2.3, can be seen below. Text 2.3 Should capital punishment be implemented in Indonesia? Preview of Issue Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death imposed by a competent court. It has been used for a wide variety of offences since ancient time up until now in many countries, including Indonesia. However, capital punishment has been a controversy among Indonesian people whether capital punishment is suitable and should be implemented or whether it should be abolished. Below is the discussion on arguments for and against the legalization of capital punishment. Arguments in favour The proponents of capital punishment claim at least three positions. The first argument they claim is that capital punishment is able to deter people from committing crimes. In this case, David R. Frances states, “ Capital punishment has a unique power to deter people from committing crimes” (http://www. nber.org/digest/oct98/w6484.html). Although some people may find it doubtful that capital punishment can deter crimes, the proponents of capital punishment provide a proof that there is actually a declining crime rate found in some countries which implement capital punishment such as the US and Singapore. In USA, for example, there has been a 26% reduction of murder rate. The murder rate in USA dropped from 24, 562 in 1993 to 18, 209 in 1997, which was the lowest for years – during a period of increased use of the death penalty (http://www.richard.clark32.btinternet.co.uk/thoughts/html). This fact, it is reported, also happens in Singapore. It is said that as Singapore always carries out death sentences where the appeal has been turned down, its population knows precisely what will happen to them if they are convicted of murder or drug trafficking (ibid). The second argument proposed by those who defend capital punishment relates to the incapacitation of criminals. They believe that capital punishment is the most effective way to reduce crime rather than life imprisonment. Life imprisonment, it is said, would expose prison staffs and fellow prisoners to dangerous murderer, and the risk later extends to the community, since such person may escape or be pardoned. Therefore, the proponents of capital punishment think that life imprisonment would not be equally effective with capital punishment. It is also claimed that unexecuted criminals will be able to commit further crimes, either within prison or after escaping or after being released. Regarding this, statistics from the Home Office in Britain shows that in the country, between abolition in 1964-1998, the murder rate more than
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doubled (to around 750 per annum) and there have been 71 murders committed by people who have been released after serving “life sentences” in the same period (http://www.richards.clark32.btinternet.co.uk/thoughts.html). So, capital punishment, it is asserted, is aimed to assure that criminals cannot commit crimes anymore. This has also been stated by Edward Koch, a former mayor of New York city, in his article „Death and Justice‟ that “capital punishment is to assure that convicted murderers do not kill again. Only death penalty can accomplish this end” ( in Axeliod & Cooper, 1987, Reading critically, writing well). The third argument upheld by the advocates of capital punishment, particularly in Indonesia is connected with the real condition of Indonesian prison itself. Most Indonesian people, it is said, still prefer the implementation of capital punishment rather than just put criminals behind bars due to the lack of public‟s confidence in the credibility of the prison system in Indonesia. This has been revealed by the Director of the YLBHI (a foundation for legal assistance in Indonesia), Munarman, saying “In Indonesia, the implementation of capital punishment still receives a great deal of supports from most Indonesian society. It is because they do not believe in our country‟s prison system. They do not believe that imprisonment will be able to make bad people into good ones” (http://www.detk.com/peristiwa/2003/02/07/20030207090754_shtml). This lack of public confidence on the credibility of the prison system, it is claimed, is based on the fact that some criminals, who still serve their punishment in jail are still capable of committing crimes. This has also been argued by Munarwan, that “It is almost impossible for the prison system in Indonesia to gain public‟s confidence because even a convicted drug trafficker, for example, is still fully capable of controlling their drug business from jail” (ibid). Arguments against On the other hand, the opponents of capital punishment highlight three arguments. The first one relates to the imperfect justice, due to the discrimination on the application of the death penalty. The opponents of capital punishment claim that the discriminatory or unequal use of death penalty causes it to be applied mostly to the poor and defenseless. This, it is said, is mainly because money plays a very important role in the defense of avoiding death penalty. That capital punishment is convicted mainly to the poor has been said by David Hoekema (1987), a former philosophy professor in St. Olaf College in Minnesota, in his article, „Capital Punishment: the justification of death‟, as saying “legal council depends in large measure on how much money is available for the defense. Inevitably, the death penalty has been imposed most frequently on the poor” (in Axelrod,& Cooper, 9187, Reading critically, writing well). The same thing, it is claimed by the Indonesian proponents of capital punishment, occur in Indonesia. It is argued that the legal system in Indonesia is still partial. It can be seen from the case of Akbar Tanjung. He was accused of doing corruption of 40 billion rupiahs, but he was only charged 3 years of imprisonment for his action. And worse, the sentence is never executed up until now. Moreover, the imperfection of justice proposed by opponents of capital punishment is also indicated by racism issue. Race, it is revealed, is an important factor in determining who is sentenced to die. In 1990, a report from the General Accounting Office in the US, concluded that in 82 % of the studies, those who murdered whites were more likely to be sentenced to death than those who murdered blacks (http://www. motherjones.com/scoop/scoop5.html). With regard to this issue, statistics in the US, also reveal that of 3,860 persons executed in the US from 1930 up to the time of the writing of the article, 2,066 or 54 % were black (in Alexiod & Cooper, 1987, Reading critically, writing well). The second position claimed by those who oppose capital punishment is regarding the mistaken conviction, which could lead to the execution of innocent people. They contend that innocent people can be wrongfully sentenced to death and that there is no compensation for them for this error of justice. For this, David Hoekema (1987) notes “Numerous cases of erroneous convictions in capital cases have been documented; several of those convicted were put to death before the error was discovered. … A wrongful execution is a grievous injustice that cannot be remedied after the fact” (in Alexiod & Cooper, Reading critically, writing well). In relation to this mistaken conviction issue, there has been several studies which discover that in the twntieth century, at least 400 innocent people have been convicted of capital crimes they did not commit. Of those 400, 23 were executed. (http://www.motherjones.com/scoop/scoop5.html). The third strand of the opposition of capital punishment is viewed from the criminal‟s human right. The
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protesters of capital punishment point out that all lives, including the criminals‟, are valuable. Therefore, capital punishment, it is argued, cheapens the value of human life. Regarding this, Margaret Mead (1987), an anthropologist from the US, says, “…‟a life for a life‟ need not mean destructive retribution, but instead the development of new forms of community, in which, because all lives are valuable, what is emphasized in the prevention of crime…” ( in Alexiod & Cooper, 1987, Reading critically, writing well). In relation to the human right issue, Indonesian opponents of capital punishment say that capital punishment is not relevant with the 1945 Constitution. This is stated by Irham Buana Nasution, a lawyer of Ayodha Prasad Chaubey, an Indian drug trafficker, who has been sentenced to death by Indonesian court. Recommendation Thus, after looking at both sides of the arguments, I consider capital punishment effective in deterring people to commit crimes and in incapacitating criminals to commit further crimes. Therefore, I strongly argue that capital punishment needs to be implemented in Indonesia, remembering the situation in our country itself, where crimes have been rising sharply. It especially should be focused upon drug trafficking and corruption cases because those cases have a devastating impact toward society in large scale. Even though I realize there might be some negative excess coming from the imposement of capital punishment related to imperfect justice, mistaken conviction, and violation of criminal‟s human right, I do believe that it is still needed to be imposed in our country, at least to be used as a shock therapy for those who have intention to commit crimes. However, the decision of sentencing death penalty must be fair, just and adequate. Therefore, we must be prepared to execute every criminal who commits a crime irrespective of gender, status, race, and social class.
As indicated above, the text will be analysed only in terms of the grammatical features in which the overall schematic structure is expressed. The Preview of Issue Element The opening Themes in all but the last clause in this element in Text 2.3 identify capital punishment: Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death [[imposed by a competent court. ]] It has been used for a wide variety of offences since ancient time up until now in many countries, including Indonesia. However, capital punishment has been a controversy among Indonesian people whether capital punishment is suitable and should be implemented or whether it should be abolished. The final clause starts with a marked Theme. signaling that the text is to proceed to a new element: Below is the discussion on arguments for and against the legalization of capital punishment
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Experientially, as can be seen in Table 2.4 below, the element does not use a variety of process types.
Table 2.4 Process Types Employed in the Preview of Issue Element of Texts 2.3 Process types Material Mental Verbal Intensive Circ, Cause, and Behav Possessive Text 2.3 4 3 -
Exist 1
The text uses only four material processes, one of which occurs in an embedded clause a sentence of death [[imposed by a competent court]], while the others occur I whether capital punishment should be implemented or it should be abolished. Three relational intensive processes are also used. The first of these, which is identifying, appears in: Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death…. The other two are attributive, assigning “a quality, classification and descriptive epithet” (Eggins, 1994: 256) to capital punishment. These appear in: [[whether capital punishment is suitable and capital punishment has been a controversy among Indonesian people. All the processes used in the text help to contextualise the issue of capital punishment, relevant to the function of the stage. As far as Participants are concerned, in line with the processes employed, the text assigns mostly as Token and Carrier (see Chapter 1), assigned to the same entity: Examples of participant as a Token can be seen in the following example: capital punishment is the execution of … Capital punishment Token
is Pro: Relational Identifying
the execution of Value
Moreover, some participants also function as a Goal, assigned to a referential item it in a passive clause: It has been used for a wide variety of offences since ancient time up until now in many countries). It
has been used
for a variety offences
Goal
Pro: material
Circ: Purpose
of
since ancient time up until now in many countries). Circ: Location: Time
The text does not employ considerable Circumstances at this stage as it builds information by exploiting relational processes “underlying a defining style” (McCarthy and Carter, 1994) this is the way capital punishment is and what are the relevant properties. Interpersonally, the element is without modality or personal opinion. It simply asserts facts that are known about capital punishment as a basis for proceeding with the discussion. However, towards the end of the element the writer indicates, using modality, that people differ in opinion about the implementation of capital punishment in Indonesia. The element 73
uses two modal verbs, expressed in should in positive and negative polarity: …and should be implemented, … or it should be abolished, to show the reader that there is a controversy about the implementation of capital punishment. This is again relevant to the function of the stage. Conspicuous by its absence in the text is the use of first and second person pronouns, which hence suggests that the writers had consistently developed strategies for a “reader-based approach which continually considers and accommodates an absent reader-audience” (Chafe, 1982, cited in McCarthy and Carter, 1994: 37). This, again shows a CT ability, especially in written argumentation as well as CL, particularly to with the writers‟ awareness of to whom the text has been written, as mentioned above. The Arguments in favour Element The stage opens with an unmarked topical Theme the proponents of capital punishment, relevant to the function of the stage, to serve to present arguments for capital punishment. As in the Joint Construction text, the significant feature of textual strategies in the stage can be seen from the presence the introduction to the stage, expressed in The proponents of capital punishment claim at least three positions. This introduction can predict the set of topic sentences in each paragraph of the element. This helps the text effectively develop globally, and efficiently manipulate a multiple-Theme development, which shows a feature of written mode (see Chapter 1). The development in the element can be seen below: The proponents of capital punishment claim at least three positions: The first argument [[they claim]] is [[that capital punishment is able to deter people from [[committing crimes]]. The second argument [[proposed by those [[who defend capital punishment]] ]] relates to the incapacitation (it should be” incapacity”) of critminals. The third argument [[upheld by the advocates of capital punishment, particularly in Indonesia]] is connected with the real condition of Indonesian prison itself.
The repetitive use of argument occurs in nominal groups which are created using grammatical metaphors. First is an ideational metaphor, which involves a transference of meaning, as the process of arguing is treated as a thing argument (see Martin and Rose, 2003:104-105). Second is logical metaphor, in which internal conjunctions first, second, and third are realised in things (noun phrases) (Martin, 1992: 408-409). They occur in three positions, the first argument, the second argument, the third argument. The expression of positions brings readers to another time, as “the first argument”, “the second argument” and “the third argument” names and points forward to the next (Martin and Rose, 2003:. 195). The nominalization argument, combined with internal cohesive devices first, third becomes a “staging and ordering device” (Coffin, 199: 218). This may suggest the students‟ consistent capacity in promoting relevance, clarity and precision at stage level.
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To maintain the connectedness between clauses, the writer also seems to confidently choose Themes of the clauses, following the zigzag or the linear pattern and the reiteration pattern, as can be described below: The zig-zag pattern: They believe that capital punishment is the most effective way to reduce crime rather than life imprisonment. Life imprisonment , it is said, would expose prison staffs and fellow prisoners to dangerous murderer, …
The reiteration pattern: Its populaton knows precisely what will happen to them If they are convicted of murder or drug trafficking
Apart from all striking features above, other interesting features of theme choices in the stage, can be delineated as follows: Frequent use of conjunctions realising structural Themes, seldom used at the beginning of a sentence. This indicates that the text is “highly written English” (Ravelli, 2000: 55). Instances are: although: Athough some people may find it doubtful that capital punishment can deter crime; because: It is because they do not believe in our coutnry‟s prison system; as: It is said that as Singapore always carried out death sentences …; that: It is also claimed that unexecuted criminals will be able to commit further crimes; since: … since such person may escape or be pardoned. therefore: Therefore, I strongly agree that capital punishment needs to be implemented. Some of the conjunctions above are also consequential (i.e: because, although, if, since), which indicates a movement away from the here and now situation – a feature of critical literacy. Consequential conjunctions also suggest that the writer presents reasons and conclusions (Thompson, 1996), which are essential aspects of arguments, the basic eelement of critical thinking and instances of reasoning skills. More frequency of topical Themes that identify authoritative sources, e.g. David R. Frances, The murder rate in USA, Statistics from the Home Office in Britain, shows the writers‟ sound background knowledge about the issue and help help build a sense that the field has been well- researched. The last significant feature of Themes is regarding the writers‟ attempt to foreground objectivity in their arguments through replacing first personal pronouns indicating the writer‟s positioning and collective interactional Themes, by third person pronouns, 75
like the proponents of capital punishment, and the use of impersonal it assigned as Theme in impersonal projections, expressed in it is said, it is reported, it is asserted. At times too, first and second person pronouns are replaced by nouns and nominal groups, many of which are abstract, the first argument, the murder rate, this fact, capital punishment, the risk, life imprisonment, this lack of public confidence. These indicate the writer‟s enhanced maturity in exploiting “the forms of language in written mode” (Kress, 1985a: 47). In terms of critical thinking, this indicates an attempt at objectivity, that a good critical thinker would have tried to make in thinking about an issue. Experientially, the stage commences with a verbal process: claim, with the proponents of capital punishment as a Sayer. This seems appropriate as the stage deals with arguments proposed by the proponents of capital punishment. The text uses various processes, as can be seen in Table 2.5. Process types Text 2.3
Table 2.5 Processes Employed in the Arguments in favour Element of Text 2.3 Material Mental Verbal Intensive Circ, Cause, Behav Exist and Possessive 34 8 22 9 5 3
The most striking feature of process types is that the stage (as in the jointly-constructed one) uses a considerable number of verbal and mental processes in addition to material and relational ones. This does not only reflect an analytical feature of the text, a feature of critical writing, but also suggests that the text is concerned with “dialogue” (DSP, 1994), with the unfolding of some series of arguments, put forward by those who support capital punishment. This seems to be consistent with the function of the stage and the nature of a Discussion genre. Instances of verbal processes, the significance of which has been mentioned above, occur in: In this case, David. R Frances states, and also in passive voice: it is asserted, it is said. A striking feature related to verbal processes, (which is also the case in the subsequent stage), as the result of research conducted prior to the writing activity, is the frequent occurrences of an “unconscious Participant” (Eggins, 1994: 251) which is responsible for the verbal process, such as statistics from the Home Office in Britain. Moreover, mental processes are mostly cognition to construe the experience of sensing – “to denote the mental change” (Mathiessen, 1998: 332) as in: although some people may find it doubtful that capital punishment can deter crime … , or to construe a belief, as in they believe that capital punishment is the most effective way to reduce crime …. These may indicate the writer‟s attempt to enhance the breadth and sufficiency of the texts. Other frequently appearing process types, such as material processes can be found in illustrations or examples given by the writer to support each argument, The murder rate in USA dropped … , what will happen to them. While relational processes involving attribution can be seen in: Life imprisonment would not be equally effective with capital punishment; The second argument [[…]] relates to the incapacitation of criminals. The last process type – existential occurs only occasionally, and can be found in: there have been 71 murders ….
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The use of various processes above, especially verbal and mental ones, indicates the students‟ improvement in writing capacity “which is the result of their learning to write and research, which had enabled them to hear other voices and to incorporate them in their writing and thinking” (Adam and Artemewa, 2002: 195). The presence of illustrations and examples, realised in other process types, such as material processes may suggest that the writer “did not only tell the readers but also showed them” (Chaffee et al, 2002), a typicality of a critical thinker in writing, as outlined earlier. To turn to Participants in the stage, the most striking feature, apart from those mentioned in Theme selection above, is the frequency of Participants realised in long nominal groups, some of which use clause embeddings, involving nominalisations. Examples are: The first argument they claim, the third argument [[upheld by the advocates of capital punishment, particularly in Indonesia]]. Nominalisation, which is a characteristic of all adult discourse (Halliday, 1994a: 342), as alluded to earlier, also realises a more academic register as well as the writers‟ confidence and maturity in writing the text, which in turn suggests their significant writing development (Colombi, 2002: 69-70: see also Christie, 2010a). Moreover, nominalisations, which are metaphorical expressions, play a very crucial role, especially in persuasive texts, as is the case with these texts, to make arguments “not accessible to debate” (Martin, 1985). At the same time, the presence of embedded clauses in nominalisations and other nominal groups, such as: some countries [[which implement capital punishment]]…, …the most effective way [[to reduce crime rather than life imprisonment]] shows that the writer had moved in the direction of a more “literate or written language to more formal registers that use main clauses with embedded clauses” (Colombi, 2002: 84). The final significant feature in terms of Participants is concerned with the writers‟ effort to use many ways of saying the same thing, such as how to refer to the proponents of capital punishment by providing a range of options, like: the proponents of capital punishment; those [[who defend capital punishment]]; the advocates of capital punishment. Similarly, various Circumstances help to add significant experiential information. These happen in: Circumstances of Location in place: in USA ( In USA, for example, there has been a 26% reduction of murder rate); Circumstance of Manner: precisely (Its population knows precisely that …); Circumstance of Cause: of murder or drug trafficking, (…if they are convicted of murder or drug trafficking); Circumstance of Intensity: from 24,562 in 1993 to 18,209 in 1997 (The murder rate in USA dropped from 24, 562 in 1993 to 18, 209 in 1997). The use of these Circumstances, some of which exemplify the implementation of capital punishment, gives more precision and clarity to the meaning of the propositions. In academic writing, this is desirable, advisable and even necessary to clarify the writer‟s meaning (Hinkel, 2002: 147). Interpersonally, the stage in the text effectively uses a range of instances of modality. Hypothetical modalities are expressed in various modal verbs, such as can, to construe potentiality of capital punishment in “subjective implicit orientation” (Halliday, 1994a: 359):
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[[that capital punishment can deter crime]]. In some cases, modal verb can is used to construe the potentiality, expressed in objective explicit orientation, as in: it is almost impossible [[for the prison system in Indonesia to gain public‟s confidence]]. . Other modal verbs also show probability, such as will (some instances discussed above), may and would, realised respectively in: Although some people may find; since such person may escape and Life imprisonment…would expose prison staffs… . At times too, the text uses various Mood Adjuncts to express the writers‟ judgment about the statement, such as: actually, precisely. All these modalities, may suggest the writers‟ confidence and “honesty, modesty, proper caution and diplomacy in presenting arguments” (Swales‟ 1990a: 174). This, as alluded to earlier, may entail the progression in the skill of argument, an essential component of CT, from “knowing what is true to contemplating what may be true” (Kuhn, 1991: 297). Conspicuous by its absence is the use of the first and second person pronouns, which indicates the writers‟ desire to keep her tenor impersonal. This is evidenced by the use of passive forms of mental or verbal processes when the writers presented facts, as in: it is said, that its population knows precisely, and projecting clauses or “metadiscourse” (Fairclough, 1992b): they believe. The significance of these various features of distancing devices, apart from those mentioned earlier, is that they allow the text to be understood not only by those who possess a shared, unspoken, implicit understanding of certain relevant features of the context, but also those distant readers. This is because meanings are made available not only to those who share an implicit understanding of the context (Bersntein, 1971: 14, see also DSP, 1994: 122) but also those distant readers. The Arguments against Element The element has similar linguistic features and it can be evaluated in the same way the previous element, to judge students‟ development in writing as well as their critical thinking and critical literacy skills. One thing that needs a mention in this element is the frequency of relational processes (i.e. circumstantial, cause), which do not simply indicate that the two participants are linked with each other, but there is a sense of causality in this connection (Halliday, 1994b: 141; 2002a:174). These are realised in circumstantial processes, as in: which could lead to the execution of innocent people. The effect of these relational processes is that they reduce the number of conjunctions and describe the field in a richer experience through the employment of a logical metaphor. Logically, there is a relation of consequence between the two participants: which (capital punishment) and the execution of innocent people) which is usually expressed in “if … then” (see Martin and Rose, 2003: 140-141). However, in this case, they are reconstrued as a process (causes, lead to). Thus, as Martin and Rose further argue, we can unpack such a sequence as that of two figures related by conjunctions: If the death penalty is implemented, then innocent people will be executed. Apart from logical metaphor, the use of relational processes above also involves experiential metaphors, as the participants are expressed in nominalisations (the execution of innocent people). 78
Other Transitivity elements which help to build important experiential meaning are Participants and Circumstances. In these two aspects, both writers seemed to exploit the same strategy as that in the preceding stage, to build significant experiential information. In the interest of space, therefore, they will not be described in detail here, except for two features. First relates to the presence of specific Circumstances of location in time and place, which give special impact to the readers, as mentioned above, because they may give occasions for narrative remembering, especially regular occurrences regarding capital punishment, like tomorrow morning at 8.00 a.m., in his article 'Capital Punishment: the justification of death'. These may function as “moral instruction in how to behave” (Linde, 2001, p. 526-527) to avoid capital punishment. Second, regarding the Participants the writers related the arguments presented with Indonesian law conditions by mentioning several cases, such as that stated by Nasution (Text 5.5) and the case of the chief of Indonesian House of Representative, Akbar Tanjung (Text 5.7). This implies the writers‟ evaluation on the relevance of the materials they read with the text they were constructing - a feature of CL, discussed earlier. Another significant feature of Transitivity resources in this stage is concerned with thelexis and the frequency of technical words related to capital punishment, or crimes committed by those on whom capital punishment was imposed. Instances are: execution, crimes, murder rate, death penalty, convicted, murder, drug trafficking, life imprisonment, that unexecuted criminals, murders, the prison system, the discriminatory or unequal use of death penalty, legal council, accused, sentence, innocent people, criminals, the 1945 Constitution. All these lead to the creation of a text which tends to be “restricted on a specialised topic” (Stubb, 2001: 314). This, again, indicates that the writer was well-informed, having relatively strong background knowledge about capital punishment – an important aspect of metacognition (Marzano, et al, 1988: 13-14). This, according to Barnett (1997: 70-71), constitutes a reflexive capacity, which is part of what might be termed metacritical capacities, fundamental to higher education. All these may suggest that the stage Building Knowledge of the Field in the teaching program, as described above, contributed to the students‟ confidence and competence in exploiting various technical words relevant to the topic and genre. The Recommendation Element This stage in general has similar linguistic features and can be evaluated in the same way as the previous stages of the text. However, there are some linguistic features that need a brief mention which indicate the writer‟s growing capacity in writing, critical thinking and critical litercay. Textually the stage commences with a closing structural Theme Thus, combined with a marked topical Theme after looking at both sides of arguments. The marked topical Theme in the first message, again, suggests that the writer foregrounded that the position taken or recommendation given is not superficial, but based on deep and thoughtful thinking. The writer shows the readers that she had carefully considered other perspectives, opinions or options and that they had very good, if not decisive, reasons to think that they are inadequate, 79
reasons that they were willing to share (Reichenbach, 2001: 99). Through the employment of this marked-topical Theme, the stage gathers up the meanings which have accumulated. This has led the stage to successfully function as the conclusion of the text. Conspicuous is the presence of first person pronoun I indicating the writer thematising themselves, realised in interpersonal Themes, I srongly argue; I do believe; Even though I realise. These expressions indicate that the writer “emphasised the point” (Eggins, 1994, Ravelli, 2000), which is required in the Discussion genre, and “took a position” (Ennis, 1987:12) or a standpoint (van Eemeren, etal, 2002) or a critical point (Barnett, 1997) – a critical thinking disposition concerned with in this study. Another interesting lingustic feature in this stage concerns interpersonal strategies employed by the writer. That is the way she employed objective modulations and her capacity to exploit interpersonal metaphors by turning obligations from commands to statements. Expressions that the writer intends as commands are realised as statements. This effort, to foreground objectivity of a command is apparent and indicated by the frequent use of passive voice, as in: that capital punishment needs to be implemented; it is still needed to be imposed… . This may suggest the writer‟s capacity in exploiting various linguistic resources to make the communication with the reader work best, by attempting to sustain their objectivity in presenting arguments. Moreover, in terms of expressing modulation, the writer seemed to have a richer linguistic resources, shown by the exploitation of varying vocabularies to express modulation, or necessity, such as need (above) and must (twice). The first must in However, the decision of [[sentencing death penalty]] must be fair, just and adequate, corresponds to the proposed rule or law (McCarthy and Carter, 1994: 130) or the social obligations inherent in the information (Peters, 1986: 175) and the second must in Therefore we must be prepared to execute criminals …is the concluding evaluation by the author and represents a strong imperative. The use of modulated declaratives, rather than commands to express obligation, indicates the writers‟ capacity in interpersonal metaphors the advantage of which are: First, the obligation can be graded (DSP, 1992), so the strength of the command can be adjusted, such as in examples above, where the writer used must and need which are high modulation and should median (Halliday, 1994a: 362; Eggins, 1994: 189). Second, declarative commands can have more than just you as the subject. This means that responsibility for carrying out the command can be shared around, thus cooperative action (DSP. 1992: 206). Moreover, declarative commands make no claims that the speaker is the source of the command. Because they are depersonalised and given an impersonal authority which is not specified, they are more difficult to challenge (Kress and Hodge, 1979:123-124). Another interesting matter regarding interpersonal strategies is the writer used first person pronoun I and we, which makes explicit the “ownership” or “source” of the modalisation. The use of these first person pronouns is desirable in this element as it is at this stage that the writer is required to state his/her point in the Discussion genre. As the strong personal
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opinions appear in one and the last part of the text, after more impersonal and factual cases had been established, as discussed above, the employment of the first person pronouns makes the text more powerful. Overall, the interpersonal strategies used in this stage show the writers‟ endeavour to state forceful opinions, but in an objective and careful way, which is typical of a critical thinker. Interpersonal strategies also show the writer‟s critical thinking disposition, especially in “presenting argumentation in written form” (Ennis, 1987: 15). Finally, the fact that the writer made recommendations for action, shows that she engaged in “knowledge-transformation” and that she is “evaluating rather than reporting” (Dudley-Evans, 2002: 132), a feature of critical reading. 2.5 Conclusion This chapter has presented a language program implemented with students teachers at a tertiary level in Indonesia. It has shown that a synthesis of practices suggested by the theories of critical thinking, critical literacy, critical pedagogy and the SFL genre-based approach is possible and desirable in an English as a foreign language context like Indonesia. The teaching program, as shown above in this chapter can be considered to have been successful in many ways. It can help students develop their writing skills as well as critical thinking and critical literacy. This can be seen from, among others, the texts the students produced in the program, which present various apects of a more mature text, with sound arguments through exploiting different linguistc resources and showing strong background knowledge of the topic. A similar program can be applied in the lower levels of education, such as in secondary and primary levels, as will be exemplified in the following chapters. Chapter 3 will present an instance of the implementation of the SFL GBA in the Indonesian context in a secondary class where students, as in the program described in this chapter, also learned English as a foreign language.
