Copyright Notice Copyright © 2015 John Fotheringham Edition 8.1. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical or electronic, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the author. You may, however, use short quotes from the guide in reviews.
Help Support Independent Authors I have spent years researching, writing, and updating my language guides, forgoing better paying—albeit less fulfilling— career paths. These guides are my primary source of income (other than change I find in the couch), so if you “borrowed” this book from a friend or downloaded it illegally, please do the right thing and purchase your own copy. This helps feedmy face and enables me to continue feeding you the tips and tools you need to learn foreign languages the fun, affordable, adult-friendly way, no matter where in the world you happen to live. Yours Ninjetically, John Fotheringham, Author & Chief Executive Ninja !
Buy a copy of Maser Japanese.
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Dedication To My Parents, Vern & Beverly Fotheringham Few parents would support their son changing majors from Industrial Design (a degree that might actually lead to a job) to Linguistics (a degree that usually just leads to more school), let alone in the 3rd year of college! You stood by me then and have continued to support me in my language learning adventures across the globe ever since. Thank you for all you do.
To My Siblings, Brooke, Graham & David Fotheringham My sister and two brothers are each far smarter than I, but were failed an ineffective language system. Despite brains,byI lucked out with a series education of inspirational teachers andless rewarding life experiences that showed me just how fun languages could be if one is equipped with the right tools, methods, and attitudes. This guide is dedicated to you Sis and “Brohams”, and any other learners who have been convinced they are “bad at languages”.
To ITOU Sensei ITOU Katsuhiro () was my first—and by far my favorite— Japanese teacher. Unlike the department head who made a habit of making students feel stupid if they made mistakes in the language, Itou-Sensei created a supportive learning environment that encouraged students to try things out. Most importantly, he
had an infectious passion for languages that got me hooked on not just Japanese, but all things language.
To The Many Uber Ninjetic Contributors & Typo Finders Writing is a lonely profession, but the amazing support, questions, and feedback I’ve received from the growing Language Mastery army keeps me marching on. Onwards and upwards! Special thanks to the dedicated readers who emailed me feedback or pointed out embarrassing typos, broken links, and omissions (arranged in alphabetical order by last name): "
Majdi Alkhalaf
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Erik Peterson
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Stacey Lynne Civello
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Julie Pichon
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Brett Dupree
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Rosemary Sewart
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Nick Edner
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Jeroen Vloothuis
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Elohim Falcón
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Josiah Walton
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Jack Hattaway
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Nick Winter
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Santiago Madrigal
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Immerse Yourself
Table of Contents
Work Tutor With a Use the Shadowing Method
74 79 87
Use Spaced Repetition Time Use Boxing
12 15
Chapter 2: How to Learn
Time Make the Learn the “Natural” Way Learn Through Action
Chapter 3: What to Learn Learn Essential Patterns
110
Kana Learn
114
Learn Kanji
128
Master Pronunciation
23
Set “Smart” Goals Stick Your to Goals
103
8
FAQs Attempted & Answers The 3 Learning Phases
Myths the Kill
99
Take Good Notes
Chapter 1: Start Here How Use toGuide this
92
35 38 47
143
Learn Read to Japanese
149
Learn to Write Japanese
152
Learn Type to Japanese
155
52 63 iii
Chapter 4: Build Your Toolbox
Chapter 5: Japanese 101
Choose Ideal Materials
162
Japanese Overview
264
Essential Reference Tools
166
Japanese Orthography
270
Japanese Vocabulary
274
Japanese Podcasts
176
Japanese Radio
195
Japanese Honorifics
Japanese Audio Courses
196
Japanese Verbs
Japanese Audio Books
199
Japanese Adjectives
308
Japanese Adverbs Japanese Pronouns
314 318
Japanese Music JapaneseAnime,TV&Movies
201 211
Japanese Video Games
235
Japanese Proper Nouns
Japanese Comic Books
242
Japanese Particles
Japanese Newspapers
249
Japanese Numbers
Japanese Magazines
253
Japanese Dates Times &
JapaneseBooks&Literature
277 282
326 339 372 388
257
iv
Start Here
1
“The way to get started is to quit talking and begin doing. “ !Walt Disney
“One language sets you in a corridor for life. Two languages open every door along the way.” !Frank Smith
Welcome to Master Japanese! Today, you embark on a journey that will forever change your life. As Charlemagne said, “To have another language is to possess a second soul.” More than just learning new sounds, words, and grammar, Japanese ability enables you to see the world from a completely new perspective, better grasp—and operate within—Japanese culture, and even deepen your understanding of your native tongue and home country. I wish you great success and am excited for the wild adventures and new opportunities that await you.
Section 1
How to Use this Guide Warning: Hard Work (and Fun Times) Ahead I must walk a fine line between motivating new learners and setting realistic expectations. On the one hand, I want would-be
On the other extreme, you can find many blogs and forums belly aching about how difficult languages are (especially Japanese). Some claim you must take formal classes or you will forever speak like Tarzan. Others tell you it takes decades to reach fluency. Fortunately, these pedantic pessimists are just as wrong as the marketing liars. The road to fluency may be long and windy, but the smart traveler can use the right tools, methods, and psychology to speed their progress, lighten their load, and have a hell of a lot more fun along the way.
learners to know that anyone can learn a foreign language no matter their age, income, or zip code. You don’t need expensive, location-dependent classes, boring textbooks, or a new foreign address. What you need are the right tools—and more importantly—the motivation to use them day in and day out. But right there is the real challenge of learning a language: consistent action and requisite time on task. This applies whether
you are learning on your own or in a formal class, yet most courses and language products fail to set proper expectations about the time and effort involved in learning a language. Instead, they bombard us with marketing messages like “Learn a Language in 10 Days”. If we exercise common sense, we know that these are marketing lies, not pedagogical promises.
8
The Learning Happens Out There, Not in This Guide
Master Japanese Guide Format & Tips
Master Japanese is NOT a textbook. This is by design. Textbook
learning doesn’t work for most people because it treats language as a set of facts to be memorized, not the innate biological system it truly is. Nobody has ever learned to drive by reading the car’s owner’s manual, yet that is precisely the way most people try to learn foreign languages. Not us. Instead of trying to force Japanese into our brains through tedious rote learning, we’ll learn the fun, natural, adult-friendly way. Any adult, barring cognitive or physical disabilities, can acquire a language if they get sufficient exposure and practice. This is precisely what happened when you acquired your first language as a baby, and the process can happen even faster as an adult with the right materials, methods, and attitude. “Textbooks prepare you for the real world as much as cookbooks prepare you for real cooking. YOU still have to make the cookies.” !Chris W. Hubbard
You Don’t Need to Read the Guide in Order Think of this guide as a “choose your own adventure” book. I have tried to organize the guide in the most logical order possible, but feel free to jump around, reading chapters and sections in the order that feels most natural to you.
You Don’t Need to Read the Entire Guide While I think you will get the most benefit from completing the guide cover to cover, it is certainly not necessary. Some people only want to learn how to speak Japanese, for example, while others want to focus more on reading and writing. I have therefore separated these skills (and the relevant tips, tools, and tech) into discrete sections. For those who have experience learning other languages (or who have already read one of my other language guides) but have yet to tackle Japanese, you can probably skip Chapters 1 and 2 and go straight to Chapters 3, 4, or 5.
All Web Links are Clickable All online resources listed in the guide include a clickable link so you don’t have to waste your precious study time searching for sites or typing in ridiculously long URLs. 9
All Japanese Terms are Presented in Roumaji, Kanji & Kana
Japanese Names are Presented in Japanese Order
I hate when materials indicate Japanese terms solely in roumaji (), Japanese written in English letters. While this is supposed to make things “easier” for new learners who might not yet be able to read a word’s correspondingkanji ( ) or kana (), in reality, it just makes things easier for the publisher while denying you a valuable learning opportunity. Even if you can’t readthem yet, it’s important to at least start getting used to kanji and kana from day one. Therefore, all Japanese words in this guide will be presented as follows:
As you probably know, Japanese family names are written first, followed by a person’s given name (the opposite of English order). To help you get used to the Japanese convention and minimize potential ambiguity, I have written all Japanese names in this guide using the Japanese order (family names followed by given names). You will also notice that I write the roumaji version of family names in ALL CAPITAL LETTERS. For example:
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The word in italicized roumaji.
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The word’s corresponding kanji and hiragana in parentheses (separated with thesymbol).
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An English translation when relevant.
For example: nihongo (, “the Japanese language”)
Furthermore, words normally written in katakana ( ) will be rewritten in hiragana () to help you get used to both kana systems more quickly.
NATSUME Souseki ()
Gender-Specific Words are Marked In Japanese, some words are used chiefly by either men or women. Keep a look out for the symbol, which indicates terms used exclusively by men, and the symbol for words used only by women.
“Zero Subjects” & “Zero Objects” are Shown in Brackets Japanese frequently leaves off the subject and object of a sentence if they are obvious from the context. In such cases, I include the “missing” words in the English translation [within brackets].
biiru (, “beer”) 10
Complete Package Bonuses Those who bought the Master Japanese Complete Package get access to heaps of reader-only bonuses, including:
How to Access the Bonuses If you purchased the Complete Package, just unzip the file you receive and you will find all of the bonuses available in various labelled folders. Note that you may need to install software to unzip the file. I recommend the following:
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3+ hours of expert interviews.
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All 3 versions of the guide: PDF, EPUB & MOBI.
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The Unarchiver (Mac, free)
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1 free copy of the guide for a friend.
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7-Zip (Windows, free)
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Free lifetime updates.
Upgrade Discount
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PDF worksheets & cheat sheets.
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Discount codes for John-approved tools & resources.
If you bought the guide only but decide you want access to the bonuses, not to worry: use the discount code “39ninjas” to receive $39 off of the Complete Package price (the price you srcinally paid for the guide).
Related Content Icons Keep an eye out for the following icons throughout to guide: This icon indicates relevant expert interviews available as separate MP3 files.
This icon indicates relevant PDF worksheets and cheat sheets.
39ninjas
This icon indicates discount codes available for the resource being discussed. 11
Section 2
FAQs & Attempted Answers
contexts. The incorrect belief that a teacher, course, or textbook will get a language into your head is one of the major reasons why traditional language courses don’t work. Well, that and the fact they tend to bore the heck out of learners, convince them they aren’t good at languages, and completely ignore how our brains evolved to learn, process, and produce language.
Why Should You Trust My Advice? “The top 1% often succeed despite how they train, not because of it. Superior genetics, or a luxurious full-time schedule, make up for a lot. Career specialists can’t externalize what they’ve internalized. Second nature is hard to teach.” !Tim Ferriss, The 4-Hour Chef
Why Did I Create Master Japanese? “We do not need more language courses. We need courses on how to learn languages.” !Steve Kaufmann
This guide is designed to be just that: a course on how to learn Japanese. While the right teacher or tutor can be a big help, it is important to understand that nobody can “teach” you a language. Languages are “acquired” only if you get enough exposure to— and enough practicing using—the language in meaningful
I made just about every possible mistake when starting out in languages. I used terribly inefficient methods, slogged through boring materials I wouldn’t wish upon my worst enemy, and almost gave up more than a few times. But this is good news for you: struggling so much in the beginning and later correcting course makes me a much better language coach. You never want to learn from a “natural” who picks up new skills easily: "
They will not know how to explain what they did and how they did it. 12
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They will not be able to empathize with people who are struggling along in the dark.
I know your pain because I’ve felt it, too. I struggled along in languages just like most folks until I figured out that the traditional “tried and true” methods and materials used in most schools are anything but true. I don’t have all the answers, but I do know the way up Japanese Mountain and I’ve written this guide to show you the way. I can’t promise you an easy climb, but I can guarantee that you’ll reach the top if you follow the tips, tools, and strategies laid out in this guide.
What Do I Mean By “Mastery”? First of all, “mastery” does not mean “perfection”. Such a thing doesn’t exist in languages. And even if it did, it would not be a “S.M.A.R.T. goal” (covered later in the guide) and is therefore irrelevant to our purposes. So if “mastery” does not equal “perfection”, what does it mean? I define “mastery” as follows: The ability to use a language well for your communicative purposes.
That’s it. Mastery is completely relative to your personal and professional needs:
"
If you want a meaningful social life, then “mastery” might mean being able to understand and contribute to casual conversations at a quiet tea shop in Kyoto or a loud Tokyo dance club.
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If you are a film fanatic, then “mastery” for you might mean being able to understand your favorite flick without relying on English (or even Japanese) subtitles.
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If you are a hitherto monolingual Japanese-American, perhaps “mastery” entails finally being able to communicate well with relatives in their native language.
In any of these scenarios, “mastery” does not entail learning every last word you may hear or read. Even native Japanese speakers come across vocabulary they don’t know, or encounterkanji that they have forgotten how to write or pronounce. The key is to know enough Japanese that you can ask about the meaning of an unfamiliar word or character and then actually understand the answer. Strive to constantly expand your vocabulary and improve your grammar, but remember that the focus should always be on quality over quantity. Just as in martial arts, having lots of moves is not as important as mastering a small set of techniques. “I fear not the man who has practiced 10,000 kicks once, but I fear the man who has practiced one kick 10,000 times.” !Bruce Lee 13
How Long Will it Take to Learn Japanese?
Why Do I Focus So Much on Psychology?
This is one of the most common questions I get from new learners and also one of the hardest to answer.
Your beliefs about the Japanese language—and your ability to learn it—can make the difference between success and failure.
First of all, it all depends on what you mean by “learn”. Are you referring to conversational fluency and basic literacy or native-like proficiency? In the case of the former goal, a dedicated learner should be able to master enough core words and structures to have basic (but flowing) conversations in just a few months.
During my time as an English teacher in Asia, I made careful observations about which students progressed and which didn’t. The difference between the two groups was rarely intelligence: many bright learners struggled to learn English while some relatively dim learners took off.
Continuing on at this pace, a year’s time should be enough to reach an “upper intermediate” level (roughly B2 in CEFR), marked by mastery of the most common 5,000 words of spoken Japanese and the most common 2,000 characters. This level allows you to handle the vast majority of situations you’re likely to encounter day to day, and enables you to at least guess your way through most newspapers, magazines, etc. You can of course keep learning and improving from there, but the law of diminishing returns starts to kick in quickly.
The students that succeeded were the one’s who:
“To understand 95% of a language and become conversationally fluent may require 3 months of applied learning; to reach the 98% threshold could require 10 years. There is a point of diminishing returns where, for most people, it makes more sense to acquire more languages (or other skills) vs. add a 1% improvement per 5 years.” !Tim Ferriss, How to Learn Any Language in 3 Months
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Were motivated to learn. Set good goals.
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Made language learning an integral part of their lives.
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Those that failed were the ones who: "
Were unmotivated to learn.
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Made overly ambitious goals (or none at all).
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Only spent time with the language in the classroom.
While the right methods and materials are important, they matter not without the right attitude.
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Section 3
The 3 Learning Phases
Beginners: Master the Basics If you are just starting out in Japanese or have been “studying” for some time without making any real progress, I recommend that you start with mastering the basics. No matter how long you’ve been learning something, it’s always helpful to go back to the foundations. The key at this stage is to build a strong foundation on which to place more advanced words and structures. Just as I’ve observed in martial arts training, new learners are often too eager to skip what they perceive as “easy” or “simple” and jump ahead to the flashy stuff. Don’t wait until you get kicked in the face to realize how important the fundamentals are...
While I don’t believe in formal milestones or proficiency levels, I do think it’s useful to break the language journey up into a few major “phases” (listed below) with different tasks, tools, and materials for each. However, onlyyou will know when it’s time to move onto the next phase; not some teacher, textbook, vague progress chart, standardized test, or language school motivated more by profits than your progress. 15
Learn Kana
Begin Learning “Standard Use” Kanji
If you want to learn to read and write Japanese, it all starts with
Although many advise learners to hold off on kanji, I think this is a big mistake. First of all, learning Chinese characters can be quite easy if you follow the advice in this guide. It will of course take time, but won’t come with the nasty side effects faced by students learning by rote memory alone. Secondly, the sooner you begin learning kanji, the sooner you will be able to read and enjoy authentic Japanese materials; greatly expanding the pool of potential learning tools and the enjoyment that goes with it.
kana (), the Japanese alphabet system (technically
called a “syllabary” since it’s made up of syllables). Even if you only want to understand and speak Japanese, it is still a good idea to learn the kana as they will help familiarize you with the sounds of the language, and make it easier to look words up in the dictionary. Each kana symbol represents a distinct vowel a, i, u, e and o (, , , , ) or a consonant-vowel combination like ka, ki, ku, ke or ko (, , , , ). Note that there are two separate sets of kana symbols, hiragana () and katakana (). They both represent the same sounds, but differ in how they are used: "
Hiragana. Used for verb and adjective endings, particles, words with rare kanji, and kanji pronunciations of Japanese
"
Katakana. Used to represent foreign loan words, foreign
srcin in dictionaries. names, sound effects, and kanji readings of Chinese srcin in dictionaries. Since you will encounter hiragana more often, I suggest learning that set of symbols first. But don’t make the mistake of “taking a break” after hiragana and procrastinating on the katakana front. You need both for full literacy in Japanese, so don’t delay. !
See the “Learn Kana” section.
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See the “Learn Kanji” section.
Learn Common Words & Phrases Buy a good phrasebook (I suggest Lonely Planet’sJapanese Phrasebook & Dictionary) and begin going through it from the beginning. Try to complete at least a page a day. Though they have their limitations, phrasebooks are one of the best sources of authentic, common language that you will need on a daily basis. Another strategy is to memorize the most frequent 500 to 1,000 words in Japanese. According one analysis, the most frequent 100 words in Japanese account for over half of all written materials, while 1,000 words takes you to over 75%! !
See the “Choose a Phrasebook” section.
If you bought the Complete Package, print out the “Most Frequent 1,000 Words in Japanese”. 16
Master Pronunciation & Intonation Proper pronunciation is the single most important skill in language learning. Even with broken grammar and few words, you can often make yourself if you have clear, accurate pronunciation patterns. One of the best ways to improve your overall pronunciation (including diction, rhythm, intonation, etc.) is using either Michel Thomas or Pimsleur. Aim to complete at at least one lesson a day. !
See the “Japanese Audio Courses” section.
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See the “Master Pronunciation” section.
Listen to Basic, Learner Specific Podcasts Jumping right into authentic content works for some, but is probably a bit overwhelming for most learners, leading to frustration instead of progress. As Yoda would say (with surprisingly Japanese-like grammar), “Frustration, a path to the Dark Side it is.” To avoid “going Anakin”, I suggest that you find some good newbie level programs that have a format and host you like. !
See the “Japanese Podcasts” section.
they just have daddy issues they are playing out in the form of misguided language learning advice. Remember: enjoyment trumps all. And watching a Japanese movie with little to no Japanese is probably not a very enjoyable experience for most. Worry not; you will graduate to Japanese subtitles soon enough. !
See the “Anime, TV & Movies” section.
Choose a Basic Japanese Grammar Guide As you have probably guessed by now, I am not a big fan of formal grammar study. But I do think that a some cursory review of Japanese grammar can be helpful, just so long as it does not replace what really makes the difference: spending enough time listening, speaking, reading, and writing the language. If you do enough of these four activities, even with no formal grammar study, you will eventually internalize the fundamental Japanese structures. Thinking about Japanese grammar consciously is no substitute for this natural acquisition. But peeking at a grammar book or website once in a while can help you become more aware of the patterns you encounter in your input activities and answer some nagging questions you may have. !
See the “Choose a Japanese Grammar Guide” section.
Watch Japanese Anime & Movies with English Subtitles Language learning Nazis will tell you that it’s “sink or swim” in a language, and that English subtitles are for sissies. Ignore them, 17
Intermediate Learners: Sharpen Your Sword Now that you have learned the basics and been exposed to a fair amount of Japanese, it’s time to sharpen your sword with more hands on application, some authentic content, and lots of feedback on your speaking and writing.
Continue Learning “Standard Use” Kanji By now, you have gotten the hang of learning new characters, though you probably still have quite a few to go. Don’t let yourself get overwhelmed. Just keep laying one brick at a time and before you know it, your “kanji castle” will be complete! !
See the “Learn Kanji” section.
Become Conversationally Fluent
Learn the Most Frequent 3,000 Japanese Words
As scary as it may seem, it’s imperative that you spend as much time as you can speaking with native Japanese
Once you’ve mastered the most frequent 500 to 1,000 words in Japanese, it’s time to make the next jump to 3,000 known words.
speakers or tutors. You can’t get better at speaking unless you actually speak!
This will takeon you to over 85% of the language you are likelywhich to encounter a daily basis!
Find a tutor you like on iTalki.com, make friends using social media, attend local Meetup.com conversation groups, or if you already live in Japan, talk to just about anyone, anywhere. In addition to furthering your motivation to keep learning, speaking also helps to “show you where your gaps are” as Steve Kaufmann points out in our interview. !
See the “Work With a Tutor” section.
If you bought the Complete Package, don’t miss my interview with Steve Kaufmann.
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See “The Most Commonly Used Japanese Words by Frequency”.
Listen to Intermediate & Advanced Learner Podcasts Learner specific podcasts are probably still your best bet, though by now you will be more than ready to move past the beginner level programs to intermediate shows. You may also want to begin listening to some podcasts intended for native speakers, but only if they don’t stress you out. !
See the “Japanese Podcasts” section.
18
Watch Japanese Anime, TV & Movies with Japanese Subtitles
Enjoy Podcasts Intended for Native Speakers
It might still be a little difficult for you, but try to begin watching Japanese anime, TV, and movies with Japanese subtitles, instead of English. This will accomplish 3 tasks at once: 1) reinforcing the kanji you have learned so far, 2) helping you to create a direct link between pronunciation and characters, and 3) getting you to think in Japanese instead of translating to and from English.
It’s time to move past the learner-specific podcasts and begin listening to programs intended for native speakers of Japanese. At this level, the pool of potential listening content expands significantly, with programs available for nearly every possible interest.
!
!
See the “Japanese Podcast Directories” section.
See the “Anime, TV & Movies” section.
Watch Anime, TV & Movies with All Subtitles Turned Off
Advanced Learners: Get Your Black Belt
In the beginning stage, I recommended watching anime, TV, and
In martial arts, a black belt means you can both apply and defend against all the basic techniques of that style and are now ready to move on to more advanced material. Contrary to popular belief, it does not mean you are now an “expert” who knows all there is to know. The advanced phase of your Japanese language journey is much the same. Once you’ve mastered the basics and sharpened your sword, it’s time to fill in the holes, learn more advanced material, and continue refining what you’ve previously learned.
movies with Englishphase, subtitles to build understanding In the intermediate I recommended watchingand withcontext. Japanese subtitles to build connections between the spoken and written language and reinforce kanji knowledge. Finally in the advanced stage, I suggest watching without any subtitles so you can really test your understanding and focus on fluency. You can repeat programs you’ve already watched so that there is a clear context to stand on, or if you’re feeling adventurous, you can dive head first into new content and figure things out as you go! !
See the “Anime, TV & Movies” section.
19
Begin Learning Upper-Level Characters
Learn All Levels of Japanese Formality
Once you’ve learned all 2,136 “standard use” jouyou kanji ( ), it’s time to move on to upper-level characters which you will encounter if you study at a Japanese university, work for a Japanese company, or read any technical or industry-specific materials. Just as before, the key is to use what James Heisig calls “imaginative memory”, not tedious rote learning.
Taking the trouble to master formal Japanese, known as keigo ( ), will set you apart from nearly all foreign language learners, and even younger Japanese native speakers who nowadays must often be trained in keigo by their employers. This does not mean, however, that keigo is difficult; it is just not used enough in daily speech to become familiar as quickly as less formal language. You can see the same pattern in English vocabulary: everyone knows the word “dull” but how many of you know “insipid” without reaching for the dictionary?
!
Get “Remembering the Kanji 3”.
Read Japanese Blogs, Newspapers, Magazines & Novels
!
See the “Japanese Honorifics” section.
You have probably peeked at some authentic written material already in the beginning and intermediate stages, but now that you can recognize the vast majority of the characters and words without reaching for the dictionary every 3 seconds, it’s time to jump into written Japanese with both feet. You can now begin enjoying reading for reading’s sake and forget that you’re actually learning Japanese. !
See the “Japanese Newspapers” section.
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See the “Japanese Magazines” section.
!
See the “Japanese Books & Literature” section.
20
How to Learn
2
“In language learning, it is attitude, not aptitude, that determines success.” !Steve Kaufmann
“Eighty percent of success is showing up.” !Woody Allen
Learning Japanese may not be easy, but it’s certainly not complicated. All you have to do is “show up” and give your brain the exposure and practice it needs to make sense of the new sounds, patterns, and symbols. Do this enough times in meaningful contexts, and your brain will automatically perform its amazing evolutionary feat: building the robust procedural memories that enable you to understand and produce Japanese at lightning speed.
Section 1
Kill the Myths
Q: What do you call someone who can speak 1 language? A: American.
Ha, ha, ha! My sides! My sides!
One of the first steps in learning how to learn is killing off destructive false beliefs about language learning in general, and the Japanese language in particular.
Myth: You’re Not Good at Languages Q: What do you call someone who can speak 2 languages? A: Bilingual.
Q: What do you call someone who can speak 3 languages? A: Trilingual.
Q: What do you call someone who can speak 4 languages? A: Quadrilingual.
But seriously folks, it is time to put this myth to rest. Yes, most adults (especially Americans it seems) fail to learn foreign languages well despite mandatory study in high school and university, but this failure is a product of bad attitudes, bad materials, and bad methods, not a lack of innate ability. Though outliers like Daniel Tammet have demonstrated how extraordinary cognitive abilities can be used to learn languages extremely quickly (he learned enough Icelandic in 7 days to handle a media interview in the language!), the good news for us non-savants is that there exists another tried and true path to fluency: Extensive exposure coupled with hard work and perseverance.
If you spend enough time with the language (sorry, it’s going to take much more than 7 days for most of us), your brain will eventually make sense of the language. All you have to do is show up and put in the effort on a consistent basis. It’s a matter of time and effort, not brains. 23
“A lot of people have this misconception that you have to be smart to tackle big undertakings like learning Japanese, or anything else for that matter. The idea seems to be that if you’re not smart enough to be immediately good at something, then it will be an uphill battle the whole way. But surprisingly, both conventional wisdom and modern science tells us that that is completely wrong. Being smart is nice and all, but it turns out success is less about brains and more about hard work and perseverance. !Hashi, You Don’t Have to Be a Genius to Learn Japanese
Myth: You’re Too Old to Learn Japanese Contrary to popular belief, children do not necessarily learn languages more quickly or easily than adults. The wee little ones actually struggle quite a bit with their first languages, and spend years actively listening to the input around them before uttering a single word. And when they do start speaking, children (like my adorable nephews) make many of the same mistakes in grammar and pronunciation as non-native adult learners! As babies, we simply don’t yet have the language to put our linguistic frustrations into words.
But like some cruel evolutionary trick, by the time we have the requisite words and syntax at our disposal, we have long since forgotten how much time, effort, and trial-and-error it took us to reach fluency. It’s certainly true that few ever reach the same level of fluency in second languages as in their first, but so what? We can get pretty darn close with enough time and effort, and more importantly, we can reach conversational fluency far more quickly than children if we capitalize on the adult learner’s myriad advantages:
Adults Already Have Massive Vocabularies to Draw On As an adult, you already know what tricky words like “metaphor” and “subtle” mean. All you have to do is learn their equivalents in Japanese: inyu () and kibi-na () respectively. Good luck teaching a 4 year old child either of these words in Japanese or English!
Adult Learners Can Seek Out Materials & Contexts Unlike infants who are dependent on the listening input they happen to hear around them from their parents, peers, TV, etc., the adult learner has the means to seek out Japanese input via the Internet, Japanese tutors, and international travel.
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Adults Know How to Learn You have already learned how to drive, operate the printer at work, program the clock on your DVD player, and fix that toilet that keeps running for some reason. You learned all of these things more quickly than any child ever could because you have already learned so many other things. Every task you learn helps you pick up the next, just as every language you delve into makes acquiring another that much easier.
Adult Learners Have a Choice Having the choice whether or not to learn Japanese is a highly under-appreciated advantage. The freedom to choose significantly increases motivation and enjoyment, which in turn improves retention. As I observed in East Asia, many people develop a hatred for English learning since it is a mandatory subject. If it were made an optional course, I guarantee that more people would enjoy learning the language, and their skill levels would surely rise.
Our Brains Can Retain Their Plasticity Long Into Old Age Many scientists now believe that the human brain remains “plastic” (that is, able to change, grow, and rewire itself) long into old age. For most people, “I’m too old to learn” is a psychological—not physiological— limitation. A great real life example is Steve Kaufmann, the founder of LingQ.com, who speaks eleven languages, five of which he learned after the age of 50! If you bought the Complete Package, don’t miss my interview with Steve Kaufmann.
How plastic your brain remains depends on how you treat it, however, so all those recommendations you hear about eating right and getting sufficient exercise and sleep pertain just as much to language learning as they do to your waistline. Not sure where to start? Here are a few articles to help you transition to more brain-friendly patterns of eating and sleeping. !
“The Beginner’s Guide to the Paleo Diet” by Nerd Fitness
!
“The Definitive Guide to Sleep” by Mark Sisson
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Myth: You Have to Move to Japan “...where you are isn’t what decides whether or not you’ll be successful. Attitude beats latitude (and longitude) every time. It’s more about creating an immersion environment, exposing yourself to native speakers, and doing everything you can in that language.” !Benny Lewis, Fluent in 3 Months
Japan and never reach even a moderate level of fluency in Japanese. Or take the case of English speakers learning French in New Brunswick, Canada: despite being surrounded by French both in and outside of the classroom for 12 years, a government report showed that only 0.68 percent reached even an intermediate level in the language! No my friends, exposure is not enough. You have to be hungry to learn and do everything you can to actively assimilate the language.
Is it ideal to learn Japanese in Japan? Yes. Is it a mandatory condition? Absolutely not. Let me be clear: living abroad was one of the most amazing experiences in my life, and I go back to visit Japan as often as possible. While living overseas can certainly provide Japanese learners many advantages, it’s critical to understand that it’s not a requirement for success. In today’s world, “I can’t learn Japanese because I live in rural Kansas” is an excuse, not a reality. With Internet access, a little creativity, and a lot of hard work, you really can learn any language, anywhere. On the flip side, living abroad is no guarantee that you will pick up the language. While immersion is essential, language acquisition depends on active learning, not passive osmosis. Consider the ridiculously high number of Western expats who spend years in
You Can Always Find Native Speakers to Practice With There are no shortages of language learning communities, exchange sites, and tutoring services online today, with more and more popping up every year. And with the advent of free VOIP (voice over IP) services like Skype, you can talk with native Japanese speakers right from your computer or smartphone no matter where you live. If you prefer speaking face to face, find a local Japanese language and culture group on Meetup.com, or if you live near a university, see about volunteering to help tutor Japanese exchange students. !
Browse Japanese Language & Culture Groups on Meetup.com.
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You Can Practice Listening & Speaking On Your Own It certainly helps (both for motivation and getting valuable feedback on your language usage) to speak with native speakers, and I suggest doing so as much as you can. But in cases where you don’t have anyone to talk with, you can always get more listening input via podcasts, streaming Japanese radio online, watching YouTube videos, etc., and then practice using what you’ve learned by recording an audio journal, talking to your smartphone as if you’re on a call, or just saying in your head what you would say in various scenarios you are likely to encounter.
Don’t get me wrong: having spent many years in language classrooms as both learner and teacher, I know first hand how important a teacher can be: "
They can help motivate students to learn by creating a cultural context for the language.
"
They can scour the web for useful materials that fit one’s unique needs and interests (something a native speaker can do far faster than a language learner).
"
They can point out your mistakes in speech and writing and let you know if something sounds natural or not.
My point is just that none of these things require a teacher or school:
Myth: You Need to Attend Classes Too many would-be Japanese learners use the “time and money” excuse to put off their language learning adventure, quoting the exorbitant costs of formal classes and the difficulty of committing to pre-defined hours week in and week out. Fortunately, you do not need a classroom, or even a teacher, to learn Japanese.
"
You can motivate yourself (and create a cultural context to boot) by learning more about Japan through film, food, etc.
"
A Japanese tutor or friend can help suggest materials that fit your interests and needs.
"
Any Japanese native speaker can tell you if your word usage or structures sound “right” or “wrong” even if they don’t know why. In language learning, the “whys” are perhaps interesting, but they’re irrelevant to learning the “whats” of fluent speech.
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Myth: Japanese is Difficult Japanese is indeed quite different from English, but “different” needn’t be synonymous with “difficult”. Yes, learning Japanese, like any language, will pose unique challenges, but believing that “Japanese is a really difficult language” does you no good. All you accomplish is creating a self-fulfilling prophecy. Instead of dwelling on the empty half of the Japanese glass, why not focus more on the the many ways in which Japanese is actually quite easy?
A Massive Number of English “Loan Words” If you grew up speaking English, congratulations! You won the Linguistic Lottery! From day one in Japanese, you will have a massive pre-existing vocabulary to draw on thanks to the thousands and thousands of English words borrowed into the Japanese language to date. These “foreign loan words”, or gairaigo (), offer native speakers of English a massive head start, allowing you to understand and communicate a great deal of information even with shaky Japanese grammar and zero kanji knowledge.
Here is a small taste of the Japanese arsenal English speakers already have at their disposal: "
“mic” " maiku ()
"
“table” " teeburu ()
"
“Internet” " intaanetto ()
"
“romantic” " romanchikku ()
"
“driveshaft” " doraibushafuto ()
!
Check out Benny’s Japanese music video sung entirely in gairaigo.
You will loan of course the “Japanified” of English words,need but to thelearn phonetic patterns arepronunciation highly predictable and consistent. All you need to do is learn katakana (something you can do over the weekend), and then familiarize yourself with how English sounds are transferred into Japanese. A few key patterns to help you get started: "
English loan words adopt the consonant-vowel, consonantvowel pattern found in Japanese. So you can be sure that any English consonant clusters, such as the ‘dr’ in “drive” will get extra vowels added in the middle. In this case, ‘d’ becomes do (), followed by ra ().
"
In Japanese, no words end in a consonant (with the exceptions of n), so if an English loan word has a consonant sound at the end (e.g. “mic”), you can be sure that the Japanese equivalent will have a vowel tacked on: maiku. 28
Once you have the phonetic patterns down, a powerful language hack is at your disposal: When in doubt about how to say a given word in Japanese, just say the English word you know using Japanese syllables. More times than not, you will be understood. Even if a given English loan word is not actually used in Japanese, chances are good that people will have “learned” (i.e. memorized but not really acquired) the English word in high school or university. Since most Japanese learners of English add little katakana reading guides above English words to approximate their pronunciation, they will better recognize English words when wrapped in Japanese pronunciation. Or even more
No Need to Inflect Verbs for Different Pronouns Unlike many languages that have different verb forms to match different pronouns (e.g. “I am…”, “You/We/They are…”, and “He/ She/It is…”), in Japanese, you use the same verb form no matter who is doing it! Take the verb “to eat” for example. En español, you have to learn 6 different verb forms for just the present tense (one for each pronoun group), plus all the myriad tense variations. In Japanese, you only need to learn one single verb form for each tense. No matter who does the eating, the verb taberu (, “eat”) stays exactly the same!
so whenbut written ongood paper. may be bad for their English, is atout least forThis yourhabit ability to communicate. Lastly, I should point out that there are occasional differences in meaning between English loan words and their Japanese derivations. But radical semantic changes are few, and even when there are significant gaps, the comedic effect is usually enough to make the words stick on their own. Perfect example: I loved telling all my friends back home that I lived in a “mansion” while in Japan. It was the truth! What they didn’t know is that the loan word manshon ( ) actually refers to an apartment, not a palatial residence.
eat. I You eat. He/Sheeats. Weeat.
Yocomo. Tú comes. Él/Ellacome. Nosotroscomemos.
Taberu. Taberu. Taberu. Taberu.
You (pl., fam.) eat.
Vosotros coméis.
Taberu.
You (pl.) / They eat.
Uds./Ellos comen.
Taberu.
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You do have to learn different verb tenses in Japanese of course, and there are different levels of formality to consider, but hey, at least matching pronouns and verbs is one less thing to worry about when you’re starting out. Don’t look a gift linguistic horse in the mouth!
No Need to Inflect Adjectives for Different Nouns There are no “masculine”, “feminine” or “neuter” nouns in Japanese, which should come as a relief to learners of Romance languages that require us to change adjective forms to match the noun they are hanging out with. Buddha be praised! In Japan, you can just order your dark beer instead of trying to remember whether the noun “beer” is feminine or masculine as you would have to in Spanish: “Let’s see… I really want a dark beer. Cerveza is feminine I think… Or is it masculine? It seems masculine. Just think of all the dudes with beer bellies. But it ends with an ‘a’ so I think it should be a feminine noun. Okay, assuming it is indeed feminine, I need to use the feminine form of the adjective for “dark”… Hmm… I think it’s oscura…”
Meanwhile, the waiter has come and gone and you are left to wait in thirsty frustration. Halfway around the world, the Japanese learner is already on his second round of gender-free kuro biiru (, “dark/black beer”).
You Can Leave Out Lots of Words in Japanese Not only is there only one verb form for all pronouns in Japanese, the pronoun itself can usually be left off (a phenomenon called “pro-drop” in linguistics). So instead of saying “I am jealous of you” you can just say “jealous”: urayamashii (, “[I am] jealous [of you]”)
The also works with objects. someone askssame you if thing you have eaten dinner yet, youFor canexample, just say if“Yes, ate”: hai, tabemashita (, “Yes, [I] ate [dinner]”)
Japanese Kana Has One-to-One Pronunciation Japanese is a syllabic language, made up of 45 basic syllables. While the number 45 may sound more intimidating than the 26 letters found in English, keep in mind that each Japanese syllable can be pronounced only one way. This is in stark contrast to English, which despite having fewer letters actually contains far more sounds. Depending on the word (and where in the word it
30
lies), most English letters can be pronounced myriad different ways. Take the letter ‘e’ for example: "
It can be pronounced as a “short e” ( " or /#/) like in “empty”.
"
It can be pronounced as a “long e” (# or /i/) like in “key”.
"
It can be pronounced as a “long a” ($ or /ei/) like in “résumé”.
"
It can be pronounced as a “schwa” (/$/) like in “taken”.
"
It can be silent (especially at the end of words) like in “axe”.
Complex stuff! Pick any Japanese kana on the other hand, and no matter where it’s used, it will be pronounced one—and only one—way. The Japanese e sound for example (written in Hiragana) is always pronounced as a “short e” (" or /#/). It doesn’t change if the syllable comes at the beginning, middle, or end of a word. There are, however, two important exceptions. When used as grammatical particles, the following kana take on special pronunciations: "
is pronounced wa not ha when used as a topic particle.
"
is pronounced e not he when used as a direction particle meaning “to” or “toward”.
!
See the “Japanese Particles” section for more info.
Japanese “Recycles” Lots of Kana As any good citizen knows, we should do our best to reduce, reuse, and recycle. To fulfill its civic duty, Japanese greatly reduces the number of potential kana you need to learn by recycling a small set of basic symbols to represent a much larger number of sounds. The key to this linguistic efficiency is the use of little double slash marks called dakuten (, “voiced marks”). As the name implies, these diacritic marks transform each of the “voiceless” sounds in Japanese into their “voiced” counterparts. Here are a few examples (note that the only difference between the kana on the left and right is the dakuten in the upper-right corner): "
ka = " ga =
"
sa = " za =
"
ta = " da =
Just think: without these little marks, you would have to learn dozens of additional kana symbols. Thank you dakuten!
Japanese Presents Few New Sounds to English Speakers The vast majority of Japanese sounds have direct (or at least very similar) equivalents in English. This is great news for the Japanese learner, but tough times for Japanese learners of English. Consider yourself lucky! You’ve already mastered English’s notorious ‘l’ and ‘r’ distinctions, for example, and will never have 31
to endure the embarrassment of saying “erection” when you meant “election”! There are only two Japanese sounds you will likely struggle with in the beginning: "
"
The Japanese ‘r’ sounds: ra (), ri (), ru (), re (), and ro (). They sound somewhere between an ‘r’ and ‘d’, pronounced with a quick flip of the tongue somewhat like the rolled ‘r’ in Spanish. You can find a similar sound in American English buried in the middle of the word “water”. When sandwiched between vowels, we Yanks turn the poor little ‘t’ into what’s called a “flap”, which is precisely what the Japanese ‘r’ sound is, too. The Japanese ‘tsu’ sound (). We actually have a similar sound in English (the ‘ts’ in words like “rats”), but the difference is that we never pronounce such a sound at the beginning of syllables in English as they do in Japanese.
But worry not! Your ears and mouth will eventually get the hang of these sounds with enough listening and speaking practice. Just do your best to imitate native speakers, and make sure to record yourself to better gauge your pronunciation and monitor your progress over time. You may even want to use software like Audacity to see how the waveform of your speech compares to that of native speakers. As Peter Drucker said, “What get’s measured gets managed.” !
Download Audacity (Mac & Windows, free).
Japanese is Not a Tonal Language Unlike Mandarin, Cantonese, Vietnamese, Thai, etc., Japanese is not a tonal language. Hooray! The Japanese language does sometimes differentiate meaning using a high-low distinction called “pitch accent”, or koutei akusento ( ) in Japanese, but the good news is that you do not need to learn a specific tone for each and every syllable like you do in languages like Chinese. And in the fairly infrequent cases when pitch is used to distinguish meaning, the context will almost always do the heavy lifting for you. For example: Even though the word hashi can mean “chopsticks” (), “bridge” (), or “edge” () depending on the pitch accent (high-low, low-high, and flat in this case), you will know that somebody wants you to pass the “chopsticks” when at a restaurant, not a “bridge” or the “edge” of the table.
Knowing Kanji Allows You to Guess the Meaning of New Words Once you know the meaning of individual Chinese characters, you can often guess the meaning of compound words they combine to create. To do the same thing in English requires extensive knowledge of Latin, Greek, Germanic, and so on. My favorite example of this is the English word “homonym”. Unless you know the Greek etymology of this term (homo = “one and the same”, -%nym (-%nymos) “named”), it is all but impossible to dig out its meaning without the help of a dictionary. The Japanese equivalent dou-on-igi-go (, “same 32
sound different meaning word”), on the other hand, can be easily guessed at with just a modicum of Japanese knowledge.
Phonetic Patterns Allow You to Guess the Pronunciation of New Kanji Contrary to popular belief, most Chinese characters are not pictographs. The vast majority are in fact “pictophonetic” compounds comprised of two chunks: a “phonetic indicator” that points to the character’s pronunciation, and a “semantic indicator” relating to its meaning. This may sound complex, but is actually very good news for language learners! Learning the most common phonetic and semantic chunks (or “radicals”) enables you to make educated guesses the all pronunciation and kanji meaning of new characters. For about example, of the following share the same phonetic chunk, (“craft”). It is pronounced kou (), and lo and behold, each of the following kanji it contains are all pronounced kou: "
(“crimson”)
"
(“rainbow”)
"
(“creek”)
"
(“aggression”)
"
(“achievement”)
Chances are good that if you come across a new kanji that includes the phonetic chunk, it too will be pronounced kou.
Myth: Japanese is Vague We can thank the Japanese themselves for the myth that “Japanese is a vague language”. This misconception is well exemplified in an NPR interview with a member of the Tokyo String Quartet who claimed that English allowed him and other Japanese members of the ensemble to communicate more effectively than in Japanese (they began speaking in English once a non-Japanese member joined the group). As Dr. Jay Rubin points out in Making Sense of Japanese, the perceived difference in communication ease is a matter of culture, not linguistics: “While he no doubt believes this, he is wrong. The Japanese language can express anything it needs to, but Japanese social norms often require people to express themselves indirectly or incompletely.” !Jay Rubin, Making Sense of Japanese
Directness in communication is usually frowned upon in Japanese culture, while it is often the primary goal in most English speaking countries (except among politicians and lawyers of course, but they’re just meat popsicles in suits). Anyone who has lived in Japan or done business with a Japanese company knows that this difference in communication style can be a major source of frustration and cross-cultural miscommunication. As things go, it’s usually the cultural—not linguistic—barriers that cause 33
tempers to flair, negotiations to break down, and relationships to fail. So as you learn to speak, read, and write Japanese, make sure to give just as much attention to the “language” left out of the conversation and off the page. Realize that few Japanese people will ever say “No” outright, opting instead for statements like “It’s under consideration”, “I’ll give it some thought”, or “It’s difficult at this time”. Know that when someone says “Chotto…” (, “a little”) and then breathes in through their teeth as they as they rub the back of their head, that they are expressing apprehension or disapproval but are culturally forbidden to say what exactly they are “a little” (or likely, “very”) unsure about.
French Fries were not invented in France. Sweetmeats are confectionery, while sweetbreads, which are not sweet, are meat. And why is it that a writer writes, but fingers do not fing, humdingers do not hum, and hammers don't ham. If the plural of tooth is teeth, shouldn't the plural of booth be beeth?” !Richard Lederer, Crazy English: The Ultimate Joy Ride through Our Language
While it is perfectly natural to compare and contrast Japanese with English, try to avoid making value judgements about the two languages. Human languages are the way they are; why they are that way is an interesting question for historical and comparative linguists, but has little to do with language learning. !
For more English quirks, check out Benny’s reading of “The Chaos”.
Myth: Japanese is Illogical Given its ethnocentric undertones, I have little patience for this argument. It makes the false assumption that English is somehow more intuitive or well-structured by comparison, when in fact, no natural languages are “logical” per se (aside from purposefully designed languages like Esperanto). As languages evolve organically over great expanses of time, they inevitably take on illogical quirks and inconsistent patterns. English is no exception: “There is no egg in eggplant, and you will find neither pine nor apple in a pineapple. Hamburgers are not made from ham, English muffins were not invented in England, and
Myth: It Will Take You Decades to Learn Japanese Yes, it is going to take you quite a bit of time to learn Japanese, or any foreign language for that matter. But by “quite a bit” I mean thousands of hours, not decades. That said, if you only study Japanese in a traditional classroom setting, live in an English speaking bubble even within Japan, and believe that Japanese is a “difficult” language, it may very well take you ten years to learn the language, if not many decades more!
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Section 2
Set “Smart” Goals
"
Landing a job that requires Japanese ability.
"
Being able to understand Japanese films without subtitles.
"
Reading a Japanese novel cover to cover.
These are all noble goals to have, but in their current form, they aren’t very useful. Why? Because they are too massive to act upon. As The Cat taught us in Alice in Wonderland, it doesn’t matter which direction you go if you don’t have a destination in mind:
To have any chance of success, we need to get “smart” about how we create and execute our goals.
Alice: “Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?” The Cat: “That depends a good deal on where you want to get to.”
What are S.M.A.R.T. Goals? “S.M.A.R.T.” is a useful acronym meaning: S pecific
M easurable
A ttainable
R elevant
T ime-Bound
Alice: “I don't much care where.”
To get a better idea of what S.M.A.R.T. goals look like, let’s first look at an example of a goal that is not very “smart”: The Cat: “Then it doesn't much matter which way you go.” “I want to speak perfect Japanese.”
Unlike Alice, you likely have a “destination” you’d like to reach in your Japanese journey, may it be: "
Attaining a particular level of fluency.
This “goal” is doomed to failure because it doesn’t meet any of the “S.M.A.R.T.” goal criteria: 35
It’s Not Specific
It’s Not Measurable
What does “perfection” mean anyway?
Not only are “perfection” and “fluency” difficult to define, but they’re also notoriously tricky to measure. Sure, you can use standardized tests like the JLPT to give you a rough idea of your level, but such exams are better at measuring your test taking ability than your actual capacity to use the language day to day. That said, the looming date of an upcoming exam can at least make your study goals “time-bound”, adding urgency and fuel to the motivation fire.
Consider that even native speakers sometimes struggle: "
We stumble over our words.
"
We have a hard time remembering that word hiding on the tip of our tongue.
"
We confuse the meaning of similar, uncommon terms.
"
We forget how to spell things.
All normal. Moreover, languages are constantly changing. Every generation that learns a language changes it in small ways. What is considered “correct” or “proper” in one generation, might sound old-fashioned, racist, or ungrammatical in the next. Okay, so maybe you change your goal to “fluency”. Sorry, that’s still not a specific goal: "
Do you mean oral fluency or literacy?
"
Fluency in a wide range of topics or just for your specific professional needs and personal interests?
It’s Not Attainable If something can’t even be defined or measured, how then can you ever attain it?
It’s Not Relevant “Fluency” is so large and vague that it has little impact on the day to day activities required to improve your communicative abilities in Japanese.
It’s Not Time-Bound There is no finish line in languages. Even native speakers continually expand their vocabularies and refine their communication skills, so “fluency” is not a time-bound goal.
36
How to Create S.M.A.R.T. Goals To create your S.M.A.R.T. goals, start big and work your way down to the smallest actionable steps. If you bought the Complete Package, make sure to print out the S.M.A.R.T. Goals worksheet.
Step 3: List Daily Actions & Next Steps Lastly, identify the specific next steps and daily actions required to reach each of these sub-goals. It doesn’t matter how small or obvious these steps may be; write them all down regardless. The smaller the chunks you create for yourself here, the easier it will be to take action day in and day out. "
What do you have to do each day to hit your monthly targets?
Step 1: List Your “Big” Goals Example: Learn 25 Chinese characters every day.
Take a 30,000-foot view of your Japanese mission and write down the primary objectives you’d like achieve in a pre-defined time frame (I recommend 3 months to 1toyear).
"
Example: Buy “Remembering the Kanji”.
Example: Know the meaning & writing of all 2,136 jouyou kanji in 3 months.
Step 2: Identify Sub-Goals Now look at the big goals you’ve written down and figure out what sub-goals are required to reach them in the allotted time. Example: Learn 712 characters a month.
What tools or materials do you need to acquire?
Make sure to finish these three steps before moving on to the next page. Seriously; don’t put this off. Grab a cup of coffee, get out a piece of paper or print out my S.M.A.R.T. Goals worksheet, and identify exactly what you want to achieve and exactly how you’re going to achieve it.
Done? Great! No? Stop reading and go get ‘er done!
37
Section 3
Stick to Your Goals
Maximize Action & Willpower by Minimizing Choices Too Many Choices Leads to Paralysis
You should now have some specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound goals to guide you along on your Japanese journey. Now comes the day hardinpart: actually sticking to them and day out. The excitement of undertaking a new language is usually enough to keep us on track in the beginning, but our initial enthusiasm inevitably wains over time. When that happens, it’s time to enlist some powerful tools we have for shaping behavior and ensuring action: "
Strengthening & conserving willpower
"
Changing & building habits
"
Increasing the sense of urgency
"
Setting stakes
Most of us have been raised to believe that choice is good. Choice is freedom. Choice increases happiness. One small problem: it’s a myth. Whilesome choice is obviously better than no choice, studies have shown that too many options actually decrease happiness and productivity. “[Choice] produces paralysis, rather than liberation. With so many options to choose from, people find it very difficult to choose at all.” !Barry Schwartz, The Paradox of Choice
Ever-Increasing Choices Lead to Ever-Higher Expectations When we’re given nearly infinite choices, we start to expect perfection and are inevitably disappointed with the “imperfect” reality we encounter. This problem can be especially pronounced when selecting Japanese learning tools and materials. Given how many choices the modern learner has, it can be hard to know where to begin, and in the end, many never even get started. Don’t let yourself fall into this trap of perfectionistic inaction. Though I recommend using materials that fit your interests and needs, don’t let non-ideal content stop you from learning. 38
Every Choice Depletes Willpower “Willpower isn’t just a skill. It’s a muscle, like the muscles in your arms or legs, and it gets tired as it works harder, so there’s less power left over for other things.” !Mark Muraven, Professor of Psychology, University at Albany
Every decision you make taps your precious willpower reserves; a phenomenon called “ego depletion”. The more self-control required (e.g. deciding to stick your hand into a bag of carrots instead of the cookie jar), the more willpower you deplete. But even seemingly insignificant choices (like which brand of dish soap to buy) can lead to ego depletion, especially if you pile up a whole bunch of tiny choices back to back. Ever wonder why you feel so exhausted after shopping for groceries? Yup, it’s largely because of the ego depletion caused by making hundreds, if not thousands, of tiny purchase decisions. Present yourself with too many choices throughout the day (big or small), and by the end of the day, you’ll find yourself with: "
An empty willpower tank.
"
A mouth full of chocolate chip cookies.
"
Zero motivation to study Japanese.
So how can we minimize choices throughout our day and maximize our willpower to study Japanese?
Don’t Make Learning Japanese a Constant Choice Instead of fighting to choose between Japanese and English, make Japanese your only option available: "
Change your device display language to Japanese.
"
Fill your devices with Japanese music, podcasts, and videos.
"
Stock only Japanese magazines in the bathroom.
"
Stack Japanese DVDs next to the TV.
!
See “Chapter 4: Build Your Toolbox”.
Stop Shopping in Stores Instead of fighting crowds and taxing your precious willpower reserves to buy toilet paper and veggies, try the following instead: "
Set up subscriptions for essential household items through Amazon.
!
Set up Amazon “Subscribe & Save”.
"
Join a local CSA (Community Supported Agriculture) program and have a box of fresh, local, organic produce delivered right to your doorstep each week.
!
Find a CSA farm near your.
39
Make Japanese Study a Habit An even better strategy is to avoid choice and willpower altogether by making Japanese study a habit.
"
notification on screen, or badge count on the app icon. "
Routine. Check email, text messages, or social media.
"
Reward. Distraction, increased sense of self-importance or
"
Craving. Anticipation of how seeing new messages, updates,
belonging.
Create Positive “Habit Loops” To transform a desired behavior into a robust habit, you must first create a “habit loop”. What’s a habit loop you ask? Let’s look at two real life examples: relentless email checking and uncontrolled doughnut munching. “When a computer chimes or a smartphone vibrates with a new message, the brain starts anticipating the momentary distraction that opening an email provides. That expectation, if unsatisfied, can build until a meeting is filled with antsy executives checking their buzzing BlackBerrys under the table, even if they know it’s probably only their latest fantasy football results. (On the other hand, if someone disables the buzzing—and, thus, removes the cue —people can work for hours without thinking to check their in-boxes.)” !Charles Duhigg, The Power of Habit
Most of us check email and social media updates hundreds of times throughout the day. Without thinking, we reach for our phone or click over to Gmail because it’s become a habit, complete with its own “habit loop” consisting of:
Cue. Chime sound, vibration in your pocket, new message
likes, etc. will make us feel. For many, the same goes for raiding the doughnut box at the office despite our best intentions to avoid it: “There is nothing programmed into our brains that makes us see a box of doughnuts and automatically want a sugary treat. But once our brain learns that a doughnut box contains yummy sugar and other carbohydrates, it will start anticipating the sugar high. Our brains will push us toward the box. Then, if we don’t eat the doughnut, we’ll feel disappointed.” !Wolfram Schultz, professor of Neuroscience, University of Cambridge "
Cue. Seeing or smelling the doughnuts.
"
Routine. Stuffing bear claws into our face hole.
"
Reward. A happy tongue and temporary energy boost.
"
Craving. Anticipation of the sweet goodness and the
subsequent sugar high. 40
Okay, so all that makes sense for email and doughnuts. But how can we apply habit loops to learning Japanese? First of all, you will need to determine what specific behaviors you want to transform into habits (review your S.M.A.R.T. goals for a moment if necessary.) Let’s use the example again of learning the meaning and writing of all 2,136 jouyou kanji in 3 months: "
Cue. Flashcards placed on the nightstand.
"
Routine. Study 25 new cards & review any previously studied
cards you haven’t mastered yet. "
We each have a few habits that seem to change everything for the better or worse. For me, it’s eating right, walking, and weight lifting. If I do these three things throughout the week, everything else in my life (including language learning) seems to fall into place on its own. But if just one “bad domino” falls (e.g. eating things I know I shouldn’t), all hell breaks loose and I end up eating more junk, skipping workouts, and failing to put in my study time. Spend some time in deep, honest self-reflection and ask yourself: "
Reward. The buzz from now knowing some
Chinese characters that were completely unknown yesterday. For added “buzz”: 1 glass of Peachy Canyon’s “Incredible Red” Zinfandel.
"
Leverage Keystone Habits
What 3 positive behaviors tend to have the biggest effect on my overall productivity and happiness? How can I maximize these?
"
What 3 negative behaviors tend to push me off the path? How can I avoid these?
Craving. Anticipation for feeling good when
you master new information and raise your blood alcohol level slightly. The craving component, whether psychological or physical, is the key to keeping your habit loops spinning round and round. Don’t skimp: choose a reward that genuinely makes you feel good. Your Japanese depends on it!
“When people start habitually exercising, even as infrequently as once a week, they start changing other, unrelated patterns in their lives, often unknowingly. Typically, people who exercise start eating better and becoming more productive at work. They smoke less and show more patience with colleagues and family. They use their credit cards less frequently and say they feel less stressed. It’s not completely clear why. But for many people, exercise is a keystone habit that triggers widespread change.” !Charles Duhigg, The Power of Habit 41
Use a Habit Tracking App A number of good habit tracker apps are available today that allow you to easily chart your daily progress. The more check marks you see in a row on the app’s calendar, the more motivated you’ll be to stay the course and not break your streak. The Lift app is especially good for building habits and increasing motivation since it incorporates a community aspect and the ability to compete with friends, but there are plenty of other good habit tracking apps worth checking out.
Or why not a longer period like 6 months or a year? There are three key advantages to this length of time: "
It’s enough time to see tangible progress but not so long that you never begin out of fear of long-term commitment.
"
Many experts believe this is the minimum time required to create new habits.
"
It’s a short enough period to leverage “Parkinson’s Law” (the extra juice you get from an imminent deadline).
“You’re 50% more likely to succeed in your goal if you know !
at least one other person doing it.” !
Lift for iOS (free).
!
Lift for Android (free).
!
Habit List (iOS, $1.99)
!
Chains.cc (iOS, $1.99)
!
iPro Habit Tracker (Android, free)
Lift
Start a 21-Day Challenge 21-day challenges have become all the rage in recent years. But they’re popular for a good reason: they lead to immediate action and can kickstart long-term change. But why 21 days and not 7?
Set Financial & Social Stakes Putting your money and reputation on the line is one of the most effective ways to build urgency and ensure that you stick to your study routines no matter what.
Stickk.com Developed by Yale economists, StickK uses the power of “commitment contracts”. The process is simple but highly effective: "
You set a goal and specific stakes (e.g. how much money you must pay to whom if you fail).
"
You designate a referee (the person who will confirm your success or failure). 42
"
You make the goal and stakes public or keep them between just you and the referee.
“People who put stakes—either their money or their reputation—on the table are far more likely to actually achieve a goal they set for themselves.” !StickK
I especially like their use of “anti-charities”: instead of promising money to a friend or a cause you support (which can subconsciously encourage you to fail), Stickk makes it possible to designate a despised organization as the recipient of your money should you not reach your goal. Examples include: "
Americans United for Life
"
NARAL Pro-Choice America Foundation
"
Freedom to Marry
"
Institute for Marriage and Public Policy
"
Educational Fund to Stop Gun Violence
"
NRA Foundation
“Are you a proponent of gun control? Then make the National Rifle Association Foundation your recipient, and know that your failure is serving to defend the right to bear arms! The less you believe in the cause, the harder you’ll
work to succeed at your goal! In this case, you know exactly to which cause your money went.” !
Sign up for Stickk
Beeminder If you are the tech savvy type who wants more detailed goal tracking stats, Beeminder is a good alternative with the same “stick and carrot” benefits found on StickK.com. The primary feature of Beeminder is the “Yellow Brick Road”, a colorful graph that shows your progress over time. If your progress dots stay happily on the road, Beeminder remains free, and you continue making progress toward your goals. But if you get lazy and veer off the road, financial consequences ensue. “Beeminder is Quantified Self plus Commitment contracts. Keep all your datapoints on a Yellow Brick Road to your goal or we take your money. The combination is powerful. We call it flexible self-control.” !
Sign up for Beeminder.
!
Download the Beeminder app for iOS (free).
!
Download the Beeminder app for Android (free).
43
Utilize the Power of Public Accountability One of the best ways to stay motivated and keep Japanese first and foremost in your life is to use the power of public accountability. You can do this using the social stakes we discussed above, or using one of the following strategies.
Q: “Did you read one Japanese article today?
A: “Not yet.”
Schedule Daily Progress Check-Ins with a Trusted Friend
You get the picture. Just be honest with them (and yourself) about which goals you have completed. Remember: this is for your benefit.
Find someone you can trust to follow through day in and day out (a loved one, friend, colleague, etc.). Their job will be to:
Start a Japanese-Specific Blog
"
Call at aclock specific each day (preferably the same timeyou so the cantime act as a “cue” for the habit). "
Ask you about how you did on each of your S.M.A.R.T. goals.
That’s it! There should be no judgement or criticism. The power of this technique rests not on the fear of negative feedback but the socially-oriented motivation to look good in front of others. You can chitchat after you run through the list, but make sure to actually go through one by one. For example: Q: “Did you listen to two Japanese podcasts today?”
Blogs are a great way to keep track of your progress, share small wins, vent frustrations, and pose questions to other learners who are further along in their Japanese journey. Commit to posting something at least once a week, but everyday is best. Knowing that you will have to share what you’ve accomplished that day, you will be more motivated to do something worth sharing. !
Set up a free Wordpress blog.
!
Set up a free Tumblr blog.
!
Set up a free Ghost blog.
A: “Yes.” 44
Post Your Progress on Social Media While social media lacks some of the flexibility and control afforded by your personal blog (and can be a major time vampire if not managed properly), it can add yet another layer of public accountability. !
Sign up for a Twitter account.
!
Sign up for a Facebook account.
!
Sign up for a Google+ account.
Display Your Goals Everywhere Posting your goals around your home and workplace provides you a constant reminder of what you want most, and also lets others in on your objectives (which furthers the power of public accountability).
Hack Your Psychology Lastly, here are a few simple psychological tricks you can use to help keep you on target no matter what obstacles life throws your way.
Visualize Yourself Running the Race, Not Just Crossing the Finish Line Studies have shown that just visualizing where you want to end up is not particularly effective. At a subconscious level, such an exercise tells your brain, “We already got there. No need to work so hard”. To avoid this psychological misstep, it is important to visualize yourself doing all the various daily tasks that will lead to your end goals. When you wake up each morning, quickly run through the day to come in your head: "
See yourself reading a Japanese comic book during lunch instead of checking Facebook.
"
Watch as you take out your iPod on the bus, stick the earbuds in, and press play on a Japanese podcast.
"
Look in over your own shoulder as you open up the Skype app to call your Japanese tutor during lunch.
Suggested reminder locations include: "
On or above your desk at home and work.
"
On the fridge, bathroom mirror, and front door.
"
As your computer desktop background or screensaver.
45
Set Reminders To help keep you on track, set daily (or even hourly) reminders on your smartphone or computer. When it rings, ask yourself: “Am I sticking to my learning goals or slacking off?”
You can simply set a recurring alarm using the built-in alarm clock on your device, or you can use the reminder features in the Lift, Habit List, or iPro Habit Tracker apps.
Zeigarnik Effect”, named after Soviet psychologist and psychiatrist Bluma Wulfovna Zeigarnik (1901-1988). So on those days when you really don't feel like doing Anki reps, cracking a book, firing up Skype, or listening to a podcast, try the following: "
Choose the easiest possible language learning task.
"
Commit to spending just one minute on that task.
"
Use your brain's distaste for unfinished tasks to keep you going.
Don’t Skip Days While missing one day of Japanese won’t be the end of the world, beware that this puts you on a very slippery, snow covered slope aimed straight toward Lazy Valley.You have probably noticed that when you skip the gym one day, you are that much more likely to skip the next day, too. The same goes for language study.
“What the Zeigarnik effect teaches is that one weapon for beating procrastination is starting somewhere…anywhere. Don’t start with the hardest bit, try something easy first. If you can just get under way with any part of a project, then the rest will tend to follow. Once you’ve made a start, however trivial, there’s something drawing you on to the end. It will niggle away in the back of your mind like a Lost cliffhanger.” !The Zeigarnik Effect, PsyBlog
Just Start When you are feeling lazy and unmotivated, force yourself to just start on any Japanese learning task, however small. Once you get going, you are likely to carry on until the task is complete since our brains don’t like the tension created by unfinished tasks. This interesting phenomenon is referred to as “The 46
Section 4
Make the Time Schedule Japanese Time FIRST Big Rocks vs. Small Pebbles Don’t wait for convenient chunks of time to study Japanese; they won’t come. Instead, you will probably get “bogged down in the thick of thin things” as Stephen R. Covey puts it, going days, weeks, or even months without making any progress in the language. Covey drives the point home in his famous “big rock” demonstration. He first reveals a large glass container, a metaphor for our life he tells us. He then pulls out a big bag of little pebbles and fills up the container nearly to the top: “This is analogous to all the small things that fill up our lives. Little by little they just accumulate.”
Next to the bucket, he has laid out a number of big rocks, each labelled with an important element of a happy, healthy, productive
life. He then asks a volunteer to try and add in as many of the rocks as possible into the nearly full container. The first rock she shoves in is titled Planning, Preparation, Prevention & Empowerment. She then works in a rock that says Relationships & Family. She manages to push in Employment and Major Projects by moving the gravel around. She struggles to fit in Service, Community & Church , even rolling up the sleeves on her suit jacket as she moves around the other rocks in a futile attempt to make more space. She picks up Sharpen the Saw but immediately puts it back on the table as there is obviously no room left for any more rocks. Covey quips: “She just put down ‘Sharpen the Saw’. How many frequently do that? ‘I just don’t have time today to sharpen the saw.’ You ever been too busy driving to take time to get gas?”
Covey then takes survey of all the rocks still on the table. Urgent & Important and Vacation are among the many that don’t make it into the “Life Bucket”. He then gets down to the hat trick: “I’ll tell you what you can do if you want to. You can work out of a different paradigm altogether.”
The volunteer then moves to a second empty glass container, opting this time to put in the big rocks first. Every last one fits in 47
with room to spare. What’s more, she manages to pour in the entire amount of small pebbles, too! The lesson is clear. Schedule the most important things first lest they get crowded out by thousands of less critical tasks. !
Read Covey’s book “First Things First”.
Schedule Study Time on Your Calendar Each Week One way to put Japanese first is literally scheduling it on your calendar like you would meetings and appointments. This approach works hand in hand with your personal study plan, helping you plan not only when you will study, but alsowhat. Knowing both the whens and whats of language study provides a number of advantages: "
It helps you create structured repetition for specific materials, vocabulary, and structures.
"
It helps ensure that you are continually adding new materials instead of just repeating the same content over and over.
"
It helps you identify gaps in your language skills. Looking at your weekly study plan, you may notice for example that you are spending a lot of time reading instead of speaking. If you bought the Complete Package, make sure to print out the Study Plan worksheet.
Apply the 80-20 Rule The 80-20 Rule, also known as “The Pareto Principle”, posits that 80% of effects are caused by just 20% of causes. The principle is named after Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto, who noticed in the early 1900s that 80% of Italy’s land was held by only 20% of its population, a notion he then took from real-estate to the backyard, showing that 80% of the peas in his garden were produced by just 20% of the pea pods! So what does this have to do with learning Japanese you ask? Simple: the 80-20 Rule can be applied in our personal and professional lives to eliminate low-yield activities, prioritize highyield activities, and free up significant time for learning Japanese: "
Take out a sheet of paper and write down all the daily, weekly and monthly tasks you can think of, including work, chores, play, exercise, and study. Nothing is sacred.
"
Next, scan the list and determine which tasks lead to the greatest, most perceivable pay-offs. These are the “big rocks” that you should prioritize.
"
Lastly, determine which tasks account for the least benefit or the greatest misery. Avoid these tasks like the Plague. Not 48
only are they making your life miserable, but they are also getting in the way of learning Japanese.
Batch Repetitive Tasks “There is an inescapable setup time for all tasks, large or minuscule in scale. It is often the same for one as it is for a hundred. There is a psychological switching of gears that can require up to 45 minutes to resume a major task that has been interrupted. More than a quarter of each 9–5 period (28%) is consumed by such interruptions.” !Tim Ferriss, The 4-Hour Workweek
Once you’ve eliminated unproductive tasks from your life with a detailed 80-20 analysis, the next step is to group together any remaining “time vampires” that can’t be avoided lest you lose customers, your job, or your significant other. The most likely offenders are email, social media, and phone calls, all of which can be powerful tools for communication if managed properly, or powerful weapons of mass distraction if handled carelessly. Checking your email incessantly throughout the day is not only a waste of time in and of itself, but also zaps your focus on other tasks as Jonathan B. Spira and Joshua B. Feintuch share in their white paper,The Cost of Not Paying
Attention: How Interruptions Impact Knowledge Worker Productivity. !
Download the free “The Cost of Not Paying Attention” whitepaper.
The solution is to “batch” repetitive tasks like email together at specified times (e.g. at 11 am and 4 pm), and then go through a larger chunk all at once. This is far more efficient than checking and answering emails as they come, and allows you to focus much more deeply on high impact tasks.
Limit Distractions Many of us think that we are good multitaskers, but it turns out that we are neurologically incapable of doing more than one thing at a time. When we think we are “multitasking”, we are in fact just quickly switching back and forth between multiple tasks. Doing so is extremely taxing to our brains, and leads us to do all the tasks less well than if they had been completed in isolation. To get the most out of your Japanese study time, therefore, make sure to eliminate all distractions and focus on only one single learning task at a time.
49
Prevent “Webrocrastination” The most insidious distractions of the modern world are aimless web surfing, Netflix, Hulu, email, and social media. To help ensure that none of these can pull you away from your Japanese studies, make sure to turn off new message notifications and install software on your Mac or PC that automatically blocks access to specific sites (e.g. Netflix, Facebook, Gmail, etc.) or all Internet access for a predefined period of time. !
Download the Freedom app for Mac, PC, or Android.
!
Install the LeechBlock Firefox add-on.
!
Download SelfControl for Mac.
Close the Door If there is a door to your learning area, close it. Put up a sign if need be telling your children, spouse, significant other, friends, roommates, or your evil stepmother that you are busy plotting world domination and wish not to be disturbed.
Turn Off Your Phone Completely powering off is best, but if you put it on silent, make sure to place it out of your field of vision so the blinking light of
incoming calls or texts cannot distract you. While you’re at it, turn off your email program or at least disable new message notifications.
No TV Seriously, turn off the damn television! That means Netflix and Hulu, too. The only exception to this rule is if you will be watching Japanese programs as part of your learning.
