0.
INTRODUCCIÓN
0.1. 0.2. 0.3.
1.
La electrónica en el automóvil Principios de la electrónica Prácticas
POLÍMETROS pag. 1 POLÍMETROS
1.1. 1.2. 1.2.1. 1.2.2. 1.3. 1.4.
2.
Introducción Tipos de polímetros Analógicos Digitales Precauciones Prácticas
RESISTENCIAS pag. RESISTENCIAS pag. 4
2.1. ¿Qué son las resistencias? 2.2. Valores y tolerancias 2.3. Tipos de resistencias 2.4. Conexión de las resistencias resistencia s 2.5. Aplicación en el automóvil 2.6. Prácticas VARIABLES pag. 8 3. RESISTENCIAS VARIABLES pag. 3.1. ¿Qué son las resistencias variables? 3.2. Modelos de potenciómetros potenciómetros 3.3. Conexionado de potenciómetros potenciómet ros 3.4. Aplicación del automóvil 3.5. Prácticas ESPECIALES pag. 11 4. RESISTENCIAS ESPECIALES pag. 4.1. Tipos de resistencias especiales 4.2. NTC (temperatura) 4.2.1. Características técnicas 4.2.2. Aplicación en el automóvil 4.3. PTC (temperatura) 4.4. LDR (Iluminación) 4.4.1. Características técnicas 4.4.2. Aplicación en el automóvil 4.5. VDR (Tensión) 4.6. PIEZO-RESISTORES (Vibraciones) (Vibraciones) 4.6.1. Características técnicas 4.6.2. Aplicación en el automóvil 4.7. Variaciones por oxígeno (lambda) 4.7.1. Características técnicas 4.7.2. Aplicación en el automóvil 4.8. Prácticas 5. CONDENSADORES CONDENSADORES pag. pag. 20 5.1. ¿Qué son los condensadores? condensadores? 5.2. Características de los condensadores condensadores 5.3. Tipos de condensadores condensadores 5.4. Conexión de los condensadores 5.5. Aplicación en el Automóvil 5.6. Práctica TRANSFORMADORES pag. 26 6. BOBINAS Y TRANSFORMADORES pag. 6.1. ¿Qué son las bobinas y transformadores? transformadores? 6.2. Aplicación en el automóvil 6.3. Prácticas
SEMICONDUCTORES pag. pag. 30 7. SEMICONDUCTORES 7.1. ¿Qué son los semiconductores? semiconductores? 7.2. Semiconductores Semiconductores tipo P-N 7.3. Uniones P-N 7.4. Polarización de la unión P-N 7.5. Prácticas 8. DIODOS DIODOS pag. pag. 33 8.1. ¿Qué son los diodos? 8.2. Diodos Zener 8.3. Aplicación en el automóvil 8.4. Prácticas 9. TRANSISTORES TRANSISTORES pag. pag. 37 9.1. ¿Qué son los transistores? 9.2. Polarización de un transistor 9.3. Temperatura de un transistor 9.4. Zonas de funcionamiento funcionamiento 9.5. Conexiones Conexiones del transistor 9.6. Cálculo de resistencias de polarización 9.7. Transistores en conmutación 9.8. Aplicación en el automóvil 9.9. Prácticas 10. COMP. OPTOELECTRÓNICOS pag.46 OPTOELECTRÓNICOS pag.46 10.1. ¿Qué son los comp. optoelectrónicos’ optoelectrónicos’ 10.2. Diodos luminiscentes luminiscentes (LED) 10.3. Los fotodiodos 10.4. Indicadores gráficos o displays 10.5. Aplicación en el automóvil 10.6. Prácticas 11. OTROS SISTEMAS pag. SISTEMAS pag. 51 11.1. Captadores inductivos 11.2. Sensor halls 11.3. Electroválvulas 11.4. Prácticas 12. CONCLUSIONES
EL ECTR ÓNICA B ÁSICA ÁSICA APLICADA AL A UT OM ÓVIL
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
POLÍMETROS 0.1. 0.1.1. 0.1.2. 0.2. 0.3.