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Chapter 3: A language program at the secondary level This chapter will demonstrate how two major traditions of scholarship can be used to inform the development of critical language and literacy programs at the secondary school level. They are: Action research – a tradition that involves researchers in partnership in researching practical educational problems with a view to improving them. Genre based pedagogy – a tradition already explained in earlier chapters, and in this case employed in the light of the most recent secondary school English curriculum for Indonesia (need proper ref here).
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3.1 Introduction Where chapter 2 presented a language and literacy program at the tertiary level, this chapter will present a language program conducted cooperatively with a teacher and a class of secondary school students in Indonesia using action research (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988a,b, 2005; Carr & Kemmis, 1993; Cohen & Manion, 1985; McTaggart (1990); Smith (1990) and Reason & Bradbury, 2001; Macintyre, 2000; McNiff & Whitehead, 2005; Noffke, 2009; Wells, 2009; Noffke & Somekh, 2009; Stringer et al, 2010). Like other action research, this research aimed to bring about useful practical knowledge and understanding for all parties involved in the teaching of English. The interest was in exploring the SFL GBA, including basic principles, aims and implementation of each step of the approach in the classroom in order to promote an improved quality in the teaching of English. Enhancement of teachers‟ understanding of both the theoretical and practical aspects of the SFL GBA will be of great value to help them promote their teaching quality, and this in turn will eventually enhance students‟ achievement in their learning of English. Moreover, like other action research, this kind of program should also uphold the principle that everyone in the program has a status, in that everyone has something to share and to contribute . The SFL genre based approach is compatible with the 2006 or the 2007 curriculum of English for International standard schools in Indonesia (Depdiknas, 2007). Here, we will focus on the implementation of the genre-based approach in two teaching cycles, as suggested in the 2006 English curriculum of Indonesia (Depdiknas, 2006). The two cycles are: A written cycle which aims to develop students‟ reading and writing ability. In this cycle, all stages of the genre-based approach can be implemented, such as: Building Knowledge of the Field, Modelling, Joint Construction and Independent Construction. A spoken cycle which aims to help develop students‟ spoken language ability. Like in the written cycle, in this cycle all stages of the genre-based approach were implemented in the study reported here, including: Building Knowledge of the Field, Modelling, Joint Construction and Independent Construction. Apart from the stages and basic principles of the SFL GBA, the program reported in this chapter, implemented as it was in an English as a foreign language context, also emphasised two aspects. These are: The important characteristics of a successful teacher, as reported by Ladson-Billings (1994, cited in Allington & Johnston, 2002: 22) which are also relevant to diaogic education from critical pedagogy. There are at least two characteristics: the first is that the teacher should be sure that all students can learn. The second is that the teacher should try to help students to achieve excellence but attach a great importance to individual uniqueness. This is based on the belief that “At risk students can be taught to perform successfully at demanding academic level” (Richardson, Morgan & Fleener, 2006:34).
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As in the previous program at the tertiary level, the program reported in this chapter also emphasises the necessity of the use of the students‟ native language, in this case bahasa Indonesia. This has been guided by theoretical discussions and research findings about the use of the students‟ native language, whish suggest that the first language may contribute to student target language comprehension, use and learning and that a small amount of first language use may indeed lead to more comprehensible input and target language production (Turnbull & Dailey-O‟Cain, 2009: 5). 3.2 The Indonesian English curriculum The teaching of English in Indonesia has had a long history, since independence in 1945. The curriculum of English in Indonesia has gone through several changes, starting from “The Old Style Curriculum, The New Style Curriculum, The 1984, The 1994, 2001, 2004 curricula” (Kasihani, 2000) and the last one is The 2006 curriculum, which is called the KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan/ Curriculum of Educational Unit). Students of secondary schools are expected to develop their English in all language skills, including listening, speaking, reading and writing. It is said in the curriculum of English (Depdiknas, 2006, see also the standard competence of English in for international standard schools released by Depdiknas, 2007) that the teaching of English should focus on the development of four language skills, and each skill should cover the following: Listening Students can make meaning of simple transactional and interpersonal spoken discourse in formal and informal situation, in different text types like: recount, narrative, procedure, descriptive, report, in daily life contexts. Speaking Students are able to express meaning in simple transactional and interpersonal spoken discourse, in formal and informal situations, in text types such as: recount, narrative, procedure, descriptive, report, in daily life contexts. Reading Students are able to make meaning of simple transactional and interpersonal written texts, in formal and informal situations, in different text types such as: recount, narrative, procedure, descriptive, report, in daily life contexts. Writing Students are able to express meaning in simple transactional and interpersonal written texts in the forms of recount, narrative, procedure, descriptive, report, in daily life contexts.
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Unlike the previous curriculum of English, the 2006 curriculum of English in Indonesia, does not recommend explicitly any particular teaching method. Teachers are just given a guideline on language skills that have to be developed when students learn English. Teachers can use any method in order to teach their students. However, the aim of the teaching of English in the junior high school, stated above, makes clear that the 2006 curriculum of English in Indonesia emphasises the students‟ mastery of different text types and development of language skills, which is in line with the SFL GBA. Thus, although this method is not mentioned explicitly, it is clear that the curriculum is based on the theory and concepts of the SFL GBA, which was initially developed in Australia, and now has been used not only in Australia but also in other countries from primary up to tertiary levels. Therefore, the SFL GBA is still relevant to the 2006 curriculum and can be applied in the classroom to teach English, especially in secondary schools. 3.3 Action research The program described here is based on three cycles of action research (Emilia et al, 2008) which involved the implementation of the SFL GBA, focusing on written and spoken language as suggested in the 2006 curriculum of English in Indonesia. The study involved two university researchers, one female teacher and one class of 44 eighth grade students for one semester. All involved in this study together acted as learners, wanting to find out more about what was happening in the English classroom and to contribute to our understanding of the processes of English teaching and learning in Indonesian contemporary schools in general, and in the class involved in particular. Apart from that, the study was also about developing partnership between teachers and university researchers, in which distinctions between theory and practice are challenged and expertise is distributed as we learn together (Baumfield, et al 2008:1). Regarding this partnership, the researchers tried to be aware of a possible internal challenge (Johnston, 2009: 245) in doing action research with classroom teachers. That is, as Johnston argues, there is an inherent power imbalance in a great many collaborative relationships, especially teacher-researcher partnership, and this has the potential to create problems. Therefore in commenting on what happened in the classroom and then acting upon the results of the analysis, we – that is, the academic researchers, led by Emilia - were very careful. Fortunately, the teacher involved was open-minded and was willing to learn, even though she already had a strong background knowledge of the SFL GBA and she was a very experienced teacher. It was thus kept in mind that to create a partnership like this was not easy, for it can be difficult to find teachers who are willing to be observed and to work cooperatively with researchers from outside the schools. Like other action research, this research has three dimensions: professional, personal, and political (see Noffke, 2009 and Carr & Kemmis, 2009). In the professional dimension, the focus is on issues related to developing the practices of schooling and the enhancement of the teaching profession. The personal dimension involves the individual process of examining one‟s own practice, in this case the teacher‟s and researchers‟ practice. This concerns questions around individual actions, how one might do things differently to improve one‟s practice, or initiate research with a central emphasis on the value of the teacher‟s own voice. Finally, the political dimension focuses on the interest, in this case in developing students
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who can write English well, who will thus develop useful skills, and build a sense of agency in dealing with life issues in the future as well as a sense of civic participation in the building of more democratic social and political relations, as pointed out by Noffke (2009: 8-18; see also Carr & Kemmis, 2009). One matter about action research should be noted here, that is, “action research is practical, and it is so practical that when people meet the idea they often say, “that‟s what I do in any case, what‟s different?” (McNiff & Whitehead, 2005:2). What is different, as McNiff & Whitehead further explain, is that action research insists on teachers justifying their claims to knowledge by the production of authenticated and validated evidence, and then making their claims public in order to subject them to critical evaluation. Hence, it is also believed in this study that “if we want to improve the opportunities for learning in school, we must find ways to create the conditions for the dialogue of thinking together to become the dominant mode of the interaction,” (Wells, 2009:55). These conditions, Wells further suggests seem to include, among others, the following: The topic must be of interest to the participants; Individual students must have relevant ideas, opinions or experiences that they want to share; Others must be willing to listen attentively and critically. Overall, following the 2006 curriculum of English for junior high school in grade 8 in Indonesia, it was decided to focus on the teaching of the personal Recount genre, using the SFL GBA, and exploring its teaching using an action research cycle. Students would be asked to talk and share information about their personal experience in the past, and they would also be asked to write about them.. As to the topics, it was decided that these would be health and vacations. The teaching program outlined below has the following phases: a diagnostic phase, in which students‟ capacities are established, and any problems are identified, and a therapeutic phase, in which steps are taken to address the problems. However, before providing an account of these, it is important that the teacher and researchers understand the nature of a Recount genre. Hence, the next section will provide an overview of the schematic structure and grammatical features of a Recount. 3.4 An overview of characteristics of a Recount text A Recount text, especially a personal Recount is a text which retells activities in the past. A Recount text has the following characteristics: Purpose: To retell what happened and this can involve the writer‟s personal interpretation. Focus: A sequence of activities written chronologically. Types: Recount can be classified into:
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Personal Recount: Retelling personal experiences of the writer; Factual Recount: Retelling an event or an incident, like news or accident reports sometimes found in newspapers; Imaginative Recount: Creating an imaginative character and imaginative events, like a day in a puppy life. A Recount can be based on the writer‟s personal experience or imaginative, outside the writer‟s experience (Western Australian Education Department, 1997:45). A Recount has a schematic structure that is displayed in Table 3.1 below, adapted from Derewianka (1990); DSP (1994); Christie & Derewianka (2008); Martin & Rose, (2008). Schematic Structure Orientation
Table 3. 1 The Schematic Structure of a Recount Text Function Orients the readers to the events that follow which introduces character(s) in a setting of time or place (or sometimes both) (Some Recounts, introduced to Indonesian students, like those written by the students in this study, has an Opening Salutation (Hi, My name is Karina … ).
Record of Events
Give a sequence of events .
Reorientation (and sometimes Comments)
Returns the reader to the point of departure (and sometomes the writer also gives comments on the whole sequence of events described). Rounds off the text, normally returning to the protagonists to the point whence thy came .
Examples of Recounts can be found in a biography, an autobiography, news items, history, a letter, a journal, or a testimony of a witness of an event or insident, accident report made to claim for an insurance (Anderson & Anderson, 1997; Durkin, Ferguson & Sperring, 2006). Some Recounts have an evaluative comment or a conclusion which may constitute the writer‟s comment on events described previously, but this is just optional. Evaluative comments are often comments reflecting the writer‟s feeling about the events mentioned in the previous part of the Recount (Western Australian Education Department, 1997). The conclusion is written in the last paragraph and because this part is optional, some Recounts may not have this conclusion paragraph. Some linguistic features of Recounts A Recount also has several linguistic features, among others: Use of specific participants: a younger brother, sister, mother, father, or the writer him/herself: I, my brother, my mother (I have an older sister. Her name is Anin … ); Use of the past tense: (Last school holiday I decided to spend my vacation…); 87
Use of temporal and additive conjunctions to connect the messages of clauses (Martin, 2009: 156) and help make the text cohesive: After, when, then, before, during, or conjunctions such as “first, next, then”; Personal comments (except for factual Recount) (see Derewianka, 1990:15-16) (The holiday was cool … : I was happy because I had a great vacation in Italy). After describing the features of a Recount text which is the focal text in this study, it is now time to describe each activity conducted in each cycle of the action research. 3.5 The teaching program: Action research cycles At one level, the idea of participatory action research is straightforward enough (McTaggart, 1997: 27). Social psychologist, Kurt Lewin (1946, 1952, cited in McTaggart, 1997: 27), inventor of the term action research in English usage, described action research as proceeding in a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of planning, acting, observing, and evaluating the results of the action. In practice, the process begins with the idea that some kind of improvement or change is desirable (see also Macintyre, 2000: 1). In deciding just where to begin in making improvements, as Kemmis & McTaggart (1988; 1997:27) argue, a group identifies an area where members perceive a cluster of problems of mutual concern and consequencs. The group decides to work together on a thematic concern (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988, cited in McTaggart, 1997:27). In each stage, to follow Stringer et al (2010) and to some extent Macyntire (2000), activities in each cycle of each stage can be described in three different phases, including: Look, Think, and Act. To follow Mcyntire (2000) all activities conducted were also informed by the literature. Look is the stage when classroom observations were conducted by the researcher, to see to what extent the SFL genre based approach had developed, whether it was successful, what aspects could be improved, whether students‟ learning could be enhanced, and what strategies could be used to enhance students‟ learning. Think is when the researcher and teacher discussed the above matters in the post observation conference and before the teaching learning process began, and they analysed the evidence obtained from observation. This phase also involved tentative action plan, consideration of different strategies. Act is when the teacher and researchers took action to improve the teaching practice and students‟ learning. This stage also involved monitoring the effects or evaluation of strategies used. Thus, to follow Stringer et al (2010), the cycle of the action research can be described in three phases as described in Figure 3.1 below:
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(Gather Information Observe Classroom)
(Gather Information Observe Classroom)
Look
Think
(Gather Information Observe Classroom)
Look
(Reflect Analyse Classrom Activity)
Think
Act
(Reflect Analyse Classrom Activity)
Act
(Plan, Teach, or Evaluate)
Look
(Plan, Teach, or Evaluate)
Think
(Reflect Analyse Classrom Activity)
Act
(Plan, Teach, or Evaluate)
Figure 3.1 Action research cycles (From Stringer et al, 2010: 8)
Activities to collect data in all stages involved classroom observations, interviews and discussion with the teacher in post-observation conference and discussions with the students inside and outside the classroom. Document analysis was also conducted, especially to do with students‟ work and the curriculum of English for Junior High School in Indonesia and some text books used in the class. Below is the discussion of each step to provide detailed information on how every step of the SFL GBA can be implemented at a secondary level of education in an Indonesian context, especially in teaching a Recount text. 3.5.1
Diagnostic Phase: Cycle 1
Activities in each stage can be described below. 3.5.1.1 Phase 1: Look In this stage the researchers asked these questions:
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Does the research project address a concrete issue or practical problem? Is the research sufficiently small scale to be combined with a routine workload? Regarding the GBA, the questions were:
To what extent is the SFL GBA developed in the teaching of English? In what way should the teaching be improved? How will the pupils‟ learning be enhanced? What strategies can be tried to bring about the enhancement of students‟ learning?
As in the program described in Chapter 2, this program took account of students‟ perspectives. Flutter and Ruddock (2004, cited in Baumfield et al, 2008:36-37) give a number of reasons why student consultation is a key to improving teaching and learning. These will be described below. For pupils: Involving pupils in the discussion about teaching and learning
Develops an understanding and awareness of learning processes; Helps pupils to see learning as a serious matter; Promotes the development of higher order thinking skills (metacognition); Raises pupil‟ self confidence and self- esteem; Allows pupils to acquire technical language for talking about learning.
For teachers: Involving students in the discussion about teaching and learning:
Offers teachers feedback to help improve aspects of their practice; Can offer help to improve the quality of teacher-pupil relationships; Enables teachers to identify problems impeding pupils‟ progress; Helps to create a more collaborative classroom environment; Can be used to develop new ideas to improve teaching and learning.
For schools involving pupils in the discussion about teaching and learning:
May suggest new directions for school improvement; Can contribute to monitoring and evaluating processes for school self-review; Helps to establish a more positive learning culture within the school; Provides a practical expression of ideas taught in ciitizenship education; Encourages pupils and teachers to feel that they are valued and respected members of an inclusive, collaborative learning community.
When all data needed had been obtained, the next phase was to analyse it, when the researcher and teacher thought about the meaning of the data which would become the basis of action for improvement. 3.5.1 2 Phase 2: Think
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The observations made in the diagnostic step provide a broad description of the class, in a manner which is common in Indonesian contexts. These are, among others: The class was big. Different from the other programs proposed in this book, the class involved in the program reported here consisted of 44 students, and this is common in Indonesian schools. This big class made the teacher think that feedback to individual students about their writing was impossible to do in the classroom. Certainly, feedback needs a special technique to handle students‟ work, to manage a conference in ways that pay attention to each student‟s development and needs. The class did not have sufficient sources for learning. Visual aids that can help students learn English, like those available in Australian schools, as will be described in Chapter 4, were not available. This has resulted in the students being not immersed in the English language learning. A print-rich environment is really needed by the students who learn English literacy (Allington & Johnston, 2002:23), even in upper levels of secondary school and tertiary level. The physical classroom environment can be seen in the picture below.
