Power and Teacherhood: Student Teachers Perceptions of Teachers Power and Authority

International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences, 2(3) March 2013, Pages: 37-43

TI Journals

International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences

ISSN 2306-7276

www.waprogramming.com

Power and Teacherhood: Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Teachers’ Power and Authority 1

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Anniina Kyllönen , Kaarina Määttä , Satu Uusiautti

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1,2,3

University of Lapland, Finland.

ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Keywords:

Power is an inevitable part of teachers’ work. The purpose of the study was to dissect how student teachers realize the power element that t heir prospective profession profession involves and how the nature of teachers’ power can be described and illustrated. Student teachers (N=12) participated in the study by writi ng an e ssay ab out po wer in teachers’ work. The follo wing resear ch quest ions were set for this study: (1) How do student teachers perceive the the nature of teachers’ teachers’ power? (2) How does power differ from authority in student teachers’ perception s? (3) What kind of effects does the exercise of power have according to student teachers’ perceptions? perceptions? The data were studied through existing theoretical framework, in this case, definitions of power and authority. Based on the results, teachers’ power and authority were one the one hand connected to the values and ontological ideas but on the other hand very concretely manifested in practice. Teachers’ power power is a multidimensional phenomenon that challenges teachers to deliberate their work and own action. The concept of pedagogical authority is further discussed based on the findings.

pedagogical authority authority power teacher pedagogical love

© 2013 Int. j. econ. manag. soc. sci. All rights reserved for TI Journals.

1.

Introduction

Various forms of the exercise of power are part of teachers’ work. At its best, an educator can use his or her power to support children’s holistic physical, mental, and morel development [1]. At its worst, exercise of power may turn into public humiliation in front of other people, ridicule, and fe ar, leave life-long negative negative impressions impressions about teachers [ 2] [3]. Indeed, teachers are expected to use their power wisely. In order to do that, teachers must become aware of their own action, goals and influence on pupils [4]. There are numerous numerous definitions for power, but most of them are c onnected onnected with social relationships relationships and maintaining order. Nuutinen states that people use power in social interaction situations in order to control life and achieve their goals [5]. Power is also about making choices by selecting selecting the most suitable suitable one one for the purpose. purpose. In this situation situation,, power has the ability to affect the course of events events and the possibility possibility of controlling other people’s actions [6]. Power, and the exercise of power, has conscious, controlled, and target-oriented influences [7]. Likewise, Hersey and Blanchard understand power as a way of controlling or compelling: “A has got power so much in relation to B that A can make B do something that B would not do otherwise” [8, pp. 195-196]. Several theorists consider authority to be based on power and in Weber’s opinion, it is within his or her rights that a person with authority uses power [9]. The legitimacy of power is rational, traditional, or charismatic. According to Weber, rational legitimacy is grounded on instructions and orders, based on the given laws and norms [9]. Traditional legitimacy is based on the prevailing traditions and authority that they determine. Charismatic legitimacy depends on the integrity, heroism, exemplariness, or expertise of the one who uses power. Weber emphasizes that the types of legitimacy are often overlapping [9]. Authority can be seen as a means of influence when it differs from compulsion and persuasion: Puolimatka calls this kind of influence ‘justified authority’ [10, p. 250]. Authority is often addressed in pedagogical points of view and it has been studied a great deal [11] [12] [13]. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, it has been understood in a contradictory way for education and teaching [14] [15] [16]. However, this depends on how it is defined and what kind of meanings it has been given [17]. Nowadays, when people call for the restoration of teachers’ authority, it is reasonable to ask what kind of authority people actually want to talk about [see 18]. The word ‘authority’ may arouse negative images about teachers as disciplinarians and hence, authority may be considered authoritarianism [19]. An authoritarian educator is believed to control children’s behavior and attitudes in a strict way, expecting the children’s will to conform to the educator’s will, and punishing children for disobedience [20]. In this situation, educational work is directed by the teacher’s power position position,, not by interaction interaction or by explainin explaining g the decisions decisions [19]. Authority can be based on the exercise of power and the teachers’ external position (the teacher as a dominating, defiant authority) or emerge with respect and expertise (the teacher as a flexible professional) professional) [21]. Authority Authority that leans on the exercise of power has the role role of a dominating and defiant ruler [see 7, 8]. An expert-authority is respected because of his or her expertise and he or she does not have to * Corresponding author. Email address: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

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Anniina Kyllönen et al.

