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Practical Necropsy Guide
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Introduction
Elanco Animal Health Practical Necropsy Guide
This guide is intended to aid beef cattle veterinarians as they discuss the value of performing necropsies with their clients. Beef cattle veterinarians can use this guide with clients to increase their understanding of proper necropsy techniques and resulting methods of diagnosis. This guide has three parts: • The first is a collection of images comparing normal organs with common cattle health abnormalities. • The second is a review of practical necropsy procedures. • The third is a set of guidelines for proper tissue sampling techniques and submission procedures. This guide is not intended to be a fully comprehensive reference and should only be used in conjunction with veterinary consultation.
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Eyes
Normal eye
Corneal lesion, diffuse corneal edema, starts at periphery Malignant Catarrhal Fever (MCF)
Conjun ctivitis — variety of causes, including: IBR, mycoplasma, foreign bodies and other irritants
Corneal lesion, central corneal ulcer with neovascularization — pinkeye
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Oral Cavity
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Normal oral tissues
Muzzle, shallow ulcers typical of viral diseases — BVD, MCF, blue tongue and rinderpest
Oral cavity, ulcers — BVD ( )
Oral cavity, ulcers, hard and soft palate — BVD
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Oral Cavity
A B
Tongue, extensive ulcers (ruptured vesicles) — vesicular disease
Pharynx, retropharyngeal cellulitis (A ) caused by a penetrating wound (B ) — balling gun injury
Notes
Oral cavity, raised proliferative lesions, often with irregular edges, hard palate — papular stomatitis
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Esophagus
Normal esophagus, normal postmortem change with mild anterior congestion and posterior pallor resulting from postmortem bloat
Esophagus, trauma ( ) — penetrating wound, resulting purulent peri-esophageal abscess
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Esophagus, bloat line at thoracic inlet; other supportive evidence includes: history, pallor and edema of hindlimb musculature
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Esophagus
Esophagus, shallow erosions — BVD
Pharyngeal mucosa removed from underlying structures, ulcers — BVD
Notes
Esophagus, extensive linear ulcers — BVD
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Upper Respiratory Tract
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Normal larynx
Larynx, laryngeal edema — allergic reaction; look for pulmonary edema or congestion
Larynx, necrotic laryngitis ( ) — calf diphtheria
Larynx, chronic laryngitis, small ulcer on epiglottis (circled)/laryngeal polyp ( )
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Upper Respiratory Tract
Normal trachea
Nasal cavity (nasal septum removed), fibrinopurulent rhinitis — IBR
Normal trachea, congestion, with intact mucosal lining — can be normal postmortem change
Trachea, tracheitis, adherent fibrinonecrotic pseudomembrane — IBR
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Upper Respiratory Tract
Trachea, tracheitis, adherent fibrinonecrotic pseudomembrane — IBR
Notes
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Trachea (cross section), edema in dorsal mucosa ( ) — “honker” syndrome
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Lungs
Sampling procedures for lungs • • • • •
Include tissue as indicated by clinical signs or gross lesions Fresh sample size: 4 cm cubes of affected tissue Fixed sample size: 1 cm thick or less of affected tissue
Normal lungs
Bronchopneumonia, acute (shipping fever, typical of pneumonic pasteurellosis) ( )
Fibrinous pleuropneumonia; consolidated lung ( ) with pleural fluid (oval) and fibrinous pleuritis; solid line denotes sternum
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Lungs
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Subacute shipping fever with fibrinous pleuritis ( )
Fibrinous pleuropneumonia (cut section)
Bronchopneumonia, advanced, progressive, early abscesses in older part of lesion ( )
Bronchopneumonia, chronic with abscesses (1 ), emphysema (2) and atelectasis (3)
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Lungs
Chronic pneumonia with atelectasis
Acute interstitial pneumonia (AIP); entire lung overinflated; individual lobules slightly firm
Acute interstitial pneumonia (AIP) (cut section); interlobular edema and emphysema commonly seen with AIP
Acute interstitial pneumonia (AIP)
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Lungs
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Acute interstitial pneumonia (AIP); note emphysema ( )
Embolic pneumonia (multifocal lesions throughout lung) ( ) — hematogenous spread of bacteria from lesions such as endocarditis and liver abscesses
Aspiration pneumonia (gangrenous), necrotic lesion ( )
Parasitic pneumonia — note lung worms (Dictyocaulus viviparus) in opened bronchi ( )
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Lungs
Pulmonary granuloma — tuberculosis ( )
Lymph node, granuloma — tuberculosis
Notes
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Heart
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Normal heart
Normal heart
Heart, endocarditis ( ) — blackleg
Heart, pericarditis — blackleg
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Heart
Heart, fibrinous pericarditis (pericardial sac reflected) — Haemophilus somnus and other bacteria
Heart, dilated right ventricle, rounded appearance — right heart failure
Heart, eosinophilic myositis (note pale areas in endocardium and myocardium)
Heart (cross section), beef measles, tapeworm cysts of Taenia bovis ( )
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Heart
Heart, myocarditis — Haemophilus somnus, lesions most frequently located in papillary muscle ( )
Notes
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Heart (cross section), myocarditis — Haemophilus somnus
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Liver
Normal liver
Normal liver, postmortem changes; superficial discoloration is common; incise lesion to determine significance
Liver, abscesses
Liver, nutmeg liver/accentuated lobular pattern commonly associated with chronic congestion, often due to heart failure