Picture 3.1 Seating arrangement in an Indonesian classroom
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Moreover, regarding the implementation of the SFL GBA, which is the focus of the study, the evidence in the diagnostic stage revealed the following: Classroom activities were to some extent relevant to the stages of the SFL GBA, as proposed by the theorists, and as discussed in Chapters 1 and 2. The teacher, like many other Indonesian teachers, seemed to have a good understanding of the SFL GBA, including the stages of the SFL GBA. Many teachers, including the one involved in this study, have attended a lot of trainings about the English curriculum, which is in large part to do with the SFL GBA. However, it is also possible that the teacher might not clearly understand the purpose and theoretical basis of each stage of the SFL GBA and what activities should be conducted in each stage. For example, teachers are sometimes uncertain about whether the stages of the SFL GBA should run in a linear way, or in a lock step, or whether all stages should be conducted in one meeting only. Regarding the implementation of the SFL GBA, it was found that the students and the teacher, who at that time dealt with the topic on health, went through each stage of the SFL GBA in only one meeting. As this is not recommended in the SFL GBA, this needed to be discussed. First of all was to do with the stage Building Knowledge of the Field. This stage was used to introduce the focal text to the students, including the linguistic features of the text. Students in this stage were also asked to list as many vocabulary items as possible from different sources, including the resource book and newspapers. This is not quite appropriate as the aim of the stage, as alluded to in Chapters 1 and 2, is to build students‟ background knowledge about the topic, not about the text in focus. Moreover, that the students only listed vocabulary items did not seem to help them to create a good Recount text. While vocabulary is very important, students also must understand the nature of the text they are to create in writing, and this involves work on the overall schematic structure. This suggests the need to promote the teacher‟s understanding of the aim and theoretical basis of the GBA pedagogy. It also suggests that the teacher needs to understand the stages in the target genre and their purpose. The second matter was to do with the Modelling. The Modelling stage was conducted in a quite an appropriate way in that the teacher showed the model text in a transparency. This is relevant to the suggestion from SFL genre-theorists to allow the teacher and the students to share comments and to talk about the text as a class more easily. The students, based on informal conversation with them, also liked to have the model text presented in a transparency. However, the Modelling was seemingly too short and the explanation was not detailed enough. Therefore, the students, as shown in the texts they wrote, did not yet have a clear understanding of the text in focus in terms of the schematic structure and linguistic features, including expressions that they could use in the text that they would write in the joint construction and independent construction.
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The third matter was to do with the joint construction text. In this stage the students in group of threes reconstructed a jumbled text into a coherent text.The teacher apparently regarded this activity as an acceptable alternaive to Joint Construction as the SFL GBA normally considers it. The text was made by the teacher. This activity took quite a long time as the jumbled text that the students had to rearrange was put outside the class and displayed on a wall only. So, each student had to go out of the class to see the text. Some students were just staying in the class and did not seem to be actively involved in the session. Regarding this, there were two matters that needed to be discussed with the teacher. First of all, the fact that the Joint Construction was to do with rearranging the text was not appropriate as the main aim of this phase was to enable students to create their own text in groups to ensure that they had a clear understanding of the focal text in terms of the schematic structure and linguistic features of the text and also the background knowledge about the topic they wrote. Moreover, the fact that the students were not given a text led to a waste of time which actually could have been used by the students to enhance their understanding of the text and their writing skills. The fact that the students rearranged a jumbled text also did not give the students a sense that writing is recursive process, that they have to write in a long process, needing to revise, to edit and to proofread (Gibbons, 2002). The result was that the text written by all groups of students was the same, and an example of a text that one group of students wrote in the Joint Construction can be seen below. Text 3.1 An example of a jumbled personal Recount (Rrearranged by the students in the Joint Construction stage) 2. My name is Andre I am fourteen years old I have a little brother 7. His name is Andy He is four years younger than me Two days ago Andi had a fever 6. My mother tried to lower the fever. By giving him some medicine However until the next day his fever had not gone out 3. So, she took Andi to the hospital In the hospital, the doctor examined Andy Then he said, that Andi had dengue fever. 5. My mother was very worried. My father tried to calm her down. Because Andy‟s illness was not very bad. 4. There is still a hope, said the doctor to my mother. Everyday the doctor checked Andy And gave him the proper treatment and medicine 1. Finally, a week after Andy‟s fever had gone.
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he doctor told us that his critical moment had passed. And Andy could go home as soon as possible.
The text above has the following elements or schematic structure relevant to a Recount text. These are: Salutation: Hi, my name is Andre. Orientation: I have a little brother. He is four years younger than me. His name is Andi. Record of Events: starting from Two days ago Andi had a fever … through to ..Finally a week after, Andy‟s fever had gone. Reorientation: The doctor told us that Andy‟s critical moment had gone. And Andi could go home as soon as possible. The text above also indicates that the students, when asked to rearrange a jumbled text, had a good control of the schematic structure of a Recount text. However, when they were asked to write individually, as will be shown later, the students in general, even those categorised into high achievers seemed to still need assistance in writing a successful Recount text, both in terms of the schematic structure and linguistic features. The last matter to do with the SFL GBA concerned the independent construction of the text which was conducted in one sitting and was conducted in a formative test. This again, does not seem to be appropriate, as writing was not taught as a process, which is actually an issue in the SFL GBA in that it focuses on the product (see the discussion in Christie, 2010b) and the writing condition like this did not give the students a real writing experience that a professional writer usually goes through, that is that they have to have time to revise, to edit and to proofread. Examples of texts the students wrote in this stage can be seen in Tables 3.2 below, written by a student categorised as a low achiever. The text, as can be seen below, was written in one paragraph, which suggests that the students at this stage did not yet have a good control of the schematic structure of a Recount text which should have an Orientation, Record of events and Reorientation, all of which should be written in different paragraphs. Text 3.2 An example of a Recount text written in the diagnostic stage Orientation
A week ago I was sick.
Record of Events
I to attack disease a influenza or cold. I went to the hospital. I a check up in my disease. After me check up a doctor talk to me that me to attack disease influenza in serious condition. And a doctor gave me treatment and medicine. My medicine shape tablet . I hoppen my sick quick recover. My doctor gave me suggestion for not eat ice and sweet foods. May my sick quick recover. I must obedient at suggestion. But when me sick my parents very panic ever me sick my parents bring me to the hospital. I promise to not eat ice and sweets foods because that‟s can make me sick again. When I was sick I can‟t playing with my friends, I can‟t go to school. If me not sick my parent can bring me stroll and me can playing with my friends and me can go to school. While I sick I always check up to can treatment
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intensive and to cure my sick. My docter gave me prescription to me health. Reorientaion
My mother called so that to me must listen suggestion a doctor.
Moreover, from the linguistic features, at a glace it can be seen that the writer still struggled to write a successful Recount as she still made a lot of grammatical mistakes. She did not seem to have a sense of grammar, and made mistakes in several apsects below: Subject-verb agreement (I to attack disease, a influensa or cold …). This expression is actually a word-for word translation of an expression in bahasa Indonesia. The expression suggests the student‟s struggle in subject-verb agreement ( I to attack) in the use of an article in English (a influensa). Inappropriate lexical choices (I hoppen my sick quick recover). The writer indeed shows some understanding of the use of past tense, as in: A week ago I was sick; I went to the hospital; The doctor gave me suggestion … . However, in general this student does not seem to have “explicit knowledge” (Ellis, 2009: 11) of English grammar. Knowledge of grammar (of whatever kind), as suggested by Elder & Ellis (2009: 167) is an important component of an L2 proficiency. All these suggest that scaffolding provided by the teacher is really needed by the student in terms of grammar and control of the schematic structure of a Recount text and therefore writing should be taught as a process (Gibbons, 2002; Gracia, 2009) when students should be given time to revise, to edit and to proofread their writing. Text 3.2 also suggests the need for ”direct telling” (Callaghan & Rothery, 1989) of linguistic features of a Recount text more than once for this student, given that there are so many grammatical mistakes she made in the text and there are so many aspects that need improvement. All these also suggest the necessity of explicit teaching about linguistic features and grammar relevant to the focal text. Another text, Text 3.3, written by a mid achiever at this stage can also be seen in Table 3.3 below, written by a girl categorised as a mid achiever. The text, as can be seen below was written in two paragraphs. The first is a Salutation: My name is Karina. Iam fourteen years old. The second paragraph describes what happened to her and she mentioned all events in one paragraph. A more mature Recount lists events in paragraphs and each event is written in a different paragraph, as can be seen in the Recount plan offered by the Western Australia Education Department (1997) below. This may suggest that explicit teaching on the schematic structure is still needed by the students categorised as mid achiever. The Modelling stage should be conducted in a more comprehensive way, providing students with a variety of texts which can lead them to have a good control of the schematic structure of the focal text.
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In terms of linguistic features, the text shows some grammatical mistakes, such as: Thee weeks ago when I am at the school … Which suggests the students‟ capacity to use past tense and the use of article “the” which is not appropriate. However, compared with Text 3.2, this text is in some ways much better and shows the writer‟s emerging control of some linguistic features of a Recount text and explicit knowledge of English grammar. These are among others: Use of specific participants: I am fourteen years old. Use of a past tense (despite the mistake mentioned above): When I arrived at home; My mother gave me some medicine. Use of some linguistic resources for connecting messages via temporality: next in The next morning …; Finally after three days … ; addition: And he said …; causality: … because my illness was not very bad; So, I was recovered from my illness. Salutation
Text 3.3. Another example of a Recount text written at the diagnostic stage My name is Arina. I am fourteen years old.
Orientation:
Three weeks ago when I am at the school, in the middle of English lesson, I am dizzy and felt faint.
Record of Events:
When I arrived at home I still felt faint. So, my mother gave somemedicine and vitaminC to me. After three days I have a stomachache . So my mother gave me stomachace medicine. But after two days my stomachache have not gone. So, my mother took me to the hospital. In the hospital the doctor examined me. And he said I have a diarhea. My mother was very worried. My father told him to calm down because my ilness was not very ad. The doctor gave me the proper treatment and medicine. He told me I must get some rest and drank lots of liquids. The next morning I still stomachache and still often went to the bathroom. Finally, after three days, my stomachache have gone.
Reorientation
So, I was recovered from my illness. I don‟t want illness again.
In terms of thematic progression, the writer could employ reiteration and zig-zag Theme progressions. The reiteration Theme progression can be seen below: When I arrived at home I still felt faint.
Moreover, the zigzag pattern, when the parts of the Rheme in the previous clause becomes the theme in the following clause, can be seen below: In the hospital the doctor examined me And he said ….
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Different process types, including relational processes to describe the desease: My illness was not very bad; My mother was very worried; material processes: My mother took me to the hospital; verbal processes to involve dialogue in the text: My mother said: the doctor told me …. The presence of verbal processes or dialogues in a text suggests an important writing skill development (Kress, 1982). The use of modality, such as must in I must get some rest. The use of this modality, although it does not occur frequently can be “indicative of acknolwedgement of interpersonal relationship and the social structures governing appropriacy of language” (Amstrong, 2009: 148). The writer still indeed needed some help in creating a successful Recount text. However, if only she had been given an opportunity to revise the text, there was a possibility that the text would be better and achieved its purpose more successfully. This again, suggests the need for time for revision and the need for writing to be taught as a process. The last example of texts written by a boy, categorised as a high achiever in joint discussion between the teacher and the researchers can be seen in Texts 3.4. below. In terms of the schematic structure, Text 3.4 is similar to Texts 3.2 and 3.3, showing he did not fully understand the genre. He wrote the text in two paragraphs. The writer did not seem to be aware that a text, a Recount in particular, should have an Orientation, Record of Events, and reorientation, all of which should be written in a different prargraph. Record of Events in such a long text as Text 3.4, should definitely be written in more than one paragraph. This confirmed to the researchers and the teacher that the modelling stage, including explicit teaching about the text structure, was essential if students were to achieve a good control of the genre. However, in terms of linguistic features, the text shows a lot of aspects that indicate the writer‟s maturity and grasp of English grammar and linguistic features of a Recount text. These can be seen from several aspects below. Successful use of tense. The writer uses present and past tenses in appropriate places. Thus he uses the simple present tense tointroduce himself and his brother: Hi, my name is Irfan Argya, … My brother‟s name is … . The writer can also successfully present tense in dialogues involved in the text written in directive speech (e.g. “There is still hope” said Dr. Khodijah; Finally Dr. Khodijah said: “You can go home this day”). These dialogues, as indicated above, suggest the writer‟s significant development in writing ability and make the text more lively. These dialogue in present tense did not appear in other texts. Salutation Orientation
Text 3.4 An example of a Recount text written in the diagnostic stage Hi, my name is Muhammad Irsa. Please call me Irsa. I am thirteen years old. Now I want to tell you about the story of my brother. My brother‟s name is Marwan. He is seven years old.
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Record of events
Last year, my brother (had sick). My father and my mother was very worried. So, they gave him some medicine to lower the fever. My father called the doctor to my house. The doctor‟s name was Khodijah. She was very kind. Dr. Khodijah examined my brother‟s body. Then she told to my father and my mother that my brother suffered from typhus. So, Dr. Khodijah took my brother to the hospital. In the hospital Dr. Khodijah examined my brother‟s body again. She took the stetoscope and thermometer to checked my brother‟s body. “there is still hope” said Dr. Khodijah to my father and my mother. My mother was very worrid. But my father tried to calm her down because my brother‟s illness was nt very dangerous. So, my brother stayed in the hospital for a while. My brother didn‟t go to the school because he was in the hospital. Every day I went to the hospital after school to meet my brother. Sometimes my brother‟s friends and teachers went to the hospital after school to check marwan. My brother was very happy because he could meet his friends in the hospital. In the hospital my brother made a new friend. His name was faizal. He suffered the same illness. Everyday my brother and his friend played together in the hospital. He was very happy because he could play again with his new friend. He wasn‟t alone again. In the hospital my mother and my father accompanied my brother because my brother didn‟t want alone in the hospital. After a month, my brother „s fever had gone down. Dr. Khodijah said to my brother that he could go home this month. My brother was very happy because he could meet his friends again in his school. Every day Dr. Khodijah gave him proper treatment and medicine. Finally Dr. Khodijah said: “You can go home this day.” to my brother. Before he went home he said goodbye to his friend faizal., his friend in the gospital. Faizal was very happy because my brother could go home this day. My brother didn‟t want to sick again. He didn‟t want in hospital again. After returned home he felt nice. He undestand that health was very important „We must keep our body healthy” said my brother to me. In his school he told to his teachers and friends about his story. My brother‟s friends listened carefully to my brother said because they didn‟t want to be sick. Next month my brother met again with his friend in the hospital, faizal. Faizal didn‟t sick again. My brother was very happy because he could meet again with his friend and played together again. Faizal was a new student in my brother‟s school.
Reorientation.
My brother was very happy because they could study together in the same class and every day they went to school together with bus.
Thematic progression. The writer uses Theme choices successfully to identify family members (e.g. my brother‟s name, my father), some marked Theme to signal temporality which shows a strong progression. For examples: Last year my brother had a fever… ; Every day I went to the hospital; Sometimes my brother‟s friend and teachers went to the hospital), After a month my brother‟s fever had gone. Before he went home, he said goodbye to Faizal.
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The writer also uses structural Themes (e.g. So, they gave him some medicine; Then she told my father; … because he could meet his friend in the hospital). Successful use of past tense: All sentences indicating events in the past were written in the past tense, as can be seen in examples above. Diversity in lexical choices: suffered, illness, alone, accompanied, proper treatment, keep the body healthy. Lexical cohesion through the use of Reference. This can be seen in some xpressions below: My brother‟s name is Marwan. He is seven years old. My father and my mother were very worried. So, they gave him some medicine. The doctor‟s name was Khodijah. She was very kind. Dr. Khodijah examined my brother‟s body. She took the stetoscope… Frequent use of verbal processes in dialogues invlolved in the text, such as: “This will be all right,” said Dr. Hadijah, the significance of which has been mentioned above. In general the writer of Text 3.4 already had much more linguistic resources to write a Recount text. He confidently employed different linguistic resources. The text still does have some grammatical mistakes, such as the first sentence in the Record of Events stage (Last year my brother had sick) but these mistakes, if only he had been given more time to write the text and had been given a chance to revise, to edit and to proofread the text, could probably have been corrected. This student, as the Action will reveal, was asked to provide help to his classmates and to be one of “the small teachers” in the classroom, so that the teacher could focus on those who really struggled in the class. Another text, Text 3.5, written by a high achiever can be seen below. Salutation
My name is Mirza and I am 13 years old.
Orientation
Last year I suffered from appendicities.
Record of events
At first I thought it was just an ordinary stomach ache. My stomach started to ache after I ate chili on the way from Jakarta to Bandung. I couldn‟t sleep at night because my stomach was aching. My parents thought it was just an ordinary stomach ache. At midnight my mother took me to the hospital to check if there was any disease in my body. The doctor said that it was just an ordinary stomach ache. Then we went back home and my stomach was still aching. My stomach ached so much that I couldn‟t even go to school for a week. After staying at home for one week my parents took me to another doctor because they had a feeling that my stomach ache wasn‟t just a stomach ache. After the docotr examined my body, the doctor said that I suffered from apppendicitis. The next morning at seven o’clock I had an appendectomy at Bungsu Hospital. The surgery took two hours. The doctor said that my appendix was really bad and if I didn‟t have the appendectomy straight away, I could have been dead by a couple of days. I had 12 stitches on my stomach. I had to stay in hospital until I was able to walk. I stayed in hospital
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for six days. After six days in hospital I was finally dismissed from the hospital, but I still couldn‟t go to school until I got all my stitches off my stomach. I stayed at home for another week. All I did were sleep, watch TV, and eat. It was boring. On Friday afternoon that week after my father came home from work, my parents took me to the doctor to get my stitches off my stomach. Getting off those stitches hurts a little but my father made it easy by encouraging me. After the doctor took the stitches off my stomach we had dinner at a Sundanese restaurant. Reorientation
The next Monday I was able to go to school. I learnt a lesson from my sickness that I had to be careful in choosing food. It was a good experience and the surgery was amazing. I am happy to be alive and healthy.
Text 3.5 has an appropriate schematic structure of a Recount, including: Salutation: My name is Mirza Orientation: Last year I suffered from appendicities. Record of Events: At first I thought it was an ordinary stomach ache... Reorientation: The next Monday I was able to go to school. I learnt a lesson that I had to be careful in choosing food.. It was a good experience and the surgery was amazing. I am happy to be alive and healthy. Text 3.5 also shows successful use of linguistic features relevant to a Recount text, as shown in the previously analysed texts. However, this student, having an experience to live in Australia, was able to use idiomatic English and does not make grammatical mistakes. The most salient features of the text are: Successful use of simple present and past tenses: A shift from the present tense to past tense at the beginning of the text: My name is Mirza. Last year I suffered from appendicities. On the reverse, a shift from the past tense to present tense in the Reorientation also occurs: The next Monday I was able to go to school. I learnt a lesson from my sickness that I had to be careful in choosing food. It was a good experience and the surgery was amazing. I am happy to be alive and healthy. Successful use of marked-Topical Themes to signal temporality which shows a strong progression, from the beginning of the text in the Orientation: Last year, followed by the signals of temporality in the Record of Events, from the beginning: At first, through to the end: at midnight, after staying at home for one week, the next morning at seven o‟clock, after six days in hospital, the next Monday. More diversity in vocabulary: ordinary stomach ache, my stomach was aching, a lesson, sickness, to be alive, the surgery, appendicitis, appendectomy, stay in hoispital, stitches, I was finally dismissed from the hospital, getting my stitches off my stomach, amazing, boring, a feeling, another week, a good experience. Successful use of expressions which show his control of English: I stayed in hospital. A lot of Indonesian students cannot differentiate between staying in hospital and staying in the hospital. Some other expressions are: I was finally dismissed from the hospital, It was boring; If I didn‟t have the appendectomy 100
straight away, I could have been dead; The surgery took two hours; They had a feeling that m,y stomach ache wasn‟t just a stomach ache, I stayed at home. Successful use of some nonfinite dependent clauses: After staying at home for one week, my parents took me toanother doctor; Getting off those stitches hurts a little, I have to be careful in choosing food. Some long nominal groups at the beginning of a sentence: After six days in hospital, on the way from Jakarta to Bandung; The next morning at seven o‟clock; a lesson from my sickness, On Friday afternoon that week. The use of verbal processes twice, in the expression: The doctor said. This student, with the writer of Text 3.4 and other students categorised as high achievers were then asked to help other students in writing, through peer conference. There is a possibility that some schools, especially in big cities in Indonesia to have children or students who have an experience kiving in an English speaking country like the writer of Text 3.5. The teacher and school should make the best use of the presence of this kind of student to help other children in learning English and to share their expreineces in learning English in the mainstream class. Other texts written by the writer of Text 3.5 in the theurapeutic stage will not be presented as they show similar characteristics to those of Text 3.5. From the description of all texts written by the students in this disgnostic stage, apart from some limitations above, there are two aspects regarding the mechanics that show the students‟ success in learning English, particulalrly learning to write. The first one is to do with spelling. The students could spell most of the English words in their text. This is amazing as spelling, even for English native speaker is difficult. This is because English is not a phonetic language. The way the word is written is different from the way it is pronounced. The second one is to do with the neatness of the students‟ hand writing. All students‟ hand writing is eligible, neat and clear (see some samples of students‟ handwriting in the Appendices). This is a skill that needs to be mainteined at school as hand writing is also important for the development of students‟ writing ability in the future. Apart from all aspects above, there are two other matters that need to be discussed and then acted upon. The first one was the assessment of the students‟ writing. The teacher evaluated students‟ writing on the basis of the number lines of the text. The text with 12 lines would get 6, 18 lines 6,5, 24 lines 7 and so forth. This was to some extent good to motivate the students to write more, as the length of the text can be one of the indicators of students‟ proficinecy in writing (Gibbons, 2002; Emilia, 2005; Emilia et al, 2008; Christie & Derewianka, 2008), (although it is not a very reliable measure). However, students writing, as genre theorists
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suggest, should be evaluated in terms of the schematic structure and the linguistic features relevant to the genre (Feez, 2002; Gibbons, 2002; Macken-Horarik, 2002; Schleppegrell, 2002; Christie, 2002, 2005; Christie & Derwianka, 2008). These can include the texture of the text (Fries, 2004) and the cohesion and coherence of the text (Martin, 1992; Eggin, 1994; Christie, 2005). The second aspect was to do with the fact that the teacher used English all the time in the classroom even when she explained about a difficult concept regarding grammar or the model text. This has led to the fact that not all students in the class paid attention to her explanation because they probably did not understand what she said. This is an issue that has been well researched in the teaching of English (see the discussion of the use of students‟ L1 in ESL contexts, edited by Murray & Wigglesworth, 2005 devoting to the role of L1 in ESL context for adult learners and a book edited by Turnbull & Dailey-O‟Cain, 2009 also regarding the use of students‟ L1 in different contexts of second and foreign language teaching). Finally, a lot of students still made basic grammatical mistakes in their text which suggests their need for more scaffolding in terms of grammar. These mistakes, are among others can be seen in Text 3.1 above, and a handful students could not even write a sentence. These students seemed to be motivated to learn but they did not seem to have a chance to get theteacher‟s attention as the class was big. Based on all the matters above, we discussed, thought and decided to act upon all the matters above and therefore below the actions that we would take in the second cycle of the research will be explained. 3.5.1.3 Phase 3: Act The actions planned were carried out, relevant to the data obtained and research questions, cfocussed on the following aspects: Learning environment: Physical environment, including the class size and availabilty of printed materials; The implementation of the SFL GBA; The teaching of other language skills and assessment; Strategies to enhance the students‟ learning: The use of bahasa Indonesia in the teaching learning process and provision of feedback to students‟ writing. Plans for actions and actions regarding each aspect above will be described below. Physical environment and availability of printed materials Regarding the big class, there was nothing that could be done about it as this is one of salient characteristics of Indonesian schools. One strategy to handle a big class, as will be described later, concerning strategies to enhance students‟ learning,was to make the best use of
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excellent students to help the teacher to provide scaffolding to those who struggled in learning to achieve a better result. Another matter was to do with the availability of resources for students‟ enrichment. This was done among others by encouraging students and teachers to make the best of the text books the students and the teacher had and to design a poster that could be put around the class as visual aids or reminders. Moreover, we also decided to provide students with materials that could be used to help them write a better text. The teacher and researchers also provided students with expressions that students might need in writing a Recount text in different topics. The expressions were written in both bahasa Indonesia and English. This, as will be alluded to later, aimed to provide students with help in their learning though the use of their L1 in their foreign language learning (This matter will be further elaborated later in terms of the use of bahasa Indonesia in EFL classroom in Indonesia). Moreover, students should also be encouraged to use dictionaries in the classroom maximally not only to find out the meanings of certain vocabulary items, but also to understand how to use them in their sentences. Other expressions about health that they could use in writing a personal Recount were also given, which turned to be very helful for the students as they used these expressions in their writing and data from the interview with them. These can be seen in Table 3.2 below. Table 3.2 Examples of expressions that can be used in a personal Recount about health
Saya sakit minggu lalu: I was sick/ill last week. Sakit kepala: I had a headache. Perutku/gigiku sakit: My stomach/tooth was aching. Tifus: Typhoid: My sister suffered from typhoid: I had typhoid. Tifus penyakit yang berbahaya: Typhoid is a very dangerous disease. Sakit panas: I had a temperature/ a fever. Panasnya 40 derajat Celcius: Her temperature was 40 degrees Celcius. Adik saya 7 tahun: My younger brother is/was 7 years old. Dokter memeriksa: A doctor / The doctor (Kalau kata dokter sudah disebutkan sebelumnya) examined my mother. Kakak saya diobati: My brother had a medical treatment/wasmedically treated. Dirawat di rumah sakit … : I was in hospital for five days/ I was hospitalized/ I stayed in hospital (Kata hospital jangan pakai “the”, kalau pakai the, seperti dalam “I was in the hospital for five days” berarti di rumah sakit bukan karena sakit, tapi mungkin karena alasan lain”. Ungkapan lain yang ada perbedaan antara pakai the dan tidak adalah: I went to school = ke sekolah untuk belajar; to the school: ke sekolah untuk main; I went to mosque= ke mesjid untuk sholat; to the mosque: Ke mesjid untuk hal lain. Kakak saya harus dirawat: My brother must be hospitalized. Must stay in hospital/Had to stay/had to be hospitalized. Dokter berkata kepada ibu saya bahwa kakak saya harus dirawat: The doctor suggested/said to my mother (told my mother, told tidak pakai to) that my brother/sister had to stay in hospital/had to be hospitalized. Orang tua saya khawatir dengan … : My parents were really worried about his illness; Orang tua saya panik: My parents panicked. Adik saya tidak mau minum obat: My little/ younger brother/sister did not want to take the medicine (Ingat, to +infinitive). Saya terluka/mengalami luka-luka: I was injured/ I was wounded. Saya Luka berat: I was badly injured/seriously injured. Luka saya diobati: My injury/wound was treated/cured.
