Indra, Zeus and Thor: A Comparative Study of Indo-European Mythology

Aishwarya Javalgekar
LE20127690

17

Foundation for Liberal and Management Education
Understanding Myths
Term Paper
Indra, Zeus and Thor: A Comparative Study of Indo-European Mythology

Aishwarya Javalgekar
FSLE 4
LE20127690
Indra, Zeus and Thor: A Comparative Study of Indo-European Mythology
Introduction
When one looks at mythology across different cultures, certain similarities can be seen not only in the themes and motifs of the myths themselves, but also in the myths and iconography of certain deities with similar features. Indra of Vedic, Zeus of Greek and Thor of Norse mythology are three such deities that seem to have many similarities.
That similarities between these pantheons of mythology exist has been established by previous scholars. They have particularly been interested in a comparative study of the Indian Vedas and the Norse Eddas. However, not many studies have been conducted where all three mythologies are compared together.
This paper is an in-depth analysis of the similarities and differences between Indra, Zeus and Thor. The study will be Anthropological in nature, and will be conducted using a functional approach. Mythology cannot be studied in isolation, as it reflects the fundamental culture and ideology of a society, and is influenced by several factors such as language, social structure, physical environment, and cross-cultural contact. Thus the aim is to conduct a comparative analysis of the myths of these three deities in order to understand similarities and differences in attributes, the reasons behind the existence of similar attributes, and the deities' position within the pantheon and the culture as a whole. The paper will also examine the rise and fall in the popularity of these deities within their own cultures, and attempt to provide functional reasons for the same.
The Deities
Before beginning with a comparative analysis, it is important to study these deities individually within their own pantheons. This section provides a brief introduction into the deities, their roles, their important features and attributes, and the myths surrounding them.