No Music with Words Any language input willbandwidth”. automatically your brain’ s attention and eat up “cognitive Thegrab exception to this rule is if you are specifically studying the lyrics of a Japanese song.
Minimal White Noise According to Mark Andrews, a physiology professor at Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine, even white noise can cause stress and negatively affect one’s ability to learn: “Stress resulting from ongoing white noise can induce the release of cortisol, a hormone that helps to restore homeostasis in the body after a bad experience. Excess cortisol impairs function in the prefrontal cortex—an emotional learning center that helps to regulate ‘executive’ functions such as planning, reasoning and impulse control. 50
Some recent evidence indicates that the prefrontal cortex also stores short-term memories. Changes to this region, therefore, may disrupt a person’s capacity to think clearly and to retain information.”
Harness Hidden Moments Even the busiest person has small chunks of otherwise wasted time littered throughout the day that could be leveraged for language study:
for the elevator at the office, you finish three more cards. While on hold with customer service later in the day, you blast through another twenty cards. Such brief bursts may not seem like much at the time, but they can add up to quite a bit of time on task by the end of the day. “Harnessing your hidden moments, those otherwise meaningless scraps of time you’d never normally think of putting to practical use, and using them for language study —even if it’s no more than fifteen, ten, or five seconds at a time—can turn you into a triumphant tortoise.” !Barry Farber, How to Learn Any Language
" "
Waiting in line Waiting for the elevator
"
Waiting for a call to connect
"
Waiting on hold
"
Waiting for meetings to start
"
Commuting (especially if by bus, train, subway, etc.)
"
Walking
"
Shopping
"
Doing household chores
Perhaps you use the time waiting in line for your morning cup of joe to quickly flip through a dozen flashcards in Anki. Then waiting 51
Section 5
Learn the “Natural” Way “Language is not a cultural artifact that we learn the way we learn to tell time or how the federal government works. Language is a complex, specialized skill, which develops in the child spontaneously, without conscious effort or formal instruction, deployed without awareness of its underlying !Stephen Pinker, The Language Instinct logic…”
Work With, Not Against, The Way Your Brain Works In addition to walking upright, having opposable thumbs, and not eating bugs out of each other’s hair, modern humans have another major advantage over their primate brothers and sisters: the human brain. This evolutionary masterpiece allows us to experience, learn, store, and recall just about any information or concept we encounter, make connections between hitherto unconnected ideas, invent everything from the spork to the spark plug, and acquire one (or many!) human languages.
The Capacity to Learn Languages is Hardwired Humans have been acquiring languages for hundreds of thousands of years without any help from textbooks or grammar teachers. This is because the ability to acquire languages is hardwired into our genes. Members of some remaining hunter-gather societies speak dozens of languages despite having never set foot in a classroom or learning how to read and write. Anthropologists believe that such multilingualism was the norm, not the exception, through most of human history. Why do these hunter-gatherers succeed in language learning when so many people in industrialized cultures fail? The answer is simple: they spend almost all of their time communicating with other human beings in meaningful contexts, not memorizing extraneous information out of context. 52
Languages Are Acquired, Not Taught
“Declarative” vs “Procedural” Memory
Most learners mistake “studying” a language for actually “acquiring” a language. The two are very different beasts, which is one of the major reasons why most adult language learners fail despite years of effort: they spend all their time reading about Japanese instead of spending the requisite time in Japanese.
One of the key differences between language “study” and language “acquisition” is the type of memory developed in each.
This is like trying to learn how to drive by reading the car’s owner’s manual. Obviously not a good recipe for success. Or here is a metaphor using soccer if that hits closer to home:
"
Language study (especially formal, classroom-based learning) tends to create and reinforce “declarative memory”. "Language
acquisition (which only happens when you get sufficient input and active practice) forms and strengthens “procedural memory”. Dr. Victor Ferreira, a psychologist at the University of California, San Diego, has done some fascinating studies on procedural memory’s role in language, concluding that:
“Imagine me teaching you soccer through books. I insist you memorize the physics of each possible shot, over 1–2 years, before we get on the field. How will you do? Well, first, you’ll likely quit before you ever touch a ball. Second, when you get on the field, you’ll have to start from scratch, turning that paper knowledge into practical knowledge.” !Tim Ferriss, The 4-Hour Chef
I am not saying that language study is inherently bad or that book learning should be completely avoided, but it is important to understand its limitations and ensure that you get the real-world, human to human interaction your brain needs to internalize a language and reach conversational fluency.
“...the core knowledge underlying human syntactic ability— one of the most creative capacities known in nature, and one that is commonly thought to depend on advanced and flexible intelligent functioning—is shaped by a specialized system of basic memory mechanisms that are themselves found in even the simplest of organisms.”
If you bought the Complete Package, check out my interview with Dr. Victor Ferreira.
53
DECLARATIVE MEMORY
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
Conscious.
Unconscious.
Able to be put into words.
Not able to be put into words.
Stores explicit information.
Stores implicit knowledge.
Knowing THAT something is the case.
Knowing HOW to do something
Example: Knowing that your bike is 6061-T6 aluminum.
Example: Knowing how to ride your bike.
Example: Knowing that Japanese is SOV.
Example: Properly speaking in SOV order without thinking.
It’s important to note thatboth kinds of memory are involved in language acquisition, but most academic approaches focus almost entirely on declarative memory tasks, all but ignoring the activities required to build procedural memories. This is why you can emerge from ten years of formal language study unable to have even the most basic conversation with native speakers. Sure, you can rattle off a list of vocabulary words, but you can’t use the same words in context or understand them when spoken back to you because you have only worked out your declarative memory muscles. Your weak, flabby procedural muscles simply can’t keep up with the rapid-fire pace of natural speech.
Avoid the Grammar-Translation Method The “Grammar-Translation Method” is an academic approach to language learning which requires learners to translate written passages (usually word for word) based on consciously memorized grammatical rules and vocabulary lists. It is the epitome of declarative memory-centric study. The method was srcinally used for translating works written in Greek and Latin, but came to be applied to modern spoken languages as well. Critics of the method (including yours truly) believe grammartranslation to be a highly inefficient means for reaching oral fluency in a foreign language, as demonstrated by the vast percentage of language students who emerge from a decade of grammar-based instruction unable to speak the language well if at all. I am not advocating that you “ignore” grammar completely, just that it should not be the focus of your time with the language. The ability to understand and produce proper grammar comes more from exposure to the language than a conscious study of its form. 54
Rote Learning Ignores How the Brain Works
Avoid Rote Memorization Alongside grammar-translation, “rote memory” is the other hallmark of traditional language learning, used as the default approach by both Japanese learners of English and Western learners of Japanese. This tedious, cure-for-insomnia entails force-fed memorization of new words and kanji. The learner goes through a list of words, saying and writing each one hundreds of times, praying the whole time that the information somehow sticks. As you know, this approach tends to be about as ineffective as it is painful.
Rote Learning Does Not Lead to Long-Term Retention Despite being able to regurgitate some kanji you memorized last night on today’s test, you will probably find that by tomorrow, those same characters have pulled an Elvis and “left the building”.
Rote Learning is Demoralizing There are few things worse than spending hours studying and having nothing to show for all your cognitive sweat. With so much attention given to rote memory in traditional language learning, it’s no wonder so many do poorly, and many give up.
Our brains are like cranky, penny-pinching bosses who will only authorize spending on projects that they find important. It does not matter how important you think a given kanji is, or how hard you try to make it stick by writing it out on the page ad infinitum. Your brain has to believe it’s important before it will spend the neural resources needed for long-term retention.
Use “SMASHIN SCOPE” to Improve Memory Fortunately, our brains have very predictable priorities which can be deployed for more efficient and effective language learning. These memory principles can be easily remembered (pun intended) by the mnemonic “SMASHIN SCOPE”, detailed in “Master Your Memory” by Tony Buzan. !
Read “Master Your Memory” by Tony Buzan to learn more.
Synaesthesia We have multiple senses at our disposal: vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and kinesthesia (i.e. where your body is located in space and where it’s moving to). For maximum effect, deployall of these senses in language learning.
55
Movement
Imagination
When creating mnemonics (especially your RTK “imaginative memory” stories) try to imagine that people and objects are moving. Our brains evolved to detect even the slightest of movements, and even the imagined variety will help make information stick.
Adults actually have—or rather, should have—better imaginations than children given how much more experience we have to draw on. Try to bring back some of your childhood penchant for daydreaming, coupling it with your vastly larger adult experience.
Number Association We learn new information by attaching (and comparing) it to what we already know. Every life experience provides yet another foothold for future information and experiences. Try spending time with Japanese in different environments so that you have more sensory input and visual contexts to attach new information to.
Sexuality Our brains tune into sex-related stimuli like mosquitos to a porch light. Need I say more?
This relates to order and sequence below. By adding a number to information, it increases specificity and efficiency, and makes things more concrete and easier to recall.
Symbolism Replacing boring, every day, or intangible images with more exciting, rare, or concrete equivalents improves memory. Using readily identifiable symbols like light bulbs can also improve recall.
Color Humor As Buzan points out: “The more ridiculous, absurd, funny and surreal you make your images, the more outstandingly memorable they will be.”
We are hard-wired to be attracted to bright colors, hence why fast-food chains use them for their logos, signs, and food packaging. Use the same dirty tricks to make your mental imagery easier to recall.
56
Order & Sequence You’ve probably noticed that once you’re prompted with a word from a list you’ve previously studied but forgotten, you suddenly remember the words before and after the one in question. This phenomenon is really just “association” by another name, but it can be used to great success in language learning.
Utilize ALL of Your Intelligences Yes, you read that correctly: intelligences. The plural is not a typo. The theory of “multiple intelligences” was first proposed by American psychologist Howard Gardner in his 1983 book “Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences”. Although the
Positive Images Our brains like to remember the positive side of life, which is why we tend to recreate overly rosy versions of history once enough time has passed. “She was such a great girl! I can’t remember why we broke up...”. Use this tendency to your advantage by making happy, happy, joy, joy images whenever you can.
Exaggeration To help improve memory, exaggerate sizes, dimensions, and sounds in your mental imagery and stories: " " "
theory is not accepted by the entire educational community (what theory is?), it can be a very helpful tool in language learning. Gardner believes there as many as nine main kinds of intelligence: "
Verbal-linguistic
"
Interpersonal
Make small things extremely BIG.
"
Logical-mathematical
"
Intrapersonal
Make short things loooooong or TALL.
"
Visual-spatial
"
Naturalistic
Make quiet things L-O-U-D!
"
Bodily-kinesthetic
"
Existential
"
Musical 57
Each individual has some level of intelligence in all these areas, and no one intelligence is necessarily more important than another, though verbal-linguistic and logical-mathematical are usually given much more focus in traditional academics. Once you identify your strongest intelligences, you can then choose learning styles, subjects, and materials that best fit your natural abilities. !
Take Literacy Works’ survey to determine your strongest intelligences.
Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smarts) An individual with strong verbal-linguistic intelligence usually excels at reading, writing, story-telling, memorizing new vocabulary, translating, and learning foreign languages through more academic approaches. Whether intentional or not, most language textbooks are written by and for those with strong verbal-linguistic intelligence.
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Logic & Math Smarts) Someone with strong logical-mathematical intelligence will tend to have good reasoning abilities and be quick to solve math equations and detect patterns in data. Although languages are certainly not math equations, learners with a proclivity for logicalmathematical thinking can benefit from a more logical, grammatical approach to the language. If mathematics is your game, consider finding yourself a math textbook in Japanese.
Visual-Spatial Intelligence (Art Smarts) A visually/spatially inclined person can easily manipulate images on paper, in 3-D, or in their mind’s eye. If an individual also possesses strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, they will often excel at drawing, painting, and sculpting. Learning a Japanese art form or martial art ( in Japanese of course) would be a great way for those with strong visual-spacial intelligence to maximize their enjoyment and efficiency.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body Smarts) While most people would automatically assume bodily-kinesthetic intelligence implies being good at sports, this intelligence lends itself to any activity involving fine motor movement: dance, crafts, drawing, playing an instrument, and even foreign languages. Learners with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should incorporate movement as much as possible, including walking as they listen to podcasts, and finding a Japanese teacher who uses TPR (“Total Physical Response”). !
Learn more about TPR.
Musical Intelligence (Melody, Tone & Rhythm Smarts) You probably know one or two amazing individuals who can hear a tune once and then play it back on the piano. On the flip side, you probably know a few unlucky folks who scare away the family cat when trying to sing and can never seem to keep the beat 58
when clapping along to a song. The former group has strong musical intelligence while the latter is weak in this area. Learners with “music smarts” would benefit from studying the lyrics of Japanese songs as well as learning an instrument in Japanese.
Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smarts) An individual endowed with strong interpersonal intelligence is good at talking with people, and can pick up on subtle changes in mood that may be missed by others. Such folks often think out loud, and life has little texture unless they can interact with others. While all learners should seek out native speakers to practice with, doing so is especially important for those with people smarts.
Intrapersonal Intelligence (Self Smarts) Hardcore Matrix fans will remember that the Oracle had a placard in her kitchen reading: Temet Nosce, Latin for “Know Thyself.” People with high intrapersonal intelligence can more easily follow the Oracle’s advice: "
They are keenly aware of their emotional states, feelings, and motivations.
"
They enjoy self-reflection and analysis.
"
They are good at identifying personal strengths and weaknesses.
Maximize Input According to Krashen’s “Input Hypothesis”, a learner must be exposed to a great deal of meaningful input to acquire a language. For children, this input comes in the form of whatever spoken language they happen to hear from their parents and peers, while we adults can seek out listening and reading input from anywhere in the world.
Listening Input Advances in technology and media distribution make it easier than ever to download heaps of foreign language input and then carry it around with you wherever you go. In addition to traditional media like radio, television, and movies, there are also language learning CDs which can be ripped to your mobile device, and my favorite of all, audio and video podcasts. Most important, however, is listening to actual native speakers face to face.
Reading Input This is yet another area where adults beat the snot out of baby learners. Literate adults can read. And if you can already read in your first language, it will be much easier to learn how to read in a second. However, try to use reading input to augment, not replace, listening input. 59
Maximize Output The next key to successful adult language learning is output. This is one area in which I have changed my position somewhat as I have interviewed more and more researchers and successful language learners. Speaking soon and often has a number of advantages to the adult learner:
Output Builds Motivation to Keep Learning Human beings crave and feed off social interaction, and being able to communicate an idea, feeling, or request in Japanese (no matter how few words you happen to know), can be extremely gratifying. This creates a positive feedback loop that pushes you to keep learning more and more of the language.
Output Shows You Where Your Gaps Are As Steve Kaufmann likes to say, speaking and writing shows us what words and structures we have yet to internalize. When you struggle to produce a given word, phrase, or structure, you will certainly notice it the next time you are reading or listening to something, and take note of exactly how a native speaker would say what you’re trying to say. In this way, output can actually make your input tasks that much more efficient.
Break through the “Affective Filter” This complex sounding Krashen theory is actually quite intuitive: “Learners' ability to acquire language is constrained if they are experiencing negative emotions such as fear or embarrassment. At such times the affective filter is ‘up’.”
According to the theory (which I am inclined to promote to “law” status), the affective filter goes “up” when you are overtaken by negative emotions (boredom, stress, anger, etc.), creating a filter that both blocks newalready information in out. and preventing the language that’s in youfrom fromgetting getting When you are calm, collected, and confident, however, the affective filter goes “down”, making it much easier to communicate (use what you know) and learn new information (expand what you know). So how can we lower the affective filter? Many people use alcohol as a crutch, but as Benny the Irish Polyglot shows (who has learned plenty of different languages well without even a drop of Irish whiskey), there are myriad ways to lower inhibitions without the use of booze: !
Read Benny’s article “Does drinking help you speak a foreign language?”
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Be Brave & Accept That You’re Going to Make Lots of Mistakes “A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new.” !Albert Einstein
Be courageous. Accept that you are going to make mistakes, unintentionally say offensive things, mispronounce people’s names, butcher grammar, miswrite or mispronounce kanji, order the wrong food, and get on the wrong bus. Accept all these things, but go out and practice anyway no matter how few words, phrases, structures, or kanji you know. What you screw up today, you’ll probably get right tomorrow, especially if it proves extremely embarrassing. While nobody likes making a fool of themselves, nothing improves memory better than strong emotions. My favorite example of this comes from Tim Ferriss when he was trying to ask his Japanese host mother to wake him up the next morning:
someone to ‘rape you’ instead of ‘wake you’, as I did in Japanese (okashite kudasai vs. okoshite kudasai).”
Ignore Negative Criticism Even the most butchered Japanese phrases will usually be met with praise by Japanese native speakers (as most are raised to believe that Japanese is impossible to learn for non-native speakers), but you may occasionally encounter anal-retentive grammar mavens who criticize your imperfect language usage, telling you that you need to “study more” before using your Japanese in public. Ignore these jerk-faces, as they are often just projecting their own frustration with learning (or rather not learning) English as well as they would like despite years of effort and expense. Use whatever Japanese you happen to know right now, all the while refining your structures and word usage with the feedback you get from friends, conversation partners, and tutors. “If you wait until you don’t make any mistakes you will probably never speak.” !Benny Lewis
Practice Patience “I ALWAYS try. At the very least, it’s comedic relief, totally breaks the ice, and you can all have a laugh when you ask
Patience is one of the sharpest tools in the language learner’s toolbox, and this is perhaps more true in Japanese than any 61
language given the paramount importance of reserve, self-control, and emotional endurance in Japanese culture.
“We never did succeed in making those idiots understand their own language.”
Losing your patience with yourself or others while communicating will not only cause you and those around you to lose face, but it will increase the anxiety of both parties, making it even more difficult to understand and produce Japanese.
While I presume he is actually mocking his poor French language ability in typical Twain style, I have actually heard many foreigners in Japan say much the same thing in all seriousness. If a native Japanese speaker cannot understand what you are saying, which do you think is more likely: their Japanese is the problem, or yours?
If you start getting frustrated, just take three deep, conscious breaths (making sure that your belly expands, not just your chest). If done correctly, this will create a cascade of positive psychological and physiological effects that will put you at ease and help you better communicate. !
Read “Peace is Every Step” by Thich Nhat Hanh.
!
Use the Headspace app.
!
Use the Calm app.
Practice Humility
And for the love of all that’s holy, do not be one of the those self-righteous grammarians who points out supposed “mistakes” made by native speakers. As a proud member of the descriptive (as opposed to prescriptive) linguistics camp, I believe that if enough members of a language say something a certain way, it eventually becomes “correct” no matter what language teachers or textbooks may say. Why? Because languages are living, constantly changing beings. !
Download a free Kindle version of “The Innocents Abroad”.
!
For more on the prescriptive versus descriptive linguistics issue, read Steven Pinker’s Slate article, “False Fronts in the Language Wars”.
In The Innocents Abroad, Mark Twain humorously recounts the failed attempts by him and his fellow American travelers to communicate in French while in Paris: 62
Section 6
Learn Through Action Given the choice between a textbook and a traditional martial arts class, I’ll take the latter any day! Learning through action (especially a new physical skill or art form) is not only thoroughly enjoyable in and of itself, but it’s also an extremely effective way to acquire languages: " It forces you to get out of your head and focus on the task at hand. "
It requires two-way communication with other people.
"
It helps build strong procedural memories.
Learn a Japanese Martial Art If you’ve been wanting to learn a martial art but have yet to take the plunge, your mission to learn Japanese is the perfect excuse to get started. Learning martial arts is not just good for the body, but also your ability to defend it—and that of your family and friends—from harm. On top of that, learning a martial art in Japan (or from a Japanese speaker in your home country) is an excellent way to learn Japanese in context. !
Learn more about Japanese martial arts in this Wikipedia article.
Aikido Formalized by martial arts legend UESHIBA Morihei ( ) in the aftermath of World War II, aikidou ( , “The Way of Unifying Life Energy”) was created as a self-defense system to foster peace and minimize injury to both the practitioner and attacker. Aikidou is largely based on aiki juujutsu (), with both arts focusing on how to subdue attackers using throwing techniques and joint manipulations. !
Learn more about Aikido on Wikipedia.
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Judo
Kendo
Literally meaning “The Gentle Way” (), juudou involves the skilled use of throws and takedowns. While it still retains some of its martial efficacy, it is practiced now (at least by most) as a sport, not a martial art. !
Originally designed as a non-lethal way to practice sword-fighting, kendou (, “The Way of the Sword”), is now a full-
fledged martial art with ranks and competitions. !
Learn more about Kendo on Wikipedia.
Learn more about Judo on Wikipedia.
Sumo Jujutsu Despite using the characters for “gentle art”, juujustu ( ) is anything but “soft”. The core techniques of the martial developedand by had samurai for use when they lost their weaponartonwere the battlefield to face an armed opponent with nothing but their wits and martial skills. Note that the “jiujitsu” spelling refers to the Brazilian form of the art, popularized by the Gracie family. !
Learn more about Jujutsu on Wikipedia.
Considered by many to be the “national sport” of Japan, sumou () is one of the nation’s most iconic traditions. The objective of the sport is simple: either force the opposing rikishi (dohyou , “wrestler”)), to the of ( or leave touchthe thecircular groundring withcalled any part
their body other than their feet. !
Learn more about Sumo on Wikipedia.
!
Attend a sumo match.
Karate Originating in the Ryuukyuu Islands ( ), now called Okinawa (), karate ( , “Empty Hand”) is heavily influenced by Chinese fighting arts, which is why the word karate was srcinally written with the characters , meaning “Chinese Hand”. !
Learn more about Karate on Wikipedia. 64
Learn a Japanese Art Form “We’re all born artists. The challenge is to stay one as you grow up.” !Pablo Picasso
May it be pottery or samurai swords, Japanese artists bring an element of the divine into even the most mundane (or deadly!) object. Here are but a few of the many world-renowned Japanese art forms in alphabetical order:
Japanese Calligraphy In Japan, shodou (, “calligraphy”) is considered a fine art on par with painting. Learning Japanese calligraphy is an excellent way to reinforce your knowledge of Chinese characters (especially for those with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence). !
Learn more about Japanese calligraphy on Wikipedia.
!
Check the Kampo School of Calligraphy in Kyoto.
Japanese Cuisine While most wouldn’t consider food to be an art form, if you have ever been to a formal enkai (, “Japanese banquet”), you’ll know why it’s on the list.
Japanese Animation
!
Learn more about Japanese cuisine on Wikipedia.
Japanese animation, called anime (), represents one of the most expressive and varied forms of animation in the world. The art form is highly interrelated to its print counterpart, manga (), with many anime series having their start as comic books.
!
Check out cooking schools in Japan.
!
Learn more about Japanese anime on Wikipedia.
!
Check out the Japan Animation & Manga College in Niigata, Japan.
Japanese Flower Arranging Flower arranging may not be on your bucket list, but don’t write off ikebana () just yet. The Japanese art form, also known as kadou (), can actually be a very cathartic practice, even for the manliest of men... !
Learn more about Ikebana on Wikipedia.
!
Check out Ikebana classes offered by the Kampo Cultural Center. 65
Japanese Gardening & Landscaping
Japanese Music
Represented best by the quintessential Japanese rock garden, called karesansui (), Japanese landscaping tends to be very simple and austere, and that is just the point: to represent the “formless, infinite, and unspeakable” with finite gravel, stones, and shrubs.
From traditional instruments like the koto () and shamisen (), to modern J-Pop (
!
Learn more about Japanese gardens on Wikipedia.
!
The Research Center for Japanese Garden Art & Historical Heritage.
), Japan is home to a wonderfully eclectic mix of music types, most of which you can happily butcher in one of Japan’s ubiquitous karaoke boxes. !
Browse music schools in Japan.
Japanese Origami
Japanese Literature
Literally meaning “folding
Japan has produced some of the world’s most respected authors, including NATSUME Souseki ( ) and MURAKAMI Haruki ().
paper”, you’ve all seen the paper cranes most often associated with srcami ().
!
Learn more about Japanese literature on Wikipedia.
Japanese Manga Japanese comics, called manga (), are one of the reasons many Westerners get into Japanese. But even if you are not yet a manga fan, I highly recommend giving them a try as they are one of the world’s greatest language learning tools! !
Learn more about Japanese comics on Wikipedia.
!
Check out Nihon Kogakuin’s Manga & Animation Program.
But thanks to complex mathematical models (and their unusually high tolerance for paper cuts), srcami masters can go far beyond the realm of simple animals. !
Learn more about srcami on Wikipedia.
!
Watch Robert Lang’s TED Talk: “The Math & Magic of Origami”.
!
Watch a video about KAMIYA Satoshi ().
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Take srcami lessons at Tokyo’s Origami Kaikan.
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Japanese Painting
Japanese Pottery, Porcelain & Lacquerware
Representing one of Japan’s most prestigious art forms, Japanese painting, or kaiga (), is in many ways a microcosm of Japanese culture and history. Much like the culture of Japan, kaiga represents a mix of native Japanese ideas and influences from foreign lands.
Japanese toujiki (, “pottery and porcelain”) and shikki (, “lacquerware”) are highly regarded the
!
Check out programs available at Kyoto University of Art & Design.
Japanese Poetry We’ve all heard of haiku (), Japan’s unique poem style created lines of five syllables, seven syllables, five syllables, but with there3are many other Japanese poetry typesand worth investigating, including tanka () and kanshi ( ). A good place to start your Japanese poetry journey is with haiku poet MATSUO Bashou ( ), considered by many to be the “Shakespeare of Japan”. !
Learn more about Japanese poetry on Wikipedia.
!
Visit Tokyo’s Basho Memorial Museum.
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The Museum of Contemporary Japanese Poetry, Tanka and Haiku.
world over. Styles and specific techniques vary from region to region, which can make for great fun as you travel around the Japanese archipelago. But one thing remains constant throughout Japan: unparalleled craftsmanship and quality. And here’s an interesting fact you might not know: the sap used in Japanese lacquerware is poison to the touch until it has completely dried. !
Learn more about Japanese pottery on Wikipedia.
!
Check out classes at the Kashogama Pottery School in Kyoto.
Japanese Rakugo Combining comedy and the painful seiza position, rakugo ( ) is perhaps the most “Japanese” of all Japanese art forms. Being able to understand the complex, highly nuanced monologues of rakugo, and laughing right along with your fellow audience members, should be considered a major milestone in your Japanese studies. !
Learn more about rakugo on Wikipedia.
!
Watch some rakugo videos on YouTube.
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Japanese Swordsmithing
Japanese Theater
Traditional Japanese sword smithing is a sacred art, complete with a variety of Shinto rituals, fiercely guarded craft secrets, and long apprenticeships. A single sword takes many days or even weeks to construct, with myriad complex steps that must be completed perfectly to ensure the high level of craftsmanship, strength, and sharpness Japanese swords are known for.
There are two major styles of Japanese theater:
!
Learn more about Japanese swordsmithing on Wikipedia.
!
Watch some videos about Japanese swordsmithing on YouTube.
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Check out The Society for Preservation of Japanese Art Swords.
Japanese Tea Ceremony Until you experience a Japanese tea ceremony, calledchadou ( ), sadou (), or cha no yu ( ) firsthand, you cannot consider yourself a true Japanophile. And no, getting a matcha latte at Starbucks doesn’t count! !
Learn more about the Japanese tea ceremony on Wikipedia.
!
Check out this beautiful YouTube video.
"
nou (), usually
spelled Noh, and also known as nogaku ( ). "
kabuki ().
There is definitely a lot of overlap between the two (especially to the untrained eye and ear), but noh is considered “music drama” while kabuki is considered “dance drama”. Though in a different class from nou and kabuki, a third type of theater worth mentioning is bunraku (), a.k.a. ningyou joururi (), the various forms of Japanese puppetry. !
Learn more about Japanese theater on Wikipedia.
!
Check out Waseda University’s Japanese Theatre Studies program.
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Travel Around Japan Whether you plan to live in Japan long-term, or just visit for a short time, there is no better way to improve your understanding of both the Japanese culture and language than travel. And contrary to popular belief, travel is not an inherently expensive pastime reserved for the rich. With enough creativity and compromise, you can travel on even the most meager budget. Here are a few useful books, sites, and networks to help you get started:
Couchsurfing Boasting 9 million members in 120,000 cities around the world, the Couchsurfing “hospitality exchange network” offers cashstrapped travelers an affordable way to see the world, while also enabling them to give back to the community by hosting travelers in their own homes. Like any social network of its size, there are bound to be some bad apples, but their rating system does a pretty good job of weeding them out and highlighting the best hosts. To help build your own reputation on the site and ensure a wider pool of available lodging in Japan, I suggest offering up your own couch to community members while still in your home country. As Benny Lewis points out, this can actually be a great way to practice languages right in your home country. In exchange for offering up your guest bedroom, couch, or cot, you open up chances to speak with native Japanese speakers visiting your town. Time permitting, you can even act as their local tour guide, a highly effective, rewarding, context-rich form of language immersion. !
Sign up for a free Couchsurfing account.
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WWOOFING
“Vagabonding” by Rolf Potts
For you budding green thumbs out there, World Wide
Rolf Potts’ Vagabonding is one of my top 10 favorite books of all time. In his essential guide to long-term, low-cost, self-guided travel, he encapsulates in words what I have long felt but struggled to express to friends who have never traveled for extended periods of time or lived abroad.
Opportunities on Organic Farms (or
“WWOOF” for short) is a great way to travel the world on the cheap while also learning how to grow sustainable, organic crops, and making friends with other environmentally conscious travelers. !
Learn more about WWOOFING Japan.
Lonely Planet Site & Guidebooks In addition to their excellent guidebooks and phrasebooks, Lonely Planet offers massive quantities of useful travel information for free on their website. !
Read more about Japan travel on LonelyPlanet.com.
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Get a copy of the Lonely Planet Japan country guide.
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Get the Lonely Planet Japanese phrasebook & dictionary.
“Vagabonding is about using the prosperity and possibility of the information age to increase your personal options instead of your personal possessions. Vagabonding is about looking for adventure in normal life, and normal life within adventure. Vagabonding is an attitude—a friendly interest in people, places, and things that makes a person an explorer in the truest, most vivid sense of the word. Vagabonding is not a lifestyle, nor is it a trend. It’s just an uncommon way of looking at life—a value adjustment from which action naturally follows. And, as much as anything, vagabonding is about time—our only real commodity—and how we choose to use it.” !
Get “Vagabonding” as a print book, Kindle book, or audiobook.
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Teach English in Japan Teaching English is one of the easiest ways for native English speakers to obtain the income and legal status they need to live in Japan longterm. In addition to the financial incentives, teaching in Japan also provides: "
A valuable window into how languages work. You never truly
understand something until you have to teach it to others. "
An easy way to make friends. Many of my friendships in
Japan and Taiwan srcinated in the classroom. For this (and the next) reason, I recommend that you apply for positions teaching adults, not children. "
A path to better job opportunities. If you excel in your role as
Required Qualifications The only basic requirement to teach in Japan is a Bachelor’s degree (in any subject) from an accredited institution. It is certainly not required, but having a TESOL certificate will likely increase your employment options and improve both the quality and quantity of your classes. Note that teaching at a university usually requires a Master’s degree.
The JET Programme JET (short for the “Japan Exchange and Teaching Programme”) is the route I chose to get to Japan after graduating from college. There are very diverse opinions about the program, but I personally think it is well worth applying: the pay is decent, work loads are generally quite low, and there is a good support network. There are two main job types, which pay the same but entail entail significantly different types (and volumes) of work: "
ALTs. “Assistant Language Teachers” are placed in public
junior and senior high schools around Japan. Their duties range from human tape-recorders to outright teachers (depending on your teaching competence and relationship with the school’s teachers). The upside to being anALT is that you will probably have a fairly light workload, meaning more time to learn Japanese and enjoy Japan.
teacher, there is a chance that you will receive job offers from your students. These may take the form of lucrative private teaching gigs or even non-teaching positions in multinational corporations!
"
CIRs. “Coordinators of International Relations”, called kokusai kouryuu in () 71
in Japanese, are placed in prefectural government offices around Japan. Their duties include interpretation, translation, native checks (checking the translations of others), and advising ALTs in one’s prefecture. You can apply directly to be a CIR, or start out as an ALT and apply to be a CIR if an opening arises (as I did). !
Learn more about JET on Wikipedia.
!
Visit JET’s official homepage.
don’t be surprised if you land quite a few new students from random encounters. To that end, a good strategy is to practice English with a Japanese friend at a crowded coffee shop. If you look kind, you will likely be approached about private tutoring. Make sure to get some business cards made up with your name in both English and Japanese and a personal (non-work) email. !
Get business cards made at Moo.com.
Universities Private Language Schools The vast majority of teaching jobs in Japan are found at private language schools, including Japan’s infamous juku (, “cram schools”). Private school students range from high school students hoping to boost their college entrance scores, business people wanting to increase their chances of promotion, and housewives studying just for fun. Working conditions and pay vary significantly from school to school, and even branch to branch within the same company, so do some research before signing any contracts. !
The best place to start your job search is Dave’s ESL Café.
Private Tutoring One of the easiest ways to earn extra cash in Japan is tutoring private students. Your private students will probably come from personal introductions from Japanese friends or colleagues, but
Teaching positions at Japanese universities represent the cream of the education crop. Positions are few and competition is strong, but it’s worth a shot if you hold a master’s degree or doctorate. If you don’t yet have an MA or PhD, one potential strategy is to obtain your graduate degree at a Japanese university, and then apply for teaching positions at that school. In fact, many programs (e.g. Applied Linguistics or TEFL) will involve a teaching component as part of the degree requirements. !
Browse university job openings at JREC-IN.
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Check out listings on The Linguist List.
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Listen to episode 10 of the Gaijinpot podcast: “How to Get a University Teaching Job in Japan”.
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More Information About Teaching English Abroad Here are some useful resources for those wanting to learn more about teaching English abroad: !
“Teaching qualifications for travellers” from the Indie Travel Podcast
!
“Why teaching English is the perfect job for travel addicts” from the Indie Podcast
!
Here now are a few tools to help you search for available positions: !
Browse available jobs on Daijob by industry, location, Japanese ability, and position.
!
Browse jobs on Gaijinpot.
!
Browse jobs on Craigslist Japan.
GaijinPot: How to Get an English Teaching Job in Japan
Work for a Japanese Company in Your Home Country Find a Non-Teaching Job in Japan
If moving to Japan is not an option for you, perhaps you can find
Although teaching and translation are usually the default routes for Westerners wanting to work in Japan, there’s no need to limit your search to language related jobs if you have the requisite experience, skills, Japanese ability, and most importantly, connections:
work at a Japanese company in your home country “Gung Ho” style.
"
"
If you currently work for a multinational company, check and see if they have a branch office in Japan or offer international placements. If not, check out the company rankings and job listing tools below to find a good match.
Having Japanese colleagues means forty plus hours a week of potential Japanese language practice, and having strong Japanese language and cultural skills will greatly improve your chances of promotion. !
Learn more about international Japanese companies on Wikipedia.
!
Watch “Gung Ho” for a good laugh.
Teaching business English can be a great way to build strong relationships with executives and business owners who may later consider hiring you at their company.
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Section 7 7:30 am: Wake Up
Immerse Yourself
I take three deep, conscious breaths to start the day off right. I remind myself how excited I am to be learning Japanese, and how important learning the language is in my life. I then spend 10 minutes playing a kana game on my iPhone.
7:40 am: Shower
Maximize Exposure Throughout Your Day By popular request, here is a sample immersion schedule employing the tips, methods, and tools detailed in the guide. The schedule is based around a 9 to 5 job, but can be easily tweaked to fit any lifestyle or work schedule. Keep in mind that this schedule represents a best-case scenario where you use all possible opportunities to immerse yourself in Japanese. I don’t expect that a normal human being will do all these things every single day. Just try to do as much as you can most of the time, and you will be on the right track. All of the tools and resources mentioned in the schedule are detailed in Chapter 4: Build Your Toolbox.
Using the steamed-up shower door, I write out as many kana as I can from memory. If the mood takes me, I also sing lines from Japanese children’s songs hoping that nobody is listening...
7:50 am: Getting Ready I play a “Newbie” level episode from the JapanesePod101.com podcast as I get ready.
8:10 am: Breakfast I prop my iPad up on the counter and begin playing an episode of Cowboy Bebop () with English subtitles turned on while cooking and eating breakfast.
8:30 am: Commute As I contend with rush-hour traffic, I listen to an episode of Japanese with Michel Thomas or Pimsleur, making sure to speak 74
aloud when prompted. This works great since I am alone in my car, but I would probably opt for listening to a podcast or reading manga if I were on the bus or train.
see if I can figure the patterns out on my own, and then consult A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar if I’m still unsure.
1:30 pm: Tutor Session 9:10 am: Morning Meeting Yay, meetings! Everyone’s favorite. Instead of doodling, checking email, or just zoning out, I instead use the opportunity to discreetly study. My colleagues think I am looking at the same boring PowerPoint my laptop that they are,onwhen I am in fact going through my Japanese Core 2000 deck in Anki.
12:30 pm: Lunch I read 5 pages fromhodou no owaru tokoro ( , the Japanese translation of Where the Sidewalk Ends). I read first for understanding, quickly highlighting—but not yet looking up—any unknown words or structures. After I’ve given a page a once through, I then go back and look up any unknown words in the Midori app on my iPhone or using Tangorin.com if my laptop is handy (the latter is preferable because you can directly export saved words to Anki). If I want to look up any new structures, I first use Tatoeba.org to
I go back to my car, fire up the Skype app on my iPhone, and have a 15-minute chat with my tutor. I ask him questions about particular words, phrases, and constructions that came up in that day’s listening and reading activities. I find this type of tutoring to be far more effective for me since the entire session is focused only on what I don’t yet understand, and far easier for the tutor since they then don’t have to prepare a “lesson” in advance.
1:45 pm: Anki Session I go back to my desk and finish up my lunch break with a quick 10-minute Anki session. I am pleased to hit the green button on some cards that proved more troublesome this morning.
4:30 pm: Afternoon Meeting Oh boy, more meetings! Since the afternoon meeting is even more worthless than its morning counterpart, I discretely look up new words that came up during my lunch-time tutor session.
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5:30 pm: Commute
9:30 pm: Before Bed
I listen to the rest of the Michel Thomas CD from this morning. Again, I make sure to actually speak aloud when prompted as passive understanding is far less important than active recall.
I listen to another Newbie level episode from JapanesePod101.com as I brush my teeth and get ready for bed.
9:45 pm: In Bed 6:00 pm: Gym I re-listen to this morning’s podcast episode as I warm up on the treadmill, and then listen to some high-octane Japanese music as I hit the weights.
I crack open hodou no owaru tokoro ( ), re-read the pages I went through during lunch, and read another 5 pages for good measure.
10:30 pm: Lights Out 7:00 pm: Dinner I wind down from the day with another episode of Cowboy Bebop or re-watch this morning’s episode if I’m feeling extra motivated. The wonderful music gets my toes tapping and head bobbing as I cook.
As I slumber, my brain encodes new information and reinforces previously learned information.
7:30 pm: Nightly Entertainment I stream a Japanese movie on Netflix. To help prevent the blue light from screwing with my circadian rhythm and making it hard to fall asleep later, I don my geeky orange glasses, dim the lights, turn the brightness down on my device, and run F.lux (which automatically changes the screen to the orange end of the spectrum based on the date, time, and latitude). !
Install F.lux (Mac & Windows, free).
If you bought the Complete Package, check out the immersion ideas in my sample weekly schedule. 76
Change Your Devices to Japanese Considering how many hours a day most of us spend on our computers and smartphones, changing our device display language to Japanese is a simple but powerful way to increase our exposure to the language throughout the day. While you will likely encounter a lot of words you don’t yet know, you should be able to guess your way through based on your experience using the English interface. You can always change back if this form of immersion proves too difficult.
Mac OSX Apple makes it very easy to change the Mac OSX system language to Japanese: "
Open System Preferences (the little icon with the silver gears). If it’s not in your dock, you’ll find it in your “Applications” folder.
"
Click the “Language & Text” icon. Within the “Language” tab, you will see a list of languages. Drag Japanese to the top.
"
Log out and log back in (or restart your computer), and everything, including both the operating system and all native Mac programs like Pages, Keynote, iPhoto, etc., will be in Japanese.
Windows 8 Fortunately, changing the display language in Windows 8 is significantly easier than in previous versions of the Microsoft operation system: "
Go to the Control Panel and click “Add a Language” in the “Clock, Language, and Region” group.
"
Find “Japanese” in the language list and click “Add”.
"
Under “Windows Display Language”, click “Download and install language pack”.
"
Afterwards, click “Make this my display language”. In the prompt, click “Log off now”.
"
Log back in. Windows 8 should now be in Japanese.
iOS Changing your iPhone, iPad, or iPod touch to Japanese only takes a few clicks: "
Click the “Settings” icon.
"
Click “General” and scroll down to “International”.
"
Click “Language” and select .
"
Click “Done” and wait a few moments as the changes take effect. 77
Android
Social Media & Popular Websites
Early versions of Android didn’t allow you to change the display language, but fortunately for language learners everywhere, the latest flavors of the green robot now make this process a cinch:
Social media and popular entertainment sites are yet another potential source of Japanese reading input: !
Change your Google account’s default display language.
"
Hit the center button, click “Apps”, and then click “Settings”.
!
Change the country & language settings on YouTube.
"
Select “Language & input” and then click “Language”.
!
Change your Facebook display language.
"
Click on “Locale” and select Japanese ( ) from the list.
Label Everything in Japanese Use the Japanese Version of Sites & Search Engines Changing your device display language is a good first step, but I also recommend using the Japanese version of search engines and other websites you frequent.
This language learning method has probably been around since the dawn of writing (or at least the dawn of post-it notes). It takes a bit of time to label everything the first time, but the daily exposure to meaningful, contextual Japanese input is well worth the effort. Here are some quick tips:
Search Engines & Reference Tools
"
Here are Japanese versions of popular search engines for your browsing pleasure:
Use post-it notes or Post-it ® “Label Pads” (small labels with removable adhesive across the whole backside).
"
Write each word’s kanji on the front, with the pronunciation and English translation on the back.
"
To save time looking up common household items, get yourself a good bilingual visual dictionary or use Google Image Search.
!
Get DK’s “Visual Japanese English Bilingual Dictionary” on Amazon.
!
Google Japan
!
Bing Japan
!
Yahoo Japan
!
Japanese Wikipedia
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Section 8
Work with a Tutor
Why You Should Work With a Tutor Because a Tutor Helps You Engage in “Deliberate Practice”
“The key to learning is feedback. It is nearly impossible to learn anything without it. Even with good feedback, it can take a while to learn. But without it, you don’t stand a chance, you’ll go on making the same mistakes forever.” !Stephen
Though I recommend immersing yourself in Japanese as much as possible throughout your day and focusing on activities you enjoy, keep in mind that reaching a high level of mastery in a relatively short amount of time will also require “deliberate practice”. This unique flavor of training is differentiated by: "
Dubner, Think Like a Freak
A focus on quality over quantity. According to K. Anders
Ericsson, a professor of Psychology at Florida State University, deliberate practice leads to expertise because it emphasizes how one practices, not simply how much. Whether trying to get in shape or learn a language, you will get the most benefit from short, intense, high-quality practice. Which is really good news for those who claim that “not having enough time” is what holds them back from learning a language.
Finding a native speaker to practice speaking with should be one of your top priorities. An actual Japanese tutor is ideal, but any native speaker can be of help modeling correct pronunciation, vocabulary, and sentence patterns, and providing realtime feedback on your pronunciation and language usage. "
Getting immediate feedback on performance. To engage in
deliberate practice, you will need a Japanese tutor, language exchange partner, or friend to give you immediate, specific feedback on your usage of the language. Many native Japanese speakers will be reluctant to correct your mistakes, so make sure to explain how important their feedback is to
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"
you and ensure that you respond favorably when they do correct you.
Where to Find Japanese Tutors & Native Speakers
Filling in the holes. Whether intentional or not, most of us
Here are some resources for finding Japanese native speakers, tutors, and teachers:
tend to focus on practicing that which proves least challenging to us. We stay in our comfort zones. Not so with deliberate practice. To attain true mastery, you must identify and ruthlessly attack your weak points. This is certainly not an easy or inherently enjoyable process, but it works.
Tutors Can Help You Find Good Materials What may take you hours in online searches will only take a native Japanese speaker a few minutes, especially an experienced tutor who knows where to look.
Tutors Can Point Out Your Mistakes Most Japanese friends, colleagues, or significant others won’t feel comfortable pointing out your mistakes, and even if they do, you might find it annoying since you are focused more on communicating with them than improving your Japanese.
They Help Keep You Motivated and on Task Knowing that you will be talking with a tutor tomorrow, especially one that you are paying to work with you, will make it that much easier to put in the time toward your learning goals today.
iTalki The iTalki language learning community and marketplace connects learners with either language exchange partners or professional teachers. You can also submit writing for correction, post questions (much like Yahoo! Answers), and check out the various language groups. Get $10 USD of free credits when you register. !
Sign up for iTalki.
Verbling I have been watching this Y Combinator-backed startup since their inception, but haven’t been able to include them until now since their beta rollout was aimed only at native English and Spanish speakers. They have now opened the gates to multiple languages, including Japanese. There is a 7-day free trial, after which you can pay $3 USD per class (ad supported), $19 USD per month for up to 10 classes and unlimited chat (ad free), or $45 USD per month for unlimited classes and chat. !
Sign up for Verbling. 80
LingQ
Couchsurfing.com
In addition to finding reading and listening content, LingQ is also a good place to find a Japanese tutor. Speaking with a LingQ tutor requires 500 points for each 15-minute session. Points can be purchased outright (1,000 points for $10 USD), or earned in one of three ways:
I was first turned on to this amazing traveler network by Benny the Irish Polyglot. While Couchsurfing was created as a safe way to match up frugal travelers needing a place to stay and locals wanting to meet new people, it can actually be a very powerful resource for Japanese language learners, too. Not only can you find folks to stay with in Japan, but you can also host Japanese speakers where you live.
"
Adding content to the LingQ library.
"
Hosting conversations in your native language.
"
Correcting writing submissions in your native language.
!
Sign up for a LingQ account.
If you bought the Complete Package, use your discount code to receive 20% off.
Meetup.com This amazing tool allows you to either find existing Japanese Meetup groups in your area or create your own if one doesn’t yet exist. Best of all, you can just sign in using your FaceBook account so there’s no need to waste time creating yet another profile. !
!
Create a Couchsurfing.com profile.
Oh My Japan Created by Patrick Kenny, the man behind the excellent Nihongo Pera Pera blog, Oh My Japan is unique in that it is specifically suited to Japanese learners. It works in many ways like an online dating site, allowing you to connect with native Japanese speakers without revealing your email or Skype information (as is usually the case with most online language exchanges). And if you are looking for love, Oh My Japan gives you that option, too: just select “Romance” in your interests and your profile will show up in dating searches (otherwise it will only appear in language exchange searches). !
Sign up for an Oh My Japan account.
Browse Meetup.com’s “Japanese Language & Culture Meetups”.
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How to Select a Good Japanese Tutor Here are some important factors to keep in mind when choosing a tutor:
Language Ability Ideally, you want to find a language partner whocan’t speak English or at least agrees not to. That way, you can’t fall back on your native language when you get tired or frustrated.
Time Zone It is a good idea to figure out if your respective time zones are going to be compatible, lest you have to wake up at 4 in the morning (or make them do so).
How to Set Ground Rules Once you’ve found a tutor or conversation partner, make sure to establish some ground rules:
Reputation
Language Use
Does the tutor have any positive or negative feedback on their tutoring profile? Are they notorious for standing learners up or canceling lessons at the last minute? Do they try to “teach” you the language (not what we want) instead of just offering feedback on your speaking and writing output (what we do want)?
If you are paying a Japanese tutor, make sure they know you expect to speak Japanese only. If you are doing a language exchange, agree to speak only the target language during each half of the session.
Correction Patience Many tutors are quick to jump in and finish your sentences or offer correction before you have a chance to give it a go yourself. This is not only annoying, but a waste of your time and money.
How do you want your tutor to offer corrections on mistakes you make? While some like to have mistakes pointed out when they make them, others want to keep the conversation flowing and discuss mistakes after the fact. Both approaches have merit, but for the latter method, make sure that your tutor keeps detailed notes of the exact mistakes you made (“You said ___ here, but you should have said ____”). 82
Time How long will you meet each session? How flexible are you both on the start and end times?
Rescheduling If one of you needs to reschedule, how many days in advance do you prefer to be informed? Will payment be forfeited or just reapplied to the next session?
Payment How much will you pay your tutor? Will you pay per hour or per session? Will you pay via PayPal? What is their PayPal email?
Preparation Is the tutor expected to prepare topics or materials before the session? Are you? Or will you just have a casual chat? Is the tutor expected to take notes and send them to you afterwards?
How to Schedule Tutoring Sessions Whether working with tutors down the street or around the world, finding mutually convenient times can be a little challenging. Instead of going through thirty back and forth emails trying to figure out a time, I suggest using the tools below:
Google Calendar Either create a new calendar called “Available Times” or just share your existing calendar (if you don’t have any sensitive information) so they know exactly when you are free for a session. !
Set up Google Calendar.
Doodle This free tool is especially useful if you will be scheduling multiple different times, on multiple days, between multiple people. !
Set up a Doodle account.
Time Trade This useful tool allows your tutors to schedule time with you using openings in your schedule, automating the process I suggest above. !
Set up a Time Trade account. 83
WorldTimeServer.com
Call Recorder (Mac) and HotRecorder (Windows)
This site offers excellent free tools for figuring the best time to meet with your tutor. In addition to seeing what time it currently is in Japan (or back in your home country if you live abroad), you can also use their World Meeting Planner tool to see what hours will be mutually appropriate on any given day.
These applications supercharge your free Skype software, allowing you to automatically record both audio and video Skype calls with your tutor. Both have free trials so you can try before you buy.
!
Access WorldTimerServer.com’s Meeting Planner tool.
How to Communicate with Tutors Here few tools to allow you toafter connect with your tutor and recordare thea conversation for review the fact:
Skype The free Skype application allows you to make and receive free audio and video calls device to device, or call landlines or cell phones for only pennies. Best of all, you can record your calls for later review using Call Recorder (Mac) or HotRecorder (Windows). !
Install Skype (free, Mac, Windows, iOS, Android).
Google Hangouts Free group video calls, chat, photo sharing, and more. !
!
Download Call Recorder (Mac, $29.95).
!
Download HotRecorder (Windows, $19.99).
How to Share Documents with Tutors Email is just as bad for document sharing as it is for scheduling. Instead of worrying about version control with elaborate file naming conventions, dealing with incompatible software, or getting frustrated by file size limits in your email program, try using the following tools to share documents with your tutor:
Dropbox In addition to being an excellent way to sync files between multiple computers, Dropbox is also a great way to share folders or individual documents, MP3s, photos, and videos with your tutor. !
Sign up for Dropbox.
Install Google Hangouts (free, Mac, Windows, iOS, Android) 84
Google Docs
"
New vocabulary
Quick, easy, and free, Google Docs is a great way to create and share text documents, presentations, and spreadsheets. Best of all, multiple online collaborators can edit a document at the same time.
"
New structures
"
Mistakes
!
Sign up for Mindmeister.
!
Set up Google Docs.
Basecamp
How to Prepare for Your Tutor Session
This simple but powerful tool allows you to easily share large files, assign to do’s, set milestones, share message boards, and more.
To get the most out of your tutor sessions (and avoid the dreaded silence of “What should I say next?” moments), it is essential that you and your tutor both prepare ahead of time:
The only real disadvantage of ($24 Basecamp is that it requires a somewhat steep monthly fee a month for the basic plan), but I have found the price well worth it for collaborating with tutors, virtual assistants, and far-flung colleagues.
Choose a Topic
!
Sign up for Basecamp.
MindMeister This online mind mapping tool can make note taking and collaboration more constructive than ordinary text lists. Before a tutoring session, create a new mind map with the following nodes, and have your tutor fill in notes for each as you go: "
Topics
"
Questions
The number one reason tutor sessions go bad is that one or both parties have nothing to talk about. It is of course just fine to go off topic, but always go into a session with a clear context even if you don’t end up sticking to it. Anything goes, but make sure that the main topic is something you are interested in (which usually means that it’s best foryou to choose your own topics instead of leaving the choice to your tutor). If possible, choose an article ahead of time so you and your tutor can both review the content, and pick out specific words, phrases, and structures to discuss.
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Prepare a Bilingual List of Words & Phrases Go through the article or use a dictionary to prepare some vocabulary or expressions relating to the topic. Put English in the left column, the readings in the center, and Japanese on the right. Then send the list to your tutor at least a day before the session so you can both prepare. Not only is this good for your Japanese, but your tutor will also get to learn some English, too.
Make a List of Questions As you listen to podcasts, watch anime, read comic books, etc., you will likely come across words or phrases that you don’t understand or are unsure how to use. Keep note of these and make sure to send questions to your tutor a day ahead so they are not put on the spot during the session.
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Section 9
Use the Shadowing Method
requires a lot of practice to do correctly, but he has found no better way to teach oneself a language. !
Read Alexander’s “Guide to Autodidactic Foreign Language Study”.
What You Will Need to Shadow Properly What is “Shadowing”?
To use the shadowing method (at least in the fashion espoused by Arguelles), you will need the following:
In a nutshell, “shadowing” involves immediately repeating the words you
Bilingual Materials With Audio & Text
hear in a recorded dialogue as you hear them. Yes, this means you will be talking over the speaker much like a U.N. interpreter (which should be no surprise since a very similar method is used to train simultaneous interpreters). While the basic shadowing concept is nothing new—young children do something very similar instinctually when acquiring their first language—the method was formalized as a second language learning method (with the distinct steps shown below) by Alexander Arguelles, an accomplished polyglot and language professor. He points out that the method is not for everyone, and
Arguelles recommends the ASSiMil series for the following reasons: "
They include audio recordings.
"
They include text in both English and the target language (with matching, numbered sentences for quick reference).
"
Each lesson is short and approximately the same length (1 single page of text, with audio usually around 2 minutes).
!
Get a copy of ASSiMil’s “Japanese with Ease: Volume 1”.
Unfortunately, the book currently sells for over $50 on Amazon, so I would recommend some of the following alternative shadowing materials and apps:
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!
iKnow!, a freemium website & free app (iOS & Android).
!
Shadowing: Let’s Speak Japanese (Beginner to Intermediate).
!
Shadowing: Let’s Speak Japanese (Intermediate to Advanced).
"
Help convincing your brain that what you’re doing is important (meaning that new information is more likely to be stored in memory).
A Smartphone or MP3 Player with Earphones
How to Shadow: Step by Step
If you don’t have a smartphone or MP3 player yet, it is well worth the investment. You don’t need anything fancy for our purposes here; any device that can play MP3 files or CDs will do. But if you want a multipurpose device that can also run dictionary apps, play video, etc., I recommend one of the following:
Once you have selected your materials, equipment, and a place to walk, it’s time to begin shadowing. Arguelles recommends that you spend about 30 minutes a day on the task, but not much more as your attention span will quickly wain. During each session, you start by quickly reviewing past lessons (running through as many stages as appropriate for each lesson) and then add one new lesson at the end (for which you would only complete Stage 1 the first time around). At this pace, you should be able to finish one ASSiMil book in about 3 months.
!
The Apple iPod touch.
!
A cheaper Android phone like the Sony Xperia E1.
A Place to Walk Outside at a Brisk Pace To get the most out of shadowing, Arguelles is adamant that you walk at a brisk, purposeful pace, while outdoors, with good posture. This may sound pedantic, but the approach offers a number of physiological and neurological benefits: "
Increased oxygen flow to the brain.
"
Increased focus on the task at hand by quieting the “monkey brain” and helping to avoid distraction.
Stage 1: Blind Shadowing In this stage, you are going to just listen to the audio without reading the text or looking up any words. The focus is on getting used to the sounds and prosody of Japanese. You will likely come across many words you don’t yet know, but avoid the temptation to read the text or look up words yet. Just let that curiosity build; it’s part of the process.
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Stage 2: Listen to the Japanese Dialogue as You Read the Translation In this stage, you will read along as you listen. But contrary to most language study, you will be reading the English translation (or whatever the instruction language happens to be) as you simultaneously listen to and shadow the Japanese dialogue. Within ASSiMil materials, this will be the content shown on the right hand page of each lesson. As Arguelles puts it, this process helps give you a more “global” understanding of the dialogue’s meaning. You will likely still encounter words you don’t know the meaning of, but like in Stage 1, avoid stopping to look things up in the dictionary. Repeat this exercise a number of times before moving on to the next stage.
Stage 3: Start Glancing at the Japanese as You Listen Listen to the Japanese dialogue while you read your native language, but start quickly glancing over at the Japanese text. Just like in stage 2, you will listen to the dialogue as you simultaneously shadow what you hear and read the English translation. The difference here is that you will use your thumbs to track both the Japanese and English text, quickly glancing over at the Japanese (on the left hand side in ASSiMil materials). It
sounds more complicated than it really is, and remember that by this point, you will have already gone through the audio and translation a number of times.
Stage 4: Listen to the Japanese Dialogue & Read the Japanese Text In this stage, you focus on the Japanese text as you listen and shadow, glancing occasionally over at the English translation whenever you have anythis doubt the meaning of what you’re saying. In other words, is theabout reverse of Stage 3.
Stage 5: Japanese Dialogue & Japanese Text without the Translation In this stage, you listen to the Japanese dialogue while you read the Japanese text, but don’t allow yourself to look at the translation as you did in stage 4. The goal now is to focus entirely on Japanese and start developing the ability to think in the language.
Stage 6: Comparative Analysis Now that you have an intuitive understanding of the dialogue, it’s time to sit down and do a more thorough analysis of the 89
vocabulary and structures. Since you are not listening or speaking aloud at this stage, you can more methodically go through each pair of sentences, confirming the equivalent of each word or phrase in both languages. It’s finally okay to reach for the dictionary or refer to grammar explanations.
Stage 7: Read the Text Aloud In this stage, you will read the Japanese text aloud, trying to maintain the pace and pronunciation you previously practiced while shadowing.
Stage 8: Write the Japanese Dialogue Down by Hand Once you are able to read the text smoothly, it’s now time to practice writing the dialogue out by hand. If you are an absolute beginner, you can write the script in roumaji, but as soon as possible, start using kanji.
Stage 10: Print Out and Review the Typed Text Read through the text and highlight any words, phrases, or structures you’re still unsure about and fix any typos you made. To this end, make sure to use double spaced text so you have space to write notes and corrections.
Stage 11: Listen to the Audio as You Do Chores, Shop, etc. Given how many times you will have heard the audio by this point, “background listening” will be much more effective now than it would have been earlier on.
Stage 12: Go on a “Shadowing March” Find a long country road or a place to hike, and shadow the dialogues from the entire book, start to finish.
Stage 9: Type Out the Complete Text While definitely a big commitment of time, this activity is a very effective way to further your assimilation of the words, phrases, and structures, and also trains you to type Japanese, a helpful skill for interacting with Japanese tutors or friends online, and a mandatory skill for working in Japan.
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How to Get the Most Out of Shadowing Speak Aloud in a Full Voice Trying to just say the words in one’s head or mouth them quietly misses the point of the exercise and will not reap many of shadowing’s benefits.
Keep Track of What Stage You Are at For Each Lesson Since you will be regularly reviewing past lessons, systematically progressing to the next stage of each lesson as you go, you may find it helpful to jot down what stage you last completed.
Do Not Use Audio with Gaps Since the Shadowing method requires simultaneous repetition (or as close to simultaneous as you can muster), you should not use traditional language learning dialogues that have long gaps after each sentence. If there are such spaces present in the audio file, Arguelles suggests that you take the time to edit them out in an audio program. This may seem like wasted time, but he actually finds value in the process as it further increases his exposure to the language and increases his focus as he listens for the gaps. !
Download Audacity (Mac, PC & Linux; free).
!
Download GarageBand (Mac, $4.99). 91
Section 10 The Bad News: We Forget New Information REALLY Quickly
Use Spaced Repetition Why You Should Use Spaced Repetition
As you can see, Ebbinghaus observed that he forgot new information almost immediately, with over half of the target information lost in just the first hour! Though his experiment was conducted only on himself (i.e. an N=1 study), his basic findings have been reproduced in more scientific studies since his time, and it's generally agreed that we forget the vast majority of new information we encounter (as much as 80%) within 24 hours.
In 1885, a German psychologist named Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) put forth a paper titled “Über das Gedächtnis” (“On
The Good News: We Can Hack Our Memory Using Spaced Repetition
Memory”) in which he codified something every school student already knows: new information is forgotten at an exponential rate unless reviewed immediately. He plotted this rate along what he termed the “forgetting curve”.
The good is that wehelp cancontrol use strategic repetition schedules to hack ournews memory and what sticks and for how long. Each subsequent re-exposure, if properly timed, can help push information we want to remember further and further into long-term memory. This memory-boosting method was first popularized in language learning by Paul Pimsleur (1927-1976), the man behind the Pimsleur Approach. His particular brand of spaced repetition was dubbed “Graduated Interval Recall” (GIR), which he detailed in a 1967 paper titled “A Memory Schedule” (published in The Modern Language Journal). His proposed review schedule is as follows: Exposure Sequence
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
Time Since 5 Last Exposure sec.
25 sec.
2 min.
10 min.
1 hour
5 hours
1 day
5 days
25 days
4 mon.
2 years 92
How to Use SRS Systems Most SRS systems use a 1 to 3 self-rating, with one meaning “I have no freaking clue” and three meaning “I know this like the back of my hand”. Algorithms are then used to automatically schedule subsequent exposures, with more difficult cards being shown sooner and/or more frequently, and easier cards being shown less frequently and/or further off in the future. Here are a few tips to get the most out of whichever SRS tool you choose:
Grade Yourself Honestly, But Quickly Most SRS systems use self-ratings to determine when they show you a specific card again. A lot of learners get hung up on how to rate themselves, worrying they are giving themselves an overly generous score when they don’t really know the material or being too harsh on themselves when they were close but not perfect. Don’t fall into the trap of spending your valuable time deciding what you know instead of actually expanding what you know. When in doubt, just grade yourself in the middle and move on to the next card.
seeing how words are used in context. Therefore, use complete sentences or even entire paragraphs.
Use Interesting Content This may seem obvious, but I am constantly surprised by how many learners spend years forcing themselves through boring material. When you are assigned material by a teacher, you may not have a choice, but remember, this whole guide is about selfguided immersion: the choice is yours. Read and listen to content that excites you, topics that you would spend time with even in your native language. Then take chunks of this text or audio content love (butdeck. perhaps don’t quite grasp entirely) and put them intoyou your SRS
Use Japanese-to-Japanese Definitions Once you have a fair amount of Japanese under your belt, try to use Japanese to Japanese definitions instead of relying on Japanese to English, or English to Japanese.
Attach Images Use Complete Sentences & Clear Contexts Avoid creating cards with just a single word or kanji on the front and the reading or meaning on the back. These are boring and do little more than expand your declarative memory; procedural memory is what we are going for and that is only developed when
While Japanese to Japanese cards may be a bit out of reach for new learners, using pictures or drawings instead of English translations is a good way to avoid translation even from day one.
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Don’t be Afraid to Delete Cards
!
Download the Anki Desktop Client (Mac, PC & Linux, free).
If you come across cards that aretoo easy, boring, or just annoying, delete them from your deck. Don’t think about it too much. If you find yourself wanting to delete a card but are unsure if you should, just delete it and move on. You won’t miss it. As Khatzumoto of All Japanese All the Time puts it:
!
Download AnkiDroid Flashcards (Android, free).
!
Download AnkiMobile Flashcards (iOS, $24,99).
“When your SRS deck starts to become more of a chore than a game, bad cards are most likely your problem.”
Recommended SRS Tools There are loads and loads of apps available today that incorporate spaced repetition. Here are a few of the best:
Anki Literally meaning “memorization” in Japanese, “Anki” ( ) is one of the most popular SRS tools for language learning, and for good reason:
If you’re curious why three of the four platforms are free, while the iOS version costs 25 buckaroos, readAnki creator Damien Elmses’ justification: “Taken alone, AnkiMobile is expensive for an app. However, AnkiMobile is not a standalone app, but part of an ecosystem, and the $17.50 Apple gives me on each sale goes towards the development of that whole ecosystem. For the price, you get not only the app, but a powerful desktop application, a free online synchronization service, and mobile clients for various platforms.”
Once you install your app of choice, make sure to download some the “shared decks” created by other Anki users. There are heaps for Japanese, with lists for reviewing characters, practicing high-frequency words, etc. !
Browse Anki’s Japanese decks.
"
It has as heaps of useful user-generated decks.
!
Download the Core 2,000 deck.
"
It allows for extensive customization.
!
Download the Basic Grammar in Sentences deck.
"
It works on every major platform.
!
Download the Remember the Kanji deck (with stories).
!
Use Anki Web (online, free). 94
Flashcards Deluxe
Memrise
A good low-cost, high-quality, user-friendly alternative to Anki is Flashcards Deluxe from Orange or Apple. The app, available on both iOS and Android for $3.99, allows you to either create your own multisided flashcards (complete with audio and photos) or import pre-made decks from Quizlet.com and Cram.com.
Memrise is arguably the best designed SRS tool on the block, but the site and app offers much more than just a pretty user interface:
!
Download the iOS app ($3.99).
!
Download the Android app ($3.99).
!
Visit the support site for installation & customization instructions.
"
to optimize memory through the use of “elaborate encoding” (each flashcard includes community-generated mnemonics, etymologies, videos, photos, and example sentences), choreographed testing, and scheduled reminders (i.e. spaced repetition). "
Instead of the potentially problematic self-ratings used by most SRS systems, Skritter employs “active recall” (i.e. requiring us to actually write kanji on the screen of our mobile device) to confirm which characters we know by heart and which we simply recognize but cannot yet produce from memory. Download the Skritter app for iOS (free).
!
Download the Skritter app for Android (free).
!
Browse Japanese textbook flashcard lists available on Skritter.
If you bought the Complete Package, make sure to use your coupon code to receive up to $30 off Skritter.
Fun methodologies. Memrise points out that “we’re at our
most receptive when we’re at play.” To that end, they have made efforts to incorporate gaming principles into their system. For example, they use a fun harvest analogy for learning (perhaps taking a page from the FarmVille playbook), breaking the learning process up into three phases: 1) Planting Seeds, 2) Harvesting your “saplings”, and 3) Watering Your Garden.
Skritter
!
Sound science. The entire Memrise experience is designed
"
Community. Perhaps the greatest benefit of Memrise is
access to community generated “mems” (i.e. mnemonics), including a number of clever animated GIFs for kanji. !
Sign up for Memrise.
!
Download the Memrise iOS app (free).
!
Download the Memrise Android app (free). 95
iKnow!
Massive-Context Cloze Deletions (MCDs)
Formerly known as Last.fm, iKnow! represents one of the best designed vocabulary builders I’ve found to date. In their words:
Popularized by AJATT’s Khatzumoto, MCDs (“Massive-Context Cloze Deletions”) represent a simple—albeit extremely powerful— method for creating far more effective SRS cards. Instead trying to memorize (and test memory of) lots of information on your cards, MCDs focus on one single bit of target information at a time, may it be a Japanese particle, the meaning or pronunciation of a particular kanji, etc. In Khatz’s words:
“iKnow! tracks your progress on every item (such as a word or phrase) and calculates the optimum moment for you to study.”
The app and site lets you practice listening comprehension, dictation, and shadowing (in which you listen to a sentence and record yourself as close to simultaneous as possible). !
Sign up for an iKnow account.
!
Download iKnow’s free iOS app.
!
Download iKnow’s free Android app.
SuperMemo Like Anki, which is actually based on SuperMemo’s SM2 algorithm, Dr. Piotr Wozniak’sSuper Memo aims to improve memory and learning efficiency through intelligent use of spaced repetition. !
Download SuperMemo.
!
Don’t miss Piotr Wozniak’s great articles about memory and learning.
“Learning—which is to say, getting used to—a language used to be like climbing a mountain. With MCDs, it’s like taking a gentle flight of stairs. Everything becomes i+1, because we’re only ever handling one thing at a time.” !
Download the MCD plugin for Anki.
!
Learn more about the “MCD Revolution”.
Surusu Another product of “Great Leader Khatzumoto”, Surusu is a free online SRS tool that works hand in hand with the MCD approach. It works on all major web platforms (Explorer, Firefox, Safari, Mobile Safari), the only requirement being an active web connection (sorry, no offline studying folks). !
Learn more about Surusu. 96
Midori’s Bookmark Flashcards The Midori Japanese dictionary app for iOS gives you the option to study your saved words using spaced repetition: "
"
"
Click “Bookmarks” and choose one of your bookmark folders to study. Tap the share button (the upward arrow) and select “Flashcards”. Choose “Spaced Repetition” for the order. I recommend activating “Show Meanings” to test yourself on producing the Japanese word from an English prompt (it’s much easier but less valuable to test yourself on producing English meanings from Japanese prompts). You can always change this during a study session by tapping the share button and then “Options”. If you want to review the entire card and see example sentences as you review, pinch out on a flashcard. To return to the flashcards, tap the back button in the upper left.
How to Create Your Own SRS System As a free, low-tech alternative to the above tools, you can also create your own poor-man’s spaced repetition system:
Add Your Review Schedule to the Calendar When you first read or listen to something, add a specific review schedule for that content in your calendar. I suggest using Google Calendar or Apple iCal as they are available on your computer, mobile device, or the web.
Use a Simplified Review Schedule Remind yourself to review your material ten minutes or so after you’ve gone through it the first time (using a countdown timer on your mobile device) and then just add reminders for 1, 3, 7, and 30 days out on your calendar.
Add Alerts to Remind You When to Review When you create your review schedule, make sure to add some email or pop-up alerts to remind you when you should review each podcast, article, etc.
97
Group Flashcards into “Now”, “Tomorrow” & “Later” Stacks If you are using paper flashcards, separate them into three categories depending on how well you know them. "
Now Stack. This is for cards that you’ve never seen before or
that continue to present a significant challenge. "
Tomorrow Stack. This is for cards that you feel somewhat
"
Later Stack. This is for cards that you know fairly well and
comfortable with now but may forget in the next few days. probably only need to review again every few months. If a card is extremely easy, I suggest just throwing it away.
98
Section 11
Use Timeboxing
Why Timeboxing Works Studying in short bursts and taking frequent breaks offers many advantages:
Short, Predefined Time Limits are Less Intimidating “Time boxing is simply fixing a time period to work on a task or group of tasks. Instead of working on a task until it’s done, you commit to work on it for a specific amount of time instead. But don’t let the simplicity of the concept
Though you will probably end up spending more time once you get started, knowing that you only have to do 10 or 15 minutes a day is far less intimidating than overly ambitious numbers, meaning you are that much more likely to begin in the first place.
deceive you—there’s much more to this tool than meets the !Litemind eye.”