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Perlahan-lahan adik saya sembuh: Gradually/ step by step my sister recovered from his/her illness. Masa penyembuhannya tidak lama: the recovery stage was not long/ did not take a long time. Kakak saya boleh pulang dari rumah sakit: My brother was dismissed from the hospital/ could go home. Saya berobat jalan: I became an outpatient/ I had an outpatient treatment. Adik saya dibawa ke rumah sakit dengan ambulans: My brother was brought hospital by an ambulance. Saya berharap dia cepat sembuh: I hope he will recover from his illness/ will feel better soon. Saya berdoa mudah-mudahan dia cepat sembuh: I prayed for him/her that he/she would recover/would feel better/would get better soon. Adik saya sehat sekarang: My little brother/sister is well now/ feels better now.
These kinds of expressions were also provided in writing other Recount texts about other topics, as will be alluded to later. Regarding the provision of these expressions, there may be a concern among teachers that they spoonfeed the students. However, Emilia (2005), Emilia et al (2008) found out that these expressions, even for university students are necessary because students must be assisted to learn new vocabulary in a foreign language and how to use it in appropriate contexts. Efforts should be made to create materials that can help students learn more easily and effectively. The materials can be made by the teacher together with the students or by the students working in groups. Students‟ own work can also be part of visual aids that can be used in the class to help them learn. Some posters of different text types can be put in the classroom and these posters can be made by the students in their leisure time or in the extracurricular program, like the English club or in the classroom when students are encouraged to publish the text they construct. The implementation of the SFL GBA Regarding the implementation of the SFL GBA, it was agreed by the teacher and researchers that activities especially those relevant to the Building Knowledge of the Field and Modelling were repeated. For reasons of time and the fact that there were many topics that should be covered in grade Eight, the Joint Construction and Independent Construction on the topic health were skipped (Feez, 2002). So, the second teaching cycle, as will be described later, focused on the enhancement of students‟ understanding of the content and various expressions used in health and the schematic structure and linguistic features of a Recount text. Some modifications were made in the two stages of the SFL GBA. First of all, regarding the Building Knowledge of the field, the students were encouraged to read different texts about health and instead of writing vocabulary items, the students were asked to write expressions that they found in the texts just in case those expressions would be used in their texts. This aimed to give students an opportunity to enhance their reading and research skills, which is very important for their success in learning in the future. Moreover, research skills, from the perspective of action research, as alluded to earlier, constitutes one of the political dimensions that action research can offer for the development of civic life and the development of the students to be agents of change in their future life (Noffke, 2009). All 104
the expressions given above were explained and the teacher and researchers showed the students that when we want to say something in English we cannot just translate word for word, but we need to think about how an English speaking person would say it. Apart from enriching students‟ mastery of various expressions that can be used in writing a Recount text, this is also a strategy to allow students to learn grammar in context. The teaching of grammar was then agreed to be done in any stage, that is at any point when the students needed it. So, the students would learn grammar in context, in different stages of the SFL GBA. Grammar can be taught when students read texts in Building Knowledge of the Field, or Modelling, or Joint Construction or Independent Construction. It was agreed that grammar should be explicitly explained as from the perspective of the teaching of English in a second or foreign language teaching, which is also relevant to the principles of the SFL GBA, grammar is not a body of established knowledge but “a skill that has to be trained” (Larsen-Freeman, 2001, cited in Takshima & Sugiura, 2006: 61). Some grammatical mistakes found in students texts were picked up and given to the students. This aimed to allow them to learn not to make the same mistakes in the future. It was also agreed that the students should be made aware that reading is very important to help them understand English and English expressions. Reading English materials in particular, can help expand the writer‟s knowledge, not only in terms of the content but also in terms of the English (Johnson, 2003). Moreover, because writing goes hand in hand with reading at all stages of development in these contexts, writing development must be viewed from an understanding of the total picture of literacy acquisition (Carson, 1992). After the students clearly understood the expressions they read and the meaning of them, then it was planned that we move on to the next phase, that is Modelling Similarly, in the Modelling stage, some modifications were also to be made. These were, among others in terms of the provision of the schematic structure of the Recount text, as displayed in Section 3.2 above. Students were also given a Recount plan that could be used a guide for them to write. This plan can lead the students to understand that a Recount has to fulfil a certain caharacteristics and one of these is the schematic structure. Children in Australia, as will be shown in Chapter 4 learn about this from the time they are in the early grades of school. The Recount plan, adapted from the Western Australia Department of Education (1997:61) can be seen below.
Table 3.3. A sample of a Recount plan
RECOUNT PLAN TOPIC: 1. SETTING: WHO? WHERE? WHEN? WHEN? WHAT? WHY?
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2. EVENTS IN TIME ORDER Event 1 Event 2 Event 3 Event 4 Event 5 (Source: Education Department of Western Australia, 1997:61).
Then, when the students understood clearly the schematic structure, a model text of a Recount can be given to the students. Some models below can be used. The text was written by a year 7 student in Australia. Text 3.5 An example of a Personal Reount (From: Disdvantaged School Program, 1994: 104). My First Trip To Greece Orientation (orients the reader to the events that follow)
Record (Gives a sequence of events)
I didn‟t know what to expect from a country like Greece. I had heard good and bad things about it. The trip was long 22 hours and I can remember hoping that it was worth the trouble to get there. When the plane landed in Athens airport we had to wait an additional 10 hours for another domestic flight to Kos, which is the island my dad comes from. When we got to Kos all my relatives were waiting for us. We picked our luggage and it took us another half hour to get to the village that my father comes from. It was the most exhasuting day I ever had. When we got to my father‟s place, I was very tired. The only thing I wanted to do was to sleep. It was a bit unfair because I had never seen them before. Before I knew it I was fast asleep. At the crack of dawn I was awake, not because I wanted to, but because the roosters were so loud that they wouldn‟t let anyone sleet. That was one time that I would liked to be in a place that had no roosters to wake me up.
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After breakfast we caught the bus to the city. I saw some shops which reminded me of Sydney. I didn‟t think that Greece was that modern. The city had a pizza bar and many café bars. One thing I forgot to mention is that it was summer in Australia while it was winter in Greece. In Greece not too many shops open during winter because not too many tourists go there, that‟s why most of the places were quiet.
Reorientation (Returns the reader to the point of departure)
I also went to Neapolis, which is a port city, situated on the coast road of Greece. This is where my brother was born. I must admit that Greece is a very beautiful country. The whole trip lasted seven weeks (almost two months). These seven weeks went by quickly which proves time does fly when you‟re having fun.
Another model of a personal taken from Rothery (1990) can also be used to show students about the schematic structure and linguistic features. Text 3.6 An example of a Personal Recount (From Rothery, 1990:273) Title The Rock Last year I went on an excursion to Ayers Rock with my father‟s school. Orientation We flew to Alice Springs and saw all the places of interest. On the third day we Record of Events had to travel 400 km to Ayers Rock. We left our camp at 6.00 am and arrived about 2.pm. That night we pitched camp. Unfortunately in our tent the canvas was ripped where the pole went. Because of this we had to scavenge around for a can lid to place on the top of the pole. The next morning we climed the rock. We started at 07.00 am. It was a hard climb. The face about 45 degrees at the start. Then it went up to about fifty degrees. When we were about. When we were about at the end of the yellow line we could see what looked like a garbage tin. It turned out to be a plaque. On the way down it began to get hot. It began hotter and hotter and it was only about 8.00. the next morning we woke up to take photoes of the sunrise. It was 4.50 am. We began to curse the weather bureau for getting us up an hour early. But, after all these incidents, I‟m gllad I went. Reorientation/Coda Note: Ayers Rock is a famous site in Central Australia.
It was made clear that the SGL GBA can take several weeks, or even months (Gibbons, 2002) and every stage of the teaching cycle can take more than one meeting. This is the case, especially for the Building Knowledge of the Field, when the students should read different texts and understand the concepts, technical words or expressions. This Building Knowledge of The Field is really important for the students to enable them to write a text in the later stages of the SFL GBA. Moreover, the stages of the Joint Construction and Independent Construction should be conducted in more than one meeting as the students should go through a recursive process before they come to a final draft which is neat. The jJoint Construction and Independent Construction cannot thus be used as a test for the students.
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The teaching of other language skills and assessment The teaching of other language skills was agreed to be done in every stage of the SFL GBA. The Building Knowledge of the Field can be used to enhance students‟ reading, listening as well as speaking and writing ability. Moreover Modelling can be used to promote students‟ reading, listening and speaking ability as discussion on the text can be involed in the text in which each student should be encouraged to participate. The Joint Construction and Independent Construction are the stages when students can maximally develop their reading and writing ability. Finally, when they have finished their writing, they can share their writing with peers or in front of the classroom. This is when students can develop their writing as well as speaking skills. Moreover, regarding assessment of the students‟ work, it was agreed that the students‟ work, to follow the suggestion of the theorists of the SFL GBA, should be asseseed from two main aspects: the schematic structure and linguistic features. Assessment should not be based on the length of the text only, as a longer text may not necessarily be better than a shorter one (Eggins, 1994). It was agreed that although the length of a text can be an indicator of students‟ development, students should be informed that “the quality of their writing is ditermined by how well it helps them to understand, not by its length only” (Killen, 2007:297). The use of bahasa Indonesia in the teaching learning process and provision of feedback to students’ writing Regarding the use of bahasa Indonesia, the teacher was informed about the benefits of using bahasa Indonesia in EFL classrooms, particulalry in her contexts. Some of benefits of the use of L1, as observed by the theorists, as described in Chapter 1 were discussed. This made the teacher aware that despite a prevalent belief among English teachers in “English only” classroom, the use of bahasa Indonesia could be very helpful for her students especially for those who struggled, as suggested by Murray &Wigglesworth (2005) and Macaro (2009). It was then agreed that when explaining concepts or difficult aspects of grammar, the teacher could use bahasa Indonesia to help students‟ understand what was being explained about. Regarding the provision of feedback to the students‟ writing. It was agreed that some excellent students who had a good mastery of English were asked to help the teacher to proofread their classmates‟ texts. Regarding this, Muijs & Reynolds (2005: 64) suggest that scaffolding does not have to come from the teacher. Students, Muijs & Reynolds further argue, can effectively scaffold each other‟s learning in a small group task, like the Joint Construction of the text. However, regarding this, attention should be paid to some aspects, especially the one that only excelling students should be given tasks to help scaffold their peers. This is because group work can sometimes be problematic (Killen, 2007). Moreover, in a room with fixed seating arrangement like that common in Indonesian classes, group work can still be used (Killen, 2007:177). Killen suggests that the students can be asked to discuss issues or questions with a partner or to ask alternate rows to turn around and face the learners behind them and so they can work in groups of four. There is a possibility that a group is not functioning cooperatively and in this case, the teacher may need to help them
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understand the dynamics of the group and focus their attention on the assigned task (Killen, 2007; see also Muijs & Reynold, 2005: 53). Effective small group work does require a significant amount of preparation, and a number of preconditions have to be met beforehand in order for it to be effective. For example, students must be able to cooperate with one another and to provide each other with help in a constructive way (Muijs & Reynold, 2005:53). This strategy could help the teacher manage her time to give feedback to students who really needed it. This also changed the teacher‟s previous belief that “consultation with the students in a big class like the one in this study is impossible.” The teacher became aware of possible helps and assistance that she could get from her students in providing feedback or help to their peers. This strategy, as will be shown later, has led the students, even those who used to be considered at risk students, to gain a lot of improvement in terms of English and writing as well as speaking skills. When the first cycle was finished, then the program moved on to the second cycle, in which all phases gone through in the first cycle were also applied. Therefore, the subsequent discussion will delineate activities in the second cycle of the program. 3.6.Theurapeutic Stage: Teaching cycle 2 In this stage, all stages of the first cycle were repeated, including Look, Think and Act. Each phase will be discussed below. 3.6.1 Look In this phase, the researchers just looked at what happened in the classroom (e.g. whether some modifications and the teaching learning processes had improved, and what still needed some improvement or more work) . This phase involved observation of two stages of the SFL GBA, that is Building Knowledge of the Field and Modelling of Recount text, especially to do with the topic of health. All evidence obtained in this phase was then analysed in the next phase of the teaching cycle, that is Think, that will be presented subsequently. 3.6.2 Phase 2: Think From data obtained in the Look stage, there were several matters that needed to be discussed and analysed. These are among others to do with: The teaching cycle. This stage still focused on the written cycle of the curriculum. The implementation of the SFL GBA. As the students had had a relatively good control of the schematic structure and linguistic features of the Recount text, the teaching cycle of the GBA covered only two stages: Building Knowledge of the Field and Independent Construction. The topic that was discussed in this stage, to follow the curriculum and the suggestion from the teacher was to do with vacation.
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Again in the Independent Construction, excellent students were asked to proofread and to give assistance to their classmates. The provision of expressions appropriate for dealing with the topic. Results of observation in the class indicate that the expressions given to the students were really useful and this can be seen that the students consulted the expressions when they wanted to say something in the class related to the topic. Some students even tried to memorise the expressions as they wanted to say them in speaking. Andellia (Psudonym), for example, said as follows: Yang membantu sekali ekspresi-ekspresi itu. Jadi sekarang agak-agak ngerti. Dulu saya tidak mengerti mengapa jawabannya kaya gitu, sekarang ngerti. Selain itu, karena ada bahasa Indonesianya, lebih mudah dimengertinya. Kalau tidak ada bahasa Indonesianya juga mungkin tidak akan mengerti juga mengenai ekspresi-ekspresi itu (Andellia). What helped me a lot was those expressions. Now I understand a bit. In the past, I did not understand why the answer was like that, for example, but now I understand. Moreover, because those expressions were also given in bahasa Indonesia, we find it easier to understand them. If there were not bahasa Indonesia expressions, we probably woud not understand them (Andellia)
Another student, like Sinta (Psedonym) stated: Ekspresi-ekspresi itu sangat bermanfaat, soalnya bisa kita pake kalau menceritakan pengalam. Di ekspresi itu juga ada keterangan lampau, terus bagaimana menggunakannya (Sinta). Those expressions were really useful, because if they could be used when we tell about our experience. In those expressions there is also a note that it is past tense and how to use them (Sinta)
All students‟ comments above were supported by Candra who explained: Ekspresi-ekspresi itu sangat penting. Bisa dipelajari dan ditulis dalam teks yang ditulis. Kalau ngga dikasih ekspresi susah sekali. Nanti pemberian ekspresinya lebih banyak lagi ya bu (Candra). Those expressions are really useful. They can be learned and written in the text that we write. If we were not given those expressions, we would find it really difficult to write. Later, please give us much kore expressions, mam (Candra)
Moreover, one student also considered that the provision of those expressions in both bahasa Indonesia and English gave him an idea. This was stated by Argya, a high achiever, as saying that those expressions had made him aware that in writing in English “We cannot just translate words from bahasa Indonesia. If we do so, it will be difficult for people to understand the sentences that we make.” Argya further commented:
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Saya mau belajar banyak lagi tentang ekspresi-ekspresi. My grammar is better than last semester dengan adanya ekspresi-ekspresi itu (Argy). I want to learn more about expressions. My grammar is better than last semester because of those expressions (Argya).
Information from interviews with students shows that those expressions helped them develop their English ability, not only in writing, but also in speaking, as will be shown in the discussion of the third teaching cycle below. So, the provision of expressions was really useful. Moreover, data collected also made the teacher aware of the necessity of the provision of the expressions as the students tried to use them and to memorise them to help them learn English better. Regarding the use of bahasa Indonesia in the teaching learning process, the students found that the teacher‟s explanation in both bahasa Indonesia and English was more understandable to them. Moreover, the fact that the expressions given in two languages, as revealed in the students‟ verbalisations above, made the students understand those expressions and this made them feel confident in using them in both writing and speaking. Finally, the provision of feedback to the students, with the help of some excelling students had helped the teacher manage to give more assistance and to pay more attention to those who really struggled to gain an understanding of English, as well as a relatively a good control of writing a Recount text. 3.6.3 Phase 3: Act This phase, as planned, based on the analysis in this stage, actions taken were among others as follows: First of all the SFL GBA was implemented, and as agreed before, only two stages were implemented, that is Building Knowledge of the Field and Independent Construction. The topic was about vacation. Each stage will be discussed below. 3.6.3.1 Building knowledge of the field In this stage, relevant to the aim of the stage, students were encouraged to read different texts on vacation or recreation. It should be noted that text types students read in this stage can vary, not restricted to the focal text students are going to write. The texts can be from the internet, the newspaper, or any authentic materials regarding vacation. In this study, one text from a text book was read and discussed in the classroom, from the book written by Kusmana and Harris (2005). The text is a Description, written in the mode of a letter. This kind of text can be appropriate for students to write a Recount about holiday, because it has expressions and vocabulary items that can be used by the students in writing a Recount text about vacation. This also follows the suggestion from genre theorists that in Building 111
Knowledge of the Field the texts used can vary and are not necessarily in the focal text. The text, as written by Kusmana and Harris, can be seen below. An example of text about vacation that can be used in Building Knowledge of the Field. (From Kusmana and Harris, 2005: 143) Dear Senny, We are having a aholiday at Panajung Bay. We are staying in a small house only a few yards from the beach. The scene through the window of the lounge is very beautiful and peaceful. In front of the house there is a yard with some chairs, a atbel, and a few small trees. Just beyond the yard are miles of golden sand. Fortunately there are only a few people on the beach, and so there isn‟t much noise. I can see a couple sunbathing nearby while their children are playing quietly behind them. On my right there is a hill, which I hope to climb tomorrow. I can see a footpath leading up to it, and so it should be quite safe. A few people are swimming in the sea, and a woman is watching a man diving from a small raft in the middle of the bay. The sea is very calm today and a few yachts are visible a long distance from the shore. It is so relaxing to sit here and gaze at the view. I went swimming earlier this morning, and this afternoon we are going to hire a yacht for a few hours. I wish you were here. Love, Linda
It should be noted here that some texts about other topics as suggested by the curriculum, such as seasons, travelling, going to other places as presented in the book by Kusmana and Harris and other texbooks, can also be relevant to the topic about vacation, as the writer may talk about the season of the visited place, especially when they visit a tourist site in other countries which have four seasons, about the place, and about the travelling itself. Then the students were asked to answer questions related to the letter, as formulated by Kusmana & Harris (2005:143-144). The questions are as follows:
Where are Linda and her family staying? How is the scene? What is there in front of the house? Are there many people on the beach? What is a couple doing? What does Linda hope tomorrow?
