TOPIC 4: SPORT PSYCHOLOGY Definition:
Sports psychology is essentially the study of how the mind affects physical activity and athletic performance. According to the American Psychological Association, “sports
psychology addresses the interactions between psychology and sport performance, including the psychological aspects of optimal athletic performance, the psychological care and well-being of athletes, coaches, and sport organizations, and the connection between physical and psychological functi oning.” 4.1 Factors that can influence an individual in physical activities
Personality – definitions: “The sum total of an individual’s characteristics which make him unique”
(Hollander).
“Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of a persons
character, temperament, intellect and physique which determines the unique adjustment to the environment” (Eysenck).
thoughts, feelings, and behaviours Personality - people's characteristic patterns of thoughts,
Personality Types (Eysenck’s): (Eysenck’s):
Hans Eysenck (1916-1997) developed a very influential trait theory of personality, which has successful infiltrated the public mind set with regards to how we think about personality in day-to-day life.
Eysenck recognised the following personality types:
1.Introvert – 1.Introvert – orientation toward the internal private world of one's self and one's inner thoughts and feelings, rather than toward the outer world of people and things
Characteristics: Shy
Timid Reserved Aloof Self sufficient
2.Extrovert - an orientation of one's interests and energies toward the outer world of people peo ple and things thi ngs rather rat her than tha n the th e inner i nner world worl d of subject subj ective ive experie expe rience nce Characteristics Adventurous Confident Sociable Group dependent, Enthusiastic
3.Stable: Characterised by 'predictability and consistency in emotional reactions, with absence of rapid mood changes. Characteristics:
Calm
even-tempered
4. Unstable (Neuroticism): characterized by a chronic level of emotional instability and pronene pro neness ss t o psych ps ycholo ologica gicall dist ress anxious, moody, unpredictable & illogical 5. Psychoticism: a dimension of personality ... characterized by aggression, impulsivity, aloofness, and anti-social behaviour, indicating a susceptibility to psychosis and psycho psy chopath pathic ic disorde diso rders. rs. 6. Self-Control: the ability to be in command of one's behaviour (overt, covert, emotional, or physical) and to restrain or inhibit one's impulses
Personality Theories: Include the following:
1. Trait Theory “States that People are born with established personality characteristics”
Inherited at birth. Stable Enduring Consistent in all situations
As per this theory the Behaviour of a person is as a result of function f unction of personality The advantage of this theory is it can be easily measured through questionnaires whereas the disadvantage is it does not take into account environmental influences. It is not a true indicator of behaviour. In this approach to the study of human personality, Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behaviour, thought, and emotion. CATTELL (1965) identified 16 personality traits CATTELL 16 PERSONALITY FACTOR TEST •
Cattell identified 16 traits that he believed everyone has to some degree.
•
He used the results of his 16PF questionnaire to develop personality profiles.
The following personality trait list describes some of the descriptive terms used for each of the 16 personality 16 personality dimensions described by Cattell. 1. Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical 2. Apprehension: Worried versus confident 3. Dominance: Forceful versus submissive 4. Emotional Stability: Calm versus high-strung 5. Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained 6. Openness to Change: Flexible versus attached to the familiar 7. Perfectionism: Controlled versus undisciplined 8. Privateness: Discreet versus open 9. Reasoning: Abstract versus concrete 10. Rule-Consciousness: Conforming versus non-conforming 11. Self-Reliance: Self-sufficient versus dependent
12. Sensitivity: Tender-hearted versus tough-minded. 13. Social Boldness: Uninhibited versus shy 14. Tension: Impatient versus relaxed 15. Vigilance: Suspicious versus trusting 2. Social Learning Theory (Bandura) “All behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment”
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF ENVIRONMENT The disadvantage here is that it does not consider inherited behaviour (traits) 3. Interactionist Theory “Behaviour occurs from the interaction between between inherited traits and learned experiences” experiences”
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF PERSONALITY × ENVIRNOMENT 4.Concentric Ring Theory (Hollander 1967)
PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE
TYPICAL REPONSES
ROLE-RELATED BEHAVIOUR
Hollander believed that personality could be represented by 3 concentric rings, with the innermost ring being the most difficult to penetrate. The boundary line of each layer gets wider as you get closer to the centre of the model which shows that each layer is harder to enter. As you move closer to the centre, your ‘real’ personality begins to surface
1. PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE – the real you, the core concept of self that individuals are unwilling to reveal. 2. TYPICAL RESPONSES – represents how individuals are likely to respond in a situation. 3. ROLE-RELATED BEHAVIOUR – how an individual responds in a specific situation. This may be an uncharacteristic behaviour.