Indra
Indra was the most important god in Vedic religion. He was the king of all gods, and controlled rains, thunder and storms. He stayed in svarga or heaven with his wife Indrani. He was also associated with East. He was the protector of cattle, and controller of the sky, clouds, rivers and the universe as a whole. He was invoked during war for divine weapons or intervention. He was a formidable warrior, but was usually benevolent, bringing peace and prosperity in the form of rain. He was also known for his love for soma, an alcoholic elixir.
In a Vedic creation myth, Indra and Agni, the god of fire, were born from the primordial giant Purusha, from whose body parts emerged most of the deities. He appears prominently in the Vedas, and is seen fighting against demons, and protecting the world. The most important myth is of Indra's battle with the serpent-demon Vritra, for which he is also called Vritrahan (slayer of Vritra). In later traditions, several myths involving Indra's unflattering adventures gained popularity, while he was replaced by the trinity; Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva as the important deities.
Zeus
Zeus was the king of the Olympian gods, and was the most important deity in Greek religion. Being the god of thunder, Zeus controlled the weather from his seat on Mt. Olympus. He was also the dispenser of justice, and the keeper of cosmic order and balance. In his different forms, Zeus protected cities, families and property in general, was the god of hospitality and the guardian of oaths.
In Greek mythology, Zeus defeated his father Cronus to save himself and his siblings, and became the ruler of the world. He had several sexual liaisons with women, and birthed numerous children, who became important figures in Greek mythology. Zeus was famous for his severe and imaginative punishments. The Titan Prometheus was punished by having his liver eaten by an eagle every day, whereas Sisyphus had to roll a boulder up a hill in the underworld forever, and Ixion was tied to a rotating wheel. In addition to this, Zeus also acted as a peacemaker in many other myths.
Thor
Thor is the son of Odin, the king of Norse gods. He is often said to be the son of Jord or Fjorgyn, who is a Jotunn, whereas Odin is half Aesir and half Jotunn. Fyorgyn was an earth goddess. Thor is the storm-weather god of sky and thunder. He is also a fertility god along with his wife Sif, who is also a fertility deity. He is enormous in size, and has red eyes and a red beard. He is believed to have an insatiable appetite and is termed as the strongest god in The Prose Edda.
In addition to being the god of lightning and thunder, Thor is the protector of Asgard, the realm of gods, and Midgard, the realm of humans. He is also the premier war god. Most of his myths revolve around the slaying of giants and other enemies. His most powerful weapon is the hammer Mjolnir, which he wields with the aid of a magic belt and gauntlets. Mjolnir is also used as a weapon of officiation, and is used to bless weddings, births, etc. The hammer became symbolic of Norse religion as a whole, and was worn as a good luck charm long after the prominence of Christianity in Europe.
Thor travels across the sky in a chariot drawn by two giant goats. These goats can be killed and eaten only to be regenerated overnight. He is also considered to be a guide for seafarers due to his control over storms and winds. In the myths, Thor comes across as a powerful warrior, but is often outwitted by others, even by his father Odin. The important myths involve Thor's battles with the World Serpent (Jormungand) and other giants.
Common Origins: Indo-European Mythology
Before identifying and analysing the similarities and differences between the three deities, it is important to understand previous theorization regarding the similarities between Vedic, Greek and Norse mythology, and the possible reasons for the same. This will provide a framework for further analysis of the three deities.
Scholars began to notice and analyse the similarities in Vedic, Greek and Norse mythology with the discovery of an Indo-European proto-language. Studies in this field began in 1767 with James Parsons. However, it was Sir William Jones who established the existence of the Indo-European language family in 1796. The theory was based on the similar phonology of words across languages with similar meanings. For example, the word for sky or father-sky was dyaus in Sanskrit, zeu in Greek, ju in Latin, luve in Umbrian, dei in Illyrian and suis in Hittite. The proto-Indo-European word, from which these words had emerged, was identified as dyeus. Similarly, the word for father was pita in Sanskrit, pater in Greek, piter in Latin, patre in Umbrian, patyros in Illyrian, and the proto-Indo-European word was identified as peter. Thus the Greek zeus pater became dyeus peter (father sky) in Greek mythology.
Similarly perkumo, the god of thunder and storm, and the patron of war, was identified by Muller with the Indian god parjanyas, the Slavic perun and the Scandinavian fjorgyn, the mother of the Thor.