Short Time Limits Help Get Things Done
Project managers and programmers have long known that limiting work sessions to short, pre-defined time limits helps boost focus and output, but the technique works just as well for language learners, too. There are many different productivity techniques and tools based on short time limits, but my favorite is the “Pomodoro Technique”, a form of “timeboxing” developed by Francesco Cirillo. The technique breaks down work or study into 25-minute intervals called “pomodoros” (the Italian word for “tomatoes”), followed by a 5-minute break. After every fourth pomodoro, you then take a longer 10-minute break.
This counter-intuitive fact is encapsulated in Parkinson’s Law: “Parkinson’s Law dictates that a task will swell in (perceived) importance and complexity in relation to the time allotted for its completion. It is the magic of the imminent deadline. If I give you 24 hours to complete a project, the time pressure forces you to focus on execution, and you have no choice but to do only the bare essentials. If I give you a week to complete the same task, it’s six days of making a mountain out of a molehill. If I give you two months, God forbid, it becomes a mental monster. The end product of the shorter deadline is almost inevitably of equal or higher quality due to greater focus.” !Tim Ferriss, The 4-Hour Workweek 99
Time Limits Help You Be More Accountable
Keep the Clock Visible
As discussed earlier, writing a language learning blog is a very powerful motivational tool since it helps ensure accountability and consistency. To get the most out of this form of public accountability, make sure to track and publish the minutes/hours you spend listening, speaking, reading, and writing each day. By studying using pomodoros, you’ll automatically know how much time you’ve studied just by tracking the number of sessions.
Some may argue that this is distracting, but by keeping the countdown clock within view, you keep that sense of urgency that helps give timeboxing its power.
Frequent Breaks Improve Mental Agility Taking frequent breaks (e.g. every 25 minutes if you’re using the Pomodoro Technique) improves your focus on the task at hand, and if you walk around or do some quick exercises during the break, you can increase the oxygen flow to your brain, thus boosting your performance during the following study session.
Don’t Skip Your Breaks! After every session, make sure you actually take your break. Get up out of your chair, walk around, listen to some music, do some breathing exercises, knock out some pushups, whatever you prefer. But for the love of all that’s holy, do not continue working along: this will quickly undermine both your productivity and attitude.
Recommended Pomodoro & Timeboxing Apps
How to Get the Most Out of Timeboxing
Now that I’ve made the case for time limits, here are some suggested tools to help you better measure (and stick to) your time limits:
Set One Specific Goal Per Session
Rest
Don’t just set a time limit and work until the buzzer. Make sure you know exactly what you want to accomplish within the allotted time. This is actually one of the hidden purposes of timeboxing: breaking work up into short time limits forces you to break the work itself up into smaller, more specific chunks.
While there are plenty free alternatives below, Rest is well worth the $5 for Mac users. The break schedules are fully customizable, and there are beautiful full screen break reminder photos. !
Download Rest for Mac ($4.99). 100
Focus Booster
Promodoro
This free application for Mac and PC uses the Pomodoro technique to help you maximize efficiency and efficacy. Once it’s installed, just open the application and click the start button. The timer will show you how much time remains, even changing colors as you get closer to the end. When 25 minutes are up, it will automatically start a 5-minute break period. After the break, you will need to manually hit the start button again (the one downside of the app).
If you are looking for a dedicated pomodoro app for iOS, Promodoro is probably your best bet:
!
Download Focus Booster (Mac & PC, free)
"
You can customize the length of your breaks.
"
It keeps a running total of all your work and rest time (great for later posting your progress to your language blog).
"
It integrates a simple to-do list so you can better focus within each pomodoro.
!
Download Promodoro (iOS, $0.99)
Pomodairo
30/30
This free Adobe Air application goes one step further by integrating a task list directly into the Pomodoro Technique to keep you even more focused.
Named one of “the 100 best apps ever made for iOS” by Tap! Magazine, 30/30 is a beautifully designed productivity app and timer that helps you stay on task and look good doing so. Instead of 20 minutes on, 5 minutes off (as the Pomodoro technique recommends), the folks behind 30/30 recommend a more liberal 30 minutes on, 30 minutes off schedule (hence the name of the app). But keep in mind that you can set any timetable you want. The app’s creative gesture controls, elegant design, customizable icons, iCloud sync, and attractive price (it’s free!) make it one of the best choices for timeboxing on iOS. Here are a few of the gestures:
!
Download Pomodairo (Mac, PC & Linux. Free)
Tomato Timer If you don’t want to download an app, check out TomatoTimer.com, a free web app that follows the Pomodoro Technique to the letter. There is currently no way to adjust the study and break intervals, but hey, you can’t beat the price. !
Access Tomato Timer (web, free)
"
Expand to create a task. 101
"
Double tap to edit a task or slide right to delete.
Clockwork Tomato
"
Slide left to move a task to the bottom or tap with two fingers to move a task to the top.
!
Download 30/30 (iOS, free).
Beyond the standard Pomodoro features you’d expect, the free Clockwork Tomato app (gotta’ love the name!) also keeps a log of all your past pomodoros so you can better track your study time. !
Download Clockwork Tomato (Android, free).
Best Timer Despite not being a pomodoro-specific app, the gorgeous $0.99 Best Timer iOS app features a number of different timers: "
A digital sand hourglass.
Pomodroido This free Pomodoro app adds in the extra benefits of “gamification”, awarding higher levels (and potential bragging rights) as you complete more pomodoros.
" "
A kitchen timer showing minutes and a seconds. A countdown timer with spent and remaining time.
"
A stopwatch with lap and split time modes.
Built-in Smartphone Timers
!
Download Best Timer (iOS, $0.99).
The stock “Clock” app on iOS and Android devices can also be used for “poor-man pomodoros”:
TimeBox Despite being free, this well designed pomodoro app packs lots of features lacking from many paid apps. In addition to offering custom work and break intervals, it also lets you assign a title to each session to help keep you more focused on one task, and also tells you what task is coming up next. !
!
Download Pomodroido (Android, free).
"
Set a time limit (I suggest 25 minutes) and press start.
"
When the time is up, set a another timer for 5 minutes (for your break).
"
Rinse and repeat.
Download TimeBox (Android, free).
102
Section 12 As You Consume Non-Japanese Content
Take Good Notes Note taking may not be the sexiest topic in this guide, but that doesn’t mean it’s not any less important. Use notes to jot down useful words and phrases you encounter, keep track of questions you’d like to ask your tutor, and most importantly, practice your Japanese writing skills throughout the day.
Though you should be consuming Japanese content as much as possible, there will inevitably be situations in which you must read, watch, or listen to content in your native language. But even in such cases, you can still write your notes in Japanese even if they are about something not related to the language. This can be an especially useful way to keep your notes private from prying eyes during conferences, presentations, business meetings, conference calls, etc.
During Tutoring Sessions To get the most from your tutoring sessions and language exchanges, make sure to keep detailed notes of vocabulary, structures, etc. that come up during the conversation. However, I suggest that your tutor take the notes for you so you can focus on listening and speaking, not writing things down.
When to Take Japanese Notes
“But I Don’t Know Enough Japanese to Take Notes!”
As You Read, Watch, or Listen to Japanese Content
Fill in Holes with English
This is an obvious one. When you encounter Chinese characters, words, phrases, structures, or cultural nuances that you want to later discuss with your tutor, write them down!
If you don’t know what a particular word is in Japanese yet, just write it in English for now and look it up later. This is a great way to identify (and fill in) holes in your active vocabulary. 103
Use Roumaji When You Don’t Know the Characters
"
In cases where you know a word’s pronunciation but not its characters, just use roumaji now and fill in the kanji later.
They help you monitor your progress over time. When you review an audio note from many months ago, you will likely be surprised how far you’ve come.
However, audio notes do have their disadvantages:
Recommended Note Capture Mediums I recommend one of following four note capture mediums depending on the context at hand:
"
Having to listen through an audio note takes much more time than just quickly scanning text with your eyes.
"
Audio files take up more space on your device than simple text.
Handwritten Notes
Photo Notes
Handwritten notes are usually ideal from a learning perspective because: kanji.
While not technically “notes” I suppose, one of the best ways to capture information quickly is using your device’s built in camera. I suggest taking the photo directly in Evernote so that you can later search for text within the photo.
"
They identify which characters you can recognize but don’t yet know how to write from memory.
Typed Notes
"
They force you to practice proper stroke order.
"
They give you an opportunity to reinforce previously learned
Audio Notes Audio notes have many advantages: "
They lead to speaking practice when taking them down, and listening practice when reviewing them after the fact.
Typed notes are a good way to consolidate your other note formats, but they’re not a very efficient way to capture notes. For all but the fastest typers, writing on paper, dictating into your phone, or snapping a photo are all far faster ways to capture notes up front. Moreover, many folks have a hard time resisting the temptation to edit and format the text when typing notes out.
104
Recommended Note Capture Tools Here are some tools to help you efficiently capture Japanese text, audio, and photo notes:
Store Your Text, Photo, and Audio Nots in Evernote There is no better tool available today to store, organize, and access all your note types than Evernote. It is free, available on all major platforms, and constantly improving. !
To make it easier to quickly take down Japanese terms you come across, I recommend pre-formatting some notebook paper or printing out my template. I suggest creating three columns, with English first, roumaji in the middle, and kanji on the right. When reviewing your notes, you can simply fold the paper along each column to isolate and drill each variable. If you bought the Complete Package, make sure to print out some copies of my note taking template.
Sign up for a free Evernote account.
Carry a Pen & Notepad at All Times While you can certainly use your mobile device to jot down notes, I find that this takes more time and can be perceived as rude when at the table or other social gatherings, which is where interesting language most often presents itself! Quickly jotting something down on paper conversely, tends to require far less time and is usually more socially acceptable. !
Use a Pre-Formatted Note Taking Template
I recommend the “Evernote Smart Notebooks” by Moleskine.
Wear Earphones With a Built-in Mic Audio recordings of natural conversations you have are one of the most valuable language learning resources possible. But nothing ruins an otherwise natural conversation like setting a recorder on the table. You can get around this problem by discreetly recording conversations with the built-in mic on your smartphone’s earphones. I personally prefer Apple’s EarPods with Remote and Mic as they have excellent recording quality and are perfect for listening to podcasts (one squeeze to pause, two quick squeezes to skip to next track, and 3 quick squeezes to go back to the last track). But any headphones with a mic will do.
105
Consolidate & Rewrite Your Notes Why You Should Re-Write Your Notes Consolidating your notes may take a little extra time up front, but it has many advantages in the long run: "
It allows you to better organize your notes, making it faster to find what you want and review just the essentials.
"
It maximizes your understanding and retention. The simple act of rewriting your notes increases your familiarity with the content and improves your retention.
Consider Converting Lists to Mind Maps Lists are great for quick capture, but not for consolidation. Mind maps are a far better tool for language learning as they better reflect the way our brains actually process, store, and retrieve information. Moreover, they make it easier to organize vocabulary by relationship, category, and hierarchy, and put everything on just one page for easy review. Here are some tips on making effective mind maps: "
"
How to Consolidate Your Notes "
For handwritten notes. Rewrite the notes (preferably
condensing things down to only one page). I recommend converting lists into mind maps as they are more efficient for later review. You can then send this one page into Evernote so it will be available anywhere, any time. "
For typed notes. Just like your handwritten notes, try to
condense things down. Convert paragraphs to bullets, and reduce long sentences to key words and phrases. "
Start with a central topic or idea in the center, create subcategory nodes around it, and then add individual items branching off them. Try to use one word or phrase per node. Paragraphs defeat the purpose of a mind map.
"
I suggest limiting yourself to 3 levels (you can go further, but it will get cluttered and make for a less useful tool).
"
If possible, use colors to both increase retention (our brains like color!) and make connections between similar words (e.g. verbs in green, nouns in blue, etc.).
!
To create digital mind maps, check out Mindmeister.
!
Read more about the power of mind mapping in language learning.
For audio notes. The first step is to convert your audio notes
to text. Write or type key words and phrases you want to later review and summarize main ideas in a few sentences. 106
Get Your Notes Corrected by a Native Speaker There are two major advantages to getting your notes corrected:
It Creates a Clear Context for Tutor Sessions There is nothing worse than spending time, effort, and money to set up a tutor session, only to run out of things to discuss. Sending your notes to a tutor provides them with themes to discuss and likely many mistakes to correct.
Native Speakers Can Spot Mistakes Quickly & Easily Don’t waste your time and energy committing incorrect or incomplete information to memory. Instead, get a tutor or Japanese friend to go through your notes to point out misused words, grammar errors, and stroke mistakes. They can spot them far more quickly than you can, and they can also provide feedback on form and style for more advanced learners.
107
What to Learn
3
“Language is infinitely expansive (much like cooking) and therefore horribly overwhelming if unfiltered... What you study is more important than how you study.” !Tim Ferriss, The 4-Hour Chef
Mastering a small set of core words, characters, and structures enables you to understand a large percentage of the Japanese you will encounter day to day. “We should remember the warning of the wise Grail knight in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: ‘You must choose, but choose wisely, for as the true Grail will bring you life, the false Grail will take it from you.’ Choose the highest-yield material and you can be an idiot and enjoy stunning success. Choose poorly and, as the Grail knight implied, you’re screwed no matter what. You’ll chase your own tail for years.” !Tim Ferriss, The 4-Hour Chef
Section 1
Learn Essential Patterns “You do not have toknow grammar to obey grammar.” !Barry Farber, How to Learn Any Language
Grammar study is one of the most hotly debated topics among language teachers, applied linguists, polyglots, bloggers, and forum trolls. "
On the one extreme, devout grammar mavens claim that you must formally study a language’s grammar lest you forever produce broken, disjointed, unintelligible streams of words.
"
On the other end of the spectrum, you find people saying that you should ignore grammar completely. It just gets in the way of learning to communicate quickly.
As is the case with most things in life, the truth lies somewhere closer to the middle... Ultimately, you can only internalize proper Japanese grammar through extensive input and active output, during which most of the heavy lifting is done by your brain at a subconscious level. However, a little bit of grammar study can be of great help for adult learners if it is used in conjunction with— not as a replacement for—listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In addition to maximizing your exposure and active practice, here are a few tips to help you master essential patterns and overcome mistakes.
Master Your Self-Intro Mastering your self-introduction should be one of your first goals when starting out in Japanese. This is not narcissism; not only will it prove extremely useful in your day to day life (especially when you first arrive in Japan), but your well-rehearsed bio will help familiarize you with common grammar patterns in the language, and help put native Japanese speakers at ease. Some folks get quite nervous about the prospect of having to speak English with foreigners, so your flowing Japanese introduction will show them there’s no need to panic. Here’s what to do: "
Write out a brief bio discussing your family, job, background, interests, why you are learning the language, why you're visiting the country, etc. 110
"
Have this translated into Japanese by a native speaker, tutor, or teacher. Or for a good challenge, try translating yourself first and having your tutor add corrections and suggestions.
"
Have your tutor record the script aloud. Make sure they read at a normal pace with natural intonation: you don’t want your bio to sound like an over-enunciated textbook dialogue.
"
Listen to the recording many times as you read the transcript.
"
Listen again many more times without reading the transcript.
"
Record yourself reading your bio, doing as much as you can from memory, glancing only at the transcript when necessary.
"
"
Have your tutor go through your recording, noting any mistakes you may have made. Rinse and repeat as many times as necessary until your tutor cannot identify any discernible mistakes and you know your bio frontwards and backwards.
Memorize The “Deconstruction Dozen” The “Deconstruction Dozen” or “12-Sentence Audit” (popularized by fellow language addict Tim Ferriss) is an excellent way to kickstart your understanding of basic Japanese grammar without getting lost in minutiae or overwhelmed by excess. While 12 sentences obviously won’t teach you everything you need to know about Japanese grammar, they reveal plenty of useful highyield patterns that you will need for everyday communication: "
How conjugations are formed in the language (if at all).
"
How possession is handled.
"
How/if “helping verbs” are used.
"
How past, present, and future tenses are expressed.
"
How negation works.
"
How questions are formed.
"
Whether direct and indirect objects are treated differently.
Here now are Tim’s 12 sentences translated into Japanese for your learning pleasure:
111
Tim Ferriss’ “Deconstruction ozen” 1
The apple is red.
(sono) ringo-wa akai desu.
()
2
It is John’s apple.
(sore-wa) jon-no ringo desu.
()
3
I give John the apple.
(watashi-wa) jon-ni (sono) ringo-wo agemasu.
() ()
4
We give him the apple.
watashitachi-wa kare-ni (sono) ringo-wo agemasu.
()
5
He gives it to John.
kare-wa (sore-wo) jon-ni agemasu.
()
6
She gives it to him.
kanojo-wa (sore-wo) kare-ni agemasu.
()
7
Is the apple red?
(sono) ringo-wa akai desu ka?
()
8
The apples are red.
(sono/sorera-no) ringo-wa akai desu.
()
9
I must give it to him.
(watashi-wa sore-wo) kare-ni agenakereba narimasen.
()
10
I want to give it to her.
(watashi-wa sore-wo) kanojo-ni agetai desu.
()
11
I’m going to know tomorrow.
(watashi-wa) ashita, shiru deshou.
()
12
I can’t eat the apple.
(watashi-wa sono) ringo-wo taberu-koto-ga dekimasen.
() 112
Identify & Fix Grammar Mistakes Early On “Practice doesn’t make perfect. Practice makes permanent!” !Antonio Graceffo
One of the most hotly debated issues among applied linguists is “fossilization”, a phenomenon related not to dinosaur bones but those pesky mistakes in one’s pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar that have been practiced the wrong way so many times they have become entrenched habits. While such problems can be fixed with enough targeted practice and a whole lot of patience, it’s far easier to nip them in the bud before they grow roots. To that end:
Most native speakers won’t be able to explain why something is wrong (unless they have experience teaching the language), but any native speaker, even a child, can tell youwhat is wrong.
Have Your Tutor Take Detailed Notes In tutoring sessions (especially those you’ve paid for), request that your tutor write down all your mistakes and then provide you a written report afterwards. Ideally, they will write down the actual mistake you made, followed by the proper pronunciation, word, structure, etc. I used to do this for some of my private students in Taiwan and many found this style of correction to be far more valuable than their formal (and far more expensive) classes.
Encourage Correction of Your Mistakes In an effort to spare your feelings and preserve “face”, most native Japanese speakers will politely ignore your mistakes. While they may resist, do everything you can to encourage Japanese friends, colleagues, tutors, and exchange partners to point out mistakes you make in: "
Pronunciation.
"
Word usage.
"
Syntax and grammar. 113
Section 2
Learn Kana
exact same sounds, but are used for different purposes as you’ll see shortly.
Hiragana Overview You will encounter hiragana more often, so learn it first. But don’t make the mistake of “taking a break” after hiragana as many learners do and end up never mastering katakana. You need both for full literacy in Japanese, so don’t delay.
Hiragana History Each hiragana symbol is based on the cursive form of particular Chinese characters that carry similar pronunciations. For example: Japanese is a syllabic language, with each syllable comprised of either a single vowel, a (), i (), u (), e (), or o (), or a consonant-vowel combination, such as k + a (), k + i (), k + u (), k + e (), k + o ( ), etc. You may have noticed above that there are two ways to write each of the syllables. As it so happens, Japanese has two syllabic alphabets, or rather “syllabaries”: hiragana () and katakana (). Both systems represent the
"
The hiragana for a () is based on the cursive form of .
"
The hiragana for i () is based on the cursive form of .
"
The hiragana for u () is based on the cursive form of .
Hiragana Usage Hiragana is used in the following situations: "
Verb endings. The “stem” or “root” of most Japanese verbs is written in kanji while it’s grammatical endings are written in 114
hiragana. For example: kaku (, “to write”). The portion of the verb written in hiragana is technically referred to as okurigana (). "
"
Adjective endings. Just like with verbs, the stem of Japanese adjectives is usually written using kanji while the ending is written in hiragana. For example: utsukushii (
"
a () and o ()
"
ne (), re (), and wa ()
Grammatical particles. Japanese uses a number of
"
nu () and me ()
"
ru () and ro ()
Hyougaiji (). If a particular Japanese word uses characters outside the official “common use” kanji list of 2,136 jouyou kanji () or the list of 861 jinmeiyo kanji (
, “personal name characters”), it is usually written in hiragana instead of kanji. For example: the word kaeru (“frog”) is usually written even though it has a kanji: . "
When you begin learning hiragana, you are likely to get frustrated with the following look-alike kana. Make sure to spend extra time learning to differentiate them:
, “beautiful”).
grammatical particles (covered in detail in the Japanese 101 chapter), the vast majority of which are almost always written in hiragana. For example: the subject particle ga (), the object particle wo (), and the topic particle wa (). "
Look-Alike Hiragana
Kunyomi readings. Japanese kanji have two types of readings: kunyomi (, “readings of Japanese srcin”) and onyomi (, “readings
of Chinese srcin”). When looking up a character in a dictionary, you can see thatkunyomi are always written using hiragana, while onyomi are written in katakana.
Katakana Overview Katakana History Like hiragana, katakana () was also developed from kanji characters that carry similar pronunciations. The difference is that katakana are based on individual chunks or radicals, not the cursive form of the complete character. For example: "
The katakana for a () is based on a stylized piece of .
"
The katakana for i () is based on a piece of .
"
The katakana for u () is based on a piece of . 115
Katakana Usage The katakana script is used as follows: "
Writing foreign loan words. Japanese has borrowed
thousands and thousands of words from English and other European languages. Such terms are written in katakana to distinguish them from words of Japanese or Sino-Japanese srcin. For example: the word “coffee” is rendered in Japanese as kouhi (). "
Writing foreign names. Foreign proper nouns (e.g. people and place names) are also written using katakana. For example: the family name “Johnson” is rendered as jonson
() in Japanese. "
Sound effects & onomatopoeia. Japanese comic books usually write sound effects using katakana. For example: if there is an explosion, you will probably see the word dokan
(), which is similar to the English word “boom”. "
Onyomi kanji readings. As mentioned above, kanji characters have two types of readings, kunyomi () and onyomi (), the latter of which represents pronunciations of Chinese srcin. In kanji dictionaries, onyomi are always written using katakana.
Recommended Kana Learning Tools There are numerous books, apps, and sites to help you learn kana. Here are just a few of my favorites.
Remembering the Kana From James Heisig, the creator of the well-known Remembering the Kanji series, Remembering the Kana: A Guide to Reading and Writing the Japanese Syllabaries in 3 Hours Each provides a systematic approach to learning Japanese hiragana and katakana in a mnemonic-based approach that leverages (instead of ignoring) how adult brains work. !
“Remembering the Kana” is available on Amazon.
The Japanese Alphabet Study Guide This great iOS app includes spaced repetition tools to improve retention, audio pronunciation guides for all hiragana and katakana (so you can learn how they are really pronounced), stroke order illustrations for each kana (so you know how they are really written), study lists for the JLPT, and stats to show your progress. !
Download the Japanese Alphabet Study Guide app (iOS, $2.99).
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Japanese Hiragana and Katakana for Beginners Instead of cramming hiragana and katakana into memory using painful rote memory,Japanese Hiragana and Katakana for Beginners uses picture based mnemonics to tie both kana systems to English words you already know. !
Available on Amazon.
The Go-Juu-On The basic Japanese kana chart is called the go-juu-on ( , “50 sounds”) because it has 5 rows and 10 columns (i.e. 5 X 10 = 50). In my version, I list roumaji ( ) at the top of each cell, hiragana on the left, and katakana on the right.
Hiragana42
Traditional Arrangement
Created by Koichi of Tofugu.com, this free guide provides nifty mnemonics and cute illustrations (by Aya Francisco) to help you
The go-juu-on is traditionally arranged right to left, but I have laid things out left to right to make it more intuitive for English
hiragana. There is also a hiragana chart that you can learn all the print and post around your home and office for quick reference and review.
speakers.
!
Download Tofugu’s free Hiragana42 guide.
The Hiragana Song How about that, a song all about Japanese hiragana! Hats off to YouTube user Miss Hanake for creating such a wonderful kana review tool. !
Watch The Hiragana Song on YouTube.
Obsolete Kana You may notice that there are only 46 sounds shown in the gojuu-on chart, not 50 as it’s name would suggest. This is because archaic sounds such as (wi) and (we) have fallen out of use over the years. !
Learn more about obsolete Japanese kana on Wikipedia.
Two Different Ways to Write ‘Ji’ and ‘Zu’ The sounds ji and zu can be written two different ways depending on whether they come from the d-line or z-lines: 117
"
The z-line ji uses the hiragana and katakana , while the d-line ji uses the hiragana and the katakana . To type the d-line ji on a keyboard, enter d-i.
"
The z-line zu uses the hiragana and katakana , while the d-line zu uses the hiragana and the katakana . To type the d-line zu on a keyboard, enter d-u.
Word Final N You will notice that n () is chillin’ all by itself at the bottom. This is because the sound joined Japanese relatively late in its development under the influence of Chinese vocabulary (many Chinese loan words end with an n sound, while native Japanese words do not).
Recycled Kana Though there are 16 basic consonant sounds in Japanese (b, d, f, g, h, j, k, m, n, p, r, s, t, w, y and z), as you can see in thegojuu-on chart, there are not actually different symbols for each and every consonant. Instead, Japanese makes life much easier for Japanese learners by simply requiring that you tack on diacritic marks, called dakuten (), to turn “voiceless” sounds into their “voiced” phonetic brothers. For example, the kana for ‘k’ and ‘g’ sounds are exactly the same, differentiated by two little slash marks glued to the upper-right corner:
ka = " ga =
Japanese also uses little circle symbols called handakuten ( ) which change kana in the h-line to ‘p’ sounds: ha = " pa =
Japanese Diphthongs Called you-on (), Japanese diphthongs are created by combining the beginning consonant from each i-row kana (k, g, s, z/j, t/ch, n, h, b, p, m, and r) with a sound from the y-column, ya (), yu (), or yo (). "
The y-column part of the diphthong is written using smaller kana symbols. For example, kya is written , not .
"
Since they use two symbols, these kana combinations are called “digraphs”, as opposed to the basic kana which are called “monographs”. If you bought the Complete Package, make sure to print out the “Hiragana & Katakana Cheat Sheet” PDF.
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The Go-juu- n () Vowels
K
S
T
N
H
M
Y
R
W
a ka sa ta na ha ma ya ra wa i ki shi chi ni hi mi
ri
N/A
u ku su tsu nu hu/fu mu yu ru
N/A
e ke se te ne he me
N/A
N/A
N/A
re
o ko so to no ho mo yo ro wo n 119
Japanese’sVoi celess & oiced So nds K
GSZ
TDH
BP
ka
ga
sa
za
ta
da
ha
ba
pa
ki
gi
shi
ji
chi
ji*
hi
bi
pi
ku
gu
su
zu
tsu
zu*
hu/fu
bu
pu
ke
ge
se
ze
te
de
he
be
pe
ko
go
so
zo
to
do
ho
bo
po
*See“TwoDif ferent Ways to Write ‘Ji’ and ‘Zu’”. 120
Japanese iphtho gs K
G
S
Z / J T / CH
N
H
B
P
M
R
ya
kya
gya
sha
ja
cha
nya
hya
bya
pya
mya
rya
yu
kyu
gyu
shu
ju
chu
nyu
hyu
byu
pyu
myu
ryu
yo
kyo
gyo
sho
jo
cho
nyo
hyo
byo
pyo
myo
ryo 121
How to Pronounce & Write Each Japanese Kana I have included rough English equivalents for each Japanese syllable below, but please keep in mind that English-based pronunciation systems are inherently imperfect. If I tell you to pronounce a () like the ‘a’ in “father”, for example, this does not take into account different dialects of English:
a () Pronounced like the ‘o’ in “Bob”. In linguistics geekery, the Japanese ‘a’ sound is called an “open front unrounded vowel”. Fortunately, the sound itself is far simpler than the term attached to it, denoted in IPA with the simple /a/ symbol.
i ()
"
Do I mean “father” like I would say it as an American from the Pacific Northwest?
"
Do I mean “father” as it would be pronounced by someone from Liverpool?
Pronounced like the ‘ee’ in “bee”, this sound is the “bees knees”. Actually, I am just trying to cheer up the little Japanese ‘i’ sound, since it is given so little respect when used in words like ashita ( , “tomorrow”), which is really pronounced more like
Or do I mean “father” as enunciated by Mike Meyer’s
ashta. The normal Japanese ‘i’ sound is denoted in IPA as /i/,
"
while the nearly silent version is written with a little circle below it.
Goldmember character? “Faajaa!”
To prevent ambiguity and poor pronunciation, therefore, please make sure to confirm how these sounds are really pronounced using the following online table: !
HiraganaPoster.com’s Interactive Kana Table
A few things to note about the table: "
You can display either hiragana or katakana.
"
You can see the proper stroke order for each kana by hovering your curser over over each cell.
"
You can choose whether to hear recordings by either a female or male speaker.
u () The Japanese ‘u’ is pronounced close to the ‘oo’ in “boot”, but with less rounding of the lips. Much like the case with ‘i’ above, it is also thrown away in many Japanese words. In fact, you will notice this (or rather not notice it) at the end of almost every Japanese sentence, where desu () and -masu () are actually pronounced des and mas.
e () The Japanese ‘e’ is pronounced like the ‘e’ in “bet”, not like the ‘ai’ in “bait”. It is important that you don’t make the sound into a 122
diphthong as your English speaking mouth may want to do… Though it is written with the /e/ IPA symbol, I think it is more productive to think of the Japanese ‘e’ as closer to /#/.
month”), but in such cases it is pronounced ka (). I know, it’s confusing.
ga (), gi (), gu (), ge (), go () o () The Japanese ‘o’ is similar to the ‘o’ to “code”, but not like the ‘oy’ in “boy” (the latter of which is a diphthong not used in Japanese). The simple IPA /o/ is usually used, but this symbol doesn’t distinguish between the “mid back rounded vowels” of Japanese and Spanish, and the similar but distinct English /o/.
Just like ‘k’, the Japanese ‘g’ sound is similar to the one found in English. The Japanese ‘g’ sounds are simply voiced versions of their voiceless counterparts, written just like the k-column hiragana, but with the addition of dakuten (). My favorite is the hiragana for gu () which looks like a vampire PacMan!
ka (), ki (), ku (), ke (), ko ()
sa (), shi (), su (), se (), so ()
The Japanese ‘k’ sound is just like its English equivalent. There are a few things to watch out for, however, with regards to the writing and usage of the k-column kana (wow, that’s a lot of ‘k’ sounds!): "
"
"
The katakana () and hiragana () for ka are quite similar to each other and only differ in the addition of the angled line in the upper-right corner of and the fact that the katakana version is more angular. The hiragana and katakana for ki are also similar, differing in the addition of a loop at the bottom of to create . A smaller version of the katakana ke () is used as a measure word for months as in ikkagetsu (, “one
The s-column kana are a fairly tame bunch with only a few things to look out for: "
The hiragana for sa () is only one horizontal stroke away from that for ki ().
"
The second s-column kana shi () is pronounced like the English word “she”, not “see” as one might expect if you follow the kana pattern shown in other columns. There are a few more such exceptions as you will see shortly.
"
The katakana for so () looks very similar to that for the word-final n (). The only difference is the angle the strokes are written and where you start your pen. For so (), the second stroke starts from the top and goes down to the lower left, while this is the opposite for n (). 123
za (), ji (), zu ( ), ze (), zo () Like the relationship between ‘k’ and ‘g’ above, the ‘z’ series just adds voicing to the ‘s’ sounds. There are, however, a few important facts to point out: "
Like the kana shi () above, the second kana in this sequence is ji () not zi like the kana pattern would suggest.
"
This Japanese ‘j” sound is similar to the ‘J’ in the French name “Jean-Luc” (% in IPA), not the ‘j’ in “judge” (& in IPA).
ta (), chi (), tsu (), te (), to ()
The Japanese ‘t’ sounds are fairly straight forward, though the tsu sound will take a little getting used to as it doesn’t occur at the beginning of words in English. You can cheat by saying “nuts” or “rats” in your head and only vocalizing the last piece. Here are a few other things to keep in mind: "
The hiragana for ta () is only one horizontal stroke away from that for ni (). And you will notice that both and have a ko () on the right side.
"
As will be discussed in the next section, some Japanese words have double consonants. These are denoted in the script with either a small hiragana tsu () in words like teppan-yaki () or a katakana tsu ()
in words like poppu aato (, “pop art”). "
The katakana for to () looks like the fairly rare kanji variant for “divining” or “fortune telling” (). You won’t see used as a kanji very often as the character is usually used instead, but you will see it used as a component in other characters such as (, “crude”).
da (), ji (), zu (), de (), do () Here now we have the voiced equivalents of the t-column above. Just two issues to point out here: "
Despite being from different columns, and are both pronounced ji, just as and are both pronounced zu.
"
Despite their identical pronunciation, you will need to use different roumaji when typing if you want to get the right kanji to come up. For example, to write tsuzuku (, “to continue”), you have to type tsu-du-ku.
na (), ni (), nu (), ne (), no () The Japanese n is pronounced pretty much like the ‘n’ in English. Its kana, however, throws us a few curve balls:
124
"
The hiragana for na () is written very similarly to that for ta (). Make sure to keep them straight with different mnemonics.
"
The katakana for ni () looks just like the kanji for “two” () which is also pronounced ni (). But don’t look on this overlap as a confusing coincidence, but rather as a super easy way to remember this kana!
ha (), hi (), hu/fu (), he (), ho ()
"
ba (), bi (), bu (), be (), bo () As mentioned above, the kana in the ‘h’, ‘b’ and ‘p’ columns are a bit of an exception. "
The ‘h’ kana series presents a number of interesting exceptions and coincidences: "
The hiragana ha () is pronounced wa () when used as the topic particle.
"
The katakana for ha is written almost exactly like the kanji for the number 8 ().
"
The katakana for hi is identical to the kanji for “spoon” ( ). Fortunately, this character is rather rare, though it is used as a radical in many other characters.
"
The hu syllable () is usually pronounced more like fu.
"
The hiragana and katakana for he () are the same.
"
The hiragana for he () is pronounced e () when used as the particle meaning “to” as in nihon e youkoso ( , “Welcome to Japan”).
The katakana for ho () is written very much like the kanji for “tree” or “wood” (). The difference is that the third and fourth strokes do not connect in the katakana character while they do in the kanji.
"
First of all, ‘h’ and ‘b’ are separated by more than just voicing. They also involve very different parts of the mouth, with the former pronounced with friction near the back of the mouth, and the latter using the lips. Like with he, the hiragana and katakana for be () are the same.
pa (), pi (), pu (), pe (), po () The Japanese ‘p’ sounds will be very familiar to you as an English speaker as it is pretty much identical to the ‘p’ sounds found in English words like “pop”, “peep”, “pep”, etc. Here are some important facts to know about the Japanese ‘p’: "
As you can see, the Japanese ‘p’ sounds are written with a little circle called a handakuten () attached to the kana for ‘h’ sounds.
125
"
Just like English, the Japanese ‘p’ is pronounced with exactly the same mouth position as the ‘b’, but without b’s voicing and with an added puff of air (which you can easily demonstrate by holding a piece of paper in front of your mouth and saying “he” and then “pea”. The paper will move outward for the latter word but not the former.)
ma (), mi (), mu (), me (), mo () The Japanese ‘m’ is much like the English equivalent. Here are a couple of things to keep in mind with regard to the written kana: "
"
Some kanji like (, “halberd”) use a component that looks just like the katakana for ma (). Some kanji like (, “Japanese cedar”) and (, “to see a doctor”) use a component that looks similar to the katakana for mi (), but with the three strokes pointing down to the left in the kanji instead of down to the right as in the katakana.
"
ra (), ri (), ru (), re (), ro () Ah yes, the infamous Japanese ‘r’. Don’t let this little fella scare you; a very similar sound is actually hiding in the middle of the words “latter” and “water” when pronounced quickly (at least in American English). In linguistics, this sound is called a “retroflex flap” since the tip of your tongue bends back (the “retroflex”) and then quickly flaps against little ridge behind your teeth. It is denoted in IPA with the '/ /the symbol. "
The hiragana and katakana for ri differ only in the curved stroke that joins the two haves in the hiragana version () but is completely lacking in katakana equivalent ().
"
The katakana for ri () has a look-alike component found in kanji like (kaeru, , “return home”) which we just saw a moment ago.
ya (), yu (), yo () The Japanese ‘y’ sounds are all found in English, as in words like “y’all”, “you” and “Yo!”. Here are a couple things worth noticing: "
The hiragana for yu () is arguably the easiest of all kana to learn as it looks exactly like a fish. And in an amazing crosslanguage coincidence, fish is actually pronounced ‘yu’ in Chinese!
"
The katakana for ro () looks just like the kanji for “mouth” (), though the kanji form is written slightly larger.
You will see a component that looks like the katakana for yo () in kanji like (, “return home”).
126
wa (), wo () With only two ‘w’ sounds in modern Japanese, this is the shortest sequence in the go-juu-on (). A couple interesting things to point out here: "
Japanese once included both hiragana and katakana for wi () but both symbols, along with the sounds they represent, have since fallen out of use.
"
The same thing is true for we (), which given how close it looks to ru, I’m glad is no longer with us.
n ()
Last and not least, there is Japan’s phonetic black sheep, the word-final /n/ that occurs in words like shinbun (, “newspaper”), sometimes romanized as shimbun: "
This sound was not srcinally a part of Japanese, and was only brought into the language along with Chinese characters that contained the sound.
"
As mentioned above, make sure to keep the katakana for n () distinct from that for so ().
127
Section 3
Learn Kanji
Why You Should Learn Kanji Roumaji & Kana Only Take You So Far One of the most common questions I hear from beginning learners of Japanese is: Why should I learn kanji? Can’t I get by with roumaji and kana?
Learning roumaji and kana is indeed an essential first step in your Japanese journey as it familiarizes you with all of the sounds in the language, allows you type Japanese on your computer or smartphone, and helps you look up words in the dictionary. But neither is a substitute for learning characters: "
While you can find some Japanese content written in roumaji or kana, these materials tend to be extremely boring, stilted, and inauthentic. Being able to read kanji opens up a massive pool of authentic Japanese content, and there is no better feeling than reading literature in the srcinal language.
"
Most Japanese restaurants (the kind of thing you fly all the way to Japan for), write their menus and specials entirely in kanji-laden Japanese. Sure, you can always point at pictures, but wouldn’t you rather be able to read the menu?
"
Mastering characters impresses native speakers and boosts confidence. It takes most native speakers many years (and heaps of tedious rote learning) to learn all standard use characters, and given how hard it was for them, it’s generally believed that foreign learners of Japanese will have an even harder time. But when you use the modern, adult-friendly methods I recommend, you can learn the basic meanings of all the jouyou kanji in a matter of months. You shouldn't let the praise go to your head of course, but the confidence it builds can be channeled right back into learning.
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Kanji Help Prevent Ambiguity Given all the homonyms in Japanese, content written without kanji is ripe for potential confusion. Mimi points out some of the more humorous examples in her article “Everybody Makes (Embarrassing) Mistakes”. Here’s my favorite, showing two drastically different meanings for : (Have you ever made bread?)
Apply the “MED” Principle “The minimum effective dose (MED) is defined simply: the smallest dose that will produce a desired outcome... To boil water, the MED is 212° F (100° C) at standard air pressure. Boiled is boiled. Higher temperatures will not make it ‘more boiled.’ Higher temperatures just consume more resources that could be used for something else more productive.” !Tim Ferriss, The 4-Hour Body
(Have you ever eaten underwear?) !
Read “Everybody Makes (Embarrassing) Mistakes” for more.
Chinese Characters Aren’t as Difficult as You Probably Think You will hear many people (including the Japanese themselves) go on and on about how difficult characters are to learn. Yes, just like learning to speak the language, learning to read and write Japanese takes time and effort. But the task ahead is not nearly as arduous as you’ve been led to believe: "
If you focus on the highest frequency characters first.
"
If you learn the basic character building blocks (“radicals”).
"
If you learn the phonetic and semantic clues radicals provide.
"
If you use creative mnemonics instead of rote memory.
Okay, so what does boiling water have to do with learningkanji? Simple: just as you only need a certain temperature to boil water, you only need to know a finite number of high-frequency kanji to read blogs, manga, books, magazines, newspapers, etc. Though there are approximately 50,000 Chinese characters listed in the dai kan-wa jiten (, “The Great Han–Japanese Dictionary"), the Japanese Ministry of Education limits the number of “common use” characters, jouyou kanji ( ), to only 2,136. Most publications limit themselves to just these characters, using kana instead of kanji for any word with characters outside the list. This means that the Japanese learner’s “Kanji MED” is 2,136, not 50,000! Phew! !
See the complete list of jouyou kanji on Wikipedia.
129
If you bought the Complete Package, make sure to print out the comprehensive kanji PDF.
Focus on the Highest-Frequency Kanji First While you need to learn all 2,136 jouyou kanji to be literate, you can cut down your initial workload by employing the 80-20 Rule and focusing first on the highest-frequency characters. Consider, for example, the following kanji usage statistics for Japanese Wikipedia:
But Realize that “Most Common” Doesn’t Always Mean “Most Useful” Though it makes sense to focus on the highest-frequency words and characters in the beginning, it doesn’t mean that you shouldn’t also spend time on vocabulary outside of these lists that fits your personal interests and unique learning needs. The guiding light throughout your Japanese journey should be interest. No matter how frequent a given set of words or characters are, they won’t stick if you’re studying them in isolation or using materials that bore you to tears. Frequency lists are a useful reference point, but the actual learning should come from:
" "
50% of Japanese Wikipedia is written with just 200 kanji. 75% of Japanese Wikipedia is written with just 500 kanji.
" "
Audio, video, and text content you love. Materials you will be willing to repeat again and again.
There are many kanji frequency lists available online, but most are based on newspapers, meaning that the rankings tend to be skewed toward specialized vocabulary used in business, finance, geography, crime reporting, etc. To create a less biased frequency list, a Reviewing the Kanji forum member named Shang decided to use the whole of Japanese Wikipedia as the text corpus. That’s some serious data to crunch! Fortunately, Shang was kind enough to compile and share the data in a nifty Google Doc that includes KANJIDIC reference numbers, as well as Remembering the Kanji frame numbers and keywords. You rock Shang! !
View Shang’s Google Doc: “Kanji Frequency in Wikipedia”. 130
Learn “Radicals” In 1710, K$ngx' Dì (, emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty) decreed the creation of a new and improved Chinese dictionary. Six years later, the Kangxi Dictionary ( , k$ngx' zìdi(n) was published, a massive tome containing over 47,000 entries. Considering the dictionary’s volume of entries (and the fact that over half of them are graphic variants of the same basic character), it’s not particularly useful for our purposes. The dictionary did, however, leave one lasting convention that we can put to good use: the standard 214 bushu (, “kanji radicals”). !
See the complete list of 214 Kangxi radicals on W ikipedia.
Just as 26 letters combine to create tens of thousands of words in English, these 214 graphical building blocks combine to form tens of thousands of Chinese characters. Some radicals can act as stand-alone kanji, while others only appear within compound characters. For example: "
by itself means “power” or “muscle”. When combined with (a radical/kanji meaning “craft”), you get a new character meaning “achievement”: .
"
The kanji for water is . When used as a radical on the left side of a character, it usually changes shape to , like in the character (“creek”).
Memorizing the meaning, writing, and pronunciation of radicals offers Japanese learners three key advantages:
Radicals Save You Time Would you rather have to learn every single stroke in each new character you encounter, or just recognize a few familiar chunks?
Radicals Help You Create Mnemonics Trying to learn kanji by pure rote memory is not only tedious, but also highly ineffective. A far more fun and effective way to remember meaning andonwriting of characters it to More construct vivid mentalthe stories based its constituent radicals. on this method shortly.
Radicals Help You Guess Kanji Meanings & Pronunciations Contrary to popular belief, most Chinese characters are not pictographs. Nearly 90% are actually “pictophonetic” compounds comprised of two chunks, a “phonetic indicator” that points to the character’s pronunciation, and a “semantic indicator” relating to its meaning. There are plenty of exceptions, but these indicators enable you to make educated guesses about a character’s pronunciation and meaning even if you’re seeing it for the first time and don’t have a dictionary handy. 131
Focus on the Highest-Frequency Radicals First
"
: roof/crown radical
Just as high-frequency kanji account for the vast majority of Japanese Wikipedia, a small number of radicals make up a large percentage of the 2,136 common-use characters. The following 6 radicals, for example, make up 25% of all jouyou kanji:
"
: shell
"
: woman
"
: mouth
"
: water
"
: tree
"
: person
" "
: village (when on the right); wall (when on the left) : gold/metal
Combined with the above 18 radicals, the following 30 radicals account for 75% of jouyou kanji: "
: one
" " "
: hand : heart
Combined with the above 6 radicals, the following 12 account for 50% of jouyou kanji:
" " "
: sword : ten : rice field : fire
"
: word
"
: big
"
: sun/day
"
: mountain
"
: thread
"
: food/meal
"
: meat/organ (moon)
"
: vehicle
"
: ground/dirt
"
: step/walking radical
"
: road radical
"
: eye
"
: grass/plant radical
"
: rain 132
"
: dog
Mind Look-Alike Radicals
"
: ball (king)
"
: stone
"
: power
"
: garment
When you’re just starting to learn Chinese characters, you may find yourself confusing “look-alike” radicals. Not to worry; we all go through this stage, and with enough exposure, your brain will get used to differentiating the smallest character details at lightning speed. But to give yourself a head start, take a moment to review some of the common offenders:
"
: bow
"
: bamboo
"
: again
" "
/: action radical : show on an altar radical
"
: alcohol radical
"
: enclosure radical
"
: grain radical
"
: building on a cliff radical
"
: sickness/illness radical
"
: cloth radical
"
: corpse radical
"
: inch/measurement radical
"
(“person”) vs (“step”)
"
(“ice”) vs (“water”)
"
(“earth”) vs (“scholar”)
"
(“man”) vs (“enter”) vs (“eight”)
"
(“knife”) vs (“power”) vs (“wrap”)
"
(“grain”) vs (“distinguish”) vs (“rice”)
"
(“cliff”) vs (“building on a cliff”) vs (“sickness”)
133
Use “Remembering the Kanji” (RTK) “Remembering the Kanji” (or “RTK” for short) was created by Dr. James Heisig of the Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture in Nagoya, Japan. A quick search on the Internet will show that RTK has both die-hard fans and vehement detractors. Personally, I think it is one of the most effective tools for committing the meaning and writing of Chinese characters into long-term memory. In recent years, however, many excellent tools have been created that can supplement or replace RTK if it isn’t your cup of ocha ( ). More on these in the “Other Kanji Learning Tools” section. If you bought the Complete Package, don’t miss my in-depth interview with Dr. Heisig.
Make sure to use the RTK cheat sheet, including all the kanji, keywords & frame numbers.
“Imaginative Memory” Trumps “Visual Memory” As Heisig points out in the introduction to Volume 1 of Remembering the Kanji, trying to remember Chinese characters
using visual memory is like trying to memorize the shifting patterns of a kaleidoscope:
“Picture yourself holding a kaleidoscope up to the light as still as possible, trying to fix in memory the particular pattern that the play of light and mirrors and colored stones has created. Chances are you have such an untrained memory for such things that it will take some time; but let us suppose that you succeed after ten or fifteen minutes. You close your eyes, trace the pattern in your head, and then check your image against the srcinal pattern until you are sure you have it remembered. Then someone passes by and jars your elbow. The pattern is lost, and in its place a new jumble appears. Immediately your memory begins to scramble. You set the kaleidoscope aside, sit down, and try to draw what you had just memorized, but to no avail. There is simply nothing left in memory to grab hold of. The kanji are like that. One can sit at one’s desk and drill a half dozen characters for an hour or two, only to discover on the morrow that when something similar is seen, the former memory is erased or hopelessly confused by the new information.” !James Heisig, Remembering the Kanji
Unless you have a photographic memory, a visual memory approach will lead only to frustration and failure. Instead, use what Heisig dubs “imaginative memory”: powerful story mnemonics based on the meanings of each character’s “primitive elements”. You may hear some people say that this imaginative approach is “childish” or “extraneous”, but such folks have obviously not used 134
the book, didn’t follow the instructions carefully, or are just masochists who enjoy torturous rote approaches. “The aim is to shock the mind’s eye, to disgust it, to enchant it, to tease it, or to entertain it in any way possible so as to brand it with an image intimately associated with the key word. That image, in turn, inasmuch as it is composed of primitive meanings, will dictate precisely how the kanji is to be penned—stroke for stroke, jot for jot.”
Primitive Elements vs Radicals While the vast majority of standard Kangxi radicals are included in RTK, Heisig adds in a number of useful building blocks not included in the official list. To avoid confusion, these stroke combinations are referred to as “primitives” or “primitive elements”, not “radicals”.
Don’t Rush Through Imaginative Memory Stories Creating effective “imaginative memory” stories can take a little extra time, but it’s well worth the investment. Would you rather spend a single 5 minute session now to fuse a character into long-term memory, or have to come back to again and again because you didn’t spend enough time up front to make an effective story?
How Long Will RTK Take? Using the RTK approach, a motivated non-native adult learner can master the meaning and writing of 2,136 jouyou kanji in just a few months, not the many years it takes most Japanese children. Granted, you will still need to learn the various pronunciations and secondary meanings of each character (a much longer process), but this knowledge will come with sufficient exposure to authentic Japanese. And gaining the ability to recognize and produce all standard use kanji in such a short period of time provides a massive boost to confidence, unlocks oceans of kanji-based learning materials, and lays a strong, level neural foundation to build further knowledge upon.
Why Does RTK Present Kanji in a Non-Standard Order? One of the first things you may notice about RTK is that it does not present characters in the standard order prescribed by the Japanese Ministry of Education. This is for good reason. As Heisig puts it: “If one’s goal is to learn to write the entire list of general-use characters, then it seems best to learn them in the order best suited to memory, not in order of frequency or according to the order in which they are taught to Japanese children.”
135
Why Doesn’t RTK Include Ancient Pictographs or Etymologies?
Why Doesn’t RTK 1 Teach the Readings of the Kanji?
Some kanji books attempt to improve memory (and book sales!) by including the ancient pictographs modern Chinese characters were developed from. While these drawings may be fun to look at, they aren’t much help in the learning process. As Heisig explains:
The most common criticism of RTK is that it doesn’t include the readings of kanji in the first volume. This is by design. Most textbooks and kanji resources teach all the information at once, with the assumption that “one is useless without the other”. In reality, it’s far more efficient to learn oneafter the other, concentrating first on writing, which quite surprisingly is actually the easier task, and then conquering the more complicated task, learning kanji readings:
“Pictographs are an unreliable way to remember all but very few kanji; and even in those cases, the pictograph should be discovered by the student by toying with the forms, pen in hand, rather than given in one of its historical graphic forms. For another, the presentation of an image actually inhibits imagination and restricts it to the biases of the artist... The more srcinal work the individual does with an image, the easier will it be to remember a kanji.”
The same rational explains why etymologies are not included: “As charming as it is to see the ancient drawing of a woman etched behind its respective kanji, or to discover the rudimentary form of a hand or a tree or a house, when the character itself is removed, the clear visual memory of the familiar object is precious little help for recalling how to write it.”
“One has only to look at the progress of non-Japanese raised with kanji to see the logic approach. When Chinese adult students come to of thethe study of Japanese, they already know what the kanji mean and how to write them. They have only to learn how to read them. In fact, Chinese grammar and pronunciation have about as much to do with Japanese as English does. It is their knowledge of the meaning and writing of the kanji that gives the Chinese the decisive edge.”
How to Use RTK Here are a few quick tips and reminders to get the most out of the RTK approach: "
RTK is NOT a dictionary.RTK is designed for learning
Chinese characters, not looking them up. That said, the 136
book does include an index that helps you find specific kanji, primitives, and keywords. "
Read the introduction. If you are like me, you usually skip
most book’s introductions and get right to the meat. That is a mistake with RTK. In the book’s introduction, Heisig goes into great detail explaining not only how the book works, but why it works. "
Get the free update if you have an older copy. In 2010, the
Japanese government added 196 characters to the official “general-use” list. Pre-2010 versions of Remembering the Kanji were actually ahead of the curve and already contained 39 of these additions. They, however, still lack 157of the characters you will now need to be considered “literate” in Japanese. Fortunately, James Heisig has created a free download for those who have older versions of RTK. !
The primary RTK resource is the Volume 1 book, Remembering the Kanji: A Complete Course on How Not to Forget the Meaning and Writing of Japanese Characters. The 484-page paperback guides you through how to learn the meaning and writing of 2,200 characters, including: "
The basic 1,945 general-use kanji made standard in 1981.
"
196 additional kanji added to the general-use list in 2010.
"
59 kanji frequently used in proper names.
!
Buy “Remembering the Kanji: Volume 1” on Amazon.
!
Download a free PDF of the book’s introduction & first 294 kanji.
Confirm the exact meaning of each keyword. The foundation
of the Heisig system is the English keyword connected with each kanji. To ensure that you don’twaste time and energy creating a story that conjures up the wrong concepts, make sure to look up any unknown keywords using Wikipedia, Google Image searches, etc. Trust me, there will likely be at least a few words you have never heard. "
RTK: Volume 1
Download the free PDF supplement.
RTK: Volume 2 The second book in the RTK series, A Systematic Guide to Reading Japanese Characters, is designed to teach the various onyomi and kunyomi readings of Japanese characters in a systematic way. !
Buy “Remembering the Kanji: Volume 2” on Amazon.
RTK: Volume 3 The third and final volume in the RTK series, Writing and Reading Japanese Characters for Upper-Level Proficiency, helps learners 137
master the meaning, writing, and reading of 800 advanced kanji needed for university and special fields of study. !
Buy “Remembering the Kanji: Volume 3” on Amazon.
Official RTK App for iOS The official RTK iOS app is intended as a companion to—not replacement for—the books. It includes all the characters, primitives, keywords, and readings included in RTK 1, 2, and 3, but lacks the explanations, tips, and stories found in the books. !
Download the RTK app for iOS ($9.99 USD).
Reviewing the Kanji Site The Reviewing the Kanji site allows you to: "
View, share, and vote on user-generated RTK kanji stories.
"
Study with SRS-optimized flashcards.
"
Review your past progress to date.
"
Post questions on the active community forum.
!
Set up a free Reviewing the Kanji account.
Other Kanji Learning Tools As I said earlier, there are quite a few excellent alternatives to RTK if you decide it’s not for you or want to augment the RTK books with more modern tools.
Skritter Skritter is one of the most powerful kanji and vocabulary learning tools for Japanese and Mandarin Chinese learners. According to their site, Skritter users remember an average of 90.2% of characters learned after three semesters, while non-Skritter users only remember 39% after the same period of study! The Skritter site and apps allow you to learn the meaning, pronunciation, and writing of all standard Japanese kanji with attractive, user-friendly tools, and one of the best spaced repetition systems around: "
Instead of the potentially problematic self-ratings used by most SRS systems, Skritter employs what they call “active recall”, a method that requires you to actually write the character on the screen of your mobile device or using your mouse/trackpad on your computer.
"
This way, you know for sure which characters your truly know by heart and which you can simply recognize but not yet produce from memory. 138
Other benefits of Skritter include: "
Free, well-designed apps. While Skritter is a premium
service, their attractive, intuitive, and feature rich apps are free of charge and boast elegant, user-friendly designs. As of writing, the app is available on iOS and as a public-beta for Android. "
Ability to test writings, readings, tones, and definitions in isolation. Most flashcards lump a whole bunch of information
At $14.99 a month, Skritter is certainly not the cheapest kanji learning tool around, but I think that many learners will find it well worth the money. !
Sign up for a free 7-day trial.
!
Download the Skritter app for iOS (free).
!
Download the Skritter app for Android (free).
!
Browse textbook vocabulary lists available on Skritter.
together on the same side of the card. This makes it difficult to isolate which elements you have mastered, and which you are still struggling with (e.g. you may know the meaning and writing of awith particular Japanese character but are stillof these struggling its pronunciation). Skritter tests each components separately, prompting you to write, pronounce, or define a character/word depending on which type of card you’re confronted with. "
Non-intrusive handwriting guidance. Skritter’s elegant
handwriting recognition system not only checks whether your stroke order and form is correct, but also if you are writing a particular stroke in the proper direction and with the required “hooks” seen in some characters. If you are completely lost, simply tap in the center of the screen to be shown the next stroke in blue. "
Pre-populated textbook lists. One of Skritter’s best features is the ability to either create your own lists or pick kanji lists
If you bought the Complete Package, make sure to use your coupon code to receive up to $30 off.
Read the Kanji Read the Kanji is one of the most elegant, useful kanji tools
around. Here are my favorite features: "
Unlike many tools that just drill you on the individual readings of individual characters in isolation, Read the Kanji uses complete example sentences to provide context.
"
The site checks if you know the different readings a particular character can take on when used to express different meanings. For example, whether should be pronounced uchi (, “my” or “our”) or ie (, “house”) in a given context.
taken from the most popular textbooks. 139
"
You can type in roumaji and it will automatically be transformed into kana.
The free version gives you access to characters found on level 4 of the JLPT, with access to the other 3 JLPT levels, as well as yojijukugo (, “four-character phrases/ idioms”) available to paid members. !
"
Useful tags point out if a particular word is potentially offensive, is usually used in compounds only, i.e. jukugo ( ), is used as a counter word, etc.
"
Particles are presented together with words that they follow so you get an idea of how they are used in context (Japanese particles are called “post positions” because they come after words they modify).
"
There are a number of “homophonic synonyms” in Japanese like katai () which can be written with multiple kanji ( , , and ). Most dictionaries define them all the same (in this case “hard” or “stiff”), but fail to explain the different nuance that each character can represent. Kanji Damage has an excellent appendix that explains the exact difference in meaning between such synonyms.
!
Sign up for a free Kanji Damage account.
Sign up for a free trial ($5/mo thereafter).
Kanji Damage I love Kanji Damage’s funny, practical, no B.S. approach tokanji. Here are some key features: " Each kanji is broken down into its constituent parts (i.e. radicals), out of which they create RTK-style mnemonic stories to help you remember characters far more easily than rote memorization. Unlike RTK, however, the Kanji Damage stories even help you remember how to pronounce the onyomi () and kunyomi ( ) of each character. "
"
They rank things in terms of frequency and utility value, not the standard (but rather useless) order they are presented to Japanese children in school. They also cut out 100 infrequent kanji they consider “bogus”.
Wanikani Created by Tofugu,Wanikani (, lit. “Crocodile Crab”) is a beautifully designed (and creatively named) kanji learning website dashed with enough humor to help the kanji medicine go down more smoothly. !
Sign up for Wanikani.
Look alike kanji are pointed out when relevant, with useful hints to help you keep them straight. 140
Tangorin Kanji Lists Tangorin is one of my favorite online Japanese dictionaries, but in addition to looking up and saving new vocabulary, the site is also a great source for common kanji lists, including: "
JLPT kanji for level 4, 3, 2 and 1
"
Kanji for personal names: jinmeiyou kanji ( ).
"
The 2,500 kanji used most frequently in newspapers.
!
Browse the various kanji lists on Tangorin.com.
How to Study & Review Kanji More Efficiently Review Characters Using Spaced Repetition While SRS tools are useful throughout your Japanese studies, they are perhaps most applicable to learning kanji. Instead of wasting your time reviewing characters you already know, your SRS can present you with only new characters or those you are still struggling with. !
See the “Use Spaced Repetition” section.
Joyo Kanji Kai?
Practice Characters in Context!
This site answers one simple question: is a particular kanji you encounter a jouyou kanji (, “standard use character”) or not?
Most Japanese learner tools and materials drill words in isolation because it’s much easier to create materials using individual words (especially digital tools and apps that can be made on the fly from a database), and because knowledge of individual words is much easier to grade in standardized tests. Don’t fall into this widespread academic trap!
!
Search a kanji’s “jouyou-ness” on Joyo Kanji Kai.
!
Read the site’s FAQs for more information.
White Rabbit Kanji Wall Poster Though it doesn’t (yet) include the latest characters added to the standard jouyou kanji list in 2010, White Rabbit’skanji wall poster is still a useful addition to your office, kitchen, or bathroom. !
"
Read and listen to authentic content you love, and apply characters and words you learn in actual communication.
"
Get native speakers to correct your writing.
Buy White Rabbit’s Laminated Heisig Kanji Wall Poster ($30). 141
Mind Look-Alike Kanji When you find yourself mixing up two or more kanji, spend more time with your imaginative memory stories, ensuring that they are each unique, vivid, and easy to remember. !
See Nihonshock’s “20 Similar Looking Kanji” list.
!
See KanjiTastic’s “Similar Kanji Kanji List”.
Study Kanji Right Before Bed & Upon Waking Studying new kanji right before bed is ideal because our brains consolidate new information while we sleep. Whatever you see or think about right before this neural housekeeping session has a better chance of sticking. Furthermore, I find it to be a rather relaxing practice that helps gradually lull me to sleep.
Take it “Bird by Bird” and “Brick by Brick” It is all too easy to get intimidated (and depressed!) by kanji when you consider how many you still have to learn. The key is to focus not on the distance between here and your final goal, but on just one—and only one—character at a time. “Thirty years ago my older brother, who was ten years old at the time, was trying to get a report written on birds that he'd had three months to write, which was due the next day. We were out at our family cabin in Bolinas, and he was
at the kitchen table close to tears, surrounded by binder paper and pencils and unopened books about birds, immobilized by the hugeness of the task ahead. Then my father sat down beside him put his arm around my brother's shoulder, and said, ‘Bird by bird, buddy. Just take it bird by bird.’” !Anne Lamott, Bird by Bird
“You don't set out to build a wall. You don't say 'I'm going to build the biggest, baddest, greatest wall that's ever been built.' You don't start there. You say, 'I'm going to lay this brick as perfectly as a brick can be laid. You do that every single day. And soon you have a wall.” !Will Smith, The Charlie Rose Show (skip to 3:23)
Consistency is King Though you should focus on one character at a time as you study, it is a good idea to set a daily target. I recommend 10 in the beginning moving up to 30 as you get into the flow of things. But don’t rely on will power alone; it is a finite resource that will become depleted without constant renewal. Instead, use the power of social accountability and anti-charities to keep you on target using tools like Stickk.com and Beeminder: !
Sign up for Stickk.com.
!
Sign up for Beeminder.
142
Section 4
Master Pronunciation
Maximize Your Chances to Hear & Speak Japanese Increasing your exposure to spoken Japanese, and your chances to produce it yourself, are both mandatory to steps toward conversational fluency. The good news is that modern learners have more ways than ever before to flood themselves with Japanese listening input, and practice conversing with native speakers, no matter where in the world they call home.
Make Japanese Listening Input the Default As I mentioned earlier, don’t deplete your willpower reserves by constantly having to choose between listening to Japanese or English. Make the former the only choice by filling your device with Japanese podcasts, placing Japanese movies by the TV, streaming Japanese radio online, etc. “If you are lucky, you will NOT be understood. If you are unlucky, you will be MISunderstood.” !Michel Thomas
Proper pronunciation is arguably the most important component of getting your meaning across. Native speakers can often make sense of bad grammar, but such is not usually the case for bad pronunciation. You will likely always carry a foreign accent in Japanese, but you can use the tips and tools in this section to at least develop extremely strong listening skills and accurate, easy to understand pronunciation.
If you bought the Complete Package, check out the immersion ideas in my sample weekly schedule.
Choose Texts with Audio Companions If you want to strengthen both your listening and reading skills at the same time, choose materials that have both text and audio. !
See the “Choose Audio Materials Whenever Possible” section. 143
Change Your Device Language to Japanese In addition to giving you valuable reading input, changing your device to Japanese can also provide valuable exposure to spoken Japanese, especially in apps like Google Maps which can give you turn by turn directions in Japanese no matter where you live. There’s just something cool about being told to hop on the 405 freeway in Japanese!
Talk to Your Smartphone
One of the hidden advantages of setting your device display language to Japanese is that other features (e.g. Siri) can also get the same international makeover. You can then practice setting appointments, searching the web, asking for directions, etc., all in Japanese. For iPhone users, here’s how to change the Siri input language: "
Open up “Settings” (or if your phone is in Japanese).
"
Click (“General”).
"
Click “Siri”, then (“Language”.
"
Select (“Japanese”) from the list.
Android users (and even iOS users allergic to Siri) can get much the same benefit using “Google Now” (integrated into the “Google Search” apps on iOS and Android). Just make sure your device display language is changed to Japanese first, and you can then hit the mic icon in the Google Search app to enter commands and web searches in Japanese. !
Learn more about Google Now.
!
Download Google Search for Android (free).
!
Download Google Search for iOS (free).
Get a Tutor or Exchange Partner
Do not try to learn Japanese in an “input bubble”. Listening and reading are extremely important, but they are only half of the story. You have to apply what you learn in actual spoken communication, and for those who don’t live in a Japanese speaking environment, finding a good online tutor or exchange partner is one of the best ways to ensure regular speaking practice, while also getting valuable feedback on what mistakes you make. !
See the “Work With a Tutor” section for more info.
144
Make Friends with Native Speakers This is a tricky one. Trying to make friends with someone just because of their native language is disingenuous at best, and can be downright sleazy if you don’t go about it in a tactful way. My suggestion is to just be honest up front that you are looking for native speakers to practice with. To that end, it often works best to start out with a more formal “tutoring” or “language exchange” relationship, and then gradually steer toward Friendsville as you get to know one another better. In the beginning, try lots of different tutors and exchanges until you find someone that you click with.
What About Romantic Relationships? International romance is of course even more complex than international friendships. You already know what’s good about the loveydovey stuff, so let me briefly discuss the downsides: "
between your level in Japanese and their level in English usually means that you will fall back on whichever language you both speak better (usually English). So even though you have the perfect opportunity to practice, the practical needs of day to day life will usually win out over your linguistic goals. "
Due to cultural and linguistic barriers, many of the international couplings I’ve observed (and a few I’ve experienced first-hand) never reached the level of unconditional love and naked vulnerability that define healthy adult relationships. "If
things get serious and you decide to get married, one of you will have to decide to leave home. If you’re lucky, you can split your time between both of your home countries, but chances are that you will spend the majority of your time in just one of the countries. Are you willing to be apart from your family and friends long-term? Are they?
Many people will tell you that the best way to learn Japanese is to “get a Japanese girlfriend or boyfriend”. There is certainly some truth to this (being around a native speaker 24/7 significantly increases your input and output opportunities), but in practice, the disparity 145
Imitate Natives as Closely as Possible Thanks to racist comedians and cliché movies, most of us have come to equate imitation of foreign accents with mockery of that language and the people who speak it. I hate bigotry as much as you, but genuinely trying to pronounce Japanese the way the Japanese do is not mockery. It’smandatory.
Pronunciation Trumps Grammar In my experience, good pronunciation can excuse all manner of grammatical and lexical sins. It’s not to say that you should coast by on pronunciation alone, but if you had to choose between 1) having excellent pronunciation but broken grammar, and 2) bad pronunciation but excellent grammar, the first option is far better for those wanting to understand—and be understood by—native speakers.
Use the Shadowing Method We already covered the “Shadowing Method” in great detail earlier, but I want to mention it again briefly given its power to significantly improve your listening and speaking skills. The approach takes a lot of work, but the effort is well worth the prize: fast, native-like pronunciation. !
See the “Use Shadowing” section.
Complete a Pimsleur Course Pimsleur courses are designed completely around listening and speaking, and can help get you properly (or at least, comprehensibly) pronouncing Japanese from your first day. Their CDs and MP3 downloads are far from cheap, but I believe the benefit to one’s aural skills is worth the cost. Alternatively, you can check if your local library has a copy. !
Try a free Pimsleur lesson.
!
Browse Pimsleur’s Japanese courses on Amazon.
Record Yourself Hearing a recording of one’s voice is seldom an enjoyable experience, as many of discover when struggling to record our outgoing voicemail message. “Is that what I really sound like?” we ask ourselves in disbelief before going back to re-record the message 12 times. Recording yourself speaking Japanese will probably be just as uncomfortable, but it’s well worth the pain: "
Find short audio clips of native Japanese speakers, listen a few times, and then record your own version.
"
Compare the two, looking for differences in intonation, speed, pauses, etc.
"
Then rerecord, trying to sound as close to the srcinal native speaker version as possible. 146
Fix Common Pronunciation Problems Most English speakers learning Japanese run into the same pronunciation challenges. Spend a little extra time to get these things right and you will probably find that native speakers have a much easier time understanding you:
Mispronouncing the Japanese ‘R’ Sound Falling somewhere between a ‘d’, ‘r’, and ‘l’ sound, the Japanese ‘r’ throws most English learners for a loop. Here are a few tricks to help you produce the sound: "
There is a very similar sound in American English: the ‘t’ part of words like “water”, “latter”, etc. You might not have realized it, but the ‘t’ sound often changes to a “flapped” when sandwiched between vowels. The Japanese ‘r’ is also a flap, so try starting to say “water” in your head, but then go into ra (), ri (), ru (), re (), or ro () out loud.
"
If you speak Spanish, the Japanese ‘r’ is actually quite similar to Spanish’s rolled ‘r’; the difference being that in Japanese, the tongue only taps against the ridge of the mouth once, not multiple times as in Spanish.
!
For more tips, watch “How To Pronounce The Japanese "R" Sound”.
Mispronouncing Japanese’s D’Double Consonants Some Japanese words have double consonants that require you to pause your pronunciation slightly just as you begin to say the first consonant and then release the full sound for the second consonant. If we take the word kekkon for example ( , “marriage”), you would pronounce kek first, stopping briefly with your tongue where it would make the ‘k’ sound (but without yet releasing the sound), and then saying kon after the short pause. Other examples include: "
kippu (, “ticket”)
"
kitte (, “postage stamp”)
"
kissaten (, “a coffee shop”)
!
Listen to examples of Japanese words with double consonants.
Pronouncing Word Final ‘U’ Sounds That Should Be Silent Unless you want to sound like a geisha (), make sure not to pronounce the ‘u’ sound at the end of desu () and the verb ending -masu (). Though they are not written that way, they should actually be pronounced des and mas.
Adding “Dirty Diphthongs” to Japanese’s “Pure Vowels” Japanese has only five vowels, a (), i (), u (), e (), and o (), all of which are considered “pure vowels” or “monophthongs” like those of Spanish and Italian. This is in 147
contrast to English’s “dirty diphthongs” that combine two or more vowels together. To see the difference, put your hand on your jaw and say the words in Set 1 and then in Set 2: Se1 t
"
Ame. Pronounced with a high-low pitch accent, ame means
“rain” (), and with a low-high pitch accent it means “candy” ().
