Stone Age •
Mehrgarh Mehrgarh Culture Culture
70,000–3300
1040–1346
Kakatiya Empire
1083–1323
Islamic Islamic Sultanates Sultanates
1206–1596
•
Delhi Sultanate Sultanate
•
Deccan Deccan Sultanates Sultanates • 1490–1596
Ahom Kingdom
3300–1700
BCE
Late Harappan Harappan Culture
1700–1300
BCE
Vedic Vedic period
1500–500
Iron Iron Age
1200–300
• 1206–1526
Vijayanagara Empire 1336–1646 1526–1858
Maratha Maratha Empire Empire
1674–1818
BCE
Sikh Confedera Confederacy cy
1716–1799
BCE
Sikh Empire Empire
1799–1849
British British East India Company
1757–1858
British Raj
1858–1947
Modern Modern States States
1947–present
Maha Janapadas Janapadas
• 700–300
•
Magadha Magadha Empire Empire
• 545 550
BCE
BCE -
• 321–184 300
1228–1826
Mughal Empire Empire
•
Middle Kingdoms Kingdoms
Hoysala Empire
• 7000–3300
Indus Valley Valley Civilization
Maurya Maurya Empire Empire
• 973–1189
BCE
BCE
•
Western Chalukya • Western Empire
BCE
BCE–1279
CE •
Chera Empire Empire
• 300
BCE–200
CE •
Chola Empire Empire
• 250
BCE–1070
CE •
Satavahana
• 230
BCE–220
CE
The term " "
CE
is diffuse diffuse, incorporat incorporating ing
•
Kushan Kushan Empire Empire
• 60–240
•
Gupta Empire Empire
• 280–550
•
Pala Empire
• 750–1174
•
Chalukya Dynasty
• 543–753
political political organizat organizations ions, philosophie philosophies s, and
•
Rashtrakuta
• 753–982
movem movements ents which which had the common common
various various national national and regional regional campai campaigns gns, agitat agitation ions s and effort efforts s of both Nonviolent and Militant philosophy and involved involved a wide wide spectr spectrum um of
aim of ending the Britis British h Colon Colonial ial Authority as well well as other other coloni colonial al
1
administrat administrations ions in South Asia. The
from from East East Asia Asia and Quit India
initial initial resistanc resistance e to the movement movement can
movement.
be traced traced back to the very beginn beginning ings s of Colonial Colonial Expansion Expansion in Karnata Karnataka ka by the Portugues Portuguese e in the the 16th centu entury ry and and by the Britis British h East India Compa Company ny in Bengal, in the middle and late 1700 s. The first organised organised militant militant movement movement was in Bengal, that later took political political stage stage in the form of mains mainstre tream am movement from the latter part of the 1800s
was increasingly led by the
leaders of the then newly formed
India India remai remained ned a Dominion of The Crown till 26 January 1950, when it adopted its Constitution to proclaim proclaim itself a Republic. Pakistan proclaimed itself a Republic in 1956 but faced a number number of internal internal power struggles struggles that that has seen seen suspen suspensio sions ns of democracy. In 1971, the Pakista Pakistani ni Civil War culmin culminati ating ng in the 1971 War saw the splinter splintering ing- off of East Pakistan Pakistan into the nation of Bangladesh.
Indian National National Congress Congress with prominent prominent moderate moderate leaders leaders seeking seeking only only their their basic basic rights rights to appear appear for civil services services examinat examinations ions and more more rights rights, econom economic ic in nature nature, for the the people people of the soil. They They used used modera moderate te method methods s of prayer prayer, petiti petition on and the press (3p's). Beginning of early 1900 s saw a more more radica radicall approa approach ch towar towards ds political political independence independence proposed proposed by leaders as the Lal Bal Pal and Sri Aurobindo. Militant nationalism also emerge emerged d in the first first decade decades s, culmin culminati ating ng in the failed failed Indo-Germ German an Pact and Ghadar Ghadar Conspiracy Conspiracy during during the World War I. The end of the war saw the Congress adopt the policies of nonviolent agitation agitation and civil disobedience led by Maha Mahatma tma Gandh Gandhii. Other Other leaders leaders, such such as Netaj Netajii Subha Subhash sh Chandra Chand ra Bose, later came to adopt a military military approach approach to the movement. The World War II period saw the peak of the movements movements like INA movement led by Neta Netaji ji Subhas Chandra Bose
The independence independence movement also served as a major catalyst for similar movements in other parts of the world, leading leading to the eventual eventual disintegrat disintegration ion and disman dismantli tling ng of the Britis British h Empire Empire and its repla replacem cement ent with with the Commonweal Commonwealth th of Nations Nations. Gandhi's philosophy philosophy of nonviolent resistance inspired the Ameri American can Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968) led by Martin Luth Luther er King King, Jr., the quest for democracy democracy in Myanmar led by Aung San Suu Kyi and the African National Congress's struggle struggle against against apartheid in South Africa Africa led by Nelson Nelson Mandela Mandela. Howeve Howeverr not all these these leader leaders s adher adhered ed to Gandhi Gandhi's strict strict princip principle le of nonviolence and nonresistance. Robe Robert rt Clive Clive, 1st Baro Baron n Clive Clive with with Mir Jafar Jafar after after the Battle Battle of Plasse Plassey y European traders came to Indian shores shores with the arrival arrival of the Portuguese explorer Vasco Vasco da Gama in 1498,
Capad beach, at the port of
2
Calicut in search of the lucrative spice
Even while these these modernizin modernizing g trends trends
trade trade. After After the 1757 Battle Battle of Plassey Plassey,
influenced influenced Indian society society, Indians Indians
during during which which the British British army army under under
increasin increasingly gly despised British British rule. The
Robert Ro bert Clive defeated defeated the Nawab Nawab of
memoirs of Henry Ouvry of the 9th
Bengal, the Britis British h East India Compa Company ny
Lancers reco record rd man many y "a good good
establ establish ished ed itself itself. This This is widely widely seen
thrashi thrashing ng" to carele careless ss servant servants s. A spice
as the beginning of the British British Raj in
mercha merchant nt, Frank Frank Brown Brown, wrote wrote to his
India India. The Company Company gained gained
nephew that stories stories of maltreat maltreatment ment of
administrat administrative ive rights rights over Bengal,
servants servants had not been exaggerat exaggerated ed
Bihar, and Orissa in 1765 after the
and that he knew people who kept
Battle of Buxar. They then annexed
orderl orderlies ies "purpos purposely ely to thrash thrash them".
Punjab in 1849 after the death of
As the British British increasin increasingly gly dominated dominated
Maharaja Ranjit Ranjit Singh in 1839 and the
the continent continent, they grew increasing increasingly ly
Firs Firstt Anglo Anglo-Sikh Sikh War War (1845–1846) and
abusiv abusive e of local local custom customs s by, for
then then the Second Second Anglo-Sikh Sikh War (1848–
exampl example e, stagin staging g partie parties s in mosques,
49).
dancin dancing g to the music music of regim regiment ental al
The British parliament enacted a series of laws laws to handle handle the admini administr strati ation on of the newly-conquered conquered provinces provinces, including including the Regulating Act of 1773, the India Act of 1784, and the Charter Act of 1813; all enhanc enhanced ed the British British govern governmen mentt's rule rule. In 1835 English was made the medium of instructio instruction n. Wester Western n-educated educated Hindu elites sought sought
bands on the terrace of the Taj Taj Mahal, using using whips whips to force force their way through through crowded bazaars (as recoun recounted ted by General Henry Blake Blake), and mistreat mistreating ing sepoys. In the years after the annexatio annexation n of Punjab in 1849, several mutinies mutinies among among sepoys broke broke out; these these were were put down by force force. []
Sannyasi Sannyasi Rebellion Rebellion and Conspir Con spiracy acy Of The Pint Pintos os and Polygar War Wars s
to rid Hinduism of controvers controversial ial social social practices practices, including including the varna (caste) system system, child child marria marriage ge, and sati . Literary Literary and debating debating societies societies initiated in Bombay and Madras became became forum for for open open politi political cal discours discourse e. The educationa educationall attainment attainment and skillful skillful use of the press by these early reformers created created the growing growing possibility possibility for effecting broad reforms within colonial India, all without without compromis compromising ing larger larger Indian social values and religious religious practices.
Several Several regional regional movements movements against against forei foreign gn rule rule were were staged staged in variou various s parts of pre-1857 India. Ho However, th they were were not united united and were were easily easily controlled controlled by the foreign foreign rulers. Examples Examples include include the rebellion rebellion of Abbakka Rani in Karnataka from 1555 to 1570 agains inst the Portugu uguese, Sannyasi Rebellion in Bengal in the 1770s,[1]
the 1787 ethnic revolt against inst
3
Portugue Portuguese se control control of Goa known as
cartridges with their teeth before
the Consp Conspiracy iracy Of The Pintos,[2] the
loading loading them them into into their their rifles rifles. So if
revolt revolt of Titumir of Titumir in Bengal in 1830' s
ther there e was was cow cow and and pig pig fat fat, it would would be
and uprisings by South Indian Indian local
offens offensive ive to Hindu Hindu and Muslim Muslim soldi soldiers ers,
chieftains like Veerapandya
respectiv respectively ely. In February February 1857, sepoys
Kattabomman against against British British rule.[3]
(Indian Indian
Other Other movements movements included the Santal
refused to use their new cartridges.
Rebellion and the resistance offered to
The The British British claime claimed d to have have replac replaced ed
soldie soldiers rs in the Britis British h army army)
[4][5] 5] the British by Titumir in Bengal,[4][ the
the cartridges with new ones and tried
Kittur Rebellion Rebellion led by Rani
to make sepoys make their own grease
Chennamma in Karnataka, Polygar
from beeswax and vege vegetable table oils, but
Wars in Tam Tamil il Nadu, Kutch Rebellion in
the rumour persisted persisted.
Saurashtra.[6] []
Secund cundra ra Bag Bagh h aft after er the the 93 rd Highlan Highlander ders s and 4th Punjab Punjab regime regiment nt fought fought the rebels rebels, Nov 1857.
In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a soldier soldier of the the 34th Nat Nativ ive e Infa Infant ntry ry in in Barrackpore, attacke attacked d his British British sergea sergeant nt and wounde wounded d an adjuta adjutant nt.
The Ind Indian Rebellio lion of 1857 was a
Genera Generall Hearsa Hearsay y, who said Pand Pandey ey was
period period of uprising in the northern and
in some some kind kind of "reli religi giou ous s fren frenzy zy,"
central India agains againstt Britis British h rule rule in
ordered ordered a jemadar to arres arrestt him but
1857–58.
The The rebell rebellion ion was the result result of
the jemada jemadarr refus refused ed. Mangal Mangal Pand Pandey ey
decades of ethnic and cultural
was hanged on 7 April along with the
difference differences s between between Indian soldiers and
jemada jemadarr. The whole regimen regimentt was
their their Britis British h office officers rs. The indiff indiffere erence nce of
dismissed dismissed as a collectiv collective e punishment punishment.
the British British towar towards ds Indian Indian rulers rulers like like
On May 10, when the 11 th and 20 th
the Mughals and ex-Peshwas and the
Cavalr Cavalry y assemb assembled led, they they brok broke e rank rank
annexation of Oudh were political
and turned turned on their their comma commandin nding g
factors factors triggering triggering dissent dissent amongst amongst
offi office cers rs. They They then then libera liberate ted d the the 3 rd
Indians. Dalhou Dalhousie sie’s policy of
Regim Regiment ent, and on 11 May the sepoys sepoys
annexatio annexation n, the doctrine doctrine of lapse or
reached Delhi and were joined by
eschea escheatt, and the proje projecte cted d remova removall of
other other Indians Indians. The Re Red d For Fortt, the
the descen descendan dants ts of the Great Great Mughal Mughal
residence of the last Mughal emperor
from from their their ancest ancestral ral palace palace to the
Bahadur, was attacke attacked d and captured captured
Qutb Qutb, near near Delhi Delhi also angered angered some
by the sepoys sepoys. They They demanded demanded that he
people. The specific reason that
recla reclaim im his throne throne. He was reluct reluctant ant at
trigge triggered red the rebel rebellio lion n was the
first first, but eventua eventually lly agreed agreed to the
rumored use of cow and pig fat in .557
demands and became the leader of
calibre Pattern 1853 Enfield (P/53) rifle
the rebellion rebellion.
cartridges. Soldie Soldiers rs had to break break the
4
Soon Soon, the revolt revolt sprea spread d throug throughou houtt
Viceroy was appointed to represen representt the
northern northern India. Revolts Revolts broke out in
Crown Crown. In procla proclaimi iming ng the new direct direct-
places places like Meerut, Jhansi, Kanpur,
rule rule polic policy y to "the the Prin Prince ces s, Chie Chiefs fs, and and
Lucknow etc etc. The The Brit Britis ish h were were slow slow to
Peoples Peoples of India," Queen Victoria Victoria
respond respond, but eventually eventually responded responded with
promised promised equal equal treatment treatment under British British
brute brute force force. Britis British h moved moved regime regiments nts
law, but Indian Indian mistru mistrust st of Britis British h rule rule
from the Crimean Crimean War War and diverted
had become a legacy of the 1857
European European regiments regiments headed for China
rebellion.
to India. The Britis British h fought fought the main army of the rebels near Delhi in Badlke-Sera Seraii and and drov drove e them them back back to Delh Delhii before before laying laying siege siege on the city. The siege siege of Delhi Delhi lasted lasted roughly roughly from from
1
July to 31 August. After a week of stree streett fightin fighting g, the Britis British h retoo retook k the city. The last significan significantt battle battle was fought in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. 1858. It was during this battle battle that Rani Lakshmi Lakshmi Bai was killed killed. Sporad Sporadic ic figh fighti ting ng cont contin inue ued d unt until 1859 but but most of the rebels rebels were were subdue subdued d. Some Some notable notable leaders leaders were Ahmed Ullah, an advi adviso sorr of the ex-King King of Oudh; Nana Sahib; his nephew Rao Sahib and his retainers, Ta Tantia ntia To Topi pi and Azimullah Azimullah Khan Khan; the the Rani of Jhansi; Kunwar Kunwar Singh; the Rajput chief of Jagadishpur in Bihar; Firuz Firuz Saha, a relat relative ive of the Mughal Mughal Emperor Emperor, Bahadur Bahadur Shah and Pran Sukh Yadav adav who along with Rao Tula Tula Ram of Rewari fought fought with Britishers Britishers at Nasibpur Nasibpur, Haryana Haryana.