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International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences, 2(3) March 2013

struggle with mastery over the subject matter. In learning situations, flexible professionalism makes the teacher capable of bending according to students’ needs and qualifications. This kind of teacher can notice, help, and support students in accordance with their starting points. The The question question is about about a sort of empathy, empathy, the ability ability to look look at the information from the students’ students’ point point of view [22] [23]. This study focuses on student teachers’ perceptions of the nature of teachers’ power and how teachers exercise their power in the classroom. Power is an inevitable part of all rearing and education, and therefore, a part of teachers’ work. The purpose of the study study was to dissect how student teachers realize the power element that their prospective profession involves and how the nature of teachers’ power can be described and illustrated illustrated

2.

Method

This was a qualitative study conducted among student teachers at the University of Lapland, Finland. Twelve student teachers (one man and eleven women) participated in the study. The participants were asked to write an essay about power in teachers’ work. They had five guiding questions that they could use when starting to write their essays. These questions were: “What is power in a teacher’s work / in a classroom?” ”How is power manifested in a teacher’s work?” ”What types of power does education involve?” ”What kinds of effect does/can the exercise of power have?” “In what situations situations do teachers use their power?” The questions questions did not tie essays in any way a s the student teachers knew that they could write about other issues related to teachers’ power. The purpose was to allow them to define the essence of power in teachers’ work and, thus, to highlight their perceptions. The nature of teachers’ power in student teachers’ perceptions was studied through the following research questions: (1) How do student teachers perceive the nature of teachers’ power? (2) How does power differ from authority in student teachers’ perceptions? (3) What kind of effects does the exercise of power have according to student teachers’ perceptions? The data analysis resembled qualitative content analysis which was ultimately based on the pre-determined themes [24] [25]: the essay data were analyzed through theory-based content analysis. The data were studied through existing theoretical framework, in this case, definitions of power and authority [26] [27]. The analysis was structured so that student teachers’ perceptions were organized in predetermined categories that represented these forms of power and authority. Excerpts from essays were therefore arranged according to these categories (e.g. quotations that described expert authority were grouped together, etc.). Essays included therefore descriptions of various forms of teachers’ power as the participants had discussed the phenomenon from multiple points of view. When analyzing their essays, it became obvious obvious that some excerpts could resemble resemble many categories depending depending on the perspective they were looked at. However, this was not considered a problem since the phenomenon of power and its various manifestations are overlapping and to increase the reliability of analysis, this is clearly brought out also in Results section. In addition, quotations from the data are included to support the analysis and to bring out the participants’ participants’ voices. voices.

3.

Results

3.1. The nature nature of teachers’ power First, student teachers’ perceptions were analyzed through three perspectives perspectives on power: power as supremacy, supremacy, empowering empowering powe r, and cooperation-based power. Power as supremacy resembles the popular definition of power referring to dominance over another person [26] and power refers to a relationship where the educator can, for example, subjugate, control, force, and forbid children [28]. In this study, student teachers described power as supremacy as the teacher’s control control and command over pupils in the classroom. At its extreme f orm, the power could be arbitrary and random subordination and humiliation of children. However, supremacy did not only appear negatively in essays but it was also described as the teacher’s duty to take care of children’s health and security that sometimes required the use of the most extreme forms of power. “At the end, the teacher decides everything.” (Sole) “Often, small children have little say about issues concerning teaching and school…The teacher decides his or her teaching and chooses the topics.” (Eela) “The teacher has the power to mold individuals and direct their growth and development.” (Kille) Empowering power refers to power as enabling or ability to achieve self-fulfilling results and therefore it is sometimes referred as authorizing power. It usually has positive effect [26] [27]. Empowering power includes the idea of a child possessing the power of deciding for himself or herself and of opposing the authority [26]. The experiences of empowerment are a crucial part of this form of power as the





Power and Teacherhood: Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Teachers’ Power and Authority

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“At their best, teachers can support and encourage --- act with respect and encouragingly and have trust in children.” (Liia) “To guide pupils to make independent decisions and cope in life.” (Riska) Cooperation-based Cooperation-based power refers to the ability to work with others. This type of power is not possessed by any individual but it is socially shared and valid only among this particular group [30]. The strength of cooperation-based power is the possibility of acting for the common goals through reciprocal trust and respect among the members of the group [26]. A school and an individual classroom can be seen as a social community of this kind where power is shared between its members and by cooperation, the group can achieve their shared goals. However, cooperation-based power does not have only positive features but it involves exclusion: each group excludes some certain individuals individuals or groups. [26] [31] In the school context, this type of negative negative cooperation-based power can be seen for example in bullying. bullying. I n this research, the teacher students did not write much about cooperation-based power. Mostly, they took sides against bullying and wanted to enhance the creation of common rules for the class “Both the pupils and the teacher respect each other but the teacher keeps a rein.” (Asse) “Often, teacher use their power to make everyone follow common rules and enhance cooperation in the classroom.” (Eela)