Se2t
bait
bought
boat
bet
bout
beat
See how your jaw moved more during the Set 1 words and not as much during the Set 2 words? That’s because the latter words contain “pure vowels” similar to those used in Japanese.
Not Pronouncing the Correct Pitch Accent Japanese is not a tonal language like Chinese, but it does use what’s called “pitch accent” to differentiate otherwise identical sounding words. Here are some common examples: "
“fence” (), and with a flat pitch accent it means “persimmon” ().
"
Kumo. Pronounced with a high-low pitch accent, kumo
means “cloud” (), and with a low-high pitch accent it means “spider” (). Do your best to learn and pronounce pitch accents correctly, but don’t fret too much about it: "
In spoken Japanese, any potential ambiguity is usually cleared up by the context. People probably would not talk about “candy” falling from the sky, “spidery” weather, or asking you to pass some “bridges” while at the dinner table.
"
In written Japanese, you have the kanji to tell you which is which. All the more reason to learn the characters as soon as possible!
!
Learn more about Japanese pitch accent on Wikipedia.
Hashi. Pronounced with a high-low pitch accent, hashi
means “chop sticks” (), with a low-high pitch accent it means “bridge” (), and with a flat pitch accent it means “edge” (). "
Kaki. Pronounced with a high-low pitch accent, kaki means
“oyster” (), with a low-high pitch accent it means 148
Section 5 Change Your Device Language to Japanese
Learn to Read Japanese
Most of us spend a significant amount of time working and playing on our computers and mobile devices. Why not use this time to expand your vocabulary and practice your Japanese reading skills? !
See the “Change Your Devices to Japanese” section.
Use the Japanese Version of Sites & Search Engines Just as you can change your device display language to Japanese to increase exposure, you can do the same for Google, YouTube, Facebook, etc.
Maximize Your Exposure to Written Japanese Educators, researchers, linguists and textbook companies have come up with a dizzying array of complex theories and methodologies for improving readings skills (especially for school children), but like most things, they tend to overcomplicate a relatively straight forward process. To get better at reading, you simply need to do more of it. To that end, here are some simple ways to maximize your exposure to written Japanese throughout your day: If you bought the Complete Package, check out the immersion ideas in my sample weekly schedule.
!
See “Use the Japanese Version of Sites & Search Engines”.
Get Your News in Japanese Many Japanese newspapers have free web versions which give you the added benefit of being able to use pop-up dictionaries. !
See “Recommended News Sites & Apps”.
Read What You Listen To Whenever possible, try to find podcasts with transcripts, buy magazines and books that include audio CDs, and get the audio and text versions of the same book. This helps you improve 149
listening and reading at the same time, and builds stronger connections between the spoken and written word. !
See “Japanese Podcasts”.
Learn to Read Japanese More Quickly
language. But there’s good news: the simple act of using the end of a finger or a pen to trace along the line as you read can prevent these problems and significantly increase your reading speed and efficiency. This practice is also a good way to help ensure that you finish an entire page before going back to look up unfamiliar terms.
Read Along to Audiobooks Read an Entire Section First, Then Look Up Words in the Dictionary Especially in the early days of your Japanese journey, you will likely encounter heaps of words you have never seen, words you have seen before but don’t yet remember, and words you want to explore in more detail. Some argue that you should just ignore such words and move on, while others recommend looking up every single unknown word as you come across it. My advice is somewhere in the middle. I say look up whatever words you want, but only after you’ve made at least one full pass through each page or section. To make it easier to go back, I suggest quickly underlining unknown words as you go.
As I mentioned above, getting the audio version of text content is a great way to simultaneously improve your reading and listening skills. But it also has another hidden benefit: it forces you to read faster. It may be difficult to keep up at first, but do your best to
scan the lines of text at the same speed they are being spoken. You can always pre-read or reread to check comprehension and fill in any holes.
Choose the Right Reading Content Read for Enjoyment
Trace Each Line as You Read Though few of us realize we’re doing it as we read, most of us waste a lot of time jumping back and forth, regressing, pausing on unknown words, and repeating the same sentence twice. These phenomena can be even more pronounced in a foreign
Many people grow up hating reading, which comes as no real surprise considering how much emphasis is placed on testing one’s reading skills in formal education, instead of reading for reading’s sake. When learning Japanese, try to make reading an enjoyable pastime you get to do, not a chore you have to do. This 150
is easiest when reading topics you are already extremely interested in (and knowledgable about) in your native language. “There is a total incompatibility between the joy of reading, a vagabond experience, and the experience of reading in order to answer questions, and explain what you understood.” !Rubem Alves
Read Content Just Above Your Ability Level “So first she tasted the porridge of the Great, Huge Bear, and that was too hot for her; and she said a bad word about that. And then she tasted the porridge of the Middle Bear, and that was too cold for her; and she said a bad word about that, too. And then she went to the porridge of the Little, Small, Wee Bear, and tasted that; and that was neither too hot nor too cold, but just right; and she liked it so well that she ate it all up.” !The Three Bears
One reason many learners dislike reading in a foreign language is that they are often forced to read content far above their current ability level. The sink or swim approach may work for some, but most learners just get discouraged and give up. On the flip side, reading content that is not sufficiently challenging or stimulating can be equally problematic for language acquisition. The key is to find text that is just above your current level of comprehension: not too easy, and not too difficult. To determine if something is at
the right level for you, I suggest using the “Rule of Twenty”. If you have to look up more than 20 words on a page, the text is probably a bit too tough, or at least will require so much time in the dictionary that you’ll lose the flow of the story.
Find Bilingual Texts While I don’t encourage you to constantly fall back on translating to and from Japanese, it can be very helpful to see how particular words, phrases, and sentences are rendered in both languages. Having the English version also greatly improves comprehension, even of materials that would otherwise be beyond your level. !
Browse free bilingual books on Bauddha.net.
!
Read Nihongo E Na’s instructions on how to use the Bauddha site.
!
Browse Kodansha’s bilingual Japanese-English books on Amazon.
Choose Digital Reading Materials Digital materials are superior for language learning since they: "
Allow you to look up words more quickly.
"
Are easier to carry around with you.
"
Tend to be much cheaper.
!
See “Choose Digital Materials When Possible”.
151
Section 6
Learn to Write Japanese
Write in Japanese Every Chance You Get Write Your Journal in Japanese Journalling in Japanese is perhaps the best way to make writing in the language a habit since it’s something you can do every single day. Even if you just scribble a single sentence, you are at least making progress.
Take Meeting & Class Notes in Japanese By writing things down in Japanese, you miraculously transform time and soul-sucking meetings or classes into something useful (at least for your progress in Japanese). And best of all, your colleagues or classmates won’t be able to read what you’re writing (assuming you don’t live in Japan). Unlike speaking, writing is not a naturally evolved, innate language skill. Rather, it is a human innovation that began hitting the human scene in the Middle East, the Far East, and Mesoamerica between six and nine thousand years ago depending on who you ask and what you consider true “writing”. There is fierce debate as to what culture first invented true writing, but no matter when, where, and by whom it was first created, one thing remains certain: writing is one of the most useful human tools ever invented!
Write Shopping Lists in Japanese Off to buy some groceries? Write out your list in Japanese (using the dictionary for any words you might not yet know). Nothing reveals holes in your vocabulary like having to write things out! And if you will be living in Japan, this is a great way to familiarize yourself with the Japanese terms for various groceries and household items you will need to know day to day. 152
Get Your Writing Corrected While massive amounts of input and output will help you gradually improve your Japanese writing skills, getting direct feedback from a tutor or native speaker will greatly accelerate the process. Here are a few places to get your writing corrected for free, or at least for a reasonable price.
Lang-8 This amazing site allows language learners to get free correction of their writing by native speakers. In return, you then provide corrections of compositions written in your native language. Highly recommended. !
My Language Exchange As the name implies, My Language Exchange is a place to find native speakers for language exchanges. But the site also offers an “International Pen-pal” service that allows you to do international email exchanges. Best of all, you can write back and forth using their email system so you don’t have to share your personal email with strangers.
Learn the Proper Stroke Order In the beginning, just remembering what a particular character means and what strokes go where is the priority. But don’t
underestimate the importance of learning proper stroke order.
Sign up for a free Lang-8 account.
Why Stroke Order Matters LingQ Using LingQ points, you can get your writing corrected by natives speakers. Points can be purchased outright or earned through tutoring other LingQ members and submitting new learner content to the library. !
Sign up for a LingQ account.
If you bought the Complete Package, use your discount code to receive 20% off.
Being able to write the correct stroke order has many advantages: "
Using the proper stroke order helps ensure more attractive, well-balanced kanji, where as improper order is one of the common causes of “Ugly Character Syndrome”.
"
Proper stroke order is required to use handwriting input on your smartphone screen or computer trackpad. This input method is especially useful in cases when you know what a character looks like but not how it’s pronounced. 153
Basic Stroke Order Rules While there are some exceptions, Chinese characters generally follow a finite set of stroke order rules:
Learn Japanese Calligraphy Whether you are interested in shodou (, “calligraphy”) as an art form or not, I highly recommend that you learn at least the basics for the sake improving your overall Japanese writing skills:
"
Top to bottom.
"
Left to right.
"
The first 2 strokes of square enclosures go first, then the contents, then the bottom.
Calligraphy Reinforces Proper Stroke Order
"
For kanji with bottom enclosures, write the content first, then the enclosure.
Knowing the proper stroke order will make your life much easier in the long run (for the many reasons we just discussed), even if it requires some extra effort in the short-term.
!
For more about stroke order conventions, check out this excellent article from Skritter.
Stroke Order Tools There are a number of online dictionaries and mobile apps that show animated stroke orders for common Chinese characters. Here are my three favorites:
Calligraphy Helps You Write Attractive, Well-Balanced Kanji Learning to write Chinese characters well will bring a surprising amount of praise your way. And just like Western graphologists, many Japanese people will draw connections between your written characters and your inner character.
!
Skritter’s stroke-by-stroke spaced repetition flash cards.
Calligraphy is Good for Your Mind, Body & Soul
!
Midori’s stroke order diagrams (iOS, $9.99).
!
Tangorin’s stroke order diagrams (web, free; Android, $2.99).
Calligraphy can be extremely cathartic, providing a similar meditative effect as practicing (tài jí quán, “Taichi”) or yoga.
If you bought the Complete Package, use your discount code to receive up to $30 off Skritter. 154
Section 7
Learn to Type Japanese
Japanese Input Methods Roumaji Input
Though you should try to write by hand on paper as much as possible to reinforce your kanji knowledge, you will need to know how to input Japanese on your computer and smartphone to send emails or text messages, search for things online, or maintain a language learning blog.
The fastest way to enter Japanese (assuming you know how particular words are pronounced) is to type in roumaji using a standard QWERTY keyboard. Depending on your device, you will either need to change some of the settings or install an app.
Handwriting Input Many modern devices allow you to write out Chinese characters using the touch screen or trackpad. This is a great advantage for situations when you encounter a character you want to look up but don’t know how it’s pronounced.
Kana Input Devices made in Japan usually give you the option to type Japanese using kana, with little hiragana printed on the QWERTY keys. For example, the Q key is , the W key is , the E key is , the R key is , the T key is , the Y key is , etc. As you can see, the layout is fairly random just like the English QWERTY layout. Fortunately, Japanese-made computers usually give you the option to use roumaji input instead (a far faster approach for native English typers). 155
Set Up Your Device Adding Japanese Input on a Mac Enabling Japanese input on a Mac is quick and easy: "
Open “System Preferences”, click “Keyboard”, and select “Input Sources”.
"
Click the + symbol, choose “Japanese” (“Kotoeri”) from the list, and click “Add”.
"
Before you leave System Preferences, click on “Kotoeri” in the “Input Sources” list, and make sure you have “Hiragana” and “Katakana” checked. You probably won’t use the others.
"
To use the Japanese keyboard, click the flag icon in the menu bar (by the time display) and choose “Hiragana” or “Katakana” from the drop-down.
Alternatively, you can enable a keyboard shortcut to quickly switch between different input sources: "
Open System Preferences, click on “Keyboard” and then select “Shortcuts”.
"
Click on “Input Sources” in the lefthand column, and check the box next to “Select the previous input source”. To switch between input sources, you can now just hit Command (() and the spacebar.
Adding Japanese Input on iOS Devices Adding keyboards on your iOS device is just as easy (if not easier) than on a Mac: "
Click “Settings” and then “General”.
"
Scroll down to “Keyboard”.
"
Click “Keyboards” and then “Add New Keyboard”.
"
Select your preferred Japanese keyboards. I suggest “Japanese” (Roumaji) so you can quickly type Japanese using English letters.
Here are a few tips: " To delete a keyboard, just slide right to left on a keyboard and hit “Delete”. "
To change the order of keyboards, hit “Edit” and then hold and drag the keyboard using the triple gray line icons on the right.
"
To change the active input language, make sure you are in a text field and then tap the little globe icon until you get to the keyboard you want.
"
Alternatively, you can hold down the icon (without lifting your finger) and just slide up to the keyboard you want.
!
Read “iOS: Using International Keyboards” for more info.
156
Handwriting Input on iOS and OSX In cases where you know what a character looks like but not how it’s pronounced, you can try writing it out by hand on the screen of your iPhone, iPad, or iPad touch, or using your Mac’s trackpad. Keep in mind, however, that handwriting input is only available for Traditional and Simplified Chinese, not Japanese specifically, so there will be cases when the system doesn’t recognize a particular character form that differs between Japanese and Chinese. "
"
"
Open “System Preferences”, click “Keyboard”, and select “Input Sources”. Click the + symbol, choose “Chinese (Traditional)” from the list, select “Trackpad Writing”, and hit “Add”. To show or hide the trackpad input pop-up, hit Shift ()) + Control (*) + Space.
"
After typing a character on the trackpad, select the one you want from the vertical list on the right by tapping that section of the trackpad.
"
If you don’t see the character you’re looking for there, tap (“Other”) on the left.
"
To delete your entry and write again, tap the upper left corner of the trackpad.
!
Read “Using Trackpad Handwriting with Simplified or Traditional Chinese” for more info.
As an alternative, you can use the Japanese-specific handwriting input found in the Midori app for iOS and then cut and paste into other programs. !
Download Midori for iOS ($9.99).
Adding Japanese Input in Windows In the latest version of Windows, you can enable a Japanese keyboard as follows: "
Press the Windows button.
"
Search for “input methods”
"
Click on “Change Input Methods”.
"
Click “Add a Language”.
"
Select “Japanese”.
Once the Japanese input method is configured, you can now quickly switch between English and Japanese by hitting Alt + ~ (“tilde”). !
Read “Add a Language or Keyboard” on Microsoft.com for more info.
Alternatively, you can install the Google Japanese IME if you don’t care for Microsoft’s version: !
Install the Google Japanese IME.
157
Adding Japanese Input on Android Devices
Step 1: Type in Roumaji
To type in Japanese on an Android device, you will need to install a Japanese input app. There are a few decent options to choose from, but I recommend “Google Japanese Input”. My favorite feature is the contextual text replacement. For example:
Type out the word, phrase, or sentence you want in roumaji. For example, if you want to write the word taberu (, “to eat”), you would key in:
"
If you type in kyou (), it will give you today’s date.
"
If you type ima (), you get the current time.
t-a-b-e-r-u
Step 2: Hit the Space Bar
So cool!
After typing in the correct roumaji (e.g. t-a-b-e-r-u), hit the space bar to bring up kanji options. You may also see a drop-down of
Once you until can then change keyboards long holding within installed, any text field a window pops up, and by selecting the Japanese keyboard.
suggested words that you can click on. If the first suggestion is not correct, keep hitting space until you find the right kanji.
!
Install Google Japanese Input (free).
Typing in Roumaji & Selecting the Right Kanji Once you have set up Japanese input on your device, typing Japanese is simply a matter of spelling words out in roumaji and choosing the right kanji.
Step 3: Hit Enter If you type t-a-b-e-r-u and hit the spacebar, should show up. Then just hit enter to go on to the next word. If you need to choose the right kanji for multiple words in a phrase or sentence, hit space until you find the character you want, then hit enter to go on to the next, then space, then enter, and so on.
Roumaji Input Tips & Exceptions For the most part, you can just type in the same letters used in the standard roumaji chart to write most Japanese words. As 158
you’ll see below, however, there are some exceptions and quirks to keep in mind.
Double-Long Vowels To make double-long a (), i (), u (), e (), and o (), just type an additional a, i, u, e or o when typing. For example, to type (), enter o-k-a-a-s-a-n. For ( ), you enter c-h-u-u-g-o-k-u. The only exception to this is the long ‘o’ sound represented by the hiragana u () in words like (, “Tokyo”). In this case, you have to type the letter ‘u’ ( t-o-u-k-y-o-u) to get the right kana to appear. This is one of the reasons I have typed roumaji this way in the book instead of employing the standard superscript line used in Hepburn R %maji.
Small Vowels To type little vowels like , , , , or , simply type an ‘x’ in front of the roumaji for that katakana. So for example, to type the small in (Santiago), you would type x-i. In some IME systems (not Mac OSX), you can also type an ‘l’ instead of an “x”.
Double Consonants To type double consonants, indicated in kana with a small tsu (), just type the same consonant twice in a row. For a double consonant falling before shi () or chi (), enter an extra ‘s’ or ‘c’ respectively before typing shi or chi. For example: "
To type , you would enter k-e-k-k-o-n.
"
To type , you would enter k-i-p-p-u.
"
To type , you would enter c-h-i-c-c-h-a-i.
"
To type , you would enter z-a-s-s-h-i.
D-Column “Ji” and “Zu” If you recall from the “Learn Kana” section, the sounds ji and zu can each be represented with two different kana: "
ji can be either or .
"
zu can be either or .
Typing and are easy enough (j-i and z-u respectively), but and are exceptions: "
To type , enter d-i, not j-i.
"
To type , enter d-u, not z-u. 159
Build Your Toolbox
4
“Do not use material incongruent with your interests as a vehicle for learning a language. It will not work.” ! Tim Ferriss
“Study hard what interests you the most in the most undisciplined, irreverent and srcinal manner possible.” ! Richard P. Feynman The ability to “choose your own adventure” represents one of the greatest advantages of self-guided immersion over traditional classroom-based learning, where you are usually stuck with whatever materials and topics your teacher or school chooses. Since you are learning Japanese on your own terms, you have no excuse but to pick excellent materials and resources that fit your unique interests, professional needs, learning style, and S.M.A.R.T. goals.
Section 1
Choose Ideal Materials “Excellence is never an accident. It is always the result of high intention, sincere effort, and intelligent execution; it represents the wise choice of many alternatives; choice, not chance, determines your destiny.” !Aristotle
Choose Your Own Adventure There is no better way to improve both enjoyment and efficacy than choosing your own materials. The ability to “choose your own adventure” so to speak represents one of the greatest advantages of self-guided immersion over traditional classroombased learning, where you are usually stuck with whatever materials and topics your teacher or school chooses. That’s why I have dedicated so much of this guide to specific (but diverse) resource recommendations that enable you to choose something that best fits your personal interests and professional needs, including:
"
Phrasebooks
"
Grammar guides
"
Dictionaries
"
Podcasts
"
Online radio
"
Audiobooks
"
Music
"
Online video sites
"
Television shows
"
Anime
"
Movies
"
Video games
"
Manga
"
Newspapers
"
News sites
"
Magazines
"
eBooks
"
Literature 162
Choose Digital Materials When Possible I’ll be honest: I have an almost fetish-level attraction to good old-fashioned paper books. Whether it’s the feel of turning the pages, the weight of the book in my hands, or the smell of dusty old paper, there’s just something about the tactile nature of print books that their digital counterparts can never match. When it comes to learning a second language, however, especially one like Japanese or Chinese that uses ideophonetic characters with multiple readings and meanings, digital materials make our lives much, much easier:
Digital Materials are Faster When I started learning Japanese in college, eBooks were still on the fringe and I did most of my reading practice in print books. Having to look up unknown words and kanji in a separate dictionary meant that even a single page could take over an hour, especially when going through materials that were over my head.
stroke count or radical, a glacier-pace affair that I don’t miss in the slightest. Today’s Japanese learner, on the other hand, can look up and save words extremely quickly using online popup dictionaries and built-in dictionaries in the Kindle and iBooks apps.
Digital Materials are More Portable It’s a lot easier to carry around “bits” instead of “atoms”. Most smartphones and tablets can store more reading and listening content than you could get through in a lifetime. Instead of killing your back and wasting valuable space in your travel bag, you can just carry all your Japanese content in digital format instead.
Digital Materials are Often Cheaper Due to their lower production and distribution costs, the retail price of digital materials tends to be much lower than their paper equivalents. Best of all, you can find a lot of digital content for free online, including digitized versions of books in the public domain, books published with a Creative Commons license, etc.
Worse yet, back then there was no easy way to enter kanji using handwriting input like you can now on your smartphone screen or laptop trackpad. Nope, if you encountered a kanji and didn’t know how it’s pronounced, the only way to look it up was by 163
Choose the Shortest Materials Possible Shorter Materials are Less Intimidating Long materials can be daunting, and we are more likely to put off difficult tasks. The longer we postpone, the less likely we are to ever begin in the first place. Think about it: given the option between reading a short blog article or a long novel, which would you choose? There’s certainly nothing wrong with reading the novel, and I hope you do finish a Japanese text cover to cover some day, but it’s better to start small than never at all. Instead of letting the fear of committing to massive undertakings hold you back, just choose something small and manageable to build momentum.
Shorter Materials Lead to Small Wins “Once a small win has been accomplished, forces are set in motion that favor another small win. Small wins fuel transformative changes by leveraging tiny advantages into patterns that convince people that bigger achievements are within reach.” !Karl E. Weick
Though you might not receive any gold stars for finishing a Japanese podcast or blog post, doing so will at least provide a small sense of achievement that can motivate you to try bigger and better things like finishing an entire book.
Shorter Materials are Better Suited for Repetition If you have children or have ever spent a great deal of time around them, you know that they love watching the same cartoon episode or rereading the same book again, and again, and again. This taste for repetition is likely an evolutionary adaptation to speed up first language acquisition. While we adults may not enjoy repetition as much, we still benefit from its power. The shorter a material is, the easier (and less painful) it will be to repeat it.
164
Choose Audio Materials Whenever Possible Many language learners fall into the trap of spending too much reading and not enough time listening. As reading becomes easier, one spends more and more time with their nose in a book, furthering the language skill imbalance and making person to person interaction ever more uncomfortable. Don’t let yourself fall into this trap! Ensure that you spend just as much time listening—if not more—than reading from day one.
Listen to Podcasts As I will discuss more shortly, podcasts are one of the best tools for language learning as they tend to be free, cover a wide range of topics, and often include transcripts and show notes. !
See the “Japanese Podcasts” section.
Choose Audiobooks or Texts with Audio Companions If you really enjoy reading, try finding the audio version of books you want to read, or get books that include an audio companion CD (such as those in the “Japanese Literature Compilations” section). !
See the “Japanese Audio Books” section.
!
See the “Japanese Literature Compilations” section.
Use RhinoSpike to Create Audio Versions of Text-Only Content Creating audio versions of text-only content you love is another great way to improve your Japanese listening skills. You can have a tutor record material for you, or use one of my favorite crowdsource tools, RhinoSpike: "
want a native Japanese speaker to record. "
Record for Submissions in Your Native Language. To both
help the community and push your submission ahead in line, answer a request for recordings in your native language.
Listen to the News "
Sites like NHK Web News Easy provide audio and video companions to each article so you can listen first and then read to check your comprehension and look up new words.
Download the Finished Audio File. When a native speaker
has finished recording your text submission, just download it to your computer. !
!
Submit Your Text. Simply upload some text content that you
Visit RhinoSpike.com: “Foreign Language Audio on Demand”.
Check out NHK Web News Easy. 165
Section 2 The Ultimate Japanese Phrasebook
Essential Reference Tools Choose a Phrasebook Lonely Planet Japanese Phrasebook Lonely Planet’s excellent phrasebooks are not just for travelers. They happen to be one of the best sources of highfrequency, high-yield vocabulary and grammar patterns available. And best of all, Lonely Planet prints each phrase in English, roumaji, and kanji, unlike most phrasebooks that only include English and roumaji. Including the characters is not just good for exposure; it also enables you to use the “speak first, then point” method. If your pronunciation fails to get your meaning across, you can just point to the phrase in the book. Eyes often win out over ears... !
Lonely Planet Japanese Phrasebook (with audio CD).
!
Lonely Planet Japanese Phrasebook (book only).
I find most phrasebooks equally awful, with their stilted or overly simplified vocabulary choices, notoriously bad English pronunciation guides, and a complete lack of Japanese script (which they say is to make it easier for non-native speakers, but in fact, just makes it easier for them to create and publish the books). The Ultimate Japanese Phrasebook , however, has none of these common weaknesses: "
It includes 1,800 authentic, everyday sentences.
"
It is written in all three scripts: kanji, furigana and roumaji)
"
unlike most phrasebooks that use only roumaji. It includes a well-produced MP3 CD with professional voice actors.
!
The Ultimate Japanese Phrasebook (with audio CD)
A Handbook of Common Japanese Phrases Like the above phrasebook, A Handbook of Common Japanese Phrases includes heaps of useful expressions presented in both Japanese script and roumaji. The book also includes lots of additional cultural commentary and tips. !
A Handbook of Common Japanese Phrases
166
Build up a Collection of “Chunks” & Sample Sentences Sample sentences are extremely useful to learners of all levels. They expose you to the most common “chunks” and “collocations” in the language, and they show you how a particular word or grammar pattern is used in varying contexts.
Google Search An easy (and free!) way to find authentic sample sentences is to just do a search for a given term on Google and scan the excerpts shown on the search results page. To ensure more search results, use of the Japanese versions of Google: !
“Many people think of language as words. Words are small, convenient units, especially in written English, where they are separated by spaces. Dictionaries seem to reinforce this idea, because entries are arranged as a list of alphabetically-ordered words... More recently, attention has shifted from grammar to lexis, and from words to chunks... Corpus research confirms that native speakers of a language actually work with larger ‘chunk s’ of language.” !Language as Chunks, not Words by Ramesh Krishnamurthy
In addition to the phrasebooks listed above, the following tools are good sources for Japanese sample sentences and chunks:
Tatoeba.org Though quality varies significantly, Tatoeba is another ample source of sample sentences. Just choose the source and target language you are searching for (e.g. English to Japanese): !
Visit Google Japan.
AJATT’s Sentence Packs To save learners time and frustration, AJATT’s Khatzumoto has created a number of useful sentence packs, including his srcinal foundation resource, “My First Sentence Pack”: “...a special, permanent, online-delivered, digital, learnerfriendly, infinitely copy-pastable book containing more than 560 Japanese sentences, with English translations and brief explanations where necessary... Until now, beginners have mostly had to rely on beginner books (as I did), which are, well, books, on paper. Now all you need do to get your sentences is copy and paste.” !
Learn more about AJATT’s “My First Sentence Pack”.
If you bought the complete package, don’t miss my interview with Khatzumoto.
Tatoeba.org 167
Choose a Japanese Grammar Guide Though you should spend most of your time getting used to Japanese grammar through listening, reading, speaking, and writing, it does help to occasionally review “the rules”. Just remember that producing grammatical sentences ultimately depends on getting sufficient practice, not academic study. Here are some of the best resources available, many of which are free.
Lingualift’s E-Textbook Created by Philip Seyfi and Ollie Capehorn, LinguaLift is one of the most elegant, well-designed Japanese textbooks, and best of all, everything is available online so you have immediate access no matter where in the world you happen to live. Their materials include basic, intermediate, and advanced content, pronunciation samples by native Japanese speakers, addictive Japanese games like Japanese Frenzy and Japanese Blocks, kanji and vocab tools, and progress statistics. !
Sign up for LinguaLift.
If you bought the Complete Package, use your discount code to receive $29 off LinguaLift.
Textfugu Created by the good folks at Tofugu.com, Textfugu is an excellent online textbook designed specifically for self-learners: “When you compare someone learning Japanese in a class and someone who's self-learning, the problems that they run into are completely different. TextFugu focuses on the problems that self-learners have, which means a different way of explaining concepts, a focus on keeping you motivated, and no limit on how fast you learn and progress. In class, you move as fast as the slowest person there. In self-learning, you move as fast as you gosh-well please.”
The online course is extremely detailed, covering the intricacies of Japanese grammar, the writing system, pronunciation, and just about everything else you could possibly want to know. I especially like how they divide the course into “Seasons” instead of chapters, an organization structure that somehow seams to be less intimidating. You can pay as you go for $20 per month or (as of writing) get a discounted lifetime membership for $49. !
Try a free lesson on Textfugu.
168
Making Sense of Japanese
Human Japanese
Written by former Harvard professor Dr. Jay Rubin, Making Sense of Japanese: What the Textbook’s Don’t Tell Youdoes an
This is by far one of the most elegant, useful, well-written apps I have ever used. They have excellent explanations of Japanese grammar, as well as the writing system. One of my favorite features is the ability to look up every Japanese word used in the app.
excellent job of demystifying the Japanese language, showing that contrary to myth, the language is neither vague nor illogical. He does an especially good job in the book of explaining the difference between the topic particle wa () and the subject particle ga (), a common sticking point for Japanese learners. Highly recommended. !
Available on Amazon.
If you bought the Complete Package, don’t miss my interview with Dr. Rubin.
13 Secrets to Speaking Fluent Japanese Penned by Giles Murray,13 Secrets to Speaking Fluent Japanese shares plentiful, proven, pragmatic tips for acquiring Japanese as quickly as possible. Just as I do, Murray bases his advice on what has worked for successful non-native learners, not the common (and usually false) recommendations you hear from native speakers of Japanese. !
!
Download the iOS app ($9.99).
!
Download the Android app ($9.99).
!
Download the OSX app ($18.99).
!
Download the Windows app ($18.95).
Tae Kim’s Guide to Learning Japanese Tae Kim has created perhaps the best free content about Japanese grammar. He explains the workings of Japanese in a clear, concise way, and offers his content innumerous formats: !
Download the free iOS app.
!
Get the print book on Amazon.
!
Read Tae Kim’s blog.
!
Search Tae Kim’s forum.
!
Join Tae Kim’s Facebook group.
!
Follow Tae Kim’s YouTube channel.
Available on Amazon.
169
Jgram.org
Wikipedia’s Japanese Grammar Article
Covering much of the same ground as Tae Kim’s Guide to Learning Japanese, JGram is a crowd-sourced database of
For those wanting a more “linguist-irific” account of Japanese grammar, check out the “Japanese Grammar” Wikipedia page. From the “controversy of nominal adjectives” to “compound particles”, Wikipedia contributors have covered it all.
information about Japanese grammar. For those worried about the reliability of crowd-sourced content, the site utilizes a ratings system to help separate pearls from mud. The site also has vocabulary lists for business email, social email, and the Japanese Language Proficiency Test. Note that accessing some content requires signing up for a free membership. !
Visit Jgram.org.
Nihonshock’s Basic Japanese Cheat Sheet Nihonshock has lots of well-designed cheat sheets for sale, but are kind enough (or savvy enough marketers) to offer the Basic Japanese Cheat Sheet for free. If you are new to Japanese, I highly recommend downloading it, printing it out, and carrying it with you always! !
Download Nihonshock’s free PDF cheat sheet.
Visualizing Japanese Grammar Created by Shoko Hamono of George Washington University, this series of narrated presentations provides clear explanations of Japanese grammar structures coupled simple visuals. !
Watch the videos online.
!
Read Wikipedia’s Japanese Grammar article.
Barron's Japanese Grammar This is a good option for those who want a good pocket-sized grammar book. It does a good job of covering the basics of Japanese without drowning you in extraneous detail. There is also a Kindle edition if you want an even more portable solution. !
Available on Amazon.
A Dictionary of Japanese Grammar The 3 nihongo bunpou jisho ( , lit. “Japanese Grammar Dictionary”) books are certainly not the cheapest resources on this list, but they definitely are among the best. They include extremely detailed explanations of Japanese grammar usage, with lots of example sentences: !
A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar
!
A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar
!
A Dictionary of Advanced Japanese Grammar 170
Choose a Japanese Dictionary The modern Japanese learner has an unprecedented variety of jisho (, “dictionaries”) to choose from, including web-based dictionaries, dictionary apps on your mobile device, dedicated electronic dictionary devices, and yes, good old fashioned dead-tree dictionaries. Just don’t fall into the trap of spending more time in your dictionary than with actual human beings or authentic content that presents you with new words, phrases, and structures.
Recommended Mobile Dictionary Apps Japanese learners are blessed with a plethora of high-quality dictionary apps on all the major mobile platforms, many of which are free. !
Midori (iOS, $9.99)
!
Imiwa? (iOS, free)
!
Tangorin (Android, $2.99)
!
WWWJDIC (Android, free)
!
gSho (Android, free)
!
Daijirin (iOS, $28.99)
Recommended Online Dictionaries Here are my favorite online dictionaries in order of preference, though each offers certain advantages for particular tasks: !
Tangorin
!
Jisho.org
!
ALC
!
WWWJDIC
!
Google Translate
!
Goo Dictionary
!
Yahoo! Japan Dictionary
Recommended Desktop Dictionary Apps I personally end up doing most of my dictionary look-ups while out and about away from my computer, but I know that some learners prefer the speed afforded by desktop dictionaries. !
Tagaini Jisho (OSX & Windows, free).
!
Mac’s Built-in Dictionary (OSX, free).
!
Sugoisoft’s Jisho (OSX, $19.99).
171
Recommended Paper Dictionaries
"
While they are less convenient to carry around, I know that some folks prefer having a physical dictionary to flip through. Here are my three favorites:
All the onyomi () and kunyomi ( ) readings.
"
The kanji frame number from Remembering the Kanji and other popular kanji dictionaries.
!
Kodansha’s Furigana Japanese Dictionary.
!
The Kodansha Kanji Learner's Dictionary.
!
The Learner’s Kanji Dictionary.
In addition to Japanese-English translations, the add-on also supports: "
Japanese-French
"
Japanese-German
Install Essential Browser Extensions
"
Japanese-Russian
Firefox, Chrome, and Safari all offer free extensions (Firefox calls them “add-ons”) which can greatly expand your browser’s utility as a language learning tool. Here are some of the best:
"
Japanese-Thai Japanese-Vietnamese
Rikaichan / Rikaikun This aptly named pop-up dictionary allows you to bring up definitions and readings by simply hovering your cursor over words, individual kanji, or kanji compound words. One of my favorite features is the ability to de-inflect verbs and adjectives to their base form. To get a more detailed view ofindividual kanji, just hit the ENTER or SHIFT key while hovering over a character. The expanded view shows you: "
The character’s different meanings.
"
If you’re curious about the name, Rikaichan combines the word rikai (, “understanding” or “comprehension”) and the informal, diminutive suffix chan (), used for close friends or younger family members. The Chrome version uses the ending kun ( ), similar in meaning but usually used for boys only. !
Install Rikaichan in Firefox.
!
Install Rikaikun in Chrome.
After installing the plugin in Firefox or Chrome, you will need to install a free Japanese dictionary from the plugin support site: !
Download a dictionary from the plugin support site. 172
Perapera-kun
Franker
Basically a carbon copy of Rikaichan, this Firefox add-on also allows you to simply mouse over Japanese words to see the meaning and reading, and includes multiple languages (Japanese-French, Japanese-German, and Japanese-Russian). Incidentally, the wordpera pera () means “fluent” in Japanese. While the text and background colors of the pop-ups are little funky, I actually prefer Perapera-kun over Rikaichan for a number of reasons:
Inspired by Ilya Frank's language learning methods, Franker inserts sentence-by-sentence translations right in-line on the web page. It is an interesting alternative to using pop-up translators or online dictionaries.
"
You can save items to the built in Wordlist for later review by hitting the S key while hovering over a character or word.
"
You can search for characters or words using the Peraperakun toolbar (to activate the toolbar, click Tools, Perapera-kun and then select the star icon).
"
There are also versions for Chinese and Korean for the polyglots among you.
!
Install Perapera-kun in Firefox.
!
Install Franker in Chrome.
!
Install Franker in Safari.
Evernote Web Clipper I talk more about Evernote (a cross-platform tool for saving articles, websites, notes, etc.) in the next section, but here are links to their excellent browser add-ons: !
Install Evernote in Firefox.
!
Install Evernote in Chrome.
!
Install Evernote in Safari.
Tangorin Search This unofficial Chrome extension allows you to look up English or Japanese words you encounter online using Tangorin’s free online dictionary. While it lacks the bells and whistles of Rikaikun/chan and Perapera-kun, it’s a good alternative for Tangorin users. !
Install Tangorin Search in Chrome. 173
Choose Tools to Capture & Study Online Content Finding online Japanese content is only part of the story. You then will want a system for saving, organizing, and studying that content. Here are some suggested tools.
Pocket Formerly called “Read It Later”, Pocket is a great way to save articles you find online and then read them with fewer distractions. I especially like the following features:
Feedly Like many folks, I used to use Google Reader to manage my RSS feeds until its demise in July 2013. Once I got over my postpartum depression, I realized that this was actually a good thing since it led me to Feedly, a far better RSS tool than Google Reader ever was. In addition to the web app, you can also download dedicated apps for all the major platforms. !
Download a Feedly app for your platform.
Evernote
"
Pocket automatically away ads,on sidebars, other distracting content sostrips you can focus just the and article. "
Content is automatically grouped by type: Articles, Videos, and Images.
"
Tagging allows you to further organize content by topic, theme, author, etc.
"
Pocket integrates with many of the other services I recommend (including Feedly and Evernote) so you can use it as your master catch all for content you want to save and read later.
Evernote is hands down the most andI useful applications I’ve ever hadone theofpleasure of elegant using. And am not alone in my tech crush: it is a member of the exclusive Apple “App Hall of Fame” and was listed as one of the New York Times’ “Top 10 Must-Have Apps”. The cross-platform application offers language learners myriad benefits, but here are the main three: "
!
Capture everything. Save Japanese web pages, vocabulary,
sample sentences, audio notes, or pictures of Japanese menus, signs, etc. "
Access your stuff anywhere. View and edit notes using one
of the many mobile apps, the desktop application, or via your web browser.
Sign up for a free Pocket account & download their free apps. "
Find content fast. You can browse and organize by category,
keyword, tags, and even search for text within images! Unlike 174
many apps that require most of the heavy lifting to be done on the desktop version, the mobile apps are feature packed, allowing you to create or edit text notes, record audio notes, take photo notes, and even create to-do lists complete with interactive check boxes. !
Sign up for a free Evernote account.
LingQ.com Pronounced “link” (not “ling-kyu” as it is often mispronounced), LingQ is a language learning system and community created by polyglot Steve Kaufmann. Benefits include: "
Extensive article library. LingQ has a wide collection of
articles to choose from, most of which include both text and audio. "
Learning with Texts Learning with Texts, or “LWT” for short, was created as a free, open-source alternative to LingQ. While LWT lacks the lesson library, tutors, and community of LingQ, the core functionality is pretty much the same (and in some ways more robust). Simply paste in any Japanese text you wish you to read, add an audio URL if you have one (e.g. for podcasts), and then look up and save new words or phrases you come across. You can then test yourself on the words and phrases you’ve saved using LWT’s built-in flashcards. !
Use Benny Lewis’ web version of LWT.
!
Download LWT to your computer.
Ability to import your own content. In addition to reading
from LingQ’s library of free Japanese articles, you can also import your own content from blogs, books, emails, etc. "
Spaced repetition and email reminders. LingQ uses a spaced
repetition system to automatically schedule reviews of your LingQs. !
Sign up for a LingQ account.
If you bought the Complete Package, use your discount code to receive 20% off. 175
Section 3
Japanese Podcasts
Why Podcasts are Perfect for Language Learning Podcasts offer many advantages over other material types:
Podcasts Are Almost Always Free
Pod What?
While some podcasts offer premium content and tools on their companion sites, the podcasts themselves (which is really all we need for our purposes) are usually free.
Despite the myriad advantages podcasts offer
Podcasts Are Usually Short
language learners, I am often surprised how many people are still unfamiliar with this modern form of content creation and distribution. In a nutshell, podcasts are free audio or video programs distributed via RSS or XLM feeds, meaning that new content automatically shows up in your feed reader or “podcatcher” (the most common of which is iTunes). The word “podcasting” is a portmanteau that combines the pod from “iPod” with the casting from “broadcasting”, but it is important to note that podcasts are not specific to Apple devices and can be enjoyed on any smartphone, media player, or computer. Many apps (e.g. Stitcher) even allow you to stream shows so you don’t have to fill up your device with files. !
Check out “Podcasting in Plain English” by Common Craft.
Podcasts tend to be quite short (5 to 20 minutes), making them easier to repeat again and again.
Podcasts Are Diverse Podcast programs range from professionally created shows produced by major studios to do-it-yourself programs recorded in someone’s bedroom. This leads to a wide, varied pool of topics, with something sure to meet your specific interests.
Podcasts Are Convenient Based on your podcatcher’s settings, the latest episodes of your favorite podcasts can be automatically downloaded as soon as they become available. 176
Some Podcasts Include Transcripts Some of the better podcasts come equipped with transcripts, making it easier to look up new words and follow along as you listen. And for shows that don’t include a transcript, you can always add your own using the “Lyrics” tab in Apple iTunes.
Recommended Podcast Apps There are numerous podcast apps to choose from. Here are a few of my favorites to help get you started.
Apple iTunes
Working With Podcast Transcripts
The easiest way to get loads of podcasts is through Apple iTunes. It works on both Macs and Windows machines, though I find that it can be quite buggy on the latter platform.
How to View Podcast Transcripts
If you search in English, you will find lots of podcasts intended for
"
In most podcast apps, simply tap the center of the screen or swipe to reveal the transcript and show notes.
"
In iTunes, right click (PC) or Control click (Mac) on a podcast episode, click “Get Info”, and select “Lyrics”.
"
On older iPods with click wheels, tap the center button 3 times.
Japanese learners,the butcountry to find setting authentic content, suggest changing to Japanese Japan. In fact, manyI of the podcasts I suggest later in this section are available only in the Japanese store. "
Open iTunes and click on “iTunes Store” and scroll down all the way to the bottom and click on the round flag icon.
"
Go down to the “Asia Pacific” section and click on the Japanese flag.
"
Click “Podcasts”.
!
Download Apple iTunes (Mac & PC, free)
How to Add Transcripts to Podcasts in iTunes "
Right click (PC) or Control click (Mac) on a podcast episode in iTunes.
"
Click “Get Info” and select the “Lyrics” tab.
"
Paste in whatever text you want and click “Okay”. 177
Apple Podcasts App
Pocket Casts
Apple’s first Podcasts app release was fairly buggy, but it seems to be much more stable now. My favorite features for language study are:
The Pocket Casts app provides one of the best podcast user experience around for iOS and Android. The app allows you to browse for new shows or episodes, manage subscriptions, and either stream or download shows. Good language learning features include the ability to customize the skip back and skip forward settings, and reveal transcripts by swiping to the left.
"
The ability to quickly display transcripts and show notes (when available) by tapping the center of the screen. This was not available in previous versions of the app but it looks like the developers listened to our complaints and fixed this major shortcoming.
"
The ability to skip back or forward 15 seconds (even from the lock screen).
"
The ability to adjust playback speed.
"
The ability to set a sleep timer for those of you who use Japanese podcasts as a cure for insomnia.
!
Download Apple’s Podcasts app (iOS, free).
Stitcher Although the app and site is primarily advertised as a way to stream radio stations online, Stitcher is also a great way to play podcasts. !
Download the Stitcher app (iOS & Android, free).
!
Download the Pocket Casts app (iOS & Android, $4.99).
Overcast My new playback favorite. Features like “Smart Speed”, “Voice Boost”, and custom speeds (adjust by small increments, not just the 2x offered by other apps) make this a great alternative. Note you will need to upgrade ($4.99) to unlock all the features. !
Download Overcast for iOS (free).
Beyond Pod Android users wanting a free app need look no further than Beyond Pod. It has a clean, easy to navigate user interface and offers extra bells and whistles if you upgrade to the pro version. !
Download Beyond Pod (Android, free).
178
Japanese Learner Podcasts There are a quite a few learner-specific podcasts to choose from, with many offering free lessons covering a range of ability levels. While the podcasts themselves are free, many of the shows operate on a “freemium” model, charging for access to transcripts and other study tools. One common problem with learner podcasts is that they tend to spend way too much time speaking in English about Japanese. While this can help you wrap your head around the language, it does little to actually improve your ability to use Japanese. I therefore suggest skipping ahead to just the dialogue portion of each episode and moving on to podcasts intended for Japanese native speakers as soon as possible.
JapanesePod101.com The JapanesePod101 podcast is divided into four basic levels:
available for free on iTunes; subscribe to a basic or premium account to access all the lessons and get extra learning tools. !
Sign up for a free JapanesePod101.com account.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
If you bought the Complete Package, use your discount code to receive 15% off.
OpenLanguage Japanese While technically not a podcast (as the audio files are only available via the site and apps), OpenLanguage offers high quality audio lessons and lots of review tools: "
Japanese dialogues in kana and kanji with roumaji reading guides and translations.
"
Key vocabulary lists & supplementary words.
"
Absolute Beginner
"
Grammar guides & exercises.
"
Beginner
"
Culture tips.
"
Intermediate
!
Sign up for an OpenLanguage account.
"
Advanced
There are numerous programs available for each level, including audio lessons with transcripts, video, culture classes, and more. Note, however, that only a small number of select episodes are
Complete Package customers can receive the first month for only $0.99 (normally $30 a month).
179
Japanese LingQ
Learn Japanese Pod
While the Japanese LingQ podcast is no longer updated, all the past episodes are still available through iTunes and LingQ.com. Best of all, all the shows have transcripts! I also like that each episode goes right into the Japanese dialogue, with no trite English introductions or grammar dissections (or rather distractions) in English.
Created by Beb, a composer and rockstar, Waka Sensei, a professionally trained public speaker, and Alex, a musician, composer, and experienced expat, Learn Japanese Pod is an entertaining, informal approach to Japanese learning.
!
Sign up for a LingQ account.
!
Subscribe to Japanese LingQ in iTunes.
If you bought Package, use your discount codethe to Complete receive 20% off LingQ.
JapanCast.net This extremely well-produced HD video podcast presents useful words and phrases from everyday Japanese and anime. Their site is also chalked full of useful resources and media worth checking out. !
Visit JapanCast.net.
!
Subscribe to Japancast.net in iTunes.
!
Visit Learn Japanese Pod’s website.
!
Subscribe to Learn Japanese Pod in iTunes.
NHK Japanese Lessons Despite being a little dry (or is the right word, corny?), NHK’s yasashii nihongo (, lit. “Friendly Japanese”) lessons at least contain lots of useful phrases and vocabulary. !
Visit NHK Japanese Lessons’ website.
!
Download all 50 text and audio lessons.
Japanese From Zero / Yes Japan This series of video podcasts focuses on Japanese grammar, vocabulary, and cultural topics in a fun, conversational manner. !
Visit YesJapan.com.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
180
JLA Short for “Japanese Listening (Advanced)”, this may not be the most polished program on the list, but it does provide good exposure to natural Japanese. But despite being “unscripted” when recorded, they go to the trouble of creating a transcript after the fact to help you through each episode (available on their Facebook page). !
Listen to episodes on SoundCloud.
!
Access transcripts on the JLA Facebook page.
Japanese Podcast Directories TBS Radio Podcasts This is your one-stop shop for some of the best free Japanese news and entertainment resources available, with shows covering politics, pop culture, comedy, relationships, and even motor sports for the gear-heads out there. Once you click through to the site, you can subscribe to individual episodes in iTunes or your preferred podcast catcher. !
Browse TBS Radio podcasts.
Nihongo Juku
Sadly, this excellent blog and podcast hasn’t been updated since 2006, but at least you can still access the entire episode archive. !
Visit the Nihongo Juku site.
Nippon VoiceBlog Yet another great resource that stopped being updated back in 2006. !
Visit Nippon VoiceBlog’s site.
NHK Radio Like TBS Radio, NHK offers numerous programs on a wide range of topics. Though they have their own dedicated iOS app, it must be downloaded from the Japanese iTunes store, and can only be used within Japan or with the help of a Japan-based VPN. An easier solution is to just use the TuneIn site or mobile app which includes NHK radio streams that can be accessed anywhere without a VPN. !
Browse NHK Radio podcasts.
!
Access NHK programs using TuneIn.
181
Voiceblog.jp
"
Education ()
The Voice Blog Portal, kero rogu (), is an expansive directory of Japanese podcasts and online audio content well worth checking out.
"
Society & Culture ()
"
Science & Medicine ()
!
Visit Podcasts.jp.
!
Visit Voiceblog.jp.
Podcasts.jp This Japanese-only directory lists a number of podcasts, organized into the following categories:
Prende Audio With loads of free audio dramas, Prende Audio ( ) is another great resource for listening practice. Shows are organized by genre, including: Fantasy, Comedy, Family, Love, Mystery, Detectives, and School.
"
Art ()
"
Kids & Family ()
"
Games & Hobbies ()
"
Comedy ()
"
Sports & Recreation ()
"
Technology ()
Kinocast
"
Television & Movies ()
"
News & Government ()
Created by Kinokuniya (), this excellent podcast shares 3 new book recommendations each week that are available at the Kinokuniya Bookstore.
"
Music ()
!
Visit the Kinocast site.
"
Health ()
!
Subscribe to the RSS feed.
"
Religion & Spirituality ()
!
Set up a free account.
Book & Literature Podcasts
182
Shinkan Radio
Japanese Short Folk Stories
This excellent podcast provides reviews of topical business books. Best of all, each episode includes a complete transcript!
Here is yet another podcast offering short folk stories. The audio quality is so-so, but the stories are fun to listen to.
!
Visit the Shinkan Radio site.
!
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Japanese Classical Literature at Bedtime
Select Fairytale Classics
Each episode of Japanese Classical Literature at Bedtime includes a free transcript to help you read along and look up new words. Kaseumin, the narrator, has an extremely relaxing voice and you may just find yourself slipping peacefully into La La Land.
Yet another fairytale podcast. The audio quality is good, with episodes available from the website or iTunes.
!
Listen and read transcripts on the the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Small Mustache Library Literally meaning “Small Mustache Library”, the chobi hige bunko () site shares douwa ( , “fairytales”) and mukashi-banashi (, “folk stories”). Episodes are short, which means you can re-listen again and again, and are spoken in a slow, clear manner. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
! !
Visit the site. Subscribe in iTunes.
Storytelling Forest Although no longer updated, this podcast shares a number of stories from classic authors like AKUTAGAWA Ryuunosuke ( ) and NATSUME Souseki ( ). !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe to the RSS feed.
183
Business & Investing Podcasts For those aiming to do business in Japan, these podcasts will expose you to the key concepts and senmongo ( , “specialty vocabulary”) necessary to talk the talk.
Nikkei Trendy The Weekly Nikkei Trendy show, or shuukan nikkei torendii ( ) in Japanese, discusses business and consumer news, with a focus on 30 and 40 something trendsetters. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
World Economy Dial
Future Woman The Future Woman Podcast, ashita wo ninau joseitachi ( , lit. “The Women Who Shoulder Tomorrow”), offers tips to young women looking for work. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
+PLUS The anata ni purasu (PLUS) podcast invites experts to discuss asset management, shisan unyou ( ). !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
The seikai keizai daiyaru ( , lit. “World Economy Dial”) show includes interviews and discussions on the global economy. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
184
Comedy Podcasts On the one hand, comedy podcasts offer fun, authentic Japanese input, but on the other hand, the represent one of the greatest linguistic challenges: understanding humor in a second language. I’ve heard it said that you only truly know a language when you can laugh at its jokes. Many of the shows here are hosted by comedy duos, owarai konbi ( ), following the traditional comic duo format: one “straight man” (a.k.a. the feed, dead wood, or stooge) who plays a more intelligent, serious role, and one “funny man” (a.k.a. banana man) who plays a silly, foolish, and unintelligent role.
Bananaman’s Banana Moon Podcast This is one of several janku (, “JUNK”) series comedy shows broadcast on the TBS Radio Network. The program is hosted by the Bananaman () comedy duo, made up of SHITARA Osamu () and HIMURA Yuuki (). Interestingly, the show breaks from Japanese tradition with no clear funny man or straight man. If you’re curious, the show title is a pun referencing both the duo’s name and the show’s srcinal Monday broadcast slot (it’s now broadcast at 1:00 am Saturday morning). Like in English, Monday is literally “Moon Day” in Japanese, getsu youbi ( ), and the term “Banana moon” ( ) refers to “crescent moon”, mikazugi ().
!
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
!
Subscribe to the RSS feed.
Hilarious Problem Cowboys This Thursday JUNK show is hosted by a comedy duo called Bakushou Mondai (, lit. “Hilarious Problem”), made up of funny man OOTA Hikari ( ) and straight man TANAKA Yuuji ( ). !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
!
Subscribe to the RSS feed.
Wanted!! Another member of the TBS Radio family, the Wanted!! ( ) podcast is aimed at older male listeners. The show is hosted by columnist ENOKIDO Ichirou ( ). While the program is no longer updated, you can still access all past episodes in the iTunes feed. !
Visit the site (Japan-based VPN required to stream the show).
!
Subscribe in iTunes. 185
Kira Kira Running from March 2009 to March 2012, KOJIMA Keiko’s Kira Kira () was a TBS Radio show hosted by KOJIMA Keiko () and a different male co-host for each day of the week. Most of the show is spent answering listener emails, with much humorous banter between the two hosts. !
Visit the site (Japan-based VPN required to stream the show).
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Tamamusubi
Taking the reigns from the Kira Kira show in April 2012, tamamusubi (, lit. “thread knot”) continues the two-host model, but this time with an all female host lineup. The main personality from Monday to Thursday is AKAE Tamao (), with KOBAYASHI Haruka ( ) hosting Fridays. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Saturday Adult Heaven
share embarrassing experiences. Hosted by MIYAKAWA Masaru (). !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Coffee & Milk The kouhii to gyuunyuu ( , lit. “Coffee & Milk”) show is on the more informal, unstructured end of the spectrum. It’s a good way to see what normal Japanese folks think is funny. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Hottokenai Radio The verb hottoku () means “to leave something alone”, so this show title literally means “Can’t Leave it Alone”. The show covers a wide range of everyday topics including daily life, tech, current events, etc. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Another TBS Radio show, satadee otona tengoku ( ) is a call-in show where people 186
Culture & Social Issue Podcasts The following programs focus on Japanese culture, global social issues, and other topics that didn’t really fit in anywhere else...
Philosophy Zoo This web magazine and companion podcast is an excellent resource for anyone interested in philosophy. Choose from dozens of interviews, including a wonderful talk with Noam Chomsky () about state power. The talk is in English, but there is a Japanese translation of his remarks (as well as a parallel text in English when you click at the bottom). !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
100-Year-Old Poet This inspirational TBS Radio show shares the poetry and life tips of SHIBATA Toyo(), a best selling poet who is now over one hundred years old! !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Refugee Now The nanmin nau () show, broadcast on Japan’s 79.7 FM, gives a voice to less fortunate souls living in poverty and disaster stricken areas around the world. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Japan Rhythm Life Created in a personal audio journal format, bunkakei touku rajio () is a popular TBS Radio show focusing on social commentary and Japanese subculture.
In the japarizumu (, lit. “Japan Rhythm”) show, actor and comedian NAKAYAMA Hideyuki ( ) shares his thoughts on Japanese culture, society, and philosophy. !
!
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Visit the site.
187
Daily Life Podcasts Here is a collection of podcasts about Japanese culture and daily life in Japan.
Hotcast Released every Thursday, the Hotcast show covers a lot of ground: food, booze, society, IT, and more. The subtitle reads: otona-no-tame-no seikatsu-kei furiitooku ( ), which literally means “free talk about domestic issues for adults”. ! !
podcast! In each episode, they taste various local and foreign beers, sharing their thoughts on flavor, smoothness, etc. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Women atthe Gym The premise of the joshi dake taiikukan-ni shuugoo ( ) show is simple: four women in Kobe meet up at the gym to talk about whatever comes to mind.
Visit the site.
!
Visit the site.
Subscribe in iTunes.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Suntory Saturday Waiting Bar Avanti
Happy Talk
This informal chat show shares “everyday Tokyo conversations” with customers visiting Bar Avanti in Tokyo.
Hosted by radio personality and author IWAMOTO Hatsue ( ), the happii tooku (, “Happy Talk”) radio show includes über friendly interviews with a variety of guests.
!
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Beer Talk / Talking Drunk
!
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Just as the name suggests, biiru no hanashi ( , “Beer Talk”) is all about beer. Now that is my kind of 188
Calm Sunday Enjoy Sunday tea time with singer and songwriter TANIMURA Shinji () as he discusses a range of topics in his trademark cool and smooth voice. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Cross-Cultural Seminar The Cross-Cultural Seminar podcast, hosted by OOSUGI Masaki () and IWAMOTO Susan ( ), is actually intended for Japanese folks learning English, but I find the topics interesting and the language used by OOSUGI to relevant to Japanese learners as well. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
!
Subscribe to the RSS feed.
Dating, Love & Sex Podcasts Here are some podcasts for those interested in relationships, love, and sex, which I would imagine covers just about the entire adult population!
Love Psychology Hosted by ODA Hayato (), AIBA Yukiko (), and SHINOZAKI Daiki ( ), the ren-ai shinri shiritai! aite-no kimochi ( , lit. “I Want to Know What My Partner is Feeling!”) show addresses the differing psychology of Japanese men and women. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Adult Speaking Midnight The neru made matte () show is all about sex, or what they term “secret pillow talk”. Unfortunately, there are only ten episodes of the show. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
189
Adult Time
Power Your Morning
While the mousugu otona jikan ( , lit. “It’s Almost Adult Time”) show may be hosted by an adult video star,NARUSE Kokomi ( ) actually focuses more on love and relationships than outright sex.
While no longer on the air, the J-Wave Tokyo “Power Your Morning” radio show is still available on iTunes. The program focuses on health and self-improvement.
!
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Health, & Well-Being Podcastsin staying healthy and Here are aFitness few podcasts for folks interested fit, while earning Japanese:
!
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
New York Pilates In this video podcast, twin sisters Katherine and Kimberly, former Radio City Rockettes and fluent speakers of Japanese, teach Pilates all in Japanese. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Health Support Produced by TBS Radio, the kenkou sapouto ( ) podcast focuses on health and disease prevention. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
190
History Podcasts
Media Podcasts
Here are few podcasts for the history buffs among you:
This section includes a wide range of podcasts centered on various media topics, including anime, manga, video games, movies, and television.
Edo Tokyojin Seminar This is one of my favorites. The edo toukyoujin seminaa ( ) show covers many aspects of the edo jidai (, “Edo Period”) through interviews and trips to historically significant sites around Japan. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Japanese Historical Archives While the nihonshi shiryou () show might not be the most riveting podcast you’ll ever hear, it will at least stretch the bounds of your Japanese vocabulary. Hosted by ISHIKAWA Akiyasu (). !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
HIDEORADIO If you’re interested in Japanese video games, books, music, and random musings in natural Japanese, you will likely enjoy the hideraji (, “HIDERADIO”) podcast by KOJIMA Hideo (), the creator of Metal Gear Solid !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
!
Subscribe to the RSS feed.
Dragon Studios While listening to folks talk about the PlayStation Yakuza series might not be as fun as actually playing the game, the ryuu ga gotoku sutajio (, lit. “Like a Dragon Studios”) podcast is still a great way to practice Japanese. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes. 191
MinCinema Lounge
Elisa’s “I Can Do It On My Own”
In this more or less weekly podcast, radio host, disc jockey, and narrator Minsil () reviews both new and old movies.
In the hitori-de dekiru mon () show, Japanese singer and model Elisa () holds what she describes as “unpredictable and bizarre” talks.
!
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
!
Subscribe to the RSS feed.
!
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Tsutaya
Nature, Outdoors & Ecology Podcasts
The shuumatsu tsutaya ni itte, kore kariyou (TSUTAYA
Here are some podcasts for those who dig nature, the great
podcast provides DVD recommendations based on what’s ) currently available at the Tsutaya video rental chain. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Narrow, Shallow Guys The semakute asai yatsura ( , lit. “Narrow, Shallow Guys”) show is all about anime and manga. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
!
Subscribe to the RSS feed.
outdoors, and sustainability:
Love Nature Episode As the title suggests, this podcast is all about love for living things, including plants, animals, and mother earth. !
Visit the site (requires a Japan-based VPN).
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
Planet Green Podcast On each episode of the Planet Green Podcast, host Robert Harris () discusses travel, ecology, the outdoors, and the environment. 192
!
Visit the site.
!
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
!
Subscribe to the RSS feed.
!
Subscribe to the RSS feed.
Let’s Live On Earth Forever
Day Catch
The zutto chikyuu de kurasou ( ) show focuses on environmental conservation activities.
Hosted by ARAKAWA Kyoukei (), this TBS Radio podcast presents the news in a fast, easy to understand format (at least for native speakers that is!). Each episode is divided into several segments so you can download just the parts you want.
!
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes. !
Visit the site.
!
Subscribe in iTunes.
News Podcasts Here are some suggested podcasts for those who want to stay abreast of the latest news:
NHK Radio News Catch the latest news from NHK, nippon housou kyoukai ( , “Japan Broadcasting Corporation”), Japan's national public broadcasting organization. If streaming on their site, you can even choose the playback speed: futsuu (, “normal”), yukkuri (, “slow”), and hayai (, “fast”).
Weekly News Ranking Produced by KBC Radio up until February 2011, shuukan gebageba nyuusu rankingu ( ) is not exactly a source for current events, but it is at least a well produced, entertaining show for those who don’t mind out-dated news stories. !
Visit the site.
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Subscribe in iTunes.
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Science & Tech Podcasts
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Visit the site.
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Subscribe in iTunes.
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Subscribe to the RSS feed.
The Science Podcast While saiensu poddokyasuto () is not the most creative podcast title of all time, the show at least does a good job of presenting fairly technical subjects in a relatively straightforward manner. !
Visit the site.
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Subscribe in iTunes.
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Subscribe to the RSS feed.
TED Talk Podcasts While the following video podcasts themselves are not in Japanese, each feed provides TED Talks with Japanese subtitles. The links take you directly to the iTunes page for each show, but if you prefer, you can always just view the episodes on the website and turn on Japanese subtitles. !
TED Talks | Business
Namadashi
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TED Talks | Education
The namadashi () podcast, created by Kuriraji (), is a talk show focused on tech news.
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TED Talks | Health
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TED Talks | Kids & Family
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Visit the site.
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TED Talks | Music
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Subscribe in iTunes.
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TED Talks | News & Politics
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TED Talks | Science & Medicine
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TED Talks | Society & Culture
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Browse all TED Talks with Japanese subtitles
My Cup of Tea Created by SATOU Shinichi (a.k.a. ) of Nagoya ( ), this podcast centers on Apple products, podcasting, and music. My kind of dude.
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Section 4
Japanese Radio While perhaps not as ideal for language learning as other sources of listening input (since you can’t pause, go back, or read transcripts), Japanese radio is still worth adding to your arsenal since it provides a good kick-back listening experience that doesn’t require as much astopodcasts. programs also tend to beactive more jockeying closely tied events ofRadio the day. !
Stitcher To find Japanese programs on Stitcher, you can either just search for “Japanese” or browse by topic: "
Click “Browse Shows” in the left sidebar and then “International”
"
Scroll down and choose one of the Japanese options, e.g. (“News & Politics”), (“Culture”), or (“Comedy”).
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Set up a free Stitcher account.
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Download the Stitcher app for iOS or Android (free).
Check out Wikipedia’s expansive list of Japanese radio stations.
Simulradio TuneIn While many Japanese radio stations have their own websites, I find it much easier to just access everything in one place using TuneIn’s excellent site or mobile apps. !
Browse Japanese radio stations on TuneIn by city or station.
!
Download the TuneIn app for iOS, Android, or Windows Phone (free).
Simulradio lacks the polish and mobile apps offered by TuneIn and Stitcher, but the site’s sheer number of Japanese radio station feeds makes it worth a look. !
Visit the Simulradio site.
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Section 5
Japanese Audio Courses If you are completely new to Japanese or have been studying for a while but still struggle to produce accurate pronunciation or speak on the fly, I highly recommend getting your hands on one of the audio courses from Michel Thomas or Pimsleur. They can be a bit pricey, so check your local library first. Both programs do an excellent job of presenting essential words, phrases, and structures in an intuitive, building-block method, all the while getting you to speak aloud so you can activate what you learn, get used to hearing and producing the sounds of the language, and build stronger procedural memories.
The Michel Thomas Method With Michel Thomas’ passing on January 8, 2005, the world lost one of the best language learners and teachers to ever live. And live he did. Born to wealthy Jewish factory owners in Poland, Michel (born Moniek Kroskof) was sent to live in Germany when growing antisemitism began to limit his opportunities at home. He later studied in France and Austria, but as history shows, none of these countries were safe from the spread of Nazism. Michel joined the French Resistance (at which time he changed his name), but was later caught and interned by the Nazis. After surviving not just one, but multiple Nazi concentration camps, he went on to work with the U.S. Army Counter Intelligence Corps to fight his former captors, a duty for which he was awarded the Silver Star in 2004. Just as the awful reality of internment led Viktor Frankl to uncover the true human power, so too it did for Michel, who states: “I concentrated so hard that I stopped feeling pain... I contemplated the untapped reserves of the human mind. The great hidden depths of the brain. I learned from it.”
After World War II, Michel moved to Los Angeles where he began a language school, continuing to refine his language teaching approach. Given his location and growing reputation for fast and 196
effective language teaching, he went on to teach many Hollywood stars, including Woody Allen, Sofia Loren, Emma Thompson, Doris Day, Barbara Streisand, and Mel Gibson. But his star-studded résumé is not what impresses me; it is his inspired attitude toward learning that earns my respect: “Learning should be excitement. Learning should be pleasure. And one should experience a constant sense of progression. And one would want more. That is learning to me. And a teacher is somebody who will facilitate and show how to learn.”
brilliant job of presenting languages in an intuitive, step-by-step, build-repeat-build-repeat method that quickly leads to retention and intuitive mastery. Unfortunately, the Japanese version of Michel Thomas is not taught by Michel Thomas himself, but the teacher does a good job emulating his teaching style.
Proper Pronunciation is Stressed Above all Else As I often say, “Pronunciation trumps grammar”. Proper syntax is obviously important, but you will be more easily understood if you pronounce things correctly with broken grammar, than perfect grammar pronounced with a strong, improperly stressed accent.
Much like the Pimsleur Approach (discussed below), the Michel Thomas Method is completely audio-based. The learner is encouraged not to overtly memorize words and phrases; the brain should automatically internalize them if the teacher breaks the language down into sufficiently small chunks and then puts them back together in a sufficiently intuitive, logical, step-by-step approach. And that is exactly what The Michel Thomas Approach provides.
In the Spanish program for example, points out how important it is to “push down” on the Michel right part of certain Spanish words to be understood by native speakers.
Here now are a few of the many reasons I like the Michel Thomas approach:
Sufficient Repetition Without Stagnation
Michel Thomas is a Master Teacher Having taught languages myself for a number of years, I know a good teacher when I see (or rather hear) one. Michel does a
Overly Technical Grammatical Terms are Avoided Michel Thomas courses do a good job explaining key linguistic concepts without resorting to complex linguistic jargon.
While the Michel Thomas Method doesn’t use a formulaic spaced repetition schedule like Pimsleur’s “Graduated Interval Recall”, you will find that the courses offer enough repetition to really hit home the words you hear without boring you to death. 197
Learning Alongside Others Helps Build Confidence Though I was initially skeptical of this part of the course, I think it can be be encouraging to new learners, especially those who have never learned a foreign language. Often times, you may find that you know the answer even when the learners on the CD don’t, giving you extra confidence to keep going. !
Browse Michel Thomas Japanese courses on Amazon
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Get the Michel Thomas iOS app (free, in-app purchase for lessons)
Pimsleur Pimsleur is one of the most popular self-study language learning programs on the planet. The system was developed by the late Dr. Paul Pimsleur, an applied linguist, and professor of French and foreign language education at UCLA, Ohio State University, State University of New York at Albany, and Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg. He was also a founding member of the ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages). The Pimsleur Approach promotes four core principles:
response” approach, which requires students to translate a phrase into the target language when given a prompt in English. He believed that the anticipation strengthens memories and better reflects real-life conversations.
Spaced Repetition Paul Pimsleur’s version of spacedrepetition is called “Graduated Interval Recall” (G.I.R.). Like other spaced repetition systems, Pimsleur audio courses present the same vocabulary items and phrases in progressively longer intervals, refreshing your memory just when you are about to forget. !
See the “Use Spaced Repetition” chapter for more info.
Core Vocabulary The Pimsleur Approach presents only the most common words first (approximately 500 new words per level). As discussed earlier in the guide, a very small number of words account for the vast majority of spoken and written material in a language so it makes sense to master the highest-frequency terms first. !
Try a free Pimsleur lesson.
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Browse Pimsleur’s Japanese courses on Amazon.
The Power of Anticipation & Active Recall The extremely passive nature of most language classes, with students simply listening to or repeating after the teacher, is a highly ineffective way to build or strengthen procedural memories. To address this problem, Dr. Pimsleur developed a “challenge and
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Section 6
Japanese Audio Books
Japanese Audiobook Directories From novels to children’s books, the following directories have audiobooks to fit every taste:
RevTK Audiobook Wiki I used to think that audio books were only for the lazy or illiterate, but I quickly changed my tune once I realized how powerful they can be in foreign language learning. Just like with podcasts, you can listen while commuting, doing housework, shopping for groceries, etc. And best of all, you can back up your listening by later reading (or pre-reading) the print or ebook equivalent.
This extensive list of audio books was culled from suggestions on the Reviewing the Kanji forums. All of the suggested audio books include a Japanese transcript and English translation. !
Visit the RevTK Audiobook Wiki.
List of Free Audiobooks with Transcripts Like the RevTK list above, this user generated list from the “How to Learn Any Language” forum includes suggested Japanese audio books that also include transcripts. !
Visit the How To Learn Any Language forum.
Voice Bouquet Literally meaning “Voice Bouquet”, koe no hanataba ( ) provides oodles and oodles of free Japanese audio books. !
Browse free audio books on Voice Bouquet. 199
Japanese Books with Audio Companions For those who prefer to also hold a physical book in their hand as they listen along, each of the following books include free audio CDs or downloadable MP3s online:
Breaking Into Japanese Literature Like the two Read Real Japanese books above, Breaking Into Japanese Literature is specifically designed to help Japanese learners make heads or tails of Japanese literature intended for native speakers. The book doesn’t include an audio CD but you can download the free companion MP3s online.