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Liver
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Liver (cross section), thrombophlebitis, secondary to liver abscesses
Liver, focal hemorrhage or necrosis; bacillary hemoglobinuria; necrotic lesion extends deep into tissue
Liver, distended, thickened bile ducts — liver flukes ( )
Liver (dark pigmented tracts) — liver flukes
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Urinary System
Normal kidney
Kidney, acute pyelonephritis — ascending bacterial infections
Kidney, renal infarcts ( )
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Urinary System
Kidney, pale moist cortex — tubular necrosis, usually due to toxins such as aminoglycosides
Bladder, urethral calculus
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Kidney, hemoglobin stained due to hemolysis
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Urinary System
Normal bladder
Bladder, urinary calculi and cystitis
Penile urethra, calculus Kidney, early hydronephrosis
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Gastrointestinal
Normal rumen; postmortem changes, loosening of rumen lining
Rumen — chronic rumenitis; note shortened papilli and scarring ( )
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Rumen, inflammation — rumenitis, mycotic; may be secondary to acidosis
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Gastrointestinal
Rumen, ulcers on rumen pillar
Rumen, erosions — BVD
Omasum, mycotic lesion may be secondary to acidosis
Abomasum, chronic ulcer ( )
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Gastrointestinal
Abomasum, small ulcers — (BVD)
Notes
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Abomasum, parasites — Ostertagia spp.
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Gastrointestinal
Normal small intestine, typically thin-walled and pale
Normal mesenteric lymph nodes
Small intestine, inflammation — Salmonellosis; note enlarged lymph nodes ( )
Small intestine, hemorrhagic enteritis — Salmonellosis; note thickened mucosa and bloody contents
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Gastrointestinal
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Gall bladder and small intestine, fibrinous casts ( ) — Salmonellosis
Small intestine, acute enteritis
Small intestine, Peyer’s patch necrosis — BVD
Small intestine, Peyer’s patch necrosis — BVD
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Gastrointestinal
Small intestine, parasites — nodular worm, Oesophagostomum ( )
Small intestine, proliferative enteritis (Johne’s), not seen in animals less than two years of age
Notes
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Gastrointestinal
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Normal large intestines
Normal mesenteric lymph nodes
Spiral colon, hemorrhagic mucosa — coccidiosis
Large intestine, inflammation — coccidiosis
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Gastrointestinal
Large intestine, inflammation — coccidiosis
Notes
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Musculoskeletal
Normal hindlimb musculature
Hindlimb muscle — blackleg ( ); normal on right
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Hindlimb — blackleg ( )
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Musculoskeletal
Hindlimb muscle, myodegeneration with cavitation — injection site
Hindlimb muscle, severe myodegeneration — injection site; walled off area can retain significant antimicrobial levels for prolonged periods ( )
Notes
Muscle, scar — injection site; muscle tissue is replaced by scar tissue and fat
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Musculoskeletal
Normal joint; note clear, tenacious joint fluid ( )
Hock joint, acute synovitis; note excess cloudy fluid with fibrin ( )
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Stifle joint, synovitis with large fibrin clots
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Brain
Normal brain
Brain, meningitis with congested vessels and cloudy meninges
Brain, polioencephalomalacia with flattened cerebral gyri and cerebellar coning ( )
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Brain
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Brain, laminar cortical necrosis ( ) — polioencephalomalacia (formalin-fixed tissue)
Brain, laminar cortical necrosis ( ) — polioencephalomalacia (fresh tissue)
Brain, brain stem hemorrhage ( ), Haemophilus somnus (fresh tissue)
Brain, brain stem hemorrhage ( ), Haemophilus somnus (formalin-fixed tissue)
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Brain
Brain, abscess ( )
Notes
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Procedures
Practical Necropsy Procedures
This section is intended to illustrate a set of practical procedures for performing necropsies on feedlot cattle.
Understand and follow the requirements of your animal disposal service, especially regarding the proper technique used in opening the animal’s hide for thorough examination, as well as the specific policy for picking up animals whose cranium has been opened.
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Procedures
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Start with the calf’s left side down. Do an overall external examination.
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Record animal I.D.
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Examine conjunctiva and cornea.
Examine oral cavity.
Note inflammation, opacity and ulceration.
Note lesions, such as ulceration.
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Procedures
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Reflect both right legs. Thoroughly expose pelvis to mandible. Make cut on ventral midline to maximize hide value.
Reflect abdominal wall and omentum. Note fluid, fibrin, inflammation and location of viscera.
Note hemorrhages, inflammation and injection sites.
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A
B
Cut near the sternum (A ) and several inches below the spine (B ) with the cuts ending just dorsal and ventral to the trachea. Alternative methods include the careful use of a sharp axe.
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Knife method for rib reflection. Cut through costochondral junction and through intercostal muscles to reflect two ribs at a time by twisting and breaking (works best in younger animals).