Introducción Tipos de polímetros Analógicos Digitales Precauciones
INTRODUCCIÓN
Para nosotros, los profesionales del automóvil, entenderemos el polímetro como una herramienta más dentro de nuestro taller, la cual nos servirá de traductor de magnitudes eléctricas, que de otra forma no podrían ser medidas. Para empezar, definámoslo:
Se denomina polímetro al aparato capaz de poder realizar varias (poli), mediciones (metro). También es conocido conocido con el nombre de Tester. Las principales mediciones que con él podemos realizar son las siguientes:
- Resistencia - Tensión en CC y CA - Intensidad en CC y CA. Aunque el principio de funcionamiento funcionamiento es el mismo para todos, se suelen suelen presentar en dos tecnologías diferentes:
- Digital - Analógico
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil I nicio nicio
TIPOS DE POLÍMETROS
ANALÓGICOS En el polímetro analógico, la indicación de la medición se realiza a través de una aguja sobre un fondo de escala. Nos da la medida más rápida, pero a la vez más imprecisa. Son sensibles a las vibraciones, golpes y campos magnéticos. Una inversión de polaridad puede llevar a su destrucción, al igual que la elección de una escala incorrecta. En mediciones de resistencias, la alimentación se hace a través de una pequeña pila colocada en su interior, por lo que deberemos tener en cuenta que por la punta de pruebas negra o (-) sale el polo (+) de la pila y por la punta roja o (+) sale el (-) de la pila. Hay que tenerlo en cuenta para la comprobación de diodos y transistores.
DIGITALES En los polímetros digitales, la indicación de la medición se realiza a través de dígitos visualizados en una pantalla de cristal líquido. Por lo tanto, la medición será más precisa pero a la vez más lenta. Dispone de elementos y circuitos de protección, de forma que se bloquean cuando la escala no es la adecuada. Así mismo, aparece un signo menos menos delante de los dígitos cuando cuando la polaridad está invertida. Soportan mayores intensidades, lo cual hace más segura la utilización del mismo. En medición de resistencias en la punta roja, tenemos el (+) de la pila interna y en la punta negra tenemos el (-)
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil I nicio nicio
PRECAUCIONES
Deberemos tener en cuenta unas mínimas precauciones para la medición:
-
Asegurarse de la correcta correcta ubicación ubicación de los terminales terminales de las puntas de prueba.
-
En la medición de resistencias, se comienza comienza desde la escala escala más más baja baja y se va subiendo hasta lograr una medición precisa.
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Asegurarse que la resistencia no esta alimentada con tensión.
-
En un un circuito circuito para la comprobación comprobación de un valor valor de resistencia, al menos menos un terminal de dicho elemento deberá de estar desconectado del circuito.
-
No tocar tocar las puntas de prueba prueba con los dedos, dedos, pues sufren alteraciones las mediciones.
-
En mediciones mediciones de tensión tensión asegurarse del tipo de corriente que se trata, alterna o continua.
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Se comenzará comenzará la medición medición desde las escalas más altas y se ira bajando bajando hasta obtener la medida más exacta.
-
-
En mediciones de intensidad, se deberá tener en cuenta que la protección con fusible es hasta dos amperios y para intensidades superiores generalmente se emplea otro terminal base sin ningún tipo de protección. Es importante importante respetar respetar la polaridad a la hora de de conectar, conectar, puesto que una medición negativa, debe indicar un consumo de corriente y una medición positiva, por el contrario, debe indicar generación de corriente. I nicio nicio
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
RESISTENCIAS 0.1. 0.2. 0.3. 0.4. 0.5.