This led scholars to theorize that if the cultures shared a proto-language, they also shared a mythological base. Extensive studies have been conducted particularly of the similarities Vedic and Norse myths. While Sander believed that Vedic mythology preceded Norse mythology, Muller stated that it was in fact Norse mythology that preceded the Vedas.
The Rig Veda, the earliest Vedic text, has been dated to around 1500 BCE, but scholars believe that it was composed much earlier, and was preserved through oral transmission. The four Vedic texts form the foundation of the Vedic religion, and are possibly the earliest documentation of Indian religion and mythology. Of the mythologies developed from this Proto-Indo-European base, the Rig Veda is considered to be temporally closest, and hence the most authentic version of the base.
On the other hand, the Norse Eddas are believed to have evolved much later, and manifest a Viking temperament. The word edda, meaning grandmother, has been associated with the Sanskrit veda or vidya, the German word wissen, the Swedish veta, and the English wit, meaning knowledge. Unlike the Greek myths, the Norse Eddas are said to have survived the insurgence of Christianity in Europe, and are considered to be the remaining vestiges of European polytheism.
Myths as a Reflection of Indo-European Society
The theorization of a proto-Indo-European language is the basis of Georges Dumezil's tripartite division of Indo-European society based on a functionalist approach. According to his theory, division of society occurs on the basis of sovereignty, military, and fertility and sustenance. They are based on three fundamental principles, that Dumezil calls functions; "(1) the maintenance of cosmic and juridical order, (2) the exercise of physical prowess, and (3) the promotion of physical well-being"
Sovereignty can be linked to the class of priests and shamans, which feature at the top of the social hierarchy. These can be linked to Brahmins in Vedic India and philosophers in ancient Greek society. They form the link between gods and humans. Their divine counterparts in mythology are Mitra and Varuna in India, Jupiter (Zeus) and Dius Fidius in Rome, and Odin and Tyr in Scandinavia.
The function of military is carried out by the warrior class, which coincides with the ruling class. The people of this class act as defenders of the society and promote its economic well-being. Hasten links this class to the Vedic Kshatriyas, the Roman milites and Norse Vikings, whose divine counterparts are Indra, Mars and Thor respectively.
The third function of fertility is carried out by the cultivators or the common people, like the Indian Vaishyas. The focus of this function is on fertility of all beings and the general well-being of people, and is the source of sustenance of the first two classes as well. They are represented in the divine form in pairs or close relatives, such as the Greek Dioscuri, the Vedic Ashwins and the Norse pair of Njoro and Freyr.
Thus, this tripartite division can be linked to priests, warriors and cultivators in India, nobles, freemen and slaves in Scandinavia, and philosophers, warriors and cultivators in Greece. Thus Dumezil effectively links the mythologies of the three regions to their social structure; the class system in Greek and Norse societies, and the caste system in Indian society. While the Indian caste system has four divisions, Hasten argues that it is a system of three plus one, where the shudras are simply classified as others. For Hasten, Norse mythology reflects a merging of the first two functions of priest and warrior through Odin, who is the warrior king and also a shaman. Thus in Scandinavian society, the hierarchy was redefined to include slaves as well.
By this approach, Zeus fulfils the first function of sovereignty in Greek society, whereas Indra and Thor fulfil the second function of military. Thus Zeus fulfils the function of maintaining cosmic and juridical order, while Indra and Thor excel in physical prowess. However, Zeus, the king of gods, is also a warrior, and thus fulfils the function of the military. Similarly, Indra and Thor, through their physical strength, work towards maintaining a cosmic balance. This is especially true in the case of Thor, who is the protector of Asgard, the abode of gods, and Midgard, the abode of humans. While there is no shamanic or priestly affiliation to Indra and Thor, which separates them from Zeus in the function of sovereignty, they still use magical objects for strength. Indra drinks Soma, the magic alcoholic elixir, before defeating Vritra and Thor wields a magical hammer with armour and gauntlets. Thus we see that the boundaries between the sovereign and military functions are blurred, although the two functions are never unified.
Thor is also linked to the third function through his role as a fertility deity. This is in contrast with Odin, who is both a warrior and a priest. Thus the two deities can together fulfil all the three functions of an Indo-European society.
Thus the functional approach of tripartite division does not completely explain the function of three deities, since their roles are not limited to a particular function, but extend to two, sometimes even three functions. However, the functional approach is still useful in explaining the function of rituals related to certain aspects of the deity, which will be explored in the next section.