5.Psychodynamic Theory (Freud, 1933) •
Freud believed that personality is made up of 3 components: id ego and super ego.
•
The id represents our basic instincts over which we have no control eg. Sleeping when tired or in sports, a need ne ed to win.
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The ego seeks to satisfy the basic need. To ‘win at all costs’ a player may might resort
to aggressive actions, fouling opponents or other forms of cheating. •
The super ego is the moral arm or social conscience. It judges whether behaviour is acceptable. In sporting situations it helps to control aggression and keep players within the rules of the game.
ID, EGO & SUPER EGO interact to produce individual patterns of behaviour in sport Personality is formed from the conflict of SEEKING, RELEASING and INHIBITING behaviour
4.2 ATTITUDES
Definition: behavioural predisposition. predisposition. (Linked with personality) personality) A learned behavioural
Enduring opinions about objects and/or situations - predispose individuals to certain
behaviours. Attitudes can be positive – encouraging involvement, or negative – discouraging involvement. Baron and Byrne (1977) attitudes are “relatively enduring
organisations of feelings, beliefs and behaviour tendencies toward other persons, groups, ideas or objects". Attitudes can affect behaviour positively or negatively. Predispositions that can affect behaviour towards an attitude object Summary of attitudes: Learned through experience
Predispose people to respond in certain way
Consistent
Behaviour reflects evaluative component.
Formation of Attitudes: Attitudes are mainly formed through experiences.
Coaches/ teachers
Parents
Friends/ peers
Past experiences
Prejudice
Media
Socialisation: The process of mixing and relating to other people
The Triadic Model: Three components of attitudes – Cognitive - concerned with beliefs this is known as the information component – FITNESS
TRAINING KEEPS ME Fit Affective (emotional) - refers to evaluation - reflects values. This is known as the emotional
component I ENJOY TRAINING
Behavioural - refers to behaviour. This concerns how a person intends to behave towards
an attitude object I ATTEND TRAINING SESSIONS REGULARLY Theories of Attitude: 1. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) If a person holds two ideas that oppose and conflict with each other an element of discomfort arises. Emotional conflict is called DISSONANCE To reduce this feeling of dissonance, the impact of one of the conflicting ideas could be lessened and therefore an attitude would change. Updating knowledge or providing a person with new information can change the cognitive component Providing a person with new and positive experiences can modify the affecti ve component If a skill is simplified or if some form of guidance is used to make execution easier, the behavioural component of attitude can be changed Remember METHODS OF GUIDANCE from SKILL ACQUISITION
2. Persuasive Communication Theory You need to be aware of most effective way of persuading someone to change their attitude. In this theory:
the person must pay attention attention so as to understand
accept
retain the message being given
the coach must be expert; be trustworthy
the message must be clear; be unambiguous; be balanced between pros and cons
4.3: Arousal and its effect on performance
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a state of mental and physical preparedness for action this is the lev el of inner drives which forces the sportsperson to strive to achieve
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needs to be under control and at the right level depending on the task
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Results to a faster heart rate, faster breathing rate & sweating
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Improves the ability to focus (concentrate) & response to danger
RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM •
RAS is a system within the brain which causes arousal
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extroverts have lower levels of intrinsic arousal than introverts
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hence extroverts seek situations of high arousal
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introverts seek low arousal situations
There are several theories as to how arousal affects performance: 1. Drive Reduction Theory/ Hull Theory The Drive Reduction Theory was created by behaviourist Clark Hull (1943). Hull believed that behaviour was one of the ways that an organism maintains this balance. His term drive refers to a state of tension or arousal caused by biological or physiological needs. Drive Reduction Theory suggests that the more an athlete is aroused the better her/his performance. A very high arousal level would result in a high performance. However, this only happens when skills are well-learned. In contrast, if the athletic skill is not well-learned, performance will deteriorate as arousal increases. Therefore, Drive Reduction Theory suggests that novices and less skilled people tend rather not to perform well under pressure. In novices the skill level decreases due to poor habits and techniques. Habits are described as the performance which is dominant within an individual. Experienced athletes tend to perform better under pressure due to their superior skills and the use of stress management techniques.