The The British British embark embarked ed on a progra program m in India of reform and political restructur restructuring ing, trying to integrate integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into the gover governme nment nt. They They stoppe stopped d land land grabs grabs, decreed decreed religious religious tolerance tolerance and admitt admitted ed Indians Indians into into the civil civil servic service e, albeit albeit mainly as subor subordin dinate ates s. They They also also increa increased sed the number number of Britis British h soldiers in relation to native ones and allowed only British soldiers to handle artillery. Bahadur Bahadur Shah was exiled to Rangoon, Burma where he died in 1862, finally finally bringing bringing the Mughal dynasty dynasty to an end. In 1877, Queen Queen Victoria Victoria took the title of Empress of India. []
The The decade decades s follow following ing the Sepoy Sepoy Rebel Rebellio lion n were were a period period of growin growing g political political awareness awareness, manifesta manifestation tion of Indian public opinion and emergence of Indian Indian leader leadershi ship p at nation national al and provincial provincial levels levels. Dadabhai Naoroji formed formed East India Associati Association on in 1867, and Surendranath Banerjee founded
The war of 1857 was a major turning point in the history of modern India. The British abolished the British East India India Compan Company y and replaced replaced it with direct direct rule under the Briti British sh crow crown n. A
Indian National National Associati Association on in 1876. Inspired by a suggestion made by A.O . Hume , a retire retired d Britis British h civil civil servan servant t , sevent seventy y- three three Indian Indian delega delegates tes met in Bombay in 1885 and founded the
5
Indian National National Congress Congress . They were
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir Syed
mostly members of the upwardly
Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore agore and
mobile mobile and successfu successfull western western-
Dadabhai Dadabhai Naoroji Naoroji spread spread the passion passion
educated educated provincial provincial elites, engaged engaged in
for rejuvenati rejuvenation on and freedom freedom.
professi professions ons such as law, teaching, and journalism. At its incepti inception on, the Congr Congress ess had no well well- define defined d ideolo ideology gy and commanded few of the resources essent essential ial to a politi politica call organ organiza izatio tion n. It functi functione oned d more more as a debati debating ng societ society y that that met annual annually ly to expre express ss its loyalt loyalty y to the British Raj and passed numerous numerous resolution resolutions s on less controver controversial sial issues such as civil rights or opportunit opportunities ies in governmen governmentt, especi especiall ally y the civil civil servic service e. These These resolutio resolutions ns were submitted submitted to the Viceroy Viceroy' s governmen governmentt and occasion occasionally ally to the Britis British h Parli Parliame ament nt, but the Congress Congress's early gains were meagre meagre. Despite its claim to represent all India, the Congress voiced the interests of urban urban elites elites; the number number of participants participants from other other economic economic background backgrounds s remained remained negligible negligible.
By 1900, although ugh the Congress had had emerge emerged d as an all- India India politi political cal organizat organization ion, its achievement achievement was underm undermine ined d by its singul singular ar failur failure e to attract Muslims, who felt that their represent representatio ation n in governmen governmentt service service was inadequa inadequate te. Attac Attacks ks by Hindu Hindu reformers reformers against against religious religious conversio conversion n, cow slaughte slaughterr, and the prese preserva rvatio tion n of Urdu in Arabic script script deepened deepened their concer concerns ns of minori minority ty status status and denial denial of rights rights if the Congres Congress s alone alone were were to represent the people of India. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan launch launched ed a moveme movement nt for Muslim regeneration regeneration that culminated culminated in the foundi founding ng in 1875 of the Muhammadan Muhammadan Anglo- Oriental Oriental College at Aligarh, Uttar Uttar Pradesh Pradesh (rename renamed d Aligarh Aliga rh Musli Muslim m Unive University rsity in 1921). Its objective objective was to educate educate wealthy wealthy students students by emphasizing emphasizing the
The influences influences of socio socio- religious religious
compatibili compatibility ty of Islam with modern modern
groups such as Arya Samaj (started by
western western knowledge. The diversity diversity
Swami Daya Dayanand nand Saras Saraswati wati) and
among among India India' s Muslim Muslims s, howeve howeverr, made made
Brahmo Samaj (founde founded d, among among others others,
it impossible to bring about uniform
by Raja Ram Mohan Roy) became
cultural cultural and intellectua intellectuall regenerat regeneration ion.
eviden evidentt in pionee pioneering ring reform reform of Indian Indian
[]
societ society y. The inculc inculcat ation ion of relig religiou ious s
The first spurts spurts of nationalis nationalistic tic
reform reform and social social pride pride was
sentiment sentiment that rose rose amongst amongst Congress Congress
fundamental to the rise of a public
members were when the desire to be
movement movement for complete complete nationhood nationhood.
repres represent ented ed in the bodies bodies of
The work of men like Swami
gove govern rnme ment nt, to have have a say say, a vote vote in
Vivekananda, Ramakrishna Paramhans Paramhansa a,
the lawmak lawmaking ing and issue issues s of
Sri Aurobindo Aurobindo, Subramanya Bharathy,
administrat administration ion of India. Congressme Congressmen n
6
saw themselv themselves es as loyali loyalists sts, but
Con Congress of 1906 did not hav have publi ublic c
wanted wanted an active active role role in govern governing ing
member membershi ship p, and thus Tilak Tilak and his
thei theirr own own coun countr try y, albe albeit it as part of the
supporters were forced to leave the
Empire. This This trend trend was person personifi ified ed by
party.
Dadabhai Naoroji, who went as far as contes contestin ting g, succes successfu sfully lly, an electi election on to the British House of Commons, becomi becoming ng its first first Indian Indian member member.
But with Tila Tilak k' s arre arrest st, all hopes for an Indian Indian offen offensiv sive e were were stalle stalled d. The Congre Congress ss lost credit credit with the people people, A Muslim Muslim deputa deputatio tion n met with with the
Bal Gangadhar Gangadhar Tilak Tilak was the first
Viceroy, Minto (1905–10), seeking
Indian nationalist nationalist to embrace embrace Swaraj as Swaraj as
concessio concessions ns from from the impending impending
the destiny destiny of the nation nation. Tilak Tilak deeply deeply
constituti constitutional onal reforms, including including special special
opposed opposed the British British education education system
considerati considerations ons in governmen governmentt service service
that that ignor ignored ed and defame defamed d India India' s
and electorates electorates. The British recognized recognized
cultur culture e, histor history y and values values. He
some of Muslim League' s petitions by
resent resented ed the denial denial of freed freedom om of
increasin increasing g the number of elective elective
expres expressio sion n for for nation nationali alists sts, and the lack lack
office offices s reserv reserved ed for for Muslim Muslims s in the
of any voice or role role for for ordin ordinary ary
Government of India Act 1909 . The
Indian Indians s in the affair affairs s of their nation nation.
Muslim League insisted on its
For For these these reaso reasons ns, he consid considere ered d
separatene separateness ss from from the Hindu-
Swaraj as the natural and only
domina dominated ted Congres Congress s, as the voice voice of a
soluti solution on. His popul popular ar sente sentence nce " Swaraj Swaraj
"nation nation
within within a nation nation."
is my birt birthr hrigh ightt, and and I shal shalll have have it" became the source of inspiration for
In
Indians.
Governor Governor-General General (1899–1905), ordered
In 1907, the Congress was split into
the partit partition ion of the provin province ce of Bengal Bengal
two. Tila Tilak k advoca advocated ted what was deemed deemed
for improvem improvements ents in administra administrative tive
as extremism . He wanted a direct
effici efficienc ency y in that that huge huge and populo populous us
assaul assaultt by the people people upon upon the British British
region region, where where the Bengal Bengalii Hindu Hindu
Raj Raj, and the abandonm abandonment ent of all things things
intelligentsia exerted considerable
British British. He was backed backed by rising rising public public
influence influence on local local and national politics.
leaders leaders like like Bipin Chandra Pal Pal and Lala
The The partit partition ion outrag outraged ed Bengal Bengalis is. Not
Lajpat Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of
only only had the govern governmen mentt failed failed to
view view. Under Under them, India India' s three three great great
consul consultt Indian Indian public public opinio opinion n, but the
states - Maharashtra, Bengal and
action action appeared appeared to reflect reflect the British
Punjab shaped the demand of the
resolve resolve to divide and rule. Widespread
people people and India India' s nation nationali alism sm. Gokhal Gokhale e
agitation ensued in the streets and in
criticized criticized Tilak for encouraging encouraging acts of
the press press, and the Congres Congress s advoca advocated ted
violen violence ce and disorde disorderr. But the
boycotting British products under the
Curzon, the Viceroy and
7
banner banner of swadeshi . People showed
World War I began with an
unity unity by tying tying Rakhi on each other 's
unpreceden unprecedented ted outpouring outpouring of loyalty loyalty
wrists wrists and observing observing Arandhan (not
and goodwi goodwill ll toward towards s the United United
cooking any food).
Kingdom from within the mainstream
During the partition of Bengal new methods methods of struggle were were adopted adopted. These These led to swades swadeshi hi and boycot boycottt movements. The The Congr Congress ess- led boycot boycottt of Britis British h goods goods was so succes successfu sfull that that it unleas unleashed hed anti-British British forces forces to an extent unknown since the Sepoy Rebel Rebellio lion n. A cycle cycle of violence violence and repres repressio sion n ensued ensued in some some parts parts of the countr country y (see see Alipore Alipore bomb case). The British British tried tried to mitiga mitigate te the situat situation ion by announcing a series of cons consttitut itutio ion nal reform forms s in 1909 and by appointing a few moderates to the imperi imperial al and provin provincia ciall counci councils ls. In what the British saw as an additional goodwill gesture, in in 1911 King- Empe mperor George V visited India for a durbar (a tradit tradition ional al court court held held for subjec subjects ts to expres express s fealty fealty to their their ruler ruler), during during which he announced the reversal of the partition of Bengal and the transfer of the capital from Calcutta to a newly planne planned d city city to be built built immedi immediate ately ly south south of Delhi Delhi, which which later became became New Delhi. However However, ceremony ceremony of transfer transfer on 23 December 1912 was marked by the attempt to assassinate the then Viceroy, Lor Lord d Hard Hardinge inge, in what came to be known as the DelhiLahore conspiracy.
political political leadership leadership, contrary contrary to initial initial British British fears fears of an Indian Indian revolt revolt. India India contributed contributed massively massively to the British British war effort by providing men and reso resour urce ces s. Abo About ut 1.3 mill millio ion n Indi Indian an soldie soldiers rs and labor laborers ers served served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while both the Indian government and the princes sent sent large large suppli supplies es of food food, mone money y, and and ammunition ammunition. However However, Bengal and Punjab remained remained hotbeds hotbeds of anti colonial activities. Ter Terrorism rorism in Bengal, increasin increasingly gly closely closely linked linked with the unrest unrests s in Punjab Punjab, was signific significant ant enough to nearly paralyse the regional [7][8] 8] administration.[7][ Also from the
beginn beginning ing of the war, expatr expatriat iate e Indian Indian population population, notably notably from United States, Cana Canada da, and and Germ German any y, head headed ed by the the Berlin Committee Committee and the Ghadar Party, attempted attempted to trigger trigger insur insurrec rectio tions ns in India India on the lines of the 1857 uprising with Irish Rep Republica ublican n, German German and Turkis urkish h help help in a massiv massive e conspi conspirac racy y that that has since come to be called the Hindu Germ German an 9][10] 10][11] [11] conspiracy[9][ This conspiracy conspiracy also
attempted attempted to rally Afghanistan Afghanistan against against British India.[12] A number of failed attemp attempts ts were made at mutiny mutiny, of which which the Februa February ry mutiny mutiny plan and the Singap Singapore ore mutiny remain remain most
See also : Hindu German Conspiracy and Defe and Defence nce of India Act 1915
notabl notable e. This This moveme movement nt was suppre suppresse ssed d by means means of a massiv massive e
8
internatio international nal counter counter-intelligence intelligence
achieving achieving the proposed proposed measure were
operation operation and draconian draconian political political acts
later later enshri enshrined ned in the Governmen Governmentt of
(including
India Act 1919, which introduced the
1915)) 1915
the Defence of India act
[13][14] [14] that that lasted lasted nearly nearly ten years years.[13]
In the aftermath of the WW I, high casualty casualty rates, soaring soaring inflation inflation compou compounde nded d by heavy heavy taxati taxation on, a widespread influenza epidem epidemic ic, and the the disruption of trade during the war escala escalated ted human sufferin suffering g in India India. The Indian soldiers smuggled arms into India India to overth overthrow row the British British rule. The prewar prewar nationalist nationalist movement movement revived revived as moderate moderate and extremis extremistt groups groups within the Congress Congress submerged submerged their differences in order to stand as a unified unified front front. In 1916, the Congress succee succeeded ded in forgin forging g the Lucknow Lucknow Pact Pact, a tempor temporary ary allian alliance ce with with the Muslim Muslim League over the issues of devolution of politi political cal power and the future future of Islam in the region. The British themselves adopted adopted a carrott "carro
and stick stick" approa approach ch in
recognitio recognition n of India' s support support during the war and in response to renewed nation nationali alist st demand demands s. In August August 1917, Edwin Montagu Montagu, the secretary of state for India India, made made the histori historic c announceme announcement nt in Parliam Parliament ent that the British British policy policy for India was " increa increasin sing g association of Indians in every branch of the adminis administra tratio tion n and the gradua graduall development development of self-governing governing institutions with a view to the progress progressive ive realizat realization ion of responsib responsible le govern governmen mentt in India India as an integra integrall part part of the the Britis British h Empire Empire." The The means means of
principle of a dual mode of admini administr strati ation on, or diarch diarchy y, in which both elected Indian Indian legislator legislators s and appointed appointed British British officials officials shared shared power. The act also expanded the central central and provincia provinciall legislatu legislatures res and widened widened the franchise franchise considerab considerably ly. Diarch Diarchy y set set in motion motion certai certain n real real change changes s at the provin provincia ciall level level: a number number of non- contr controve oversi rsial al or transfer erred red" "transf
portfo portfolio lios s, such such as
agriculture, local government, health, education, and public public works works, were were handed handed over to Indian Indians s, while while more sensitive sensitive matters such as finance, taxation, and mainta maintaini ining ng law and order were retained retained by the provincial provincial British administrators. []
Mahatma Mahatma Gandhi Gandhi had been a prominent leader of the anti-Apartheid movement movement in South Africa Africa, and had been a vocal opponent of basic discriminat discrimination ion and abusive abusive labour labour treatment treatment as well as suppressi suppressive ve police police contr control ol such such as the Rowlatt Acts. During During these protest protests s, Gandhi Gandhi had perfected the concept of satyagraha , which had been inspired by the philosophy philosophy of Baba Ram Singh (famous for leadin leading g the Kuka Movement in the Punjab in 1872). The end of the protests protests in South Africa saw oppressiv oppressive e legislation legislation repealed repealed and the release release of political political prisoners prisoners by General General Jan
9
Smuts, head head of the South South Afric African an
sharecro sharecroppers ppers and landless landless farmers farmers
Government of the time.