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What is a woman watching a man doing? What are Linda and her family going to do in this afternoon? Regarding the questions above, one matter to do with critical literacy needs a brief mention. That is, that the answer to all the questions above are available in the text. If students are asked only such questions, they are not encouraged to think critically about the information given in the text, in that the students are not encouraged to relate the text to other texts that the students might have read, to their life or experience and to the world, as suggested by critical literacy, taken up in Chapters 1 and 2. When reading this text, like the program developed for tertiary students, students can also be asked some questions that can lead to the development of critical thinking and critical literacy. Students should be made aware that text is a social construct, is not timeless and relative. A text represents a certain groups of people and values. Some questions used at the tertiary level, as described in Chapter 2 can be relevant to this level. However, in this program, students‟ reading capacity was not well elaborated and as well developed as that at the tertiary level and this should become one of the foci in future research. Students were again given expressions about vacation that they could use in writing a Recount text about a vacation or recreation. The expressions were as listed below:
My family and I went to a shopping centre. We took the bus there. We liked the shops.
We went to Ayer Island in Jakarta. We went by ferry. Then we walked a long the beach.
My family went camping at the beach. We drove there in our car. It was fun.
We flew to Padang. We had a great time. I did … on my last holiday.
I saw the birds at the park. I rode my bicycle in the garden. I went to the beach, I went swimming, I went shopping, I went camping, I went on a picnic I visited …, I had never been to … before. In the zoo, I petted a monkey, a rabbit, a … .
They took a ferry past the island… We went to the airport by train, We went to the station by … We gave our ticket to a ticketing officer. We saw the pilot of our plane. When the plane flew up in the sky, I was excited We took a plane to Jakarta. Dad drove a car into the country (ayah menyetir mobil di daerah pedesaan) We walked over some hills (kami berjalan menyusuri bukit) It was windy on the hilltops (Di puncak bukit angina bertiup). I carried my clothes in my suitcase. I need a passport to travel to another country.
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I used a camera to take photographs.
Other vocabulary items were also given, such as Pilot, tickets, passport, camera, suitcase, trolley. Apart from this, students were also provided with a variety of personal Recount texts in different modes, such as a postcard and a diary to enhance students‟ understanding of a Recount text and to enrich expressions that they could use in their writing. These texts will be presented below: A POST CARD (Adapted from Ling & Smith, 2006b:69) 31st May 2006 Dear Tom, I flew to Yogyakarta in an aeroplane to visit my grandmother. We went shopping yesterday. It was great fun! From, Joey
Joey Brown 15 De Carle Street Bunswick, Victioria, Australia 3014
A POST CARD (Written by Ajmi, a third grader of a bilingual school in Bandung, Indonesia) 16th June, 2007 Dear Astri, Today I went shopping to Hypermart. We bought food and toys. We bought food for our lunch at school. It was fun, really.
Komplek Setiabudhi Reegency Jalan Lapis Lazuli C157B Bandung, Indonesia
See you soon From, Najmi, S.M.
A DIARY (Adapted from Ling & Smith, 2006a:9) Friday 15th January 2007
It is the school holidays this week. So far, I have done lots of things. On Monday morning, I met Rina at he park. We went skating. In the afternoon we went for a “Stories and Craft” session at the library. On Tuesday afternoon, I went to the movie with my cousins. We saw Harry Potter. My favourit character is Harry. I think he is great. On Wednesday, Grandma and I went to the zoo. We had a lot of fun. We ate a picnic lunch. On Thursday morning, Mum and I went shopping for my new school shoes. In the evening, I went to a
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Brownies meeting from 5.30 p.m-7 p.m. Oh no! I have not done my Maths and English homework. I will need to do that tomorrow. After that I can play with my new computer game, Into Space.
A DIARY (Adapted from Ling & Smith, 2006b:) Friday, 22 January 2007 Yesterday we went to Pangandaran. It was very hot there. So, we drove to the beach. It was very hot on the sand too. We drank lots of water and we swam in the sea to keep cool. Then, we played on the wet sand. Mum brought a picnic lunch for us. We sat under a beach umbrella to eat it. After lunch dad lied down and he went to sleep. After several hours in the beach we went to the hotel to stay overnight there. On the following day, Sunday we went back to Bandung by car.
All the texts above are very simple for native language contexts. These texts may be more relevant to students in lower grade in primary schools discussed in Chapter 4. However, just for enrichment, these texts can be very useful to give the students a model of a personal Recount and some expressions to enrich their linguistic capacity. When the students had had a relatively strong background knowledge about vacation or recreation, and the students were ready to write, and based on the agreement between the teacher and students, we then moved on the next stage of the written cycle of the curriculum and the SFL GBA, that is Independent Construction when students wrote independently. This phase will be discussed below. 3.6.3.2 Independent construction Different from the independent construction in the diagnostic stage, which was conducted in one sitting, in this stage the students wrote their texts in three meetings, in which they were given time to draft, to revise, to consult with the teacher and peer and to proofread their text. The texts produced in this phase, written by the same writers as those in the diagnostic stage are Text 3.8 (by the writer of Text 3.2), 3.9 (by the writer of Text 3.3.) and 3.10 (by the writer of Text 3.4). Text 3.11 was written by a student who did not seem to be able to write even one single sentence and to be willing to write at all in the diagnostic stage. These texts will be displayed below. Text 3.8 was written by the writer of Text 3.2 above. Compared with Text 3.2, Text 3.8 shows a lot of improvement in both schematic structure and linguistic features. From the schematic structure Text 3.8. An example of Recount text written in theurapeutic stage
Salutation
Helllo, my name is Arina Ayu. My nick name is Arin. I live in Bandung in Antapani Street number 22. I was born of January 30th 1994.
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Orientation Record of events
Last school holiday I decided to spend my holiday in Pangandaran I went to Pangandaran with my family. We would go to Pangandaran by car. We would go there on Saturday. We left from Bandung at six o‟clock. At twelve o’clock we were in Pangandaran then we were lunch together in restaurant at Pangandaran. We stayed in Mustika Ratu hotel near the beach. Early in the morning we had been ready to see sunshine together with people near the beach. The scenary was very beautiful. The weather in pangandaran not so cold. I was very exited to look there are so many fishermen in the sea. After the sun shine I play in the sea side to take a little fish.
Reorientation (and Comments)
At twelve o’clock all my family back to hotel in Pangandaran. I bought some souvenir and accessories not so expensive. We decided went back to Bandung because on Monday morning I must go to school. I very enjoyed with my vacation in Pangandaran
Note: The underlined are inappropriate grammar or expressions.
Text 3.8 has the obligatory elemens of a Recount text as suggested by genre theorists above. However, Text 3.8, like other texts that will be discussed below, has one element, which is not common in Australian Recount texts, but is common in Indonesian ones, as mentioned above. This element is Salutation: Hello, my name is Alinda Ayu…. Other obligatory elements of a Recount are listed below: Orientation: Last holiday I decided to spend my vacation in Pangandaran. Record of events, written in three paragraphs: Starting from I went to Pangandaran with my family … through to We decided to go back to Bandung because on Monday morning I must go to school. Reorientation and Comments: I very enjoyed with my vacation in Pangandaran. In terms of linguistic features, Text 3.8 still has grammatical mistakes, which suggests that the writer still needed more explicit teaching about grammar and more consultation to make her text better and successful. Some mistakes were seemingly due to her lack of understanding of Engliah grammar or her being careless of what she wrote. These mistakes, with the correction in brackets, are among others: We go went… ( We went ...); The weather in Pangandaran not so cold … (The weather in Pangandaran was not so cold); I very enjoyed with my vacation (I enjoyed my vacation very much); After the sun shine.. (After the sun shone...); We decided went back to hotel ...(We decided to go back to the hotel). The verb “decided” should be followed by a “to infinitive” and the English article “the” should be used to refer to the hotel mentioned before in the text); We were lunch togethre in restaurant... (We had lunch together in a restaurant...); I play... (I played... ); I was excited to look there are... (I was excited to see there were ... ).
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All these mistakes were to some extent due to the influence of the writer‟s first language, although it is clear that the student can be helped to overcome this problem in time. This needs a more comprehesive discussion than this study provided. Although in general the spelling was quite good, the writer still made some spelling mistakes, such as: then, which should have be written than. The text also shows some inappropriate uses of some prepositions: I was born of january the 30th, 1994. Moreover, the writer still needed more explicit teaching about the use of English articles, such as “The sun”. These are not surprising because these aspects are difficult to grasp, even for native speakers, based on the writer‟s observation in Australian classes, one of which will be described in Chapter 4. However, in general, Text 3.8 shows improvement of linguistic features in several aspects, including: A better understanding of English sentence structure, including subject verb agreement, as in: We decided to spend my holiday …; We stayed in Mustika ratu; At twelve o‟clock we were in Pangandaran…. A better understanding and more successful use of tenses. The writer uses the present tense in the Salutation to introduce herself: Hello, my name is Alinda Ayu; My nickname is Alin, I live in Bandung and then shifts to the past tense when she describes about herself but related to the past event: I was born …. A better control of past tense can also be seen in the Record of Events stage, as in: I bought some souvenirs and accessories not so expensive, and others as exempliefied above. Successful use of some adjectives to describe some aspects that the writer saw, such as: The scenery was very beautiful. The choice of Theme relevant to the topic and character, such as I, we. Some of the Themes are unmarked, indicating time: At twelve o‟clock we wre… in Pangandaran … Last school holiday … . Some Theme progressions, such as Theme reiteration and zig-zag patterns were also used, as in the following examples: A zig-zag pattern: Last school holiday I decided to spend my vacation in Pangandaran. I went to Pangandaran with my family.
Moreover, A reiteration pattern can be seen in the following example:
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We would go to Pangandaran by car. We went there on Saturday.
Although the text still does not employ conjunctions to connect one activity with anoher, Text 3.8 is in general easier to understand than Text 3.2, written by the same writer. This suggests that the time for writing that she had, consultattion with the teacher, feedback that she gained from both her classmates and the teacher as well as expressions given by the teacher regarding vacation, had helped her to write a better text. Another text (Text 3.9 below), written by a student that the researcher and the teacher considered as a mid achiever, also shows a lot of improvement in terms of control of the schematic structure and linguistic features of a Recount text. From the length of the text, Text 3.9 is much longer than Text 3.3., which suggests that the writer had become more procicient in writing a personal Recount and had more linguistic resources to do so. In terms of the schematic structure, Text 3.9, has obligatory elements of a personal Recount as mentioned above, written in different paragraphs. The obligatory elements that the text has are: Salutation: My name is Karina, Iam fourteen years old; Orientation: Last school holiday I decided to spend my holiday in Yogyakarta at my grandmother‟s house. Record of Events: Chronologically sequenced, starting from I went o Yogyakarta with my family … through to the last sentence of the penultimate paragraph, that is: I bought many souvenisrs for friends and family in Bandung. Reorientation (and Comments): After five days we stayed in Yogyakarta, we went back to Bandung. The return trip took nine hours. (Comments: I was very happy and enjoyed this vacation). Text 3.9. An example of Recount text written in the theurapeutic stage Salutation Orientation Record of Evenets
My name is Arina Widyawati. I am fourteen years old. I am a student of a Junior High School in Bandung. I was born in Bandung. Last school holiday I decided to spend my vacation in Yogyakarta at my grandmother‟s house. I went o Yogyakarta with my family. I bought a new camera to take pictures during the vacation. Early in the morning we had been ready to go. We left home at about 4 a.m. We left home early in the morning to avoid traffic jam. We went to Yogyakarta by car. My father drove the car there. We arrived at Yogyakarta at about 2 p.m. I was very happy because I could meet my grandmother. The next day in the morning my sister and I went to ricefield. The air was very cold, it is different with the air in the city. The wind was blew very strong. We walked around there. After that I rode a bycicle around the country. I saw many beautiful flowers there. In the evening my family and I visited Borobudur Temple. Borobudur temple is very huge temple. The view from the peak of Borobudur temple was very beautiful. We could see Sumbing Mountain from the peak. Sumbing mountain is
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near Borobdur temple. I could take many pictures there. The next day we visited Yogyakarta Palace. Yogyakarta Palace is in the centre of the city. 200 years ago this place was marsh. We looked culture art of java. After that we visited parangtritis beach. The view was very beautiful. I went swimming there. We walked along the beach. My sister and I tried to make sand castle. After that we visited families at Yogyakarta. We were very happy because long time we didn‟t meet with families in Yogyakarta.
Reorientation
The next day we visited Cerme Cave in Bantul. The view was unique and interested with the river water was cold and purity to reach I meter. We walked along the cave. After that we visited “Kota wisata Kaliurang”. The air was very cold. We camped overnight there. The next day we visited Malioboro. I bought some souvenir there. The price was very expensive, so, I tried to bargain with him. I bought many souvenirs for friends and family in Bandung. After five days we stayed in Yogyakarta, we went back to Bandung. The return trip took nine hours. I was very happy and enjoyed this vacation.
In terms of the linguistic features, Text 3.9 shows more diversity of linguistic resources that help the text to be successful. These are listed below. Theme choices. Theme choices are relevant to the topic and characters described in the text. Given the nature of the topic and the text genre, it is not surprising to find personal pronouns such as: I: (I bought a new camera to take pictures). We: (We left home early in the morning). One aspect of interest regarding Text 3.8, which according to Christie & Derewianka (2008:95) suggests the writer‟s enhanced ability in writing a Recount genre is the use of a much stronger progression through time with Circumstances as marked Theme. Examples can be seen below: Last school holiday I decided to spend my vacation in Yogyakarta. The next day in the morning my sister and I went to rcefield. In the evening my family and I visited Borobudur. The next day we visited Yogyakarta palace. One marked Theme is realised in a temporal clause: After five days we stayed in Yogyakarta we went back to Bandung. Good use of Reference. The air was very cold. It is differenmt from the air in the city. My sister and I went to rice field … We walked around there … Diversity in lexical choices: The view was unique.
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The purity of water … We camp overnight there. We tried to bargain with him. We looked (at) cultural arts… We left home early in the morning to avoid traffic jam. Frequent use of evaluative statements to comment on activities conducted, as in: I was very happy because I could meet my grandmother; We were very happy because long time we didn‟t meet with families in Yogyakarta. Good control of tense in that the writer could syccessfully use the presesnt tense in the Salutation when she introduced herself. Then she shifted to the past tense when describing all activities done during her vacation. Some capacity to expand nominal groups to express information: The view from the peak of the Borobudur Temple. The text still has some lapses in English sentence structure and vocabulary, as in: The view was unique and interested with the river water was cold and purity to reah one meter. This sentence is confusing. It is possible the students meant The view was unique and interesting, and from only 1 meter away the river appeared cold and pure. This is a difficult idea to express. The use of adjectives such as interesting and interested is not easy for EFL learners. Moreover, the sentence has a non-finite dependent clause (being cold and pure) and this type of dependent clause, even for university students, is not easy to grasp. Moreover, the writer still also nneded some help in using English articles, such as in Borobudur temple is huge temple. It should be: Borobudr temple is a huge temple. All these also suggest that the mastery of English structure is developing. In such a short time there must be many aspects that cannot be resolved in this study. Therefore, further study can be done to address strategies to make the students learn English sentence structure faster and more effectively. Another text, Text 3.10, written in the second cycle of the research was written by a student, categoriesd as a high achiever, and the writer of Text 3.4 previously discussed. Text 3.10, compared with Text 3.4 shows improvement in the writer‟s ability in writing a Recount texts. This can be seen especially in terms of the schematic structure of the text. Text 3.10 was written in several paragraps with each paragraph helping the text to fullfil its purpose. The schematic structure can be described below:
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Salutation: Hi, my name is Muhammad Irfan Argya… Orientation: Now I want to tell you about the story of may vacation. Record of Events: Starting from Last year my family and I went to Italy…through to I said goodbgye to my brother and his girl friend. Reorientation: I was happy because I had a great vacation in Italy. Text 3.10 is displayed below. Text 3.10 An example of personal Recount texts written in the theurapeutic stage Hello, my name is Muhhamad Argya. My nickname is Irfan. I was born in Bandung, 1 September 1993. I am thirteen years old. I study at an SMP in Bandung. Now I want to tell you about the story of my vacation. Orientation Last year my family and I went to Italy. My family and I would visit my Record of Events brother. My brother‟s name is Fabco Cannavaro. He lived in Italy with his girl friend. His girlfriend‟s name is Maria Sharapova. She is rich. I was happy to see my brother again. Salutation
In Italy, I was hapy because I could visit many historical buildings in Italy. My family and I visisted Coloseum. Colosseum is a very old building. Afyter that my family and I visited Pizza tower. My family and I visited a restaurant in Italy. I ate pizza and and spaghetty. They were delicious. I was happy because I could eat many delicious foods in Italy. In Italy I saw many people wearing jackets. They wore jacket because the weather was cold. In Italy I bought a new jacket. I wanted to wear jacket too. In Italy I saw many people riding vespa. After that my family and I went to my brother‟s house. In my brother’s house my brother and I played football together. My brother is a footbal player in Real madrid. I liked him. In Italy, I saw many people playing football together. In Italy football match is very popular. People in Italy loved football. I loved football too. In Italy I saw my friend, Mardul. He came here for holiday too. My brother and I visited my brother‟s friend house. His name is Totti. Totti was sick. My brother called a doctor. The doctor examined Totty‟s body. The doctor took Totty to the hospital in Italy. My brother was very worried. After that the doctor said “Totty is fine”. After that my brother and I said goodbye to Totty because I wanted to see a football match in Roma. In Roma, I saw a footbal l match: Roma versus InterMilan. I liked Roma because my favourite football player played in Roma. Roma won 3-0. I was very happy.
Reorientation
After that my brother and I went to my brother‟s house. My family and I would go home this day. I said goodbye to my brother and his grirlfriend. I was happy because I had a great vacation in Italy.
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Successful use of complex sentences with dependent clauses being non-finite, as in In Italy I saw many people wearing jackets; I saw many people riding vespa; In Italy I saw many people playing football. This type of nonfinite relative clause is difficult for EFL learners, even for university students. Frequent use of causal conjunctions, such as : because: I was happy because I could eat many delicious foods; They wore jacket because the weather was cold. Successful use of the past tense, involving irregular verbs expressing processes, as in: They wore jacket, I ate pizza, I saw many people; Roma won 3-0. Use of some modalities, such as modality of ability: I could eat many delicious foods; Frequently successful use of articles, as in : In Italy, I bought a new jacket; Colossum is a very old building, I wanted to see a footbal match, My brother called a doctor. The doctor examined Totty‟s body. I had a great vacation in Italy. This linguistic feature is not apparent in other texts, as shown above the students generally still struggle in using English articles because English articles are hard. Diversity in lexical choices: In Italy football match is very popular; I saw a footbal match: Roma versus Intermilan; My favourite footbal player is …; People in Italy loved football. One linguistic feature that does not appear in other texts examined in this study is the use of dialogue and direct speaach in the texts written by the writer. In Text 3.8, this apperas once in: The doctor said: ”Totti is fine”. In each dialogue the writer successfully employed the present tense. The use of dialogue heps to make the text more lively and interesting. A clear connection between events recorded in the previous paragraph to the next, by using one of the elements in the Rheme in the last clause of the previous paragraph as a marked Theme in the first clause of the following paragraph. This can be seen in the use of Circumstances of place in the following examples. My family and I went to my brother‟s house. In my brother‟s house… I wanted to see a football match in Roma In Roma I saw …
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Evaluative comments on events described, as in : I liked Roma because … ; My favourite player is …; Football is popular in Italy … . Some topical Themes realising temporality are also used to connect one activity with another, such as: Last year …., after that, … The last text observed in this chapter, Text 3.11 was written by a student categorised as a low achiever. This text is presented as the writer made great efforts to write the text. He did not seem to have ever written a coherent text before. The text, like other texts written in the theurapeutic stage, has obligatory elements of a personal Reount. These are: Salutation: Hello, my name is Andika. My nickname is Andi. I am thirteen years old. I live at Karang Asem Street No 15. Orientation: I will tell you about my vacation to Jakarta. Record of Events: Starting from Last school holiday my family and I went to Jakarta through to At the train I read a comics. Reorientation: After three hours we arrived in Bandung, then we went home. Text 3.11 will be displayed below. Salutation
Text 3.11. An example of a personal Recount written in the theurapeutic stage Hello, my name is Andika. My nickname is Andi. I am thirteen years old. I live at Karang Asem Street No 15.
Orientation
I will tell you about my vacation to Jakarta.
Record of events
Last school holiday my family and I went to jakarta. We decided to spend our vacation to Jakarta because my unclu live at Jakarta. We go to jakarta by train. We queued up to bought tickets. We arrived at twelve o‟clock then we go to my uncle‟s home at Cendrawasih Street . In Jakarta we are three days in there. The first day we went to Ancol beach. We played volley ball. That‟s very fun. After played volley ball we went to sea and we swum. After swum we maked a castle from sand. We was very happy. The second day we went to Senayan Plaza. I bought an icecream, but because the taste is very bad, I gave it to my brother. Then he like it. The third day I and my brother went to DUFAN. My father, my mother and my sister went to zoo. I was very happy. I quueud up to play jet coaster.
Reorientation
Next day I must went to Bandung. We went to Bandung by train. We went to Gambir. We queued up to bought tickets. I bought a comics. At the train I read a comics. After three hours we arrived in Bandung, then we went home.
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Apart from the schematic structure above, the text also shows some positive aspects in terms of the linguistic features of a Recunt genre, despite some other aspects that need to be improved. The positive aspects are among others as follows: A relatively good undestanding of English sentence structure. Most of the sentences could be understood. The writer seemed to understand the subject-verb agreement in English, as in My brother and I went to DUFAN, I bought an icecream. etc. An emerging control of the past tense: We went to Jakarta; We played volleyball, I bought a comics; I gave it to my brother. Some mistakes were still made, such as in “I must went to Bandung; We queued up to bought tickets”. These mistakes were actually made because the writer was to some extent aware of the use of the past tense in describing past events. However, because his mastery of English grammar was not sufficient, he did not seem to be aware that the modal verb “must” and “to” which does not function as a preposition should be followed by an infinitive. This needs more comprehensive examination than this stuy could. Theme choices, which are relevant to the nature of the text and the characters involved in the text (We, I). Some Theme choices, realised in Circumstances of Location time as marked Theme help create a strong Thematic progression. These are realised in: Last school holiday we went to Jakarta In Jakarta, we are three days. Of particular interest is the presence of a multiple Theme development which indicates the writer‟s capacity to create a more coherent and more writerly text. This can be seen below. In Jakarta we are three days. The first day we went to Ancol beach. The second day we went to Senayan The third day I and my brother went to DUFAN…
The multiple-Theme pattern” (Eggins, 1994), or “Derived Theme” (Fries, 1995: 321) above indicates that the method of development of this text is clearly “planned” and thus shows the writer‟s investigation strategy conducted prior to the writing activity. This is one characteristic of a critical thinker. (McPeck, 1981). Planning and research also constitute important processes which can enhance sttudents‟ metacognition (Marzano et al, 1988).