¿Qué son las resistencias? Valores y tolerancias Tipos de resistencias Conexión de las resistencias Aplicación en el automóvil
¿QUÉ SON LAS RESISTENCIAS? La corriente en un circuito se puede asociar a la corriente de agua en una manguera para regar. Si pisas la manguera, a ambos lados de tu pie, reduces la cantidad de agua que pasa por ella. Una resistencia tiene el mismo efecto que tu pie en la manguera. Reduce el fluido de corriente que pasa por todo el circuito. Las resistencias son componentes pasivos, con dos terminales. La misión de la resistencia es oponerse al paso de la corriente, cualquiera que sea la forma de esta. Los usos mas frecuentes son: - Producir caída de tensión. - Divisores de tensión y corriente - Limitadores de corriente - Disipadores de calor El valor de una resistencia se expresa en ohmios y sus múltiplos son: 1 Kilo-Ohmio = 1.000 Ohmios 1 Mega- Ohmios = 1 Millón de Ohmios
1KΩ = 1.000 Ω 1 MΩ = 1.000.000 Ω
La notación práctica que se utiliza es la mostrada en la tabla de la imagen correspondiente 0.15 Ω 10 KΩ 12 MΩ 3.900 Ω 1.200.000Ω 4,7 Ω
Ω 15
10K 12 M 3K9 1M 2 4Ω7 I nicio nicio
VALORES Y TOLERANCIAS. Las resistencias son construidas a base de materiales malos conductores de electricidad. No consiguiéndose casi nunca un valor exacto, pero si debe de estar entre unos límites, estos se denominan tolerancia.
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
Los valores de resistencia pueden ser variados por: - Sobretensión - Temperatura - Humedad Tanto sus valores como su tolerancia vienen indicados en la misma resistencia a través de unas franjas coloreadas. •
•
Código de colores internacional para la identificación de resistencias de las series E6, E12 y E24. Código de colores internacional para la identificación de resistencias de las series E48 y E96.
Los fabricantes por lo general, suministran resistencias con valores establecidos de acuerdo a normas internacionales. En la siguiente tabla se dan las series de resistencias más comunes, junto a sus tolerancias. •
• •
Serie E24: 10 10 11 12 13 15 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 30 33 36 39 43 47 47 51 56 62 68 75 82 91 (5%) Serie E12: E12: 10 12 12 15 18 22 27 27 33 39 47 56 56 68 82 (10%) (10%) Serie E 6: 10 15 22 33 47 68
Otras características importantes serán la potencia máxima y disipación de
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
Las más usadas en resistencias de carbón son: 1/8 W, ¼ W, ½ W, 1W y 2W. I nicio nicio
TIPOS DE RESISTENCIAS Las resistencias se construyen con materiales malos conductores de la electricidad, de tipo metálico y de carbón. Las fabricadas a base de materiales metálicos se construyen con hilo devanado sobre material aislante (resistencias bobinadas) y depositando una fina película también sobre un material aislante (resistencia de película metálica). Las de carbón se hacen aglomeradas o de película de carbón:
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-
-
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A g l o m e r a d a s : son de valores de resistencia muy altos, no logrados con las bobinadas. Son mezcla de grafito o carbón de resina y en ocasiones de talco para poder obtener los distintos valores. En los extremos se colocan unos casquillos a presión donde van soldados los hilos. Recubriendo todo ello con resina o plastificado para pintar las bandas de colores. Presentan el inconveniente de su inestabilidad por efectos de la temperatura. De p elícu la d e c arb ón : son los mas empleadas, ya que son de gran estabilidad térmica. Sobre un cilindro aislante de cerámica se deposita una fina película de carbón en espiral para dar los valores precisos. Se colocan los casquillos y se esmaltan. De p el íc u la m et áli c a : generalmente son de cromo y el proceso es idéntico al de película de carbón. Son de gran estabilidad incluso en condiciones adversas. B o b i n a d a s : sobre un soporte aislante se colocan espiras de hilo resistivo, aleaciones de níquel, cromo y aluminio, dando el valor deseado. Como el hilo resistivo puede ser de distintas secciones podemos obtener diversas potencias de disipación.