This theory helps explain why beginners find it difficult to perform well under pressure. Often beginner’s skill level decreases if they are competing in a relay race using new skills. However, it also explains how experienced athletes perform better under pressure using well-learned skills, e.g. good tennis players play better against stronger opponents. The major weakness of the Drive Reduction Theory is its’ inability to explain why humans do
things which put them into a stressed or unfulfilled state, and why they often fail under h igh arousal. While excitement can certainly help an athlete perform, there is a point where the anxiety becomes too much and actually prevents from high quality performing (Harmison, 2006). 2. Inverted U hypothesis
The Inverted U Hypothesis suggests that optimal performance occurs at an intermediate level of arousal while both low and high levels of arousal will result in impaired performance. This proposal is made based on the Yerkes-Dodson law (named after the researchers who discovered it) which predicts an inverted U-shaped function between arousal and performance (Yerkes, Dodson, 1908).
In sport, this means that a little excitement and stress associated with competition can have a positive effect, but a situation that is too stressful is detrimental. However, the optimal levels of arousal vary between people doing the same task. Even more, for the same person doing different tasks optimal levels of arousal may vary. However, in general one could expect that athletes may perform badly because they are over- or under-aroused. In addition, the optimum arousal levels tend to be lower for more complicated tasks. The Inverted U Hypothesis is an appealing explanation for performance flaws. In many ways this explanation fits into the observations from sport performers but in reality is too simplistic. In addition to what the Inverted U hypothesis predicts, it is important to consider that beginners usually need a greater amount of attention to the performance while an expert can perform the same skill more or less automatically. When the beginner has a high level of arousal he/she can get distracted and tends not to give the same amount of attention to the skill. This leads to the deterioration of performance.
Also, beginners tend to rely heavily on cues and signals within the environment to perform the right skills in the right situations and at the right moment. However, when arousal increases their focus on the essential cues and signal declines and they will lose concentration and become unable to react to the proper cues. Therefore novices normally perform better with lower levels of arousal than an e xpert would need. Moreover, the optimum level of arousal can also vary in relation to the skill being performed. Sports that incorporate major muscle groups or gross skills such as weightlifting may benefit from having higher levels of arousal, whereas activities which incorporate finer skills and high coordination such as archery or gymnastics may benefit from lower levels of arousal. 4.4 ANXIETY
An emotional state, similar to fear, associated with arousal and accompanied by feelings of nervousness and apprehension” associated with –
physiological (somatic) arousal
–
psychological (cognitive) arousal
–
feelings of nervousness
–
feelings of apprehension
Anxiety can be recognised on three levels (Karageorghis 2007) 2007)[1]:
Cognitive - by particular thought process (Nervous about situation
Somatic - by physical response (the body reaction)
Behavioural - by patterns of behaviour (Constantly changing situation)
Cognitive
Somatic
Indecision
Increased blood pressure Biting
Sense Feeling
of
confusion Pounding
Behavioural fingernails
heart Lethargic
movements
heavy Increased respiration rate Inhibited
posture
Negative Poor
thoughts Sweating
Playing
concentration Clammy hands and feet Going
safe through
Irritability
Butterflies in the stomach Introversion
Fear
Adrenaline
Forgetfulness
Dry
Loss
of
Images Defeatist
to
tension Avoidance
self-talk Tightness
in
rushed shoulders
Feeling
weak Trembling
neck
Constant dissatisfaction Incessant to
Pacing
talking
Thoughts of avoidance
Distorted
up
and
down vision
Twitching Yawning Voice
distortion
Nausea Vomiting Diarrhoea Loss
of
Sleeplessness Loss of libido
Causes of anxiety in sport s port
-fear of failing or a bad performance -fear of bad feedback or evaluation points -fear of the competition from the event
of
eye
and Covering face with hand
take Blushing
instructions
displays
of
urinate Fidgeting
failure Muscular
Feeling
Unable
motions
mouth extroversion
confidence Need of
surge Uncharacteristic
the
appetite
contact
-fear of an injury occurring and the athlete having no control SPORT COMPETITION ANALYSIS Cognitive techniques for controlling anxiety and stress • Imagery – by method of relaxing by creating mental images to escape the immediate
effects of stress. The principle is to recreate an environment that is very relaxing. • Visualisation – the process of creating a mental image of what you want to happen or feel, locking into the ‘perfect performance’. • Attention control – maintaining concentration on appropriate cues. This aims to improve the performer’s ability to focus on appropriate cues then t he number of errors caused by
other distractions is reduced. • Self -talk -talk – developing positive thoughts about one’s actions. Is vital that self-talk remains
positive and focus on self-instructing motivational motivational content Somatic techniques for controlling anxiety and stress • Centering – using deep breathing as a way of refocusing your concentration. Requires the