who were being forced to pay
Gandh Gandhii, a stra strang nger er to India India and and its its politi politics cs after after twenty twenty years years, had initia initially lly entere entered d the fray not with with calls calls for a nati nation on-stat state e, but but in suppor supportt of the unified unified commerce commerce- oriented oriented territory territory that the Congress Party had been
oppressiv oppressive e taxes taxes and grow cash crops at the expense of the subsistence crops which formed their food supply. The The profit profits s from from the crops crops they they grew grew were were insuff insuffici icient ent to provid provide e for their their sustenance.
asking asking for. Gandhi Gandhi believed believed that the industrial industrial developmen developmentt and educational educational development development that the Europeans Europeans had brought with them were required to alleviate alleviate many of India' s problems problems. Gopal Gopal Krishna Krishna Gokhale Gokhale, a veteran Congressm Congressman an and Indian Indian leader leader, became became Gandhi Gandhi' s mento mentorr. Gandh Gandhii' s ideas ideas and strate strategie gies s of non- violen violentt civil disobedienc disobedience e initially appeared impractical impractical to some Indians and Congr Congress essmen men. In Gandhi Gandhi' s own words words, "civil civil
disobe disobedie dience nce is civil civil breac breach h of
unmora unmorall statut statutory ory enac enactme tments nts." It had to be carri carried ed out non- violen violently tly by withdrawing withdrawing cooperati cooperation on with the corru corrupt pt state state. Gandhi Gandhi' s abilit ability y to inspir inspire e millions millions of common common people people became became clear clear when when he used used satyagraha during the anti-Rowla Rowlatt tt Act protest protests s in Punjab Punjab.
The The positi positive ve impact impact of refor reform m was seriously seriously undermined undermined in 1919 by the Rowlatt Rowlatt Act, named named after after the recommend recommendation ations s made the previous previous year to the Imperial Imperial Legislat Legislative ive Council Council by the Rowlat Rowlattt Commission, which which had been appointed to investigat investigate e what was termed the "seditious conspiracy" and the German and Bolshevik involvement involvement in the militant militant movements movements [15][16][ 16][17] 17] in India.[15][ The Rowla Rowlatt tt Act, also also
known as the Black Act, vested the Viceroy Viceroy's governmen governmentt with extraordin extraordinary ary powers powers to quell sedition sedition by silenc silencing ing the press press, detain detaining ing the politi political cal activi activists sts withou withoutt trial trial, and arresting arresting any individuals individuals suspected of sediti sedition on or treas treason on withou withoutt a warran warrantt. In protes protestt, a nation nationwid wide e cessat cessation ion of
Gandhi Gandhi’s vision vision would soon bring
work (hartal ) was called called, markin marking g the
millions of regular Indians into the
beginning beginning of widesprea widespread d, although although not
moveme movement nt, transf transform orming ing it from from an
nation nationwid wide e, popula popularr discon disconten tentt. The
elitis elitistt strugg struggle le to a nation national al one. The
agitat agitation ion unleas unleashed hed by the acts acts
nationalis nationalistt cause cause was expanded to
culminated culminated on 13 April 1919, in the
include include the interests interests and industries industries
Jallianwal Jallianwala a Bagh massacre massacre (also known
that that forme formed d the econom economy y of common common
as the Amritsar Massacre) in Amritsar,
Indian Indians s. For For exampl example e, in Champaran,
Punjab Punjab. The British military military commander commander,
Bihar, the Congress Congress Party Party championed championed
Brigadier-General Reginal Reginald d Dyer,
the plight of desperately poor
10
block blocked ed the main main entran entrance ce, and
movement movement enjoyed enjoyed widespread widespread popular popular
ordered his soldiers to fire into an
support support, and the resulting unparallele unparalleled d
unarmed unarmed and unsuspecting unsuspecting crowd crowd of
magnitude magnitude of disorder disorder presented presented a
some 5,000 men, women and children.
serious serious challenges challenges to foreign foreign rule.
They had assembled assembled at Jallianwala Jallianwala
Howeve Howeverr, Gandhi Gandhi called called off off the
Bagh Bagh, a walled walled in courty courtyar ard d in defiance defiance
movement movement following following the Chauri Chauri Chaura Chaura
of the ban. A total of 1,651 rounds
incident, which saw the death of
were fired, ki killing ing 379 people (as
twenty twenty-two policeme policemen n at the hands hands of
according according to an official official British
an angry mob.
commissio commission n; Indian estimates estimates ranged as high as 1,499 ) and wounding 1,137 [18]
in the episode episode, which which dispel dispelled led wartime wartime hopes of home rule and goodwill in a frenz frenzy y of post post-war reactio reaction n.
In 1920, the Cong Congre ress ss was was reorg eorga aniz nized and given a new constit constituti ution on, whose whose goal goal was Swaraj (independence). Member Membershi ship p in the party party was opened opened to anyone anyone prepar prepared ed to pay a token token fee, and a hierar hierarchy chy of commit committee tees s
It can be argued that the independenc independence e movement movement, even towards towards the end of Firs Firstt World World War War, was far removed from the masses of India, focusing focusing essential essentially ly on a unified unified commerce commerce-oriented oriented territory territory and hardly hardly
was establishe established d and made responsible responsible for for discip discipline line and contro controll over over a hitherto hitherto amorphous amorphous and diffuse diffuse movem movement ent. The party party was transf transform ormed ed from an elite organization to one of mass national appeal and participat participation ion.
a call call for a unit united ed nati nation on. That That came came
Gan Gandhi was sentenced in 1922 to six
in the 1930 s with the entry of
years years of prison prison, but was releas released ed after after
Mohandas Mohandas Karamchan Karamchand d Gandhi Gandhi into
servin serving g two. On his releas release e from from
Indian Politics Politics in 1915.
pris prison on, he set up the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, on the banks of river Sabarmati, establishe established d the
The first satyagraha satyagraha movement movement urged
newspaper Young Young India , and
the use of Khadi and Indian material material
inaugu inaugurat rated ed a series series of refo reforms rms aimed aimed
as alternat alternatives ives to those those shipped shipped from
at the socially socially disadvanta disadvantaged ged within within
Britain. It also urged people to boycott
Hind Hindu u soci societ ety y - the the rura rurall poor poor, and and the the
British educational institutions and law
untouchables.
courts courts; resign resign from government government employ employmen mentt; refus refuse e to pay taxes taxes; and forsake forsake British British titles titles and honours honours. Although this came too late to influence the framing of the new Government of India Act of 1919, the
This era saw the emergence of new genera generatio tion n of Indians Indians from from within within the Congress Congress Party Party, including including C. Rajagopalachari, Jawaharla Jawaharlall Nehru, Vallabhbhai Vall abhbhai Patel, Subhas Subhash h Chandr Chandra a
11
Bose and and other others s- who who would would late laterr on
launched. By 1929, however, in the
come come to form form the promin prominent ent voice voices s of
midst rising political political discontent discontent and
the Indian independence independence movement movement,
increasin increasingly gly violent violent regional regional
whether whether keeping keeping with Gandhian Gandhian Values Values,
movem movements ents, the call for for comple complete te
or diverging from it.
independence independence from Britain began to
The Indian political political spectrum was furth rther broadened in th the mid-1920 s by the emerge emergence nce of both both modera moderate te and milita militant nt parties parties, such such as the Swaraj Party, Hindu Mahas Mahasabha abha, Communist Party of India and the Rashtriya Swayamseva Swayamsevak k Sangh. Regional Regional political organizat organizations ions also continued continued to represen representt the interest interests s of nonBrahmins in Madras, Mahars in Maharashtra, and Sikhs in Punjab. However However, brahmins brahmins like Mahakavi Mahakavi Subramanya Subramanya Bharathi Bharathi, Vanchi Vanchinatha nathan n and Neelakanda Neelakanda Brahmachari Brahmachari played played a major major role role from from Tamil mil Nadu Nadu in both both freedom freedom struggle and fighting fighting for equali equality ty for all castes castes and communities. []
find increasing increasing grounds grounds within the Congress leadership. Under the presidency presidency of Jawa of Jawaharlal harlal Nehru at its historic Lahore session session in December December 1929,
The Indian National Cong Congress ress
adopted adopted a resolutio resolution n calling calling for complete complete independence independence from the British. It authorized authorized the Working Working Committee to launch a civil disobedienc disobedience e movement movement throughout throughout the countr country y. It was decided decided that 26 January 1930
should should be observ observed ed all over India India
as the Purna Swaraj (total indepe independe ndence nce) Day. Many Indian political political parties and Indian revolutio revolutionarie naries s of a wide spectrum spectrum united to observe the day with honour and pride. []
Following Following the rejection rejection of the
Gandhi emerged from his long
recommenda recommendations tions of the Simon
seclus seclusion ion by undert undertaki aking ng his most most
Commission by India Indians ns, an all all- party party
famou famous s campa campaign ign, a march march of about about
conference was held at Bombay in
400
kilometre kilometres s from his commune commune in
May 1928. This was meant to instill a
Ahmedabad to Dandi, on the coast of
sense sense of resist resistanc ance e among among people people. The
Gujarat between 12 March and 6 April
conference conference appointed appointed a drafting drafting
1930.
committee committee under Motilal Motilal Nehru to draw
the Dandi March or the Salt
up a consti constitut tution ion for India. The
Satyagraha . At Dandi Dandi, in protest protest
Calcutta sessio session n of the Indian Indian Nation National al
agains againstt Britis British h taxes taxes on salt, he and
Congress Congress asked asked the British British government government
thousands thousands of followers followers broke the law
to accord dominion status to India by
by making their own salt from
Decembe mber 1929, or a countrywide civil
seawater.
The The march march is usuall usually y known known as
disobedienc disobedience e movement movement would be
12
In Apri Aprill 1930 the there wer were vio violen lent polic olice e-
Howeve Howeverr, the confere conference nce ended in
crowd crowd clashes clashes in Calcutta.
failur lure in December 1931. Gandhi dhi
Approximately over 100,000 people were
returned to India and decided to
imprisoned in the course of the Civil
resume resume the civil disobedience disobedience
disobedience movement (1930-31), while
movement in January 1932.
in Peshawar unarmed demonstrators were fired upon in the Qissa Qissa Khwani Khwani bazaar massacre. The latter event catapulted catapulted the then newly formed formed Khudai Khudai Khidmatgar Khidmatgar movement movement (founder founder Khan Khan Abdul Abdul Ghaffa Ghaffarr Khan Khan, the Frontier Gandhi ) onto onto the National National scene scene. While While Gandh Gandhii was was in
jail,
the the first Round
Tabl T able e Conference was held in London in November 1930, without represen representatio tation n from the Indian National Congr Congress ess. The ban upon upon the Congres Congress s was removed because of economic economic hardships hardships caused by the satyagraha satyagraha. Gandhi Gandhi, along along with with other other members members of the Congress Congress Working Working Committee, was released from prison in January 1931.
For For the next few years years, the Congres Congress s and the government were locked in conflict conflict and negotiatio negotiations ns until what became became the Governmen Governmentt of India Act of 1935 could be hammered out. By By then then, the rift between between the Congre Congress ss and the Muslim League had become unbridg unbridgeab eable le as each each pointe pointed d the finger finger at the other acrimoni acrimonious ously ly. The Muslim Muslim Leagu League e disput disputed ed the claim claim of the Congre Congress ss to repres represent ent all people people of India India, while while the Congres Congress s disput disputed ed the Muslim League' s claim to voice the aspira aspiratio tions ns of all Muslim Muslims s. hi Elections Elections and the Lahore Lahore resolution resolution Jinnah with Gandhi, 1944. []
The Government of India Act 1935, the
In March of 1931, the Gandhi Gandhi-Irwin Irwin Pact Pact
voluminous voluminous and final constitut constitutional ional
was signed signed, and the govern governmen mentt
effort effort at governing governing British British India,
agreed agreed to set set all all politi political cal prison prisoners ers free free
articulated articulated three major major goals goals:
Although gh, (Althou
establishing establishing a loose loose federal federal structure structure,
some some of the key
revolutio revolutionarie naries s were not set free and
achieving achieving provincial provincial autonomy autonomy, and
the death sentence for Bhagat Singh
safeguard safeguarding ing minority minority interest interests s through through
and his two comrades comrades was not taken taken
separate separate electorates electorates. The federal
back which further further intensified intensified the
provis provision ions s, intend intended ed to unite unite princely
agitation agitation against Congress Congress not only
states and British India at the centre,
outside it but within the Congress
were not implemente implemented d because because of
itse itself lf). In retu return rn, Gand Gandhi hi agre agreed ed to
ambiguities ambiguities in safeguard safeguarding ing the
discontinue discontinue the civil disobedien disobedience ce
existi existing ng privil privilege eges s of princes princes. In
moveme movement nt and partic participa ipate te as the sole sole
Februa ruary 1937, howe howev ver, provi rovinc ncia iall
represen representativ tative e of the Congress Congress in the
autonomy autonomy became became a reality reality when
second second Round Round Table able Conferenc Conference e, which
electi elections ons were held held; the Congr Congress ess
was held in London in September 1931.
emerged as the dominant party with a
13
clear clear major majority ity in five five provin provinces ces and
Particu Particularly larly notable notable movements movements arose arose
held held an upper upper hand hand in two, whil while e the the
in Bengal, especially especially around around the
Muslim League performed performed poorly poorly.