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Text 3.10 had also started to employ enumerations (three, first, second and third), one of textual strategies which work at the global level. This helps the text move forward and globally coherent. The use of causal conjunctions, such as: because: We decided to spend our vacation to Jakarta because my uncle live in Jakarta; I bought an icecream, but because the taste is very bad, I gave it to my brother. From the discussion on the students‟ development above, it can be seen that all students, from low up to high achievers gained improvement in this study in different aspects of writing a Recount text. The group that seems to gain most improvement was that categorised as involving low and mid achievers. This has led to the fact that at the end of the teaching program students had a relatively similar understanding and control of a Recount text. This suggests that explicit teaching, provision of printed materials, and feedback to students‟ writing and the teaching of writing as a process all could help students write a bettr text. This is to some extent relevant to the aim of the SFL GBA, as mentioned by Kress (1993: 28-29) below: From the beginning, therefore, genre work has been both a pedagogical and a political project, a pedagogical project motivated by the political project of allowing greater, fairer, possibly equal access to the cultural and social resources and benefits of this kind of society. If one assumes that access to social, economic and cultural benefits has much to do with command of the highest level of literacy skills, then a quite revolutionary program might be built on the attempt to give everyone access to literacy skills and knowledge in the fullest sense. The fundamental political aim has, therefore, always been that of access on the assumption that full access to, and control of, literacy is essential to full participation in all aspects of social life (Kress, 1993: 28-29).
Based on the aims above, the genre pedagogy has also been called pedagogy for inclusion and access (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993b; Pennycook, 2001) and empowerment (MackenHorarik, 2002). The SFL genre pedagogy, as shown in the development of students‟ writing ability above, can empower students as their writing ability can help them succeed in schooling, in employment, in the community (Derewianka, 2003, p. 142; Macken-Horarik, 2002: 44-45). These goals, again are consistent with the contemporary demand of the application of CP in Indonesia, which is expected to empower students to become agents in the current Indonesian society. 3.7 Theurapeutic Stage: Teaching cycle 3 As in the second cycle, the activities in this stage will be described in three stages: Look, Think and Act. 3.7.1 Look The second cycle of the action research focused on the development of students witten language skills, especially reading and writing. There are two other language skills which have not been considered and paid much attention in this study. These are listening and
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speaking. Theferore in the third cycle of the research we focused on the spoken cycle of the curriculum of English in Indonesia. The third cycle will be discussed below, although it will provide only a very brief account of what was involved. 3.7.2 Think In this stage, the researchers and the teacher considered several activities below: Inviting a native speaker from the Australian Defence Force who was studying bahasa Indonesia at the Indonesia University of Education to come to the class to talk to them about vacation that he had done in Indonesia and in other places. This aimed to encourage students to speak and to listen to the English of a native speaker, which to some extent may be difficult for many EFL students because they are not used to. Inviting the native speaker to do a monologue about his vacation and this was videotaped to enable students to listen to the monologue in the language labiratory. Practising listening in the language laboratory, as can be seen in Picture 3.2 below.
Picture 3.2. The teaching of listening in a language laboratory
Interviewing students individually to allow the speak about their holiday and to assess their speaking ability. 126
3.7.3 Act The activities conducted in this phase were as planned and there are several matters that can be revealed: Firstly, regarding the presence of the native speaker from the Australian Defence Force who was learning bahasa Indonesia, the students responded it very positively. Students in general seemed to be highly motivated to listen to the native speaker and to talk, asking questions to him about his vacation. When practising listening in the laboratory, some students could catch what they listened to, but the others seemed to find it difficult to understand what was listed to. This was probably because they were not used to listening to a native speaker and working in the lab. In the future the teaching of listening should be one of the foci of development at school. For reasons of time, this study unfortunately could not elaborate further on how to help students develop their listening ability using the media like the laboratory available at the school. This should be elaborated in future research. Assessment of listening and speaking was conducted in an individual interview, held at the end of the program. Most students seemed to have improvement in terms of these skills, and one matter needs a mention as this surprised the teacher. This was to do with the ability of a student who was initially considered to have very little English capacity. This student was the writer of Text 3.11 described above. In the interview, he could answer all questions very well and he could answer all the questions directly. He also seemed to enjoy the interview as he was so confident in what he was saying. And when asked about the program he said that he liked the program, as he could speak and write now. The student‟s ability in speaking can be seen from an extract of the dialogue below. T: “Tell me about yourself.” S: “ My name is Chandra (pseudonym) …, I was born in Bandung ...” T: “What did you do in your last school holiday?” S: “I went to Gresik.” T: “What did you say? Did you go to Gresik?” S: “Yes, I always go to Gresik if I have a holiday, I some times go there wth my father, mother and brother and with my big family in Jakarta.” T: “Have you got a relative in Jakarta?” S: “Yes, in jalan Cendrawasih.” T: “How long did it take you to go to Jakarta?” S: “It takes me 3 hours to go to Jakarta ”
The fact that he could answer all the questions directly makes clear his understanding of what was being asked by the interviewer. All these coincide with the belief upheld in this study that “At risk students can be taught to perform successfully at demanding academic level” (Richardson, Morgan & Fleener, 2006:34). Moreover, the fact that he answers the last
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question about the time spent to Jakarta in present tense indicates that he seems to be aware that this is his routine, and therefore he answers the question in the present tense. 3.8 Conclusion This chapter has presented a collaborative language program between unversity researchers and a school teacher in a junior high school in Indonesia. The chapter has shown that the SFL GBA can be one of alternatives that can be implemented in the classroom to achieve the goal of the teaching of English, as stipulated in the English curriculum in Indonesia. The program, despite some aspects that could not be resolved completely, for reasons of time, was in many ways successful in helping students develop and improve their learnig English, not only written but also spoken. Students‟ development in writing ability can be seen from the improvement in their texts in many aspects, including the schematic structure and linguistic features as well as the length of the texts. In speaking and listening, students‟ development can be seen from their capacity to speak and to answer questions asked to them in the interview conducted at the end of the program. Finally, students‟ development can also be seen from their verbalisations indicating their awareness of the fact that they gained improvement in the program, in terms of writing as well as grammar. The chapter has also proposed two things that have to be kept in mind regarding the process of the teaching of English in an Indonesian foreign language context. First of all is that all learners can be taught and can make improvement if the teacher also respects their learning and efforts and pays attention to their needs. At risk students can be taught if the teacher believes they can learn. This coincides with one of the key concepts of dialogic education, as elaborated in Chapter 1. Moreover, the teaching and learning process can be enhanced through the use of students‟ first language, in this case bahasa Indonesia. The belief that English classroom should use English only needs to be investigated further to help students enhance their learning. The fact that students find it easier to understand the expressions given to them in both bahasa Indonesian and English suggests that this study confirm other studies previously conducted, as alluded to above, regarding the benefits of the use of the students‟ L1 in ESL or EFL contexts. Finally, regarding the devlopment of critical thinking, which is urgent in Indonesia today, the teaching of English should also lead to the promotion of students‟ critical thinking and critical literacy skills that will be needed in the future. Regarding critical thinking, further research should be conducted on what aspects should be emphasised in teaching critical thinking to junior high schools.
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Chapter 4: The teaching of writing at the primary level of an Australian classroom Chapters 2 and 3 have presented teaching programs at tertiary and secondary levels in Indonesian contexts, where both programs made use of genre based pedagogy to teach students writing. This chapter will consider the teaching of writing in a grade 5 Australian primary classroom. The reason for the selection of an Australian setting is that in the writer‟s observation there is much to be learned in Indonesia from Australian school practices. Moreover, the Australian classroom has been chosen because it offers an account of a teaching program which used two major approaches to teaching writing which have been influential in Australia. They are: The process approach as developed by Graves (1983; 1996); Walshe (1981); Hill (2006) and Hornsby & Sukarna (2007). The SFL genre-based approach which has been extensively discussed in the earlier chapters.
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4.1 Introduction Writing is central to education. That is why it is not surprising that the government in many countries, both in advanced countries (like Australia, the US) and developing ones (like Indonesia) have put a strong emphasis on the teaching of writing. In Indonesia, as mentioned in Chapter 3, this can be seen from the release of the last two English curricula in secondary school which stipulate that students should be taught to write different text types, some details of which were discussed in Chapters 2 and 3. The primary program outlined here was developed based on the result of classroom observation by Emilia (2007) in a six week study in a primary school in Australia. The data collected consisted of three sources: classroom observations, an interview with the teacher, and a sample of children‟s texts collected over the time. The class was observed in three weekly sessions each of 90 minutes over the six weeks. The teacher had been teaching for about 28 years, 23 of them in the USA and 5 in Australia. She was very familiar with both SFL genre based pedagogy and the process approach and she chose to use an eclectic mix of both traditions in her own teaching program. At least two observations need to be borne in mind before considering the teaching program, touching on the considerable differences between an Australian classroom and one in Indonesia. The most important difference lies in the fact that in Australia, even in classrooms where many children are learning English as a second language, they are nonetheless learning the national language. This means that they are surrounded by English in their daily lives, having constant exposure to it in most areas of their lives. The same is of course not true of Indonesian children for whom bahasa Indonesia is the national language: they are never exposed to English as are Australian children. The effect of this is that we must acknowledge that there are probably very different expectations we can have of what the children can achieve in the two settings. The other considerable difference between classroom settings in Australia and Indonesia concerns class size. As noted in Chapter 3, Indonesian classes are large – typically between 40 and 50 students. Rarely today would one find a class as large as that in either a primary or secondary school in Australia. The effect is that Australian teachers enjoy many advantages in working with their students that are not available to Indonesian teachers. However, despite the potential difficulties experienced by some Indonesian teachers, it is important to stress firstly, that as the discussion in Chapter 2 has demonstrated, it is possible to achieve a great deal in teaching writing in Indonesian classrooms, where teachers have a clear sense of a sound pedagogy of a kind that the GBA can give them. Moreover, it is always important for teachers to be enquiring about different practices from different parts of the world, and there is much from the Australian example developed here that will be of interest and of value to teachers in seeking effective ways to teach writing while encouraging their children to be independent writers.
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As the SFL GBA-related have been discussed in detail in the previous chapters, the discussion in the following section will concern only the process approach to writing, which is an aspect of whole language pedagogy. The discussion on the SFL GBA will be only to do with the issues in the SFL GBA, as these issues are relevant to the teaching practice and the teacher‟s belief in the values of the two approaches in the teaching of English literacy, of writing in particular. 4.2 The process approach to teaching writing The process approach is an approach under the whole language philosophy and was a new buzzword in the teaching of writing, widely taken up in Australian schools in the 1980s (Collerson, 1989: 4) and has now been used in both first and second language contexts (Peregoy & Boyle, 1993; Hyland, 2003). The process approach has four basic principles or central elements, which are also relevant to the SFL GBA. These include: the process itself, the conference, ownership, time for writing (Walshe, 1981, Collerson, 1989:2-3; Graves, 1983; 1996; Emilia, 1996), each of which will be discussed below. 4.2.1 The process Under this principle, writing is treated as a process. “Gone are the days when teachers maintained that one draft was all that students needed to produce” (Richardson, Morgan & Fleener, 2006: 337). It is said that students should learn that professional writers do not do just a one-shot draft to make their message clear and thus, like professional writers, students need time and opportunity to think about what is to be written, to draft and to revise effectively, to edit and to proofread their writing (Goldstein and Carr, 1996:1, cited in Pritchard & Honeycutt, 2006: 277; see also Barchers, 1998: 318-320). The phases of writing include: Prewriting, Drafting, Revising, Editing, and Publishing (Richardson, Morgan & Fleener, 2006), or Seed: Think about it, shape you ideas into possible writing topics, which parallels the prewriting stage; Draft: Think about how you will write this piece then start writing; Revise; Edit; Proofread and Publish (Hornsby & Sukarna, 2007).These phases, as will be shown later, were used by the teacher reported in this chapter. 4.2.2 The conference This principle simply means that there are opportunities for a student writer to talk about the writing with other students or with the teacher or another adult. This interaction may occur at any stage in the process – even before the writing has begun (Graves, 1983). Regarding conferences, Hornsby & Sukarna (2007) suggest several stages, which were also used by the teacher reported in this paper. These include: Authorial conference when the teacher encourages the students to think about some aspects of their writing, such as Whether the writing makes sense;
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Whether the message is clear; Whether the writing sounds right; or Whether the ideas are in order. Secretarial Conference when the teacher encourages the students to pay attention to aspects regarding: Lexical choice, and sentence arrangements, Whether the sentences can be rewritten to make them more interesting and varied. Editorial conference when the teacher suggests the student proofread his/her work and check for spelling, punctuation, grammar. 4.2.3 Free choice of topics Free choice of topics is considered very important in this approach as it enables students to write what they know (Rosen, 1989). It is said that “the easiest place for any writer to begin writing ... is in writing about something s/he knows” (Graves, 1983:13) and “it is the heart of success in writing” (Graves, 1983: 72). With this principle students should be encouraged to take responsibility for their own writing so that they have some sense of ownership or control. 4.2.4 Time for writing In this approach, writing is not just an occasional once-a week affair but an activity which children are able to practise every day and this has certainly had a positive effect on the teaching and on the attitude to writing of both teachers and students (Collerson, 1989: 2-3, see also a more recent study reported by Pritchard & Honeycutt, 2006: 275-285). 4.2.5 Issues with the process approach There were some concerns about the process approach, particularly from theorists of the SFL GBA (see see the discussion in Barton, 1994; Emilia, 1996; Nunan, 1999; Hyland, 2003; Christie, in Press on a useful critique of the process approach). These concerns are, among others, as follows: Children who do not have much variety in their out-of school experience will tend to write about the same topic again and again. Process writing tends to be mainly story writing. Boys tend to write about violence and girls about a story in which they become the object. The process is only used for language studies and not in other area of the curriculum. curriculum. The role of the teacher as a facilitator. SFL GBA theorists believe that learning to write requires a greater emphasis on explicit teaching. They say that students‟ meta language and mastery of a certain types of texts and written language are not given
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but should be taught (Martin, Christie & Rothery, 1987; Rothery, 1996; Christie & Dreyfus, 2007). However, over the past 30 years, the elements and definition of the writing process have been reinterpreted and the definition of the process model has evolved in the theoretical literature, so that, it is now regarded quite differently from that in its early years, when, for example, explicit instruction, reflection, guided revision, and self-assessment were not commonly associated with the process model (Pritchard & Honeycutt, 2006: 279; Hill, 2006). Furthermore, more recent works on the process approach also emphasise the necessity of teaching different genres to students (see the discussion on current perspectives on literacies and learners, edited by Campbell & Green, 2006; see also Owocki, 2001 and Hill, 2006). 4.3. The SFL GBA: Some issues The SFL GBA has not been without its critics (see the discussion in Christie, in Press). The first issue from those working under the genre pedagogy in North America centres on explicit teaching of the identification and description of the conventions of particular genres. In this context, Freedman (1994:196) argues that explicit teaching is unnecessary, for the most part and not useful, although she writes only of native speakers of English. Another issue has been articulated by the process approach advocates, who see the teaching of genre rules as limiting students‟ creativity and free expression (see the discussion in Sawyer and Watson, 1987; Dixon, 1987; Berkenkotter and Huckin, 1995). The progressivists also argue that the SFL GBA emphasises only the product, rather than process (as discussed in Nunan, 1999) and see genre literacy as a revival of transmission pedagogy (as discussed in Cope and Kalantzis, 1993a: 2). However, based on the findings of the writer‟s study (Emilia, 2005) and a more recent study on the implementation of the SFL GBA in an Indonesian secondary school (Emilia et al, 2008), and also this study, the above concerns are not justified. Regarding the first issue, Emilia‟s (2005), Emilia et al‟s (2008) studies and this this study found out that explicit teaching is important to help students gain a shared understanding of the different genres to be taught. The teacher reported in this paper, as will be described later, also valued this principle. The second issue on the teaching of genre rules, cannot be justified either. “Making rules and expectations explicit to students does not limit their freedom and autonomy. On the contrary, it gives them the tools to be creative and autonomous. Once students are aware of the conventions of any of the text types, they will be able to manipulate them for their own purposes” (Gibbons, 2002: 68; see also Berkenkotter and Huckin, 1995: 160-161). Finally, with respect to the emphasis on the product, the basic principles of the SFL GBA does put emphasis on the process of writing, as can be seen from the stages of the SFL GBA, which can lead to students‟ awareness that writing is a recursive process. 4.4 A synthesis of the process approach and the SFL GBA The teaching program that will be presented below, to some degree supports recent research on the teaching of writing in both native and ESL or EFL contexts (see Hyland, 2003: 23,
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Pritchard & Honeycutt, 2006; Kaur & Chun, 2006). Research indicates, as the program will also show, that in today‟s writing classrooms, including ESL ones, there is typically a mixture of more than one approach and that teachers frequently combine these orientations in imaginative and effective ways. Hyland writes: Today, writing classrooms … are typically a mixture of more than one approach and that teachers frequently combine these orientations in imaginative and effective ways. ... By laying out the main attributes of these two orientations side-by side, however, it can be seen how the strength of one might complement the weaknesses of the other (Hyland, 2003: 23).
Hyland goes on to say that an effective methodology for teaching writing, especially second language writing, should therefore incorporate and extend the insights of the main orientations in the following ways: Broaden formal and functional orientations to include the social purposes behind forms; Locate the process concepts of strategy, schema and metacognition in social contexts; Respect students needs for relevant content through stimulating reading and source materials; Support genre pedagogies with strategies for planning, drafting, and revising texts; Situate writing in a context of audience and link it to broader social structure (Hyland, 2003: 24). These suggestions indicate that a synthesis between the process approach and the genrebased approach is desirable and possible (see Badger & White, 2000, cited in Paltridge, 2004, who drew together genre and process approaches). Badger & White, like this study, found that the main principles of the process and genre-based approaches are complementary rather than contradictory. 4.5 The teaching program At this point it is important to stress that the children in the grade 5 studied had been learning to write and read different genres from their earliest years of schooling. Even in the pre school they had begun to learn simple genres such as procedures and recounts, while they had also learned narrative and descriptions. Of course, not all children wrote equally well, because individuals differ and some were more proficient than others. Most had some understanding of the schematic structures that were required in writing genres, even if they did not always write them with equal confidence. However, one consequence of the background classroom work that had been done was that the teacher encouraged them to write several different genres in the period of six weeks. This should not ideally happen where children still need to learn particular genres. That is, they should not be asked to learn to recognize and write several new genres in the space of only six weeks. As will be shown later, grade five students in the classroom observed wrote several texts, including Recount, Narrative, and literary response. It is thus important to provide a brief description on some genres that the students wrote and that have not been introduced in the
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previous chapters. These are among others: Narrative and Personal Responses to literarature and a Description. 4.5.1. An overview of a Narrative text A Narrative is a text type which tells a story in which people encounter a problem or crisis that they need to overcome – it shows how people or groups of people overcome a problem or crisis in their lives (Joyce & Feez, 2004:23). Narratives are used to teach lessons, to entertain, and to explore social values (Joyce & Feez, 2004: 23; Christie & Derewianka, 2008) or a moral value (Gibbons, 2009: 109). Narratives in English speaking cultures commonly have a particular structure, as can be seen in the following Table 4.1, based on the work of Joyce & Feez (2004); Christie & Derewianka (2008); Gibbons (2009). Table 4.1 The schematic structure of a Narrative (Adapted from Joyce & Feez, 2004; Christie & Derewianka,2008; Gibbons, 2009) Elements of structure Function Introduces the characters and tells the reader something about them. It also Orientation tells the physical context of the story, including who is the characters, what they do, when and where they do it. It gives a hint about the problem which the characters will encounter. Is the centre of the Narrative. It is the reason why the story is told. This is Complication where the reader discovers the problem and something happens which the caharacters do not expect. Is where the story teller suspends or slows down the action to comment on Evaluation the events. This creates suspense and makes the reader want to find out what will happen. The story teller can solve weave evaluation into the complication stage. The story teller‟s evaluation makes the reader care about what happens to the characters. Is where the problem is solved. Resolution Rounds off the story with a short comment on what happened or with a Coda comment about the future lives of the characters. For example, many fairy tales have a coda such as “And they lives happily ever after.”
A Narrative may have an abstract, though it is optional (Christie & Derewianka, 2008: 32). However, as Joyce & Feez (2004:24) argue, all Narratives must have an orientation and complication with an evaluation and a resolution. Story tellers, argue Joyce & Feez, only sometimes give their Narratives a coda and at other times they leave the reader to work out the coda for themselves. Other writers, like Gibbons (2009) also offers a different names of elements of the structure of a Narrative. These include Orientation, Events, Complication and Resolution, as can be seen in an example of a Narrative offered by Gibbons (2009: 110), presented in Figure 4.1. The text is about “the North Wind and The Sun”. Orientation:
Once upon a time The North Wind and the Sun were arguing about which of them was more powerful. “I am more powerful” said the Wind, “because my breath is very strong.” “But strength is not the only power there is,” replied the sun. They argues for a long time, each of them claiming to be stronger than the other. To settle the argument they decided they should have a
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contest to see who was the more powerful. After a while they noticed below them a man walking along the road. It was a bitterly cold day and the man was wearing a long, thick warm coat. They decided to settle the argument by seeing who could most easily make the man take off his warm coat. “Do you see that man?” asked the Sun. Let‟s see who can make him take off his coat.” That‟s easy,” laughed the North Wind. “I can easily blow his coat off his back!” First the cold North Wind blew hard, trying to blow the man‟s coat off his back. But the man just wrapped the coat more closely around himself. Then Complication the North Wind puffed and puffed, and blew harder and harder, but the man wrapped the coat even more tightly around his body. Finally the North Wind gave up his attempt, exhausted. “Now it‟s your turn,” he gasped to the Sun. The genle Sun shone out warmly. Soon the man grew warm Resolution andbuttened his coat. The Sun shone and shone and after just a few minutes the man took off his coat. And so in the end the North Win had to admit that the Sun was the stronger of the two. Figure 4.1. Organisational structure of the Narrative the North Wind and the Sun (From Gibbons, 2009:110) Events
Like other genres that have been taken up previously in this book, Narratives also have linguistic features, and to follow Gibbons (2009: 111) and Joyce & Feez (2004), these linguistic features can be listed below: It is sequenced in time, and this is signaled by a range of time connectives: once upon a time, after a while, first, then. It uses the past tense; It uses many action verbs which express material processes that describe what happens: blew, wrapped, shone, exhausted. It containes dialogues and uses a number of “saying verbs” (Verbal processes), such as: said, asked, replied. Sometimes these saying verbs also indicate how something is said. For example, instead of writing “He said “What is that?” one might say: “He whispered “What is that?”. Many Narratives also use thinking verbs that give us information about what participants are thinking or feeling, such as wondered, remembered, thought, felt, disliked. Narratives use descriptive langauge to describe people and things: bitterly cold day, long, thick, warm coat, cold North Wind, gentle Sun and to describe how actions occur: easily, harder, tightly, warmly. Another text type which is also written by the students and has not been discussed in previous parts of the book is responses to a literature and art, and this will be taken up below.