3.2. The relation relation between power power and and authority authority Student teachers named five types of authority that were connected to the way teachers exercise their power in the classroom: legal and expert authority, traditional authority, charismatic authority, moral authority, and ontological-existential authority. Teachers are legalized experts and therefore authorities in schools [32] [33]. This type of authority is strongly connected with organizational hierarchies. Teachers’ are impersonal experts who have an authoritative position in relation to pupils. Teachers were described to have right to comprehensive decision-making because of their expertise and legalized position. “The public administration (the municipality, state) has given a task to teachers that they have to fulfill (teach and raise) --- the means are up to teachers themselves.” (Liia) “Surely teachers have power in classrooms as authorities; it is possible to see teachers above pupils for example because of their age and the system.” (Nikki) Based on the results, teachers as legalized experts were expected to provide support for learning and define pupils’ actions. Teachers have the right to give and check homework and make up rules. These rights are connected to their legal authority that involves involves the re sponsibility sponsibility of making sure that pupils learn. “The teacher defines, for example, classroom rules, sitting order, homework, grades, and punishments for offences against rules.” At its best, the legalized authority position provides teachers with the possibility of promoting civic activities inside classrooms but at its worst, the position can let them withdraw from the moral responsibility [34]. Teachers have to find balance between societal demands and responsibilities and pupils’ needs and expectations: “Our society demands a certain order and adjustment to rules.” (Kille) In this study, legalized position was closely connected to teachers’ role as educational experts: in education, teachers’ expertise can be based on knowledge (about (about education and/or and/or about a certain school subject), experience, experience, societally legalized position, position, or a combination combination of all these. Some student teachers thought that a teacher as an authority can advance learning, on the other hand, pupils are dependent on teachers’ expertise [35]: “Pupils respect --- the teacher’s expertise so much that they want to listen and do as the teacher wishes and they trust in the teacher.” (Asse) Basically, the student teachers considered teachers’ legalized expertise as the possibility of ”deciding”, ”determining”, ”having the right” to set up the practical framework of schoolwork and the relationship with pupils and their learning. If pupils do not find their teacher’s expertise relevant to their learning, the teacher’s authority is questioned. Then, the authority can lean more on the legalized position [cf. 35]. Traditional authority is one of the forms that justify a certain individual’s position. For example, certain professions include inherited authoritative position that is not usually questioned [34]. A teacher’s profession is one of these traditional professions including the






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Charisma refers to special and even superhuman features that justify someone’s position in relation to others. Typically, a strong charismatic authority is not criticized and this type of authority is often associated with great leaders and religious leaders. At school, charismatic authority is based on a teacher’s deviant personality, feature, or quality. [36] Scott specifies that charismatic authority also involves beliefs of the authority being somehow special [37]. Students have their own belief in authority and define their own limits for respecting respecting it [38]. Raelin and Burbules describe how the teacher’s authority, at its best, means charisma that brings an enthusiasm and joy for learning [39] [40]. Pupils like the teacher because of his or her qualities and care for the teacher and obey the teacher with pleasure pleasure [cf. 35]. One student teacher described a charismatic teacher from her past in the following manner: “In the middle school, this male teacher did not yell but his speech came across well. No major interruptions occurred in his lessons ever.” (Manta) On one hand, a charismatic teacher has a positive influence on the work and atmosphere inside a classroom. On the other hand, charismatic authority is connected with personality and heroism: it is dependent on pupils’ perception of the teacher’s excellence. [32] Certainly, a teacher’s excellence can be based on expertise and then the charismatic authority is connected to expertise as well. Especially, among younger pupils, a teacher’s knowledge may produce a charismatic authority’s position to a teacher—which is, then, hardly distinguishable from traditional or expert authority. The difference occurs in a teacher’s own perception and the level of his or her awareness of the position and moral obligation obligation versus manipulation manipulation.. Moral authority tries tries to teach children what is right and wrong, good and bad. On the other hand, an educator has a moral obligation to care and nurture children. Therefore, moral authority is two-dimensional. The student teachers strongly emphasized the moral responsibility in a teacher’s work: justice, equality, goodness, and love toward various pupils regardless of a teacher’s personal preferences. “Even if you did not like all the pupils, you should not show that in how your treat pupils.” Manta) “A teacher should be able to work fairly and respectfully toward pupils.” (Nunnu) “The adult merely is a supporter or a safe-keeper who stands by and whose decisions you can trust in.” (Kille) Authority means caring about and for the other. Moral authority includes these two dimensions and, for example, Noblit considers moral authority as caring exercise of power that is ethically justified [41]. A teacher is responsible for children’s well-being [23] that can be manifested through pedagogical love and caring teacherhood [21] [42]. “A teacher has to explain children why the teacher does what she or he does.” (Manta) “Teachers should be fair, honest, and encouraging.” (Una) “A teacher has to learn how to exercise power for pupils’ good so that everyone (including the teacher) enjoys working in the classroom and pupils would grow into skillful adults.” (Asla) When a teacher’s authority is connected to moral justification, it is likely to advance pupil’s holistic well-being and learning. However, even that does not cover all aspects of educational authority. An ontological-existential authority covers questions of the existence of relationships and the world and how they should be interpreted. [26] School as an educational institution has a significant role in extending children’s knowledge and understanding about the themes of existence. The dimension of love when considered from the viewpoint of education is not just a teacher’s responsibility for caring but especially a feature that is based on a certain ontological worldview and basic values. When a teacher’s authority is grounded on love and caring, children are the most likely provided with good and safe growing environment. Authority is used for the children’s best. In this study, the emphasis on social and societal skills seemed to be connected to ontological-existential authority: “At his or her best, the teacher encourages and supports the development of a child’s balance worldview, identity, and self-esteem through respectful, encouraging, and trusting action.” (Liia) “The way a teacher acts and takes pupils typifies the teacher’s real values, worldview, and idea of man.” (Liia) Caring that is included in moral authority can be seen as a teacher’s obligation toward pupils. Yet, experiences of love cannot be obliged. Pedagogical love [see 42] does not only function as a teacher’s means to motivate pupils’ to learn and discover their strengths but it means wider and more profound appreciation and idea of man.