Partitio Partition n of Bengal Bengal in 1905, and in
In 1939, the Viceroy Viceroy Linlithgow declared India's entrance entrance into World World War War II without without consulting consulting provincia provinciall governments. In protes protestt, the Congres Congress s asked asked all of its elected elected represe representati ntatives ves to resign resign from from the govern governmen mentt. Jinnah, the president of the Muslim Muslim League League, persuaded persuaded participan participants ts at the annual annual Muslim League session at Lahore in 1940
to adopt what later came to be
known as the Lahore Resolution Resolution, demanding the division of India into two separa separate te sover sovereig eign n states states, one Muslim, the other other Hindu; sometimes referred referred to as T Two wo Nati Nation on Theo Theory ry. Althou Although gh the idea of Pakistan had been int introduced as early as 1930, very few few had had resp respon onde ded d to it. Howe Howeve verr, the the volatile volatile political political climate climate and hostilities hostilities betwee between n the Hindus Hindus and Muslim Muslims s transf transform ormed ed the idea idea of Pakis Pakistan tan into into a stronger stronger demand.
Punjab.[19] In the forme formerr case case, it was the educated educated, intelligen intelligentt and dedicated dedicated youth of the urban Middle Clas Class s Bhadralok community that came to form form the the "Clas Classi sic c" Indi Indian an revolutionary,[19] while the latter had an immens immense e suppor supportt base base in the rural and Military Military society society of the Punjab Punjab. Organisations like Jugantar and Anushilan Anushilan Samiti Samiti had emerged in the 1900s.
The revolutiona revolutionary ry philosophi philosophies es
and movement made their presence felt during the 1905 Partiti Partition on of Bengal Bengal. Arguab Arguably ly, the initial initial steps steps to organi organize ze the revolutio revolutionaries naries were taken taken by Aurobindo Auro bindo Ghosh, his brother brother Barin Ghosh, Bhupendranath Datta etc etc. when when they they forme formed d the Jugantar party in April 1906.[20]
Jugantar was created created as an
inner circle of the Anushilan Anushilan Samiti Samiti which which was alread already y prese present nt in Bengal mainly as a revolutionary society in
[]
the guise of a fitness club.
Apart Apart from from a few stray stray incide incidents nts, the
The Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar
armed armed rebellion rebellion against against the British British
opened opened several several branches branches throughou throughoutt
rulers was not organized before the
Bengal and other parts of India and
begi beginn nnin ing g of of the the 20 th cent centur ury y. The The
recruited young men and women to
Indian revolutio revolutionary nary undergrou underground nd
participate participate in the revolution revolutionary ary
began gathering momentum through
activities activities. Several Several murders and looting
the first decade of 1900s, with groups
were were done done, with with many many revol revoluti utiona onaries ries
arising in Maharastra, Bengal, Orissa,
being being captur captured ed and imprisone imprisoned d. The
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh Pradesh, Punjab, and the
Jugantar party leaders like Barin Ghosh Ghosh
then Madras Presidency including including what
and Bagha Jatin initiated initiated making making of
is now called South India. More groups groups
explos explosive ives s. Amongs Amongstt a number number of
were scattere scattered d around around India.
notable notable events events of political political terroris terrorism m
14
were the Alipore bomb case, the
and ammunition ammunitions s from Germany and
Muzaffarpu Muzaffarpurr killing killing tried several
stage stage an armed armed revolu revolutio tion n agains againstt the
activis activists ts and many many were were senten sentenced ced to
British.[23]
deport deportati ation on for life, while while Khudiram Bose was hanged hanged. The foundin founding g of the India House and the The Indian Indian Sociologist under Shyamj Shyamjii Krish Krishna na Varma in London in 1905 took the
The Ghadar Ghadar Party Party operated operated from from abroa abroad d and cooper cooperate ated d with with the revolu revolutio tionar naries ies in India India. This This party party was instrumenta instrumentall in helping helping revolutio revolutionaries naries inside inside India India catch catch hold hold of forei foreign gn arms arms.
radica radicall moveme movement nt to Britai Britain n itself itself. On 1 July 1909, Indian 1909, Madan Lal Dhingra, an Indian student student closely closely identified identified with India House House in Londo London n shot shot dead dead Willi William am Hutt Hutt Curz Curzon on Wyli Wylie e, a Brit Britis ish h M. P. in London . 1912 saw the Delhi-Laho Lahore re Conspiracy planned under Rash Rash Behari Behari Bose, an erstwhile erstwhile Jugantar memb member er, to assassina assassinate te the then Vice Viceroy roy of India Charles Charl es Hard Hardinge inge. The conspiracy conspiracy culmin culminate ated d in an attemp attemptt to Bomb the Vicerega Viceregall processi procession on on 23 December 1912, 1912,
on the occasion of transferring
the Imperial Capital from Calcutta to Delhi. In the aftermath of this event, concentrat concentrated ed police police and intelligence intelligence efforts were made by the British Indian police police to destro destroy y the Bengal Bengalii and Punjabi revolutionary underground, which came under intense pressure for some some time time. Rash Rash Behari Behari succes successfu sfully lly evaded evaded capture capture for nearly three years.
Afte Afterr the First First World World War, the revolutio revolutionary nary activities activities began to slowly slowly wane wane as it suffer suffered ed major major setbac setbacks ks due to the arres arrestt of promin prominent ent leader leaders s. In the 1920s, som some revolutionary activists activists began to reorgani reorganize ze. Hindustan Hindustan Socialist Socialist Republica Republican n Association was formed under the leadership leadership of Chandrasek Chandrasekhar har Azad. Bhagat Bhagat Singh and Batukesh Batukeshwar war Dutt threw a bomb inside the Central Legislati Legislative ve Assembly Assembly on 8 April 1929 protestin protesting g against against the passage of the Public Public Safety Safety Bill Bill and the Trade rade Disput Disputes es Bill Bill. Follo Following wing the trial trial (Central
Assembly Bomb Case), Bhagat
Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in 1931. Allama Allama Mashriqi Mashriqi founded Khaksar Tehreek ehreek in order to direct direct particularly particularly the Muslims Muslims towards towards the independenc independence e movement movement.[24]
Howe Howeve verr, by the time that that WW I
Surya Sen, along with other activists activists,
opened opened in Europe Europe, the revo revolut lution ionary ary
raided the Chittagong armoury on 18
move moveme ment nt in Bengal Bengal ( and and Punj Punjab ab) had had
April 1930 to capture arms and
revive revived d and was stron strong g enough enough to
ammunition ammunition and to destroy destroy governmen governmentt
nearly paralyse the local
communicati communication on system system to establish establish a
[21][22] 22] administration.[21][
local governance. Pritilata Waddedar Waddedar
During the Firs Firstt Wor World ld War, the revolutionaries planned to import arms
led an attack on a European club in Chittagong in 1932, while Bina Das
15
attempted attempted to assassina assassinate te Stanley
Linlithgow Linlithgow's action action, the entire entire Congress Congress
Jackson, the Governor Governor of Bengal inside
leadership leadership resigned resigned from the local local
the convoc convocati ation on hall hall of Calcutta
gover governme nment nt counci councils ls. Howeve Howeverr, many many
University. Followin Following g the Chittagong
wanted to support the British war
armoury armoury raid case, Surya Sen was
effort effort, and indeed indeed the British British Indian Indian
hanged hanged and severa severall others others were were
Army was one of the largest volunteer
deported for life to the Cellular Cellular Jail in
force forces s during during the war. Especially Especially during
Andaman. The Bengal Volunteers Volunteers
the Battle of Britain, Gandhi Gandhi resisted resisted
started operating in 1928. On 8
calls for massive massive civil disobedience disobedience
December 1930, the Benoy-Badal-
movem movements ents that came came from from within within as
Dinesh trio of the party entered the
well well as outside outside his party, statin stating g he
secretariat Writers Writers' Building Building in Kolkata
did not seek India' s freedom out of the
and and murd murder ered ed Col Col. N. S. Simp Simpso son n, the the
ashes ashes of a destro destroyed yed Britain Britain. Howeve Howeverr,
Inspector Inspector General General of Prisons Prisons.
like like the changing changing fortun fortunes es of the war
On 13 March 1940, 1940, Udham Singh shot Michael Michael O' Dwyer Dwyer, generally generally held responsib responsible le for the Amritsar Massacre, in London London. Howeve Howeverr, as the politic political al
itself itself, the movement movement for freed freedom om saw saw the rise rise of two moveme movements nts that forme rmed the climax of the 100- year struggle struggle for independenc independence e.
scena cenari rio o cha changed nged in the late late 1930 s —
The The first first of these these, the the Aza Azad d Hin Hind d
with the mainstre mainstream am leaders leaders
movement led by Neta Netaji ji Subha Subhash sh
considering considering several options options offered offered by
Chandra Bose, saw saw its incept inception ion early early
the British British and with with relig religiou ious s politi politics cs
in the war and sought help from the
comi coming ng into into play play — revo revolut lutio iona nary ry
Axis Po Powers wers. The second saw its
activities activities gradually gradually declined. Many past
inc inception ion in August 1942 led by Gandh ndhi
revolutionaries joined mainstream
and began began follow following ing failur failure e of the
politics politics by joining joining Congress and other
Cripps Cripps' missio mission n to reac reach h a consen consensus sus
parties parties, especially especially communist communist ones,
with with the Indian Indian politi political cal leader leadershi ship p over over
while many of the activists were kept
the transfer of power after the war.
under under hold hold in diffe differen rentt jails jails acros across s the country. The clim climax ax: War, Quit Quit India India, INA INA and [] The Post Post-war revolts revolts Indians Indians throughout throughout the country country were divided over World War II, as Linlithgow, without without consulting consulting the Indian representatives representatives had unilateral unilaterally ly declar declared ed India India a bellig belligere erent nt on the side side
See also : Legion Freies Indien , Battaglion Battaglione e Azad Hindoustan Hindoustan , Captt. Moh Cap Mohan an Singh Singh , Indian Independence League , and INA and INA trials Jubila Jubilant nt INA and Japane Japanese se troops troops after after captur capturing ing a post post on the Indo- Burmes Burmese e Border Border. Althou Although gh large largely ly ignore ignored d by post-Independenc Independence e historians historians of India, the contributions of the Azad Hind movement movement are now considere considered d [25] significant.
of the allies. In opposi oppositio tion n to
16
The arbitrary entry of India into the
in the forests of in Arakan, Burma and
war was stron strongly gly oppose opposed d by Subhash
Assam, laying siege siege on Imphal Imphal and
Chandra Chand ra Bose, who had been electe elected d
Kohima with with the the Japa Japane nes se 15th Army Army.
Presi Presiden dentt of the Congr Congress ess twice, in 1937
Duri During ng the war, the the Andaman and
and 1939. After lobbying agains inst
Nicobar islands we were re cap captur tured ed by the
partic participa ipatio tion n in the war, he resign resigned ed
Japanese and handed over by them to
from Congress in 1939 and started a
the INA; Bose Bose renamed renamed them Shahid
new new party party, the the All India India Forwa Forward rd Bloc Bloc.
Martyr yr) (Mart
When When war brok broke e out out, the the Raj Raj had had put put him under house arrest in Calcutta in 1940.
Howe Howeve verr, at the time time the war war
was at its bloodiest in Europe and Asia,
he escap escaped ed and made his way
through Afghanistan to German Germany y to seek Axis help to raise an army to figh fightt the shack shackle les s of the Raj Raj. He Here re, he raised with Rommel's Indian POWs what came to be known as the Free India Leg Legion ion. This came to be the conceptua conceptualisat lisation ion in embryonic embryonic form of Bose Bose's dream dream of raisin raising g a libera liberatio tion n Army Army to fight fight the the Raj Raj. Howe Howeve verr, the the turn of tides in the Battlefields of Europe saw Bose make his way ultimately ultima tely to Japane Japanese se South Asia where he formed what came to be
and and Swaraj (Independence).
The The INA would would ultima ultimatel tely y fail fail, owing owing to disrup disrupted ted logist logistics ics, poor poor arms arms and suppli supplies es from from the Japane Japanese se, and lack of support support and training training.[1] The supposed death of Bose is seen as culmination of the entire Azad Hind Movement. Follo Followin wing g the surrend surrender er of Japan Japan, the troops troops of the INA were were brough broughtt to India and a number of them charged with treas treason on. Howeve Howeverr, Bose Bose's audaci audacious ous action actions s and radica radicall initia initiativ tive e had by this time captured the public imagin imaginati ation on and also also turne turned d the inclin inclinati ation on of the native native soldie soldiers rs of the British British Indian Indian Forc Forces es from from one one of loyalty to the crown to support for the soldie soldiers rs that that the Raj Raj deemed deemed as [26][27] 27] collaborators.[26][
known as the Azad Hind Gove Government rnment as the Provisio Provisional nal Free Free Indian Indian Govern Governmen mentt in exile exile, and organiz organized ed the Indian National Army with Indian POWs and Indian expatriates at Sou South th-Eas Eastt Asia, with the help of the Japanese. Its aim was to reach India as a fighting force that would build on public resentmen resentmentt to inspire inspire revolts revolts among among Indian Indian soldie soldiers rs to defeat defeat the Raj Raj.