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4.5.2 An overview of Personal Responses to literature Personal Responses to literature shows how someone, as an individual, responds to literature. Personal Responses are subjective reactions of the writer to a work of literature (Joyce & Feez, 2004:36). Personal responses to literature have several stages, which can be seen in table 4. 2 below, based on the work of Joyce & Feez (2004:36). Table 4. 2. The schematic structure of Personal Responses to literature Element of the structure Function Tells the reader what the writer is responding to and prepares the reader for Orientation what the writer is going to say. Tells the reader about the text the writer is responding to. This can be about Text description the events in the story or the way the text is constructed. Gives the writer‟s personal reaction to the text. Comment
An example of personal responses to literature can be seen below in Table 4.3. The text has been taken from Joyce & Feez (2004:37). It is a personal response to the Prelude of The Gathering by Isobelle carmody. A Prelude reviews what happened before the story begins.
Orientation Text Description
Table 4.3. An example of a personal response to literary work (From Joyce and Feez, 2004:37). The Prelude to the gathering by Isobelle carmody sets an evil atmosphere for the novel. The Prelude tells us about the main character Nathaniel coming into the new town that he and his mother are moving to. As Nathaniel and his mother drive into the town we see the town through Nathaniel‟s eyes and we get some idea of his background. For example, we learn that he is moving here with his mother and that he is not particularly happy. As soo as I read the first line I felt scared as the author developed a sense of foreboding. I kew that this would be a story about good versus evil as soon as I read the first line. Some times you get a feeling about something that you can‟t explain, a premonition of wrongness. I knew immediately that the main character would be involved in strange and unusual events. The description of the twon and the school made me feel creepy which is the way Nathaniel feels. I could clearly see the treeless and cold playgroun d of the school and when Nathaniel said: Fear crept through skin and bone and folded itself in my chest, I shivered. I think the author is very clever in the way she throws the reader instantly into an atmosphere of eeriness. This makes the reader afraid and then it is easy to predict something very unusual will happen to Nathaniel.
Comment
I think that the Prelude is very effective. It cleverly drew me into the atmosphere of the novel so that I wanted to continue reading to find out what would happen to Nathaniel.
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Moreover, personal responses have the following linguistic features: Use first person pronouns (I, my and me). Contains words which refer to the whole or parts of the text; the novel, The prelude, the first line, main character. Contains verbs (processes) to show how the writer feels and thinks about bthe text., e.g. I think, I feel. Contains opinion words which clearly show the writer‟s reaction and which aim to make the reader agree with this reaction; ... she throws the reader instantly into an atmosphere of eeriness. This makes the reader afraid ... . The description of the town and the school made me feel creepy. The writer discusses and evaluates texts and use words to evaluate. e.g. I think that the prelude is very effective. It cleverly drew me into the atmosphere of the novel. The following two sections will turn to give a description of the classroom, and this can be seen from two aspects: the physical environment and the teaching learning activities, which will be taken up respectively in Sections 4.5.3 and 4.5.4. 4.5.3 An overview of Description 4.5.3 The classroom physical environment In terms of classroom physical environment, there are several matters that can be described about the Australian classroom. These will be concerned with: The number of students Seating arrangement The availability of prints that allows students to be immersed in the language learning. Regarding the number of students, this class, as other classes in this school and other schools in Australia in gneral, only had 25 students. This number is much smaller than that of Indonesan class as described in Chapter 3. However, in an international standard class in Indonesia, the number of students is also about 20 to twenty five. So, to some extent we can learn a lot from what could be seen in the classroom, especially for those classrooms with a similar number of students in Indonesia. Another matter that can be described is concerned with the seating arrangement, which according to Gebhard (2006:85) implies classroom activities that students do in class. In Indonesian classroom, seating arrangement tends to be traditional (Gebhard, 2006:85), in that the furniture is fixed and arranged like a theatre with all students looking towards the teacher (see Chapter 3). Seating arrangements in Australia are not fixed and furniture can be arranged, so students sit in “circles” 2006:86) where they can see each other to work together. Moreover, in front of the classroom there is a space where students can sit together
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when listening to the teacher‟s explanation. The seating arrangement can be seen in Picture 4.1 below.
Picture 4.1 Seating arrangment in an Australian classroom
This seating arrangement allows children to work in groups and to communicate with each other. The seating arrangement like this, or the U shape, as Beyer (1997) suggests, is really useful. From a critical thinking perspective, it is this seating arrangement which is suggested as it allows students to work in groups, to discuss the topic they learn, which constitutes an activity that can enhance their critical thinking (Chaffee et al, 2002). From the perspective of language teaching, this seating arrangement allows children to move, to do a variety of activities, to interact with other students and to apply group work as learning strategy (Killen, 2007). This teaching/learning strategy, despite some limitations, has several advantages, like these, based on Killen (2007:160). Group work shifts the focus from students being passive recipients of information to being active learners. This can enhance students‟ achievement and retention (Peterson, 1981; Swing & Peterson, 1982, cited in Killen, 2007: 160);
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Group work is a useful way of activating students‟ prior knowledge and helping them to reconstruct their understnding of the subject matter; Group work can be a useful way of giving students an opportunity to work on a realistic task that is too complex or too large to be undertaken by individuals; Group work can encourage co-operation among students. It helps them to learn respect for one another‟s strengths and limitation. When students listen as the teacher explains some new material and she wants to make sure that everyone paid attention to her explanation, the teacher asks all students to sit on the carpet in from of the classroom. This activity is possible as the the room has space to do that. This makes the class dynamic and allows the teacher to closely monitor each student‟s understanding of what is going on in the classroom or what is being explained. The classroom described had a good set of facilities and ample printed materials that can enhance the results of students‟ learning. It can be said that students in this class were surrounded by an environment that is rich in spoken and written language, which is supportive environment that provides resources and opportunities for interaction with knowledgeable others (Campbell, 2006: 86). These printed materials can be seen from what was around the classroom, such as those related to other subjects, like science, social studies or students‟ work that are published in the classroom. Examples of printed materials around the classroom can be seen in Picture 4.2.
Picture 4.2 An example of printed material in the classroom: The social purpose, the schematic structure and linguistic features of an Exposition
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Moreover, books that students can read in reading time were also available in the room. Students could pick up one book when they read or read the same book together when they are doing a project like literature circle, in which a group of students read the same novel for a period of several weeks, and the discussed the novel, and each student had a different role each wekk, whethet they were as a discussion director, as a travel tracer, etc, in line with the suggestion from Harveys (2003). Conspicuous was the availability of sources and materials or visual aids drawn from both the process and the genre-based approaches around the classroom. The influence of the process approach could be identified from the poster on the principles of conferences suggested by Hornsby & Sukarna (2007), covering authorial conference, secretarial conference and editorial conference. The implementation of this conference was also obvious from the trays avaliable, containing students‟ texts. The top level was labelled “Read me” indicating that the texts should be read by the teacher, the lower levels were respectively labelled “Revise me” meaning that the texts should be revised by the students, “Edit me” that the texts should be edited and “Proofread me” that the texts should be proofread. Apart from showing the emphasis on the conference, this also suggests that writing is taught as a process, consistent with the point argued by the theorists of the process approach (Graves, 1983; 1996; Hill, 2006) (and actually the SFL GBA, as suggested by Feez, 2002; Christie, 2005) where the students go through the process of writing, starting from drafting, revising, editing, proofreading. However, a strong emphasis on the implementation of the SFL GBA was also clear, evidenced by visual aids on the schematic structure and model of various genres (such as Narrative, Recount, Exposition, Procedural, Explanation, Discussion) that could be used as a reference and a model, as suggested by SFL GBA (Macken-Horarik, 2002). It was also stated by the teacher that the aim the teaching of writing in this class was to lead children to learn how to produce different text types, including Narrative, Recount, Exposition (see Pictures 4.2 and 4.3 above), Procedural and Explanation. This coincides with the suggestion from the SFL GBA (Macken-Horarik, 2002; Martin & Rose, 2008; Christie & Derewianka, 2008). Interesting evidence that this class and this school has been impacted a lot by the development of the SFL GBA is that these text types were available not only in the classroom, but also in the assembly hall and even outside the classroom on the windows of the school yard. These posters allowed students, even who were playing basket ball, for example, to be reminded of all the text types they were learning. The text types were also available in the school coordinator‟s room. This school seemed to be aware of the advantage of models for the students and the importance of the development of students‟ writing skills in different genres. As the students‟ texts will reveal, this had allowed students to write different text types quite successfully at this stage. Of the available printed materials in the classroom, one aspect should be mentioned, that is to do with the teaching of critical literacy. In this class, as in other classes in this school, students were encouraged to connect the text they read or wtite with other texts, with their life or experiences and the world. This is relevant to one of the concept in critical literacy and critical pedagogy proposed by Freire (Freire & Macedo, 1987), that is “reading the word
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and the wold” as described in Chapter 1. That this class attached a great importance to critical literacy was confirmed by the teacher. When asked whether her teaching program or classroom activities enabled the students to develop critical literacy, she explained: Yes, hopefully it does. I think that‟s what it‟s all about, really, that they become critical about their reading and their writing and they can make judgment, form opinion, and be aware of not accepting everything that‟s sid to them or everything they read in the internet, and being able to question and ask why
The teacher‟s comments above shows her understanding of the importance of aspects of critical thinking and critical literacy, as discussed in Chapter 1. Apart from those printed materials, the classroom had also a handwriting rubric, which was put in a folder on every table of the students to allow students to check their hand writing everytime they write. The writing rubrics also contained the revising and editing sheets to allow the students to check revise and to edit their wriring and also the plan of different text types that they write. All these will be displayed below in Tables 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 respectively. Table 4.4 Handwriting rubric
Formation
4 Excellent
3 Good
All letters are easy to read
Most letters are Many letters are easy to read easy to read
Start letters in the right place. Make basic strokes correctly All letters slope SLOPE forward evenly All letters show SIZE good size and Check the tall and long letters proportion Size of letters is even SPACING Keep letters close. Spaces between words FLUENCY
2 satisfactory 1. Needs improvement Some letters are easy to read
Most letters slope Many letters slope Some letters slope forward evenly forward evenly forward evenly Most letters show Many letters show Many letters show good size and good size and good size and proportion proportion proportion
All letters and Most letters and Many letters and Some letters and words words are spaced words are spaced words are spaced are spaced evenly evenly evenly evenly
All letters formedMost letters Many letters Some letters formed smoothly formed smoothly formed smoothly smoothly
Paper position Posture Relaxed pencil grip Easy Flow LINE POSITION Placement of letters on the
Text placement isText placement is Text placement is Text placement is correct for all correct for most correct for many correct for some letters letters letters letters.
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lines
The writing rubrics above were very useful to enhance students‟ awareness that weh writing, we should not focus on only the content, but also the mechanics of writing. This mechanics playes a very important role in the readability of the text as a whole. Unneat texts and unreadable hand writing will make the text unfriendly to the readers and not interesting. Another printed material available to enhance students‟ writing ability is the “Revising Sheet” which, again, is really helful to promote students‟awaraeness of the process of writing and the signifcance of having a coherent and well-organised text, containing elements appropriate the to genre and the topic. This “Revising Sheet” can be seen below in Table 4.5. The statement at the bottom of the sheet, saying “You are now ready to edit yor writing” can enhance students‟ awareness that editing is one step that every writier should go through to produce an interesting and well-writtn text. Table 4.5 Revising sheet (From Western Australia Department of Education, 1997) Revising My Writing Name: -------------------------------------
Date Revised: -------------------------------
Do I have a well written beginning or Introduction?
Do I have a well-written ending or conclusion?
Did I stay on the topic
Have I used topic sentences?
Is my writing interesting? (read it to someone in a peer conference to check)
Have I repeated myself too much? Is there any unnecessary information?
Are important details included? Have I done enough research? Have I used enough descriptive language?
Have I made good word choices? (strong, descriptive, precise, lively, interesting, persuasive, technical language?)
Is my writing well organized considering the genre? Paragraphs? Logical order?,
Does the writing make sense?
Are any of my sentences too long?
Have I used correct language for this genre?
HAVE I TRIED MY BEST? You are now ready to edit your writing. Signed ________________________
The last printed material that can be displayed here to enhance students‟ achievemnt in writing and to promote students‟ awareness of the process of writing is the “Editing Sheet”, as shown in Table 4.6 below.
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Table 4.6 Editing sheet (From Western Australia Department of Education, 1997) Editing My Writing Name: --------------------------------------------
Date Edited:-------------------------------------
Have I read my work aloud in a ppeer conference to check for correct punctuation?
Have I started a new line each time someone new speaks and included quotation marks?
Do I have the appropriate headings, subheadings/title?
Have I used an exclamation mark where expression is needed?
Have I checked my spelling using a have a go sheet or dictionary?
Have I used a question mark at the end of each question?
Have I used capitals when needed (names, start of sentence, proper nouns, etc)?
Have I used a comma each time I need to take a breath when reading my work (eg. Between adjectives, making a list, etc)?
Have I put a full stop at the end of each sentence?
HAVE I TRIED MY BEST? You are now reay to do your final draft in your good copy book. Signed ________________
This “Editing Sheet” is very important and students seemed to use this to check their writing befote theu handed it in to the teacher. Like the writing rublics above, this sheet makes the students aware of the importance of the lay out of the text, which can make the reader interested in the text and other mechanics of writing, such as capitalisation, punctuation, spelling and so on. These printed materials are really relevant to the Indonesian context and can be used in the classroom to help students understand the writing process and to produce a better and more interesting text. Students were also provided with the plan of writing different text types that could guide them to write the focal texts. Below are examples of plans the students used, which are Narrative and Biography plans. The plans of these text types have been chosen to be presented in this chapter as these text types have not been described in the previous chapters. Table 4.8 and 4.9 will provide the plan for a Narrative and a Biography.
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Table 4.7 A plan for a Narrative Framework Heading
Make Notes or Drawings to help plan your story
Title Orientation
Events
Complication
Resolution
Coda/Moral/Concluding Statement
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Table 4.8. A plan for a Biography
Biography of a Hero
Introduction
1. Subheading - Personal Details/Field of Contribution
2. Subheading - Achievements/awards
3. Subheading – Why I admire this person
Conclusion – Finishing off comment that wraps report up.
These plans above are of significant importance to lead tostudents‟ understanding of the sctructure of the text that they write to make the text successful and fulfil its social purposes. Moreover, the fact that the plas provide space for each stage can make students realise that each stage or element of structure in the text should be written in different paragraphs. This will prevent students from writing the focal text in one paragraph, as described in Chapter 3. All the printed materials above suggest that literacy learning in the classroom, the learning of writing in particular, had been impacted by both the process and the SFL GBA. This is not surprising as previous research, as mentioned above, suggests that today‟s writing classroom in both native language and ESL/EFL tends to be eclectic, influenced, particulalrly by both the process approach and the SFL GBA. Regarging the availability of the printed materials and visual aids, the teacher commented: I think I use the chart and the examples of work and I keep them around the room because I think children may need them, they need a visual reminder... I „ve got here what we should be aiming for. I use visual aids to help the children stay focus.
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This supports Christie‟s (1989) position on the importance of the provision of a model text for students to learn. This also goes with the argument from Barnes (1999) and Migdalek (2002) in EFL context, that “With the available model, students can have a clear concept of the desired goal, be able to compare their work with the model and to decide how to close the gap between the two,” (Barnes, 1999: 263, see also Migdalek, 2002 ). Moreover, the importance of the availability of the prints in the children‟s environment has also been emphasised by whole language advocates (Campbell, 2006). Moreover, with the availability of the poster that encouraged or reminded the students to relate the text that read or write to other texts, to their life and to the world, the teaching learning program in this class also put an emphasis on the students‟ critical literacy development. This is also supported by the teacher‟s comment when asked whethet the program she conducted could enhance students‟ critical literacy Yrs, hopefully it does develop critical literacy. I think that‟s what it‟s all about really, that they become critical about their reading and their writing and they can make judgment, form opinion, and be aware of not just accepting everything that is said to them or everything they read in the internet, and being able to question and ask “why” . (italis added).
The teacher‟s comment above is relevant to the principles of critical literacy and critical pedagogy emphasised in this book, as described in Chapters 1 and 2. Apart from the physical environment that has been described above, another matter that shows the synthesis of the process approach and the SFL GBA can be seen from the teaching learning activities that will be described in the subsequent section. 4.5.4 Teaching learning process Regarding the teaching/learning process, unlike other chapters in this book, this chapter cannot provide a complete picture of the teaching/learning process from the beginning up to the end, as the observation was conducted in the regular class and the writer observed what was ging on when she was present. Of course other activities continued over the six weeks, which were not observed. In terms of research, this is more reliable as the observation was conducted in the class, not created for a research purpose (van Lier, 1988, 1996). The teaching/ learning activities in writing can be described below. In the first lesson observed, the teacher was doing a conference with students. She applied the principles of conference with students, three days a week. Over the conference, the teacher confidently did what is suggested by Hornsby & Sukarna (2007), depending on the stage of the students‟ writing. An example of a conference sheet can be seen below.
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Table 4.9. An example of an authorial Conference Sheet Name: Date
Notes
Action required
13/8/08
Recount
Compare lives. Make it more interesting for the Reader.
20/8/07
Fr Terrys talked – Recount. Added Look for more interesting words: talked, went, said. more info and did a comparison with her life. Still brief and lacking important information.
In an authorial conference, the teacher‟s comments were, among others: Write more about the comparison between your family and Steve; Organise writing into Beginning, Middle and End; Think about more interesting words; Where will you put your B (beginning) + M (Middle) +E (end) paragraphs?; Focus on organising information into B,M,and E; Add how we raised $2000 for Sacraed Heart Mission (Observation Notes, August 9th, 2007).
In editorial stage, the teacher‟s comments concerns grammar, spelling and other mechanics of writing. These included: Check “Know”, “No”, “Tense –ed past tense (Observation Notes August 20, 2007) Self corrected puctuation and spelling but no work on content. She used words beyond her spelling ability, which is good (Observation Notes, August 28, 2007
An example of conferencing at this stage can be seen below. Table 4.10. An Example of Editorial Conference Sheet Name: Date
Notes
Action required
13/8/08
Recount
Paragraphs clear
20/8/07
Sacred Heart Mission report – added in paragraphs without changing any text – added fundraising effort.
B + M +E (Beginning, Middle and End) Check Know, No, Tense – ed past tense.
Add how we raised $2000 for sacred Heart Mission.
What the teacher did can be seen in Picture 4.4 below, when the teacher showed the students some grammatical mistakes, like incorrect use of prepositions, spelling and other mechanics of writing.
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Picture 4.3. Activities in a writing conference (editorial conference)
In the proofreading stage, the teacher asked the writer to do a peer conference. The teacher‟s comment in students‟ book read:
Peer conference with John (pseudonym) ... to help John (August 27, 2009).
The comments above, given at different stages of writing, were appropriate and beneficial. These comments, as reported by Peregoy & Boyle (1993:71-73) enable students to understand that they can concentrate on different aspects of writing at different times in the process which makes the writing task unthreatening (see also the discussion in Callaghan & Rothery, 1988 about what the teacher should do in conferencing with the students). Thus, through the process of writing, the teacher could assist students with strategies for generating ideas (Peregoy & Boyle, 1993). These activities also indicate the teacher‟s sound understanding of the theory and her capacity to translate this theory into practice. Moreover, the teacher‟s comments above also show her attempt to do conference at any stage in the 149
process of writing, in line with the point from the process theorists (Graves, 1983; Calkins, 1986; Hill, 2006). This was done both in groups and roups (of eight) and individually. This conference, according to Calkins (1986), could allow the teacher to observe what works and what does not work for each child as a writer. Finally, the teacher‟s suggestion to a student writer to peer conference to help others also reflects a classroom practice relevant to both the process and the SFL GBA, which recognises the value of peer conference. In Indonesian EFL contexts, with a big number of students (generally more than 40), a peer conference, as already shown in Chapter 3, constitutes a significant help for students and allows the teacher to pay his/her attention to those who really struggle. In terms of the provision of feedback, the teacher seemed to have a strong belief in the benefits of feedback that she gave to her students. She explained: I used visual aids to help students stay focused, then the feedback, I think they need the feedback, otherwise why do it... I want the feedback to be positive and let them know that I hear what they are saying and I like what they are saying. But I also want to say “you could do better or why didn‟t you mention this, or you could go further”. So, I think that‟s a part of being a teacher.
The statement above seems to reveal the teacher‟s awareness of the value of feedback as a key component of teaching writing, which has been shared by the theorists of the teaching of writing (see Hyland, 2003; Coffin et al, 2003; Hyland & Hyland, 2006; Macaro, 2003). Macaro (2003: 238) says that “Feedback is to a teacher as swimming is to a fish”. Feedback will determine whether the students revise, as Beach & Friedrich (2006) mention: “It also became clear that the nature and quality of the teachers‟ feedback during the composing process is critical to whether students revise.” The last point about the role of the teacher to assist students to go further is also consistent with the learning theory from Vygotsky, on the zone of proximal development, that “Learning awakens a variety of internal development processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and in cooperation with peers”(Vygotsky, 1978: 90). Apart from obvious influence of the process approach on classroom activities as described above, there were also activities drawn from the SFL GBA. First of all was the conference when the teacher paid attention to the structure of the text (asking the students to think about Beginning, Middle and End) and grammar. This coincides with the suggestion from the SFL GBA that the teacher should lead the students to have a good control of the schematic structure and linguistic features of a text (Anderson & Anderson, 1997a,b; Christie, 2005; Emilia, 2005; Christie & Derewianka, 2008). With respect to the conference, based on what happened in the classroom, the teacher did not seem to have any challenge in her teaching although from her verbalisation she mentioned there was indeed a problem encountered by the teacher, especially to do with conferencing with students in terms of the time allocated and the number of students in the conference. The teacher mentioned:
...Oh yes, it‟s very challenging - the time, the number of children in the grade. At the moment I‟ve
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got 8 children in a group and they are too many. It takes me too long to get through their eyes. ... So, I am thinking if I make changes and I might only have 4 children in a group. ... .