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When teachers use their power in a positive manner, they are likely to create a secure environment, reliable relationship with pupils, and enhance fairness and equality: “A teacher has a great effect on pupils’ development, self-esteem, and feelings of self-efficacy.” (Nikki) The data did not include descriptions of just positive power but negative as well. Student teachers mentioned arbitrary exercise of power that results in pupils’ experiences of insecurity and fear, suppressing pupils’ own thinking, diminishing their self-esteem and selfconfidence, and other negative influences on children’s future. The participants emphasized teachers’ invisible negative exercise of power, too. “You sort of ignite fear among pupils --- this easily causes insecurity among the authority’s followers.” (Kille) “Having faced constant unfairness, a child can follow this manner in his or her adulthood.” (Kille “Teachers hardly use physical means to achieve authority, but a negatively-toned mental edge over pupils is not any better.” (Asse) Student teachers also highlighted those reasons that a teacher gives to his or her action: the exercise of power was connected to the development development of a child’s understanding. understanding. Giving reasons was considered relevant for the way a child perceives the power an educator uses [43]. In order to do that, a teacher has to be aware of his or her own action and its goals. Secondly, teachers’ exercise of power was connected to cooperation and creating beneficial conditions for out. A common goal and clear rules that everyone is aware of were mentioned as basic manifestations of this type of effect. A teacher has the power to maintain order and stick to agreed rules. In addition, cooperation included pupils’ social skills and teamwork abilities. A teacher has the power to direct pupils into various groups that develop their social and citizenship skills. While being a target of exercise of power, a child grows into an individual using power [see 5] [31]. In summary, teachers’ exercise of power and its influences seemed to be depended on situational factors. In each context and situation, the way a teacher uses his or her power can be defined either positive or negative or something in between. Therefore, teachers have to reflect constantly the reasons of using power and its possible effects into pupils’ growth and development.