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
Circuito mixto. mixto. El cálculo de la resistencia total se realizará a partir de la simplificación a circuitos serie y paralelo. Comprobación de resistencias
-
La comprobación de las resistencias se realiza por medio de un polímetro, lo colocamos en lectura de resistencia, teniendo en cuenta las precauciones para la medición, aplicamos las puntas sobre los terminales de la resistencia y las comparamos con la especificada por el fabricante, el valor debe de estar dentro de los valores de tolerancia impresos en la cápsula. Si el valor coincide, la resistencia está bien. Si el valor está fuera de las tolerancias, debemos desecharla. Si el valor es infinito, la resistencia está cortada interiormente. Si el valor es 0, la resistencia está cortocircuitada. I nicio nicio
APLICACIÓN EN EL AUTOMÓVIL En el automóvil, las resistencias las podemos encontrar dentro de cualquier circuito electrónico. Como ejemplo, podemos poner las utilizadas en el circuito de encendido, están colocadas en serie con el 15 de Bobina (positivo de llave de contacto) para limitar la corriente que le llega del primario. También en el circuito de encendido y en relación a la bobina, encontraremos las resistencias Ballast. Actúan de forma que en el momento de arranque la bobina reciba la tensión máxima ofrecida por la batería, para conseguir mayor potencia de chispa en el encendido, una vez en marcha el motor la tensión es limitada por otra resistencia. En algunos sistemas de inyección las podemos encontrar como limitadores de corriente, se colocan en serie con los inyectores, para que los 12 V. enviados por la UCE, se queden reducidos al voltaje con el que trabajen estos. I nicio nicio
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
RESISTENCIAS VARIABLES (POTENCIOMETROS) (POTENCIOMETROS) ¿Qué son las resistencias variables? variables? Modelos de potenciómetros Conexionado de potenciómetros Aplicación del del automóvil
¿QUÉ SON LAS RESISTENCIAS VARIABLES? Están formadas por tres terminales, de los cuales dos son unidos por una capa lineal de semiconductor y el tercero que será central, llamado también cursor, al desplazarse de una variación de resistencia entre este y los otros dos terminales según la posición alcanzada. Se designan por su valor máximo y la forma de representarlos son:
Existen varios tipos de potenciómetros:
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Lineal que recorre casi 360º y que va respondiendo progresivamente con el giro.
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Logarítmico que al principio responde con una progresión muy pequeña y después a poco giro sus valores crecen rápidamente.
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
MODELOS DE POTENCIOMETROS Los potenciómetros se pueden dividir en
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Bobinados, Bobinados, también llamados reóstatos, se emplean para potencias elevadas. De película de carbón, carbón, se fabrican en diversos tamaños y formas, son de gran precisión.
La forma de comprobarlos es semejante a las resistencias, pero en esta ocasión debemos de medir del cursor a un terminal y después al otro. La siguiente tabla pertenece a los valores normalizados existentes en el mercado, junto con el marcaje que suelen llevar en su encapsulado.
VALOR
MARCAJE
100 Ω 220 Ω 470 Ω 1000 Ω 2200 Ω 4700 Ω 10000 Ω 22000 Ω 47000 Ω 100000 Ω 220000 Ω 470000 Ω 1000000 Ω 2200000 Ω 4700000 Ω
100 R 220 R 470 R 1K 2K2 4K7 10 K 22 K 47 K 100 K 220 K 470 K 1M 2M2 4M7
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
CONEXIONADO DE POTENCIOMETROS Las conexiones conexiones más usuales usuales suelen ser:
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Conexión en serie , en la que se conecta el cursor y un extremo del circuito, mientras que el otro queda libre o puenteado con el cursor, de este modo la resistencia queda en serie con el circuito. Conexion ado en paralelo paralelo , los dos extremos del generador se une a los dos del potenciómetro. Se dispone entonces de una diferencia de potencial variable. La intensidad que recorre el circuito no es la misma que la que recorre el potenciómetro. A este montaje se le llama divisor de tensión I nicio nicio
APLICACIÓN EN EL AUTOMÓVIL En el automóvil se utilizan los potenciómetros potenciómetros para medir desplazamientos continuos de partes móviles, como por ejemplo:
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Posición del pedal de acelerador.
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Posición de la mariposa de aceleración. El conexionado se realiza en paralelo, y su funcionamiento es lineal.
También podemos encontrarnos potenciómetros logarítmicos dentro del automóvil.
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Como regulador del volumen en el aparato de radio.
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Posición de la aleta sonda del caudalímetro de aire.