performer to focus particularly on the rate of breathing and maintaining a slow, steady pace • Progressive muscular relaxation (PMR) – learning to be aware of the tension present in
muscles and removing it by relaxing. This is done by alternating extreme tension that is held for a few seconds the releasing the tension to relax. Theories of Anxiety
1. Multidimensional Anxiety Theory Demonstrates that when someone has anxious thoughts he/she will have poorer performance. This theory distinguishes between somatic and cognitive anxiety: Cognitive anxiety represents the mental component of anxiety and is caused by negative expectations about success or about negative self-evaluation. Thus, cognitive anxiety is worrying
and
negative
thoughts.
Somatic anxiety reflects physiological elements of the anxiety that develops directly from
autonomic arousal. This is perceived as ‘butterflies’ in the stomach, t ense muscles, sweating
and The
nausea. theory
makes
two
predictions:
1. There is a negative linear relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance 2. There is an inverted U relationship between somatic anxiety and performance Multidimensional Anxiety theory suggests that somatic anxiety should decline once performance begins but cognitive anxiety may remain high if self-confidence is low. Anxiety felt by the body will have an effect on performance much like that of the inverted U hypothesis
2. Catastrophe Model of Anxiety The Catastrophe Model of Anxiety proposes four specific relationships between cognitive anxiety, physiological arousal and performance (Hardy, 1990, 1996): Cognitive anxiety (worry) has a positive linear relationship with performance when physiological arousal is low (see Figure);
Cognitive anxiety will have a negative relationship with performance when physiological arousal is high; 3. When cognitive anxiety is low, physiological arousal has an inverted U-shaped relationship with performance; 4. When cognitive anxiety is high, increased levels of physiological arousal lead to a catastrophic drop in athletic performance. Furthermore, once this catastrophic drop in performance has occurred, a large reduction in physiological arousal is required to bring performance back on to a higher level, again. Thus, prior to the performance, an important mental task of athlete is to achieve a mental state where physiological arousal is at her optimal, rather moderate level, without worry thoughts. Usually, this means that physiological arousal is maintained by optimal warm-up and behavioural and mental precompetitive routines whereas worry thoughts are avoided by concentrating on personal challenge and excitement. Zone of optimum functioning (zof) - Hanin
•
optimum level of arousal is not always at mid-point of the inverted U
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best performance will vary between sportspeople
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some athletes will peak at low arousal
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other athletes will peak at medium arousal
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further athletes will peak at high arousal for the same task
The zone •
an athlete’s best performance will be in a zone (not just a point of optimum
performance) •
different athletes will respond differently to the same arousal situations
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they will have different zones of arousal
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optimum performances depend on personality, skill / task, degree of habit
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habit = strength and permanence of a correctly learned skill
Peak flow theory by Csikzentmihalyi •
flow is an optimal experience
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which is intrinsically rewarding
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flow is a period of peak performance
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when the performer feels totally involved
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without effort
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without having to concentrate
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if skill level exceeds task demands (task is too easy)
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performer is bored
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if task demands exceed skill level (task is too hard)
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performer becomes anxious
Peak flow occurs when: •
task demands match skill level of performer
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actions of performer become automatic
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concentration is total without effort
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performer feels in control without effort
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performer loses self-consciousness
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time appears to speed up
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or time appears to slow down
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performer feels exhilarated by activity
Peak flow is achieved when: •
performer has positive mental attitude
•
performer controls anxiety
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performer maintains concentration and confidence (maintains focus)
•
peak fitness is maintained
Choking •
high arousal can cause a performer to have negative thoughts
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negative thoughts of failure or lack of success can creep in if a performer is overaroused