Afte Afterr the the war war, the the stor storie ies s of the Azad Hind moveme movement nt and its army army that that came came into into public public limelig limelight ht during during the trials trials of soldi soldiers ers of the INA in 1945 were were seen seen as so inflam inflamma mator tory y that that, fearing fearing mass revolts revolts and uprisings — not not just just in India India, but acros across s its its empi empire re —
the British British Governmen Governmentt forbade forbade the
BBC from broadcasting broadcasting their story story.[28] Newspapers Newspapers reported reported the summary summary
The INA was to see action against the allies allies, includ including ing the British British Indian Indian Army Army,
execu executio tion n of INA soldie soldiers rs held held at Red Red Fort.[29] During and after the trial,
17
mutinies mutini es bro broke ke out in the Briti British sh Indian
came to be known as the Cripps'
Armed Arme d forc forces es, most notably in the
Mission. The purpose of the mission
Royal Royal Indian Indian Navy Navy which which found found public public
was to negotiate with the Indian
support throughout India, from Karachi
National Congress a deal to obtain
to Bombay and from from Vizag to
tota totall co-oper operat atio ion n durin during g the the war war, in
[30][31][ 31][32] 32] Calcutta.[30][ Many historians historians have
return return of progress progressive ive devolution devolution and
argued that it was the INA and the
distri distribut bution ion of power power from from the crown crown
mutinies it inspired among the British
and the Viceroy to elected Indian
Indian Indian Armed Armed force forces s that that were were the true
legisl legislatu ature re. Howeve Howeverr, the talks talks failed failed,
driving driving force force behind behind India India' s final final
having having failed failed to addres address s the key
[33][34][ 34][35] 35] independence.[33][
demand demand of a timefr timeframe ame toward towards s self self gover governme nment nt, and of defini definitio tion n of the
The Quit India Movement ( Bharat Bharat
powers to be relinquish relinquished ed, essentiall essentially y
Chhodo Chhodo Andolan Andolan ) or the August
portraying an offer of limited
Movement was a civil disobedienc disobedience e
domini dominion on-status status that that was wholly wholly
movement in India launched launched in August
unacceptab unacceptable le to the Indian
1942
in response to Gandhi's call for
movement.[37] To force the Raj to meet
immediate immediate independence independence of India and
its demand demands s and to obtain obtain defini definitiv tive e
agains againstt sendin sending g Indian Indians s to the World World
word word on total independ independenc ence e, the
War II.
Congre Congress ss took took the decisi decision on to launch launch
At the outbrea outbreak k of war, the Congres Congress s
the Quit India Movement.
Party Party had during the Wardha Wardha meeting meeting
The aim of the movement was to
of the workin working g- commi committe ttee e in
bring bring the British Government to the
Sept Septem embe berr 1939, pas passed sed a reso esolut lution ion
negoti negotiati ating ng table table by holdin holding g the Allied Allied
conditiona conditionally lly supporting supporting the fight
War War Effort Effort hostage hostage. The call for
against against fascism fascism,[36] but were rebuffed rebuffed
determined determined but passive resistance that
when when they they asked asked for indepe independe ndence nce in
signified signified the certitude that Gandhi
return. In In March 1942, faced with an
fores foresaw aw for the moveme movement nt is best best
increasin increasingly gly dissatisfi dissatisfied ed sub- continent continent
described by his call to Do or Die ,
only reluctant reluctantly ly participati participating ng in the
issued issued on 8 August at the Gowalia
war, and deterio deteriorat ration ions s in the war
Tan Tank k Maidan in Bomba Bombay y, sinc since e re-
situation situation in Europe and South East
named August August Kranti Kranti Maidan Maidan (August
Asia, and with growing growing dissatisfa dissatisfactio ctions ns
Revol Revoluti ution on Groun Ground d). Howeve Howeverr, almost almost
among among Indian Indian troop troops s- espec especial ially ly in
the entire entire Congres Congress s leader leadershi ship p, and not
Euro Europe pe- and and among among the civili civilian an
merely merely at the nationa nationall level level, was put
popula populatio tion n in the sub- contin continent ent, the
into into confin confineme ement nt less less than than twenty twenty- four four
British British government government sent a delegation delegation
hours hours after after Gandhi Gandhi' s speech speech, and the
to India under Stafford Stafford Cripps, in what
greater number of the Congress
18
khiland were to spend the rest of the
the Muslim Muslim League League under a single
war in jail.
mast mast and moveme movement nt. It did howeve howeverr,
On August 8, 1942, 1942, the Quit India resolu resolutio tion n was passed passed at the Bombay Bombay sessio session n of the All India India Congr Congress ess
obtain obtain passiv passive e suppor supportt from from a substantia substantiall Muslim population population at the peak of the movement.
Commit Committee tee (AICC AICC). The draft proposed
The British swiftly swiftly responded responded by mass
that if the British did not accede to
detentions. A total over 100,000 arrests
the demands demands, a massive massive Civil
were were made made nation nationwid wide e, mass mass fines fines
Disobedien Disobedience ce would be launched launched.
were were levied levied, bombs bombs were were airdro airdroppe pped d
Howeve Howeverr, it was an extreme extremely ly
and demonstrat demonstrators ors were subjected subjected to
controver controversial sial decision. At Gowalia Gowalia Tank ank,
public flogging flogging.
Mumbai, Gandh Gandhii urged urged Indian Indians s to follow follow a non-violen violentt civil civil disobe disobedie dience nce. Gandhi told the masses to act as an indepe independen ndentt nation nation and not to follow follow the orders orders of the British British. The British British, alread already y alarme alarmed d by the advance advance of the Japan Japanese ese army to the India– Burma Burma borde borderr, respon responded ded the next day by
The The movem movement ent soon soon became became a leader leaderles less s act of defian defiance ce, with with a number number of acts acts that that deviat deviated ed from from Gandhi Gandhi's princi principle ple of non- violen violence ce. In large large parts of the country country, the local local underground underground organisati organisations ons took took over the movem movement ent. Howeve Howeverr, by 1943, Quit India had petered out.
imprisoning Gandhi at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. The Congress Congress Party Party' s Working Working Committee Committee, or national leadership leadership was arrested arrested all together together and impriso imprisoned ned at the Ahmedna Ahmednagar gar Fort Fort. They They also also banned banned the party party altoge altogethe therr. Large Large-scale scale protes protests ts and demons demonstra tratio tions ns were were held held all over over the country country. Worke Workers rs remained remained absent absent en masse masse and strik strikes es were called called. The movement also saw widespread acts of sabotage, Indian Indian under under-ground ground organisat organisation ion carried carried out bomb attacks attacks on allied allied supply supply convoy convoys s, govern governmen mentt buildin buildings gs were were set on fire fire, electr electrici icity ty
The The Royal Royal Indian Indian Navy Mutiny Mutiny ( the RIN Mutiny Mutiny or the Bombay Bombay Mutiny Mutiny) encompass encompasses es a total total strike strike and subsequent mutiny by the Indian sailors of the Royal Royal Indian Indian Navy on board ship and shore shore establishme establishments nts at Bombay (Mumbai Mumbai) harbo harborr on 18 February 1946. From From the initial initial flashpoint flashpoint in Bombay, the mutiny spread spread and found support support through through India, from Karachi to Calcutta and ulti ultima mate tely ly came came to invo involv lve e 78 ship ships s, 20 sho shore est establi ablis shmen hmentts and 20,000 sai sailors lors.
lines were disconnect disconnected ed and transport transport
The The RIN Mutiny Mutiny starte started d as a strik strike e by
and communicati communication on lines were severed severed.
ratings ratings of the Royal Royal Indian Indian Navy Navy on
The The Congr Congress ess had lesser lesser succes success s in
the 18th Feb February ruary in protest protest against against
rallying rallying other political forces forces, including including
general general conditions. The immediate immediate
19
issues of the mutiny were conditions
demarginalisation of communal issues
and and food food, but there there were were more more
among the mutineers mutineers.
fundamental fundamental matters such as racist behavi behaviour our by Britis British h office officers rs of the
[]
Royal Royal Navy personnel personnel towards towards Indian
Tr Transf ansfer er of powe powerr, 15 Augu August st1947.
sailors sailors, and disciplinary disciplinary measures measures being taken taken against against anyone anyone demonstrat demonstrating ing pro-nation nationali alist st sympat sympathie hies s. By dusk on 19
February, a Naval Naval Centra Centrall Strik Strike e
committee committee was elected. Leading Leading Signal Signalman man M.S Khan Khan and Petty Petty Officer Officer Tel Telegrap egraphist hist Madan Madan Singh were unanimousl unanimously y elected elected Preside President nt and Vice-President President respectiv respectively ely..[38] The strike strike found immense support support among among the Indian Indian popula populatio tion n alread already y in grips grips with the stories of the Indian National National Army. The The action actions s of the mutine mutineers ers were supported supported by demonstra demonstrations tions which which includ included ed a one- day general general strike strike in Bombay. The The strik strike e sprea spread d to othe otherr citi cities es, and and was was join joined ed by the the Air Force and local local police police forces forces. Naval office officers rs and men began began callin calling g themselves themselves the Indian Indian National National Navy and offered offered left left-handed handed salute salutes s to British British office officers rs. At some some places places, NCOs NCOs in the British British Indian Army ignored and defied defied orders orders from from Britis British h superi superiors ors. In
On 3 June 1947, Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last British Governor Genera Generall of India India, announced announced the partitioning partitioning of the British Indian Empire into a secular India and a Muslim Pakistan. On 14 August 1947, Pakistan was decla declared red a separa separate te nation nation from from them them. At mid midnig night ht, on 15 August 1947, India became an independen independentt nation nation. Violent Violent clashes clashes between between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs followed followed. Prime Prime Minist Minister er Nehru Nehru and Deputy Deputy Prime Prime Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel invited invited Mountbatt Mountbatten en to continue continue as Governor Gover nor Gener General al of India. He was replaced in June 1948 by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari. Pate Patell took took on the resp respon onsib sibil ilit ity y of unif unifyi ying ng 565 prin prince cely ly states states, steer steering ing effort efforts s by his “ iron iron fist in a velvet velvet glove glove” polici policies es, exem exemplif plified ied by the use of military force to integrate Junagadh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Hydera Hyderabad bad stat state e Operation (Operation
Polo Polo) into India.
Madras and Pune, the British British garrisons garrisons had to face revolts within the ranks of
The Constituen Constituentt Assembly Assembly completed completed
the British Indian Army. Widespread
the work work of drafti drafting ng the consti constitut tution ion on
rioting took place from Karachi to
26
November 1949; 1949; on 26 January 1950
Calcutta. Famou Famously sly the ships hoisted hoisted
the Rep Republic ublic of India was officially
thre three e fla flags gs tied tied toge togeth ther er — thos those e of of
proclaimed. The Constituen Constituentt Assembly Assembly
the Congress, Muslim Muslim League League, and the
elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the first
Red Flag of the Communist Communist Party Party of
President President of India, taking taking over from
India (CPI CPI), sign signif ifyi ying ng the unity unity and
Governor Governor General General Rajgopala Rajgopalachari chari.
20
Subseq Subsequen uently tly, a free free and sovereig sovereign n
result of the war still affects the
India absorbed absorbed three three other territories territories:
geopol geopoliti itics cs of both both the countrie countries s. The
Goa (from Portuguese Portuguese control control in 1961),
British made Gulab Singh the first
Pondicherry (which which the Frenc rench h ceded ceded in
Maharaja of the princely princely state state of
1953–1954)
and Sikkim which was
Jammu and Kashmir, after they
absorbed in 1975. In 1952, India held its
defeated the Sikh during the First
first first general general electi elections ons, with with a voter voter
Anglo Anglo-Sikh Sikh War (1845-46) and signed signed
turnout exceeding 62%.
the Trea Treaty ty of Lahore in 1846.[6] Gulab
The Republic of India has fought three wars and one major incursion battle with Pakistan Pakistan and one border war with China.
Singh Singh founde founded d a dynast dynasty y, the Royal Royal House House of Jammu Jammu and Kashm Kashmir ir, that that was to rule the state state, the second second- large largest st principality under the British British Raj, until India gained its independence in 1947. Prior Prior to the withdr withdrawa awall of the British
Indepe Independe ndent nt India India, form formed ed on August 15, 1947,
has seen three three wars wars with with
Pakistan (1947-48, 1965, 1971). The first war took place after after Pakist Pakistani ani soldiers soldiers and armed armed tribesm tribesmen en invade invaded d the independent independent province province of Kashmir. When the forces almost reached the capital capital Srinagar the Maharaja Maharaja, Hari Hari Singh Singh, and the democratic democratically ally elected elected Prime Prime Minister Minister of Kashmir Kashmir, Sheikh Sheikh Abdullah Abdullah, signed signed an agree agreemen mentt with with India India in which which all Kashmiri Kashmiri lands lands were were ceded ceded to India India. India India sent sent their their troops troops in shortl shortly y after and freed a majority of the new
from from India, the state state came under under pressure pressure from both India and Pakista Pakistan n to join join them. The The Maharaja of Kashmir Kashmir, Hari Singh wanted wanted to remain remain indepe independe ndent nt and tried tried to delay delay the issue issue. Howeve Howeverr at the time of Britis British h withdra withdrawal wal the state state was invade invaded d by tribals tribals from from the North West West Front Frontier ier Province (NWFP NWFP) and regular regular Pakistani Pakistani soldie soldiers rs. The Maharaj Maharaja a then then decide decided d to accede accede Kashmir Kashmir to secula secularr India India, which which sent troops to safeguard safeguard the Kashmir Kashmir border border. The legitimac legitimacy y of the access accession ion is still still disput disputed ed by the Pakis Pakistan tanis is.
Indian Indian state state of of Jammu Jammu and Kashmir Kashmir
Accor Accordin ding g to the instru instrumen ments ts of
from Pakist Pakistani ani infiltrator infiltrators s.
partit partition ion of India India, the rulers rulers of prince princely ly
The
,
sometimes known as the ,
was fought fought between between
India and Pakistan over the region of Kashmir from 1947 to 1948. It was the first first of four wars fought fought between between the two newly independ independent ent nations nations. The
states states were were given given the choice choice to freel freely y accede accede to either either India India or Pakis Pakistan tan. Thay Thay were were also also asked asked to take take into into account account the demographic demographic nature, histor history y, geogra geography phy and future future prospects prospects their subjects subjects into consid considera eratio tion n. Raja Raja Hari Singh, ruler ruler of Kash Kashmi mirr, acce accede ded d to India India. Due Due to a
21
lack of demographic demographic data concerning concerning
gave a strategic advantage to either
religi religious ous affili affiliati ations ons, it is diffic difficult ult to
side side and the fronts fronts gradua gradually lly solidif solidified ied.
determine determine whether public opinion opinion was
Support Support for for the AZK force forces s by Pakis Pakistan tan
a factor factor Raja Raja Hari Hari Singhs Singhs' decisi decision on.
became gradually more overt with
[]
regular regular Pakista Pakistani ni units becoming becoming
AZK AZK (Azad Azad Kash Kashmi mirr) forc forces es (Azad in Azad in
involv involved ed. A formal formal cease cease- fire fire was
Urdu means means liberate liberated d or free) are are the
declared on 31 December 1948.
local local militi militia a suppor supported ted by the Pakis Pakistan tanis is. The AZK had several several advant advantage ages s in the war, notabl notably y:
The
(simplified
Chinese:
Prior to the war the Jammu and Kashm Kashmir ir state state force forces s had been been spread spread thinly around the border border as a respon response se to milita militant nt activit activity y, and so were badly badly deploy deployed ed to counte counterr a full full scale scale invasion. Some of the state forces joined AZK forces forces. The The AZK were also aided by regular regular Pakista Pakistani ni soldiers soldiers who manned manned some some of their their units units, with the proportio proportion n increasin increasing g throughout throughout the war.