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Procedures
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Cut diaphragm and reflect rib cage. Examine pericardial sac in situ.
Free tongue, esophagus, larynx and trachea. Examine pharyngeal area.
Note presence of exudation, adhesions and extent of involvement.
Cut ventral to the spine and dorsal to the sternum to free thoracic organs.
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Open entire length of esophagus.
Open larynx and trachea. Note mucosal integrity and differentiate inflammatory changes from agonal and postmortem changes (see page 8-9 for differential diagnosis photos).
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Procedures
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Palpate and cut through lung tissue.
Insert knife at the base of the heart, cutting to the apex, exposing both ventricles.
See pages 10-14 for differential diagnosis.
Note alteration in chamber size, discoloration, inflammation and hemorrhage.
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Incise papillary muscles.
Incise and palpate liver.
Note myocardial and valvular changes.
Note evidence of discoloration, enlargement, changes to bile ducts and consistency (see pages 18-19).
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Procedures
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Incise right kidney (caudal to liver). Locate and incise left kidney. Avoid cutting intestines.
Examine mucosa of several segments of small intestine.
Note areas of discoloration.
Note mucosal thickening, discoloration and exudation (see pages 26-28).
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Incise mesenteric lymph nodes.
Incise spiral colon and cecum.
Note enlargement.
Note mucosal thickening, discoloration and exudation.
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Procedures
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Incise reticulum (A), omasum (B) and abomasum (C).
Determine rumen pH. Note inflammation and contents.
Note inflammation, ulceration and contents.
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Examine rumen lining.
Incise various muscles, depending on case history and other observations. Evaluate injection sites.
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Procedures
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* Understand and follow the requirements * of your animal disposal service regard* ing the proper technique used in * opening the animal’s cranium for * thorough examination. Remove and examine brain only when indications of Central Nervous System (CNS) disorders are indicated or there are no other significant necropsy findings.
Expose stifle and other joints as deemed necessary.
*Use appropriate care in brain examination in areas where rabies is a possibility.
Note fluid amount and type.
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Brain removal.* Make first cut A, 1/3 of the distance between the eye and the poll. Cut B laterally from first cut to the foramen magnum. Cut C immediately posterior to the foramen magnum.
Pry open cranium and cut through meninges.
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Procedures
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Cut spinal nerves and remove brain.
Cut brain into longitudinal halves and crosssection as appropriate. See pages 34-36 for differential diagnosis.
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Replace organs into body cavity and close.
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Sampling
Guidelines for gaining the most information from a necropsy:
• If in doubt regarding sampling procedures, contact your diagnostic laboratory • Take samples from regions of tissue that include lesion margins • It is better to submit too many samples to your diagnostician than too few
Communicate directly with your animal disposal services to provide them with the information they require for each animal to be picked up*: • Age of animal • Cause of death • Time and date of death *Some animal disposal services will not pick up an animal if the brain has been examined and/or removed for diagnosis.
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Sampling
Fresh Samples Intestinal sections • Size: 10-20 cm sections • Best, but not required, to tie off/close ends Other tissues • Size: 4 cm cubes • Sample affected tissues • Sample tissues from other appropriate • organs Brain* If indicated by history, place 1/2 brain in WhirlPakTM or other sealable container Rumen content • If indicated by history • pH can be determined on site with pH strips Shipping guidelines • Properly label and seal WhirlPaks • Use insulated container protected by • cardboard box • Include multiple frozen packs • Only freeze samples if necessary for • extended storage beyond 3 to 4 days WhirlPak is a trademark of Nasco, Inc.
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Sampling
Fixed Samples Intestinal sections • Size: multiple 2 to 3 cm sections • Do not tie off/close ends Major organs and other tissues • Size: 1 cm thick or less • Include tissues as indicated by clinical signs or gross lesions Brain • If indicated by history, place 1/2 brain* in WhirlPak or other sealable container Proper packaging • Properly label each container • 10% buffered formalin solution • Formalin volume must be 10X tissue volume • In most instances, multiple tissue samples can be combined in a single container Shipping guidelines • Seal in unbreakable containers • Double-bag the package contents with absorbent material to ensure fluid containment • Include completed submission form for lab (seal in separate plastic bag to keep dry) • Include complete case history • Include contact and billing information (contact name, address, phone, fax, account number) • If not shipping immediately, hold for two or more days. Pour off majority of formalin prior to shipping.
*Some animal disposal services will not pick up an animal if the brain has been examined and/or removed for diagnosis. 18 48
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Acknowledgements
Elanco Animal Health respectfully thanks the following individuals for their professional contributions to this project:
Bob Glock, DVM, PhD Roger Panciera, DVM, PhD Dan Scruggs, DVM, PhD Ted Clark, DVM, MVSc, Canada
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This practical necropsy guide is brought to you by Elanco Animal Health.
TM
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Elanco and the diagonal color bar are trademarks of Eli Lilly and Company. Micotil® is a trademark for Elanco’s brand of tilmicosin. Tylan® is a trademark for Elanco’s brand of tylosin. Rumensin® is a trademark for Elanco’s brand of monensin sodium.
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