•
these thoughts can affect the performer’s confidence and create an almost complete
inability to perform skills properly •
this is choking and is an aspect of inverted U theory
•
examples are: •
the snooker player who misses an easy shot when in the final frame of an important match
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the golfer who misses the fairway from the tee when in the lead in a competition
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this particularly applies to sports which use a fine skill
•
choking can be controlled by cognitive management techniques (see slides below)
•
anxiety affects arousal, and these theories can also apply to how anxiety affects performance
Stress and stressors
Stress: a response of the body to any demands made on it STRESSORS an event that triggers the stress response, CAN BE: Social •
disapproval of parents / peers
•
rejection by peers / parents
•
isolation from normal social interactions
Chemical / biochemical •
harm by ingestion of substances
Bacterial •
illness caused by micro-organisms
Physical •
injury / pain / exhaustion
Climatic •
extremes of weather
•
hot weather for endurance activities
•
rain and cold on bare skin
Psychological
•
mismatch between perception of demands of task
•
and ability to cope
Effect of stress on performance
Inhibition •
inhibition of performance
Performance of skills •
stress may act directly on the information processing of skill
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motor elements of skill are performed less well
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muscles tense
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muscular control is reduced
Concentration •
concentration is difficult
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span of attention is narrowed
Symptoms of stress
Physiological symptoms •
increased heart rate
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increased blood pressure
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increased sweating
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increased breathing rate
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decreased flow of blood to the skin
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increased oxygen uptake
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dry mouth
Psychological symptoms •
worry
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feeling overwhelmed
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inability to make decisions
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inability to concentrate
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inability to direct attention appropriately
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narrowing of attention
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feeling out of control
Behavioural symptoms •
rapid talking
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nail biting
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pacing
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scowling
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yawning
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trembling
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raised voice pitch
•
frequent urination
The management of stress
Relaxation techniques Imagery relaxation •
think of a place with associations of warmth and relaxation
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imagine the activity or technique
•
practise in non-stressful situations
•
use prior to competition
Progressive relaxation training (part) •
learn to tense then deeply relax separate muscle groups
Centring •
control of physiological symptoms of stress by focusing on control of the diaphragm and deep breathing
Self-directed relaxation training •
focus on each of the major muscle groups in turn
•
allow breathing to become slow and easy
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visualise the tension flowing out of a muscle group
•
until completely relaxed
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eventually combine muscle groups
•
and achieve total relaxation quickly
Biofeedback •
•
•
monitor skin temperature –
cold if stressed
–
warm if unstressed
galvanic skin response –
electrical conductivity of skin increases when moist
–
tense muscle cause sweating
electromyography
–
electrodes taped to specific muscles
–
can detect electrical activity
–
hence tension in muscle
Self-talk •
talking through the process of a competitive situation
•
talking positively, building self-confidence
Cognitive stress management •
control of emotions and thought processes
•
linked to attributions
•
eliminate negative feelings
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develop self-confidence
Mental preparation for performance Mental rehearsal •
consciously imagine a performance
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rerun a past experience
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preview hope-for success
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helps concentration
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helps focus on strengths and weaknesses
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positive effect on skill learning
•
but not as good as actual practice
Goal setting •
success is more likely because :
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learning is focused
•
uncertainty is reduced
•
confidence is increased
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practice is planned and structured