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Posición del plato de sonda en inyecciones KE- Jetronic I nicio nicio
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
RESISTENCIAS ESPECIALES 0.1. 0.1.1. 0.1.2. 0.2. 0.3. 0.3.1. 0.3.2. 0.4. 0.5. 0.5.1. 0.5.2. 0.6. 0.6.1. 0.6.2. 0.6.3.
TIPOS DE RESISTENCIAS ESPECIALES NTC (temperatura) Características técnicas Aplicación en el automóvil PTC (temperatura) LDR (Iluminación) Características técnicas Aplicación en el automóvil VDR (Tensión) PIEZO-RESISTORES (Vibraciones) Características técnicas Aplicación en el automóvil VARIACIONES POR OXÍGENO (lambda) Características técnicas Aplicación en el automóvil
TIPOS DE RESISTENCIAS ESPECIALES
Fabricadas de materiales especiales que modifican su resistencia por determinados agentes, los cuales se pasan a enumerar: - Temperatura NTC: Disminuye la resistencia al aumentar la temperatura o o PTC: Aumenta la resistencia al aumentar la temperatura - Iluminación: LDR: Disminuye la resistencia al aumentar la luminosidad o - Tensión VDR: Aumenta la resistencia al aumentar la tensión (varistor) o
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NTC: TEMPERATURA
a) CARACTERÍSTICAS TÉCNICAS Las siglas NTC, significan: Negative-Temperature-Coefficent (Coeficiente Negativo de Temperatura). Se fabrican a partir de óxidos semiconductores de los metales de transición del grupo del hierro, como el cromo, manganeso, hierro, cobalto o níquel. La resistencia específica de estos óxidos en estado puro es muy elevada, pero se transforman en semiconductores al añadirles pequeñas cantidades de otros iones de distinta valencia. Su característica principal es que la resistencia entre sus conexiones varía con respecto a la temperatura aplicada, menor será la resistencia.
Precauciones para su empleo -
No se se utilizará en paralelo paralelo para para obtener obtener mayor mayor disipación, disipación, ya que uno de
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
Tomaremos medidas de resistencia a diferentes temperaturas y las trasladaremos a una gráfica característica, compararemos las lecturas l ecturas y podremos determinar si la NTC está bien.
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b) APLICACIÓN EN EL AUTOMÓVIL Sus principales aplicaciones son: -
Sensor de temperatura de aire y refrigerante en los sistemas de inyección. Termómetros industriales y electrónicos. Medida del agua de refrigeración Control de temperatura a través de un relé. Medida de la velocidad de un fluido Protección de diodos de silicio. Protección de lámparas de piloto.
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
En el automóvil se emplean como sondas de temperatura, generalmente en el sistema de inyección RENIX. Una grafica y una curva característica, tanto para una NTC como una PTC es la siguiente:
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LDR (Iluminación)
a) Características técnicas. La característica principal es que su resistencia varía cuando se le emite un haz de luz. Se fabrican a base de sulfuro de cadmio. Este material convenientemente tratado contiene pocos o ningún electrón libre, si se mantiene en completa oscuridad. En estas condiciones, su resistencia es elevada.
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
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Conmutador crepuscular . Al incidir la luz l uz ambiental sobre la LDR, se hace modificar en ella su resistencia, de forma que cuando anochezca la resistencia disminuirá hasta dejar pasar la suficiente intensidad para excitar el relé y conmutar el circuito de iluminación. Control remoto. remoto. Alimentamos una lámpara con una pila de corriente continua, regulada por un potenciómetro; al variar la resistencia del potenciómetro, variará la intensidad de luz, que incide en la LDR; ésta cambiará su resistencia viéndose reflejado en una variación en la tensión de salida VI
Otras aplicaciones serán: -
Conmutador protegido Luz intermitente Indicador de fallo de luces traseras. Conexión automática de luces de población o intermitentes para anuncios luminosos.
Comprobación La comprobación más sencilla es el medir su resistencia con la luz ambiental, seguidamente se va haciendo sombra sobre ella hasta llegar a taparla, la resistencia debe variar proporcionalmente al haz de luminoso.
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
salida de los Inyectores en la UCE (Unidad de Control Electrónico), para evitar que la sobretensión producida por la electroválvula electroválvula dañe el el circuito de salida.