Read Real Japanese Essays & Read Real Japanese Fiction Both of the Read Real Japanese books provide Japanese learners easier access to authentic Japanese literature normally intended for native speakers. Best of all, both volumes include free audio CDs so you can improve both your reading and listening skills. “There is a dramatic difference between reading Japanese that is tailored to students, and reading real Japanese that has been written for native speakers. The concocted variety tends to be insipid, flat, stiff, standardized, completely lacking in exciting and imaginative use of language. Read Real Japanese Essays, and its companion volume Read Real Japanese Fiction, allows readers to experience the work of several of todays foremost writers as if they were lifelong Japanese speakers.” !
“Read Real Japanese Essays” is available on Amazon.
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“Read Real Japanese Fiction” is available on Amazon.
“Reading great books in the srcinal should be the culmination of language study, but reading Japanese literature unassisted is a daunting task that can defeat even the most able of students. Breaking into Ja panese Literature is specially designed to help you bypass all the frustration and actually enjoy classics of Japanese literature.” !
“Breaking Into Japanese Literature” is available on Amazon.
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Download the free companion MP3 files.
“CD Books” on Amazon Japan Amazon Japan has an entire section devoted to what they call CD (“CD books”), volumes that include companion audio CDs. !
Browse “CD Books” on Amazon Japan.
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Section 7
JapaneseMusic
Where to Stream Japanese Music It wasn’t too long ago that you had two options for listening to music you love: buy a CD or hope to hear something good on the radio. With the plethora of new streaming sites, you can now hear exactly the genres and artists you love anywhere, anytime, all for free!
TuneIn This amazing site and app allows you to listen to a wide range of Japanese music genres for free.
The Chinese characters in the word for music, ongaku ( ), literally mean “sound” and “fun”, which says a lot about the power of music in language learning. Not only is it inherently enjoyable, but the rhythm of music actually improves retention. Try it yourself: just add a simply melody to any phrase or sentence you’re struggling to remember, and boom, you will be able to recall it much more easily. Moreover, learning the lyrics of Japanese music helps you get reading and listening input at the same time.
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Browse Japanese music genres on TuneIn.
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Browse Japanese radio stations by city or name.
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Download the TuneIn app (iOS & Android, free).
Japanese Radio Stations Online Provided by Multilingualbooks.com, this list includes dozens of Japanese radio stations you can stream for free online. !
Browse online Japanese radio stations.
201
Pandora Don’t expect to find massive quantities of Japanese music on Pandora, but you should be able to find some searching with roumaji. You can also try their “JROCK & JPOP” station, which includes a fair number of classic and contemporary Japanese pop artists. Note that Pandora is only available within the United States or using U.S.-based VPN. !
Stream the JROCK & JPOP Pandora channel.
YouTube Japan
Where to Buy Japanese Music If you prefer to own your music instead of just streaming it online, here are some recommended place to buy MP3s and CDs.
iTunes Japan Some Japanese music should be available in your country’s version of the iTunes Store, but to help highlight more Japanese content, make sure to scroll down to the bottom of the page and change the store region to Japan: "
Google’svideo sharing site is artists a greatand place to stream Japanese music videos from the srcinal even user-generate d covers which sometimes are better than the srcinals!
Open iTunes andbottom select and “iTunes the left column. Go down to the clickStore” on thefrom flag icon in the lower right.
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Do a search for your favorite Japanese artists on YouTube.
"
Scroll to the “Asia Pacific” section and click “Japan”.
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Browse videos on the JPOP YouTube Channel.
"
Click “Music”. iTunes will now only display content from the Japanese store.
Keep in mind that you won’t be able to actually buy anything from the Japanese iTunes Store unless you have a Japanese iTunes gift card. !
Japanese iTunes gift cards are available for purchase on J-BOX.
202
Amazon Japan Amazon’s emu-pi-san ongaku daunroudo (MP3 ) service gives you instant access to tracks in MP3 format from just about any artist you can think of. And since you are buying digital files, you don’t have to worry about the exorbitant shipping costs associated with sending physical goods all the way from Japan. !
Browse CDs and MP3s available on Amazon Japan.
YesAsia Your shop for all things including Japanese musicone likestop J-Pop, J-Indies, Enka, Japan, and Japanese children’s music. You can browse by genre, gender (in the beginning, it’s a good idea for men to imitate male singers, and women to imitate female singers), or popularity. As of writing, they are offering free shipping on orders over $25 USD. !
Browse Japanese CDs available from YesAsia.
How to Get Lyrics & Identify Unknown Song Titles To get the most out of Japanese music, you will of course want to get the lyrics for the songs you listen to. Here are a few tools to help you do just that.
Anime Lyrics As the name implies, this site is a good place to find lyrics for anime theme songs (which you may find become one of your favorite genres of Japanese music). The site also has lyrics for many popular J-pop songs. Best of all, they have pop-up definitions for kanji (much like Rikaichan). Just make sure to click the “View Kanji” link. !
Search for Japanese lyrics on AnimeLyrics.com.
Goo Lyrics While the Japanese-only site may be a bit difficult to navigate for beginning learners, guu ongaku (Goo ) has one of the most extensive lyric databases for Japanese music. !
Search for Japanese lyrics on Goo .
Shazam Hear a great Japanese song but don’t know the track title or the name of the artist? No sweat. Just whip out your smart phone 203
and open Shazam. Assuming the app is able to identify the song playing, it will tell you the song title, artist name, and even provide links to buy the song on Amazon or iTunes. !
Get the free Shazam app for iOS or Android.
Japanese Music Lists While I provide some specific artist recommendations in the following sections, here are some resources to help you find exactly the right artists and bands to float your Japanese music boat:
Reddit Reddit is a great place to get up-to-date, crowd-sourced Japanese music recommendations. The “Japanese Music” sub covers a wider range of music genres, while the “Jpop” sub is focused on more mainstream hits. !
Browse the “Japanese Music” sub-Reddit.
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Browse the “JPOP” sub-Reddit.
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Read Japanese music recommendations from AJATT readers.
List of Number-One Albums in Japan Compiled from the Oricon Albums Charts (Japan’s major music charts company), this Wikipedia list is a good place to start if you are looking for hit music from the 80s, 90s, and 2000s. !
Browse number 1 Japanese albums by year.
Wikipedia’s “Music of Japan” Article Though this Wikipedia article doesn’t meet many of the site’s quality standards, it is still a good place to get a fairly extensive overview of Japanese music, genres, and history. !
Read “Music of Japan” on Wikipedia.
AJATTeer Recommendations Scroll down to the comments of this post and wallow in the warm glow of crowd-sourced awesomeness! While you’re there, I suggest reading the post itself; it’s quite inspirational. 204
Recommended J-Pop Artists J-Pop, short for Japanese Pop as you would probably guess, is arguably the most popular genre of music in Japan, and probably the easiest to approach for non-native speakers. Here are a few suggested artists to get you started:
HAMASAKI Ayumi Known by her fans as Ayu for short, HAMASAKI Ayumi ( ) is often called the “Empress of Pop” given her nearly 50 million record sales and the influence she’s had on other artists in Japan and Asia. !
Learn more about HAMASAKI Ayumi on Wikipedia.
KOUDA Kumi Final Fantasy X-2 fans should already be familiar with KOUDA Kumi () as her songs were used
AMURO Namie Known to some as the “Queen of J-Pop” (which I guess is a secondary position to HAMASAKI’s “Empress” title), AMURO Namie () began her music career as a teen idol member of the Super Monkeys, but later evolved into an award-winning artist with an über successful solo career, winning “Album of the Year” at the 50th Japan Record Awards. !
Learn more about AMURO Namie on Wikipedia.
SMAP Lest I bethe accused of favoring only female J-pop singers, I will include best-known Japanese boy band for your listening pleasure (or torture): SMAP (). Their upbeat sound is exemplified by their best-selling single sekai-ni hitotsudake no hana ( , “The One and Only Flower in the World”). !
Learn more about SMAP on Wikipedia.
extensively in the game. While she initially represented a more conservative look and sound (somewhat like early Britney Spears), she evolved into a sexier, more provocative artist more akin to Christina Aguilera (whom she has actually been directly compared to by British television presenter Jonathan Ross). To date, she has sold more than 18 million records. !
Learn more about KOUDA Kumi on Wikipedia. 205
Recommended Japanese Hip-Hop Artists Japanese hip-hop lyrics tend to be fairly simple, making them a perfect tool for language learning. I have listed a few Japanese hip-hop artists below, but here are some resources to help you find even more: !
Read Wikipedia’s “Japanese Hip Hop” article.
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See Wikipedia’s list of Japanese hip hop musicians.
Rhymester One of the first hip-hop groups in Japan, Rhymester ( ) consists of three members: MC Mummy-D, MC Utamaru, and DJ Jin. Though their first works were not well received by critics, they have gradually become popular with rap and rock fans alike. Rhymester is well-known for political and social satire, with frequent criticism of both the Japanese and U.S. governments, especially during the Iraq Invasion. !
Learn more about Rhymester on Wikipedia.
King Giddra
group, uses hip-hop as a platform for addressing social problems. If you’re curious, the group named itself after the threeheaded dragon creature in Godzilla of the same name. !
Learn more about King Giddra on Wikipedia.
Dabo Unlike most Japanese hip-hop that tends to be rather “poppy”, Dabo () represents a sound and message more reminiscent of American gangster rap (something that many Japanese rappers have actually criticized him for). !
Learn more about Dabo on Wikipedia.
Hime Literally meaning “Princess”, Hime () creates a unique blend between traditional Japanese music and modern hip-hop. She is well known for her efforts to empower Japanese women, and fight back against the all-too-common sexist, stereotypical portrayal and treatment of women in Japan. !
Learn more about Hime on Wikipedia.
Debuting in 1993, King Giddra () is considered one of the primary pioneers of Japanese hip-hop. The three-member group (MC K Dub Shine, MC Zeebra, and DJ Oasis) was heavily influenced by Public Enemy, and like the U.S. 206
Recommended Japanese Folk Rock Artists Japan has some amazing folk-rock artists, a genre that is perfect for language learners since singer-songwriters tend to pronounce their ballads more clearly than other genres.
OKABAYASHI Nobuyasu Called “Japan’s Bob Dylan” and “The God of Folk” by his fans, OKABAYASHI Nobuyasu (), is one of Japan’s best-known folk singers. Once a Christian, he later began to question his beliefs, looking for escape and expression in his music. !
Learn more about OKABAYASHI Nobuyasu on W ikipedia.
Happy End Although Happy End () was only together for three years (1970 to 1973, they continue to receive praise and notoriety for their unique, highly influential sound. You can hear their song kaze-wo atsumete (, “Gather the Wind”) in the movie “Lost in Translation”. !
Learn more about Happy End on Wikipedia.
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Listen to “Gather the Wind” on YouTube.
KAWAGUCHI Kyougo If you like bittersweet folk, you will love KAWAGUCHI Kyougo ( ). His best known song (and one of my all time favorites of any genre or language) is sakura ( , “Cherry Blossoms”). !
Learn more about KAWAGUCHI Kyougo on Wikipedia.
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Watch the Sakura music video on YouTube.
ONITSUKA Chihiro If you’ve watched Trick () before, you will be familiar with ONITSUKA Chihiro’s () song gekkou (, “Moonlight”), her hauntingly beautiful debut single used in the closing credits (another of my all-time faves). !
Learn more about ONITSUKA Chihiro on Wikipedia.
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Watch a live performance of Gekkou on YouTube.
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Recommended Japanese Rock Artists Japanese rock ranges from fairly light pop rock to quite intense heavy metal. Here are a few of my recommended Japanese rock artists to wet your palette.
Mr. Children This is a difficult group to classify. I was first going to put them in the J-Pop category given their tendency toward pop-esque songs, then the Folk Rock category since my favorite Mr. Children song kuruma no naka de kakurete kisu o shiyou ( , “Let’s Hide Away in the Car and Kiss”) is decidedly folky, but finally decided on the rock category since that is how they are usually listed in charts. !
Learn more about Mr. Children on Wikipedia.
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Listen to on YouTube.
B'z Pronounced Beezu (), B’z is one of Japan’s most well-known (and best-selling) rock bands. If you ever visit Hollywood’s RockWalk, you will find the signatures and handprints of the band’s guitarist, MATSUMOTO Takahiro ( ) and vocalist, INABA Koushi ( ). With 80 million records sold, nearly 50 numberone singles, and 24 number-one albums, B'z is a must for hard rock fans. !
Learn more about B’z on Wikipedia.
L'Arc-en-Ciel Beginning as a “visual kei” group ( ) using makeup and costumes somewhat akin to Kiss, L'Arc-en-Ciel ( , which means “The Rainbow” in French) gave up the gags shortly after their major label debut in 1994. !
Learn more about L’Arc-en-Ciel on Wikipedia.
Glay Ranked number seven on Music Station’s best selling Japanese music artists of all time, Glay ( ) is known for music spanning a wide range of genres, including pop, rock, reggae, and even gospel. !
Learn more about Glay on Wikipedia.
Bump of Chicken Since their founding in 1994, Bump of Chicken ( , ) has grown into one of Japan’s top rock bands, with fourteen singles and five albums under their belts. Their tunes are frequently used as theme songs in 208
television shows and video games, so you will likely come across their work in your various immersion activities. !
Learn more about Bump of Chicken on Wikipedia.
Sambomaster Named after the Russian martial art Sambo, Sambomaster ( ) has a number of hits, and is frequently tapped for theme songs in Japanese anime, dramas, and video games. For example, their song kimi-wo mamotte, kimi-wo aishite ( , “I Protect You, I Love You”) was used as the closing theme of Bleach from episode 215 through 229. !
Learn more about Sambomaster on Wikipedia.
FLOW Formed in the late 90s, Flow () is a “mixture rock” band (, ) whose music has been featured in many popular Japanese anime, including Naruto () and Psalms of Planets Eureka Seven ( ). !
Learn more about Flow on Wikipedia.
Recommended Japanese Enka Artists Enka () employs the “pentatonic” scale, giving it a
somewhat similar sound to blues, and there is even further similarity given that both genre’s tend to focus on stories of loss and loneliness. Interestingly, enka had its beginnings as a way for Meiji era political activists to voice their opinions without breaking laws that banned speeches of political dissent.
MISORA Hibari With her passing in 1989, the world lost one of the Japanese music industry’s most prolific artists. MISORA Hibari ( ) was the first women in Japan to be awarded the “People’s Honor Award” (awarded only after her death sadly) and has sold more than 80 million records. Her most famous song is kawa-no nagare you ni ( , “Like the Flow of The River”), which has been remade by many notable artists, including The Three Tenors, Teresa Teng of Taiwan, and Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlan of Mexico. !
Learn more about MISORA Hibari on Wikipedia.
KITAJIMA Saburou One of Japan’s most well-known enka singers,KITAJIMA Saburou () is best know for namida-bune (, “Boat of Tears”), released 209
in 1962, and kyoudai jingi (, “Brothers Humanity & Justice”), released in 1965. Growing up poor in the aftermath of World War II, he is no stranger to the woes of Japan’s working class, and much of his work aims to tell their story. And like many men of his generation, he doesn’t let age stop him: in 2010, he released fuufu isshou ( , “Couple of a Lifetime”) at the age of 73!
African-American enka singer in Japanese music history. His interest in the art form was sparked at an early age by his Japanese grandmother, who had met his grandfather (an American serviceman) at a dance in post World War II Japan. By blending his two cultural backgrounds, Jero has managed to revitalize enka, a genre that had previously seemed doomed for extinction.
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Learn more about KITAJIMA Saburou on Wikipedia.
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Learn more about Jero on Wikipedia.
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Listen to Namida-Bune on YouTube.
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Watch Jero perform at the 2009 National Cherry Blossom Festival.
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Listen to Kyoudai Jingi on YouTube.
HIKAWA Kiyoshi Starting out his career with supporters like KITANO Takeshi ( ), HIKAWA Kiyoshi () quickly rose in popularity, coming to be known as “The Prince of Enka”. His real name is YAMADA Kiyoshi ( ), and you will also see him sometimes referred to as just KIYOSHI (written in all capital letters) in his non-enka endeavors. !
Learn more about HIKAWA Kiyoshi on Wikipedia.
Jero Last but definitely not least, I would like to share one of my heroes with you: Jero (), a.k.a. Jerome Charles White. Hailing from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Jero is the first 210
Section 8
Anime, TV & Movies
Where to Stream Japanese Video YouTube Japan Ah yes, everyone’s favorite source for stupid pet tricks, even stupider human tricks, and pirated TV (at least until the content owners force them to be removed...). So long as you make sure to watch Japanese content, you shouldn’t feel too guilty about YouTubing instead of working.
We have been conditioned by well-intentioned mothers to believe that television will “destroy our brains”. This might well be true if one spends their time watching “reality” TV shows that don’t actually reflect reality, the sensationalist 24-hour news cycle, and tasteless drivel that neither entertains nor educates. But if you watch television in Japanese, this otherwise time and brainwaisting activity can become a constructive form of language learning that even mommy should be able to get behind.
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Browse videos on YouTube Japan.
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Download the YouTube app for iOS.
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Download the YouTube app for Android.
If you are having a hard time following what’s happening in a particular video, try YouTube’s nifty “Auto-Captioning” tool, which leverages voice-to-text transcription technology to add subtitles to videos that otherwise lack them. It’s far from perfect, but it can be a big help establishing context. To use the tool: "
Click the “CC” icon below the video.
"
Click “Transcribe Audio”.
"
Click “CC” again “Turn Caption Off” to disable the feature.
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Learn more about Auto-Captions. 211
Crunchyroll Crunchyroll offers loads and loads of subtitled Japanese anime and television shows. There is a 14-day free trial, after which It costs $6.95 a month for unlimited ad-free anime streaming, HD1080P, and access on multiple devices (Apple TV, XBOX, PlayStation 3, iOS, Android, etc). There is also a free membership option, but with fewer anime and drama titles available, no app access (you have to watch online), only standard definition video, and seemingly endless advertisements. !
Sign up for Crunchyroll.
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See the complete list of Crunchyroll apps.
well organized, complete with detailed descriptions, user ratings, and cast listings. !
Browse programs on GoodDrama.net.
AnimePlus.tv Good Drama’s sister site Anime Plus is an excellent place to find anime for free online. The selection is vast, the quality is high, and the price is right: FREE! !
Browse programs on AnimePlus.tv.
NTV On Demand FluentU FluentU creates “online immersion” by bringing you authentic Japanese videos with amazing interactive subtitles. Genres include music videos, commercials, movie trailers, and more. I especially like that you can save words you look up for later review. !
Sign up for a FluentU account.
GoodDrama.net Good Drama is one of the best places to find complete Japanese TV series completely free. And unlike most sites, the videos are
Though NTV’s muryou douga (, “free video”) site requires a Japan-based VPN to use it outside of the country, its plethora of free, high quality, on demand Japanese TV shows is well worth the hassle. !
Browse programs available from NTV On Demand.
Daily Motion If you can’t find a particular show on Good Drama or Anime Plus, do a search on Daily Motion. They frequently take down copyrighted content, but you may find what you’re looking for here. !
Search for Japanese videos on Daily Motion. 212
Hulu
Amazon Prime Instant Video
Hulu is one of the best places to get high-quality, un-dubbed Japanese anime, TV shows, and movies. While you can access some content for free on the Hulu website, you will need to get Hulu Plus if you want access to full seasons of anime. A bit of useless trivia for you: the name “Hulu” is based on two Chinese words with the same pronunciation but different tones, húlú ( , “bottle gourd”) and hùlù (, “interactive recording”).
If you have an Amazon Prime membership, don’t forget that you can stream Prime videos for free online, on your iOS device, on your Roku box, or through some game consoles. The selection of movies is not that great yet, but Amazon is working hard to rival the offerings of Netflix and Hulu.
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Browse Japanese anime, shows & movies available on Hulu.
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See the complete list of Hulu apps and devices.
Netflix While Netflix’s collection of anime is dubbed into English unfortunately, they do have quite a few films in Japanese. Depending on your subscription, you can either stream movies right to your computer, game console, or mobile device (including iOS, Android, PS3, PS Vita, Nintendo 3DS, Wii, Roku, xBox, etc) or get DVDs in the mail. Note that streaming outside the United States will require a U.S.-based VPN. !
Browse Japanese shows and movies available for streaming.
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Browse available Japanese DVDs.
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Download the Netflix app for iOS.
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Download the Netflix app for Android.
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Browse Amazon Prime movies available for instant streaming.
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Download the Amazon Instant Video app for iOS.
Viki One of the newer video and movie streaming sites on the block, Viki provides a free alternative to some of the paid options above. My favorite feature is the option to change subtitles on the fly to nearly all major languages. The one downside is that you can’t seem to turn on Japanese subtitles for Japanese programs. !
Browse available Japanese TV shows and movies.
Nico Nico Douga Literally meaning “smile videos”, niko niko douga ( ) is a YouTube-like video sharing site that will definitely put a grin on your face when you see the mountains of free Japanese video content available, including American movies dubbed into Japanese! The one downside is that the site overlays user comments on top of the videos. I suppose this is a potential 213
plus as Japanese comments are yet another channel of input. Note that you will need to set up a free account before you can watch the videos. !
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Japanese in roumaji.
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Translations into English, Spanish, Portuguese, Simplified Chinese, or Korean (depending on which display language you choose for the site).
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Browse Japan Foundation Lessons.
Set up a free Nico Nico account.
Kumby The Kumby site lets you stream just about every anime you could possibly think of! Click on the series title you want, choose an episode, and choose from one of the available players. Some are actually just pop-ups to other sites; avoid these when possible. If you see a circular, red-colored play button, the only wayot get the video to start is to hit the button, close the 2 or 3 popups it will throw at you, and then go back to the srcinal page and click the now green-colored play button. It’s a pain, but hey, free anime dude! !
NHK’s High School Courses NHKs koukou kouza (, lit. “high school courses”) has a seemingly endless supply of free, educational video content. Although the videos are intended for Japanese high school students, the content is actually quite useful for nonnative adults as well, especially if you will be teaching English in a Japanese high school. Note that the site uses Windows Media Player, so Mac users will need to download Flip4Mac. !
Browse available courses and videos.
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Install Flip4Mac.
Browse anime series and movies available on Kumby.
Japan Foundation Lessons This site is a gold mine! Learners can choose either basic or advanced video skits, study the transcript using the pop-up definitions, or read the manga version of each skit! Best of all, each video can be viewed using one of four sub-title options: "
Japanese with kanji.
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Japanese in all kana. 214
How to Stream Japan-Only Content Outside Japan Some online video content is available only to IP addresses located within Japan. If you already live in Japan, then this is not a problem for you. But what about the folks learning Japanese overseas? Fortunately, technology comes to the rescue. Using a Japan-based VPN (Virtual Private Network), you will be able to watch Japan-only content as if you were actually in Japan. As an added benefit, VPNs create a far more secure Internet experience, especially when at coffee shops or airports.
Golden Frog’s VyprVPN Golden Frog’s VyprVPN has been my go-to VPN for many years, especially since it’s one of the few that works in Mainland China. But until recently, I couldn’t recommend them for Japanese learners since they lacked a Japan-based server. As of August 15, 2013, however, they now have a server in Tokyo, meaning you can now use VyprVPN to stream content from Japan that you otherwise must be in country to watch. Best of all, the VyprVPN desktop and mobile apps allow you to quickly change server locations in a matter of seconds. The only downside is the price: $14.99 a month for VyprVPN (which allows you to use the PPTP protocol with 128-bit encryption) or $19.99 a month for VyprVPN Pro (which allows you to use the PPTP, OpenVPN SSL, and L2TP/IPsec protocols with either 128-bit or 256-bit encryption).
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Sign up for a VyprVPN account.
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Install the VyprVPN app (iOS, Android, OSX & Windows; free).
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Read how to access the Japan Server Cluster.
PacketiX.net PacketiX.net is one of the only free VPNs still available, and also happens to be among a small pool of services that offer Japanbased servers (which is the whole point of using a VPN for our Japanese language input purposes). The bad news is that PacketiX is only available for Windows so Mac users will need to use Bootcamp or Parallels. !
Visit PacketiX.net to learn more.
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Follow this step-by-step tutorial to set up PacketiX.
Vpntraffic While not free like PacketiX.net, Vpntraffic’s pricing is very reasonable: $1.99 USD for 3 days, $5.00 USD for one month, $10.00 USD for 3 months, $35.00 USD for 12 months. Once you complete payment, you will receive your username and password via email. !
Sign up for a Vpntraffic account.
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Read the set-up instructions.
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Where to Buy & Rent Japanese Movies Here are some resources for those who want to buy or rent Japanese movies:
Amazon Japan While you can certainly find plenty of anime on Amazon.com, Amazon.fr, Amazon.de, Amazon.co.uk, and Amazon.ca, many will be dubbed in English. For better selection and DVDs in the srcinal Japanese, head over to Amazon.co.jp. Unfortunately, you will need to set up a new account to use the Japanese version of the site, but at least you can use the same e-mail address and password combination if you prefer.
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Open iTunes and click the “iTunes Store” button in the upper right corner.
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Scroll to the very bottom and click on the flag icon in the lower right corner.
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Scroll to the “Asia Pacific” section and click “Japan”.
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Click “Movies” in the top center of the screen.
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You can now browse movies by category from the drop down menu on the right side, scan the “New & Noteworthy” and “Recently Added” sections, or check out one of the featured sections like “Super Heroes”.
Note that you will need an iTunes gift card fromJapan to access paid content on iTunes Japan.
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Browse DVDs available on Amazon Japan.
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Browse Japanese movies available in iTunes.
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Read step-by-step instructions on ordering through Amazon Japan.
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Browse movies available in iTunes Japan.
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Purchase an iTunes Japan gift card from JBOX.
iTunes & iTunes Japan Numerous Japanese movies can be purchased outright or rented for a 24-hour period through iTunes, but you will find the most selection within iTunes Japan. In fact, you can also watch many American movies you know and love dubbed into Japanese, a somewhat comical—but highly effective—way to practice Japanese. To access iTunes Japan:
YesAsia.com YesAsia.com provides a wide range of Japanese movies, TV shows, and other Japanese related goodness, as well as Chinese and Korean products for budding polyglots. !
Browse Japanese DVDs available on YesAsia.com.
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Japanese Video Rental Shops
Akira
If you live in Japan, you have access to numerous video rental shops, including major national chains like Tsutaya. But even in your home country, there are likely some Japanese video rental shops to be found, usually co-located with Japanese bookstores like Kinokuniya.
Created in 1988, akira () remains a cult classic among Japanese anime devotees. The story centers around SHIMA Tetsuo (), the member of a biker gang, or bousouzoku (), and his best friend, KANEDA Shoutarou (), the bike gang’s leader. The story is set in the dystopian Tokyo of 2019, now called NewTokyo after it was destroyed in an explosion unleashed by the movie’s namesake, Akira, a boy with god-like powers that he was unable to control.
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Find a Tsutaya branch.
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Find a Kinokuniya branch.
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Japanese Anime 101 If you are completely new to Japanese anime, check out the Anime portal on Wikipedia and have a good chuckle watching what Strongbad would look like as an anime character: !
Visit Wikipedia’s Anime and Manga Portal.
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Watch “If Strongbad were an Anime Character...”
Recommended Japanese Anime Series & Movies Here is a list of recommended anime series (in alphabetical order), combining both my personal favorites and input from anime addicts who watch many more hours per week than they care to admit. Note that some of the anime below are based on manga of the same name.
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Berserk Based on the manga of the same name, beruseruku ( , “Berserk”) centers around gattsu ( , “Guts”), a mercenary known throughout the land for his strong swordsmanship. The anime series, running 25-episodes, first aired in 1997 and 1998. Nearly 15 years later, the long-awaited film trilogy finally hit theaters in Japan. !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Bleach Like the vast majority of manga and anime series, buriichi ( , “Bleach”) centers around a gifted teenage 217
protagonist with special powers. In this case, the show’s main character, named KUROSAKI Ichigo ( ), can see spirits. Based on his unique abilities, he ends up becoming a Grim Reaper of sorts called a shinigami ( ). In addition to the series, there is also a movie version. !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Cowboy Bebop Set in 2071, kauboui bibappu ( , “Cowboy Bepop”) follows the adventures of a small group of intergalactic bounty hunters. The award-winning show is regarded around the world as one of the best anime series of all time, with a masterful combination of animation, character development, and amazing music. !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Gurren Lagann Known as tengen toppa guren ragan (, lit. “Heaven-Piercing Gurren Lagann”) in Japan, Gurren Lagann is a “mecha anime” (see Neon Genesis Evangelion below) created by Gainax. The story is set in the distant future where humans now live underground, unaware that there is even a surface world up above… !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Ghost in the Shell The popular koukaku kidoutai ( , “Ghost in the Shell”) manga series spawned many animated spin-offs, including a number of television anime series and four films. !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Grave of the Fireflies Set during World War II, hotaru no haka ( , lit. “Hotaru’s Grave”) is based on NOSAKA Akiyuki’s ( ) semi-autobiographical novel of),the same name. The story centers around Seita ( a 14-yearold boy who must take care of his younger sister Setsuko ( ) after their mother passes away. The film received very positive reviews, praised as one of the best war films of all time by Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times, even making his “Great Movies” list in 2000. !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Hellsing With only 13 episodes, fans of herushingu ( , “Hellsing”) don’t have very many hours of anime goodness to look forward to,but hey, some’s better than none, right? Like the manga of the same name, the anime takes place in England, 218
where a secret organization fights vampires and other boogeymen with the help of a vampire named aakaado ( , “Alucard”). !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Hunter x Hunter Like many of the shows here, hantaa hantaa ( , “Hunter x Hunter”) began as a manga series and was later developed into an anime series. The show centers on young Gon as he tries to pass the “Hunter Examination”, a series of increasingly challenging skill tests that require brains, brawn, and cooperation/competition with other examinees, many of whom are trying to kill you… !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Naruto This popular manga and anime series is centered around UZUMAKI Naruto (), a young man with the misfortune of having a kyuubi no kitsune (
Neon Genesis Evangelion Often just called Evangalion for short, shinseiki ebangerion ( , “Neon Genesis EVANGELION”) is a highly successful anime and manga franchise that has set the pace for Japan’s myriad apocalyptic, “mecha” (biomechanical machine) action stories. The postmodern fantasy follows the efforts of Nerv, a paramilitary organization that uses massive, teenager-controlled mecha called “Evangelions” to fight off the ironically named “Angels”, strange beings bent on killing humans. !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Ninja Scroll Full of violence and sex, juubee ninpuuchou ( , “Ninja Scroll”) is probably not the best choice if you will be watching with children or easily offended parents around. The action thriller is set in f eudal Japan with an intricate plot full of ninja goodness. !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
, “Nine-Tailed Demon Fox”) stuck inside him! !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
One Piece Beginning first as a successful manga series, wan piisu ( , “One Piece”) follows pirate wonder boy Monkey D. Luffy and his motley crew of fellow “straw hat pirates” through 219
their various adventures in the fictional ocean and mountain world of One Piece. !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Sailor Moon Called bishoujo senshi seeraa muun in Japanese ( , lit. “Pretty Soldier Sailormoon”), the show is centered on TSUKINO Usagi () a typical Japanese junior high school girl save for one detail: unbeknownst to her, she is actually a warrior destined to save the world! !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Samurai Champloo Set in Japan’s edo jidai (, “Edo Period”), samurai chanpuruu ( , “Samurai Champloo”) mixes fighting action, comedy, and Japan’s seemingly insatiable obsession with food! !
up. The older brother, Mutta, promises to lead the way, but as fate would have it, the younger brother, Hibito, is the one who ends up becoming an astronaut. Not happy with where his life is heading, Mutta rekindles his dream and works his tail off to get accepted into Japan’s space program. I especially like the use of real day-to-day Japanese in this anime, not the less-than-useful mobster and superhero language you hear in many programs. !
Available for streaming on CrunchyRoll.
The Studio Ghibli Collection Unless you’ve been living in a fall-out shelter for the past three decades, you have undoubtedly heard of, if not seen, some of the wonderfully quaint animated films from sutajio jiburi ( , “Studio Ghibli”), headed by director MIYAZAKI Hayao (). Incidentally, “ghibli” is the Italian word for “Sirocco” (the Mediterranean wind that comes from the Sahara), a name MIYAZAKI picked because the studio would “blow a new wind through the anime industry”. I like nearly everything Studio Ghibli creates, but my three favorites are definitely:
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Space Brothers A must for any fans of NASA or space travel, uchuu kyoudai ( , “Space Brothers”) is about two brothers who both dream of going into space when they grow
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tonari no totoro (, “My Neighbor Totoro”)
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mononoke hime (, “Princess
Mononoke”) "
sen to chihiro no kamikakushi (
, “Spirited Away”) 220
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My Neighbor Totoro is available for streaming on Anime Plus.
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Princess Monoke is available for streaming on Anime Plus.
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Spirited Away is available for streaming on Anime Plus.
The Vision of Escaflowne I actually got interested in anime after I began studying Japanese (not the other way around as is often the case) and it was tenkuu no esukafuroune ( , “The Vision of Escaflowne”) that got me hooked. The 26episode series follows the trials and tribulations of high school aged heroine and budding psychic KANZAKI Hitomi ( ) after she is mysteriously transported to the planet Gaea. !
Available for streaming on Anime Plus.
Japanese Drama & TV Tools Japan puts out a dizzying array of television shows. Here are a few resources to help you find (and understand) them.
Drama Note Transcripts Thanks go to Koichi of Tofugu for suggesting dorama nouto ( ), an expansive collection of transcripts for popular Japanese dramas. The site is less-than-logically organized, but once you get the hang of things, it can be quite useful. !
Visit DramaNote.com.
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Read Tofugu’s tips for navigating the site & studying with dramas.
AsianWiki Just enter a show title in the search field on AsianWiki and you can see user ratings, plot descriptions, pictures of the cast, etc. !
Browse programs on AsianWiki.
Japanese TV Series (Wikipedia) Stretch out your scroll muscles; there are lots of Japanese television series listed here. !
Browse the alphabetical list of Japanese TV series on Wikipedia. 221
D-Addicts DramaWiki
Gokusen
This massive collection of Japanese dramas also includes listings for programs from Korea, Taiwan, China, and Singapore.
Starring NAKAMA Yukie () of Trick fame, Gokusen is about a new high school math teacher, YAMAGUCHI Kumiko (), who is secretly the daughter of a Yakuza boss. Her secret identity, and the martial skills that come with it, quickly prove important when she is assigned as homeroom teacher for the san-nen di-gumi (3 D) class, the high school’s roughest and toughest seniors. As you can imagine, crazy antics ensue as she tries to keep her students in line while also trying to keep her true identity under wraps. The show is a fun way to familiarize yourself with the inner workings of a Japanese school.
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Browse Japanese TV shows on DramaWiki.
Recommended TV Shows Japan’s unique take on drama, comedy, and variety shows is one of my favorite parts of the culture. Here are some television series sure to make you laugh, cry, and thirst for more.
Trick
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Half mystery, half comedy,torikku () is by far one my favorite Japanese shows, and one I re-watch regularly. The show stars two of my favorite Japanese actors, NAKAMA Yukie () as YAMADA Naoko, a highly skilled but chronically broke magician, and ABE Hiroshi ( ) as UEDA Jiro, a physics professor skeptical of magic. Together, the unlikely duo goes around Japan debunking cult leaders and con artists who use elaborate magic tricks to swindle people out of their money. The show itself goes on for 3 seasons, but there is also a follow-up special, and two movies. !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
The Family Game Following in the footsteps of an award winning film of the same name, the Fuji TV series kazoku geemu ( , lit. “family game”) stars SAKURAI Shou ( ) as an unconventional private tutor named YOSHIMOTO Kouya (). He is hired to help get NUMATA Shigeyuki (), played by URAGAMI Seishuu (), out of his room and back to school.NUMATA is chronically bullied at school and is dangerously close to dropping out and becoming a full time shut-in. YOSHIMOTO is promised a ¥100,000 bonus if he can get NUMATA back to school within 1 week. He accepts the 222
challenge under one condition: no one can interfere with his methods however crazy they may seem... !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
Tomohisa (), to help transform the
ugly duckling. !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
Boys Over Flowers
Nodame Cantabile
If you’re into romance, hana yori dango ( ) is an excellent choice. The show is based on the shoujo manga (, “comics written for teenage girls”) of the same name, but don’t let that stop you manly men from tuning in, too. The story centers on MAKINO Tsukushi (), played by INOUE Mao ( ), the only binbou (, “poor”) student at a rich school.
Based on an popular manga of the same name, nodame kantaabire () is a perfect choice for you music lovers out there. The story centers on two extremely talented—but extremely different—classical musicians: NODA Megumi (), played by UENO Juri (), is an eccentric, notoriously messy pianist, while CHIAKI Shin-ichi ( ), played by TAMAKI Hiroshi ( ), is an arrogant, meticulous pianist and violinist.
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Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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Available for streaming on Good Drama.
Producing Nobuta I find most “geek to goddess” transformation stories quite boring, but somehow they make it work in nobuta-wo purodyuusu ( ). When KIRITANI Shuuji (), played by KAMENASHI Kazuya (), sees that a new girl in school, KOTANI Nobuta (), played by HORIKITA Maki (), is being bullied because of how she looks, he joins forces with his classmate KUSANO Akira (), played by YAMASHITA
Tonbi Based on the best-selling book of the same name, tonbi ( , lit. “black kite”) is a touching slice-of-life drama about ICHIKAWA Yasuo (), played by UCHINO Masa-aki (), a man who loses his wife in a tragic accident and must raise his three-yearold son alone. !
Available for streaming on Good Drama. 223
The Great Divorce
Undercover Agent Tokage
“Marriage is the most vicious manmade illness”, or so says
Fans of detective dramas should greatly enjoy sennuu tantei tokage (), a detective drama centering on Tokage (), a former Tokyo Metropolitan Police detective played by MATSUDA Shouta
HAMASAKI Mitsuo, played by EITA (), two years into his doomed marriage to Yuka, played by ONO Machiko (
). In the first episode of this light-hearted drama about the challenges of marriage, he files for divorce after deciding he can take no more. But little does he know that even divorce won’t let him escape life with his ex... !
() with extraordinary cognitive and physical abilities. !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
Mischievous Kiss: Love in Tokyo Tiger & Dragon This quirky TBS series combines two unlikely worlds: traditional Japanese comic storytelling and organized crime. The show stars NAGASE Tomoya () as a prototypical yakuza () named YAMAZAKI Tora ( ), or Toraji as he is also known. YAMAZAKI is sent to collect money from YANAKA Shoukichi ( ), played by NISHIDA Toshiyuki ( ), an accomplished rakugo () performer, but ends up agreeing to pay the debt in his stead if YANAKA agrees to teach him the comedic art. !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
I’m not usually into cutesy, lovey-dovey but I make an exception for this reboot of itazura ( KISS na kisushows, ). The story centers around two high school students, AIHARA Kotoko (), played by MIKI Honoka (), and IRIE Naoki ( ), played by FURUKAWA Yuuki ( ). Kotoko falls head over heals for Yuuki the first time she sees him at their high school entrance ceremony. Yuuki brushes her off, stating he “doesn’t like dumb women” (ouch!), but fate seems on Kotoko’s side. When her house gets destroyed by a meteor, her dad moves in with a friend. And guess who happens to live there... !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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Aichiteru Wanna see non-native ladies from around the world argue in fluent Japanese? Then aichiteru () is for you. If you haven’t guessed, the title is an intentionally butchered pronunciation of aishite-iru (, “I love you”), likely a nod to the fact that the show centers on foreign speakers of Japanese. But I find this a little odd considering how well (and fast!) the guests speak the language. !
Available for streaming on Daily Motion.
Japanese Film With a history reaching back to the early 1900s, nihon eiga ( , “Japanese cinema”) accounts for one of the most significant film industries in the world, both in quantity (forth largest based on the number of annual feature films) and quality (four Academy Awards to date for the “Best Foreign Language Film”, the most in all of Asia). In addition to the standard movie genres you’re used to (action, comedy, drama, etc.), Japan has a number of unique movie classifications:
Gods of Entertainment
Jidaigeki
If sketch comedy and stand-up are your thing, you can’t do much better than enta no kamisama ( , lit. “Entertainment Gods”). The program ran from 2003 to 2010, but you can still find clips online and perhaps DVDs on Amazon Japan or at a movie Japanese rental shop.
Set during the edo jidai () or earlier, jidaigeki () are period dramas about the the lives of samurai, craftsmen, farmers, and merchants of the day.
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Available for streaming on Daily Motion.
Gendaigeki The polar opposite of jidaigeki, gendaigeki ( ) are films set in modern day.
Shomingeki Focused on the lives of everyday, working class people, shomingeki () films have a more realistic,
gritty quality than gendaigeki. 225
Samurai Cinema Considered a subgenre ofjidaigeki, Samurai Cinema is also known as chambara (), an onomatopoeia word that imitates the sound of swords clashing.
Recommended Japanese Films The following list of films is arranged loosely by director and theme, starting with films from my two favorite kantoku ( , “directors”):
J-Horror
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KUROSAWA Akira (), 1910-1998.
Representing the scariest collection of films on the planet in my opinion, J-Horror films such as ringu (, “Ring”) are known around the world.
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KITANO Takeshi (), also known as
“Beat Takeshi” () and considered by some to be today’s KUROSAWA. !
Watch a rare conversation featuring both KUROSAWA and KITANO.
Kaiju Literally meaning “strange beast”, kaiju () films center around immense monsters like as Godzilla, which, incidentally, is pronouncedgojira () in Japanese.
Yakuza Films Japan makes heaps of movies about Japanese mobsters, a genre called yakuza eiga ().
Seven Samurai Representing KUROSAWA’smost well-known film, shichi-nin no samurai () was the first Japanese movie to gain international acclaim, and should probably be the first on your movie to do list. The film stars a number of leading stars of the day, includingSHIMURA Takashi ( ) as SHIMADA Kanbei (), the leader of the samurai group, and MIFUNE Toshirou ( ) as Kikuchiyo (), an unpredictable wannabe-samurai who ends up being the real hero of the film. !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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DVD available from Netflix. 226
Ikiru
Ran
Meaning “to Live” in Japanese, Ikiru () is another touching KUROSAWA classic about death, living for a purpose, and the absurdities of Japanese bureaucracy. Having worked for the Japanese government, I assure you the portrayal is spot on! The film stars SHIMURA Takashi (), of Seven Samurai fame, this time portraying a stoic bureaucrat instead of a stoic warrior.
In his award-winning film ran (, “Rebellion”), KUROSAWA provides a creativetake on Shakespeare’s “King
! !
Available for streaming on Good Drama. DVD available from Netflix.
Rashomon Another KUROSAWA classic, rashoumon ( ) explores the darker side of human nature, depicting the four differing accounts of a woman’s rape and her husband’s murder. The movie is based on the short story yabu-no-naka ( , “In a Grove”) by AKUTAGAWA Ryuunosuke ( ). The film stars MIFUNE Toshirou () and SHIMURA Takashi ( ). !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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DVD available from Netflix.
Lear”, setting his version in feudal Japan instead of Europe. The films stars NAKADAI Tatsuya (). !
DVD available from Netflix.
Yojimbo Youjinbou (, “Bodyguard”) stars MIFUNE Toshirou () as a masterless samurai, rounin (), who uses his cunning mind and or warrior arts to help a town riddled with the violence and corruption of two warring clans. The heads of both clans end up hiring him for protection, unaware he is playing both sides. !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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DVD available from Netflix.
Red Beard Aka hige (, “Red Beard”), stars MIFUNE Toshirou
() as a warm-hearted doctor who struggles to teach compassion to his intern, a skilled but arrogant man who cares little for patients unable to pay their medical bills. !
DVD available from Netflix. 227
Hanabi
Kikujiro
Literally meaning “Fireworks”, hanabi () is held by many as director-actor-comedianKITANO Takeshi’s( ) masterpiece. Like most of his films, Hanabi portrays KITANO as a violent tough guy, in this case, a former police detective who borrows money from the yakuza to help pay for his wife’s leukemia treatments. The film bears many similarities to his earlier (and also well-regarded) film Sonatine, discussed next.
Though kikujiro (, “Kikujiro’s Summer”) may be light on character or plot depth, the film more than makes up for it with beautiful views of Japan, amazing piano music by FUJISAWA Mamoru (, a.k.a. “Joe Hisaishi”), and plenty of Takeshi-style comedy.
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DVD available from Netflix.
Sonatine Inspired by FUKASAKU Kinji’s () 1971 film bakuto gaijin butai (, “Sympathy for the Underdog”), Sonatine () is considered by some to be Beat Takeshi’s homage toFUKASAKU. Both films center around Tokyo yakuza who end up inokinawa (), in this case under the pretense of settling a dispute between local yakuza families. Though you will find all the violence you’d expect in a yakuza film, KITANO mixes in his signature goofiness to good effect. !
Available for streaming on Netflix.
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Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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DVD available from Netflix.
Zatoichi: The Blind Swordsman Representing his largest commercial success to date, zatouichi () portrays KITANO as a blind masseuse roaming town to town, but who is secretly a Robin Hood-esque hero with serious sword skills. When he comes across a town being bullied and extorted by powerful yakuza gangs, he shows that he doesn’t need the power of sight to bust heads. Despite the film’s blood and guts, it won the prestigious “Silver Lion for Best Director” award at the 2003 Venice Film Festival. !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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DVD available from Netflix.
Late Spring Marking the first of the “Noriko Trilogy” films, banshun ( , “Late S rin ” tells the tale of SOMIYA Shuukichi 228
), played by RYUU Chishuu ( ), a grieving widower whose only joy left in life is his sole daughter, Noriko (). Despite being old enough to wed, she remains at home to watch after her aging father, who enjoys the company but worries for her future. !
DVD available from Netflix.
Early Summer Called bakushuu () in Japanese, which literally translates as “Wheat Harvest”, Early Summer is the second film in the Noriko Trilogy, again centering around an unmarried character named Noriko. The film highlights the growing divide between younger and older generations, as well as between men and women, in post-war Japan. !
DVD available from Netflix.
Tokyo Story The third film in the Noriko Trilogy, toukyou monogatari ( , “Tokyo Story”), is widely considered director OZU’s greatest creation. The movie speaks volumes about Japan’s conflict between filial piety (a traditional cultural ideal throughout East Asia) and modern lifestyles focused more on an individual’s work and personal satisfaction. In the film, Noriko plays a widowed daughter-in-law whose strong affection
and attention toward her father and mother-in-law are in stark contrast to the indifference of the parent’s actual children. !
DVD available from Netflix.
Harakiri Harakiri (), known in Japanese as seppuku (
), won the Cannes Special Jury Prize in 1963. The film, directed by KOBAYASHI Masaki ( ), centers on the stories of various rounin () who arrive at a wealthy estate to commit ritualistic suicide instead of continuing to bear the shame that comes with no longer having a master to protect. !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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DVD available from Netflix.
The Twilight Samurai Tasogare seibei (, lit. “Twilight Seibei”) is set in 19th century Japan, just prior to the meiji ishin
(, “Meiji Restoration”). The movie centers around IGUCHI Seibei (), played by SANADA Hiroyuki ( ), a frugal accountant who forgoes luxuries like bathing and presentable clothes to help care for his senile mother and
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daughters after his wife died of tuberculosis. But what he lacks in grooming, he makes up for in highly refined katana skills. !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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DVD available from Netflix.
13 Assassins Tired of seeing the senseless rape and murder of their fellow countrymen, thirteen samurai join forces to assassinate Lord MATSUDAIRA Naritsugu(), the Shogun’s younger brother. Hence the film’s name juu-san-nin-no shikaku (, “13 Assassins”). The film stars YAKUSHO Kouji ( ) of sharu ui dansu (
, “Shall We Dance”) fame. The best description I’ve seen for the film can be found in the reviews on Netflix: “If Quentin Tarantino and Akira Kurosawa had a baby, that baby would make this movie.” !
Streaming and DVD available from Netflix.
Tampopo I love this movie. A tour de force of Japanese cuisine, this Japanese comedy ties multiple story lines together in an almost
Tarantino-esque style, with every sub-story involving the love of food. The movie is claimed to be the first “noodle Western” (a play on “Spaghetti Westerns”). !
DVD available from Netflix.
Shall We Dance? The film centers around the life of SUGIYAMA Shouhei ( ), played by YAKUSHO Kouji ( ), a prototypical “salaryman” ( ) who rekindles his lost joy of life through dance. His new past-time may start out with less than noble intentions (i.e. seeking out the sexy dance instructor he saw standing in the studio’s window), but his love of dancing quickly overtakes his infatuation with the instructor. !
Streaming and DVD available from Netflix.
Tokyo Olympiad Included in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die and receiving a 100% on RottenTomatoes.com’s Tomatometer, this 1965 ICHIKAWA Kon () documentary is a cinematic time machine taking the viewer back to the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, and perhaps more importantly, the surrounding context of early post WWII Japan. !
DVD available from Netflix 230
Waterboys
Departures
Directed by SHINOBU Yaguchi (), Waterboys () is a
Okuribito (, “Departures”), is about a young
2001 comedy about a group of five high school students who start a synchronized swimming team. The movie was awarded two nihon akademii shou ( , “Japan Academy Prizes”): “Best Newcomer” and “Best Music Score”. !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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DVD available for purchase from Amazon.
Fish Story “Fish Story” () centers around an obscure and long since disbanded punk rock band and their one and only record, “Fish Story”. The film bounces between decades, leading up to the impending end of the world, all tied together by the unlikely record. My favorite line from the movie is: ongaku wa sekai o sukuu ( , “Music will save the world”). !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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Streaming and DVD available from Netflix.
cellist in Tokyo who moves back to his rural hometown after his symphony is shut down. Taking a complete change of course in his life, he takes a job at a sougiya (, “funeral parlor”) and finds himself handling dead bodies instead of expensive cellos. The movie won “Best Foreign Language Film” at the 2009 Oscars, and “Picture of the Year” at the 32nd Japan Academy Awards. The film is directed by TAKITA Youjirou ( ) and stars YAMAZAKI Tsutomu ( ), HIROSUE Ryouko ( ), and MOTOKI Masahiro (). !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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Streaming and DVD available from Netflix.
Like Father, Like Son Titled soshite chichi ni naru ( Ryouta ( ), played by FUKUYAMA Masaharu) who finds
out that he has been raising someone else’s child, while his actual son has been raised by another family, a happy family who lacks the ambition and economic success enjoyed by NONOMIYA but who displays a much more wholesome appreciation of life, family, and love. 231
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Streaming and DVD available from Netflix.
Still Walking
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Available for streaming on Good Drama.
Also directed by KORE’EDA Hirokazu, aruite-mo aruite-mo ( , “Still Walking”) provides an interesting look into family life in Japan, especially how they cope with loss. Each year, the entire YOKOYAMA ( ) family, including the elderly parents, their two grown children, spouses, and grandchildren gather to remember the life of the family’s eldest sonjunpei () who drowned 15 years earlier saving another child.
Tokyo Sonata Toukyou sonota (, “Tokyo
Sonata”) is a 2008 film about a salaryman named SASAKI Ryuuhei (), played by KAGAWA Teruyuki (), who is suddenly laid off from his job. Unable to find another white collar job but too ashamed to tell his family, he works as a janitor in secret. The movie won “Best Film” at the 3rd Asian Film Awards and “Prix Un
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Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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DVD available from Netflix.
Certain Regard” at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival. !
DVD available from Netflix.
Nobody Knows Though it’s one of the sadder films I have ever seen, I highly recommend KORE’EDA Hirokazu’s( ) 2004 film daremo shiranai (, “Nobody Knows”). The movie follows the daily trials of four children left alone in a Tokyo apartment for months (and eventually years) by their less-than-motherly mother. Sadly, the film is based on actual events. ! !
Kabei: Our Mother Kabee () is a period piece centering around the
life of a self-sacrificing Japanese housewife and her two daughters, which she must raise alone after her husband is jailed for “thought crimes” during wartime Japan. Though it is historical fiction, the movie makes some very real statements about the dangers of nationalism, the dark side of Japan’s “face” culture, and the plight of women. The film stars YOSHINAGA Sayuri ( ), winner of four Japan Academy Best Actress awards, more than any Japanese actress to date.
Streaming and DVD available from Netflix.
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Available for streaming on Good Drama.
Read more about the tragic case on Wikipedia.
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DVD available from Netflix. 232
Woman in the Dunes
Intentions of Murder
Directed by avant-garde filmmaker TESHIGAHARA Hiroshi ( ), suna no onna ( , lit. “Sand Woman”) is based on ABE Koubou’s ( ) novel of the same name. The film, which won the Cannes Special Jury Prize and received two Oscar nominations, follows the struggles of NIKI Junpei (), an entomologist (insect expert) played by OKADA Eiji ( ) who unsuspectingly walks into a trap while researching bugs in the desert. He is then forced by the local villagers to live with a young widowed woman, played by KISHIDA Kyouko ().
Another IMAMURA Shouhei film, akai satsui ( , lit. “red intent to kill”), also known as Unholy Desire, shares many stylistic similarities with The Insect Woman. Like his previous film, the movie takes up the issue of marginalized women in Post War Japan, in this case a young lower-class woman who must endure her husband’s infidelity, constant mistreatment by her mother-in-law, and repeated visits by a home intruder who falls in love with her.
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Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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DVD available from Netflix.
The Insect Woman The Japanese title of “The Insect Woman”, nippon konchuuki (), refers to “repeating the same mistakes again and again”, which is exactly what happens to the lead character Tome (), played by HIDARI Sachiko ().
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DVD available from Netflix.
The Castle of Sand Released in 1974, suna no utsuwa () follows two detectives as they investigate the seemingly motiveless murder of a seemingly upstanding elderly gentleman who turns out to have a less than savory backstory. The film was directed by NOMURA Yoshitarou( ), and stars KATOU Gou () and SHIMADA Youko (). !
DVD available from Netflix.
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Available for streaming on Good Drama.
In the Realm of the Senses
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DVD available from Netflix.
OOSHIMA Nagisa’s () classic erotic film ai no koriida () is not for the 233
prudish. Its NC-17 rating should give you a clue about its sexually explicit content, which features non-simulated sex between the movie’s main characters: Japanese businessman ISHIDA Kichizo (), played by FUJI Tatsuya ( ), and his mistress, ABE Sada (), played by MATSUDA Eiko (). The movie is actually based (loosely) on the true story of ABE Sada who killed her lover ISHIDA Kichizo (through erotic asphyxiation) and then carried his “man bits” around in her purse! !
). This is probably not the best first-date movie; aside from the intense movie content, the movie takes its title from the main character’s efforts to find a new flame through fake movie “auditions” after his wife dies. !
Available for streaming on Good Drama.
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DVD available from Netflix.
DVD available from Netflix.
Ring
You may have seen the American version, but the srcinal Japanese version of Ring () is not only better for your Japanese, but a much better (and I think far scarier) movie to boot. The film stars NAKATA Hideo (), MATSUSHIMA Nanako( ), SANADA Hiroyuki ( ), and OOTAKA Rikiya ( ). !
DVD available from Netflix.
Audition The word “disturbing” is probably not strong enough to depict Audition (), a now cult classic horror film by controversial director MIIKE Takashi ( 234
Section 9 "
Japanese Video Games
Many console games (especially of the RPG variety) incorporate a good mixture of listening and reading input.
Like all things in life, the key is moderation and balance. Remember that you are using the game to enable you to better communicate with real, living, homo sapiens out in the real, physical world. This now concludes the public service announcement.
Where to Buy Japanese Video Games Amazon Video Game Store Knowing more than a few friends who have wasted much of their teenage and adult lives playing video games, I am a little reluctant to recommend them as a Japanese language learning tool. But I must admit that “TV Games” (what they call video games in Japanese) can be an especially powerful tool for independent language learning: "
They are addictive, meaning you don’t need the motivation and discipline required for many other forms of input.
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They are designed around human psychology, providing just the right mix of challenge and reward to keep you going.
Amazon is the first place I suggest looking for games and game consoles as they often offer free shipping and have a wider selection (and far better pricing) than most online retailers. !
Browse the Amazon Video Game Store.
Amazon Japan With regard to buying console games themselves, your best bet is using the Japanese Amazon store (amazon.co.jp) as there are few Japanese import games to be found in the U.S., U.K., and Canadian stores. Worry not, you can ship to addresses worldwide and you don’t need to have a Japanese credit card or 235
gift card like other web stores. The link below takes you to the “TV Game” (TV) section, but I suggest refining your search further by gaming platform using the kishu () link. !
Browse Amazon Japan “TV Game” section.
J-LIST As J-LIST’s slogan says, “You’ve Got a Friend in Japan”. A friend in need is a friend indeed (or is it, “A friend with a credit card is a friend indeed?”) From anime-inspired PS3 games to Nintendo DS study aids, they have a decent collection of games available for purchase. !
Browse Japanese games on J-LIST.
Japanese Video Game Sites & Forums Before I get to my recommended Japanese games for each major platform, here are a few sites, blogs, and forums that share excellent Japanese gaming reviews, tips, and tools:
Free Online Games With this treasure trove of free online games at your disposal, you will never need to leave the house again! Oh wait, that’s probably not a good thing... Use with caution my friends! Keep in mind that some of the games will require a Japan-based IP address or a VPN. !
Yes Asia Similar to J-LIST, Yes Asia sells a variety of Japanese entertainment products, including video games. The site’s navigation is a bit counterintuitive (there is no link to games under the Japanese section). Click “All Games” in the left side bar and look for games marked “Japan version”. !
Browse free online games.
AJATT Plus In addition to Khatz’s own gaming recommendations, AJATT Plus is home to an active community who contribute loads of useful game recommendations and reviews. !
Sign up for AJATT Plus.
Browse games on Yes Asia.
Reviewing the Kanji Reviewing the Kanji hosts one of the most active Japanese language learning forums on the web, with many threads 236
receiving hundreds of replies. Just set up a free account and then do a search for your gaming platform of preference. !
Register for the free Reviewing the Kanji forum.
Reddit The JRPG sub-Reddit contains lots of Japanese roll playing game suggestions, but feel free to add questions or requests if you don’t find what you’re looking for. Some of the replies may be snarky, but you will usually find some jewels among the mud. !
Browse Reddit threads in r/JRPG.
Crunchyroll Most people probably know this site for their wide selection of anime, but Crunchyroll also offers a forum packed with Japanese game recommendations, reviews, and rants. !
Browse the Crunchyroll forums.
Nihongo Pera Pera In addition to general Japanese tips and tools, Patrick Kenny (the man behind Nihongo Pera Pera) shares excellent game suggestions and even sells Japanese PSN (PlayStation Network) cards so you can download Japanese PS3 games. He guarantees delivery within 24 hours by email. !
Visit Nihongo Pera Pera.
The JRPG Club The good folks at The JRPG Club offer excellent resources for Japanese language learners, using gaming as a means for language immersion. !
Visit the JRPG Club site.
Japanese Nintendo DS & Wii Games
Gaijin Gamers
The Nintendo DS is an excellent low-cost gaming system, while Wii is perfect for those wanting to learn Japanese and exercise at the same time!
Like many online forums, Gaijin Gamers has had to contend with its fair share of trolls and jerk faces over the years, but hopefully their new set of stricter forum rules will help ensure a better user experience.
Xenoblade Chronicles
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Browse the Gaijin Gamers forum.
Called zenobureido () in Japanese, Xenoblade is a typical long-form JRPG (Japanese Role Playing Game), perfect for intermediate to advanced learners. Playing the 237
Japanese version requires a Japanese Wii, but you can actually change the voice to Japanese (though not the text) on the English version, allowing you to listen to Japanese while reading English (which can actually be a very powerful way to improve your fluency). !
Xenoblade Chronicles is available on Amazon.
Animal Crossing Known as doubutsu no mori () in Japanese, Animal Crossing is a highly addictive game. The game doesn’t use kanji, which can be a pro or con depending on your level. As opposed to most RPGs, progression in the game is not tied to “trigger events” so you can keep playing even if you don’t really know what’s going on or what to do next. !
Animal Crossing is available on Amazon.
Legend of Zelda Series Called zeruda no densetsu () in Japanese, Zelda games are an excellent option for less advanced Japanese learners since there is a lot less reading involved than more text-heavy RPGs. The last Zelda game game released for the Nintendo DS system was called “Spirit Tracks”, or daichi no kiteki () in Japanese. !
Browse Zelda games available on Amazon.
Kurikin Nano Island Story This role playing game takes place on Nano Island, home to the Nano Academy and over 100 different species of bacteria which the game player collects for use as tiny soldiers. !
Kurikin Nano Island Story is available on Amazon.
Naruto Given the manga and anime’s popularity, there are dozens of different Naruto games to choose from. !
Browse Naruto games available on Amazon.
Kanji Dictionary Kanji Sono Mama Rakubiki Jiten ( ) allows you to search kanji by handwriting, kana, or roumaji, search from Japanese to English, and from English to Japanese. There are far cheaper kanji
dictionaries available on iOS and Android that do the same thing, but this is a plenty good option for those with only a DS. !
Kanji Dictionary is available on Amazon.
Kanji Dragon Want to learn kanji while you fight? Then Kanji Dragon ( ) is the game for you! 238
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Kanji Dragon is available on Amazon.
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Game play instructions are available at the Nihongo Dekimasu blog.
Sentence Reading Training This game focuses on “reading training”, yomi tore ( ), with the aid of reading guides, pictures, and gameplay. !
Sentence Reading Training is available on Amazon.
Mondai na Nihongo For those wanting to challenge themselves (and look at Japanese that even troubles the Japanese themselves!), check out mondai na nihongo (). !
Mondai na Nihongo is available on Amazon.
Japanese PSP Games The PlayStation Portable (PSP) offers games rivaling many of its console counterparts. Like the PlayStation 3, the PSP is region free, allowing you to play Japanese games even on systems bought outside of Japan.
Valkyria Chronicles 3 Senjou no varukyuria (
, “The Valkyria Chronicles”) is set in a fictional 1935 world where two superpowers, “The East European Imperial Alliance” and “The Atlantic Federation”, duk e it out over a scarce mineral called “ragnite”. !
Valkyria Chronicles 3 is available on Amazon Japan.
Bleach: Heat the Soul 7 Based on the popular manga and anime buriichi ( , “Bleach”), Heat the Soul 7 pits Bleach characters against each other, with the goal of reducing your opponent’s health to zero using each of the 84 character’s unique attacks. !
Bleach: Heat the Soul 7 is available on Amazon.
Persona 2:Innocent Sin Designed as a sequel to Revelations: Persona, this iteration of the popular role-playing game is set in Sumaru City, following the story of SUOU Tatsuya (), a senior at Seven Sisters High School, Lisa Silverman ( ), a caucasian student who only speaks Japanese and some Cantonese contrary to people’s expectation that she can speak English based on her ethnicity, and MISHINA Eikichi ( ), a student at Kasugayama High known for his narcissism and love of rock music. !
Persona 2: Innocent Sin is available on Amazon. 239
Monster Hunter Portable 3rd This action role-playing game is set in a Japanese feudal-esque world, starting the player out in Yukumo Village. From there, you set out on “monster hunts” equipped with a variety of weapons and joined by cat-type companions called “Felynes”. !
Monster Hunter Portable 3rd is available on Amazon.
Japanese PlayStation Games The Sony PlayStation (or PS for short) is an excellent option for those wanting to immerse themselves in Japanese using video games. A few things to keep in mind about the PlayStation: "
Due to region controls, Japanese PS2 games will not work on non-Japanese PS2 consoles. PS3 consoles, on the other hand, are region free and don’t suffer from the same limitation. You can play imported Japanese PS3 games no matter where you happen to buy your console.
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Many Japanese PS3 games give you the option to play using
Final Fantasy Type-0 This addition to the Final Fantasy franchise is set in Oriense, a world divided into four countries: The Suzaku Fiefdom of Rubrum, The Milites Empire, Lorican Alliance, andgranting The Kingdom of Concordia, each of The which possess a crystal them unique powers. Breaking the peace treaty between the four nations, The Milites first conquer Lorica to gain possession of their crystal, and then proceed to attack the remaining nations. Players join the battle as one of 14 characters, each members of Rubrum’s “Class Zero”. !
Final Fantasy Type-0 is available on Amazon.
Japanese audio with English subtitles, Japanese audio with Japanese subtitles, and English audio with Japanese subtitles. "
The PS3 allows you to instantly download Japanese games (and even free previews) directly from the Japanese PSN (PlayStation Network), including many PlayStation 1 classics.
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See Wikipedia for an extensive list of downloadable PSN games.
To access the Japanese PSN, you will first need to set up an account and buy some Japanese PSN cards. !
Read how to set up a Japanese PSN account.
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Buy Japanese PSN cards in the Nihongo Pera Pera Store.
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Okay, now that you you knowhow to get PlayStation games, it’s time to go over what games to buy.
Ni no Kuni Created in partnership with Studio Ghibli, ni no kuni ( , lit. “Second Country”) delivers the perfect blend of story, art, and music that you’d expect from Ghibli. A good choice for those wanting something they can play with kids in the room. !
Ni no Kuni is available on Amazon.
Metal Gear Solid Series Given its worldwide popularity, Metal Gear Solid ( ) probably doesn’t require much of an introduction. The fourth iteration of the game, subtitled “Guns of the Patriots” ( ) has sold over 5 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best selling games of all time. !
Most Metal Gear Solid games are available on Amazon Japan.
Uncharted Series The Uncharted () series is a 3rd-person shooter following Nathan Drake, a modern day treasure hunter. !
Yakuza Series Somewhat similar to Grand Theft Auto, ryuu ga kotoku ( , lit. “Like a Dragon”) is an action-adventure game series following the life-threatening adventures of former yakuza KIRYUU Kazuma ( ) through a quasi-fictional red-light district in Tokyo. !
Yakuza 5 and previous editions are available on Amazon.
Heavy Rain Created in the film noire style, Heavy Rain ( ) isKiller” a psychological thriller to centered aroundhis thevictims. mysterious “Origami who uses rainfall slowly drown !
Heavy Rain is available on Amazon Japan.
Fall Out 3 Set in a post-apocalyptic 2277 (two centuries after the SinoAmerican War of 2077), players escape from their underground survival shelter to find their missing father out in the nuclear wasteland that was once Washington, D.C. !
Fall Out 3 is available on Amazon Japan.
Most Uncharted games are available on Amazon Japan. 241
Section 10
Japanese Comic Books
Why Manga? Here are a few of the reasons manga are so well suited for Japanese learners:
Manga Provide a Vivid Visual Context Not only are the illustrations fun to look at in their own right, but they also help provide a context for the words you are reading. The clearer the context, the easier it is to figure out what’s going on, make new connections, and commit Japanese words and phrases to memory.
Many Manga Include Furigana
I was late to the manga () party, not discovering this wonderfully addictive art form until well into my Japanese journey. I hope you don’t make the same mistake:manga is one of the best ways to improve your Japanese reading skills, especially in the awkward intermediate phase when novels are bit too daunting but learner specific materials are too easy.
Most manga include little hiragana () reading guides called furigana () that will not only help you learn the various readings of kanji, but also make it much faster to look up new words and kanji in a dictionary. You can of course use handwriting input on your smartphone or trackpad, but it’s far faster to just type in the reading.
Manga Covers an Extremely Wide Range of Topics As I have said (and will continue to say many times to come), interest is one of the most important factors of sticking with a language long enough toreach fluency. And with so many 242
genres and topics available, you are bound to find a manga that fits your particular set of interests.
Most Manga Series Include Numerous Volumes Many manga go on for dozens, if not hundreds, of volumes. This means that once you find a particular manga you like, there should be enough content to keep you busy for quite some time. !
Read “Learning Japanese Through Manga” for more tips.
Manga Demographics There are five main manga demographics:
Kodomo Muke Manga Aimed at children below 10, kodomo muke manga ( ) usually have simple stories focused on imparting a moral, and unlike the other demographics, tend to be non-episodic.
Shounen Manga Created for predominantly male audiences between 10 and 18, shoenen manga () tend to have
simpler story lines, which actually makes them popular with older professional as well (who can read them for brainless reading
relaxation during their daily commutes). This is probably the best manga genre for Japanese learners since the contexts are usually easier to decipher, and thanks to the liberal use of furigana pronunciation guides. Notable examples include Bleach ( ), Hunter x Hunter ( ), Naruto (), and One Piece ( ).
Shoujo Manga Covering the same age range as its shounen manga counterpart, shoujo manga () is written for a predominantly audience. While demographic is no stranger to the female mystical, superhero storythis lines found in shounen manga, it tends to be more focused on human and romantic relationships.
Seinen Manga Intended for male readers from 18 to 30 years old, seinen manga () tends to focus more on story than just action as with shounen manga. Notable examples of the genre include Akira (), Berserk ( ), Gantz (), Monster ( ), and 20th Century Boys (20 ). Although the story lines will likely be more enjoyable for adult readers, the one downside for non-native learners is that seinen manga tend to lack furigana pronunciation guides. 243
Josei Manga
Ten Manga
Literally meaning “Women’s Manga”,josei manga ( ) represent the female-focuses counterpart of seinen manga. Although the target age range for this demographic is middle-aged women, readers range all the way from high school students to adult professionals.
First the good news: this site has a massive quanity of manga, including most of the popular titles you will likely be looking for. Now the bad news: all the content is in English. But wait, before you disregard this resource, consider it as an excellent back up tool for when you come across sections in Japanese manga you buy that just don’t make sense.
Where to Find Free Manga Online Enchanting Sky Enchanting Sky offers heaps of muryou uebu manga (WEB , “free online comics”). You probably haven’t heard of most of the manga on the site as nearly all were created specifically for online audiences. But hey, free manga! !
Browse free online comics on Enchanting Sky.
jCafe Forums Definitely falling toward the quasi-legal (or perhaps outright illegal) end of the spectrum, this forum has a file sharing section with heaps of Japanese manga in their raw, unadulterated form. !
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Browse free online comics on Ten Manga.
Where to Buy Manga If you want to buy your own manga, here are some places to look:
Kinokuniya With countless stores in Japan, and myriad branches abroad (Australia, Dubai, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and the U.S.A.) Kinokuniya () is one of the best places to buy manga since you can physically flip though different series to see what’s right for you. !
Find the nearest Kinokuniya branch.
Browse the jCafe Forums.
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Amazon Japan Though the shipping costs may exceed the manga themselves, Amazon Japan is a great option for buying manga if you don’t live near a Kinokuniya branch. They have a massive collection of manga series, both new and used. !
Browse manga available for purchase on Amazon Japan.
J-LIST From manga to games, J-LIST has just about everything a true Japanophile needs. While their manga library may not be as vast as Japan’s,costs theyare do significantly have a fairlylower. decent selection. And bestAmazon of all, shipping !