•
evaluation and feedback are specific
4.5 Aggression versus Assertion
Aggression refers to intent to harm outside the laws of the game which can also be a response or action with the intention of causing injury or harm. Causes of aggression Nature of the game (contact/non-contact) Wide division between scores oPrevious experiences could cause grudges or scores to settle oFrustration caused by poor form, opposition & referee’s decisions
oHostile crowds oVenue – home or away oExcessively high arousal levels oExtrinsic rewards What about these sports? In some sports aggression is part of the game, e.g. in boxing you can punch above the waist and in rugby you can use hard tackles to intimidate an opponent. This is called INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION Instrumental aggression is done within the rules of the game, in other words it is controlled and channelled. This is very similar to ASSERTION Assertive behaviour: Does not attempt to harm & is within rules & spirit of the game. Differences between aggression and assertion • Aggression:
• Behaviour intended to cause harm • Outside of the rules • Uncontrolled
Assertion: • Behaviour used to reach a nonviolent goal • Within the rules • Channelled and controlled Think of examples of aggressive and assertive behaviour from
sport. They might be your own experiences or famous examples. Aggression in sport
It is important, in the study of aggression, to distinguish between different types of aggressive behaviour that may occur 1. Hostile aggression: The motive is to harm an opponent. The chief intention of the aggressor is to inflict injury. Aggressive actions are outside the rules of the game, it is dysfunctional in the context of any sport. Anger is involved 2.Instrumental or channelled aggression: There is intention to harm. The chief motivation is to gain an unfair advantage over your opponent. Anger is not in evidence Assertion
Does not intend to harm. The chief motivation is to complete the skill. It is within the rules and spirit of the game. It involves robust and forceful play Assertion is functional play Antecedents of aggression: - a list of all the possible causes of aggressive behaviour in sport
Excessive arousal levels
Hostile crowds
Frustration with self or others
Heavy loss
Extrinsic rewards
Grudges with rivals
Contact sports
Venue
Theories of aggression
A number of theories have been put forward to explain the causes of aggression in sport They fall under one of the following categories 1. Trait theories – Nature -the cause comes from genetic, inherited personality traits – 2. Social learning theories – Nurture. The cause comes from observing and copying the behaviour of significant others. 3. Interactionist perspectives – a combination of both above Trait theory of aggression •
Developed form the work of Freud and then Lorenz
•
It suggests that aggression is genetically inherited
•
A trait of violence lies within everyone eve ryone
•
Aggressive energy is constantly building up and needs to be released
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Sport can be a way of releasing aggression in a positive way ( channelled aggression) or negative ( hostile aggression)
Social learning theory •
Based on the work of Bandura
•
Suggests that aggression is nurtured through the e nvironment
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Aggression is learned from observing and copying high status role models.
•
If the aggressive behaviour is reinforced it becomes an accepted mode of behaviour and becomes part of their behaviour
Interactionist theories: frustration-aggression hypothesis his suggests that frustration
always leads to aggression, and that aggression always stems from frustration. If the Rugby player tries to achieve a goal/target and his opponent stops them then the player will develop frustration, leading to more aggression. The idea that frustration leads to aggression makes sense, and it fits into many of our observations about Rugby. Rugby. However, there are far more examples where where Rugby players do not commit aggressive acts. acts. Their responses involve non-aggressive action, or simply despair. Furthermore, many aggressive behaviours occur without being due to frustration. This suggests that the frustration-aggression relationship may not be as inevitable as the hypothesis suggests and most current researchers do not accept the linking role of aggressive drive as inevitable. Another theory (aggressive-cue theory) suggests that frustration increases arousal, rather than leading directly to aggression, and it is this increase in arousal that was most likely to produce the aggressive response. But again, increasing arousal arousal itself is insufficient to lead directly to aggressive behaviour unless there were cues in the environment. These cues in Rugby could be items such as:
the aggression-related activity – Rugby
aggression-related people – specific player, coach or fan
aggression-related places – a pitch where an aggressive incident had occurred previously
Methods to eliminate aggressive behaviour •
Positively reinforce non aggressive behaviour
•
Punish aggressive play
•
Withdraw/ substitute player
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Change the athlete’s attitude - show detrimental effect upon rest of team
•
Set process rather than outcome goals
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Implement stress management/relaxation techniques
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Lower arousal levels
•
Reward non – aggressive role models
•
Attribute success to skill not intimidation