Chinese:
中印边境战争; 中印邊境戰爭;
traditional pinyin: Zhōng Zhōng-Yìn
Biānjìng Biānjìng Zhànzhēng Zhànzhēng; Hindi:
भारत -चीन यु चीन युद द
Bhārat- Chīn Yuddh Yuddh ), ), also known as the ,
was a
war between People People' s Republic Republic of China and India. The initial cause of the conflict was a disputed region of the Himalayan border border in Arunachal Pradesh, known in China as South
As a result of these advantages the
Tibet . Fightin Fighting g began on 20 October
main invasion force force quickly quickly brushed brushed
1962
aside aside the Jammu Jammu and Kashm Kashmir ir state state
Army and the Military of India. The
force forces s. But the attacker attacker’s advant advantage age
conflict conflict coincided coincided closely with the
was not vigor vigorous ously ly presse pressed d and the
Cuban Missile Crisis Crisis which began in
Indian Indians s halted halted the offens offensive ive by
October 1962. The first heavy
airlifting airlifting reinforce reinforcements ments. This was at
engagement of the war was a Chinese
the price of the state formally
attack on an Indian patrol north of the
accedi acceding ng to India. With With Indian
McMahon McMahon Line.[10] The conflict conflict
reinfo reinforce rcemen ments ts the Pakis Pakistan tanii / AZK
eventually eventually widened to include include the
offens offensive ive ran out of steam steam toward towards s the
region region of Aksai Aksai Chin which the PRC
end of 1947. The exception to this was
regar regarded ded as a strate strategic gic link, via the
in the High Himalayas sector where
China National National Highway Highway route G219,
the AZK were able to make substantial
between between the Chinese- administer administered ed
progre progress ss until until turne turned d back back at the
territorie territories s of Tibet and Xinjiang. The
outskirts of Leh in late June 1948.
war ended when when the Chines Chinese e captu captured red
Th Throu rougho ghout1948
both both disput disputed ed areas areas and unilaterally
many many small mall scale cale
battle battles s were were fought fought. None None of these
between between the People's Liberation
declared a ceasefire on 20 November
22
1962, 1962,
which went into effect at
the process of subduing and which in
midnigh midnightt. At presen presentt china china contro controls ls
1965
askai chin an area claimed by india
autono nomo mous us "auto
whereas whereas india controls controls arunachal arunachal
border border, between between Burma and Bhutan,
prades pradesh h (north north east east fronti frontier er agency agency).
compri comprises ses the prese present nt Indian Indian state state of
parts of arunachal arunachal pradesh are claimed claimed
Arunachal Pradesh (formerly formerly the North
by chin china a as "sout south h tibet tibet".
East Front Frontier ier Agency). Both of these
The The Sino Sino- Indian Indian War War is notable notable for the harsh conditions conditions under which much of
would would itself itself be decla declared red an reg regio ion n"). The The east easter ern n
region regions s were were overru overrun n by China China in the 1962
conflict.
the fighting fighting took took place place, entail entaillin ling g
Most combat took place at high
large large-scale scale combat combat at altitu altitudes des of over over
altitud altitudes es. The The Aksai Chin region is a
4250
metres (14,000 feet).[10] This
vast vast desert desert of salt salt flats flats around around 5000
presented presented enormous enormous logistical logistical problems problems
metres metres above above sea level, and Arunachal
for for both both sides sides. The The Sino Sino- Indi Indian an War War
Pradesh is extreme extremely ly mountainou mountainous s with
was was also also noted noted for the the non non- use use of
a number number of peaks peaks excee exceedin ding g 7000
navy navy and airforce airforce by both both the Chinese Chinese
metres metres. According According to military military doctrine,
and Indian sides.
to be successf successful ul an attacke attackerr generally generally
The aftermath of the war saw sweepi sweeping ng change changes s in the Indian Indian milita military ry to prepa prepare re it for for simila similarr confli conflicts cts in the future future, and placed placed pressure on Indian prime minister Jawaharla Jawaharlall Nehru, who was seen as responsib responsible le for failing failing to anticipate anticipate the Chinese Chinese invasion invasion.
requ requir ires es a 3:1 rati ratio o of nume numeri rica call superi superiori ority ty over over the defender defender; in mountain mountain warfare warfare this ratio should be considerably considerably higher as the terrain terrain favour favours s defens defense e. At the beginni beginning ng of the war China took full advantage of this this: the Chinese Chinese Army had possess possession ion of the highest ridges in the regions. The The high altitud altitude e and freez freezing ing
China and India share a long border, sectioned sectioned into three three stretche stretches s by Nepal and Bhutan, which which follow follows s the Himalayan mountains mountains between between Burma and what was then East Pakistan Pakistan. A number number of disput disputed ed region regions s lie along along this this bord border er. At its west wester ern n end end is the the Aksai Aksai Chin regi region on, an area area the the size size of Switzerland, that sits between the Chin Chines ese e "auto autono nomo mous us reg regio ion n" of Xinjiang, and Tibet (which China was in
conditions conditions also cause logistica logisticall and welfa welfare re diffic difficult ulties ies; in past past simila similarr confli conflicts cts (such such as the Italian Italian Campaign Campaign of World War I) more casualtie casualties s have been been caused caused by the harsh harsh condit condition ions s than than enemy action action. The Sino- Indian Indian War War was no differ different ent, with with many many troops troops on both sides dying in the freezing cold.[12] [] Background Brit Britis ish h map publ publis ishe hed d in 1909 show showin ing g the Indo-Tibetan Tibetan traditional traditional border
23
The cause of the war was a dispute
bombin bombing g on Indian Indian towns towns, the United
over the sovereignty of the widely-
States States Navy ordered ordered an aircraft aircraft carrier
separated Aksai Aksai Chin and Arunachal
to the Bay of Bengal due to reach
Pradesh borde borderr region regions s. Aksai Aksai Chin Chin,
there there in late late Novemb November er.
claimed by India to belong to Kashmir and by China to be part of Xinjiang, contai contains ns an import important ant road road link link that that connects connects the Chinese Chinese regions regions of Tibet Tibet and Xinjian Xinjiang g. China China' s constr construct uction ion of this road was one of the triggers of the conflict conflict. Arunachal Pradesh (called
China had reached its claim lines so the the PLA PLA did did not not adva advanc nce e farth farther er, and and on November 19 it declared a unilateral cease cease-fire fire. Zhou Enlai declared declared a unilateral unilateral ceasefire ceasefire to start start on midnight, November 21. Zhou's ceasefir ceasefire e declaratio declaration n stated stated,
South South Tibet Tibet by China China) is also claime claimed d by both nations nations—althou although gh it is roughly roughly the size of Austria, it is sparsely inhabi inhabited ted (by numero numerous us local tribes tribes) due to its mountainous mountainous terrain terrain.
Beginning Beginning from November 21, 1962, the Chinese Chinese frontier frontier guards will cease cease fire along along the entire entire Sino- Indian Indian border border. Beginning Beginning from December 1, 1962, the Chinese Chinese frontier frontier guards will withdraw withdraw
The The PLA penetr penetrat ated ed close close to the outskirts of Tezp Tezpur ur, Assam, a major frontier frontier town nearly fifty fifty kilometers kilometers from the Assam-North-East Frontier Frontier Agency border.
[6]
The local government government
ordered ordered the evacuatio evacuation n of the civilians civilians in Tezpur to the south of the Brahmaputra Brahmaputra River, all prisons were thrown thrown open, and government government officials officials who stayed stayed behind destroyed destroyed Tezpur ezpur' s currency currency reserves reserves in anticipati anticipation on of a Chinese Chinese advance advance.[7]
to posi positi tion ons s 20 kilo kilome mete ters rs behi behind nd the the line of actual actual contr control ol which which exist existed ed between China and India on November 7, 1959. 1959.
In the eastern eastern sector sector, althou although gh
the Chines Chinese e front frontier ier guards guards have have so far been fighting on Chinese Chinese territory territory north of the traditiona traditionall customary customary line, they are prepared to withdraw from their their presen presentt positi positions ons to the north of the illegal illegal McMaho McMahon n Line Line, and to withdraw withdraw twenty twenty kilometers kilometers back from that that line line. In the the middl middle e and and weste western rn secto sectors rs, the Chines Chinese e fronti frontier er guards guards will will
On the evening of November 20, Nehru,
withdraw withdraw twenty twenty kilometers kilometers from the
seeing seeing the disint disintegra egratio tion n of his own
line of actual actual contr control ol.
armies armies, made made an appeal appeal to the United United
Aftermath
States States, for armed armed aid, includ including ing airstrikes, if Chinese Chinese forces forces continued continued
Accor Accordin ding g to the PLA' s offici official al milita military ry
to advan advance ce, and and air air cover cover, in case case of
histor history y, the war achiev achieved ed China China' s
raids raids by the Chinese Chinese air force force. With With
policy objectives objectives of defeating defeating the
the Chinese outnumbering outnumbering every Indian
Indian forces and securing securing peaceful peaceful
divisi division on and faced with the idea of
border borders s in the western western sector sector, as China
24
retain retained ed de facto facto contr control ol of the Aksai Aksai
a strong strong Asian Axis Axis to counte counterac ractt the
Chin Chin. After After the war, India India abandon abandoned ed
increasin increasing g influence influence of the Cold War War
the Forwar Forward d Polic Policy y, and the de facto facto
superpowers.[2]
borders borders stabilized stabilized along the Line Line of Actual Control.
The The unprep unprepar aredn edness ess of the army army was blamed on Defense Minister Menon,
Publis Published hed schola scholarsh rship ip in China China is still still
who resign resigned ed his govern governmen mentt post post to
expect expected ed to explain explain and justify justify, not to
allow allow for someon someone e who might might
critic criticize ize, the decision decisions s of the Chines Chinese e
modernize modernize India' s military military further further.
Commun Communist ist Party Party, at least on such such
India's policy of weaponizat weaponization ion via
sensitive sensitive matters as war.[2] Chinese
indigenous indigenous sources and self- sufficienc sufficiency y
public publicati ations ons on the war themse themselve lves s do
was thus cement cemented ed. Sensin Sensing g a
not mention specific dates or events
weakened weakened army, Pakistan, a close close ally ally
and use genera generaliz lized ed terms terms. The first first
of China, initiat initiated ed the Second Second Kashmir Kashmir
book book-length length analysis analysis of the war from from
War with India in 1965, however however this
China which was allowed to be sold
war was still indecisive and led to
was publis published hed in 1993. 1993.[2]
cease fire fire.[61] Two Two years later in 1967, there was a short border skirmish,
Afte Afterr India India was swiftl swiftly y defeat defeated ed by
dubbed "Chola Incident Incident" by India,
China China memori memorials als were were erect erected ed for for the
betwee between n PLA troo troops ps and Indian Indian troo troops ps,
Indian troops who died in the war.
which which went went more more favour favourabl ably y for
Arguab Arguably ly, the main lesson lesson India learned learned
India.[62]
from the war was the need to
The Indian government government commissio commissioned ned
strengthe strengthen n its own defens defenses es. The
an invest investiga igatio tion n, result resulting ing in the
countr country y could could no longer longer follow follow Nehru Nehru' s
classified Henderson Henderson-Brooks Brooks-Bhagat Bhagat
trusti trusting ng polemic polemics s of "Hindi Hindi- Chini Chini bhai-
Report on the causes of the war and
bhai bhai" and and non- viol violen entt peace peace. Beca Becaus use e
the reaso reasons ns for failure failure. India India' s
of India India's inabil inability ity to sense sense danger danger,
perfor performan mance ce in high high- altitu altitude de combat combat in
Prime Minister Minister Nehru faced harsh
1962
accusatio accusations ns from from governmen governmentt officials officials,
Army in terms terms of doctrine doctrine, traini training ng,
as he was the one who had promoted
organi organiza zatio tion n and equipm equipment ent. By 1964,
good relations relations with China.
India's military military manpower manpower had
[6]
Indians in
led to an overhaul of the Indian
general general became became highly skeptical skeptical of
doubled.[10]
China and its military. Many Indians Indians
[]
view the war as a betrayal of India 's attemp attempts ts at establ establish ishing ing a long longstandi standing ng peace with China. The war also put an end to Nehru 's earlier
Later Later skirmishes skirmishes
Indian media also declared a series of skirmishes after the 1962's war, but never been confirmed by Chinese or intern internati ationa onall media media. One report report is that that:
hopes that India and China would form
25
In lat late 1967, there were two skirmishes
force forced d to move move sidewa sideways ys along along the
betwee between n Indian Indian and Chines Chinese e force forces s in
Thag Thag La ridge ridge, away away from from the valley valley.