This warrants further investigation, especially on how many students should be involved in a group conference and how long the conference should last with individual student and what aspects should be emphasised in each conference. Other activities relevant to stages in the teaching cycle of the genre-based approach, as proposed by Feez & Joyce (1998a) and Gibbons (2002) were: Building Knowledge of the Field, where the teacher explained about the topic that the students were going to write and asked the students to do research. Students sometimes worked in the library to find out relevant information needed for their writing. Some times the teacher read a book or a short text book regarding a certain information, or the teacher explained in front of the classroom where students were sitting on the carpet. The teacher seemed to be aware of the importance of the Building Knowledge of the Field, and this was confirmed by her comments below:
“I think if I don‟t spend time developing their ideas, then what they write is shallow...”.
This is relevant to the purpose of the stage, that is, as the name suggests, to build the students‟ knowledge about the topic they are writing, as Gibbons (2002) argues. The students‟ strong background knowledge of a topic, as revealed in Emilia (2005) can lead to the creation of an analytical text, showing the writer‟s critical thinking and critical literacy. One matter needs a brief mention here, that is students wrote in line with what happened in their school or in their society. For example, when on the Mothers Day, the students wrote a letter to their mother. In commemmorating a certain day in the Christian religion, they wrote about something relevant to Christian society, as can be seen below in the Descriptive text about the Sacred Heart Mission. After the students had a holliday, the students wrote a Recount about their holliday. So, as writing had become part of their dailiy activities and the students were familiar with what to do, they would just do it (Gibbons (2009). This is relevant to the teaching of critical literacy emphasised throughout the school that when students read or write a text, they should be able to connect the text to other text, to their life or experience and to the world. This, as will be shown below, can be seen from the avalilability of a poster showing “Text to Text, Text to Life and Text to the World”. Modelling when the teacher did some explicit teaching about the schematic structure and linguistic features of the text that students were assigned to write. Regarding explicit teaching, the teacher explained that explicit teaching reminded her and the students of “why we „re doing it and what is the purpose of it.” This comment is in line with
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the suggestion from the SFL GBA that the teacher should explicitly explain about pathways (Feez and Joyce, 1998a: 73) which the students should follow in the course of the lessons. Joint Construction: writing together with the students a model text in focus. Unfortunately, the model of the text written in this joint construction was not collected. Sometimes the teacher seemed to skip the joint construction and this can beseen that most of students‟ writing were written independently. The students did a joint project in other subjects. This shows her understanding of the point that “the teaching cycle does not work as a lockstep sequence for the whole class” (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988: 48) and “there is no right way to sequence teaching learning activities” (Macken-Horarik, 2002: 26). The texts that students wrote in the classroom can be seen in the subsequent section about texts students wrote in the classroom. Independent construction. This is when the students wrote their drafts several times, having to revise and to edit their texts. The students also did consultation in a conference with the teacher, as suggested before. After each draft students were encouraged to consult the revising sheet above (Table 4…), and then they had to sign if they thought they had done all the aspects suggested in the sheet. Then when their writing had gone through several drafts, the students could edit, and they could check their writing using the editing sheet above (Table 4.6). Some of the texts that were collected in this class will be presented in Section 4.5.5. All classroom activities above were in fact supported by a strong belief in and undertstanding of the appoaches to the teaching of writing that are essential in Australia. This can be seen from the teacher‟s statement below:
I like whole language (which is the umbrella of the process approach), I like to integrate reading and writing into enquiry learning, in the senior and the middle section of the school, the grade five, I think we should concentrate on the content. ... We do use the SFL GBA in our instruction and the children are expected to learn how to do Narrative and Recount and Exposition and Procedural and Explanation.
The teacher‟s teaching methods show overal that she could exploit the best features of both process approaches and the SFL GBA. Her teaching demonstrates that the two are compatible and the possible problems of the two approaches can be avoided. On the issue of creativity and prescriptivity in particular, the teacher was alert that she did not dictate the students to write in a certain genre, as the grade five students already learned about many genres before and in this grade the students are given feedom to choose the genre they like to write. She stated:
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... I don‟t dictate. Some times I might, I might dictate it has to be a Recount or a Procedural text, but usually they select because for grade four and five they have been taught different genres and the idea is they use them and they apply what they‟ve been learning in the younger grades ... .
One thing that needs a brief mention regarding this teacher is her belief in the necessity of continuous learning for a teacher. She argued:
I think that you keep learning as a teacher, I don‟t think you ever stop. I don‟t think you ever get to a point where you said “OK, I can do it now”.
This comment goes with the argument that “good teachers are continuously learning” (Jacobson, 1998:29) and the point from critical pedagogy theorists, that not only the students, but also the teacher should become the subject of knowing and the teacher, like his/her students is an apprentice, someone who is also seeking (see Freire, 1985; Freire and Shor, 1987; Gadotti, 1997). Regarding this, the teacher believed that professional development is central to lead to teachers‟ comprehesive understanding of current concepts and development and best practices to scaffold the students in learning to write.This statement is, again relevant to the point from language education theorists, such as Leung (2009) who points out that professionalism is important for teachers. 4.5.5. Students’ texts Along the course of the observation and the school year, students in this class produced several texts as will be described below. The text types they wrote included: Recount, Narrative, and Personal Response to Literature. Examples of each text type can be seen below. Text 4.1. A Recount Elements of the structure
THE BEST THING I DID ON THE HOLIDAYS
Orientation
The best thing I did on the holidays was going to my neighbours, Bill and Wendy‟s house at Mount Martha with my mother and sisters Tasha and Chloe.
Record of Events
The first day dad drove us up there at 8.00 am. And we got there at 9.00 am. We went to the door and Wendy came out and we gace her lots of hugs. She said Bill wasn‟t there because he was working, so we gave her two chocolate cadbury easter eggs, one for her and one for Bill. When we went inside and put our stuff in the rooms we were sleeping, Wendy gave us a chocolate bunny and 10 dollers (dollars) each. We said thank you to her and we were talking to her about what we did since last time we went there. Then dad went to work and we were watching Bobby, Wendy‟s dog, lick the
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glass sliding door. Then we went down to the village in the bright red Capri with the roof off because in February someone cut the plastic window at night. At the village we went to the video store and hired some videos and then went to the supermarket and got some suplies (supplies) for the next two days. Then we went in the bakery and bought some lunch. It was nice. After lunch we put our bathers on and went to the beach for one hour. When we left the beach we went to Wendy‟s house.
Text 4.1 above does not seem to be finished yet. It does not have a Reorientation, and has only two elements of a Recount, including: Orientation: The best thing I did on the holidays was going to my neighbours, Bill and Wendy‟s house at Mount Martha with my mother and sisters tash and Chloe. Record of Events: Starting from the First day dad drove us up there at 8.00 am. through to the last sentence of the text: When we left the beach, we went to Wendy‟s house. In terms of the linguistic features, the text shows the writer‟s capacity to use English, and this can be seen, first of all, from the fact that the text does not have any grammatical mistakes. This is not surprising for a native speaker like him. Other linguistic features relevant to a Recount text are: Successful use of marked topical Theme, realising temporality, and again strengthening the thematic progression of the text; The first day dad drove us up there at 8.00 am; When we went inside and put our stuff in the rooms we were sleeping, Wendy gave us a chocolate bunny and 10 dollers (dollars) each; Then we went in the bakery and bought some lunch. After lunch we put our bathers on and went to the beach for one hour. When we left the beach we went to Wendy‟s house. Successful use of textual Theme which help create the cohesion of the text: Then dad went to work and we were watching Bobby, Wendy‟s dog, lick the glass sliding door. Then we went down to the village in the bright red Capri with the roof off because in February someone cutt the plastic window at night; then went to the supermarket and got some suplies (supplies) for the next two days. Successful use of longer unit Themes, some of which are realised in a dependent clause as in: When we left the beach we went to Wendy‟s house. One longer unit Theme has a dependent clause Appropriate use of simple past tense, as can be seen in examples presented above. Appropriate use of causal conjunctions to show logical connections between one statement with another: We went down to the village in the bright red Capri with the roof off because in February someone cut the plastic window at night. Text 4. 2 A Recount
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Structure Orientation
A couple of weeks ago I went to a nice cafe in Eltham. It was called Volumes.
Record of Events
When I walked through the door I could smell coffee toast and pasta. It smelt delicious. I got spring rolls with salad. The spring rolls felt oily, but tasted nice. The salad tasted sour and disgusting. My brother got chips and fish. The fish looked gross but the chips were nice. In the cafe they have a mini book shop. I got a horse stencil book. My brother Liam got a pen with a book light on the end.
Reorientation
I really liked the cafe, then I had to leave the smell.
Text 4.2, written by a student categorised as high by the teacher, is another text classified into a Recount. The text shows the writer‟s good control of the schematic structure of a Recount. The text has three elements of structure, as suggested by the theorists of the SFL GBA as mentioned earlier, including: Orientation: A couple of weeks ago I went to a nice restaurant in Eltham. It was called Volumes. Record of Events: When I walked through the door I could smell coffee toast and pasta... through to the last sentence: My brother Liam got a pen with a book light on the end. Reorientation: I really liked the cafe, then I had to leave the smell. The writer successfuly gave a comment on the cafe and what he smelt there. This reorients the reader to what has been said in the first part of the text, that the cafe is nice. In terms of linguistic features, the text reflects the writer‟s capacity in several aspects, relevant to a Recount, including: Successful use of paste tense: A couple of weeks ago I went to a nice cafe in Eltham. It was called Volumes. When I walked through the door I could smell coffee toast and pasta. It smelt delicious. ... I got spring rolls with salad. The spring rolls felt oily, but tasted nice. The salad tasted sour and disgusting. My brother got chips and fish. The fish looked gross but the chips were nice. In the cafe they have a mini book shop. I got a horse stencil book. My brother Liam got a pen with a book light on the end. Text 4. 3 A Narrative Title
My Dancing Competition
Date: 27/4/07
Orientation
Once upon a time there was a girl named Alice. She loved dancing and was great at it. On the 27th of April, she had to do five dances. Alice was brilliant at tap dancing. It was also her favorite. At the competitions all her five dances were tap, she had a friend doing a duo with her. They were dressing up as circus performers.
Complication
They did lots of flexible things but when she was doing her kartwheel her skirt fell off!
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Evaluation
She was soooo embarrassed so she ran off stage and started to cry while the audience were crying of laughters. Alice‟s partner was more than happy to do the dance by herself. When the dance finished Alice‟s partner ran straight to her. Her eyeliner was dripping down like a clown because of her tears. She decided to quit the other 4 dances and became one of the audience. When she walked into the theatre people were stll laughing but she was strong and walked in. All the dances she saw weren‟t very good.
Resolution
She changed her mind. SHE WOULD DO THE DANCE !
Coda
The night ended up being better than it would of (have) been. The End
Text 4.3, written by a student categorised as high by the teacher, is a text classified into a Narrative. The text shows the writer‟s good control of the schematic structure of a Narrative. The text has five elements of structure, as suggested by the theorists of the SFL GBA as mentioned earlier, including: Orientation: Once upon a time there was a girl named Alice. ... . Complication: They did lots of flexible things but when she was doing her kartwheel her skirt fell off! Evaluation: She was soo embarrassed... . Resolution: She changed her mind. Coda: The night ended up being better than it would have been. The writer successfuly ended the story In terms of linguistic features, It is sequenced in time, and this is signaled by a range of time connectives: once upon a time, after a while, first, then. It uses the past tense; It uses many action verbs which express material processes that describe what happens: blew, wrapped, shone, exhausted. It containes dialogues and uses a number of “saying verbs” (Verbal processes), such as: said, asked, replied. Sometimes these saying verbs also indicate how something is said. For example, instead of writing “He said “What is that?” one might say: “He whispered “What is that?”. Many Narratives also use thinking verbs that give us information about what participants are thinking or feeling, such as wondered, remembered, thought, felt, disliked. Narratives use descriptive langauge to describe people and things: bitterly cold day, long, thick, warm coat, cold North Wind, gentle Sun and to describe how actions occur: easily, harder, tightly, warmly.
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Elements of Structure
Text 4.4. A Personal Response to literary work Personal Response to A literary work Specky Magee, a story book written by Felice and Garry)
Orientation
Hi, my name is Jemy. I‟ve been reading your Specky Magee
Text Description
I‟ve been reading your Specky Magee books and they are fantastic. It‟s one of the best book I‟ve ever in my whole life. I think the worst part of the books are that Specky‟s dad and mum and his sister does not like footy. And I want to ask a question. What team does Specky play for?
Comment
To finish off you are a great writer.
Text 4.4, written by a student categorised as high by the teacher, is a text classified into a Personal response to Specky Magee books. Like other texts presented earlier, the text shows the writer‟s good control of the schematic structure of a Personal response. The text has the elements of structure, as suggested by the theorists of the SFL GBA as mentioned earlier, including: Orientation which tells the reader what the writer is responding to: I‟ve been reading your Specky Magee. Text Description which tells the reader about the text the writer is responding to. In this case the writer describes the book as one of the best books he has ever in his life (It‟s one of the best book I‟ve ever in my whole life). The writer also describes the construction of the text, saying I think the worst part of books are that Specky‟s dad and mum and his siter does (it should be do) not like footy. Comment in which the writer gives a judgment and his personal reaction to the text indirectly, saying that the writer is a great writer: To finish off you are a great writer. In terms of the linguistic features, the text has the following aspects appropriate for a personal response to literary works: Use first person pronouns I have been reading your Specky Magee; I think the worst part of the books are that Specky‟s dad and mum and his sister does not like footy. Contains words which refer to the whole or parts of the text: Specky Magee books. Contains verbs (processes) to show how the writer feels and thinks about bthe text: I think the worst part of the books are that Specky‟s dad and mum and his sister does not like footy. The writer usee words to evaluate. e.g. The best book I‟ve ever in my whole life, You are a great writer. Text 4. 5. A Description Title
Sacred Heart Mission
Definition
Sacred Heart Mission is an organisastion that helps the poor people that have no
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food, water or a place to sleep in. Each day 400 people came to eat a meal and on Christmas day over 400 poor people come to have Christmas lunch with the parish. Description of Activities
Request
Sacred Heart Mission also provied (provides) money for poor people to buy clothes and any other tings they need. They help ppeople who have a mental illness or a disease. At school we raised $2000 for sacred Heart Mission by getting donations from our family by doing our jump rope for heart. So, can you please help Sacred Heart Mission?
Text 4.5, written by a girl in the classroom, categorised as a mid achiever by the teacher, belongs to a Description. In terms of the schematic structure, the text shows the writer‟s good control of the schematic structure of a Description. The text has the followinge elements appropriate for a Description, including:
4. 6. Conclusion This chapter has focused on describing a teaching learning program in Australia, drawing on the SFL GBA and the process approch. The chapter has shown that the teacher observed in this classroom used a synthesis of the process and the genre-based approaches to teaching writing. This could be seen from two aspects. The first aspect is concerned with the classroom physical environenment, such as the presence of visual aids around the classroom (posters on stages of conference, trays of students texts at different stages, visual aids on the schematic structure and model texts of different genres, such as Narrative, Recount, Exposition, Procedural, Explanation). The second aspect deals with the classroom activities, what was done and said by both the teacher and the students, drawn from the theory of both the process and the genre-based approaches. These activities were among others: the conference, writing was taught as a process, explicit teaching on different aspects of a genre, building knowledge of the field, modelling, independent construction. In going through all the process of writing, with the topics related to their daily life, students can also be trained to connect their text to other texts, to their life, and to the world, a feature of critical literacy. The chapter also describes that writing in this classroom had become part of the students‟ daily activities at school and the topics they wrote about are relevant to what they experienced. This allowed the students to relate what they learnt to their life, which can lead to their awareness of the social conditions around them, an aspect of critical literacy development.
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Like other chapters in this book, this chapter also demonstrates that teachers should have sound understanding of the most recent theories, concepts and best practices in the teaching of English, particulalrly of writing to help students gain a better result of their learning.
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Chapter 5: Conclusion, policy context and future research 5.1 Conclusion This book has provided a description of three different cases where current theories and practices of teaching English have been used in different contexts to help students to learn English, especially writing in English. These theories are to do with critical thinking, critical literacy, critical pedagogy, systemic functional linguistics, whole language philosophy, especially the process aproach, and second or foreign language teaching. This book has shown that classroom practices described in the previous chapters are in many ways effective to help students achieve better results in their learning, especially learning to write in both native and foreign language contexts of English. This can be seen from the way students achieved greater success in learning to write and in becoming independent writers and learners. This book obviously has been able to present only a summary and small part of the range of research findings in the various areas discussed and interested readers will be pointed to the references given if they want to find out more. Also there are a lot of areas that have not been touched upon, particulalry the teaching of other language skills, such as listening and reading and teaching students from different social backgrounds and ethnic groups. It has been shown thoughout the book that the contemporary teaching of English from primary up to tertiary levels, in both native language contexts, such as Australia and foreign language contexts, like Indonesia, has been informed by a number of different theories related to teaching and learning English in the modern world. The teaching of English has been impacted by the development of both the teaching profession and lingusic studies, including those in applied and educational linguistics. In the light of the research results and theories that have informed classroom practices described in this book, it is proposed to conclude with some recommendations regarding policy contexts, and future research for the Indonesian context. 5.2 Policy contexts There are several matters that deserve attention in the development of programs for the teaching of English in Indonesia in the future. Globalisation and the increasing imperative for Indonesia to have effective speakers of English for trade and international communication require that our schools and universities provide excellent English programs of a kind produced using genre based pedagogy. Moreover, in the Reform Era, it is essential that critical skills of the kind that are developed using critical thinking and critical pedagogy should become part of the curriculum. In view of these matters, it is suggested here that a number of important issues and recommendations should be borne in mind by policy makers. All the issues regarding policy can be considered in terms of three contexts: Preservice teacher education; In service teacher education; and policy in schools.
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5.2.1 Policy in Preservice Teacher Education Preservice English Teacher Education programs should: Provide student teachers with a strong theoretical framework and practical skills for teaching English. This will include developing programs for good qualification and for strong competencies in English and the teaching of English. Include an important component devoted to critical thinking, critical theory, critical pedagogy and critical literacy. Provide programs in functional grammar using systemic functional linguistic theory and genre-based pedagogy. Apply good and well articulated assessment principles that can lead to certification, requiring students: to create and maintain major portfolios of work devoted to English teaching, where they write reflective essays about teaching English, expressed in good English; achieve satisfactory completion of the teaching practicum, demonstrating practical ways to apply the theories they have been taught; and reveal a thorough knowledge of theories and skills in conducting research through the writing of a thesis. Retrain lecturers, many of whom are not familiar with modern theories and research methods. 5.2.2 Policy in Inservice Techer Education Policy in Inservice teacher education should: Encourage teachers to upgrade their skills and knowledge, by providing better access to courses, exams, and oportunities for further development. Provide enhanced funding and scholarships for teachers to pursue further studies Develop more partnerships between national bodies and teacher-training institutes to promote shared expertise and research. Apply fairer and more accountable portfolio assessments for teachers. 5.2.3 Policy in schools Schools should make efforts to: Reduce the class sizes; Provide good resources including a range of print materials and other resources for English learning and immersing students in a print-rich learning environment; Establish a library where students can find information or materials they need for their writing and reading; Adopt innovative teaching practices through the use of multimedia, film and videos, CDROMs and computers; Improve the physical arrangementS in schools e.g. seating arrangements should be adjusted to enable students to work in groups, and to communicate easily with each other in the classroom.
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5.3. Future research With respect to future research, several foci of research can be identified. First of all, further research in different areas that have been described throughout the book should be conducted to confirm the findings revealed in our studies. Regarding the implementation of the SFL GBA, further research should be focused on the following matters: The implementation of the SFL GBA in teaching other genres that are considered to be more difficult, such as argumentative or explanation genre, both at secondary and tertiary levels. This is to test such matters as whether students are able to write persuasive and convincing argumentative texts, what research they have to do, how much time they need to produce a neat and successful argumentative text, and whether the students‟ critical thinking development can more clearly be seen in writing different genres. The implementation of the SFL GBA at the university level in different contexts, including in different departements to check the values and challenges of implementing the approach in EFL tertiary contexts. An investigation of the extent to which SFL GBA can help students develop other language skills, especially listening and speaking, and at what stage of the approach these two language skills might be most successfully developed. Moreover, regarding critical thinking and critical literacy, future research should address the following: What aspects of critical thinking should be developed at different levels of education? What questions, as suggested by the theory of critical literacy, should be used in reading and writing to foster their critical thinking and reading at the different ages and stages of schooling? In conducting action reserach, further research might involve: Exploration of teachers‟ own and their colleagues‟ professional knowledge, and their views about engaging with the views of parents and other adults. Investigation of the teaching of other language skills, especially listening and reading. Examination of what materials are most appropriate to promote students‟ ability in reading and listening. Consideration of what questions for different levels of education should be asked to promote students‟ critical thinking and critical literacy.
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Conducting observations to investigate whether students should use the laboratory or just practise listening in the classroom using a tape recorder to enhance their listening skillS. Investigation of the authenticity of materials for teaching listening and reading (Hadley, 2001), because, as Hadley suggests, it is not easy to determine whether materials used are really authentic, and if they are authentic, it is sometimes hard to determine whether they suit the students‟ need. Research into the teaching of English in the content areas, such as Science and Mathematics, especially in some parts of Indonesia, where the establishment of international standard classes has occurred, requiring that all subjects be taught in English. Consideration of the benefits of adopting a synthesis of the process approach and the SFL GBA in classrooms, where this would include such matters as what basic concepts and thoughts of each approach can be made complementary in order to create a complete and comprehensive strategy for teaching English as a foreign language in Indonesia. Finally, with the development of technology and the avalilability of computers in some schools, further research should be conducted to find out how the technology can be used in implmenting the theories that inform the classroom practices presented in this book, to help create a better teaching learning process and better results in students‟ learning. A lot of research has reported the benefits of the use of computers (Swaffar, 1998; Slatin, 1998; Chambers, Conacher., & Littlemore, 2004). Further research should attempt to find out whether the use of computers can confirm the findings of research as reported by Swaffar (1998:3), who suggested that computers can: foster students‟ cognitive development and promote increasingly sophisticated expressions in students‟ writing; reduce “teacher talk”, resulting in greater participation among students; provide immediate feedback in the teaching of writing, without the delays inherent in written feedback in the traditional classrooms. 5.3 Summary This, then is what the book ultimately expects to accomplish. It is hoped that by reading the different classroom contexts and of the theories and practices adopted in each of them, readers will become better informed teachers themselves, and willing to undertake further research in their own classroom. The teaching learning process is a complex task and activity, and therefore teachers should be flexible and responsive to the conditions of the classroom, and their students.
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