Dissecting the Deities' Functions
Since the three deities do not have a single, unified role, one must now study the similarities and differences between the three deities, and attempt to analyse them using a functional approach. It is thus important to conduct a comparative analysis of the three deities, and through them, of the three pantheons they represent. While more study has been conducted of the Norse and Vedic mythologies, scholars are more insistent on the commonalities between Indra and Zeus. Doniger provides certain examples of these similarities in her own paper on Dionysus and Shiva, wherein she states that Indra is introduced as "He about whom they ask, 'Where is he?', or they say of him, the monstrous one, 'He does not exist,'… He, my, people, is Indra", while Zeus is introduced as "Zeus, whoever he may be."
Many such similarities and differences can be found in the three deities, and this section examines the variations or lack thereof in their role as deities and the features ascribed to them.
Storm Deity
Control of the weather is the most important similarity between the three deities. They are all gods of rain, storm, lightning and thunder, and are associated with a particular weapon: Indra with Vajra, Zeus with Keraunos and Thor with Mjollnir. These weapons, strongly associated with thunder and lightning, are used in myths to kill several characters. Indra kills Vritra, Zeus kills the titans, and Thor kills the jotnar (giants) among others.
This role of the deities can simply be explained as an attempt to explain and control the natural phenomenon of rain. Since the deities are personifications of rain, lightning and thunder, their weapon is also naturally representative of the same natural phenomenon. In Vedic mythology, the clouds were often associated with cattle, and the sound of thunder was supposed to be Indra fighting with the demons who were trying to steal the cows. Rain, on the other hand, was linked to the milking of these cows..
The fights that these deities have with their respective foes are understood by Hasten as the war of functions. He believes that the myths narrating these wars could be representations of the social norm of the lower classes remaining subservient to the upper classes of priests and warriors. It can also be seen as a symbolic fight between natural processes. For instance Vritra, Indra's biggest foe, was a demon who brought drought upon the land, and whose defeat led to the commencement of rain. This can be linked to Frazer's concept of the vegetation spirit. The rituals surrounding these deities can be seen as attempts of man to recreate the actions of these deities through sympathetic magic. This means that the worship of these deities was important in man's attempt to control the rains in order to better suit his agricultural needs.
King of gods
Both Indra and Zeus are the rulers of gods within their own pantheon. Thor is not the king, but is the son of Odin, the king of gods, and hence, is still divine royalty. This reflects the important position that the element of rain occupied in the Vedic, Greek and Norse societies. That these deities fulfil both the functions of sovereignty and military as per Dumezil's theory has already been established. Their royal status can also be linked to Frazer's concept of the divine priest-king, which essentially merges the two functions mentioned above.
While all three deities thus represent the divine priest-king, there are differences within that role. Zeus is at once more priestly and a more powerful ruler than Indra or Thor. Indra has a much wider scope as a ruler and a warrior deity than Thor. Because while Indra is still the king of gods in Vedic mythology, the same status is provided to Odin in Norse mythology.
Sexuality
Indra and Zeus are known for their sexual nature in mythology. Many myths narrate Indra's and Zeus's virility and amorous desires for other women, where they often don disguises in order to seduce the objects of their desire.
Indra is a phallic god and a dancer. In one of the myths, Indra is castrated by an angry Shiva, and is given the testicles of a ram instead, which are much more potent than those of a human or anthropomorphic god. In another myth, Indra and his favourite companion Vrishakapi retain their friendship after displaying amorous intentions towards each other's wives.
Zeus, on the other hand, has multiple relations with goddesses and mortal women, inviting the wrath of his wife Hera. From these alliances he has a large number of children, which feature prominently in Greek mythology. Indra, on the other hand, does not have children from his sexual dalliances.
These sexual activities can be considered to be symbolic of fertility, since Thor, the least sexual deity amongst the three, is already associated with fertility. Moreover, the conceptual union of male sky or storm god with the female earth goddess is fundamental to the cosmogony of Indo-European myths. This also explains their relationship with their wives, Hera, Indrani and Sif, who are all earth, fertility and mother goddesses.
Slaying the dragon
The slaying of the dragon or a serpent-like creature is a common element in Eurasian myths, especially in myths of creation or preservation of the world. The description of these creatures ranges from dragons to serpents to worms. The motif of a dragon-slayer is common to Indra, Zeus and Thor.
In Vedic texts, Indra kills the three-headed serpent Vritra, who is sometimes described as a giant cobra. After Vritra is killed, balance is restored to the world in the form of fertility of vegetation and the falling of rain, ending a long drought caused by Vritra. Thus the slaying of the dragon is clearly linked to the ritual of preparing soma and with the onset of monsoon. This is similar to the conflict between Thor and the World Serpent Jormungand.
However, in Greek myths it is Herakles and Apollo, the sons of Zeus who kill dragons. Moreover, there is no mention of fertilizing the earth or providing water. Apart from usual explanations of diffusion and archetypes, a unique reasoning is provided by Blust, who considers these serpent-monsters to be man's imaginative response to observing rainbows.
As mentioned before, the slaying of the dragon represents the control of natural forces. Rituals based on such myths would attempt to symbolically slay the dragon of famine, drought or heat in order to bring rain through sympathetic magic. Thus these myths not only provide a social charter, but a guide for rituals as well.
A Hero's Life