Sikk Sikkim im. The The firs firstt one one was was dubb dubbed ed the the
The Army' s strong strong response response was
Nathu u "Nath
La incid inciden entt", and and the othe otherr the
regarded as the exorcism of the ghost
Chola a "Chol
incid inciden entt". Prio Priorr to these these
of 1962. 1962.[76] By 1987, Beijing' s tone
incidents had been the Naxalbari
becomi becoming ng ominou ominously sly simila similarr to that that in
uprising in India by the Communist
1962
Naxalites and Maoists.[63]
diploma diplomats ts to predic predictt war. For For logist logistica icall
Also Also India Indian n med media ia dec decla lare red d on on 11 th Sept Septem embe berr 1967, Chin Chines ese e troo roops opene pened d fire on Indian troops who were protectin protecting g an Engineering Company in
and this prompted prompted many Weste Western rn
and tactical tactical considera considerations tions the Chinese Chinese focused on the September 7, 1993 Peace “Peace
and Tranquil ranquility ity along along the LAC
Agreement” with India. India India fought fought a borde borderr war
Nathul Nathula a. The confli conflict ct escala escalated ted over over the next five days to an excha exchange nge of
against China (1962). China won the
heavy artillery artillery and mortar mortar fire between
border border skirmis skirmish h, leadin leading g India India to
the the Indi Indian ans s and and the the Chin Chines ese e. 62 Indi Indian an
revamp revamp the entire military military system system.
soldiers were killed as the Indians
Afte Afterr the war ended, the Departm Department ent
drove back the Chinese
of Defen Defence ce Produ Producti ction on was set up to
[64][65] 65][66][ [66][67][ 67][68] 68] forces.[64][ The extent of Chinese
create create an indigenous indigenous defense defense
casual casualtie ties s in this this incide incident nt is not known.
produc productio tion n base base which which is self self- relian reliantt
As Indian Indian side side' s repor reportt, a simila similarr inci incide den nt occu ccurred rred in 1984, when when squad quads s
and self-sufficient. Since 1962, 16 new ordinance factories have been set up.
of Indian soldiers began actively actively patrolling patrolling the Sumdorong Sumdorong Chu Valley Valley in
The
Arunachal Pradesh in a move to
a culmin culminat ation ion of skirmishes that took
[26][69][ 69][70][ 70][71] 71][72] [72] industrializ industrialize e the region region.[26][ The
was
place between April 1965 and
Indian team left the area before the
September 1965 between India and
winter.[26] In the winter of 1986, the
Pakistan. This conflict became known
Chinese deployed their troops to the
as the
Sumdorong Sumdorong Chu before before the Indian
by India India and Paki Pakista stan n over over the
team could arrive in the summer and
disputed region of Kashmir, the first
built a helipad.[73]
having been fought in 1947. The war
Howeve Howeverr, after after being being quickl quickly y deploy deployed ed to the vall valley ey, the the Indi Indian an Army Army was succes successfu sfull in shocki shocking ng the Chines Chinese e in Sumdorong Sumdorong Chu reported reported by some [74][75] 75] Indian Media.[74][ Chinese Chinese troops troops were
fought
began began follo followin wing g the failur failure e of Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designe designed d to infilt infiltrat rate e and invade invade Jammu and Kashmir. The The five five- week week war caused thousands thousands of casualtie casualties s on both both sides sides. It ended ended in a United
26
Nations (UN) mandat mandated ed ceasefire and
Pir Pass Pass, eight kilometers kilometers inside inside
the subsequent issuance of the
Pakista Pakistani ni-administe administered red territory territory.[11]
Tas Tashkent hkent Declaration. Much of the war was fought by the
On September 1, 1965, Pakistan launched launched a counteratt counterattack ack, called called
countr countries ies' land land force forces s in Kashmir and
,
with with the
along the International Border between
object objective ive to captu capture re the vital town town of
India India and Pakis Pakistan tan. This This war saw the
Akhnoor in Jammu, which would sever sever
largest largest amassing of troops troops in Kashmir Kashmir
communicati communications ons and cut off supply
since the Partitio Partition n of India in 1947, a
routes routes to Indian Indian troops troops. Attac Attackin king g with with
number that was overshadowed overshadowed only
an overwhelming ratio of troops and
during the 2001-2002 military standoffs
technically technically superior superior tanks, Pakista Pakistan n
betwee between n India India and Pakis Pakistan tan. Most Most of
initially initially progress progressed ed against against Indian
the battle battles s were were fought fought by opposi opposing ng
force forces s, who were were caught caught unprep unprepar ared ed
infantry and armored units units, with with
and suffered suffered heavy losses losses.[11] India
substantia substantiall backing backing from air forces forces.
responded by calling in its air force to
Many Many deta details ils of this this war war, like like those those of
blunt blunt the Pakist Pakistani ani attack attack. The next
other Indo-Pakista Pakistani ni Wars Wars, remain
day, Pakis Pakistan tan retali retaliate ated d, its air force force
unclea unclearr and many many media media report reports s have have
attac attacked ked Indian Indian force forces s and air bases bases in
been been riddled riddled with with media biases biases.
both Kashmir and Punjab. Although
On August 15, 1965, Indian forces forces crossed crossed the ceasefir ceasefire e line and launch launched ed an attac attack k on the region refer referred red to by the disput disputant ants s as either either Azad "Azad
Kas Kashm hmir ir" or "Paki Pakist stan an-occu occupi pied ed
Kashmi Kashmirr". Paki Pakista stani ni report reports s cite this this attack attack as unprovo unprovoked ked.[9] Indian reports reports cite the attack as a response to massive massive armed armed infiltratio infiltrations ns of Kashmir by Pakista Pakistan n.[10] Initia Initially lly, the Indian Indian Army Army
Operation Operation Grand Slam ultimately ultimately failed, as the Pakistan Army was unable to captu capture re Akhnoor Akhnoor, it became became one of the turning points in the war when India decided to relieve pressure on its troops troops in Kashmir Kashmir by attacking attacking Pakist Pakistan an further further south. Pakis Pakistan tan's Ichogi Ichogill Canal Canal was a vital vital barrie barrierr that that needed needed to be crosse crossed d by Indian Indian troop troops s. This This bridge bridge acros across s the canal canal was destro destroyed yed by the Pakis Pakistan tan Army before before retreatin retreating g.
met with considerab considerable le success success, capturing capturing three important mountain mountain
India crossed crossed the International Border
positions positions after a prolonged prolonged artillery artillery
on the Wester Western n front front on September 6,
barr barrag age e. By the end end of August August,
markin marking g an offici official al beginn beginning ing of the
howeve howeverr, both both sides sides had experi experienc enced ed
war.[9] On September 6, the 15 th
successes successes; Pakista Pakistan n had made progress progress
Infantry Division of the Indian Army,
in areas such as Tithwal, Uri and
under World War II veteran veteran Major Major
Punch and India had captured the Haji
Genera Generall Prasad Prasad, battle battled d a massi massive ve counteratt counterattack ack by Pakista Pakistan n near the
27
west west bank bank of the Ichog Ichogil il Cana Canall ( BRB BRB
time but after a much harder battle
Cana Canall), whic which h was was a de facto border of
due to Pakista Pakistani ni reinforc reinforcement ements s.
India India and Pakis Pakistan tan. The Genera Generall' s entour entourage age itself itself was ambush ambushed ed and he was was forc forced ed to flee his vehi vehicl cle e. A second second, this this time time succes successfu sfull, attemp attemptt to cross cross the Ichhogil Ichhogil Canal Canal was made over the bridge in the village of Barki, just just east east of Lahore of Lahore . These development developments s brought brought the Indian Army within the range of Lahore International Airport. As a resul resultt, the the United United States States requested requested a temporary temporary ceasefire to allow it to evacuate its citizens citizens in Lahore.
Lt. Col Col. Hari Hari Singh Singh of the Indian 18th Cavalry posing outside a captured Pakis Pakistan tanii police police station station (Barkee Barkee) in Lahore District. On the days days follow following ing September 9, both nations nations' premiere premiere formatio formations ns were routed routed in unequal unequal battles battles. Ind India's 1st Armored Armored Division Division, labe labelle lled d the "prid pride e of the the India Indian n Army Army", laun launch ched ed an an offensive towards Sialkot. The Division Division divide divided d itself itself into two prongs prongs, came came under under heavy heavy Pakis Pakistan tanii tank tank fire fire at Taroah and was forced to withdraw.
One One unit unit of of the the Jat Jat reg regimen imentt, 3 Jat Jat, had had
Simi Simila larl rly y, Paki Pakist stan an' s pride pride, the the 1 st
also also cross crossed ed the Ichogi Ichogill canal canal and
Armored Armored Division Division, pushed pushed an offensive offensive
captured[12] the town town of Batapo Batapore re ( Jallo Jallo
towards Khemkaran, with with the intent intent to
Mur Mur to Paki Pakist stan an) on the west west side side of
capture Amritsar (a major city in
the the cana canall. The The same same day, a counte counterr
Punjab Punjab, India India) and the bridge on River
offensive offensive consisting consisting of an armored armored
Beas to Jalandhar. The The Pak Pakis ista tani ni 1 st
division and infantry division supported
Armor Armored ed Divisi Division on never never made made it past past
by Pakista Pakistan n Air Force Force Sabres forced forced the
Khem Khem Karan Karan, howe howeve verr, and and by the end
Indi Indian an 15th Div Divis isio ion n to wit withd hdra raw w to its its
of September 10 lay disintegrat disintegrated ed
star starti ting ng poi point nt. Alth Althou ough gh 3 Jat Jat suff suffer ered ed
under under the defen defence ces s of the the Indi Indian an 4 th
minima minimall casual casualtie ties s, the bulk of the
Mountain Division at what is now
damage damage being taken by ammunition ammunition
known as the Battle Battle of of Asal Uttar Uttar (Real
and stores stores vehicles vehicles, the higher higher
Answer Answer literally literally, or Fitting Fitting Response Response as
commanders commanders had no informat information ion of 3
the more appropriate appropriate English
Jat Jat' s captur capture e of Batapo Batapore re and
equiva equivalen lentt). The area area became became known known
misleading misleading information information led to the
as 'Patt Patton on Nag Nagar ar' (Patt Patton on To Town) as
command command to withdraw withdraw from from Batapore Batapore
Pakista Pakistan n lost or abandoned abandoned nearly 100
and and Dogr Dograi ai to Ghos Ghosal al-Dial Dial. This This move move
mostly US-made Patton Patton tanks.
brought extreme disappointment[13] to
The The war was headin heading g for a stalem stalemate ate,
Lt-Col Col Des Desm mond ond Ha Hayde yde, CO of 3 Jat Jat.
with with both both nation nations s holdin holding g terri territor tory y of
Dograi Dograi was eventually recaptured recaptured by 3
the other. The Indian Indian army army suffered suffered
Jat on 21 September, for for the second second
3,000
battlefield battlefield deaths, while Pakistan Pakistan
suffered no less than 3,800. The Ind Indian ian
28
army rmy was was in pos posses sessio sion of 710 mile mile²² (1,840
km²) of Pakist Pakistani ani territo territory ry and
reports reports of Chinese Chinese troop troop movements movements on the Indian Indian border border to suppor supportt
the the Pakis kistan tan army rmy held held 210 mile² ile² (545
Pakistan.[63] As such, Indi India a agre agreed ed to the the
km²) of Indian Indian territ territory ory. The terri territo tory ry
UN mandate in order to avoid a war
occupied by India was mainly in the
on both both border borders s.
fertile fertile Sialkot, Lahore Lahore and Kashmir Kashmir sectors,[14] while Pakistani Pakistani land gains were primarily in deserts opposite Sindh and in Chumb, in the northern sector.[15] [edit]
Involvement Involvement of other other nations nations
India's participat participation ion in the Non-Aligne Aligned d Movement yielded yielded little support from from its member members s. Pakis Pakistan tan, howeve howeverr, gained gained assistance assistance from countries countries of Asia with large Islamic Islamic populations populations, including including Turkey, Iran and Indonesia. The USSR
The The United United States States of America America, which which
was more neutral than most other
had previousl previously y supplied supplied military military
nations during the war and even
equipment equipment to India and Pakista Pakistan n,
invited both nations to talks that it
imposed imposed an embargo embargo against against further further
would host in Tashkent.
suppli supplies es to both both countr countries ies once once the war war had had star starte ted d. The The US was apprehens apprehensive ive that military military equipment equipment
The war had created a tense state of
that it had provided to be used in a
affair affairs s in its afterma aftermath th. Though Though the war
battle battle against against communism, would
was indecisive indecisive, Pakista Pakistan n suffered much
instead be used by the countries to
heavier heavier material material and personnel personnel
fight fight one anothe anotherr. The American American
casual casualtie ties s compar compared ed to India India. Many Many war
embargo embargo especially especially affected affected Pakist Pakistan an
historians believe that had the war
since the majority of its equipment
contin continued ued, with with growi growing ng loss loss and
was provide provided d by Americ America a. This This would would
decreasin decreasing g supplies supplies, Pakist Pakistan an would
cause Pakistan to believe that it could
have have been been eventu eventuall ally y defeat defeated ed. India India' s
not continue continue the war beyond beyond
decision decision to declare declare ceasefir ceasefire e with
September.[62]
Pakista Pakistan n caused caused some outrage outrage among among
Following Following imposition imposition of the American American embargo embargo, other NATO allies allies (includ including ing
the Indian Indian popula populace ce, who believed believed they had the upper hand.
the UK ) discon discontin tinued ued providin providing g milita military ry
India continued to increase increase its defense defense
equipm equipment ent to the nation nations s.
spendi spending ng after after the war. The Indian Indian
Both before and during the war, China had been a major major military military assoc associat iate e of Pakistan and had invariably admoni admonishe shed d India India, with with whom whom it had fought a war in 1962. There were also
Milita Military ry, which which was alread already y underg undergoin oing g rapid expansions expansions, made improvement improvements s in command command and control control to address address some some shortc shortcomi omings ngs. Partl Partly y as a resul resultt of the inefficien inefficientt informat information ion gathering gathering preced preceding ing the war, India India establ establish ished ed
29
the Researc Research h and Analysis Analysis Wing Wing for
importa importantl ntly y, failed failed to achiev achieve e its goal
external espionage and intelligence.
of occupy occupying ing Kashm Kashmir ir; this this resul resultt has
India India viewed viewed the Americ American an policy policy durin during g the the war war as bias biased ed, sinc since e Pakis Pakistan tan had started started the war but the
been viewed by many impartial observers as a defeat for [69][70] 70][71] [71] Pakistan.[69][
US did little little to restr restrain ain Paki Pakista stan n.[64]
Many high ranking ranking Pakista Pakistani ni officials officials
Afte Afterr the war, India India slowly slowly started started
and military military experts experts later criticized criticized the
aligni aligning ng with with the Soviet Soviet Union, both
faulty planning of Operation Gibraltar
politi political cally ly and milita militaril rily y. This This would would be
that that ultim ultimat atel ely y led led to the war war. The The
cemented cemented formally formally years later before before
Tas Tashk hkent ent declaratio declaration n was also criticized criticized
the Indo-Pakista Pakistani ni War War of 1971.
in Pakis Pakistan tan, though though few citize citizens ns
In light light of the failu failure res s of the previo previous us
realised realised the gravity gravity of the situation situation that existed at the end of the war.
war agains againstt the Chinese Chinese, the performance in this war was viewed as
Politica Politicall leaders leaders were also criticized criticized.
a "poli politi tico co-strate strategi gic c" vict victor ory y in Indi India a.