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PIEZO-RESISTORES (Mecánica)
A) Características técnicas. El efecto piezoeléctrico consiste en la aparición de una polarización eléctrica en un material al deformarse bajo la acción de un esfuerzo. Es un efecto reversible. Los materiales más empleados son el cuarzo y la turmalina.
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
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Sensor MAP
El sensor MAP, mide la depresión en el colector de admisión por medio de un pequeño tubo conectado a él detrás de la mariposa de aceleración, así manda información a la UCE de la cantidad de aire que entra en el colector, para poder ajustar los tiempos de inyección de dicha cantidad. También es empleado en algunos sistemas de encendido para tener una lectura fiable de la depresión en le colector y poder ajustar el avance de encendido.
La forma de comprobarlo es alimentando con corriente continua los dos terminales de entrada con una pila de 5 V. y haciendo depresión en el interior por medio de una pistola de presión – depresión, mediremos con un polímetro entre uno de los terminales alimentados con tensión y el otro que queda libre o de señal, la tensión debe variar proporcionalmente a la depresión realizada.
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
A elevadas temperaturas la cerámica cerámica se hace conductora. Si el contenido contenido de oxígeno no es igual en ambos lados de los electrodos, entre estos se establece una tensión eléctrica, que representa la señal de medición. La tensión y la resistencia interna de la sonda depende de la temperatura. Su regulación es fiable a partir de 350º C. Para obtener una mayor precisión en las señales, en algunos casos, esta sonda dispone de una resistencia adicional para su calefacción. Su tensión de trabajo oscila entre 100 y 950 mV.
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
La diferencia de oxígeno entre el interior del colector y el del exterior, produce una tensión determinada, con este valor la UCE corrige el tiempo de apertura de los inyectores, para así, acercarse lo más posible a la combustión perfecta. Comprobación Utilizaremos un polímetro en medición de voltaje, (tensión continua) o un
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
CONDENSADORES • • • •
•
¿Qué son los condensadores? Características de los condensador condensadores es Tipos de condensadores Conexión de los condensadores Aplicación en el Automóvil
¿QUÉ SON LOS CONDENSADORES? El condensador es un componente que tiene la capacidad de almacenar cargas eléctricas y suministrarlas en el momento apropiado durante un espacio de tiempo controlable.
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
Si la tensión de la fuente baja, el condensador cede cargas cargas hasta igualar la tensión.
El condensador se comporta como un circuito abierto cuando se le aplica corriente continua y si es alterna actúa como circuito cerrado, que permite el paso de la corriente. Esta propiedad se emplea para el filtrado. I nicio nicio
CARACTERÍSTICA DE LOS CONDENSADORES
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Tensión en los condensadores
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Tensión de prueba: prueba: suele ser el doble o triple de la tensión a la que normalmente va a trabajar el condensador. Se emplea para comprobar las características de los aislantes. Tensión de trabajo: trabajo: Es la máxima máxima tensión tensión que que se se le puede hacer trabajar
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
terminales de conexión. Utilizados en el arranque de motores y en la compensación de potencias reactivas.
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Plástico: tienen elevada resistencia de aislamiento y bajas pérdidas dieléctricas.
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
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Aluminio: El dieléctrico dieléctrico es una capa de óxido de aluminio. aluminio. Elevado Elevado factor de potencia y alta corriente de fuga.
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Tántalo: El dieléctrico es óxido de tántalo, aumentando la corriente dieléctrica. Poca corriente de fuga, tensiones de trabajo pequeñas.
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
Se calculan parcialmente las capacidades comunes en serie y en paralelo consiguiendo la capacidad equivalente del circuito.
Concluyendo, y a modo intuitivo, son los valores contrarios que se calculan en las resistencias equivalentes de serie y paralelo de un circuito. I nicio nicio
APLICACIÓN EN EL AUTOMÓVIL
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
BOBINAS Y TRANSFORMADORES T RANSFORMADORES
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
Si el devanado primario tiene mayor número de espiras que el
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
APLICACIÓN EN EL AUTOMÓVIL
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
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Electrónica Básica Aplicada al Automóvil
SEMICONDUCTORES
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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