Apart from their roles as gods, these deities have many other common elements in their myths. For instance, all three gods have a similar life story. All three of them are sons of mother earth. Indra is birthed by the mother earth, Zeus is the son of Rhea, the earth goddess, and Thor is the son of Fjorgyn, also an earth goddess. All three of them were raised by surrogates; either demons, animals or mortals. Thus they were hidden away until they emerged as fully grown, powerful men, who were able to exact vengeance or dispense justice. They defeated or killed their parents, either real or foster, in order to take their place as powerful gods. Indra and Thor killed their foster parents, whereas Zeus killed his real father. Once instated, they married other earth goddesses and became rulers and protectors of gods and men.
Another common element among the three deities is the motif of troubled relations with family. Indra and Zeus had multiple sexual relations, inviting the wrath of their wives. Indra also had troubled relations with his son, who he attempted to chastise multiple times. Zeus killed and replaced his father Cronus, and through the myths kills several other family members as well. Thor has troubled relations with his father Odin and his half-brother Loki.
Thus the lives of the three deities follow a common mythic structure, which emphasizes not only the commonalities in the content, but in the form of the myths as well.
Overall Analysis
There are clear similarities between the three deities in terms of the structure of the myths and their content. They are all thunder or storm deities and are associated with a particular weapon, which is used in myths to kill several characters. They are all divine royalty, and they are all associated with fertility. Indra and Zeus are also associated with the bull.
We have already established that Indra, Thor and Zeus can be linked to the first two functions of Dumezil's tripartite division of society, and that Thor can be linked to the third function as well. The commonalities found above further emphasize their roles in different functions. Their status as sky gods, protectors and divine priest-kings fulfils the first two functions. Their association with nature and fertility fulfils the third function of sustenance as well. Within their own mythology, the three deities maintain cosmic order, protect the people and display physical prowess, and ensure sustenance and overall well-being.
While Dumezil's theory attempted to categorize every deity or myth into a single function, this paper posits that the versatility of these deities is precisely the reason for their importance and prominence in these societies. As the different functions of society evolved over time or became more defined, these deities developed new roles to adapt to changing needs of society.
This can be seen in the case of Thor in Norse mythology. Since demographic shifts led to the fusion of second and third functions in the Viking Age (around 793 – 1000 CE), Thor became increasingly prominent in Norse mythology, and almost replaced Odin as the head of gods and the chief Norse deity. Another reason for the rise of Thor could have been a reaction to growing Christian influence. Common people began to wear tiny hammers of Thor around their neck to contrast against the crosses amulets worn by Christians.
However the rise of Christianity eventually led to the fall in prominence of not just Thor, but of Norse religion as a whole. A similar fate was faced by Zeus, who continued to enjoy prominence within the Greek Pantheon, and later in Roman mythology as Jupiter, before the rise of Christianity.
Indra, on the other hand, met with a different fate. Indra's influence decreased considerable towards the end of the Vedic period. His functions were divided between the newly prominent trinity; Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, who donned the roles of creator, protector and destroyer. While Indra still remained a part of the Hindu pantheon, his role was simply that of the rain god. Thus Indra is an example of a deity being unable to adapt to the changing needs of society, leading to his decline.
It is thus evident that the deities remained prominent in mythology only till they were able to fulfil the needs of the society, and were able to provide a functional and ritualistic charter through the myths. Their importance in mythology depended on this societal ability. Thus the importance of Indra declined in a post-Vedic society, the importance of Thor increased in the late Viking age, and Zeus continued to remain important. It was with the onset of Christianity, which led to a complete societal re-structuring, that Zeus and Thor ceased to be relevant to their societies.
Other Approaches
While scholars agree to the existence of similarities between the three deities, there are several other theories regarding the cause of these similarities. This paper attempts to provide an anthropological, functionalist, structuralist and linguistic understanding of these deities.
However, it is important to see whether a different approach can be used to study these deities. Augustine applies Jung's psychoanalytic theory to the comparative study of Greek and Indian mythology, and proposes two reasons for the similarities found in the two pantheons. The first is that humans unconsciously but actively create deities by projecting aspects of their shadow on mythopoetic figures. The second possible explanation according to him is that the collective unconscious creates a pantheon of these mythopoetic figures, from which similar myths are drawn. In this theory, Indra and Zeus could be a projection of autonomy while Saraswati and Athena could be symbolic of feminine strength.
Here the similarities between the two mythologies emerge not from a common proto-language as suggested by certain functionalists, structuralists and linguists, but from a common pantheon within the collective unconscious. The differences occur due to the interpretation of these figures within their own culture, language and context.
While the idea of a collective unconscious is integral to psychoanalytic theory, the proposition of an entire pantheon within the unconscious which forms a framework for all mythology seems far-fetched and is extremely difficult to prove. But it is a theory that can be further explored.
Conclusion
Thus there are clear parallels between Indra, Zeus and Thor, and between Vedic, Greek and Norse mythology as a whole. While there are several plausible reasons for these similarities, this paper proposes the proto-Indo-European language and societal structure as an explanation for these similarities. This reason better explains the similarities between Vedic and Norse mythologies, which evolved over a large geographic distance.
However, there appear to be more similarities between Zeus and Indra, than between Thor and Zeus or Thor and Indra. This can be linked to more contact between Greek and Vedic societies, leading to the dissemination of ideas and cultures.
The proto-Indo-European language theory links the basic structure to prehistory. Therefore the persistence and preservation of the mythic structure over such a large spatial and temporal context is itself a testament to the functionality of the inherent structure.