Browse manga available for purchase on J-LIST.
Manga Musts There are thousands of manga to choose from, but here are but a few suggestions to help you get started (in alphabetical order):
Akira You have probably heard of the anime movie Akira ( ), but the manga is believed by many to be far better. The story is set in the year 2030, within a post-apocalyptic “Neo-Tokyo”, an
artificial island built in Tokyo Bay after the real Tokyo is destroyed by a nuclear bomb in World War III. !
Learn more about Akira on Wikipedia.
Berserk On the more violent end of the spectrum, Berserk ( ) centers around an orphaned mercenary name Guts (), who earns his name again and again with impressive feats of courage. The manga takes on the hefty topics of good and evil, often questioning whether humanity is inherently good or bad, or somewhere in between. !
Learn more about Berserk on Wikipedia.
Bleach As we saw in the anime section, Bleach () tells the story of KUROSAKI Ichigo (), a high school student who suddenly becomes a “Soul Reaper” (), a Grim Reaper of sorts, who sends spirits off to the afterlife, called “Soul Society” ( ). !
Learn more about Bleach on Wikipedia.
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Case Closed
Fullmetal Alchemist
Although written for a younger audience, Japanese learners of any age can enjoy the manga, and benefit from the relatively simpler stories and language it presents. As you can guess from the manga’s Japanese name, meitantei konan ( , lit. “Great Detective Konan”), the story centers around detective work and solving crimes. The twist is that the main character, Jimmy Kudo, a.k.a.KUDOU Shinichi ( ) was once an adult but was transformed into a child.
The Japanese title hagane no renkinjutsushi ( ) literally means “Steel Alchemist”. The story is set in a fictional world where alchemy is not only real, but one of the most advanced forms of scientific achievement.
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Learn more about Case Closed on Wikipedia.
Crayon Shinchan If crude, silly, and perverse are your preferred flavor of manga, you will greatly enjoy Crayon Shinchan (). Though some of the humor will likely fly over your head unless you have lived in Japan or spent a lot of time with Japanese people, I do find it to be a great source of everyday, situational Japanese since the story centers around the life of a 5-year-old, albeit a rather precocious, oyaji () type man-of-aboy. !
Learn more about Crayon Shinchan on Wikipedia.
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Learn more about Fullmetal Alchemist on Wikipedia.
Gantz After being killed by a subway train during their efforts to save a homeless man who had fallen on the tracks, two high school KURONO Kei () and KATOU Masaru friends, ( ) become unwitting superhero ghosts of sorts, allotted various powers by their special suits and weapons. The name Gantz () refers to a mysterious black sphere that provides them with their gadgets and missions. !
Learn more about Gantz on Wikipedia.
Ghost in the Shell The Japanese name, koukaku kidoukai ( ), which literally means “Mobile Armored Riot Police”, gives a fairly good overview of this manga. The cyberpunk police thriller centers around KUSANAGI Motoko ( ), a cyborg who uses her powers to fight crime. !
Learn more about Ghost in the Shell on Wikipedia. 246
Gundam
Monster
This manga and anime series goes all the way back to the late 70s, with multiple spin offs and divergent timelines from the srcinal uchuu seiki (, “Universal Century”). Like many of its fellow series, Gundam features “mecha” (giant human controlled robot suits).
This story centers on Dr. TENMA Kenzou, a young hotshot brain surgeon working at Eisler Memorial Hospital in Düsseldorf, Germany. After making a controversial call to save the life of two young twins instead of the town mayor, his life quickly goes downhill in every way imaginable. As if losing his social standing isn’t bad enough, he discovers many years later that the boy he saved is actually quite the murderous monster, hence the manga’s title: Monster ().
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Learn more about Gundam on Wikipedia.
Hellsing
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Set in England, Hellsing () follows the activities of The Hellsing secret and group established to fightOrganization, vampires, thea undead, andmysterious other things that go bump in the night. Interestingly, the story’s protagonist, Alucard () is himself a vampire, honoring the organization’s “fight fire with fire” approach. !
Learn more about Hellsing on Wikipedia.
Learn more about Monster on Wikipedia.
Naruto Arguably one of the best-known manga series worldwide, Naruto () tells the tale of UZUMAKI Naruto ( ), a teen ninja who striving to become to the hokage ( , literally “fire shadow”), the head ninja of the village. !
Learn more about Naruto on Wikipedia.
Hunter x Hunter Just like the anime of the same name, Hunter x Hunter ( ) follows the adventures of 12-year old Gon Freecss (), who sets off to find his father and learn the ways of the hunter. !
Learn more about Hunter x Hunter on Wikipedia.
One Piece Representing the best selling manga series of all time, One Piece () has earned its fame through its enjoyable art, entertaining story line, and unique collection of characters. The manga’s protagonist isMonkey D. Luffy ( ), a teenage pirate who gained the bizarre 247
ability to stretch his limbs to extreme lengths after consuming a supernatural fruit. Together with his motley crew called the Straw Hats Pirates, they navigate the globe in search of the ultimate treasure, called the “One Piece”. !
Learn more about One Piece on Wikipedia.
Thermae Romae This award-winning manga (later made into a live-action movie) takes place in Roman times, centering around Lucius, an architect struggling to come up with new ideas until he discovers a secret tunnel leading to a Japanese bathhouse of modern day. Strange story line, yes, but well worth a read. !
Learn more about Thermae Romae on Wikipedia.
Vagabond Vagabond () paints a fictionalized portrayal of MIYAMOTO Musashi’s ()
life and adventures. As a martial artist, it is one of my all-time favorite manga series. !
Learn more about Vagabond on Wikipedia.
YotsubaTo! This quirky comedy manga centers on a five-year-old girl named Yotsuba Koiwai and her adoptive parents’ efforts to teach her
everyday knowledge most kids her age already know (how to use a doorbell, get on an escalator, etc). While her ignorance is the foundation upon which most of the comedy depends, the premise of the manga is also a great way for non-native speakers of Japanese to learn everyday vocabulary that most Japanese speakers take for granted and would never think to teach you. !
Learn more YotsubaTo! on Wikipedia.
Zetman This superhero manga centers on KANZAKI Jin ( ), a young man who transforms into a creature named ZET, and AMAGI Kouga (), who has no superpowers but uses technology, skill, and cunning to fight evil doers as the hero named Alphasz. !
Learn more about Zetman on Wikipedia.
20th Century Boys You are likely familiar with 20th Century Boys (20 ) from the movie trilogy of the same name. The story centers around ENDOU Kenji ( ) and his friends, who write a yogen no sho ( , “book of prophecy”) as children which ends up not being far from the truth! !
Learn more about 20th Century Boys on Wikipedia. 248
Section 11
Japanese Newspapers
traditional news. With the site’s extensive use of furigana ( ) readings, simplified vocabulary, and pop-up definitions for technical terms, News Web EASY is perfect for non-native speakers, too. !
For those wanting to get their news fix in Japanese, here are some recommended shinbun (, “newspapers”), and news apps.news sites,
Rocket News 24 The peeps over at Rocket News ( ) have created a mobile-friendly version of their site that works well on both iOS and Android devices. While there are many mainstream news choose from, I quite like Rocket News’ Japanese more playful takeoutlets on thetodaily news. !
Recommended News Sites & Apps Online Japanese newspapers and sites are not only free, but they also allow you to look up and save words far more quickly than their paper counterparts.
NHK News Web EASY Called yasashii nihongo-no nyuusu ( ) in Japanese, the “NHK News Web EASY” site was created to provide younger Japanese readers with a more approachable reading experience than
Read articles on NHK News Web EASY.
Read articles on Rocket News 24.
Google News Japan In addition to international news, business news, technology news, and political news, Google News Japan also shows news about your local area (automatically detected using your computer’s IP address)in Japanese! !
Read articles on Google News Japan.
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Download the G! iOS app.
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National Newspapers There are five major national newspapers in Japan, arranged here by circulation size:
Yomiuri Shimbun Founded in 1874, the Yomiuri Shimbun ( ) not only has the largest readership in Japan, but according to the World Association of Newspapers, the largest circulation of any newspaper in the world with over 14 million subscribers. The Yomiuri is considered a conservative or center-right publication, often taking controversial (and some would even argue, revisionist) stances on wartimes issues such as “comfort women” and forced labor. !
Read the Yomiuri Shimbun online.
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Download the Yomiuri Shimbun x pARallel app for iOS.
Asahi Shimbun Beginning publication in 1879, the Asahi Shimbun ( ) is the second largest newspaper in Japan by readership. !
Read the Asahi Shimbun online.
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Download the Asahi Shimbun app for iOS.
Mainichi Shimbun Literally meaning “Daily News”, the Mainichi Shimbun ( ) used to be two separate papers, the Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun( ) and the Osaka Mainichi Shimbun. The two companies merged in 1911, but continued to print separate newspapers all the way until 1943. !
Read the Mainichi Shimbun online.
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Download the Mainichi Shimbun app for iOS (iTunes Japan).
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Download the Mainichi Shimbun app for Android.
Nihon Keizai Shimbun As you might guess from the name, the Nihon Keizai Shimbun ( ) focuses mostly on economic and business news. It is often referred to by it’s abbreviated name, the Nikkei (). !
Read the Nikkei online.
Seikyou Shimbun You might not expect a Buddhist newspaper to be in the top five, but the Seikyou Shimbun’s () six million readers would beg to differ! !
Read the Seikyou Shimbun online. 250
Sports Newspapers Sports are a big deal in Japan, and there are quite a few newspapers dedicated to covering just that:
Tokyo Sports Called Tousupo () for short, Toukyou Supoutsu () is a daily sports newspaper with a circulation of approximately 2.2 million readers. !
Read Tousupo online.
Nikkan Sports Launched in 1946, Nikkan Supoutsu ( ) represents Japan’sfirst daily sports newspaper. It has a circulation of just under two million, and is affiliated with the Asahi Shimbun (). !
Sankei Sports Published by the Sankei Shimbun ( ), Sankei Sports (), or Sansupo () for short, has a circulation of nearly one and half million. !
Read Sankei Sports online.
Sports Houchi Another daily sports newspaper, the Supoutsu Houchi ( ) is affiliated with the Yomiuri Shimbun ( ). It has a readership of about a million. !
Read Sports Houchi online.
Regional Newspapers
Read Nikkan Sports online.
Toukyou Shimbun Sports Nippon Called Sponichi () for short, the Supoutsu Nippon () is one of the oldest daily sports newspapers in Japan, launched in 1948. !
Covering Japan’s largest city, theToukyou Shimbun ( ) obviously has one of the highest readerships of all the regional newspapers in Japan. !
Read the Tokyo Shimbun online.
Read Sports Nippon online. 251
Chuunichi Shimbun
Hokkaidou Shimbun
With a readership concentrated in Nagoya City ( ) and Aichi Prefecture (), the Chuunichi Shimbun (, lit. “Midday Newspaper”) is a daily “broadsheet” newspaper with a circulation of about four million. It is published by the same parent company as the Tokyo Shimbun.
As you can guess from the name, the Hokkaidou Shimbun ( ) is a Hokkaidou-based daily newspaper covering a mix of regional, national, and international news. The paper has a readership of about 1,200,000.
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Read the Chuunichi Shimbun online.
Nishinippon Shimbun Nishinippon Shimbun Based in Fukuoka (), the ( ) covers Western Japan as the name implies. !
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Read the Hokkaidou Shimbun online.
Kobe Shimbun The Kobe Shimbun () is the local daily newspaper from my old stomping grounds. Beautiful city and a very decent paper. !
Read the Kobe Shimbun online.
Read the Nishinippon Shimbun online.
Chuugoku Shimbun Headquartered in Hiroshima (), the Chuugoku Shimbun () refers not to China (which is also written ), but to central Japan. The paper has a circulation of just under 700,000. !
Read the Chuugoku Shimbun online.
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Section 12 Hir@gana Times
Japanese Magazines
This bilingual magazine presents every article in both Japanese and English, with furigana reading guides for every kanji. !
Learn more about The Hiragana Times.
Nipponia Finding content that fits your specific interests is an essential part of self-guided immersion, and magazines afford a level of
Though it doesn’t include English translations like the Hir@gana Times (which I actually think is a good thing), Nipponia ( ) does include furigana reading guides for kanji. !
niche in many granularity other formsnot of afforded print media. Best of all, many of the magazines below offer free content online.
Japanese Learner Magazines The following few magazines were written specifically for Japanese learners, meaning that you will find useful features like liberal use of furigana ), English translations, and even CD-ROMs with audio versions of the articles in MP3 format.
Learn more about Nipponia.
The Japan Times ST Although intended for native speakers of Japanese learning English, the Shukan ST (ST) can also be of great benefit to English speakers learning Japanese. I have found such “reverse immersion” to be an interesting way to simultaneously learn Japanese and improve my ability to teach English to Japanese speakers. !
Learn more about The Japan Times ST.
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Japanese Magazines The Japanese learner magazines above are a great place to start, but you should move onto magazines written for native Japanese speakers as soon as possible. They are more interesting, provide a wider range of topics, and present you with lots of useful vocabulary.
Asahi Weekly Released every Tuesday, the Shuukan Asahi ( ) is Japan’s longest running weekly magazine. It tends to focus on politically oriented news stories, with a somewhat liberal slant. !
Learn more about Asahi Weekly.
Aera
Bunshun Weekly
Taken from the Latin word for “era”, Aera () is a weekly news magazine published by the Asahi Shimbun (
The Shuukan Bunshun () is a weekly political magazine with a conservative slant.
). The magazine includes a large quantity of photos, which makes it a great choice for non-native speakers needing a little extra visual context. !
Learn more about Aera Magazine.
AneCan Targeted at women in their mid to late twenties, AneCan ( ) was created for readers who have “graduated” from CanCam. !
Learn more about AneCan Magazine.
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Learn more about the Bunshun Weekly.
CanCam Created for young, fashion conscious women, the decidedly “Japanengish” name CanCam () was supposedly derived from “I Can Campus” (alluding to their target demographic of female college students). !
Learn more about CanCam.
Classy Beginning publication back in the boom years of the early 1980s, Classy is targeted at professional woman in their mid-twenties. !
Learn more about Classy. 254
Cosmode
National Geographic Japan
Created to address the growing cosplay market, Cosmode ( ) includes photo spreads from conventions and other major cosplay events. The name is a portmanteau created by combining “Costume” and “Mode”.
Launched in April 1995, the Japanese version of National Geographic, nashonaru jiogurafikku ( ), provides world class writing and breathtaking photography just like its English counterpart.
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Learn more about Cosmode.
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Learn more about National Geographic Japan.
Economist Weekly
Newton
Created in 1928, the Economist Weekly, orShuukan Ekonomisuto () is a good option
This is a wonderful magazine for Japanese learners interested in science. It is packed with pictures and fun, step-by-step
for those interested in finance and economics.
experiments, and lots of pretty pictures.
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Learn more about th e Economist Weekly.
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Learn more about Newton.
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Download the Economist Weekly iOS app.
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Like the Newton Facebook page to get daily updates on your wall.
Friday Weekly
Nikkei Business
A liberal leaning political magazine, the Shuukan Kinyoubi ( ) is also known as “Lie-Detector Magazine” and the “Magazine without Taboos”, nicknames aiming to its efforts to offer journalism free of outside corporate or political control.
Similar to BusinessWeek magazine, Nikkei Bijinesu ( ) is a weekly magazine discussing important economic trends of the day.
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Learn more about Nikkei Business.
Learn more about the Friday Weekly.
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Sunday Mainichi The Sunday Mainichi () is a weekly news magazine (and naming paradox!) published by the Mainichi Shimbun (). !
Learn more about the Sunday Mainichi.
Touyou Keizai Weekly The shuukan touyou keizai ( ) magazine centers on business, economics, and politics. Established back in 1895, it is still one of the top Japanese business magazines. !
Learn more about the Touyou Keizai Weekly.
V Jump First published in 1993, V Jump () centers on manga and manga-based video games. !
Learn more about V Jump.
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Section 13
Japanese Books & Literature
Recommended eBook Apps The following apps allow you download eBooks on the fly and take them with you wherever you go.
Kindle Application Don’t have a Kindle? No problem! Amazon’s free Kindle apps allow you to read Kindle eBooks on nearly every operating system and device. Best of all, highlights and bookmarks you make are miraculously synced between all your devices, and they even include suggested highlights based on what text is most highlighted by other users.
Japan is one of the most literate societies on the planet, with a literacy rate of 99% and nearly 80,000 new titles published each year, so you will have no shortage of written material to dig your teeth into. Although books and literature will probably become most enjoyable once you reach an upper-intermediate to advanced level, you can start at any level, especially if you use eBooks (since you can quickly look up unknown words), children’s books (with their basic vocabulary and simple story lines), and visual novels (with their vivid visual contexts).
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Download the Kindle app for iOS, Android, Mac, PC, and more.
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Browse Japanese eBooks in Amazon Japan’s “Kindle” section.
iBooks While I love the cross-platform nature of the Kindle App, I must concede that the iBooks slick user interface takes the cake. In addition to books you buy from the iBooks Store, you can also add PDFs to your bookshelf via iTunes on your computer or right on your iOS device. !
Download the iBooks app for iOS.
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Browse Japanese books in iTunes Japan. 257
Google Play Books Not wanting to be left out of the digital multimedia party, Google has entered the market with Google Play (a one-stop online shop for books, music, movies, and games). Unfortunately, there is no easy way to filter books by language, but you can at least search for specific Japanese titles if you know them. !
Download Google Play Books for Android.
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Download Google Play Books for iOS.
SkyBook Once you shell out one dollar and ninety-nine cents, this wonderful iOS app brings all the ebooks in the Aozora Bunko ( ) collection right to your fingertips (more on the Aozora Bunko shortly). Like the other ebook reader apps suggested here, you can copy text, create highlights, and look up words right inside the app. !
Download the free Skybook app for iOS ($1.99).
to the app is that buying books requires a Japanese credit card. Fortunately, you can preview quite a few pages free of charge which is often plenty of reading input in its own right. !
Download the free Kinoppy app for iOS.
Where to Find Free Japanese eBooks While there are many excellent Japanese eBooks worth investing in, numerous titles are available for free online. Here’s where to find them:
Aozora Bunko Literally meaning “Blue Sky Library”, Aozora Bunko ( ) offers a massive digital stack of Japanese ebooks. As just mentioned, you can access the Aozora Bunko collection on your iOS device using the Skybook app. !
Browse eBooks available on Aozora Bunko.
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Learn more about Aozora Bunko on Wikipedia.
Kinoppy Fans of the Kinokuniya () book store will be happy to know that they can now access the store’s massive collection of books and manga right on their iOS device. Books can be sorted by popularity, genre, author, publisher, or type (e.g. regular books, comics, and light novels). The only real downside
Wikisource Like its sibling Wikipedia, Wikisource is a free, online resource. While there is plenty of overlap between the two, Wikisource’s aim is to house public domain or freely licensed literature, books, 258
and other text-based content. As of writing, the number of Japanese works is quite limited, but it’s still worth a peek. !
Browse free Japanese eBooks on Wikisource.
can get a clear visual context as you listen, improving both your reading and listening skills at the same time. !
Browse free traditional Japanese stories on Kankomie.
Project Gutenberg
University of Virginia Library Japanese Text Initiative
Like Wikisource, Project Gutenberg aims to collect, organize, and preserve public domain texts. They have quite a few Japanese titles to choose from, and they allow you to download the book files in multiple formats, including Mobi (for use on Kindle), ePub (for use on iOS devices), Plucker, HTML, plain text, and more.
Search by author, title, or sort books chronologically (separated into the Pre-Modern and Modern periods).
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Browse free Japanese eBooks on Project Gutenberg.
Bauddha.net The Bauddha site provides free books, stories, and speeches on a wide range of topics, all displayed with English on the left and Japanese on the right. There is even a built in dictionary, so you can look up unknown words as you go. !
Browse free Japanese eBooks on Bauddha.net.
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Read step-by-step instructions for using the site on Nihongo E Na.
Kankomie
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Browse The Japanese Text Initiative’s free eBooks.
World Public Library Using the “Advanced Search” page, constrain the search to books written in Japanese, and boom, you’ve got nearly 2,000 free Japanese books. !
Browse free Japanese eBooks on The World Public Library.
Ogura Hyakunin Isshu This anthology includes 100 traditional waka () poems by 100 different Japanese poets. They show Japanese on the left, roumaji in the middle, and an English translation on the right. !
Browse poems available on Ogura Hyakunin Isshu.
The Kankomie site has a wonderful collection of traditional stories which are not only narrated but also animated! That means you 259
A Brief Guide to World Domination (Japanese)
Amazon Japan
Written by prolific author Chris Guillebeau (the creator of The Art of Non-Conformity, “a home for unconventional people doing remarkable things”), this must-read manifesto is now available in Japanese!
Amazon Japan has just about every possible Japanese book you could possible want to buy, but keep in mind that the shipping costs can be quite high.
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Where to Buy Physical Japanese Books Though I recommend using digital materials over print, sometimes it’sfrequently, just nice tohaving hold abooks book inthat your hands. And those that fly don’t need to for be “turned off” for take off and landing means you can spend that much more time reading Japanese.
Kinokuniya If you live in Japan, you should already be familiar with the Kinokuniya () bookstore chain. But even
those of us living outside of Nihon may still be lucky enough to find a Kinokuniya branch near home. They have branches in Australia, Dubai, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and the U.S.A. Check their site for more info. !
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Browse books on Amazon Japan.
Download the free PDF.
Find a Kinokuniya branch near you.
Japanese Literature Compilations Japan has produced some of the world’s greatest literature, and there is no better way to consume it than in the srcinal.
Read Real Japanese Essays Edited by Janet Ashby,Read Real Japanese Essays includes “contemporary writings by popular authors”. Excellent essays, a free audio CD, and detailed English explanations make this book a must. Also, the book is designed with text going top-to-bottom to help get you used to the traditional Japanese format. !
Buy “Read Real Japanese Essays” on Amazon.
Read Real Japanese Fiction Like its sister product above, Read Real Japanese Fiction includes a free audio CD and language usage notes. !
Buy “Read Real Japanese Fiction” on Amazon. 260
Breaking Into Japanese Literature
Short Stories in Japanese: New Penguin Parallel Text
Created by Giles Murray,Breaking Into Japanese Literature includes classic, must-read works by classic authors like NATSUME Souseki () and AKUTAGAWA Ryuunosuke ( ). Best of all, the book covers over half of all standard use kanji, each of which is explained with custom dictionaries shown at the bottom of each page.
Penguin has been making parallel texts for many decades, but until recently, they steered clear of Japanese (no doubt because of the unique publishing challenges involved with vertical text, non-Latin characters, and the little furigana readings. Their first Japanese bilingual text brings learners eight short stories, many of which have never been translated into English before. Authors include literary giants like MURAKAMI Haruki ( ) and YOSHIMOTO Banana ( ). While the book lacks some of the useful reference features found in Read Real Japanese and Breaking Into Japanese Literature (e.g. line reference numbers, built-in dictionaries, and author biographies), the quality of the stories makes this book well worth a go.
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Buy “Breaking Into Japanese Literature” on Amazon.
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Download the free companion MP3 files.
Exploring Japanese Literature Also created by Giles Murray, this book takes the language learner deeper into Japanese literature, with works by literary geniuses MISHIMA Yukio (), TANIZAKI Junichiro (), and KAWABATA Yasunari (). Like Breaking Into Japanese Literature, all vocabulary (other than the most common words) are shown on the bottom of each page. I especially like the “mini-biographies” and “mini-prefaces” which give the reader just enough background to better understand and appreciate each work. !
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Buy “Short Stories in Japanese” on Amazon.
Buy “Exploring Japanese Literature” on Amazon.
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Japanese 101
5
“I'm still pretty sure that Japanese is not vague. Or at least, it's not as vague as it used to be. Probably.” !Jay Rubin
Japanese is Just Another La nguage
“Undeniably, Japanese is different from English. The language is different, the people are different, the society is different, and all of these are enormously interesting precisely for that reason. The Japanese do so many things ‘backwards’ from our point of view. A Japanese sentence, with its verb coming at the end, is not only backwards but upside-down. One of the most satisfying experiences a human being can have is to train his or her mind actually to think in a foreign mode—the more nearly upside-down and backwards the better. But we must never let its apparent strangeness blind us to the simple fact that Japanese is just another language. And we can increase the precision with which we understand that language if we do away with some of the mystical nonsense that continues to cling to it even in the age of the computer and the electric nose-hair trimmer.” !Dr. Jay Rubin
Section 1
Japanese Overview Remember: Master Japanese is not a textbook. The real learning happens out there in the real world. The Japanese 101 section is provided only as a preview of the ins and outs of the Japanese language, whet your linguistic appetite andhelping prime to your brain for what it will hear, say, read, and write as you go through the input and output activities I suggest in the guide. Don’t worry too much about memorizing what you see here; it takes lots of exposure before the “rules” will make much sense.
Japanese Speakers Around the World With 127 million native speakers, Japanese is the 9th most widely spoken language in the world. Although 99% of first-language Japanese speakers live in Japan, people of Japanese descent, known as nikkeijin (), can be found across the globe. Moreover, more than a million Japanese citizens are currently living abroad according to Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Note that first generation nikkeijin are referred to as issei (), while second, third, and fourth generations are knows as nisei (), sansei (), and yonsei () respectively.
There is also the linguistic side effect of Japanese’s wartime colonialism to consider. As Japan invaded neighboring territories in the build up to World War II, they often banned native languages, forcing locals to learn and use Japanese instead. Many older individuals in these countries can still speak the language, though feelings about their former occupiers vary significantly. Be mindful of historical sensitivities, and don’t assume that just because someone can speak Japanese, means that they feel comfortable doing so. Interestingly, I once sat next to an elderly Taiwanese gentleman on a bus, and we ended up using Japanese as a lingua franca since he didn’t speak Mandarin or English. He actually had a great deal of praise for the Japanese, since they (as opposed to the Chinese Nationalists 264
who fled to Taiwan after being defeated by the Communists in 1949) actually built high quality roads, railroads, and schools...
Japanese Language Family & Origins Japanese belongs to the Japonic Language Family, also known as Japanese–Ryukyuan, which includes the languages spoken on the main islands of Japan as well as those found on the Ryukyu Islands, called the ryuukyuu shotou ( ) in Japanese. The predecessor language of modern Japanese and Ryukyan languages is called Proto-Japonic. !
Learn more about “Japonic Languages” on Wikipedia.
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Read “The Languages of Japan” for a deep linguistic dive.
The srcin s of Japanese and the language’s relationship to other languages outside of the Japanese archipelago is a fiercely debated issue. Many have posited a relationship with Korean, which makes sense from a geographic and at least superficial linguistic level, as the two language are separated by only a few hundred miles of water, and share the same word order, use of grammatical particles, etc. Others have suggested membership in the Altaic Language Family, which includes Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, and generally, Korean. !
Learn more about Altaic languages on Wikipedia.
Japanese Dialects Despite Japan’s relatively small landmass, you will encounter a wonderful variety of dialectal differences as you travel to different corners of the country. You will of course want to focus first on hyoujungo (, “Standard Japanese”) in the beginning, but you may find great enjoyment (and strong comedic effect) in learning some of the regional flavors of Japanese, too. Here are some interesting facts to keep in mind: "
Most dialectal distinctions are expressed via vocabulary, verb endings, and pitch accent.
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The word “dialect” is translated as hougen () in Japanese, but you will usually hear the term ben ( ) used more, e.g. oosaka-ben ().
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The following terms are also used to describe dialects: kotoba () meaning simply “words”, or namari () meaning “accent”.
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Learn more about Japanese dialects on Wikipedia.
Kansai-ben The Kansai dialect, called both Kansai-ben ( ) and Kinki Hougen (), covers a large swath of Western Honshu, including Osaka ( ), Kyoto (), and Kobe (). Osakaben () is more or less synonymous with 265
Kansai-ben, but the latter is a blanket term that covers a large number of local dialects (e.g. the Kyoto dialect, the Wakayama dialect, etc.), while Osaka-ben refers only to the dialect of the Osaka area. Unlike some lesser known dialects, most Japanese are familiar with Kansai-ben regardless of where in Japan they happen to live given its regular use on television and in manzai () performances, a type of two-person comedy act popular throughout Japan. One of the dialect’s most obvious features is the use of hen () instead of nai () at the end of negative verbs. So “I don’t understand” becomes Wakarahen () instead of Wakaranai (). If you want to impress a shop owner in Kansai (especially in Osaka), use the chiefly Kansai-ben phrase for “How’s business?”: Mou karimakka? ().
To which the standard reply is: Bochi bochi denna ().
Nagoya-ben The Nagoya dialect, called Nagoya-ben (), shares some crossover with Kansai-ben given the proximity of the two regions, but there are plenty of distinctions. Like Kansai-ben, the negative verb ending nai is often replaced, but in this case with sen () instead of hen (). One of the most noticeable indicators of the dialect is the word dera (), meaning “very” or “really”, used frequently in the region as an alternative to hontou-ni (, “really” or “very”). So in Nagoya, “It’s really hot!” would be: dera atsui na! ()
Hiroshima-ben My two favorite things from Hiroshima are its unique take on okonomiyaki () and its unique take on the Japanese language. Hiroshima-ben () has a number of idiosyncrasies, including a change in the negative verb ending (like Kansai and Nagoya-ben). In this case, nai () is changed to just an n sound. So “I don’t drink alcohol” becomes: osake noman ()
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Sendai-ben
Use of Pitch Accent
You are likely familiar with Sendai City () from the catastrophic earthquake and subsequent tsunami ( ) that struck the city onMarch 11, 2011. The region’s unique version of Japanese is called sendai-ben ( ). Like the other dialects above, it also changes the negative verb ending, this time to ne (), which actually overlaps with informal, manly-man Japanese slang. The most interesting aspect of the dialect to me is its unique versions of grammatical particles: ba () instead of wo () to mark objects, and sa () instead of ni () or e () to indicate direction.
As previously discussed in the guide, Japanese sometimes uses variations to differentiate meaning. For example, the words ima (, “now”) and ima (, “living room”) are kept straight in spoken Japanese through their differing pitch accent: ima meaning “now” has a high-low pitch accent, while ima meaning “living room” has a low-high pitch accent.
Japanese Language Characteristics Japanese has a number of interesting features, many of which will be completely new for native speakers of English:
A Small Number of Sounds Compared with English, Japanese has relatively few sounds (almost all of which are present in English). Japanese learners of English, on the other hand, are not so fortunate, and must learn to wrap their ears and tongues around very unfamiliar sounds that you and I take for granted. !
Lots of Verb and Adjective Agglutination Japanese verbs and adjectives both take a variety of suffixes to denote tense, polarity (positive or negative meanings), voice, formality, and grammatical function. !
See the “Japanese Verbs” section for more info.
Use of Grammatical Particles In Japanese, subjects, objects, and topics (something we don’t really have in English) are marked with the particles ga (), wo (), and wa () respectively. Because it is clear what’s what from their particle markings, subjects, objects, and topics, can actually change position with no loss of meaning. !
See the “Japanese Particles” section for more info.
See the “Learn Kana” section for more info. 267
S-O-V Word Order
Use of Post-Positions instead of Prepositions
Unlike English, which is Subject-Verb-Object (S-V-O), Japanese is a Subject-Object-Verb (S-O-V) language. This is actually the way Yoda speaks, so Star Wars fans have an advantage in Japanese! Incidentally, S-O-V is actually one of the most common word orders in human languages. Here are but a few examples of other S-O-V languages:
Another key difference between English and Japanese word order is the use of prepositions versus post-positions. As the name would imply, prepositions comebefore the words they modify, while post-positions occurafter their respective nouns:
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Armenian
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Basque
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Bengali
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Korean
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Mongolian
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Navajo
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Punjabi
"
Tagalog
"
Tibetan
"
Turkish
"
Urdu
gakkou-de (, “at school”) gakkou-ni (, “to school”)
rokugatsu-ni (, “in June”)
Use of Counter Words Although we say things like “a cup of coffee” or “two sheets of paper” in English, Japanese has heaps of these “counters” or “measure words” that are used to denote the quantity of people, things, items, concepts, etc. For example, “I have 2 cars” is: kuruma-wo ni-dai motte-iru (
) !
See the “Japanese Numbers” section for more info.
268
Use of “Topic Markers” Japanese is a “topic prominent” language, meaning that many sentences use a topic-comment structure. The topic, marked with the particle wa () comes first, followed by a comment that references the topic. The topic particle wa is often translated into English using the somewhat awkward phrase “as for”. It’s not a perfect fit but it does at least help the beginning learner wrap their head around the concept. It is also important to point out that some sentences can actually have both a topicgaand with the particle ():a subject, the latter of which is marked sara-wa ocha-ga suki ( , “Sarah likes tea.”) !
See the “Wa ()” section for more info.
Even native speakers, especially younger folks, sometimes struggle with how to use the system so don’t worry if you have a hard time getting it right. As a foreigner, you will usually be excused for using the wrong level of formality, and can get by in the vast majority of situations using only the “everyday” level of politeness even when more or less formal language would be used by a native speaker. !
See the “Japanese Honorifics” section for more info.
No Spaces Between Words We take word boundaries for granted in English, where the language puts a friendly space between every word. Not so in Japanese where you have to figure out where one word ends and another begins all on your own. Interestingly, it’s actually easier to figure out word boundaries when Japanese is written out in kanji, as opposed to kana only materials like Japanese children’s books where (ironically) it can be quite difficult to figure out the word boundaries despite simpler vocabulary and story lines.
Multiple Levels of Formality As we will discuss shortly, Japanese has a complex formality system called keigo () with both strict rules and subtle nuance. Depending one which words or suffixes you use, you can either show respect (raise others up) or humility (lower oneself). 269
Section 2
Japanese Orthography Japanese orthography (a fancy word for “correct writing”) is at once complex and elegant, beautiful and busy. But if you can break through the psychological barriers Japanese writing presents, you will see that it is one of the language’s most interesting aspects, and in many ways, the most logical: “The writing of the kanji is the most completely rational part of the language. Over the centuries, the writing of the kanji has been simplified many times, always with rational principles in mind. Aside from the Korean hangul, there may be no writing system in the world as logically structured as the Sino-Japanese characters are.” !James Heisig
Japanese’s Triumvirate Writing System The complexity of Japanese writing is largely due to the fact that three different scripts (or technically four since there are two different kinds of kana) are used simultaneously in modern Japanese: "
Kanji
"
Kana (Hiragana & Katakana)
"
Roumaji
Here is an actual headline from NHK that includes all the possible scripts: "
Kanji: The word (“diameter”), the stem of the adjective (“big”), and the stem of the verb .
"
Katakana: The foreign loan words roshia (, “Russia”) and shiberia (, “Siberia”).
"
Hiragana:The grammatical particles , , and , as well as the ending of the adjective and the verb .
"
Roumaji: The number 60 and the letter m, an abbreviation for “meters”. 270
Kanji Borrowed into Japanese from China starting in the 5th century A.D., kanji (, literally “Chinese letters” or “Chinese characters”) are used to denote most nouns and the stems of verbs and adjectives. !
Learn more about kanji on Wikipedia.
!
See the “Learn Kanji” section.
Japanese Punctuation Like English, Japanese uses commas, periods, question marks, and quotation marks, though some of their Japanese equivalents look a little different. Here is a rundown of the most common Japanese punctuation marks (and their uses) you will encounter in Japanese:
Comma Kana With its very un-Chinese grammar, kanji alone were not very good at representing Japanese when they were first introduced. This limitation was later solved with the creation of Japanese’s two kana syllabaries: hiragana () and katakana ( ).
The Japanese comma, called touten (, lit: “reading mark”), is a right-facing, diagonal slash, not curved to the left like the English comma. The Japanese comma looks like this:
!
Learn more about kana on Wikipedia.
Full Stop
!
See the “Learn Kana” section.
The Japanese period, called a kuten (, lit. “phrase mark”), uses a hollow circle. The same mark is used in Chinese as well, though the Japanese version is usually aligned with the bottom of letters, while the Chinese version is usually written in the center of the line.
Roman Letters & Numbers Japanese’s Romanization system is calledroumaji ( ). It is used on street signs, in textbooks, and for some company names. In Japanese, numbers are usually written in Western numerals, but occasionally in kanji in formal settings. !
The Japanese full stop looks like this:
Learn more about roumaji on Wikipedia. 271
Single Quotation Mark Japanese marks quotations using a unique set of angled brackets called kagikakko (, lit. “hook brackets”). The quote begins with a right-facing bracket in the upper-left corner, and ends with a left-facing bracket in the lower right. The Japanese single quotation mark looks like this:
Double Quotation Mark To indicate a quotation within a quotation or to set apart book titles, Japanese uses marks called nijuu kagikakko ( , lit. “double weight hook brackets”).
Interpunct Japanese uses a unique dot symbol called an “interpunct”, or nakaten (), where we would use a front or back
slash in English. The mark is also used to indicate word boundaries of multi-word loan words rendered in katakana, such as between given names and family names. For example, my name in Japanese would be written , with the interpunct separating my first and last name. Though it’s not standard practice, I also use this symbol in the guide to separate kanji and their hiragana readings. The Japanese interpunct looks like this:
Repetition Marks The Japanese double quotation mark looks like this:
Question Mark Since it uses the question particle ka (), you don’t actually have to use a question mark in Japanese. But you certainly can if you want to.
The dou-no-jiten (, lit. “same character mark”) is a lazy writer’s dream. Instead of having to write out the same kanji twice in Japanese’s many reduplications, you can simply scratch out these 3 strokes and be on your way. The Japanese repetition mark looks like this: !
The Japanese question mark looks just like the English equivalent:
Learn more about Japanese punctuation on Wikipedia.
272
Japanese Text Direction In modern Japan, text is printed in either the traditional vertical format, or the modern horizontal format depending on the context, publisher, or medium:
Traditional Traditionally, Japanese was written from top to bottom, right to left (just like Chinese, which should be no surprise since that is where Japanese writing was borrowed from). Most books are still published in this format, in which case, the “front” cover is on the opposite side of English books.
Modern Most documents are now written in the same direction as English: left to right, top to bottom. Some argue that this is a direct influence of Western culture, while others claim it is simply for the pragmatic needs of publishing and computing.
273
Section 3
Japanese Vocabulary Japanese vocabulary can be broken into three main groups: "
Foreign loan words
"
Words of Chinese srcin Words of Japanese srcin
"
Foreign Loan Words Foreign loan words, calledgairaigo (), refer to terms and phrases borrowed into Japanese from other languages (excluding the myriad words borrowed from Chinese as they get their own category, which we will look at shortly.) Gairaigo account for about 10% of modern Japanese, though
you can actually get by using them as nearly every word in a sentence if you are so inclined! While most gairaigo supplement an existing native Japanese or Chinese-based term, some words
have been borrowed in to fill a linguistic gap created by new technologies, scientific discoveries, social trends, etc. The vast majority of foreign loan words are relatively recent additions from English, but quite a few terms were also borrowed from Portuguese and Dutch during the 16th and 17th centuries when these nations began trading in earnest with Japan, and later from German and French during the meiji jidai ( , “Meiji Period”) when Japan brought in thousands of European engineers, designers, doctors, and so on, to help “modernize” the nation. Foreign loan words are borrowed usually written in katakana some terms (especially those into the languagethough hundreds of years ago) are written in ateji (), kanji whose sounds at least somewhat match the srcinal word’s pronunciation. A interesting example of this is the word tabako (”tobacco”), which can actually be written in all three scripts: "
in kanji
"
in hiragana
"
in katakana
Today, English-derived words often carry a more modern and fashionable connotation, and are frequently used in marketing campaigns trying to paint their brands as just that. And as is always the case when a culture borrows heaps of foreign words 274
in a short amount of time, the Japanese have begun to create a number of their own English-based, but wholly Japanese terms called wasei-eigo (), of which there are three main groups:
Shortened English Terms
Words of Chinese Origin Words srcinating from Chinese, called “Sino-Japanese words” or kango (), account for between 50 and 70% percent of the Japanese language depending on your sources and criteria.
Sometimes the end of the word is chopped off like in eakon ( , “air conditioner”), while other times a syllable or two is taken from the beginning of multiple words like in rimokon (, “remote control”).
The introduction of kango into Japanese was anything but a straight line. Chinese words and characters were borrowed from different parts of China at different points in time, which is why many kanji have so many different onyomi (, “kanji pronunciations of Chinese srcin”).
New English Word Combinations
There are three major classifications of onyomi, each corresponding to a distinct time period, region, and sphere of learning:
This interesting category includes creative neologisms like sukinshippu (, “skinship”) meaning “physical contact” and wanpataan ( , “one pattern”) meaning to be stuck in a negative psychological pattern or rut.
Combinations of Japanese and English Terms The most famous example of this is karaoke (), created by combining kara (), which means “empty” or “open”, with and the beginning of “orchestra” ( ). !
Go-On Go-on () came to Japan, along with their respective kanji, in the 5th and 6th centuries, at which time China was split
between two kingdoms: The Northern Dynasty and The Southern Dynasty. Many historical linguists believe that go-on readings were borrowed from the The Southern Dynasty’s Wu region( ), near modern-day Shanghai. A large percentage of Chinese words borrowed during this period relate to Buddhism.
Learn more about Gairaigo on Wikipedia. 275
Kan-On Kan-on (, “Han Chinese Readings”) account for the greatest percentage of on-yomi. Chinese words with kan-on
readings were introduced to Japan in the 7th, 8th, and 9th centuries from Luòyáng () and Cháng’"n (), the two largest cities during the Táng Cháo (, “Tang Dynasty”). The bulk of terms borrowed in this period relate to Confucianism and other secular concepts of the day.
Tou-Sou-On Tou-sou-on (, “Tang-Song Readings”)
account for a much longer period, and include borrowings introduced all the way from the heian jidai ( , “Heian Period”) to the edo jidai (, “Edo Period”), when Japan shut its doors to outside influence for over two centuries. Terminology of this era is marked by a prevalence of Zen Buddhist concepts.
Kan-you-on Kan-you-on () represent historical
mistakes that have stuck around despite breaking the rules of typical pronunciation. !
Words of Japanese Origin Called either yamato-kotoba () or just wago (), these “made in Japan” words account for about a third of the modern language. Just as the Japanese have created many new words using pieces of English, they also did the same thing with Chinese characters, a phenomenon called wasei-kango (). All of the following words were created in Japan to denote uniquely Japanese things, people, and concepts, despite using borrowed Chinese characters: "
geisha ()
"
haiku ()
"
waka ()
"
seppuku ()
You will see another notable use of wago for certain days of the month (the 1st through the 10th, and the 20th), as well as the age of 20 () which is pronounced hatachi (), not nijuusai (). !
Learn more about Yamato-kotoba on Wikipedia.
Learn more about Sino-Japanese words on Wikipedia.
276
Section 4
Japanese Honorifics
Levels of Formality Polite Language
There are three main levels of formality in Japanese, collectively referred to as keigo (, “respectful language”). Which level you should use depends on who is talking, whom they are talking to, and whom they are talking about, with a line drawn between one’s “ingroup” (friends, family, colleagues, etc.) and one’s “out-group” (customers, bosses, strangers, etc.). Distinctions between in- and out-groups, however, are not always obvious. For example, when talking to your boss, you would use respectful language, but if talking about your head honcho to a customer, you would use humble language.
The polite level of formality, called teineigo () is used for members of both your in-group and out-group. Teineigo is marked by verbs ending in masu (), adjectives followed by desu (), and use of the polite, gender-neutral pronoun watashi (). Teineigo is usually taught to Japanese learners first since it is the most commonly used level of formality.
Respectful Language Called sonkeigo (), this level of formality is used to place others above oneself. As you might expect, it is used frequently in business contexts, such as when talking to or about one’s customers or superiors. Note that you never use sonkeigo when referring to oneself or one’s in-group.
Humble Language In contrast to respectful language, the kenjougo ( ) level of formality is all about self-deprecation. It’s used when speaking about oneself or in-group to one’s out-group or those of a higher social status. 277
O/Go + Noun / Combining Verb + Nasaru/ni Naru/Desu
Formal Japanese Verb Forms Japanese verbs can express politeness, respect, or humility by adding verb suffixes or being replaced entirely by specific respectful or humble verb forms. Just make sure to use the appropriate form depending on who the verb references: PoliteVerbs
RespectfulVerbs
HumbleVerbs
Referring to Oneself
+
X
+
Referring to Others
+
+
X
Polite Verb Forms Polite verb forms are created by ending verbs in masu () instead of their dictionary endings. As shown above, they can be used to politely reference the actions of oneself or others.
Passive Form One of the easiest ways to respectfully refer to the actions of others is to use the passive verb form. For example, you can make the verb yomu (, “to read”) respectful by changing it to it’s passive counterpart: yomareru ( ). In practice, however, you would actually use the masu form: yomaremasu ().
Another way to show respect when referring to the actions of others is to tack on either o () or go () to the beginning of a noun or combining verb form, and then add nasaru (), ni naru (), or the copula desu (). Note that nasaru ( ) is an irregular verb, with a masu form of nasaimasu, not nasarimasu. Whether you use o () or go () depends on the particular noun.
O/Go + Noun / Combining Verb + Suru To create humble verb forms, you can add o () or go () to the beginning of nouns (again, which you use depends on the noun) and then add suru (). This also works with the conjunctive form of verbs.
Lexical Replacement Last but not least, there are unique verb forms for a select group of respectful and humble verbs. As you will see in the chart, some verbs share the same respectful or humble forms (which can cause some unintended ambiguity).
278
JapaneseHo norific Verbs DICTIONARY
POLITE
RESPECTFUL
HUMBLE
suru ()
shimasu ()
nasaru ()
itasu ()
iu ()
iimasu ()
ossharu ()
miru ()
mimasu ()
nomu ()
nomimasu ()
taberu ()
tabemasu ()
iku ()
ikimasu ()
kuru ()
kimasu ()
kiku ()
kikimasu ()
tazuneru ()
tazunemasu ()
moushi ageru (
)
go ran ni naru (
haiken suru (
)
)
meshi agaru (
)
irassharu ()
ukagau ()
oide ni naru ()
mairimasu ()
279
Formal Japanese Adjectives
Formal Japanese Nouns
Japanese adjectives can be made formal in one of two ways:
Many nouns can be made formal by just tacking on the honorific prefix o () or go (). Both o and go can be written using either kana or the character . As a general rule, go is added to kango (, “Sino-Japanese words”), while o is used with wago (, “words of Japanese srcin”). There are quite a few exceptions, however, suchocha ( , “tea”), a word of Chinese srcin that takes o- instead of go- as the above “rule” would dictate.
Adding Honorific Prefixes Just like nouns, you can add the honorific prefix o () to may adjectives in formal or polite contexts: genki () " o-genki ()
Respectful Nouns hayai () " o-hayai ()
Using Formal Endings Japanese adjectives can also be made more formal by adding desu () or by replacing the informal ending nai () with arimasen (), and nakatta () with arimasen deshita ().
Honorific nouns of respect are used to exalt the person one is speaking to or about. Two common examples areokaasan ( , “mother”) and otousan ( , “father”), which you use to respectfully address your mother or father, or when talking about someone else’s mother or father. However, when discussing your mother or father with somebody else, you use haha () and chichi respectively ().
atsui () " atsui-desu ()
Generic Formal Nouns
atsukunai () " atsuku arimasen ( )
There are many common nouns in Japanese that take an honorific prefix regardless of who is speaking, to whom they are speaking, or about whom they are speaking. Common examples include okane (, “money”), ocha (, “tea”), and omiyage (, “souvenir”). 280
Formal Japanese Pronouns & Demonstratives Pronouns and titles are another way to express respect and humility in Japanese.
Formal Personal Pronouns Japanese makes clear distinctions between casual and formal pronouns. For example, one should use watashi () or watakushi () in formal contexts, not the informal pronouns ore (), boku (), or atashi (). Itsituations, is also best to avoid usingto2nd person pronouns formal instead referring others using their titleinormore family name plus san () or sama (). !
See the “Japanese Pronouns” section for more info.
Formal Demonstratives Although not as varied as personal pronouns, there are also a few distinctions between informal and formal demonstratives, such as kocchi (), which is informal, and kochira (), which is more formal. !
See the “Japanese Demonstratives” section for more info.
281
Section 5 Creating Participles
Japanese Verbs
Verbs are turned into their participle (a.k.a. gerund) form by adding either te () or de () depending on the verb type.
Creating Negative Endings Japanese verbs are “highly agglutinative”, meaning they take different suffixes to change their meaning and grammatical function.
In English, we make a statement negative through the auxiliary not. Japanese expresses polarity through verb endings instead. The negative ending for dictionary form verbs is nai (), nakatta () for informal past tense verbs, masen () for polite non-past verbs, and masendeshita () for polite past tense verbs.
Function of Japanese Verb Endings
Expressing What You Want
Expressing Tense Changes
To express what you want to do in Japanese, you can simply change the end of verbs to tai ().
Unlike English, which usually changes the entire verb form to express tense (e.g. eat becomes ate), Japanese simply tacks on a past-tense ending to show when something happened.
Expressing Volition Changing the end of verbs to you () or ou () expresses volition or polite suggestions (much like “Shall we...? in English).
Expressing Politeness Japanese adds the semi-formal ending masu () onto verb stems in polite situations. When more formality is required, special verb suffixes or unique honorific forms are used.
Creating Ba Conditionals Japanese expresses “If..., then...” constructions using two different verb forms, Ba Conditionals and Tara Conditionals. The 282
two have similar meanings but do have some subtle grammatical differences. Ba Conditionals are technically called “provisional conditionals”, and end in either reba () or ba () depending on the verb type.
Creating Tara Conditionals As the name implies, Tara Conditionals end in tara (), but note that some verb forms actually end in dara () instead.
Expressing Ability or Potentiality To say that you are able or unable to do something in Japanese, you simply add reru () or the respective E-Line kana plus ru (). For example, yomu () becomes yomeru ( ).
Creating Passives
that can be combined with various verbal suffixes.
To create the passive in English, we add either “was” or “were” before the past participle (e.g. “Mistakes were made”). In Japanese, passivity is expressed by adding rareru () or the respective A-Line kana plus reru () to the end of verbs. For example, the passive form of taberu (, “to eat”) is taberareru (), while the passive form of yomu ( , “to read”) is yomareru ().
Enumerating a Series of Actions
Creating Causative Passives
To list a series of actions, you can use enumerative verb endings, which end in either tari () or dari ().
In addition to the passive voice, Japanese also has an interesting form called the “causative passive” that is roughly equivalent to the English meaning, “was made to...”. It is created by adding saserareru () or the respective A-Line kana plus serareru (). For example, the causative passive form of taberu (, “to eat”) is tabesaserareru ( ), while the passive form of yomu ( , “to read”) is yomaserareru ().
Combining & Conjoining Clauses Japanese usedform, to create conjunctions between clauses byverbs usingcan theirbestem the part left after dropping masu () from the polite form, as well as creating a verb stem
Giving Commands To give commands in Japanese, you either change the final ru () syllable to ro (), or change the final syllable to its respective E-Line sound: ku () becomes ke (), su () becomes se (), mu () becomes me (). etc.
283
Japa eseVerbCo njugationC eat Sheet (1 of 2) DICTIONARYFORM
PAST TENSE
PARTICIPLE
NEGATIVE
NEGATIVEPAST
DESIDERATIVE
VOLITIONAL
N/A
284
Japa eseVerbCo njugation Cheat Sheet (2 of 2) PROVISIONAL
CONDITIONAL
COMBINING
COMMAND
ENUMERATIVE
PASSIVE
POTENTIAL
N/A
N/A
285
Basic Japanese Verb Types There are three main verb conjugation classes in Japanese, which follow different rules to create the past tense forms, polite forms, command forms, etc:
"
Participle Form: tabete ()
"
Negative Form: tabenai ()
"
Desiderative Form: tabetai ()
"
Volitional Form: tabeyou ()
"
RU-Verbs
"
Provisional Form: tabereba ()
"
U-Verbs
"
Conditional Form: tabetara ()
"
Irregular verbs
"
Combining Form: tabe ()
"
Enumerative Form: tabetari ()
" "
Command Form: tabero () Potential Form: tabereru ()
"
Passive Form: taberareru ()
There is also the copula, da () or desu () which is often translated as “to be”. Like the Japanese verb types above, the copula conjugates to show tense, formality, etc.
RU-Verbs As you can guess from the name, RU-Verbs all end in ru (). They are conjugated by replacing the final ru part with the appropriate suffix (e.g. -masu, -ta, -te, etc.) depending on the grammatical context. If we look at the verb taberu ( , “to eat”) as an example, you will see that the ru part is replaced with different kana for each form, but that the tabe ( ) part stays the same throughout. "
Dictionary Form: taberu ()
"
Polite/Formal Form: tabemasu ()
"
Past Tense Form: tabeta ()
U-Verbs U-Verbs are so named because they all end in one of nine u syllables: u (), ku (), gu (), su (), tsu (), mu (), nu (), bu (), or even ru () sometimes, though these particular ru ending verbs are conjugated like U-Verbs, not Ru-Verbs. More ruending U-Verbs in a moment. Conjugating U-Verbs is a little trickier than RU-Verbs, requiring that you replace the last syllable with a particular kana from the same column on the kana chart. For example, a U-Verb ending in ku () can change to ki (), ka (), ke (), or ko () depending on the grammatical context, 286
ends in an o sound (which is easy to see when looking at the roumaji).
while a U-Verb ending in su () can transform to shi (), sa (), se (), or so ().
In the following sections, we will use these U-Verbs as examples since they contain all the potential U-Verb syllable endings: "
kau (, “to buy”)
"
kaku (, “to write”)
"
isogu (, “to hurry”)
"
hanasu (, “to speak”)
"
katsu (, “to win”)
"
shinu (, “to die”)
"
tobu (, “to fly”)
"
yomu (, “to read”)
"
mamoru (, “to protect/guard/defend”)
As you can see, some U-Verbs actually end in ru, which can cause some potential ambiguity with RU-Verbs. Since U-Verbs and RU-Verbs conjugate differently, it’s important that you learn which is which. So how can you tell if a verb ending in ru is a RuVerb or an U-Verb? "
If the second to last syllable ends in an a, o, or u sound, then you are looking at a U-Verb. Takemamoru () for example: the second to last syllable is mo (), which
"
If the second to last syllable ends in an i or e sound, however, there is no way to know if it is an R-Verb or U-Verb just by looking at it. You have to memorize which is which.
IRU vs ERU Endings There is a special—or perhaps the right word is annoying— subgroup of RU-Verbs and U-Verbs that end in iru - and -eru. The problem with these bastards is that there is no way to know just by looking at them whether they happen to be RU-Verbs or UVerbs. To conjugate them correctly, you have to go to the trouble of memorizing which group each happens to belong to:
RU-Verbs Ending in IRU "
dekiru (, “to be able to do s.th.”)
"
kariru (, “to borrow”)
"
okiru (, “to get up/wake up”)
"
niru (, “to resemble”)
"
shinjiru (, “to believe”)
287
RU-Verbs Ending in ERU
"
neru (, “to knead, to elaborate, to train”)
"
ageru (, “to give/raise”)
"
shaberu (, “to speak/chat”)
"
deru (, “to go out/leave”)
"
suberu (, “to slip”)
"
ireru (, “to insert”)
"
kotaeru (, “to answer”)
Irregular Verb Forms
"
sageru (, “to lower”)
As you will see in the following sections, there is a small group of irregular verbs in Japanese whose conjugation patterns do not follow the rules we saw above for RU-Verbs or U-Verbs:
U-Verbs Ending in IRU "
hairu (, “to enter”)
"
suru (, “to do”)
"
hashiru (, “to run”)
"
kuru (, “to come”)
"
iru ( , “to need”)
"
iru (, “to exist/be/stay” ANIMATE)
"
kiru (, “to cut”)
"
aru (, “to exist/have/be located” INANIMATE)
"
nejiru (, “to twist”)
"
iku (, “to go”)
"
shiru (, “to know”)
"
kudasaru (, “to give” RESPECTFUL)
"
nasaru (, “to do” RESPECTFUL)
"
irassharu (, “to come/to go/to be” RESPECTFUL)
"
ossharu (, “to say” RESPECTFUL)
"
gozaru (, “to be/exist” HUMBLE, ARCHAIC)
U-Verbs Ending in ERU "
heru (, “to decrease”)
"
kaeru (, “to return home”)
"
keru (, “to kick”)
288
The Copula
Non-Past Verb Forms
Like the verbs above, the copula da (), and its formal counterpart desu () are conjugated for tense and polarity. I’ll cover these in more detail shortly, but here is a brief overview:
As you saw earlier, non-past RU-Verbs all end in ru (), while UVerbs end in u (), ku (), gu (), su (), tsu (), mu (), nu (), bu (), or ru (). Note that polite non-past verbs (whether Ru-Verb or U-Verb) all end in -masu (). The “Non-Past Form” in Japanese can express both future actions and habitual actions. Both of the following examples use the same form of the verb taberu (“to eat”), differing only in their use of time adverbs:
"
Dictionary Form: da ()
"
Polite/Formal Form: desu ()
"
Past Tense Form: datta ()
"
Participle Form: de ()
" "
Negative Form: de wa nai () or ja nai () Desiderative Form: N/A
"
Volitional Form: darou ()
"
Provisional Form: nara () or de areba ()
"
Conditional Form: dattara ()
"
Combining Form: N/A
"
Enumerative Form: dattari ()
"
Command Form: de are ()
!
Jisho.org (automatically strips away verb conjugation)
"
Potential Form: N/A
!
KanjiDict’s Verb De-Conjugator
"
Passive Form: N/A
ashita sushi-wo taberu ( , “I am going to eat sushi tomorrow.”) itsumo sushi-wo taberu ( , “I always eat sushi”.)
The non-past form is also referred to as the “Dictionary Form” since Japanese verbs always appear without past or negative conjugations in dictionaries. When in doubt about what a particular verb’s dictionary form is, use one of the following tools:
Past Tense Verb Forms 289
The past tense verb form in Japanese can express both the simple past and the past perfect. It is formed as follows:
There is one exception to this rule for the verb iku (, “to go”), whose past tense form is itta (), not iita () as the pattern would suggest.
Past Tense RU-Verbs
For U-Verbs ending in gu (), you change the final syllable to ida ():
"
For informal RU-Verbs, you replace the final ru () syllable with ta ().
"
For formal forms, you replace masu () with mashita ( ).
Past Tense U-Verbs The past tense form of U-Verbs has quite a few exceptions so it is worth spending extra time on this group. For U-Verbs ending in the syllables mu (), nu (), or bu (), you replace the final syllable with nda (). "
yomu () " yonda ()
"
oyogu () " oyoida ()
For informal U-Verbs ending in the syllables u (), tsu (), or ru (), you replace the final syllable with a small tsu () and add ta (), creating a double consonant. "
kau () " katta ()
"
katsu () " katta ()
"
shiru () " shitta ()
For informal U-Verbs ending in the syllable su (), you replace the last syllable with shi () and add ta ().
"
shinu () " shinda ()
"
hanasu () " hanashita ()
"
tobu () " tonda ()
"
sagasu () " sagashita ()
For U-Verbs ending in the syllable ku (), you replace the final syllable with ita (): "
kaku () " kaita ()
Past Tense Irregular Verbs The past tense form of irregular verbs is as follows: "
suru () " shita () 290
"
kuru () " kita ()
"
iru () " ita ()
"
aru () " atta ()
"
kudasaru () " kudasatta ()
"
nasaru () " nasatta ()
"
irassharu () " irasshatta ()
"
ossharu () " osshatta ()
"
gozaru () " gozatta ()
Past Tense Copulas The past tense form of the copulas are as follows: "
da () " datta ()
"
desu () " deshita ()
Polite Verb Forms Polite Ru-Verb Forms To create the polite form of Ru-Verbs, simply replace ru with masu (). So taberu () becomes tabemasu ().
Polite U-Verb Forms To create the polite form of U-Verbs, replace the final syllable with its respective I-Line kana (e.g. u becomes i, ku becomes ki, etc.) and add masu (): " kau () " kaimasu () "
kaku () " kakimasu ()
"
isogu () " isogimasu ()
"
hanasu () " hanashimasu ()
Past Tense Polite Verbs
"
katsu () " kachimasu ()
For the polite verb form of RU-Verbs, U-Verbs, and Irregular Verbs, you simply replace masu () with mashita ().
"
shinu () " shinimasu ()
"
tobu () " tobimasu ()
"
tabemasu () " tabemashita ()
"
yomu () " yomimasu ()
"
kaimasu () " kaimashita ()
"
mamoru () " mamorimasu ()
"
shimasu () " shimashita () 291
Participle Verb Forms Also called Te-Form verbs, Japanese participles are used when: "
"
"
"
Indicating the present continuous. The Te-Form is followed by iru () or imasu () for the affirmative, and inai ( ) or imasen () for the negative. Listing multiple actions that happen in succession. Listing a
To create the participle form of RU-Verbs, you simply replace the final ru () syllable with te (): "
taberu () " tabete ()
"
miru () " mite ()
"
dekiru () " dekite ()
number of verbs in their Te-Form shows that each verb occurs one after another.
Participle Form of U-Verbs
Using polite directional auxiliaries. When you want to receive
To create the participle form of informal U-Verbs ending in the
something from someone, do something for you, etc., you add auxiliarieshave aftersomeone the Te-Form of verbs like kudasai (, “please do/give me X”), morau (, “to receive something from someone of equal or lower social status”), etc.
syllables mu (), nu (), or bu (), you replace the final syllable with nde ().
Combining with auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs like oku (
) can be added after the Te-Form of verbs to change the verbs meaning. In this case, Te-Verb +oku means “to do X ahead of time”. "
Participle Form of RU-Verbs
Combining with auxiliary adjectives. Just like auxiliary verbs,
there are some adjectives that can be added after the TeForm of verbs. A common example is hoshii ( ). By itself, it means “to want something or someone”. When combined with the Te-Form of verbs, it expresses that you want someone to do that action.
"
yomu () " yonde ()
"
shinu () " shinde ()
"
tobu () " tonde ()
For informal U-Verbs ending in the syllables ku () or gu (), you replace the final syllable with ite () or ide () respectively. There is one exception to this rule for the verb iku (, “to go”), whose participle form is itte (). "
kaku () " kaite ()
"
oyogu () " oyoide ()
292
For informal U-Verbs ending in the syllables u (), tsu (), or ru (), you replace the final syllable with a small tsu () and add te (), creating a double consonant.
"
irassharu () " irasshatte ()
"
ossharu () " osshatte ()
"
gozaru () " gozatte ()
"
kau () " katte ()
"
katsu () " katte ()
Participle form of the Copula
"
shiru () " shitte ()
The participle form of both the copulas is the same:
For informal U-Verbs ending in the syllable su (), you replace the last syllable with shi () and add te (). "
hanasu () " hanashite ()
"
sagasu () " sagashite ()
Participle Form of Irregular Verbs The participle form of irregular verbs is as follows: "
suru () " shite ()
"
kuru () " kite ()
"
iru () " ite ()
"
aru () " atte ()
"
da () / desu () " de ()
Negative Verba sentence Forms negative by adding the auxiliary “not”, English makes while Japanese tacks a negative ending right on the verb itself.
Negative RU-Verbs This is the easy one. For non-past verbs, just replace ru () with nai () for informal verb forms: "
taberu ()" tabenai ()
"
miru ()" minai ()
For polite Ru-Verbs, replace masu () with masen ():
"
iku () " itte ()
"
kudasaru () " kudasatte ()
"
tabemasu () " tabemasen ( )
"
nasaru () " nasatte ()
"
mimasu () " mimasen () 293
To create the negative form of past-tense verbs, replace nai ( ) with nakatta () and masen () with masendeshita (): "
tabenai () " tabenakatta ()
"
tabemasen () " tabemasendeshita (
)
Negative U-Verbs To create the negative forms of U-Verbs, replace the last syllable with the kana from the A-Line and then add nai ():
"
kau () " kawanai ()
"
morau () " morawanai ()
For polite U-Verb forms, you simply replace masu () with masen (): "
kaimasu () " kaimasen ()
"
moraimasu () " moraimasen ()
Just like with RU-Verbs, you create past forms of negative UVerbs by replacing nai () and masen () with nakatta ( ) and masendeshita () respectively:
kaku () " kakanai ()
"
kakanai () " kakanakatta ()
"
oyogu () " oyoganai ()
"
kakimasen () " kakimasendeshita (
"
hanasu () " hanasanai ()
"
"
)
katsu () " katanai ()
Negative Irregular Verbs
"
yomu () " yomanai ()
The negative form of irregular verbs are created as follows:
"
shinu () " shinanai ()
"
suru () " shinai ()
"
tobu () " tobanai ()
"
kuru () " konai ()
"
shiru () " shiranai ()
"
iru () " inai ()
"
aru () " nai ()
"
iku () " ikanai ()
There is an exception to this rule for verbs ending in u (), in which case you drop the u and add wanai (), not anai ( ) as the pattern would predict:
294
"
kudasaru () " kudasaranai ()
"
nasaru () " nasaranai ()
"
de wa nai () " de wa nakatta ()
"
irassharu () " irassharanai ()
"
janai () " janakatta ()
"
ossharu () " osshranai ()
"
de wa arimasen () " de wa arimasen deshita ()
Negative past copulas are create as follows:
To create the negative form of polite irregular verbs, you simply replace masu () with masen (): "
shimasu () " shimasen ()
Desiderative Verb Forms
"
kimasu () " kimasen ()
Desiderative verb forms (which are technically adjectival phrases) are used to express what one wants to do. There are two forms to keep in mind depending on whom the verb is referring to:
To create negative past forms of irregular verbs, just replace nai () and masen () with nakatta () and masendeshita () respectively: "
shinai () " shinakatta ()
"
shimasen () " shimasendeshita ()
Negative Copulas The informal copula da () has two negative forms, while the polite copula desu () has only one: "
da () " de wa nai () or janai ()
"
desu () " de wa arimasen ()
"
For first and second person situations, you use the verb ending tai ().
"
For third person situations, you use the verb ending tagaru ().
1st & 2nd Person Desiderative Verbs To create the desiderative form of Ru-Verbs, simply replace the final ru () with tai (): "
taberu () " tabetai (, “I want to eat”)
"
miru () " mitai (, “I want to see”)
295
To create the desiderative form of U-Verbs, you replace the final syllable with its I-Line counterpart and add tai (). Or again, you can think of it as adding tai to the verb stem, the part left after dropping masu () from the polite form of verbs: "
kau () " kaitai (, “I want to buy”)
"
kaku () " kakitai (, “I want to write”)
"
oyogu () " oyogitai (, “I want to swim”)
" hanasu () "
" hanashitai (, “I want to speak”)
You then conjugate the final i () for tense and polarity like IAdjectives, that is, changing the i () part to kunai (): "
tabetai () " tabetakunai ()
"
kaitai () " kaitakunai ()
To make the polite form of desiderative phrases, just add desu ( ) after the verb: "
tabetai () " tabetai desu ()
"
kaitai () " kaitai desu ()
katsu () " kachitai (, “I want to win”)
"
yomu () " yomitai (, “I want to read”)
3rd Person Desiderative Verbs
"
shinu () " shinitai (, “I want to die”)
"
tobu () " tobitai (, “I want to fly”)
"
shiru () " shiritai (, “I want to know”)
For the 3rd person (e.g. “He/she/it/they want to...”), you replace the end of the verb with tagaru (). Or more commonly, you replace the end of the verb with the present continuous form, tagatte-iru ().
The desiderative forms of irregular verbs are created as follows: "
suru () " shitai ()
"
kuru () " kitai ()
"
iru () " itai ()
"
aru () " N/A (since inanimate objects cannot desire)
"
iku () " ikitai ()
"
nomitagatte-iru (, “She wants to drink”)
"
kaitagatte-ita (, “He wanted to buy...”)
296
Volitional Verb Forms Japanese volitional verb forms can express either volition (when in an affirmative statement) or a polite suggestion when used in a question: "
tabeyou (, “Let’s eat”)
"
tabeyou ka? (, “Shall we eat?”).
"
katsu () " katou ()
"
yomu () " yomou ()
"
shinu () " shinou ()
"
tobu () " tobou ()
Volitional Irregular Verbs The informal volitional form of of irregular verbs is as follows:
Volitional Ru-Verbs
"
suru () " shiyou ()
For informal Ru-Verbs, you create the volitional form by replacing
"
kuru () " koyou ()
the final ru () syllable with you ():
"
iru () " iyou ()
"
aru () " arou ()
"
iku () " ikou ()
" "
taberu () " tabeyou () miru () " miyou ()
Volitional U-Verbs For informal U-Verbs, you replace the final syllable with it’s O-Line counterpart and add an extra u () to make a double long vowel:
The Copula When it comes to the copula, the volitional form doesn’t mean “let’s”, but rather “will be”, “would be”, “could be”, or “probably”. It is formed as follows:
"
kau () " kaou ()
"
kaku () " kakou ()
"
da () " darou ()
"
oyogu () " oyogou ()
"
desu () " deshou ()
"
hanasu () " hanasou () 297
Polite Volitional Verbs
Provisional Conditional Ru-Verbs
To create the volitional form of polite verbs, simply replace masu () with mashou ():
To create the provisional conditional form of Ru-Verbs, you replace the final ru () syllable with reba ():
"
tabemasu () " tabemashou ()
"
taberu () " tabereba (, “If I eat...”)
"
mimasu () " mimashou ()
"
miru () " mireba (, “If I see...”)
"
kaimasu () " kaimashou ()
"
dekiru () " dekireba (, “If I can...”)
"
kakimasu () " kakimashou ()
"
shimasu () " shimashou ()
"
kimasu () " kimashou ()
Provisional Conditional Verbs (Ba Form) As I mentioned earlier, there are two conditional forms in Japanese: "
The provisional conditional form that ends with ba ().
"
The conditional form that ends with tara ().
There are some subtle differences in meaning and usage, but for the most part, they are both used to express the meaning of “If X, then Y”. We will look at the ba form first, and then the tara form.
The negative form is created by replacing nai () with nakereba (): "
tabenai () " tabenakereba ()
"
minai () " minakereba ()
"
dekinai () " dekinakereba ()
Provisional Conditional U-Verbs To create the provisional conditional form of U-Verbs, you replace the final syllable with its E-Line counterpart and then add ba (): "
kau () " kaeba ()
"
kaku () " kakeba ()
"
oyogu () " oyogeba ()
"
hanasu () " hanaseba ()
"
katsu () " kateba () 298
"
yomu () " yomeba ()
"
shinu () " shineba ()
"
tobu () " tobeba ()
To create the provisional form of negative U-Verbs, replace the final i () with kereba (): "
kawanai () " kawanakereba ()
"
kakanai () " kakanakereba ()
Irregular Verbs
The Copula The provisional conditional form of the copula is nara () or naraba ().