Discussion

In this study, it appeared that teachers’ exercise of power is based on their values and conception of a human being. Teachers’ authority is one the one hand connected to these abstract ideas but on the other hand manifested in practice. A teacher earns a certain type of authority position through those those ideas that he or she she applies in teaching teaching practices. practices. Eventually, Eventually, the most visible visible side of teachers’ power power is the concrete concrete actions. Thus, teachers’ power is a multidimensional phenomenon that challenges teachers to deliberate their work and own action. Based on the results, teachers’ power and authority were connected together. Pupils were seen to accept a teacher’s authoritative position for various reasons. Indeed, a teacher’s authority appeared a combination of different types of authority combining elements of expertise, professional professional role and personality, care and love, ethics, a nd existence. The c oncept of pedagogical pedagogical authority could illustrate the versatile nature of teachers’ authority. Pedagogical authority means intellectual, guiding, and moral authority being in interaction with pupils [19]. What becomes significant is a teacher’s aspire to encourage and support pupils in their personal learning processes. Furthermore, pedagogical authority is manifested by a trusting and functional interactional relationship between a teacher and a pupil. Thus, pedagogical authority combines intimacy and security with feelings of capability and self-appreciation related to teaching and learning. Pedagogical authority also has time, place, and person bound bound manifestations. manifestations. Määttä and Uusiautti Uusiautti include include the concept concept of pedagogical pedagogical love love in pedagogical pedagogical authority authority [21]. [21]. Illustrating pedagogical authority from the viewpoint of various types of authority gives a comprehensive picture of the dimensions of a teacher’s authority. The star of pedagogical authority helps understanding the responsibilities and possibilities in teachers’ work and to understand the range of dimensions in a teacher’s professional roles where just expertise or legalized position will not necessarily mean good teacherhood. How much does pedagogical authority have to do with how teachers exercise power in the classroom and in the relationship between a teacher and a pupil? When a teacher’s authority is considered from the point of view of pedagogical authority it represents positive exercise of power. Authoritative position based on trust, caring, and knowledge seems to be close to a teacher’s ethical and moral responsibility for pupils’ pupils’ growth, development, development, and and learning. learning. Then, the exercise exercise of supremacy, supremacy, empowering empowering power, and and cooperation-based cooperation-based power seems to to be justified justified when considered considered from teachers’ teachers’ and pupils’ pupils’ points points of view.






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Figure 1. Pedagogical 1. Pedagogical authority

4.

Conclusion

The core of the exercise of power and its justification is pursuing for the enhancement of pupils’ growth, development, and learning. Instead of the means of using power, the values guiding teachers’ actions were seen the most significant. According to Hatt, the original meaning of pedagogy is grounded in the relational and intentional responsibility of an adult to a child [44]. The vulnerability of the child calls for a loving attitude from the educator, focusing on the student’s physical security and their social, emotional, and educational wellbeing. More recently, Daniel called for teachers to have ability to develop higher-order thinking skills, meaning that they should be able not only to clarify principles and educational goals but also to analyze them in a critical manner [45]. Teachers should have the capacity to recognize and question the role of a teacher and the existing structures and power relationships. Indeed, according to Boyd and Arnold, very little is known about how teachers think about the aims of education [46]. Yet, the success of education depends on how teachers present their understanding about morality. According to Kohlberg and Mayer, “the most important issue confronting educators and educational theorists is the choice of ends for the educational process” [47, p. 449]. Certainly, children do need guidance, and schools should cultivate students’ natural moral sense [48]. Teachers as pedagogical authorities have the responsibility for enhancing this in the classroom. This study was to contribute to this discussion by analyzing the level of student teachers’ understanding of the power factor in teachers’ work. According to Pauli Siljander, at the core of pedagogical love and pedagogical authority is the educator’s trust in the pupil’s ability to become civilized civilized and self-determined self-determined [49]. Yet, the relationship relationship between a teacher and a student student is asymmetrical asymmetrical because the teacher possesses a quality that the pupil does not. According According t o Hare, the teacher does not have to think that the student is presently presently h is or her equal but does need to see the student as potentially equal [50]. The purpose of the learning relationship is to assist the pupil in developing into an independent and responsible autonomous individual. However, the student does not achieve this goal alone; he or she needs the educator’s help and guidance [6]. In practice, it is important that the teacher is able to determine whether the tension within the teacher-student relationship is constructive or destructive, or colored by defiance of authority, trust, coldness, or expertise. A teacher can reflect and observe his or her way of teaching and interacting interacting with students and ask questions such as ‘ Do I listen to students’ students’ opinions opinions in an open manner?’, ‘Do I encourage students to express their emotions or perceptions?’, ‘How do I take divergent opinions and tolerate criticism or feedback from students?’, and ‘Do I treat students equally regardless of their background?’ [42]. Teachers’ self-awareness and self-reflection is the key. Kristjan Kristjansson describes the post-modern time as a time of missing values and of uncertainty about what is ultimately good and worth pursuing [51] [see also 52]. Furthermore, it is worth noting that in practice, various learners may benefit benefit from various levels of love and authority. Sometimes, the teacher must be ready to use his or her authoritative authoritative position to sustain order and discipline discipline in the classroom, while some other times a more flexible and adjusting approach to the situation may be more useful [21]. It is all about the teacher’s tact and capability to notice the various learners and personalities and have situational








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Power and Teacherhood: Student Teachers Perceptions of Teachers Power and Authority

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