References
Augustine, Henry B. "Hindu and Greek Deities." Integral World: Exploring Theories of Everything. N.p., n.d. Web.
This article is a comparative analysis of five Hindu and Greek deities in order to establish a connection between the two mythologies. Augustine then attempts to provide a psychoanalytic explanation for the similarities between the two pantheons.

Cartwright, Mark. "Indra." Ancient History Encyclopaedia. N.p., 2013. Web.
This article on an encyclopedia website provides a succinct summary of the Vedic god Indra; his features, myths and iconography.

Cartwright, Mark. "Zeus." Ancient History Encyclopaedia. N.p., 2013. Web.
This article on an encyclopedia website provides a succinct summary of the Greek god Zeus; his myths and roles in Classical mythology.

Dumézil, Georges. Gods of the Ancient Northmen. ed. Einar Haugen. USA and London: University of California Press, 1973.
In this source Dumezil provides a new approach towards a functional study of mythology through the tripartite division of society. He believes that this division, which is common for all Indo-European societies, is reflected through the cosmogony or ideology of the mythology. An attempt has been made to use this approach to study the three deities in this paper.

Frazer, James George. The Golden Bough: A Study in Comparative Religion. London: Macmillan, 1894. Web.
In this book, Frazer proposes a new Anthropological, functionalist approach for the study of myth through understanding rituals. His concepts of the vegetation spirit, divine priest-king and sympathetic magic have been used in this paper.

Hasten, L. W. Eddas and Vedas: Comparative Mythology and the Aryan Invasion Hypothesis. Rep. University of New York, 1996. Web.
In this book, Hasten attempts to prove the hypothesis of an Aryan invasion through a comparative study of Vedic and Norse mythology. He does so by first establishing the existence of a proto-Indo-European language as the common core of the two mythologies, and analyzing them using Dumezil's functional approach. While the book does not particularly analyze the deities being studied in this paper, it provides an excellent understanding of Dumezil's tripartite theory and of the linguistic origins of the mythologies as well.

"Indra: A Case Study in Comparative Mythology." (2005): 1-41. PDF Drive. Web. .
This paper conducts a myth-by-myth analysis of Indra, and attempts to link the narratives to myths across different cultures. It also looks at the downfall of Indra as a supreme god in the later Vedic period.

Lindow, John. "Thor's" hamarr"." The Journal of English and Germanic Philology 93.4 (1994): 485-503.Web.
This article is an in-depth analysis of the myths and lore around Thor's hammer. Lindow links the hammer to other weapons in pagan and Christian religions.

McCoy, Dan. "Thor." Norsemythology.org. N.p., n.d. Web.
This webpage provides details about the Norse god Thor; his features and myths, and attempts to analyze them using Dumezil's functional approach.

O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. "Dionysus and Siva: parallel patterns in two pairs of myths." History of Religions 20.1/2 (1980): 81-111. Web.
This article attempts to draw parallels between the Indian deity Shiva and the Greek deity Dionysus by studying the myths related to them in the narrative dramatic form. The aim is to examine the extent to which the two mythologies are based on a common theology. A symbolic analysis of these narratives shows the similarities and differences between the Indian and Greek pantheon as a whole, which are relevant to this research. The article also provides certain parallels between Indra and Zeus, which are also useful for this paper.

Rydberg, Viktor. "Indo-European Mythology." Trans. William. P. Reaves. Investigations into Germanic Mythology. Vol. 2. N.p.: n.p., 2010. N. pag. Web.
This section of the book provides a comparative analysis of the myths and roles of the Vedic deity Indra and Germanic deity Thor. It has been a useful source in the comparative analysis conducted in this paper.

Violatti, Cristian. "Thor." Ancient History Encyclopaedia. N.p., 2014. Web.
This short, succinct article on an encyclopedia website provides basic information about the Norse deity Thor; his features, his role in popular myths and narratives, and his similarities to other deities. The author identifies the Vedic deity Indra as having similar features to Thor.

Witzel, Michael. "Slaying the dragon across Eurasia." In Hot Pursuit of Language in Prehistory (2008): 263-286. Web.
This essay is a comparative study of the dragon myth across cultures. According to Witzel, these myths appear mostly in creation myths, and are functionally linked to the annual cycle of seasons. Since these common motifs are found in Meso-America and Eurasia, Witzel dates them back to the Late Paleolithic period, and proposes further study of the Stone Age human mind through the myths. While this paper is not concerned largely concerned with the prehistorical dating of myths other than to establish a link between the three cultures, Witzel's insight into the functional reasons for these myths is extremely useful, especially in the case of Vedic myths.

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. The lost beliefs of Northern Europe. Routledge, 2002. Web.
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Indra, Zeus and Thor: A Comparative Study of Indo-European Mythology

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