Conditional Verbs (Tara Form) Similar to the ba form we saw above, tara conditional verbs express “If X, then Y”, “When X happens, then Y happens”, or “After X, Y happens”. They are created by tacking on ra () to the past form (i.e. ta form) of Ru-Verbs, U-Verbs, and Irregular Verbs.
To create the provisional form of irregular verbs, replace the final ru () with reba (): "
suru () " sureba ()
"
kuru () " kureba ()
To create the provisional form of negative irregular verbs, replace the final i () with kereba (): "
shinai () " shinakereba ()
"
konai () " konakereba ()
Conditional Ru-Verbs To create the tara form of Ru-Verbs, you simply add ra () to the end of both the affirmative and negative past tense verb form: "
tabeta () " tabetara ()
" tabenakatta ()
" tabenakattara ()
Conditional U-Verbs Just like with Ru-Verbs, the tara form of U-Verbs is created by adding ra () after both the affirmative and negative past tense forms of the verb: "
katta () " kattara () 299
"
kawanakatta () " kawanakattara (
"
)
Conditional Irregular Verbs
form, like the participle verb form, can be used when listing a number of actions done one after the other. "
shita () " shitara ()
"
kita () " kitara ()
"
itta () " ittara ()
"
To create the tara form of the copula, you simply add ra () to the past tense form: "
datta () " dattara ()
Combining Verb Forms The combining verb form is also known as the “Verb Stem” and “Pre-Masu Form” because it’s the part of the verb left after you drop masu () from the polite verb form. It is used for:
Combining with nikui and yasui. The suffixes nikui ( ) and yasui () are used to express that a
verb is difficult or easy to do respectively. If something is difficult to eat, for example, you would say that it’s tabe-nikui (). Conversely, if something is easy to eat, it would tabe-yasui ().
The Copula
"
Combining with sugiru. The verb suffix sugiru (
) is used to mean that you’ve done something too much. For example, if you tack sugiru onto tabe (), the combining form of taberu (, “to eat”), you can express the meaning “to eat too much”: tabesugiru ( ).
To create the tara form of irregular verbs, simply add ra () to the past tense forms: "
Listing verbs happening in succession. The combining verb
Forming nouns. The combining form of many verbs can be
used as a noun, though it often combines with other nouns to create compounds. For example, the verbs nomu ( , “to drink”) and taberu (, “to eat”) are used to create the nouns nomi-mono (, “drinks”) and tabe-mono (, “food”) respectively.
Combining Form of Ru-Verbs To create the combining form of Ru-Verbs, you simply drop ru () from the non-past form: 300
"
taberu () " tabe ()
"
miru () " mi ()
"
dekiru () " deki ()
Combining Form of U-Verbs To create the combining form of U-Verbs, you replace the final syllable with its I-Line counterpart. Or perhaps a simpler way to think about it is that you just drop masu () from the polite form:
Combining form of Irregular Verbs The combining form of irregular verbs is created by dropping the masu () from polite verbs: "
shimasu () " shi ()
"
kimasu () " ki ()
Enumerative Verb Forms Enumerative verb forms are used when listing a series of actions, e.g. “I do such things as X, Y, and Z”.
"
kau () " kai ()
"
kaku () " kaki ()
"
oyogu () " oyogi ()
"
hanasu () " hanashi ()
"
katsu () " kachi ()
"
yomu () " yomi ()
"
tabeta () " tabetari ()
"
shinu () " shini ()
"
mita () " mitari ()
"
tobu () " tobi ()
"
shiru () " shiri ()
Enumerative Ru-Verbs You create the enumerative form of Ru-Verbs by replacing the final ru () syllable with tari (), or you can think of it as just adding ri () to the past tense form:
Enumerative U-Verbs To create the enumerative form of U-Verbs ending in the syllables mu (), nu (), or bu (), you replace the the final syllable with
301
nda () and then add ri (). Or again, you can think of it as just adding ri to the past tense from of the verb: "
yonda () " yondari ()
"
shinda () " shindari ()
To create the enumerative form of U-Verbs ending in ku () or gu (), you replace the final syllable with ita () or ida () respectively and add ri (). Or just add ri to the past form: "
kaita () " kaitari ()
"
oyoida () " oyoidari ()
To create the enumerative form of U-Verbs ending in the syllables u (), tsu (), or ru (), replace the final syllable with a small tsu () and add tari (). Or just add ri to the past tense from: "
katta () " kattari ()
"
shitta () " shittari ()
To create the enumerative form of U-Verbs ending in the syllable su (), replace the last syllable with shi () and add tari (). Or you can think of it as just adding ri to the past tense form: "
hanashita () " hanashitari ()
Enumerative Irregular Verbs To create the enumerative form of irregular verbs, simply add ri () to the past tense form: "
shita () " shitari ()
"
kita () " kitari ()
The Copula The enumerative form of the copula is created by adding ri () to the past tense form: "
datta () " dattari ()
Command Verb Forms As the name implies, the command verb form is used to give instructions or commands. Note that it can be highly offensive if used in the wrong context (e.g. when speaking to someone older or of a higher social status), so I suggest avoiding it unless you are absolutely certain it’s appropriate!
Command Form of Ru-Verbs Affirmative command forms can be created by replacing the final ru () with either ro () or yo (), though the latter is not used
very often in modern Japanese: 302
"
taberu () " tabero (, “Eat!”)
Negative Commands
"
miru () " miro (, “Look!”)
"
kotaeru () " kotaero (, “Answer!”)
To create negative commands, simply add na () to the dictionary form:
Command Form of U-Verbs To create the command form of U-Verbs, replace the final u syllable with its E-Line counterpart: "
kau () " kae ()
"
kaku () " kake ()
"
oyogu () " oyoge ()
"
hanasu () " hanase ()
"
katsu () " kate ()
"
yomu () " yome ()
"
shinu () " shine ()
"
tobu () " tobe ()
Command Form of Irregular Verbs The command forms of irregular verbs are as follows: "
suru () " shiro () or seyo ()
"
kuru () " koi ()
"
taberu () " taberu-na (, “Don’t eat!”)
"
nomu () " nomu-na (, “Don’t drink!”)
For a slightly less forceful connotation, add naide () to the verb stem and add kudasai (): "
tabenaide kudasai (, “Please don’t eat”)
Potential Verb Forms In Japanese, potential verbs forms are used to express one’s ability to do something (e.g. “I can eat” or “I am not able to see”). Note that the direct object of potential verb forms usually takes the particle ga () instead of wo ().
Potential Ru-Verbs To create the potential form of Ru-Verbs, you simply replace ru () with rareru (). Note that in modern Japanese, many native speakers abbreviate rareru () to reru (). "
taberu () " taberareru (, “I can eat”)
"
miru () " mirareru (, “I can see”) 303
Potential U-Verbs
Polite Potential Verb Forms
If you look at the roumaji, you can see that potential verb forms are created simply by replacing the final u sound with eru. But from the kana perspective, the rule is that you replace the final u syllable with its E-Line counterpart and add ru ():
To create the polite the form of potential verbs, simply replace ru () with masu ():
" "
kau () " kaeru () kaku () " kakeru ()
"
oyogu () " oyogeru ()
"
hanasu () " hanaseru ()
"
taberareru () " taberaremasu ()
"
mirareru () " miraremasu ()
"
kaeru () " kaemasu ()
"
kakeru () " kakemasu ()
"
dekiru () " dekimasu ()
"
korareru () " koraremasu ()
"
katsu () " kateru ()
"
yomu () " yomeru ()
"
shinu () " shineru ()
Passive Verb Forms
"
tobu () " toberu ()
In Japanese, the passive voice is used for three main purposes: "
Potential Irregular Verbs The potential form for irregular verbs is, well, quite irregular: "
suru () " dekiru ()
"
kuru () " korareru ()
To emphasize the object and de-emphasize the subject (much like in English). Think of Ronald Reagan’s famous political Jujutsu move during the Iran-Contra scandal:
“Mistakes were made.” (by whom is conveniently omitted) "
To express that something undesirable happened (or was forced upon someone). 304
"
To show respect. Using the passive form of verbs is one form of keigo ().
Passive Ru-Verbs For Ru-Verbs, the passive form is created in exactly the same way we just saw for potential verb forms. That is, you simply replace ru () with rareru (). The difference is that unlike potential forms, there is no shortened form (i.e. dropping the ra and just using reru).
"
tobu () " tobareru ()
There is one exception, however, for U-Verbs ending in two consecutive vowels (e.g. a followed by u like in kau). In this case, you change the u to wa () and add reru (): "
kau () " kawareru ()
Passive Irregular Verbs The passive forms of irregular verbs are as follows:
"
taberu () " taberareru ()
"
kuru () " korareru ()
"
miru () " mirareru ()
"
suru () " sareru ()
Passive U-Verbs For U-Verbs, the passive form is created by replacing the final u syllable with the kana from the A-line (e.g. mu becomes ma), and then adding reru ():
Causative Verb Forms Japanese causative verb forms express two seemingly opposing meanings:
"
kaku () " kakareru ()
"
Letting someone do something.
"
oyogu () " oyogareru ()
"
Making someone do something.
"
hanasu () " hanasareru ()
"
katsu () " katareru ()
"
yomu () " yomareru ()
"
shinu () " shinareru ()
Causative Ru-Verbs To create the causative form of Ru-Verbs, you drop the ru () and add saseru (): 305
"
taberu () " tabesaseru ()
"
miru () " misaseru ()
But in typical Japanese fashion, extraneous syllables are removed wherever possible, yielding a simplified causative form: "
tabesaseru () " tabesasu ()
"
misaseru () " misasu ()
To create the simplified causative form of U-Verbs, simply replace the final seru () with su (): "
kakaseru () " kakasu ()
"
oyogaseru () " oyogasu ()
Causative Irregular Verbs The causative form of irregular verbs is as follows:
Causative U-Verbs
"
suru () " saseru () or sasu ()
To create the causative form of U-Verbs, you replace the final U-
"
kuru () " kosaseru () or kosasu ()
line syllable with that from the A-line, and add su (): " kaku () " kakaseru () "
oyogu () " oyogaseru ()
"
hanasu () " hanasaseru ()
"
katsu () " kataseru ()
"
yomu () " yomaseru ()
"
shinu () " shinaseru ()
"
tobu () " tobaseru ()
If there are two vowels in a row (like with the a and u in kau), you replace the u with wa () and add seru (): "
Causative Passive Verb Forms The causative passive verb form is used to express that “someone was made to do something”. Note that the agent who causes you to do the verb takes the particle ni ().
Causative Passive Ru-Verbs To create the causative passive form of Ru-Verbs, you start with the causative form, and replace the final ru () with rareru ( ). Note that causative passive Ru-Verbs do not have a simplified form (though causative passive U-Verbs do as you will see in a moment).
kau () " kawaseru () 306
"
tabesaseru () " tabesaserareru ()
"
kawaserareru () " kawasareru ()
"
misaseru () " misaserareru ()
"
kakaserareru () " kakasareru ()
Causative Passive U-Verbs
Causative Passive Irregular Verbs
To create the causative passive form of a U-Verb, you replace the final U-line syllable with its A-line companion, and add serareru ():
The causative passive form of the irregular verbs suru () and kuru () follows the pattern you might expect from what we saw in the passive and causative sections above:
"
kaku () " kakaserareru ()
"
suru () " saserareru ()
"
oyogu () " oyogaserareru ()
"
kuru () " kosaserareru ()
" "
hanasu () " hanasaserareru () katsu () " kataserareru ()
"
yomu () " yomaserareru ()
"
shinu () " shinaserareru ()
"
tobu () " tobaserareru ()
For verbs that end with two vowels in a row (e.g. the a and u in kau) you replace the u with wa () and add serareru (): "
kau () " kawaserareru ()
Just like with causative U-Verbs, there is a simplified form for causative passive U-Verbs (but not for causative passive RuVerbs). The simplified form is created by replacing serareru ( ) with sareru (): 307
Section 6 Adjectives As Predicates
Japanese Adjectives There are two types of adjectives in Japanese: “IAdjectives” like utsukushii , “beautiful”) and “Na-Adjectives” like kireina (). Both can precede the nouns they modify or act as predicates, but there are some important grammar differences between the two.
Adjectives Before Nouns Just like in English, adjectives can come right before the nouns they modify in Japanese. For example, we can express “beautiful sunset” in both English and Japanese by placing the adjective for “beautiful” right in front of the noun “sunset”: "
I-Adjective: utsukushii yuuyake ( , “beautiful sunset”)
"
Na-Adjective: kirei-na yuuyake ( , “beautiful sunset”
Both I-Adjectives and Na-Adjectives can act as predicates in Japanese. For informal situations, sentences can end with just the I-Adjective or a Na-Adjectives followed by da (): "
I-Adjectives: hontou-ni atsui ( , “[It’s] really hot.”)
"
Na-Adjectives: hontou-ni kirei da ( , “[She’s] really pretty.”)
For formal contexts, both types are followed by desu (): "
I-Adjectives: hontou-ni atsui desu ( )
"
Na-Adjectives: hontou-ni kirei desu ( )
Adjectives at the End of a Clause Two of the most common places you’ll find clause-final adjectives are before to omou (, “to think that...”) and to iu (, “to say...”). Note how ada () is required between the Na-Adjective and to (), but not so for I-Adjectives: takai to omou (, “I think [it’s] expensive”) vs. kirei da to omou ( , “I think [it’s] beautiful”) 308
I-Adjectives I-Adjectives, referred to in Japanese as keiyoushi ( ), are so named because their dictionary form always ends in i (). Like verbs, Japanese adjectives conjugate based on tense, polarity, and grammatical function.
Dictionary Form As I just mentioned, the dictionary form (i.e. the non-past, nonnegative form) of I-Adjectives always ends with i ():
You may notice that many of the above adjectives end in the shii () sound. There are quite a few shii adjectives in Japanese, many of which refer to human feelings and emotions.
Ku-Form As the name implies, the Ku-Form of I-Adjectives is created by replacing the final i () with ku (). This form is then used to create: "
The negative nai () form.
"
The conjunctive te () forms.
" "
oishii (, “delicious”) tanoshii (, “fun”)
"
ureshii (, “happy”)
"
kanashii (, “sad”)
“enjoyably” or “pleasantly”)
"
sabishii (, “lonely”)
Note that ii () is irregular:
"
hazukashii (, “embarrassing”)
"
samui (, “cold”, as in “cold weather”)
"
atsui (, “hot”, as in “hot weather”)
"
takai (, “high” or “expensive”)
The Ku-Form can also be used to create adverbs out of IAdjectives: "
"
tanoshii (, “fun”) " tanoshiku (,
ii (, “good”) " yoku (, “well”)
Such adverbial adjectives are often followed by naru () which means “to become”: "
takaku naru (, “to become expensive”)
"
samuku naru (, “to become cold”)
309
Past Tense Form
Polite Forms
The past tense form of I-Adjectives is created by replacing the i () syllable with katta ():
To create the polite form of affirmative non-past I-Adjectives, just add desu ():
"
oishikatta (, “[It] was delicious”)
"
oishii () " oishii desu ()
"
atsukatta (, “[It] was hot”)
"
tanoshii () " tanoshii desu ()
"
sabishikatta (, “[I] was lonely”)
"
ureshii () " ureshii desu ()
Note the past tense form of the irregular adjective ii (): "
ii () " yokatta (, “[It] was good”)
Negative Form To create the negative form of non-past adjectives, replace the final i () with kunai (): "
oishii () " oishikunai (, “not delicious”)
"
tanoshii () " tanoshikunai (, “not fun”)
"
ureshii () " ureshikunai (, “not happy”)
To create negative past tense adjectives, you replace the final i () with kunakatta (), or if the adjective is already negative, replace that final i () with katta (): "
tanoshikunai (, “not fun”) " tanoshikunakatta
(, “was not fun”)
To create the polite form of negative non-past I-Adjectives, you can either add desu () after negative adjectives or change the final i () to ku () and add arimasen (). "
oishikunai () " oishikunai desu ( ) or oishiku arimasen ()
To create the polite form of past tense I-Adjectives, use the past tense form of the adjective followed by desu () or change arimasen () to arimasen deshita ().
Te-Form The Te-Form of adjectives is created by adding te () to the KuForm of both affirmative and negative I-Adjectives: "
Conjunctions: oishikute ii nioi ga suru ( , “[It’s] deliciousand smells good”).
310
"
Contrast: rosu no natsu wa atsukute shiatoru no wa atatakai ( , “Los Angeles summers are hot, while Seattle summers are warm”).
"
Causation: nemukute mou kaeru ( , “[I’m] tired so [I’m] going home”).
Ba-Form
"
Combining Form Dropping the final i () of I-Adjectives creates the combining form. This can then be followed by a number of suffixes, including: "
The suffix sugiru () is used to express excess, much like “too” in English. For example: kono kuruma-wa takasugiru ( , “This car is too expensive”).
"
The suffix sou da (), or its formal counterpart, sou desu (), is used to express conjecture. For example: kaban-wa omosou da (,
Like verbs, adjectives can express conditionality using both ba () and tara (). The Ba-Form of I-Adjectives is created by replacing i () with kereba () or nai () with nakereba (). "
chikai (, “[it’s] close / nearby”)" chikakereba
"
chikakunai (, “[it’s] not close”)" chikaku nakereba (, “If [it’s] not close”)
(, “If [it’s] close”)
“[Your] bag looks heavy”). "
Tara-Form Like the Ba-Form above, the Tara-Form of I-Adjectives can be used to create conditionals. In this case, you simply add ra () to the past-tense form of affirmative and negative I-Adjectives: "
chikakatta (, “[it] was close / nearby”) " chikakattara (, “If [it’s] close...”)
chikakunakatta (, “it [wasn’t] close”) " chikakunakattara (, “If [it’s] not close...”)
The suffix garu () is used to express conjecture about the feelings of others, usually in the form gatteiru ( ). For example: kanojo-wa samugatte-iru ( , “She looks cold”).
Sa-Form I-Adjectives can be turned into nouns using the sa () suffix: "
atsui (, “hot”) " atsusa (, “heat”)
"
samui (, “cold”) " samusa (, “the cold”) 311
I-Adjectives That Can Become Na-Adjectives Note that a small number of I-Adjectives can become NaAdjectives by dropping the final i () and adding na (): "
ookii () " ookina ()
"
chiisai () " chiisana ()
"
shizuka-na koe (, “a quiet voice”)
As we saw earlier, I-Adjectives need no intervening suffix and can be placed directly in front of the nouns they modify. "
utsukushii koe (, “a beautiful
voice”)
Na vs No Endings
Na-Adjectives Like I-Adjectives, Na-Adjectives can modify people, places, and things, and act as predicates. However, the two adjective types differ significantly in grammar usage and etymology. NaAdjectives are also known as “adjectival nouns” and “quasi adjectives”. The vast majority of Na-Adjectives were borrowed into Japanese from Chinese, which explains why they don’t conjugate the same way as I-Adjectives, and why they are usually two-character compounds just like most Sino-Japanese nouns.
Na Endings Na-Adjectives get their name from the fact that they modify subsequent nouns by tacking on na (): "
genki-na koe (, “a lively voice”)
"
kirei-na koe (, “a beautiful voice”)
Although most adjectival nouns are followed by na (), keep in mind that some take no () instead, while others can take both: TAKES NA "
kirei (, “pretty”)
"
hontou (, “true”)
"
byoudou (, “equal”)
TAKES NO TAKES BOTH
+ + +
Na-Adjectives Used as a Predicate When used at the end of a clause or sentence, Na-Adjectives are followed by the copula da (), or it’s formal counterpart, desu ( ): "
benri da (, “[It] is convenient”)
"
kirei desu (, “[She/It] is beautiful”)
312
Nominal Versus Adjectival Usage
"
Many Na-Adjectives can be used as nouns by dropping the na () ending:
"
"
, “[It] is not convenient”)
muda-na (, “wasteful”) " muda ( anzen-na (, “safe”) " anzen (
, “safety”) "
byoudou-na (, “equal”) " byoudou
(, “equality”)
Past Tense Form
kirei desu (, “[She/It] is beautiful”) " kirei de wa arimasen (, “[She/It] was not
beautiful”)
, “waste”) "
benri da (, “[It] is convenient”) " benri janai (
Conjunctive Form To create the conjunctive form of Na-Adjectives, you simply add de () on the end, the conjunctive form of the copula: "
benri de... (, “[It] is convenient, and...”)
"
kirei de... (, “[She/It] is beautiful, and...”)
Unlike I-Adjectives, Na-Adjectives are not conjugated themselves as there is no kana to change. Instead, Na-Adjectives are conjugated for tense and polarity by changing the form of the copula da () or desu () that follows the adjective: "
benri da (, “[It] is convenient”) " benri datta (, “[It] was convenient”)
"
kirei desu (, “[She/It] is beautiful”) " kirei deshita (, “[She/It] was beautiful”)
Negative Form To make Na-Adjectives negative, you change the copula to its negative form: 313
Section 7
Japanese Adverbs If you recall from your junior high school English teacher, adverbs “modify or qualify an adjective, verb, or another adverb”. The same holds for Japanese adverbs, thetrue difference being that the Japanese variety usually come after the topic or right before (but never after) the verb. They can also come at the very beginning of the sentence, but this can sometimes sound a little awkward. There are four main types of adverbs you will encounter in Japanese, which I will cover in detail in the coming sections: "
Adverbs Created from I-Adjectives
"
Adverbs Created from Sino-Japanese Nouns
"
Time Adverbs
"
Sound Symbolic Adverbs
Adverbs Created from I-Adjectives The conjunctive form of an I-Adjective can act as an adverb. If you recall from the Japanese Adjectives section, the conjunctive is created by replacing the final i () with ku (). Such kuadverbs are placed directly in front of the adjectives or verbs they modify. "
hayai (, “quick”) " hayaku (, “quickly”)
"
osoi (, “slow”) " osoku (, “slowly”)
Note that many younger Japanese folks use the word sugoi ( ) these days as an adverb without changing it to sugoku () as traditional grammar rules would require. As a descriptive linguist, I see nothing wrong with this. But if you want to impress your Japanese teacher or host mother, make sure to use the second sentence instead of the first: "
kyou wa sugoi atsui (
, “[It’s] really hot today”) "
kyou wa sugoku atsui (
, “[It’s] really hot today”)
314
Adverbs Created from Sino-Japanese Nouns
Japanese Sound Symbolic Words
Many Sino-Japanese nouns—which are almost always twocharacter compounds—can be turned into adverbs by adding the particle ni (). You can see the same pattern in English, where many nouns are turned into adverbs by adding -ly to the end.
One of Japanese’s most endearing features is its large quantity of “sound symbolic” words, commonly referred to as onomatopoeia (words developed through imitating sounds in nature). Note, however, that the word “onomatopoeia” technically refers to only one kind of sound symbolic word, while there are in fact multiple classifications. Japanese also has what are called “mimetics”, words that describe non-auditory senses, and “psychomimes”, words that describe psychological states.
"
hontou (, “truth/reality”) " hontou-ni (
, “truly/really”) "
"
jiyuu (, “freedom”) " jiyuu-ni (,
“freely”)
Here are some interesting features of Japanese sound symbolic
guuzen (, “chance/accident”) " guuzen-ni
words:
(, “by chance/accidentally”).
"
onomatopoeias, mimetics, and psychomimes double up the same sound, such as in doki doki (, “thumb-thump/pitter-patter”), pika pika ( , “sparkly”), and guzu guzu (, “slowly/lazily”).
Time Adverbs Although they can also be considered “temporal nouns”, time words like kyou (, “today”), ashita (, “tomorrow”), and kinou () can be considered adverbs since they modify when a verb happens. !
Reduplicated Sounds. Though not always the case, many
"
Use of Katakana. Most onomatopoeias are written using katakana (), while most mimetics and psychomimes use hiragana (). This is easy to see if you crack open just about any Japanese manga (
): nearly every action page will be covered in onomatopoeias written in katakana.
See the “Dates & Times” section for more about time adverbs. "
Use as Adverbs or Verbs. Most Japanese sound symbolic
words can act as adverbs, especially when followed by the 315
particle to () or ni (). Many can also be turned into verbs by adding suru (): mune-ga doki doki suru ( , “I have butterflies in my stomach”).
Japanese Mimetics Called gitaigo () in Japanese, “mimetics” are used to describe phenomenon you can see or feel (but not necessarily hear). Examples include:
Japanese Onomatopoeias
"
kira kira (, “sparkle/sparkling”)
“Onomatopoeias” (also knows as “phonomimes”) attempt to imitate real sounds found in nature. Japanese onomatopoeias can be further divided into two groups:
"
yobo yobo (, “unsteady/wobbly”)
"
gira gira (, “glare/dazzle/dazzling”)
"
"
Giseigo (). These onomatopoeia words are
used to describe the sounds made by living beings. Examples include wan wan (, “bow wow”), nyan nyan (, “meow”), and gero gero (, “ribbit ribbit”).
Giongo (). These onomatopoeia words
refer to the sounds produced by inanimate objects, weather, etc. Examples include doki doki (, “thump thump”), potsu potsu (, “trickle/ trickling”), and zaa zaa (, “heavy/ pouring”). Note that noises made by the body involuntarily (e.g. the thump of ones heart beat, the grumble of one’s stomach, etc.) are considered giongo, not giseigo.
Japanese Psychomimes Last,we have a word that you’ve probably never heard before: “psychomimes”. Called gijougo () in Japanese, this class of sound symbolic words refers to psychological states, emotions, and feelings. Examples include: "
pun pun (, “furious/angry”)
"
odo odo (, “uneasy/hesitant”)
"
ira ira (, “nervous/fretful/irritated”)
316
Japanese Sound Symbolic Words Giseigo
Giongo
Gitaigo
Gijougo
wan wan ()
doki doki ()
“thump thump”
kira kira () “sparkle/sparkling”
pun pun ()
“bow wow” nyan nyan ()
potsu potsu ()
yobo yobo ()
odo odo ()
“meow”)
“trickle/trickling”
“unsteady/wobbly”
“uneasy/hesitant”
gero gero ()
“ribbit ribbit”
zaa zaa () “heavy/pouring rain sound”
gira gira () “glare/dazzle/dazzling”
ira ira () “nervous/fretful/irritated”
gaa gaa ()
gata gata ()
waku waku ()
“quack quack”
“clatter/clattering”
“trembling/excited”)
uka uka () “careless/carelessly”
kokekokkou ()
pyuu pyuu () “swoosh/whistle/whistling”
guzu guzu ()
“cock-a-doodle-doo” kaa kaa ()
pachi pachi ()
“crackling, clapping”
bara bara () “scattered/disconnected”
kuyo kuyo ()
“caw” buu buu ()
ban ban ()
mero mero ()
biku biku ()
“oink oink”
“bang bang”
“falling down drunk”
“fear/fearful”
mou mou ()
dokan ()
“moo”
“boom”
pin pin () “lively/vivacious/nimble”
in in () “cheerful/cheerfully”
“slowly/hesitantly”
“furious/angry”
jiri jiri () “impatient/impatiently”
“worry/worried”
317
Section 8
Japanese Pronouns
the verb form is the same for all subjects in Japanese but that we add an ‘s’ on the end of third-person singular verbs in English: watashi-wa kouhi-wo nomu
Japanese pronouns, called daimeishi () can be grouped as follows: "
Number. Japanese has both singular and plural pronouns,
the latter of which is created by adding suffixes to singular pronouns. "
1ST PERSON PLURAL
() “We drink coffee.”
2ND PERSON SINGULAR
() “You drink coffee.”
watashitachi-wa kouhi-wo nomu
anata-wa kouhi-wo nomu
anatatachi-wa kouhi-wo nomu
2ND PERSON () PLURAL “Y’all drink coffee.”
Gender. Unlike English, which only differentiates gender in
the 3rd person (i.e. “he” versus “she”), Japanese has a number of gender specific pronouns. "
() “I drink coffee.”
Person. Japanese has first
person, second person, and third person pronouns, though there is no direct translation for the 3rd person “it” found in English. "
1ST PERSON SINGULAR
kare-wa kouhi-wo nomu
3RD PERSON SINGULAR
() “He drinks coffee.”
3RD PERSON PLURAL
() “They drink coffee.”
Formality. Depending on the context, you can use either
informal or formal pronouns in Japanese. Unlike most European languages, you do not need to conjugate Japanese verbs to match the subject pronoun. Notice below that
karera-wa kouhi-wo nomu
318
Japanese Singular Pronouns If we consider slang, regional dialects, and archaic forms, there are actually many dozen potential pronouns in Japanese, but here are just the most common terms you’ll encounter. Note that pronouns marked with an asterisks ( *) can be rude or even highly hostile if used in the wrong context. You should avoid them unless you know exactly how to use them.
1st Person Reflexive Pronoun Japanese has only one reflexive pronoun, used to refer to oneself: "
jibun (, “me/myself”)
Speaking of which, you may notice that Japanese people point at their noses a lot. This is because the Japanese refer to themselves by pointing to their nose instead of their chest as we do in Western countries. !
Check out Tofugu’s “Japanese Body Language And Gestures”.
Japanese 1st Person Singular Pronouns Informal first person singular pronouns include: "
boku (, “I/me” )
"
*ore (, “I/me” )
"
atashi (, “I/me” )
2nd Person Singular Pronouns & Titles There is technically only one standard polite second person singular pronoun: "
"
atai (, “I/me” )
Polite first person singular pronouns include:
anata ( )
Note, however, that it’s actually not very polite to say “you” directly. Instead, it’s usually best to use someone’s name followed by a title. Polite titles include:
"
watashi or watakushi ( or , “I/me” )
"
san (, “Mr./Mrs./Ms.” )
"
ware (, “I/me” )
"
sensei (, “Teacher/Doctor”)
"
waga (, “I/me/our” )
"
buchou (, “Department Head” )
"
kisha (, “our company” )
"
shachou (, “President” )
Note that watashi and watakushi both use the same kanji: . 319
In very polite situations, you can use the following title instead of san (): "
sama (, “Mr./Mrs./Ms.” )
In formal situations, you can also refer to others using one of the following words:
3rd Person Singular Pronouns Informal third person singular pronouns include the following (note that many of them are potentially offensive): "
kare (, “he/him” )
"
kanojo (, “her/she” )
"
sochira (, “you/that way” )
"
ano hito (, “he/she/that person” )
"
onsha (, “your company” )
"
*koitsu (, “him/her/this guy” )
"
otaku (, “you/your house” ).
"
*soitsu (, “him/her/that guy” )
"
*aitsu (, him/her/that guy over there” )
When referring to a close friend, one’s boyfriend or girlfriend, or someone significantly younger than oneself, you can use one of the following diminutive titles: "
kun ( )
"
chan ( )
Lastly, here are some informal second person singular pronouns, but pay special attention to the potentially rude pronouns: "
kimi (, “you” )
"
anta (, “you/darling”)
"
*omae (, “you” )
"
*temae (, “you” or “you S.O.B.” )
"
*kisama (, “you” or “you S.O.B.” )
There is just one polite third person singular pronoun: "
ano kata (, “he/she/that person” )
Japanese Plural Pronouns To create the plural form of first and second person pronouns, you simply add one of the following two suffixes (note that some pronouns can take both): "
-tachi ()
"
-ra ()
320
Tachi The plural suffix tachi () is used with the following pronouns: "
Exceptions "
Note that karera () is equivalent to “they” and can reference all members of a group regardless of gender, while kanojora () references groups comprised only of women.
"
Note that one plural pronoun doesn’t follow the pattern: ware () becomes ware-ware (), not waretachi or ware-ra.
watashi (, “I”) " watashi-tachi (
, “we”) "
watakushi (, “I”) " watakushi-tachi (
"
boku (, “I”) " boku-tachi (, “we”)
"
ore (, “I”) " ore-tachi (, “we”)
"
anata (, “you”) " anata-tachi (
"
kimi (, “you”) " kimi-tachi (, “y’all”)
, “we”)
, “y’all”)
Ra The plural pronoun suffix ra () is used with the following pronouns: "
ore () " ore-ra ()
"
kare () " kare-ra ()
"
kanojo () " kanojo-ra ()
"
aitsu () " aitsu-ra () 321
Japanese Pronouns Informal
Standard/Polite
Formal
boku (, “I/me” )
watakushi (, “I/me” )
ore (, “I/me” )
st
ware (, “I/me” )
atashi (, “I/me” )
waga (, “I/me/our” )
atai (, “I/me” )
kisha (, “our company”) anata (, “you” )
anatasama (, “thou”)
anta (, “you/darling” )
-san (, “Mr./Mrs./Ms.” )
-sama (, “Mr./Mrs./Ms.” )
omae (, “you” )
-sensei (, “Teacher” )
sochira (, “you/that way”)
temae (, “you S.O.B.” )
-buchou (, “Dept. Head”)
onsha (, “your company”)
kisama (, “you S.O.B.” )
-shachou (, “President”)
otaku (, “you/your house”)
koitsu (, “this guy” )
kare (, “he/him” )
soitsu (, “that guy” )
kanojo (, “her/she” )
*
*
*
*
*
aitsu
*
”
kimi (, “you” )
2nd
3rd
,“
ano kata ()
“he/she/that person”
(, “that guy over there”) ano hito (, “that person”) 322
Japanese Demonstratives Demonstratives are pronouns used to indicate location, direction, type, manner, or which item one is referring to. In Japanese, they can be divided into two main groups:
Distance from the Speaker and Listener Japanese demonstratives begin with ko (), so (), or a () depending on something’s distance from the speaker. Theko () series is used for that which is close by: "
"
Demonstratives used to ask questions
"
Demonstratives that indicate the distance from the speaker
kore (, “this”)
"
kono (, “this one”)
"
koko (, “here”)
Interrogative Japanese Demonstratives
"
kotchi (, “this direction”)
Interrogative Japanese demonstratives all begin with do (), and
"
kochira (, “this direction/person”)
equate to the English words “which”, “which one”, “where”, “which direction”, “which person”, “what type”, and “in what way”:
"
konna (, “this type”)
"
kou (, “in this way”)
The so () series is for that which is a little further away:
"
dore (, “which”)
"
dono (, “which one”)
"
sore (, “that”)
"
doko (, “where”)
"
sono (, “that one”)
"
dotchi (, “which direction”)
"
soko (, “there”)
"
dochira (, “which direction/person”)
"
sotchi (, “that direction”)
"
donna (, “what type”)
"
sochira (, “that direction/person”)
"
dou (, “in what way”)
"
sonna (, “that type”)
"
sou (, “in that way”) 323
The a () series is used for what’s further still: "
are (, “that over there”)
"
ano (, “that one over there”)
"
asoko (, “over there”)
"
atchi (, “over yonder”)
"
achira (, “that direction /person over there”)
"
anna (, “that type over there”)
"
aa (, “in that way over there”)
A few things to note about Japanese demonstratives: "
The location demonstratives doko (), koko (), soko (), and asoko () are usually followed by the particles ni (), e (), or de ().
"
The demonstratives konna (), sonna (), and anna () can be followed by ni () to create adverbs.
"
The demonstrative pronouns dore (), kore (), sore (), and are () cannot be used to refer to people. You must use either the demonstrative pronoun dono (), kono (), sono (), and ano () followed by the people counter word hito (), or the formal demonstratives dochira (), kochira (), sochira (), or achira (). 324
Jap nese Demonstratives QUESTIONWORDS
RIGHTHERE
OVER THERE
WAY OVER THERE
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
dore ()
kore ()
sore ()
“which”
“this”
“that”
are () “that over there”
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES
dono () “which one”
kono ()
sono ()
“this one”
“that one”
ano () “that one over there”
doko ()
koko ()
soko ()
asoko ()
“where”
“here”
“there”
“over there”
DIRECTION (INFORMAL)
dotchi () “which direction”
kotchi ()
sotchi ()
atchi ()
“this direction”
“that direction”
“over yonder”
DIRECTION/PERSON (FORMAL)
dochira () “which direction/person”
kochira () “this direction/person”
sochira () “that direction/person”
achira () “that dir./per. over there”
donna ()
konna ()
sonna ()
“what type”
“this type”
“that type”
anna () “that type over there”
dou () “in what way”
kou () “in this way”
sou () “in that way”
aa () “in that way over there”
LOCATION
T YPE
MANNER
325
Section 9
Japanese Proper Nouns
Japanese Family & Given Names 100 Most Common Japanese Family Names
This section presents some of the most common Japanese proper nouns, including family names, given names, place names, and brand names. With their irregular readings and lack of capitalization, Japanese proper nouns can easily throw non-native speakers for a loop. Fortunately, the 80-20 rule can be used to shave down the list of total proper names to only the most common names you will encounter (as I have done for you below). Learn these names first, and then worry about less frequent names later.
It is estimated that there are over 100,000 Japanese family names, but like in English, the same common names account for the vast majority of Japanese people. Family names are called myouji (), uji ( ), or sei () in Japanese, and usually consist of two Chinese characters, though you will encounter some one or three-character names as well. As you are probably already aware, family names come first in Japanese (hence why I haven’t been calling them “last names”), followed by given names. Similar to many English last names, Japanese family names tend to relate to place names or geographical markers associated with where people lived. For example, the name TANAKA ( ) literally means, “in the rice field”, while the name TAKAHASHI () literally means “high bridge”. Note that some distinct Japanese names are romanized the exact same way, especially minimal pairs that have the same pronunciation except for a difference in vowel length. For example, the romanization “Ono” could apply to oono ( ) or ono (). 326
Here now is a list of the most common 100 Japanese family names, compiled from phonebook data. I highly recommend familiarizing yourself with the entire list, especially if you are going to be working in Japan, so that you can better remember the names of people you meet. !
This list is based on data from DouseiDoumei.net, which includes 13 million names, as well as rankings by prefecture.
14. Yamaguchi ( ) 15. Matsumoto ( ) 16. Inoue ( ) 17. Kimura ( ) 18. Saito ( )
1.
Sato ( )
19. Hayashi ( )
2.
Suzuki ( )
20. Shimizu ( )
3.
Takahashi ( )
21. Yamazaki ( )
4.
Tanaka ( )
5.
Ito ( )
22. Abe ( ) 23. Mori ( )
6.
Yamamoto ( )
24. Ikeda ( )
7.
Watanabe ( )
25. Hashimoto ( )
8.
Nakamura ( )
26. Yamashita ( )
9.
Kobayashi ( )
27. Ishikawa ( )
10. Kato ()
28. Nakashima ( )
11. Yoshida ()
29. Maeda ( )
12. Yamada ( )
30. Fujita ( )
13. Sasaki ( )
31. Ogawa ( ) 327
32. Goto ( )
50. Nakagawa ( )
33. Okada ( )
51. Nakano ( )
34. Hasegawa ( )
52. Ono ( )
35. Murakami ( )
53. Harada ( )
36. Ishii ( )
54. Tamura ( )
37. Kondo ( )
55. Takeuchi ( )
38. Sakamoto ( )
56. Kaneko ( )
39. Endo ( )
57. Wada ( )
40. Fujii ( ) 41. Aoki ( )
58. Nakayama ( ) 59. Ishida ( )
42. Nishimura ( )
60. Ueda ( )
43. Fukuda ( )
61. Morita ( )
44. Saito ( )
62. Shibata ( )
45. Ota ( )
63. Sakai ( )
46. Fujiwara ( )
64. Hara ( )
47. Miura ( )
65. Yokoyama ( )
48. Okamoto ( )
66. Miyazaki ( )
49. Matsuda ( )
67. Kudou ( ) 328
68. Miyamoto ( )
86. Sugawara ( )
69. Uchida ( )
87. Koyama ( )
70. Takagi ()
88. Kubo ( )
71. Taniguchi ( )
89. Otsuka ( )
72. Ando ( )
90. Chiba ( )
73. Ono ( )
91. Matsui ( )
74. Maruyama ( )
92. Iwasaki ( )
75. Imai ( )
93. Kinoshita ( )
76. Takada ( ) 77. Fujimoto ( )
94. Matsuo ( ) 95. Noguchi ( )
78. Kono ( )
96. Nomura ( )
79. Kojima ( )
97. Sano ( )
80. Murata ( )
98. Kikuchi ( )
81. Takeda ( )
99. Watanabe ( )
82. Ueno ( )
100.Onishi ()
83. Sugiyama ( ) 84. Masuda ( ) 85. Hirano ( ) 329
100 Most Common Japanese Given Names
14. Hiroshi ( )
Given names are called shita no namae ( , “lower name”) in Japanese since they come after one’s family name. The following list is arranged in alphabetical order by the English romanization. When multiple kanji are possible for a given name, I have separated them with the symbol. Also note the gender usage.
15. Hiroyuki ( )
1.
Aiko ( )
2.
Akiko ( )
3.
Akio ( )
4.
Akira ( )
5.
Atsushi ( )
6.
Ei’ichi ( )
7.
Eiji ( )
8.
Fumio ( )
9.
Gorou ( )
10. Hajime ( ) 11. Haruo ( ) 12. Hideo ( ) 13. Hiroko ( )
16. Hisao ( ) 17. Hitoshi ( ) 18. Hisashi ( ) 19. Ichirou ( ) 20. Isamu ( ) 21. Isao ( ) 22. Iwao ( ) 23. Jirou ( ) 24. Jun ( ) 25. Jun’ichi ( ) 26. Kaoru ( ) 27. Katsumi ( ) 28. Kazuko ( ) 29. Kazuo ( ) 30. Kei’ichi ( ) 31. Keiji ( ) 330
32. Keiko ( )
50. Masayoshi ( )
33. Ken ( )
51. Masayuki ( )
34. Ken’ichi ( )
52. Michiko ( )
35. Kenji ( )
53. Michio ( )
36. Kenzou ( )
54. Minoru ( )
37. Kiyoshi ( )
55. Mitsuo ( )
38. Kouichi ( )
56. Noboru ( )
39. Kouji ( )
57. Nobuo ( )
40. Kouzou ( ) 41. Kunio ( )
58. Noriko ( ) 59. Norio ( )
42. Kyouko ( )
60. Osamu ( )
43. Makoto ( )
61. Reiko ( )
44. Masa’aki ( )
62. Saburou ( )
45. Masahiro ( )
63. Sadao ( )
46. Masako ( )
64. Satoshi ( )
47. Masami ( )
65. Sei’ichi ( )
48. Masao ( )
66. Seiji ( )
49. Masaru ( )
67. Shigeo ( ) 331
68. Shigeru ( )
86. Toshio ( )
69. Shin’ichi ( )
87. Touru ( )
70. Shinji ( )
88. Tsuneo ( )
71. Shirou ( )
89. Tsutomu ( )
72. Shou’ichi ()
90. Yasuo ( )
73. Shouji ( )
91. Yasushi ( )
74. Shouzou ( )
92. Yoshiaki ( )
75. Susumu ( )
93. Yoshihiro ( )
76. Tadao ( ) 77. Tadashi ( )
94. Yoshiko ( ) 95. Yoshio ( )
78. Takao ( )
96. Yoshirou ( )
79. Takashi ( )
97. You’ichi ( )
80. Takeo ( )
98. Youko ( )
81. Takeshi ( )
99. Yukio ( )
82. Tatsuo ( )
100.Yutaka ()
83. Teruo ( ) 84. Tetsuo ( ) 85. Toshiko ( ) 332
Toyama-ken (), Yamanashi-ken (
Japanese Place Names Japanese addresses always go from “big” to “small”, starting with the prefecture first (Japan is divided into prefectures, not states, provinces, or territories), followed by the city.
) "
Kansai Region (): Hyougo-ken ( ), Kyouto-fu (), Mie-ken ( ), Nara-ken (), Oosaka-fu ( ), Shiga-ken (), and Wakayama-ken ()
"
Chuugoku Region (): Hiroshima-ken ( ), Okayama-ken (), Shimane-ken (), Tottori-ken ( ), and Yamaguchi-ken ( ). Note that chuugoku () is written and pronounced the exact same way as the Japanese word for “China”.
"
Shikoku Region (): Ehime-ken ( ), Kagawa-ken (), Kouchi-ken ( ), and Tokushima-ken ( )
"
Kyuushuu Region (): Fukuoka-ken ( ), Kagoshima-ken ( ), Kumamoto-ken (), Miyazaki-ken (), Nagasaki-ken ( ), Ooita-ken (), and Saga-ken ( )
"
Okinawa ()
Japan’s Regions & Prefectures Here are all prefectures of Japan, arranged into regions from north to south: "
Hokkaidou ()
"
Touhoku Region (): Akita-ken (), Aomori-ken (), Fukushima-ken ( ), Iwate-ken (), Miyagi-ken (), and Yamagata-ken ( )
"
"
Kantou Region (): Chiba-ken ( ), Gunma-ken (), Ibaraki-ken ( ), Kanagawa-ken ( ), Saitama-ken (), Tochigi-ken ( ), and Toukyou-to () Chuubu Region (): Aichi-ken ( ), Fukui-ken (), Gifu-ken ( ), Ishikawa-ken (), Nagano-ken (), Niigata-ken ( ), Shizuoka-ken (),
333
Japan’s 100 Largest Cities
13. Kitakyuushuu-shi ()
With such a large population crammed into a relatively small land mass, it should come as no surprise that Japan has some very large cities. The following list includes the top 100 Japanese cities by population, most of which are found along the taiheiyou beruto (, “Taiheiyo Belt”). Note that most city names end in shi (), with the exception of toukyou-to (), oosaka-fu ( ), and kyouto-fu ()
14. Chiba-shi ( ) 15. Sakai-shi ( ) 16. Niigata-shi ( ) 17. Hamamatsu-shi () 18. Kumamoto-shi ( ) 19. Sagamihara-shi ()
1.
Toukyou-tou ( )
2.
Yokohama-shi ( )
3.
Oosaka-fu ( )
4.
Nagoya-shi ( )
23. Kagoshima-shi ()
5.
Sapporo-shi ( )
24. Hachiouji-shi ()
6.
Koube-shi ( )
25. Himeji-shi ( )
7.
Kyouto-fu ( )
26. Matsuyama-shi ()
8.
Fukuoka-shi ( )
27. Utsunomiya-shi ()
9.
Kawasaki-shi ( )
28. Higashi-Oosaka-shi ( )
20. Shizuoka-shi ( ) 21. Okayama-shi ( ) 22. Funabashi-shi ()
10. Saitama-shi ( )
29. Kawaguchi-shi ()
11. Hiroshima-shi ()
30. Matsudo-shi ( )
12. Sendai-shi ( ) 334
31. Nishinomiya-shi ()
49. Toyonaka-shi ( )
32. Kurashiki-shi ()
50. Nagano-shi ( )
33. Ichikawa-shi ()
51. Toyohashi-shi ( )
34. Ooita-shi ()
52. Ichinomiya-shi ()
35. Kanazawa-shi ()
53. Okazaki-shi ( )
36. Fukuyama-shi ( )
54. Takasaki-shi ()
37. Amagasaki-shi ()
55. Wakayama-shi ()
38. Nagasaki-shi ()
56. Nara-shi ( )
39. Machida-shi ( ) 40. Toyama-shi ()
57. Takatsuki-shi ( ) 58. Suita-shi ( )
41. Toyota-shi ()
59. Asahikawa-shi ()
42. Takamatsu-shi ( )
60. Kouchi-shi ( )
43. Yokosuka-shi ()
61. Kawagoe-shi ( )
44. Gifu-shi ( )
62. Iwaki-shi ( )
45. Fujisawa-shi ( )
63. Tokorozawa-shi ()
46. Hirakata-shi ( )
64. Maebashi-shi ( )
47. Kashiwa-shi ( )
65. Kouriyama-shi ()
48. Miyazaki-shi ( )
66. Ootsu-shi ( ) 335
67. Koshigaya-shi ()
85. Kakogawa-shi ()
68. Akita-shi ()
86. Fukui-shi ( )
69. Naha-shi ( )
87. Tokushima-shi ( )
70. Yokkaichi-shi ( )
88. Sasebo-shi ( )
71. Kasugai-shi ( )
89. Hiratsuka-shi ()
72. Kurume-shi ( )
90. Fuchuu-shi ( )
73. Aomori-shi ( )
91. Yamagata-shi ()
74. Morioka-shi ( )
92. Fuji-shi ( )
75. Fukushima-shi () 76. Akashi-shi ( )
93. Souka-shi () 94. Matsumoto-shi ()
77. Tsu-shi ( )
95. Kure-shi ( )
78. Nagaoka-shi ( )
96. Neyagawa-shi ()
79. Shimonoseki-shi ()
97. Saga-shi ( )
80. Ichihara-shi ( )
98. Hachinohe-shi ()
81. Hakodate-shi ()
99. Kasukabe-shi ( )
82. Ibaraki-shi ( ()
100.Chigasaki-shi ()
83. Mito-shi ( ) 84. Yao-shi ( ) 336
Top 30 Japanese Company & Brand Names Japan is home to some of the world’s largest companies and most profitable brands. You are probably already familiar with many off the top of your head, including car companies like Toyota, media companies like Nintendo, cosmetic companies like Shiseido, and food companies like Kikkoman. Here are the top 30 Japanese companies, arranged by annual revenue:
13. suzuki () 14. nikon () 15. rikou () 16. orinpasu () 17. mitsubishi denki () 18. burijisuton ()
1.
toyota jidousha ()
19. daikin ()
2.
honda giken kougyou (
20. yamaha ()
)
3.
sonii ()
4.
kiyanon ()
5.
nintendou ()
6.
panasonikku ()
7.
rekusasu ()
8.
nissan jidousha ()
9.
toushiba ()
10. shaapu () 11. shiseidou ()
21. konika minoruta () 22. hitachi () 23. mitsubishi jidousha () 24. matsuda () 25. fujitsuu () 26. ashikkusu () 27. kashio () 28. epuson () 29. burazaa () 30. kikkouman ()
12. komatsu () 337
Some interesting facts to note about Japanese company names: "
You may notice that some of these companies write their names in katakana () or even roumaji ( ) even though their name can also be written in kanji (). There are many reasons for this, but probably most important for brands is that katakana and English letters look more modern.
"
Most publicly traded companies include kabushiki gaisha ( , “corporation”) in their official names. Canon, Inc., for example, is technically called kiyanon kabushiki gaisha ( ). Occasionally, this part will precede a company’s name, as in the case of Bandai Co., Ltd., kabushiki gaisha bandai (
). I should also point out that the part can be pronounced either kaisha () or gaisha (). "
Toyota Motor Company, called toyota jidousha kabushiki gaisha ( ) in Japanese, was once part of Toyoda Automatic Loom Works. So why did the ‘d’ change to a ‘t’? When written in katakana, toyota () has eight strokes instead of the ten found in toyoda (). Eight is a much more auspicious number in Japanese culture. The srcinal change was allegedly an accident, spurred by the winner of a logo contest which used toyota () in the graphic instead of toyoda (). 338
Section 10
Japanese Particles
Bakari () The focus particle bakari () is used as follows:
Indicating Recent Actions Called joshi () in Japanese, grammatical particles do a lot of heavy lifting despite their small size. Many Japanese particles express the same meanings as English prepositions such as “at”, “in”, “on”, “from”, “to”, and “by”. Note that a single English preposition can have multiple Japanese counterparts, such as the directional “to” which can be expressed by ni (), e (), and made (). Likewise, a single Japanese post-position may have multiple English equivalents, such as the temporal ni (), which is equivalent to “in”, “on” and “at” depending on whether it follows a year, month, day, or time of day. I have arranged the most common Japanese grammatical particles below in alphabetical order.
When it follows verbs in their past-tense form, the particle bakari () expresses the meaning of “just”. "
tabeta bakari desu (,
“I just ate.”) "
ima tsuita bakari da (
, “I just arrived.”)
Indicating Excessive Actions When following nouns or verbs in their te-form, the particle bakari () means “only” or “all”. "
biiru bakari nomu-no karada-ni yokunai (
, “Drinking only beer isn’t good for your health.”) "
kare-wa ichi-nichi-juu nete bakari iru (
, “All he does is sleep all day.”)
339
Daga () The conjunction daga () means “but”, “however” or “although”. It carries the same meaning as the conjunctive ga (), but the two particles differ in what words they can follow: "
daga (), or it’s formal counterpartdesuga (), is
used after nouns, Na-Adjectives, and the explanatory particles n () and no (): isogashii-n daga asobi-ni ikou ( , “[The fact is that I’m] busy but let’s go play [anyway]”).
dakara follows nouns, Na-Adjectives, and the explanatory n () and no (), while kara () follows verbs and I-Adjectives in
their dictionary form: "
kyou-wa ame dakara ie-ni iyou ( , “It's raining today, so let’s just stay home.”)
"
isogashii-n dakara asobi ni ikenai (
, “[The fact is that I’m] busy so I can’t go play.”) "
isogashii kara asobi ni ikenai (
, “I can’t go playbecause I am busy.”)
"
ga () or is used verbs andmasu I-Adjectives in their dictionary forms, verbsafter in their polite () form: isogashii ga asobi-ni ikou (
, “[The fact is that I’m] busy but let’s go play [anyway]”).
Unlike ga (), daga () can occur at the beginning of a sentence, much like “However, ...” in English.
Dakara () The conjunction dakara () means “because”, “so”, “therefore”, and “that’s why”. It can come at the beginning of a sentence, or between two clauses to indicate causality. The particle dakara is similar to kara (), the difference being that
Dake () Expressing the Meaning “Only” or “Just” When placed after nouns, particles, and verbs in their dictionary form, the particle dake () means “only” or “just”, much like we saw with bakari (). "
kouhi dake nomu-no karada-ni yokunai (
, “Drinking only coffee isn’t good for your health.”) 340
"
miru dake desu (, “I’m just
looking.”)
Indicating Extremes When used in the construction dekiru () + dake () + adjective, this particle means “as [adjective] as possible”: "
"
Darou () The linking particle darou (), or its formal equivalent deshou (), is placed at the end of a sentence to express that what precedes it will probably happen. A similar meaning can be expressed by kamoshirenai () and sou da ().
dekiru dake hayai (, “as
Darou () can follow the dictionary form of verbs and
fast as possible”)
adjectives, past or non-past verbs, adjectives, and copulas, and adjectival nouns:
yoka-wo dekiru dake riyou shinasai (
, “Please
make the most of your time.”)
Dakedo ()
"
, “He's probably sleeping.”) When used in weather reports with a falling intonation, darou and deshou are more definitive, meaning “will” or “will likely”: "
The conjunction dakedo () means “however” or “even though”. It is used after nouns and the explanatory n () and no (). Note that when following verbs and adjectives in the dictionary form, you use kedo () without da (): "
isogashii-n dakedo iku (
, “[The fact is that I’m] busy but I am [still] going to go.”) "
kare-wa nemutte-iru darou (
ashita-wa hieru deshou - (
, “It will cool down tomorrow.”
Lastly, I should point out that deshou ka () is often used in polite questions to mean “might”: "
dochira sama deshou ka? (
, “Who’s calling please?” or “Whomight this be?”)
isogashii kedo iku ( ,
“[I’m] busy but I’ll go.”) 341
De () Depending on the context, the particle de () can be equivalent to at, because of, by, for, from, in, and on. Be careful not to confuse it with the conjunctive form of the copula da (), which happens to be written the same way.
"
, “[I] went by car...”) "
but more In figurative locations like “in the newspaper” orni“on the also Internet”. this case, de is quite similar to the particle (), the difference being that ni is used for non-action verbs like aru () and iru (). "
"
What Something is Made From Somewhat similar to the last example, de () is also used to indicate the materials, substances, or ingredients used to produce an object, machine, food item, etc.: "
"
"
The particle de () is used to indicate the means, methods, or tools used to complete an action:
chitan goukin-de tsukurareta (
, “[It] was made out of titanium alloy.”)
, “I like to chat on the Internet.”)
How an Action is Completed
mokuzai-de fune-o kenzou shitai (
, “I want to make a boat from/out of wood.”)
kuruma-de tabenaide kudasai ( intaanetto-de chatto suru-no-ga suki (
enpitsu-de kaita hou-ga ii (
, “[It’s] better if you write [it]in pencil.”)
, “Please don’t eat in the car.”) "
kanji-de kaite itadakemasu ka? (
, “Could you please write [it] for me in kanji?”)
Where an Event or Action Takes Place The particle de () is used to mark the location where an action verb happens. It is used with physical locations like “in a car”,
kuruma-de ikimashita (
biiru-wa komugi-de jouzou sareru (
, “Beer is brewed with/using/from wheat.”)
342
Discussing Favorites and Superlatives
How Long Something Takes
The particle de () is used to define a set or range when indicating your favorites, making comparisons, or defining winners or losers. Note that the particle wa () is often added for extra emphasis.
The particle de () can be used to indicate how long something will take, or the time frame in which an action will happen or be completed:
"
, “He is the second richest man in/within Japan.”) "
"
isshuukan-de kaette kuru (
"
ichi-nen-de seisho-wo yomitou shita (1
, “I will return in a week.”)
kare-wa nihon-de niban-me no fugou desu (
, “I went through the Bible in one year.”)
budou-dewa aikidou-ga ichiban suki (
, “Among all martial arts, I like Aikidou the best.”)
How Much Money Something Costs & Method of Payment The Reason Something Happens The particle de () can be used to indicate causes or reasons, or to express thanks to whom one is thankful for a good outcome: "
"
byouki-de gakkou ni ikanai (
, “I’m sick so I’m not going to school.”) "
The particle de () can be used to indicate how much money something takes to buy or what method of payment you’d like to use:
okagesama-de umaku itta (
kyuuman en-de chiketo-o katta (
, “I bought a ticket for 90,000 yen.”) "
genkin-de haratte ii desu ka? (
, “Can I pay in cash?”)
, “Thanks to you/God, [things] went well.”)
Note that the same meaning is often expressed with the conjunctional particles kara () and node (). 343
Demo ()
"
issho-ni ocha-demo ikaga desu ka? (
, “Would you care to join me for tea or something?”)
Conjunctions
With Interrogative Demonstratives
The conjunction demo () always appears at the beginning of a sentence, expressing the meaning “However, ...” or “But”.
When added to interrogative demonstratives, the particle demo () creates the meanings “whichever”, “whoever”, “wherever”, “whatever”, “however”, and “whenever”:
"
demo, sude-ni shitte-tan darou (
, “But you probably knew that already.”
"
dore (, “which”) " dore-demo (, “whichever”)
"
dare (, “who”) " dare-demo (, “whoever”)
demo , matamoya watashi-ga machigatte-ru kamoshirenai (
"
doko (, “where”) " doko-demo (, “wherever”)
"
nani () " nan-demo (, “whatever”)
"
dou (, “how”) " dou-demo (, “however”)
"
itsu (, “when”) " itsu-demo (, “whenever”)
"
, “But then again, I could be wrong.”)
Note that the conjunctive usage of demo () is quite similar to daga ().
Polite invitations The particle demo () is often used after nouns in polite invitations to mean “or something”. In such cases, the negative form of masu () is usually used. "
kouhi-demo nomimasen ka? (
, “Would you like to get coffee or something?”)
E () Pronounced e (), not he () as the hiragana would lead you to believe, this particle means “toward”. Note that it has a very similar meaning to the “lative” version of ni (): "
doko-e ikimasu ka? (,
“Where are [you] going?”) 344
Ga ()
"
, “Do you like Japanese cuisine?”) "
Subject Particle Technically called a “nomitive case marker”, ga () is used to indicate the subject of a Japanese sentence: "
dare-ga ikimasu ka? (,
“Who is going?”) "
watashi-ga anata-ni nani-wo shita to iu no desu ka? (
, “What did I ever do to you?”)
Use With Specific Verbs As a rule, ga () is always used with the following verbs:
iru (, “to exist” for animate objects): daigakusei-no otouto-ga iru (
, “I have a little brother in college.”) "
dekiru (, “to be able to”): sukii-ga dekiru (
, “I can ski.”)
hoshii (, “to want”): kimi-ga hoshii (
, “I want you.”)
Note that there are many cases when the “topic particle” wa () can be used instead of, or even alongside, the particle ga. !
See the Wa () section for more information.
Conjunction As a conjunction, ga () usually equates to “but”, marking contrast between two conflicting ideas or states:
aru (, “to exist” for inanimate objects): kuruma-ga arimasu ka? (, “Do
you have a car?”) "
kirai (, “to hate”): seiji-ga dai kirai da (
, “I hate politics”) "
" "
suki (, “to like”): nihon ryouri-ga suki desu ka? (
biiru-wa nomimasu ga wain-wa nomimasen (
, “[I] drink beer but [I] don’t drink wine.”)
However, ga () can also be used to indicate a transition or make statements sound more polite, such as when introducing oneself to reception when arriving at an appointment: "
ueda-to-moushimasu ga itou-san-wa imasu ka? (
, “My name is Ueda...Is Mr. Ito here?”) 345
Goro ()
Hodo ()
The particle goro () is used with time words to mean “about” or “around”. Note that it can also be pronounced koro (), and is sometimes written using the kanji .
The particle hodo () has many meanings, including:
Used with Specific Times The particle goro () can be placed directly after a specific date or time of day: "
(Not) As X as Y The particle hodo () can be used in both positive and negative constructions to express “As X as Y” or “Not as X as Y” respectively: "
10 am”) "
juuni-gatsu tooka-goro (
nihongo-wa eigo hodo muzukashikunai (
,
gozen juuji-goro (, “around
“Japanese is not as difficult as English.”) "
kono hako-wa ano hako hodo ookikunai (
, “This box is not as big as that box.”)
, “around December 10th”)
Used with Question Words The particle goro () can also be placed directly after the question words itsu (, “when”) and nan-ji (, “what time”): "
itsu-goro (, “Around when?”)
"
nan-ji-goro (, “Around what time?”)
The More X, the More Y When used in conjunction with the ba conditional, hodo () can express the meaning, “the more I do/have/experience X, the more I do/have/experience Y”: "
nihongo-wo benkyou sureba suru hodo, suki-ni naru (
, “The more I study Japanese, the more I like it.”) 346
So X that Y When following verbs and adjectives, hodo () can be used to express the meaning “It’s so X that Y” or “Enough X to Y”: "
"
The particle ka () is used as follows:
shinu-hodo atsui (, “It’sso
hot that I might die.”)
To Create Questions
bikkuri suru hodo takai kyuuryou (
Instead of changing word order like in English, Japanese forms questions by simply adding the particle ka () to the end of a clause or sentence:
, “a staggeringly high salary” or “a salary high enough to surprise someone”) "
Ka ()
kuruma-wo kaeru hodo okane-wo setsuyaku shita (
"
, “I saved up enough money to buy a car.”)
About/Around Similar to the particle kurai (), hodo () can be used to indicate an approximate amount or quantity: "
"
sensei desu (, “[I’m] a teacher.”)" sensei desu ka? (, “[Are you] a
teacher?”) Note that informal questions can also be created with the particle no (), and that older men often form questions using kai () instead of ka ().
go-fun hodo kakaru (,
To Make Polite Suggestions or Requests
“[It] takes about 5 minutes.”)
The question particle used after a negative verb can express the meanings “Why don’t we...” or “Would you please...” Since they are used in polite situations, these constructions usually use the masu () form of verbs.
tamago hodo no ookisa de-aru (
, “It's about the size of an egg.”)
"
ocha-demo nomimasen ka? (
, “Why don’t [we] drink tea or something?”). 347
To Express Alternatives
"
nani (, “what”) " nani-ka (, “something”)
The particle ka () is used to create alternatives between two or more options. When two or more alternative nouns are presented, the last noun takes the appropriate grammatical particle, e.g. wo () for objects, ga () for subjects, etc. For yesno verb pairs, you can replace the second verb phrase with douka ():
"
dou (, “how”) " dou-ka (, “somehow”)
"
itsu (, “when”) " itsu-ka (, “sometime”)
"
biiru ka sake-wo nomou ka? (
, “Shall [we] drink beer or saké?”) "
daigaku-ni iku ka shigoto-wo sagasu ka kimete-inai (
, “I haven’t decided yet whether to go to university or look for work.”) "
daigaku-ni iku ka dou ka kimeteinai (
, “I haven’t decided yet whether to go to university or look for work.”)
Used to Create Indefinite Pronouns When added to interrogative demonstratives, the particle ka () creates the indefinite pronouns “someone”, “somewhere”, “something”, “somehow”, and “sometime”: "
dare (, “who”) " dare-ka (, “someone”)
"
doko (, “where”) " doko-ka (, “somewhere”)
Kamoshirenai () Used at the end of clauses, kamoshirenai (), or its polite counterpart, kamoshiremasen (), is roughly equivalent to “may”, “might”, or “possibly”. It can follow verbs (in positive, negative, past, and non-past forms), adjectives, nouns, and the explanatory particle no (): "
ashita ame-ga furu kamoshirenai (
, “It might rain tomorrow.”)
A few things to keep in mind about kamoshirenai (): "
It is sometimes abbreviated to just kamo () in informal situations, especially by women.
"
kamoshirenai () is similar in meaning and usage to the word darou (), just as kamoshiremasen ( ) is similar to deshou ().
348
Kara () The particle kara () has three entirely different meanings depending on its grammatical function:
Case Particle Meaning “From” As a “case particle”, kara () expresses the meaning of “from”, may it be referring to: "
The source or ingredient from which something is made: katakana-wa kanji-kara tsukurareta (
"
, “[It’s] not tastyso [I] won’t eat it.”) "
A point in space or time from which something begins: In such cases, kara () is often used in conjunction with made (), which means “until” or “up to”: ichigatsu-kara sangatsu-made (
, “from January to March”).
Conjunctional Particle Meaning “Because” When kara () follows verbs and adjectives in their dictionary, past, or negative forms, kara () means “because”, “since” or “so”. This usage is similar to node () and dakara ():
ame-ga furu kara ikanai (
, “[I’m] not going because [it’s] going to rain.”)
Conjunctional Particle Meaning “After” or “Since” When used after the participle form of verbs, that is, those ending in either te () or de (), the particle kara () expresses the meaning of “after doing X” or “since x”: "
nihon-ni kite-kara ichinen-ga tachimashita (
, “Katakana are made from kanji.”) A similar meaning can be expressed with the particle de (). "
oishikunai kara tabenai (
, “One year has passed since I arrived in Japan.”)
Kana () & Kashira () The sentence final particles kana ( ) and kashira ( ) both mean “I wonder if...”, but differ in gender usage. Both follows verbs and adjectives in their dictionary, past, or negative forms: "
ashita ame-ga furu kashira... (
, “[I] wonder if it will rain tomorrow...”)
349
"
ashita ame-ga furu kana... (
"
, “[I] wonder if it will rain tomorrow...”)
ima-koso koudou-suru toki da ( , “Now (as opposed to later) is the
time for action.”)
Keredomo () The conjunction keredomo () means “although”, “though”, “however”, or “but”. It can be used at the beginning or end of a sentence, and is often abbreviated to keredo () or kedo (). Semantically, keredomo is equivalent to dakedo ( ), but they differ in that the former follows adjectives and verbs in their dictionary form, while the latter follows nouns and the explanatory particles n () and no (). "
isogashii keredomo iku (
, “[I] am busy,but [I’ll] go [anyway].”) "
isogashii-n dakedo iku (
, “[The fact is that I] am busy,but [I’ll] go [anyway].”)
Koso () The focus particle koso () is used to emphasize the noun, pronoun, or clause it follows. In English, we accomplish the same meaning using a change in intonation or the use of italics in writing.
The particle koso () is often used with the polite word kochira () to emphasize that you are the one who is thankful for something. For example, if someone tells you arigatou gozaimashita (, “Thank you very much”), you could reply: "
kochira koso (, “No, thank you”).
Kurai () Written with the kanji , but pronounced either kurai () or gurai (), this particle directly follows numbers (usually with counter words). It is often used with the question word dono ( ), in which cases it means “about” or “around”. It can also be used to express the meaning “to the extent that” or “even”, in which case it overlaps in usage with the particle hodo ().
Used with Numbers & Counter Words When you want to indicate an approximate amount or quantity, you can add the particle kurai () directly after a number and counter word: "
ichiji gurai (, “about 1 o’clock”) 350
"
ni-ka-getsu gurai (, “about 2
months”)
Used with Question Words If you want to ask “How much?” or “How long?”, you can place the question words dono () or dore () in front of kurai ( ): "
"
The particle made () means “until”, “to”, “up to”, and “through”. It is used to indicate end points in both time and space, and as we saw earlier, is often paired up with the particle kara ().
dono gurai kakaru? (, “About how long will
Used with Time
it take?”)
The particles kara () and made () are used with times of day, days of the week, weeks, months, years, et cetera:
dore gurai taijuu-o herashimashita ka? (
, “About how much weight did you lose?”)
Used with Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs & Adjectives The particle kurai () can also be used to express extent or emphasis, much like hodo (): "
Made ()
unten dekiru gurai yoi wa samete-iru no? (
, “Are you sober enough to drive?”)
"
gogo ni-ji kara yo-ji made (
, “from 2 to 4 pm”)
Used with Locations The particles kara () and made () can also be used with geographical locations or even more figurative locations like pages in a book: "
koube-kara oosaka-made (
"
nijuugo-peeji made (
, “from Kobe to Osaka”) , “up to page 25”)
351
Used with Verbs When used after verbs in their dictionary form, made ( ) means “until [that verb happens]”: "
yuki-ga yamu-made machimashou (
, “Let’s wait until it stops snowing.”)
Madeni () Adding ni () onto the end of made () expresses the meaning of “by”, “by the time...” or “before”. As you can imagine, it’s a popular particle among managers and parents! "
gozen hachiji-han-madeni shussha subeki (
, “You should arrive at work by 8:30 am.”) "
juu-ji-madeni kaeran-to oya-ga kankan ni okoru (10 , “If I don't get home by 10, my parents will throw a fit!”)
Mo () Depending on the context, the particle mo () can mean “also”, “too”, “even”, “even if”, “as many as”, “no less than”, or “neither”. Be careful not to confuse the particle mo with the adverb mou ( , “already”), the latter of which has a double-long vowel.
To Mean “Too”, “Also”, “Either” or “Neither” When used with non-negative predicates, mo () expresses the meaning of “too” or “also”. When used with negative predicates, conversely, it expresses the meaning of “either” or “neither”: " boku-mo nihonshu-ga suki da ( , “I also like saké / I like saké, too.”) "
boku-mo suki janai (
, “I don’t like [it] either.”)
To Mean “Both A and B” or “Neither A Nor B” When used after two subsequent nouns, the particle mo () means “both A and B” if used with a non-negative predicate, or “neither A nor B” if used with a negative predicate: "
kana-mo kanji-mo yomeru (
, “I can read both kana and kanji.”)
352
"
kana-mo kanji-mo yomenai (
, “I can read neither kana nor kanji.”)
To Mean “As Long As” or “As Much As”
With Interrogative Demonstrative Pronouns When the particle mo () is combined with interrogative demonstratives, it creates the following meanings: "
When used with longer periods of time or larger quantities, the particle mo () can express the meaning of “as long as” or “as much as”:
when used with a positive predicate, while it means “none” or “none of” when used with a negative predicate. "
"
mainichi ichijikan-mo benkyou suru beki da (
, “You should study foras long as 1 hour everyday.”)
dore-mo () means “any”, “all” or “every”
dare-mo () means “anyone” or “everyone”
when used with a positive predicate, while it means “no-one” or “nobody” when used with a negative predicate. "
doko-mo () means “anywhere” when used
"
go man en-mo kakaru to kiita ( , “I heard that it takes/costs as
much as 50,000 yen.”)
with positive predicate, while it means “nowhere” when usedawith a negative predicate. "
positive predicate, while it means “nothing”, “none”, or “not any” when used with a negative predicate.
To Mean “Even”, “Only” or “As Little As” Conversely, the particlemo () can express the meaning of “even”, “only” or “as little as” when used with shorter periods of time or smaller quantities: "
nani-mo () means “any” when used with a
"
itsu-mo () means “always” when used with a
positive predicate, while it means “never” when used with a negative predicate.
gojikan-mo nete-mo daijoubu (
, “I’m okay even if I sleep for as little as 5 hours.”) "
ikkagetsu-de ichi-man-en-mo seikatsu shinakya (10
, “I have to live on only 10,000 yen a month.”) 353
Na ()
"
byoudou (, “equality”) " byoudou-na (
, “equal”)
The particle na () has three completely different meanings:
Nado () Commands Adding na () after a verb in its dictionary form expresses an informal (and potentially rude) command: "
miru na (, “Don’t look!”)
Emphasis Similar to the sentence-final particle ne (), the particle na () can be used to emphasize one’s feelings. It can also be used to for self talk, especially when preceded by ka (), and pronounced with a long, drawn out naaa (): "
nani-wo taberu ka naaa (
, “I wonder what I’m going to eat...”)
The particle nado () means “et cetera”, “and so on”, “and the like”, or “such things as”. It is usually written in kana, but you will sometimes see it written in the kanji . It is usually used after one or more nouns, often conjoined by the particle ya (), and can be followed by the particles wo (), ga (), wa (), ni () and no (). "
ni, yon, roku nado wa, guusuu da (
, “Two, four, six,etc. are even numbers.”) "
kendou ya iaidou nado ni kyoumi ga aru (
, “I’m interested in such things as Kendo and Iaido.”)
Creating Na-Adjectives When added onto the end of some Japanese nouns (especially those of Chinese srcin), na () can create Na-Adjectives: "
anzen (, “safety”) " anzen-na (
, “safe”) 354
Nagara ()
Nara ()
The particle nagara () has two different meanings:
The particle nara (), sometimes pronounced naraba (), is used to create conditionals. It can follow nouns, pronouns, and Na-Adjectives without the na part, nouns + particles, and verbs and adjectives in their various forms (past, non-past, affirmative, and negative):
While Doing X When following verbs in their combining form, the particle nagara () means “while doing [the verb]”.
" "
tabe-nagara (, “while eating”)
"
nomi-nagara (, “while drinking”)
"
aruki-nagara (, “while walking”)
Although / Despite
, “If there’s rain tomorrow, I’m not going cycling.”) "
samui nagara aisukuriimu-wo tabetai (
"
kekkon-wo nozomi-nagara-mo mada dokushin da (
, “I am still single despite wanting to get married.”
nanji kurai made nara denwa shite mo ii? (
, “Until what time is it okay to call you?”) "
sonnani samui nara kouto-wo kite ne (
, “If it’s that cold, wear a coat.”)
, “Although it’s cold, I still want to eat ice cream.) "
boku nara sou suru darou (
, “If it were me, that’s what I would probably do.”)
When following adjectives and some verbs, nagara () takes on the meaning “although”, “despite” or “in spite of”: "
ashita ame nara, saikuringu-ni ikanai (
"
ikenai nara oshiete kudasai (
, “Please let [me] know if [you] are unable to go”.)
355
Ne () The sentence final particle ne () roughly translates as “Right?” or “Okay?”, but expresses many shades of meaning that are difficult to translate directly. It can follow adjectives, verbs, and the copula da () or desu ().
Verbal Filler The particle ne () can also be used as a verb filler with no significant meaning, similar to “like” or “you know” in English. This use of ne is used more frequently by young whipper snappers, and can sound rather unrefined when overused in speech.
Tag Questions
Ni ()
One of the main uses of the particle ne () is to create tag questions like “Isn’t it?” or the Canadian “Eh?”.
The particle ni () has numerous uses in Japanese. Depending on what noun it follows, it can be equivalent to “at”, “in”, “on”,
"
kyou-wa ii tenki desu ne (
, “Lovely day,isn't it?”)
"
kyou-no sushi-wa totemo ooishii ne (
, “Today’s sushi is really good, eh?”)
“to”, “toward”, “for”, and “from”:
Dative Case Marker When used as a “dative case marker”, ni () indicates to whom you give or do something: "
To Soften or Emphasize Statements The particle ne () is often used after the te () form of verbs to sound less pushy or more caring: "
zehi mata kite ne (, “You
should definitely come again!”) "
ki-wo tsukete ne (, “Be
careful / Take care!”).
kanojo-ni aifoun-wo ageta (iPhone
, “[I] gave an iPhone to her.”)
Lative Case Marker When used as a “lative case marker”, ni () indicates motion to or from a location: "
appuru sutoa-ni ikitai (
, “[I] want to go to the Apple Store.”) 356
Used to Create Adverbs As I mentioned earlier, many Na-Adjectives can be transformed into adverbs when followed by ni (): "
"
, “truly/really”)
Showing Possession
jiyuu (, “freedom”) " jiyuu-ni (
Referred to a “genitive case marker” in linguistics, the particle no () is used to indicate possession. It combines with 1st person pronouns to express the meaning “my”, “mine”, and “our”, 2nd person pronouns to express “your”, and 3rd person pronouns to express “his”, “her”, “it’s”, and “their”.
guuzen (, “chance/accident”) " guuzen-ni
(, “by chance/accidentally”)
Used with Time Adverbs The ni () particle is often used after time adverbs: "
The particle no () has multiple different uses:
hontou (, “truth/reality”) " hontou-ni (
, “freely”) "
No ()
juu-gatsu-ni aifoun-wo kau tsumori da (10iPhone
, “[I] plan to buy an iPhone in October.”)
Used with Location Nouns & Demonstrative Pronouns
If it helps, you can think of it much like the apostrophe ‘s’ used in English. "
kore-wa dare-no keitai? (
, “Whose cell phone is this?”) "
watashi-no keitai, doko-ni icchatta-n-darou? (
, “I wonder where my cell phone went?”)
Ni () can also mark the location where something happens,
equivalent to “in”, “at”, or “on” in English. It frequently follows demonstrative pronouns such as koko (, “here”), soko (, “there”), and asoko (, “over there”). "
teeburu-ni oita (, “[I]
placed/set [it] on the table”).
Modifying Nouns When one noun modifies another in Japanese, you usually add the particle no () in between, creating an adjective-like construction: 357
"
getsuyoubi-no kaigi-wa ku-ji-han-ni hajimarimasu (
, “Monday’s meeting starts at 9:30.” "
"
, “The one I like isn’t here.”) "
nihon-no karaoke-wa sekaijuu-ni ninki ga aru (
, “Japanese karaoke is popular around the world.”
Following Adjectival Nouns
"
"
hontou (, “true”)
"
byoudou (, “equal”)
TAKES NO TAKES BOTH
+ + +
Creating Nouns When preceded by Na-Adjectives, the copula in its past or negative form, or verbs and adjectives in their dictionary, past, or negative form, the particle no () creates phrases that can be used as nouns. These noun phrases are then followed by case particles such as wa (), ga (), wo (), ni (), etc.
kanji wo oberu-no tanoshii (
, “Learning Chinese characters is fun.”) "
TAKES NA kirei (, “pretty”)
sore-wa takasugi. motto yasui no ga aru? (
, “That one’s too expensive. Do you have a cheaperone?”)
As we saw in the Na-Adjectives section, some adjectival nouns are followed by no () instead of (or in addition to) na ().
"
suki-na no wa koko-ni nai (
suki janakatta no wa kore desu (
, “This is the one I didn’t like.”)
Creating Questions Like the particle ka (), no () can be added to the end of a sentence (using rising intonation) to create an informal question. Though more men are using this structure these days, it tends to be used most by women and children. Given its informal flavor, it is not used with verbs in the Masu-Form or the Desu-Form of the copula. The following two examples have the same basic meaning, differing only in terms of formality: "
doko iku no? (, “Where ya’ goin’?”)
"
doko-ni ikimasu ka? (
, “Where are going?”)
358
Adding Emphasis or Softening a Statement When pronounced with a falling intonation (as opposed to the rising intonation used for informal questions), the sentence final no () can be used to add emphasis or, conversely, to soften one’s tone. "
With regard to syntax, no da () and no desu () can be used after nouns, verbs, and adjectives in all their forms. "
, “Can [you] read Chinese characters? [I’m asking because I noticed you have a Japanese magazine on your desk.]”)
iie, ima ikitakunai no (
, “No, I don’t want to go right now.”)
kanji-ga yomeru no desu ka? (
"
atsukatta no da... (, “It was
hot.. [That’s why I stayed home.]”)
Used in Place of Ga ()
"
shitsumon-ga aru n desu ga... (
, “I have a question... [which is why I’m here].”)
Within a relative clause, the subject particle ga () is sometimes replaced by no (): "
sara-no kaita ji-wa... (
, “The [Chinese] characters Sarah wrote...”)
Noda () The sentence final no da (), or its polite equivalent no desu () can loosely be translated as “It is the case that...” or “The thing is...”, but it doesn’t actually possess a concrete meaning by itself. It is used frequently in spoken Japanese, especially when providing explanations or creating a context. In colloquial speech, no da () and no desu () often become n da () and n desu () respectively.
Node () The particle node () means “because”, “since”, or “on account of”. It can follow verbs and adjectives in their dictionary, negative, and past tense forms, nouns and adjectival nouns followed by na (), and the copula in any of its forms. It can also follow verbs in their masu () form. "
ame na node, shiai-ga chuushi-ni-natta (
, “The match was cancelled on account of rain.”) "
isogashisugita node ikenai (
, “I can’t gobecause I’m busy.”) 359
"
kodomo ga iru node, kotoba-wo tsutsushinde ne (
, “Please watch your mouth since there are children present.”)
"
, “Despite studying hard, I failed the exam.”) "
A Conjunction Meaning “Although” The particle noni () can mean “although”, “though”, or “in spite of”, similar to ga () and keredomo (). Note that you must place na () between a noun and noni. "
"
kyonen-wa sensei datta noni, ima-wa kigyouka da (
, “I was a teacher last year,but now I’m an entrepreneur”.)
Noni () The particle noni () can follow verbs and adjectives in their dictionary, negative, and past tense forms; nouns and adjectival nouns followed by na (); and the copula in its past and negative forms.
nesshin-ni benkyou shita noni, shiken-ni ochita (
A Sentence-Final Particle Expressing Dissatisfaction The particle noni () is sometimes used at the end of unfinished statements to express dissatisfaction with what has or hasn’t happened, somewhat like the English phrase “I wish...”, “If only...”, and “You should have...”. These constructions often use the Ba-Form or Tara-Form conditionals plus the adjective ii ( ) or its past-tense form yokatta (). "
iwanakereba ii noni... (
, “Although [I’m] sick, I still want to go play.”)
"
ame ga yameba ii noni... (
tsumetai noni, umi de oyogou (
"
byouki na noni, mada asobi ni ikitai (
, “Though [the water] is cold, let’s go swim in the ocean.”)
, “I wish you’d keep your mouth shut...”) , “If only it would stop raining...”) kinou kuru beki datta noni... (
, “[You] should have come yesterday...”)
360
A Nominalizer + Particle
"
Sometimes noni () is simply the combination of the nominalizer no () and the particle ni ():
"
"
"
, “It seems / I hear she is doing well.”)
, “One is never too old to learn a foreign language.”)
"
oyogu-no-ni-wa juubun atatakai (
"
kono hon-wa yomu-no-ni kantan da (
, “This book is easy to read.”)
Rashii () The sentence final phrase rashii () has two uses:
Expressing Conjecture & Hearsay
kanojo-wa nemui rashii (
, “It seems / I hear she is sleepy.”)
gaikokugo-wo manabu-no-ni toshi-wa kankei nai (
kanojo-wa yasai shika tabenai rashii (
, “It seems / I hear she only eats vegetables.”) kanojo-wa mou sensei janai rashii (
, “It seems / I hear she is not a teacher anymore.”)
, “It's warm enough to swim.”) "
kanojo-wa genki rashii (
Expressing Norms, Ideals, and Model Behavior When following nouns, rashii () can be used to express that a given behavior is typical of an individual, an ideal behavior, or a desired behavior that one should model. It is similar in use and meaning to ppoi (). "
otoko-rashii (, “manly / like a man”)
"
otona-rashii kaiwa (,
“a grown-up / mature conversation”)
The sentence final particle rashii () expresses conjecture (e.g. “seems like” and “likely to”) and hearsay (e.g. “I hear that”). It can follow nouns, adjectival nouns, verbs, adjectives, and the copula in their dictionary, past, and negative forms. It is quite similar to sou da (). 361
Ppoi ()
Sae ()
Like rashii (), ppoi () can be used to describe behavior that you think is typical of an individual, gender, profession, etc.
The particle sae () is used to emphasize that the quantity of something (e.g. time or money) is much more or less than required, desired, or expected. It roughly translates as “even”, but can also carry the meaning “so”, “just”, “the least”, and “if only”. It can follow nouns, in which case it sometimes becomes desae (), the combining form of verbs (a.k.a. the Pre-Masu form or verb stem), and the Te-Form of verbs (a.k.a. the participle). For further emphasis, the particle mo () is often added after sae () and desae () producing saemo (
In addition to nouns, it can also be added to the combining form of verbs. "
otoko-ppoi (, “manly / like a man”)
"
kare-wa wasure-ppoi (
, “He is forgetful / apt to forget”)
Sa () When used at the beginning of a sentence or phrase, sa () carries the meaning “Okay” or “Alright”. "
) and desaemo () respectively. " densha-wo noru okane sae nakatta ( , “I didn't even have enough money to take the train.”) "
, “Even a child can understand that.”)
sa, mou kyou-wa owari-ni-shimashou (
, “OK, let's call it a day.“)
When used at the end of sentences, sa () somewhat similar to “like” or “you know” in English. As you might guess, it is used frequently by Japanese teenagers.
kodomo desaemo sore-wa wakaru (
"
ame-ga yami sae sureba ii ne (
, “If only it would stop raining...”) "
matte sae sureba ii (
, “All you have to do is wait / Just wait”.)
362
Shi () The conjunction particle shi () equates to “moreover” or “and what's more” in English. It is used to list multiple reasons for one’s opinion on something, and can be used after nouns, verbs, adjectives, and the copula in their dictionary, past, and negative forms. "
kokonatsu-ga daisuki! oishii shi, karada ni ii shi. (
, “I love coconut. It’s delicious,and moreover, it’s good for your health”.) "
Note that when shika () is used after subjects and objects, it replaces the subject marker ga () and object marker wo (). "
, “Only Mr. Tanaka is here.”) "
Make sure not to confuse this shi () with the combining form of the verb suru ().
Shika () The particle shika () translates as “only” or “just”. Like dake (), it used to emphasize small quantities. It can follow subjects, objects, counter words, particles, and verbs, but must always be used with a negative verb.
boku-wa niku to yasai shika tabenai (
, “I only eat meat and vegetables.”) "
boku-wa ichi-en shika nai (
"
gomen nasai to iu shika nai (
, “I have just one yen left.”)
, “I have nothing left to say except that I’m sorry.”)
moji-wo yomitori yasui shi, gazou mo kukkiri mieru (
, “The writing is easy to read, and moreover, the pictures are sharp.”)
TANAKA-san shika inai (
Shikashi () The conjunction shikashi () is used at the beginning of a sentence to mean “but” or “however”. It is similar to—though more formal sounding than—demo (). "
shikashi, kare-wa yakusoku-wo mamoranakatta! (
, “But he didn’t keep his promise!”)
363
"
shikashi, tomodachi-wa boku-wo taka to yobu (
, “But my friends call me Taka.”)
Soshite () The conjunction soshite () means “and”, “and then”, or “after that”. Like “and” in English, it can occur either between clauses within a sentence (following verbs in their combining or participle forms), or at the beginning of a sentence.
follow Na-Adjectives, verbs in their combining form, the root of IAdjectives (the part left after dropping the final i sound), and verbs and adjectives in their negative form, in which case the final i () of nai () is replaced by sa () before adding sou (). Note that after adding sou to adjectives, the new combination can be used as a Na-Adjective, modifying subsequent nouns. In such constructions, you place da () after the noun, not right after sou (). Lastly, note that the irregular adjective ii ( ) become yosasou (). "
convenient, doesn’t it?”)
"
hi-wa nobori, soshite shizumu ( , “The sun rises, and [the sun] sets” "
benri-sou da ne (, “[It] looks
"
, “[It] looks cold outside.”)
soshite, san-nin-ga nokotta (
, “And then there were three”.
soto-wa samu-sou da ne (
"
ame-ga furi-sou da ne (
, “[It] looks like rain, eh.”)
Sou Da () The sentence final sou da (), or its polite equivalent sou desu (), has two different uses:
Expressing Conjecture, Feelings, and Observations The sentence final sou da () can be used to mean “looks like”, “seems like”, “seems to”, and “is likely to”. It can directly
"
kare-wa okane-ga nasasou desu (
, “[it] seems he doesn’t have any money.) "
kare-wa yasashi-sou-na hito da (
, “He seems like a nice person.”)
Sharing Hearsay Like rashii (), sou da () can be used when sharing rumors or hearsay (e.g. “I hear that...” or “I heard that...) or 364
sharing commonly known information or sayings (e.g. “They say that...”). It can follow adjectives, verbs, and the copula in their dictionary, past, and negative forms. "
"
, “Please give me a pen and some paper.”) "
kare-wa kyou konai sou da (
, “I heard that he isn’t coming today.”) "
kinou-wa genki datta sou desu ga... (
, “They said that she was doing well yesterday, but... [today she is not doing so well.]”)
To ()
Marking Quotations The particle to () is used before the verb iu () to mark what someone has said (much like quotation marks in English). In informal situations, you an replace -to iu ( ) with -tte (). The particle is also used much like the English word “that” to mark clauses that precede verbs like omou (, “to think that”), kaku (, “to write”), kiku (, “to hear”), yobu (, “to call out”), and sakebu (, “to shout/cry out”). "
The particle to () has multiple uses in Japanese:
Conjunctions When used between nouns in a list, the particle to () acts like the word “and” in English, such as in “A, B, and C”. Unlike the word “and” in English, however,to () is not used between sentences or phrases.
shio to koshou wa irimasu ka? (
, “Would you like salt and pepper?)
toukyou-de-no seikaitsuhi-wa takai sou da (
, “I hear the cost of living in Tokyo is high.”) "
pen to kami choudai (
ikanai-to itta (, “[He/
She] said that [he/she] isn’t going.”) "
subarashii-to omoimasu (
, “[I] think that [it’s] wonderful.”) "
juuji-ni shimaru-to kaite aru (
) “[It’s] written [here]that the store closes at 10.”)
365
Groupings & Collaboration When used between two or more people, the particle to () can express the meaning of “with”. The particle is frequently followed by the adverb issho-ni (), which means “together with”. "
kanojo-to tabe ni itta (
, “[I] went to eat [something] with her.”)
Toka () The particle toka () means “and so on”, “and such”, and “something like”, and used to list a series of nouns. It is somewhat similar in meaning (though not grammar) to the enumerative tari () form. "
, “Do you drink beer, wine, and such things?”)
Conditionals Much like the particles tara () and ba (), the particle to ()
"
can be used to create conditionals. Unlike tara and ba, however, to is added after the dictionary form of verbs or adjectives without any extra conjugation required. "
ame-ga furu-to ikanai (
"
samui-to seetaa-wo kite ne (
, “[I] won’t goif [it] rains.”) , “Wear a sweater if it’s cold.”)
biiru-toka, wain-toka nomimasu ka? (
kodomo-wa naze-toka nani-toka yoku ryoushin-ni kiku (
, “Kids often ask their parents things like ‘why’ and ‘what’.”)
Tomo () The particle tomo () is used after plural nouns to mean “both” or “either”. "
ryouhou-tomo ii yo (
, “Either way is fine.”) "
futari-tomo douji-ni tsuita (
, “Both of them arrived at the same time.”)
366
Wa () The particle wa () marks the “topic” of a sentence or clause. There is no direct equivalent of the topic marker in English, but you can think of it as being roughly equivalent to the phrase “as for” if that helps you. Note that the particle is pronounced wa, not ha as its hiragana would lead you to believe. "
amerikajin-wa kigyouka-seishin-ni tonde-iru (
Wa vs Ga Knowing when to use wa and when to use ga is one of the more confusing aspects of Japanese in the early stages. As Dr. Jay Rubin points out in his wonderfully insightful book Making Sense of Japanese, the easiest way to understand the difference between the two particles is to see how they are used in the questions and answers on the following page. !
, “Americans [as opposed to some other nationalities] tend to be entrepreneurial.”) "
nihon-no-natsu-wa shinu-hodo atsui (
, “As for Japanese summers [since we’re on that topic], [they] are deathly hot.”)
In addition to marking the topic of a sentence, the topic particle is also used to compare and contrast the topic with something else (whether overtly stated or not): "
"
If you bought the Complete Package, don’t miss my interview with Dr. Rubin.
Another interesting way to distinguish wa and ga is to look at how they are used to create definite and indefinite nouns. Although Japanese lacks definite and indefinite articles like English’s “the” and “a”, the “definiteness” of nouns can be indicated with particles: "
Nouns marked with the particle wa are usually definite, with kuruma-wa () equating to “the car”.
"
Nouns marked with the particle ga are usually indefinite, with kuruma-ga () being roughly equivalent to “a
nihon-no-natsu-wa shinu-hodo atsui (
, “Japanese summers [as opposed to those elsewhere], are deathly hot.”) boku-wa biiru-ga suki dakedo, kanojo-wa suki janai (
, “I [as opposed to her] like beer, but she [as opposed to me] does not.”)
Check out “Making Sense of Japanese” to learn more.
car”.
367
Wa () s Ga () Question
Answer
dou shimashita ka?
ikimashita.
?
“What did you do?”
went.” “I
soshite, tanaka-san wa? dou shimashita ka?
watashi-wa ikimashita.
And you Mr. Tanaka? What did you do?”
“Me? I went.” [as opposed to staying]
dare-ga i
kimashita ka?
“Who went?”
watashi-ga ikimashita
“I went.” [as opposed to someone else] 368
Wa () Not to be confused with the topic particle wa (), which is pronounced the same but written with different kana, the sentence final wa () is used mostly by women to soften statements and express admiration. It is often combined with the particles ne () and yo (). "
totemo kandou shimashita wa (
, “[I] was really moved.” ) "
yakusoku-wo mamotte kudasaru wa ne (
, “You’ll keep your promise, won’t you?” )
"
, “[It’s] not like [we’re] in a hurry.”)
Wo () The particle wo (), technically known as an “accusative case marker”, has multiple uses in Japanese. Note that it is usually just pronounced o () despite being written with the kana for the more rounded sound wo ().
Marking Direct Objects The most common use of the particle wo () is marking the direct objects of Japanese verbs:
Wake ()
"
When used as a noun, wake () translates as “reason” and is similar in meaning to riyuu (). However, you will also see it used at the end of sentences before the copula to mean “Why is it the case that...?”, “The reason is...” or “That’s why...”. When used before negative copulas, it translates as “It doesn’t mean that...” or “It’s not like...”.
"
"
itsumo okureru no wa dou iu wake desu ka? (
, “Why are you always late?”)
isoide-iru wake janai (
sushi-wo tabemashou ka? (
, “Shall [we] eat sushi?”) osecha ryouri-wo tsukutta (
, “I made traditional New Year's food.”) "
terebi-wo tsukete-mo ii? (
, “Do you mind if I turn on the TV?”)
Marking the Location Where Movement Takes Place The particle wo () is used with some verbs to indicate where action or movement happens. You can think of this usage as 369
equivalent to the English meanings of “along”, “through”, “at”, or “across”. "
kono michi-wo massugu-ni itte kudasai (
"
, “I like beer and wine.”) "
Similarly, the particlewo () can also be used to mark the literal or figurative srcin from which one departs: "
oosaka-de shinkansen-wo orite kudasai (
, “Please get off the bullet train in Osaka.”) "
"
Yo () The sentence final particle yo () roughly translates as “you know” or “I tell you”, and is used in a range of expressions, including polite suggestions, commands, and strong convictions. "
kore-wa mechakucha oishii yo (
, “I tell ya, this is really good!”)
nihon-wo hanarete-kara, mou nana-nen (
, “It’s already been 7 years since I left Japan.”)
ei ya bi no rei ga shimesu you ni (AB
, “in as cases like A and B”)
, “Please go straight along this road”.)
Marking the Origin From Which a Verb Happens
biiru ya wain-ga suki (
"
otona-ni natte yo! (,
“Grow up, will ya!”)
mou daigaku-wo sotsugyou shimashita (
, “[I] already graduated from university.”)
Ya () Like to (), the particle ya () can be used to create conjunctions. It is often used between two nouns and followed by the particle nado ().
You Da () Sentence final you da () can be translated as “seems”, “looks”, or “appears”. It expresses conjecture much like sou da () and rashii (), but can only be used for what one has observed first hand. It is used after adjectives, verbs, and the copula in their dictionary, past, and negative forms, and nouns or adjectival nouns plus no () or na (). 370
"
kanemochi no you da (,
“[He/She] appears to be a rich man/woman.”) "
kare-wa atama-ga itai you da (
, “He seems to have a headache.”) "
kanojo-wa tsukarete-iru you da (
Used to Mean “From” In more formal contexts, the particle yori () can mean “from” a location or time, much like kara (). In this usage, yori is not followed by mo (). "
koko-yori taimen tsuukou (
"
resepushon-wa gogo roku-ji-yori hajimaru (
) and “She/He looks tired.”) "
kare-wa nihonjin janai you da (
, “[Begin] two-way traffic from here.”)
, “He doesn’tappear to be Japanese.”)
, “The reception goes from 6 pm.”)
Yori ()
Ze () & Zo ()
The particle yori () can mean either “than” or “from”.
The sentence final particles ze ( ) and zo ( ) have the same basic meaning as the gender neutral particle yo (), but add a more forceful, commanding tone to statements. You will hear them a lot in movies and anime, but I don’t recommend using them unless you are absolutely sure they’re appropriate.
Used to Mean “Than” The particle yori () can mean “than” as in “X is more Y than Z”. When used in such comparisons, it’s often paired with mo (). "
"
jikkou-wa kotoba-yori masaru ( , “Deeds are greater than words.”) sensou-suru-yori sekkusu shiyou (
, “Making love is better than making war.”)
"
kono mama ja sumanai zo! (
, “You can't get away with this!) "
namen janee zo (, “Don't f*ck with me!”)
"
paatii-ni norikonde yarou ze! (
, “Let's barge into the party!”) 371
Section 11
Japanese Numbers
Counting 0 to 10 Japanese numbers take their pronunciation from 2 sources:
Borrowed Pronunciations When the Japanese began importing Chinese characters (including the kanji for numbers), they also borrowed the pronunciations that went with them. Many hundreds of years later, a secondary reading for zero was borrowed from English. "
0: rei ( ) or zero ()
"
1: ichi ()
"
2: ni ()
"
3: san ()
In this section, we will cover: how to count from zero to 900 trillion (yes, you read that correctly), how to count people, items, and objects using what are called “counters” or “measure words”, how to tell time, and how to say the date.
"
4: yon ( ) or shi ( )
"
5: go ()
"
6: roku ()
The bad news is that there are numerous pronunciation exceptions when it comes to numbers and counter words in Japanese. The good news is that such exceptions are fairly predictable. I have marked all special pronunciations in orange to help draw your attention to them.
"
7: nana () or shichi ( )
"
8: hachi ()
"
9: kyuu ()
"
10: jyuu () 372
Native Japanese Pronunciations Prior to taking on the Sino-Japanese pronunciations above, Japan had its own unique way to count. Some of these pronunciations still survive today, especially for counting the objects, people, and days up to ten: "
hito-tsu (, “one thing”)
"
futa-tsu (, “two things”)
"
mit-tsu (, “three things”)
"
yot-tsu (, “four things”)
"
itsu-tsu (, “five things”)
"
mut-tsu (, “six things”)
"
nana-tsu (, “seven things”)
Counting 11 to 99 Once you know how to count to ten, going all the way up to 99 doesn’t require learning any new words per se, only a few basic principles:
11-19 To count past ten, simply say “ten” and the ones-column number: "
11: juu-ichi (, “ten one” or “10 + 1”)
"
12: juu-ni (, “ten two” or “10 + 2”)
"
13: juu-san (, “ten three” or “10 + 3”)
"
14: juu-yon (, “ten four” or “10 + 4”)
"
15: juu-go (, “ten five” or “10 + 5”)
"
yat-tsu (, “eight things”)
"
kokono-tsu (, “nine things”)
20, 30, 40, etc.
"
tou (, “ten things”)
!
Learn more about native Japanese numbers on Omniglot.com.
To create the numbers that are multiples of ten, you simply say the relevant number in front of ten: "
20: ni-juu (, “two ten” or “2 x 10”)
"
30: san-juu (, “three ten” or “3 x 10”)
"
40: yon-juu (, “four ten” or “4 x 10”)
"
50: go-juu (, “five ten” or “5 x 10”) 373
21-29, 31-39, etc. Just like eleven through nineteen, simply tack on the number one through nine to the word for twenty, thirty, forty, etc: "
21: ni-juu-ichi (, “two ten one”)
"
22: ni-juu-ni (, “two ten two”)
Counting 100 to 9,999 Once you master counting from 1 to 99, you only need to learn two more words to go all the way up to 9,999: "
hyaku (, “hundred”,)
"
sen (, “thousand”)
"
23: ni-juu-san (, “two ten three”)
"
31: san-juu-ichi (, “two ten one”)
Hundreds
"
32: san-juu-ni (, “two ten two”)
"
33: san-juu-san (, “two ten three”)
When combining hyaku () with the numbers 1, 6, and 8, the ‘h’ sound changes to a ‘p’ and a double consonant is
Pronunciation Exceptions for Numbers with 4 & 7
created. When proceeded by 3, you simply change the ‘h’ of hyaku to a ‘b’ sound. "
100: ip-pyaku ()
"
200: ni-hyaku ()
"
300: san-byaku ()
"
400: yon-hyaku ()
14: juu-yon (), not *juu-shi
"
500: go-hyaku ()
"
17: juu-nana (), not *juu-shichi
"
600: rop-pyaku ()
"
24: ni-juu-yon (), not *ni-juu-shi
"
700: nana-hyaku ()
27: ni-juu-nana (), not *ni-juu-shichi
"
800: hap-pyaku ()
"
900: kyuu-hyaku ()
Although 4 () can be pronounced either yon () or shi () and 7 () as either nana () or shichi () when counting up to 10, such is not the case for 14, 24, 34, etc. and 17, 27, 37, etc. Above 10, you can only use the pronunciations yon () and nana () respectively: "
"
374
Thousands When proceeded by 1 or 8, the ‘s’ of sen becomes a double consonant, while it changes to a ‘z’ when proceeded by 3. "
1,000: is-sen ()
"
2,000: ni-sen ()
"
3,000: san-zen ()
"
4,000: yon-sen ()
"
5,000: go-sen ()
"
6,000: roku-sen ()
"
7,000: nana-sen ()
"
8,000: has-sen ()
"
9,000: kyuu-sen ()
Pronunciation Exceptions for 100 and 1,000 Note that depending on the context, you can often leave off the ‘one’ part off of 100 or 1,000 and just say hyaku or sen respectively. In other words, 111 can be either ippyaku juu ichi () or just hyaku juu ichi ( ).
Counting Above 10,000 If you have learned any European languages, I think you will agree that Japanese numbers have been a pretty tame ride so far. Unfortunately, things get a little tricky after passing 9,999. Unlike English, which breaks up all numbers into neat groups of 3 digits (thousands, millions, etc), Japanese divides numbers up into: "
Units of ten thousand called man ()
"
Units of one hundred million called oku ()
"
Units of one trillion called chou ()
Note that the character used to be written as in Japanese. The same simplified version of the character is now used in Mainland China, while its traditional counterpart is still used in Hong Kong and Taiwan.
10,000 to 90,000 Counting from ten thousand to ninety thousand goes as follows: "
10,000: ichi-man ()
"
20,000: ni-man ()
"
30,000: san-man ()
"
40,000: yon-man ()
"
50,000: go-man () 375
"
60,000: roku-man ()
1 million to 9 million
"
70,000: nana-man ()
"
80,000: hachi-man ()
Counting from one million to nine million goes as follows. Note the pronunciation exceptions for 3, 6, and 8 million.
"
90,000: kyuu-man ()
100,000 to 900,000 Counting from one hundred thousand to nine hundred thousand goes as follows: "
100,000: juu-man ()
"
200,000: ni-juu-man ()
"
300,000: san-juu-man ()
"
1,000,000: hyaku-man ()
"
2,000,000: ni-hyaku-man ()
"
3,000,000: san-byaku-man ()
"
4,000,000: yon-hyaku-man ()
"
5,000,000: go-hyaku-man ()
"
6,000,000: rop-pyaku-man ()
"
7,000,000: nana-hyaku-man ()
"
8,000,000: hap-pyaku-man ()
"
9,000,000: kyuu-hyaku-man ()
"
400,000: yon-juu-man ()
"
500,000: go-juu-man ()
"
600,000: roku-juu-man ()
10 million to 90 million
"
700,000: nana-juu-man ()
"
800,000: hachi-juu-man ()
Counting from ten million to ninety million goes as follows. Note the pronunciation exceptions for 30 and 80 million.
"
900,000: kyuu-juu-man ()
"
10,000,000: sen-man ()
"
20,000,000: ni-sen-man ()
"
30,000,000: san-zen-man () 376
"
40,000,000: yon-sen-man ()
1 billion to 9 billion
"
50,000,000: go-sen-man ()
Counting from one billion to nine billion goes as follows:
"
60,000,000: roku-sen-man ()
"
1 billion: juu-oku ()
"
70,000,000: nana-sen-man ()
"
2 billion: ni-juu-oku ()
"
80,000,000: has-sen-man ()
"
3 billion: san-juu-oku ()
"
90,000,000: kyuu-sen-man ()
"
4 billion: yon-juu-oku ()
"
5 billion: go-juu-oku ()
"
6 billion: roku-juu-oku ()
"
7 billion: nana-juu-oku () 8 billion: hachi-juu-oku () 9 billion: kyuu-juu-oku ()
100 million to 900 million Counting from one hundred million to nine hundred million goes as follows: "
100 million: ichi-oku ()
"
"
200 million: ni-oku ()
"
"
300 million: san-oku ()
"
400 million: yon-oku ()
"
500 million: go-oku ()
"
600 million: roku-oku ()
"
10 billion: hyaku-oku ()
"
700 million: nana-oku ()
"
20 billion is ni-hyaku-oku ()
"
800 million: hachi-oku ()
"
30 billion is san-byaku-oku ()
"
900 million: kyuu-oku ( )
"
40 billion is yon-hyaku-oku ()
10 billion to 90 billion Counting from ten billion to ninety billion goes as follows. Note the pronunciation exceptions for 30, 60, and 80 billion.
377
"
50 billion is go-hyaku-oku ()
10 trillion to 90 trillion
"
60 billion is rop-pyaku-oku ()
Counting from ten trillion to ninety trillion goes as follows:
"
70 billion is nana-hyaku oku ()
"
10 trillion: juu-chou ()
"
80 billion is hap-pyaku oku ()
"
20 trillion: ni-juu-chou ()
"
90 billion is kyuu-hyaku oku ()
"
30 trillion: san-juu-chou ()
"
40 trillion: yon-juu-chou ()
"
50 trillion: go-juu-chou ()
"
60 trillion: roku-juu-chou ()
1 trillion: ic-chou ()
"
"
2 trillion: ni-chou ()
"
70 trillion: nana-juu-chou () 80 trillion: hachi-juu-chou ()
"
3 trillion: san-chou ()
"
90 trillion: kyuu-juu-chou ()
"
4 trillion: yon-chou ()
"
5 trillion: go-chou ()
"
6 trillion: roku-chou ()
"
7 trillion: nana-chou ()
"
100 trillion: hyaku-chou ()
"
8 trillion: hac-chou ()
"
200 trillion: ni-hyaku-chou ()
"
9 trillion: kyuu-chou ()
"
300 trillion: san-byaku-chou ()
"
400 trillion: yon-hyaku-chou ()
1 trillion to 9 trillion Counting from one trillion to nine trillion goes as follows. Note the pronunciation exceptions for 1 and 8 trillion. "
100 trillion to 900 trillion Counting from one hundred trillion to nine hundred trillion goes as follows. Note the exceptions for 300, 600, and 800 trillion.
378
"
500 trillion: go-hyaku-chou ()
"
dai-hachi (, “eighth”)
"
600 trillion: rop-pyaku-chou ()
"
dai-kyuu (, “ninth”)
"
700 trillion: nana-hyaku-chou ()
"
dai-juu (, “tenth”)
"
800 trillion: hap-pyaku-chou ()
"
900 trillion: kyuu-hyaku-chou ( ).
Some common examples of dai in action include: "
anzen dai-ichi (, “Safety First!”)
"
dai-ni no jinsei (, “life after
retirement”, lit. “second life”)
Ordinal Numbers Ranking with Dai () The suffix dai () is used to create ordinal numbers in Japanese, allowing you to indicate rank or rate importance: "
dai-ichi (, “first”)
"
dai-ni (, “second”)
"
dai-san (, “third”)
"
dai-yon (, “fourth”)
"
dai-go (, “fifth”)
"
dai-roku (, “sixth”)
"
dai-nana (, “seventh”)
Ranking with Ban () The suffix ban () is also used to put items in order and indicate preferences: "
ichi-ban (, “Number 1”)
"
ni-ban (, “Number 2”)
"
san-ban (, “Number 3”)
Note that the phrase ichiban () is often used to indicate “the best” or “my favorite”. Like dai (), it can also be used to indicate importance: "
sakkaa-ga ichi-ban suki da (
"
kenkou-wa ichi-ban desu (
, “I like soccer best.”) , “Health comes first.”) 379
Ranking with Me () The suffix me () can be tacked on after many Japanese counter words to indicate relative order in a series: "
ik-kai-me (, “the first time”)
"
ni-kai-me (, “the second time”)
"
san-kai-me (, “the third time”)
Negative Numbers & Decimals Negative Numbers To create a negative number in Japanese, simply say mainasu ( , “minus”) before any positive number.
Japanese Counter Words Counter words are used to enumerate things, actions, and events. We have some of these in English (e.g. a cup of coffee), but Japanese has quite a few, each used for specific words. For example, you cannot just say “one car” in Japanese, you have to use the counter dai (), the specific measure word for cars, bicycles, computers, and other machines. While you can certainly get by without them in the early days of your Japanese journey, using the proper counter word will make you sound much more fluent (much like using “a” and “the” correctly in English). Note that some counters change their pronunciation depending on the number proceeding it. In general, counters that start with an ‘h’ sound will change to a ‘p’ sound with the numbers 1, 6, 8, and 10, and to a ‘b’ sound with the number 3 as we saw above with counting.
mainasu-ichi (, “negative one”)
Counting Generic Things Decimals To say a decimal in Japanese, simply say the number before the decimal, then ten (, “point”) for the decimal itself, and then read out each subsequent digit one by one: zero-ten-ni-go (, “0.25”)
As we saw earlier, tsu () is used with generic nouns that don’t have a specific counter word. You can also use it as a stop-gap in situations when you are not sure of the correct counter word. As you will see, the native Japanese pronunciations of numbers are used in this case, hito (), futa (), etc., not the SinoJapanese readings ichi (), ni (), etc. 380
"
hito-tsu (, “one thing”)
Counting General Items & Small Objects
"
futa-tsu (, “two things”)
"
mit-tsu (, “three things”)
Like tsu () above, ko () can be used for generic objects or when you don’t know the right counter word, but it is technically supposed to be for small, round objects.
"
yot-tsu (, “four things”)
"
itsu-tsu (, “five things”)
"
mut-tsu (, “six things”)
Those who have studied Chinese will recognize this counter word, pronounced gè and written as in traditional Chinese and in simplified script.
"
nana-tsu (, “seven things”)
Note the pronunciation exceptions for 1, 6, 8 and 10.
"
yat-tsu (, “eight things”)
"
ik-ko (, “one small, round object”)
"
kokono-tsu (, “nine things”)
"
"
too (, “ten things”)
"
ni-ko (, “two small, round objects”) san-ko (, “three small, round objects”)
Note the special case of “ten things”:
"
yon-ko (, “four small, round objects”)
"
"
It is pronounced tou but uses the kana o (), not u () to make the double long vowel. It does not add tsu () like the other numbers.
"
go-ko (, “five small, round objects”)
"
rok-ko (, “six small, round objects”)
"
nana-ko (, “seven small, round objects”)
"
hak-ko (, “eight small, round objects”)
"
kyuu-ko (, “nine small, round objects”)
"
juk-ko (, “ten small, round objects”)
381
Counting People
Counting Animals
This is an especially important series of counter words to know since you will need it every time you dine out and are asked:
The counter word hiki () is used with most animals except we Homo sapien sapiens (for whom you must use the previous counter word nin). Traditionally, there were some different counters in use for certain large animals like horses, e.g. tou (), but these are rarely used today.
nan-mei-sama desu ka? ( , “How many in your party?”)
Note the pronunciation exceptions for 1, 3, 6, 8, and 10. You would then answer with one of the following. Note the special reading for “one person” and “two people”, and the pronunciation of the numbers “four” and “seven”. "
"
ip-piki (, “one animal”)
"
ni-hiki (, “two animals”)
"
hitori (, “one person”) futari (, “two people”)
"
san-biki (, “three animals”) yon-hiki (, “four animals”)
"
san-nin (, “three people”)
"
go-hiki (, “five animals”)
"
yo-nin (, “four people”
"
rop-piki (, “six animals”)
"
go-nin (, “five people”)
"
nana-hiki (, “seven animals”)
"
roku-nin (, “six people”)
"
hap-piki (, “eight animals”)
"
shichi-nin (, “seven people”)
"
kyuu-hiki (, “nine animals”)
"
hachi-nin (, “eight people”)
"
jup-piki (, “ten animals”)
"
kyuu-nin (, “nine people”)
"
juu-nin (, “ten people”)
"
382
Counting Vehicles & Machines
Counting Long, Thin Objects
The majority of machines, including cars, air planes, bicycles, computers, appliances, etc., are counted using the word dai ().
The counter word hon () is used for long, thin objects including bottles, pencils, train tracks, etc. Note the pronunciation crossover between ni-hon (,“two bottles”) and nihon (, “Japan”). Fortunately, there is a different in pitch accent to help differentiate them in speech (though the context usually does that all on its own): the former is pronounced with a low-high pitch accent, while the latter takes a high-low pitch accent. Also note that despite using the character for book (), this counter word is not used with printed materials like books and magazines. For such items, you use the counter word satsu (), which I cover in a moment.
As you can see below, it was one of the few counter words that does not have any pronunciation exceptions. "
ichi-dai (, “one machine”)
"
ni-dai (, “two machines”)
"
san-dai (, “three machines”)
"
yon-dai (, “four machines”)
"
go-dai (, “five machines”)
"
roku-dai (, “six machines”)
"
nana-dai (, “seven machines”)
"
hachi-dai (, “eight machines”)
"
kyuu-dai (, “nine machines”)
"
"
ip-pon (, “one bottle”)
"
ni-hon (, “two bottles”)
"
san-bon (, “three bottles”)
"
yon-hon (, “four bottles”)
"
go-hon (, “five bottles”)
"
rop-pon (, “six bottles”)
juu-dai (, “ten machines”) "
nana-hon (, “seven bottles”)
"
hap-pon (, “eight bottles”)
"
kyuu-hon (, “nine bottles”)
"
jup-pon (, “ten bottles”) 383
Counting Glasses & Cups To count glasses (e.g. glasses of beer), you use the word hai (). This is an especially important counter word in Japanese culture given the frequent trips to bars and izakaya ( ) with coworkers, friends, and clients. mou ippai ikaga desu ka? ( , “Would you like another glass?”)
Counting Thin, Flat Objects To count thin, flat objects (like pieces of paper), you use the word mai ().
It is is one of the few counters with no pronunciation exceptions. "
ichi-mai (, “one sheet”)
"
ni-mai (, “two sheets”)
"
san-mai (, “three sheets”)
"
ip-pai (, “one glass”)
"
yon-mai (, “four sheets”)
"
ni-hai (, “two glasses”)
"
"
san-bai (, “three glasses”)
"
go-mai (, “five sheets”) roku-mai (, “six sheets”)
"
yon-hai (, “four glasses”)
"
nana-mai (, “seven sheets”)
"
go-hai (, “five glasses”)
"
hachi-mai (, “eight sheets”)
"
rop-pai (, “six glasses”)
"
kyuu-mai (, “nine sheets”)
"
nana-hai (, “seven glasses”)
"
juu-mai (, “ten sheets”)
"
hap-pai (, “eight glasses”)
"
kyuu-hai (, “nine glasses”)
"
jup-pai (, “ten glasses”)
384
Counting Stories in a Building
Counting Rounds, Turns & Occurrences
To count the floors of a building, Japanese uses the counter word
The counter word kai () is used in Japanese to count numbers of rounds (e.g. of a game) or how many times an event happens. Note the pronunciation exceptions for 1, 6, 8, and 10.
kai ().
Note the pronunciation exceptions for 1, 6, 8, and 10 floors.
" "
ik-kai (, “one floor”)
"
ni-kai (, “two floors”)
"
san-kai (, “three floors”)
"
yon-kai (, “four floors”)
"
ni-kai (, “two rounds”)
"
san-kai (, “three rounds”)
"
yon-kai (, “four rounds”)
"
go-kai (, “five rounds”)
"
rok-kai (, “six rounds”)
"
nana-kai (, “seven rounds”)
"
hak-kai (, “eight rounds”)
"
kyuu-kai (, “nine rounds”)
"
juk-kai (, “ten rounds”)
" "
go-kai (, “five floors”) rok-kai (, “six floors”)
"
nana-kai (, “seven floors”)
"
hak-kai (, “eight floors”)
"
kyuu-kai (, “nine floors”)
"
juk-kai (, “ten floors”)
ik-kai (, “one round”)
385
Counting Times & Degrees
Counting Books & Magazines
Like kai (), the counter do () can also be used for “occurrences” or “times”, but only do can be used for temperatures or degrees.
To count books or magazines in Japanese, you use the counter word satsu (). Note the pronunciation exceptions for 1, 8, and 10 volumes.
"
ichi-do (, “one time or degree”)
"
is-satsu (, “one book”)
"
ni-do (, “two times or degrees”)
"
ni-satsu (, “two books”)
"
san-do (, “three times or degrees”)
"
san-satsu (, “three books”)
"
yon-do (, “four times or degrees”)
"
yon-satsu (, “four books”)
"
go-do (, “five times or degrees”)
"
go-satsu (, “five books”)
"
roku-do (, “six times or degrees”)
"
roku-satsu (, “six books”)
"
nana-do (, “seven times or degrees”)
"
nana-satsu (, “seven books”)
"
hachi-do (, “eight times or degrees”)
"
has-satsu (, “eight books”)
"
kyuu-do (, “nine times or degrees”)
"
kyuu-satsu (, “nine books”)
"
juu-do (, “ten times or degrees”)
"
jus-satsu (, “ten books”)
386
Counting One’s Age To count one’s age in Japanese, you don’t use the word nen () as one might expect, but rather the word sai ( ). Note the pronunciation exceptions for 1, 8, and 20. "
is-sai (, “one year old”)
"
ni-sai (, “two years old”)
"
san-sai (, “three years old”)
"
yon-sai (, “four years old”)
"
go-sai (, “five years old”)
"
roku-sai (, “six years old”)
"
nana-sai (, “seven years old”)
"
has-sai (, “eight years old”)
"
kyuu-sai (, “nine years old”)
"
juu-sai (, “ten years old”)
“20 years old” () is pronounced hatachi (), not nijuu-sai (); this is a remnant of the native Japanese counting system.
387
Section 12
Japanese Dates & Times
Western vs Japanese Calendar There are two systems used in Japan to denote the year, one borrowed from the West and one of native Japanese srcin.
Western Calendar Called seireki (), the “Western” or “Common Era” calendar is used often in modern Japan. Note that the year is always pronounced as a four-digit number in Japanese: ni-sen-juu-yo-nen (2014, “2014”)
Japanese indicates time using the following counter words:
As you can see above, 4 is pronounced yo () not yon () when used with nen ().
"
nen (, “year”)
"
gatsu (, “month”)
Japanese Era Name
"
nichi (, “day”)
"
ji (, “hour”)
Japan’s native calendar system is called the nengou ( ). It is based on the reign of Japanese emperors, and the era names they are associated with. Recent eras include:
"
fun (, “minute”)
"
byou (, “second”)
Note that when telling the date in Japanese, you always go from “big” to “small”: year " month " day " time.
"
meiji-jidai (, “The Meiji Era”), which
spanned from1868 to 1912. "
taishou jidai ( , “The Taishou
Era”), which spanned from 1912 to 1926. 388
"
shouwa-jidai ( , “The Shouwa
Era”), which spanned from 1926 to 1989 "
heisei-jidai (, “The Heisei Era”), spanning from 1989
to present day. Note that the era name heisei () is in honor of the current emperor, TEN-NOU HEIKA AKIHITO ( ). In the nengou system, the year 2014 is actually the year 26, since it is the 26th year of Emperor AKHITO’s reign:
Past, Present & Future Japanese uses a somewhat consistent pattern to refer to past, present, and future years, months, weeks, days, mornings, afternoons, evenings, and nights, but there are some exceptions as you’ll see below.
Years "
The year before last: oto-toshi ()
"
Last year: kyo-nen ()
" "
This year: ko-toshi () Next year: rai-nen ()
"
The year after next: sa-rai-nen ()
heisei-ni-juu-roku-nen (
)
To convert between the seireki and nengou systems: "
Subtract 2000 from the Western year.
"
Add 12.
Months "
The month before last: sen-sen-getsu ( )
"
Last month: sen-getsu ()
"
This month: kon-getsu ()
"
Next month: rai-getsu ()
"
The month after next: sa-rai-getsu ()
2014#2000 = 14. 14 + 12 = 26
You can also use the following tools to do the conversion automatically: ! !
Gengou (iOS, free) All Calendars Converter (online, free)
389
Weeks "
The week before last: sen-sen-shuu ( )
"
Last week: sen-shuu ()
"
This week: kon-shuu ()
"
Next week: rai-shuu ()
"
The week after next: sa-rai-shuu ()
Days
Mornings Note that there are two different ways to say “yesterday morning” and “tomorrow morning”. "
Yesterday morning: kinou-no-asa ( ) or saku-chou ( FORMAL)
"
This morning: kesa ( )
"
Tomorrow morning: ashita-no-asa ( ) or myou-chou ( FORMAL)
Afternoons
Note that there are two pronunciations for “yesterday”, “today”, and “tomorrow”.
"
Yesterday afternoon: kinou-no-gogo ( )
"
This afternoon: kyou-no-gogo ( )
"
Tomorrow afternoon: ashita-no-gogo ( )
"
The day before yesterday: ototoi ( )
"
Yesterday: kinou () or saku-jitsu ( FORMAL)
"
Today: kyou () or kon-nichi ( FORMAL)
Evenings
"
Tomorrow: ashita () or myou-nichi ( FORMAL)
Note that there are two different ways to say “yesterday evening”, “this evening”, and “tomorrow evening”.
"
The day after tomorrow: asatte ()
"
Yesterday evening: saku-ban ( ) or sakuya ().
390
"
This evening: kon-ban () or yuube ( )
Months & Seasons of the Year
"
Tomorrow evening: ashita-no-ban () or myou-ban ( FORMAL)
Months of the Year
Nights Note that there are two different ways to say “last night”. "
Last night: kinou-no-yoru () or sakuya ()
Learning the months in Japanese is as easy as counting to twelve, though there are some pronunciation exceptions for April, July, and September. "
ichi-gatsu (, “January”)
"
ni-gatsu (, “February”)
"
Tonight: kon-ya ()
"
"
Tomorrow night: ashita-no-yoru ()
"
General Time
san-gatsu (, “March”) shi-gatsu (, “April”)
"
go-gatsu (, “May”) roku-gatsu (, “June”)
"
Earlier: kono mae ()
"
"
Now: ima ()
"
shichi-gatsu (, “July”)
Later: atode ()
"
hachi-gatsu (, “August”)
"
ku-gatsu (, “September”)
"
juu-gatsu (, “October”)
"
"
juu-ichi-gatsu (, “November”)
"
juu-ni-gatsu (, “December”)
391
Counting Lengths of Time in Months
Seasons
Note that the character is pronounced getsu (), not gatsu () as we saw for months of the year. You will also need to add , pronounced ka () not ke () as you might expect, between the number of months and getsu (). The symbol is actually the simplified version of the character ka (). Also, the word kan () is usually added after getsu () to indicate duration. Note the pronunciation exceptions for 1, 6, and 8.
The four seasons in Japanese are: "
haru (, “spring”)
"
natsu ( , “summer”)
"
aki ( , “summer”)
"
fuyu ( , “winter”)
Although Japan has words for four seasons, it often feels like there are only two temperatures:
"
ik-ka-getsu (, “for one month”)
"
ni-ka-getsu (, “for two months”)
"
"
san-ka-getsu (, “for three months”)
"
"
yon-ka-getsu (, “for four months”)
"
go-ka-getsu (, “for five months”)
"
rok-ka-getsu (, “for six months”)
"
nana-ka-getsu (, “for seven months”)
"
hak-ka-getsu (, “for eight months”)
"
kyuu-ka-getsu (, “for nine months”)
"
juu-ka-getsu (, “for ten months”)
"
juu-ik-ka-getsu (, “for eleven
mushi atsui (, “hot and humid”) kogoeru-hodo samui (
, “freezing cold”).
Word to the wise: bring both sweat rags and heavy coats!
months”) 392
Days of the Week & Month Days of the Week The days of the week in Japanese are based on the so-called shichou (, “Seven Luminaries”) of Chinese
cosmology: sun, moon, fire, water, wood, metal, and earth. Interestingly, the first two days of the week in Japanese bear striking similarity to those in English: in both languages, they literally mean “Day of the Sun” and “Day of the Moon”.
Days of the Month For the first ten days of the month, you use numbers of native Japanese srcin (which we covered in the “Japanese Counter Words” section) and the pronunciation ka for day () instead of nichi. Pay special attention to the difference between the 4th and the 8th: the former has a short vowel and a double consonant, while the latter has a long vowel and no double consonant. Also note the pronunciation exceptions for the 1st, 14th, 20th, and 24th.
"
getsu-you-bi (, “Monday”)
"
"
ka-you-bi (, “Tuesday”)
"
futsu-ka (, “the 2nd of the month”)
"
sui-you-bi (, “Wednesday”)
"
mik-ka (, “the 3rd of the month”)
"
moku-you-bi (, “Thursday”)
"
yok-ka (, “the 4th of the month”)
"
kin-you-bi (, “Friday”)
"
itsu-ka (, “the 5th of the month”)
"
do-you-bi (, “Saturday”)
"
mui-ka (, “the 6th of the month”)
"
nichi-you-bi (, “Sunday”)
"
nano-ka (, “the 7th of the month”)
tsuitachi (, “the 1st of the month”)
"
you-ka (, “the 8th of the month”)
"
kokono-ka (, “the 9th of the month”)
"
too-ka (, “the 10th of the month”) 393
"
juu-ichi-nichi (, “the 11th of the
"
month”) "
juu-ni-nichi (, “the 12th of the month”)
"
juu-san-nichi (, “the 13th of the
month”) "
juu-yok-ka (, “the 14th of the month”)
"
juu-go-nichi (, “the 15th of the
month”) "
juu-roku-nichi (, “the 16th of the
"
juu-nana-nichi (, “the 17th of the
"
ni-juu-nana-nichi (, “the 27th
"
ni-juu-hachi-nichi (, “the 28th
of the month”) of the month”) "
juu-hachi-nichi (, “the 18th of the
"
juu-kyuu-nichi (, “the 19th of the
month”) "
hatsu-ka (, “the 20th of the month”)
"
ni-juu-ichi-nichi (, “the 21st of
san-juu-nichi (, “the 30th of the
month”)
month”) "
ni-juu-kyuu-nichi ( , “the
29th of the month”)
month”) "
ni-juu-roku-nichi (, “the 26th of
the month”)
month”) "
ni-juu-go-nichi (, “the 25th of the
month”)
month”) "
ni-juu-yok-ka (, “the 24th of the
"
san-juu-ichi-nichi (, “the
31st of the month”)
the month”) "
ni-juu-ni-nichi (, “the 22nd of the
"
ni-juu-san-nichi ()
month”)
394
Japanese National Holidays
"
eaten year round in Japan, they are especially important during New Year’s. Typically, twomochi are arranged side by side in a special New Year's decoration called kagami mochi (, lit. “mirror mochi”), with a type of bitter tangerine called a dai dai () placed on top. The word dai dai is considered good luck since another word of the same sound, , means “several generations”.
Japan has quite a few national holidays, which is probably a good thing considering how infrequently most Japanese employees voluntarily take leave.
New Year’s Day: January 1 Since 1873, New Year’s Day, organ-jitsu (), has been celebrated in Japan according to the Gregorian calendar. Prior to that, Japan celebrated New Year’s according to the Lunar Calendar (just like in China). Japanese New Year’s customs
"
"
denominations between ¥1,000 ($10 USD) and ¥10,000 ($100 USD) depending on the child’s age, how many children are in the family, and of course, how much the parents can afford!
New Year’s Cards: Most Japanese individuals, families, and companies send out New Year’s postcards callednengajou
() to friends, relatives, and customers, in a tradition somewhat like that of Christmas cards in the West. Osechi: During New Year’s, many Japanese families eat a special combination of foods called osechi ryouri ( ). Common dishes include konbu ( , “boiled kelp”), kamaboko (, “fish cakes”), kurikinton (, “mashed sweet potato with chestnut”), kinpira gobou (
, “chopped burdock root simmered in sugar and soy sauce”), and kuromame (, “sweetened black soybeans”).
Otoshidama: Many parents give their children money on New Year’s day in a tradition called otoshidama (
). The money is placed in special decorative envelopes called pochi bukuro (), and usually contain
include: "
Mochi: Although mochi (, “sticky rice cakes”) are
"
Kouhaku: Many families tune in to watch a special New Year’s Eve music show on NHK called kouhaku uta gassen
(, lit. “Red vs White Song Battle”). During the show, two teams battle it out for the best overall performance based on their singing, costumes, etc. The red team, called the aka-gumi ( ), is comprised of all female singers, while the white team, called shiro-gumi () is made up of all male singers.
395
Coming of Age Day: 2nd Monday of January
Vernal Equinox: March 20 or 21
The 2nd Monday of January is called seijin-no-hi ( ), which literally means “Coming of Age Day”. The holiday commemorates those who have reached the “age of maturity”, 20 years old, during the previous year. As I mentioned earlier, the age 20 is pronouncedhatachi (), not ni-juu-sai () as you’d expect. Most local government offices hold ceremonies called seijin-shiki ( ), after which most people hold parties with their families and friends.
The Vernal Equinox, called shunbun-no-hi ( ), is celebrated on either March 20 or 21 depending on the year. Since 1948, the holiday has centered around the appreciation of nature and all living things.
Foundation Day: February 11
Showa Day: April 29
February 11 marks kenkoku-kinen-no-hi ( ), usually translated as “Foundation Day” or “National Day”. Today, the holiday celebrates both the foundation of modern Japan and the accession of JINMU (), Japan’s first emperor, to the throne. The holiday used to be called kigensetsu (, “Empire Day”), but the name was later changed given its association with Japan’s wartime nationalism. Despite the name change, the holiday is still somewhat controversial, and is usually celebrated quietly, if at all. Modern traditions include raising the Japanese flag and classroom discussions about Japanese citizenship and civic duties.
Before 1948, however, the holiday was calledshunki-kourei-sai (), which literally means “Spring Season Imperial Ancestor Worship Festival”. The name and focus of the holiday was changed, just like for Foundation Day, to remove the cultural stains of World War II.
Established in 2007, shouwa-no-hi (, “Showa Day”), celebrates the legacy of the late Emperor HIROHITO (), also known as SHOUWA TENNOU (), who lived from April 29, 1901 to January 7, 1989. Showa Day kicks off a week-long holiday period called “Golden Week”, pronounced either ougon-shuukan ( ) or gouruden-uiiku ( ). In addition to Showa Day, Golden Week also encapsulates: "
Constitution Day
"
Green Day
"
Children’s Day 396
Constitution Day: May 3 The third of May, called kenpou-kinen-bi ( ), marks the adoption of Japan’s postwar constitution, ratified on May 3, 1947. The nation’s constitution is called the nihon-koku-kenpou ().
Greenery Day: May 4 This holiday was srcinally known as tennou-tanjou-bi ( , “Birthday of the Emperor”), but was changed to midori-no-hi ( , “Greenery Day”) when Emperor Akihito assumed the throne in 1989. Officially, Greenery Day is meant to honor nature and give thanks for one’s blessings. It is thought by many, however, that the holiday is really meant to honor Emperor Showa and his well-known love of plants, without referring to him directly. Until the establishment of Showa Day in 2007, Greenery Day was held on April 29. The holiday was then moved to its current day, May 4.
Children’s Day: May 5 May 5th marks kodomo-no-hi (, “Children’s Day”), a national holiday created in 1948 to build the esteem of children and propel them toward a better future. Practically speaking, the holiday marks the end of Golden Week.
The holiday overlaps with tango-no-sekku ( ), a holiday celebrated throughout East Asia on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month. The word tan () means “beginning” or “edge”, and go () means “horse”, the Chinese Zodiac symbol associated with the fifth lunar month. China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau, Korea, and Vietnam still celebrate the holiday on the traditional lunar date, while Japan now celebrates it under the new name of Children’s Day on the fifth day of the fifth solar month. Traditionally, tango-no-sekku centered on boys only, but it has since come to honor both genders. In fact, there used to be a hina-matsuri separate Day” on Maywhich 3, called ,“Girls’ lit. “Doll Festival”), some families still( celebrate despite it no longer being an official holiday.
Children’s Day traditions include: "
Flying special windsocks called koi-no-bori ( , lit. “carp streamer”). According the Japanese American National Museum:
“The Japanese consider it [carp] the most spirited fish—so full of energy and power that it can fight its way up swiftrunning streams and cascades. Because of its strength and determination to overcome all obstacles, it stands for courage and the ability to attain high goals. Since these are traits desired in boys, families traditionally flew Koinobori from their homes to honor their sons.” 397
"
"
Displaying dolls called kintarou (), which are named after a famous hero in Japanese folklore from the heian jidai (, “Heian Period”), who allegedly had supernatural strength (even as a child) and could befriend animals. The dolls usually portray the boy with a round red face, wearing a red apron, and carrying an axe. Eating kashiwa-mochi (, “rice cakes wrapped in oak leaves”) and chimaki (, “sweet rice cake wrapped in bamboo leaves”).
Marine Day: 3rd Monday of July The 3rd Monday of July marks umi-no-hi (), which literally means “Marine Day”, “Sea Day”, or “Ocean Day”. The holiday is meant to honor the many gifts bestowed upon the island nation from the surrounding ocean.
Autumnal Equinox: September 23 or 24 Depending on the year, Japan celebrates the Autumnal Equinox, shuubun-no-hi (), on either
September 23 or 24. Prior to 1948, however, the holiday was called shuuki koureisai (), which literally means “Fall Season Imperial Ancestor Worship Festival”. The name and focus of the holiday was changed, just like for the Vernal Equinox, to remove associations with emperor worship in the aftermath of World War II.
Health & Sports Day: 2nd Monday of October
Families often use the holiday as a good excuse to visit the cool sea during the hot summer weather.
Held on the 2nd Monday of October,taiiku-no-hi ( ) commemorates the 1964 Tokyo Olympics and promotes physical activity, sports, and health. Most public schools hold “mini Olympics” to celebrate the holiday, complete with relays, obstacles courses, and fun games.
Respect for the Aged Day: 3rd Monday of September
Culture Day: November 3
On the 3rd Monday of September, Japan honors their elderly citizens (of which Japan’s “graying society” has many!) in a holiday called keirou-no-hi (). The holiday was first held in 1947 in Nomadani-mura (in Hyougo-ken), but later gained nationwide popularity.
November 3 marks bunka-no-hi (), a day dedicated to promoting Japanese culture, the arts, and academia. A host of art exhibits, award ceremonies, parades, etc. are held all over the country.
398
Labor Day: November 23 On the 23 of November, Japan honors the hard work of its workforce and individuals gives thanks for what they have. Today the holiday is called kinrou-kansha-no-hi ( , lit. “Labor Thanksgiving Day”), but it has its roots in an ancient harvest festival called niiname-sai ( ) in which the emperor would give a ceremonial offering of newly harvested rice to the deities.
The Emperor’s Birthday: December 23 December 23 is the birthday of the current reigning emperor, AKIHITO (). The holiday, calledtennou-tanjou-bi () in Japanese, was previously held on April 29 during the reign of HIROHITO ( ), which is now observed as Showa Day.
Hours of the Day In Japan, there are two systems in general use for telling time: "
The 24-hour clock
"
AM & PM
The 24-hour clock The 24-hour system is the official standard in Japan, just like in Europe. It may take my fellow North Americans a little while to get used to the system, but in the meantime, you can easily convert between the 24-hour clock and the AM/PM clock by either adding or subtracting 12. "
0:00: rei-ji ()
"
1:00: ichi-ji ()
"
2:00: ni-ji ()
"
3:00: san-ji ()
"
4:00: yo-ji ()
"
5:00: go-ji ()
"
6:00: roku-ji ()
"
7:00: shichi-ji ()
"
8:00: hachi-ji () 399
"
9:00: ku-ji ()
AM & PM
"
10:00: juu-ji ()
"
11:00: juu-ichi-ji ()
"
12:00: juu-ni-ji ()
For times before noon, you attach gozen (), the word for “AM.”, while times after noon use gogo (), the word for “PM”. Unlike English, however, these words are placed before the hour, not after.
"
13:00: juu-san-ji ()
"
0:00 am: rei-ji ()
"
14:00: juu-yo-ji ()
"
1:00 am: gozen ichi-ji ()
"
15:00: juu-go-ji ()
"
2:00 am: gozen ni-ji ()
"
16:00: juu-roku-ji ()
"
3:00 am: gozen san-ji ()
"
17:00: juu-shichi-ji () 18:00: juu-hachi-ji ()
"
"
"
4:00 am: gozen yo-ji () 5:00 am: gozen go-ji ()
"
19:00: juu-ku-ji ()
"
6:00 am: gozen roku-ji ()
"
20:00: ni-juu-ji ()
"
7:00 am: gozen shichi-ji ()
"
21:00: ni-juu-ichi-ji ()
"
8:00 am: gozen hachi-ji ()
"
22:00: ni-juu-ni-ji ()
"
9:00 am: gozen ku-ji ()
"
23:00: ni-juu-san-ji ()
"
10:00 am: gozen juu-ji ()
"
11:00 am: gozen juu-ichi-ji ( )
"
12:00 pm: gogo juu-ni-ji ()
"
1:00 pm: gogo ichi-ji () 400
"
2:00 pm: gogo ni-ji ()
"
3:00 pm: gogo san-ji ()
"
4:00 pm: gogo yo-ji ()
"
5:00 pm: gogo go-ji ()
"
6:00 pm: gogo roku-ji ()
"
7:00 pm: gogo shichi-ji ()
Minutes & Seconds Minutes Minutes are counted using fun (): "
ip-pun (, “1 minute”)
"
ni-fun (, “2 minutes”)
"
san-pun (, “3 minutes”)
"
yon-pun (, “4 minutes”)
"
go-fun (, “5 minutes”)
"
rop-pun (, “6 minutes”)
General Time of Day
"
nana-fun (, “7 minutes”)
To describe the general time of day, use the following terms:
"
hap-pun (, “8 minutes”)
" "
" "
8:00 pm: gogo hachi-ji () 9:00 pm: gogo-ku-ji () 10:00 pm: gogo juu-ji () 11:00 pm: gogo juu-ichi-ji ()
Early morning: sou chou ()
"
kyuu-fun (, “9 minutes”)
"
Morning: asa ()
"
jup-pun (, “10 minutes”)
"
Midday: shou-go ( ) or hiru ( )
"
Evening: yuu-gata ( )
"
Night: yoru ()
"
Middle of the night: ma-yo-naka ()
"
Seconds Seconds are counted using byou (): "
ichi-byou (, “one second”) 401
Japanese Particles & Time Adverbs Here are some useful particles you can attach to the time words above to indicate: "
When something happened.
In/After X (years, months, days, hours, minutes) To say how long from now something is going to happen in the future, add go () after the time word. "
ichi-ji-kan-go (, “in an hour”)
"
futsuka-go (, “in 2 days” or “after 2 days”)
"
When something will happen.
"
How long something has lasted.
From X (year, month, day, hour, minute)
"
How long something will last.
If you want to indicate when something began, add kara () after the time word.
For X (years, months, days, hours, minutes)
To express how long something lasts, attach the word kan ( ) to the time period.
"
juu-gatsu kara (, “from October”)
"
gogo-ni-ji kara (, “from 2 pm”)
"
ichi-nen-kan (, “for a year”)
Until X (year, month, day, hour, minute)
"
ni-ji-kan (, “for 2 hours”)
To explain when something will last until, add made () after the time word.
X (years, months, days, hours, minutes) ago To say that something happened some time ago, just add mae () after the time period: "
ichi-ji-kan mae ()
"
futsuka-mae (, “two days ago”)
"
go-gatsu made (, “until May”)
"
ni-ji made (, “until 2”)
402
Thank You! I hope you have enjoyed reading Master Japanese as much as I enjoyed writing it. I aim to continually improve this guide going forward, and would greatly appreciate your feedback on what you liked and what could be better. And more importantly, please get in touch to let me know how your Japanese journey is going. I am here to help! !
[email protected]
Sincerely, John Fotheringham