Followin Following g the advice advice of Zulfikar Zulfikar Ali
The The Indian Indian premier premier, Shastr Shastrii was hailed hailed
Bhutto, Pakista Pakistan n's foreign foreign minister minister,
as a hero in India.[65]
Ayub Khan had raised very high expectat expectations ions among the people of
At the conc conclus lusio ion n of the war, many many
Paki Pakist stan an abo about ut the the supe superi rior orit ity y - if not not
Pakista Pakistanis nis considere considered d the performanc performance e
invi invinc ncibi ibili lity ty - of its its arm armed ed for force ces s,[72] but
of their military to be positive.
Pakista Pakistan n's inability inability to attain attain its military military
September 6 is celebrat celebrated ed as 'Defen Defence ce
aims aims during during the war, creat created ed a politi political cal
Day' in Pakist Pakistan an, in commemo commemorat ration ion of
liability liability for Ayub Ayub.[73] The defeat of its
the successful successful defence defence of Lahore
Kashmiri ambitions in the war led to
agains againstt the Indian Indian army. The
the army' s invincibility being
performan performance ce of the Pakista Pakistani ni Air Force Force,
challenged challenged by an increasin increasingly gly vocal vocal
in partic particula ularr, was praised praised.
opposition.[74] And with the war creating
The The myth myth of a mobi mobile le, hard hard hitt hittin ing g Pakis Pakistan tan Army Army, howeve howeverr, was badly badly dent dented ed in the the war war, as critic critical al breakthr breakthroughs oughs were not made.
[66]
a huge huge financ financial ial burden burden, Pakistan's economy, which had witnessed witnessed rapid prog rogress ess in the the ea early rly 60 s, took ook a [75][76] [76] severe severe beating beating.[75]
Several Several Pakista Pakistani ni writers writers criticized criticized the
Pakis Pakistan tan was surpri surprised sed by the lack lack of
milita military ry's ill-founde founded d belief belief that that their their
suppor supportt by the United United States States, an ally
Martial "Martial
with whom the country had signed an
Race Race" of soldiers could defeat defeat
[67][68] 68] India in the war.[67][ Moreove Moreoverr, Pakista Pakistan n
Agreem Agreement ent of Cooper Cooperati ation on. USA
had lost more ground than it had
declared its neutrality in the war by
gain gained ed during during the the war war and and, more more
cuttin cutting g off milita military ry suppli supplies es to both both
30
sides,[7] leading leading Islamabad Islamabad to believe believe
it was was even even. USSR USSR inte interf rfer ered ed and and got got
that that the they y were were "betr betray ayed ed" by the the
the truce between between the two nation nations s at
United United States States.[77] Afte Afterr the war, Pakis Pakistan tan
Tashkent Tashkent agreement agreeme nt, which also saw
would increasin increasingly gly look towards towards China
the myster mysteriou ious s death death of Indian Indian PM Lal
as a major source of military hardware
Bahadu Bahadurr Shastr Shastrii. At the same same time,
and political political support support.
there there was the possib possibili ility ty of a second second
Another Another negative negative consequenc consequence e of the war was the growi growing ng resent resentmen mentt
Sino-Indian Indian war along along the Nathu Nathu La Pass Pass in Sikkim [2].
against against the Pakista Pakistani ni government government in
Ten Ten battalions battalions of the Sikh Regiment Regiment
East Pakistan Pakistan(present present day Bangladesh),
saw action in the 1965 war. In a bid to
particularly particularly for West West Pakista Pakistan n' s
seal seal off routes routes of infilt infiltrat ration ions s for the
obsession obsession with Kashmir Kashmir.[78] Bengali
Pakistanis in J & K, 1 Sikh ikh who were in
leaders leaders accused accused the central central
the Tithwal Tithwal sector sector attacke attacked d Pakista Pakistani ni
government government of not providing providing adequate adequate
positions . A company led by Major
securi security ty for East East Pakis Pakistan tan during during the
Somesh Somesh Kapur Kapur captured captured Richhmar Richhmar
confli conflict ct, even even though though large sums of
Ridge on 24 August 1965 and then
money were taken from the east to
attacked and captured the Pir Sahiba
financ finance e the war for Kashmi Kashmirr.[79] In fact,
feature on the night of 25/26 August.
despite despite some Pakistan Pakistan Air Force Force
From From this feature feature the Indian Indian troops troops
attack attacks s being being launch launched ed from from bases bases in
could could now overlo overlook ok an exten extensiv sive e area area
East East Pakis Pakistan tan during during the war, India India did
under Pakistan Pakistan control control. Through Through out
not retaliate in that sector,[80] although
September September, Pakista Pakistani ni troops tried hard
East Pakistan was defended only by a
to recapture this feature but were
two-infantry infantry brigade division (14
unsu unsucc cces essf sful ul. 1 Sikh Sikh rece receiv ived ed 3 Vir Vir
Divisi Division on) withou withoutt any tank support support.[81]
Chak Chakras ras ( Majo Majorr Somes Somesh h Kapu Kapurr and L/
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Rahman was critical of
Havilda Havildarr Gurdev Gurdev Singh Singh and Sepoy Sepoy
the disparity disparity in military military resource resources s
Gurm Gurmel el Sin Singh gh ( post posth h.)) for for thes these e
deployed deployed in East and West West Pakistan Pakistan,
operations .
calling calling for greater greater autonomy autonomy for East Pakis Pakistan tan, which which ultima ultimatel tely y led to the
The
Bangladesh Bangladesh Liberatio Liberation n war and another
known as the
war betwee between n India India and Pakis Pakistan tan in
day-long long battle battle between between Indian troops
1971.
and members of the Chinese People's
also ,
was a
Liberation Liberation Army in Sikkim.[1] The The The second second Indo- Pak Pak war was also
conf conflic lictt ran ran from from Octob October er 1 to Oct Octob ober er
fought over Kashmir issu issue e. It ended ended in
2 1967.[1]
with Indian forces gaining chunks of lands lands all aroun around d excep exceptt Punjab Punjab where where
31
The The skirmi skirmish sh occurr occurred ed in the countr country y of
Shoora (Parliam arliament ent of Pakis Pakista tan n). Awami wami
Sikkim. India India was respon responsib sible le for for the
League League leader leader, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman,
defe defens nse e of Sikkim Sikkim at that time time. The The
presented presented the Six Points Points to the
region is one of high altitudes and
Presiden Presidentt of Pakista Pakistan n and claimed claimed the
thus mountainou mountainous s maneuvers maneuvers were
right right to form form the governm government ent. After fter the
crucia cruciall in battle battle. Early Early Chines Chinese e
leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party,
positions positions in regions regions of higher altitudes altitudes
Zulfikar Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, refused to yield the
would would thus thus have have provid provided ed them them with with
premiershi premiership p of Pakista Pakistan n to Mujibur Mujibur,
an advant advantage age. To reclaim reclaim high high groun ground d
President Yahya Yahya Khan called out the
would would genera generally lly requi require re a higher higher ratio ratio
milita military ry, which which was made made up largely largely of
of attacke attackers rs to defenders defenders.
West West Pakistanis Pakistanis.
[edit]
Background Main articles articles : Sino Sino- Indian Indian relations , McMahon McMahon Line , and Sino Sino- Indian Indian War
Mass Mass arres arrests ts of dissid dissident ents s began began, and attemp attempts ts were were made made to disar disarm m East East Pakista Pakistani ni soldiers and police police. After After
China has claime claimed d that that the McMahon
several days of strikes and non-
Line Line create created d by Britain Britain in NEF NEFA was
cooperatio cooperation n movements movements, the Pakist Pakistani ani
illega illegall. Thus Thus they they claime claimed d the territor territory y
military cracked down on Dhaka on the
of Sikkim as part of South Tibet Tibet, a part
night of March 25, 1971. Awami 1971. The Awami
of China China.
League League was banished, and many many
[2]
Sinc Since e then then, Chin China a has has
accepted Sikkim as part of India that it
member members s fled fled into into exile exile in India India. Mujib Mujib
refused to do earlier.
was arres arrested ted and taken taken to West
[3]
Pakistan. A Sino Sino-India India skirm skirmish ish took place place in 1967
and is known today as the Chola
Incident.
On 27 March 1971, Ziaur Rahman Rahman, a rebellious rebellious major in the Pakista Pakistani ni army, declared declared the independenc independence e of Banglad Bangladesh esh on behalf behalf of Mujibur Mujibur. In April April, exile exiled d Awami Awami Leagu League e leader leaders s
The Indo- Pakista Pakistani ni conflict conflict was sparked sparked
formed a govern governmen mentt-in- exile exile in
by the Bangla Banglades desh h Libera Liberatio tion n war, a
Boiddonathtola of Meherpur. The East
conflict conflict between between the traditionall traditionally y
Pakistan Rifles, an elite elite paramilitary
dominant West West Pakistanis Pakistanis and the
force, defected to the rebell rebellio ion n. A
majority East Pakistanis Pakistanis. The
guerrilla troop troop of civili civilians ans, the Mukti
Bangladesh Bangladesh Liberatio Liberation n war ignited ignited after after
Bahini, was formed to help the
the the 1970 Pakist kistan anii elect lectio ion n, in whic which h
Bangladesh Bangladesh Army.
the East Pakista Pakistani ni Awami League won 167
of 169 seats eats in Eas East Pakista istan n and and
secured a simple majority in the 313seat lower house of the Majlis Majlis-e-
The
was
a major military military conflict conflict between India and Pakistan. The war is closely
32
associated associated with the Bangladesh
Glacier Glacier was under territorial territorial dispute dispute,
Liberation War (sometimes sometimes also
but in the late 1970 s and early 1980 s,
refer referred red to as the Paki Pakista stani ni Civil Civil War).
Pakista Pakistan n began organizing organizing several several
Although Although there there is some disagreement disagreement
touris touristt expedi expeditio tions ns to the Glacier Glacier. India India,
about the exact dates of the war,
irked irked by this this develo developme pment nt, mounte mounted d
hostilitie hostilities s between between India and Pakista Pakistan n
Operation Operation Meghdoot Meghdoot, and captured captured the
commenced officially on the evening of
top of the Glacier by establishing a
December 3, 1971. conflict 1971. The armed conflict
military base which it still maintains to
on India India' s wester western n front front during during the
this day at a cost of more than US$1
period period between between 3 December 1971 and
million per day.[1] Pakistan on the other
16
December 1971 is call called ed the the "Indo Indo-
hand hand spe spend nds s just just unde underr US$1 milli million on
Pakis Pakistan tanii War War" by both both the Bangladeshi
per per day day, thou though gh as % of GDP Pakistan
and Indian armies armies. The war ended in
spen spends ds 5 time times s as the the Ind India ian n Mili Milita tary ry
the surrender of the Pakistani Pakistani military
does does to maintain maintain its share share of the
after after armed armed hostilitie hostilities s on two fronts.
glacier.[2] Pakistan tried in 1987 and in
In the third third Indo Indo- Pak Pak war, India India interv intervene ened d decisi decisivel vely y in what what was then then East Pakistan Pakistan due to the mass exodus exodus of refuge refugees es to India India follo followin wing g West West Pakis Pakistan tanii milita military ry action action there there. The new
1989
to re-take take the Glacier but was
unsucc unsuccess essful ful. A stalem stalemate ate has arose arose where where India contro controls ls the top part part of the Glacie Glacierr and Pakis Pakistan tan is placed placed at the bottom of the Glacier.
nation of Bangladesh was created as a
970s and early 1980 1980s several In the 1970
result result. India India succee succeeded ded in removi removing ng
mountaineering expeditio expeditions ns applied applied to
Pakis Pakistan tanii soldie soldiers rs from from what what is now
Pakistan to climb high peaks in the
know known n as "East East Pak Pakis ista tan n" resu result ltin ing g in
Siac Siache hen n area area as U.S army army maps
the formatio formation n of Bangla Banglades desh h. This This
deliberatel deliberately y showed showed it on Pakist Pakistani ani side
conflict is often cited as India 's
of the Line Line of Control Control, and Pakis Pakistan tan
greate greatest st milita military ry victor victory y, but also also
grante granted d them them. This This in turn turn reinf reinfor orced ced
among among the greate greatest st genoci genocides des of the
the Pakist Pakistani ani claim claim on the area area, as
20th
these expeditions expeditions arrived on the
century century wherein wherein Pakist Pakistani ani forces forces
slaugh slaughter tered ed anyw anywher here e from from 1 millio million n to to 3
millio million n Bangla Banglades deshi hi' s, the vast vast
majority majority being Hindu.
glacie glacierr with with a permit permit obtain obtained ed from from the Governmen Governmentt of Pakista Pakistan n. Teram Kangri I (7,465 m/24,490 ft) and Teram Kangri II (7,406 m/24,300 ft) were were climbed in 1975 by a Japanese
The The Siachin Siachin war betwee between n India India and Pakistan occurred in 1984. The area of the dispute dispute was the Siachen Siachen Glacier Glacier the world world's highest highest battle battlefie field ld. The
expedi expeditio tion n led by H. Katay Katayama ama, which which approache approached d through through Pakist Pakistan an via the Bilafond Bilafond La.[6] Once having become become aware of this and the errant US
33
military military maps, Colonel N. Kuma Kumarr of the
current Pakistani president, General
Indian Indian Army, then then comma commandin nding g the
Pervez Musharraf states states that Pakist Pakistan an
Army's High-Altitude Altitude Warfa Warfare re School School,
lost almost almost 900 square square miles (2,300 km2)
mounte mounted d an Army Army exped expediti ition on to the
of territory territory.[10] TIME states that the
Siache Siachen n area area as a counte counterr- exer exercis cise e. In
Indian advance advance captured captured nearly nearly
1978
this expedition expedition climbed climbed Teram
square square miles (2,600 km2) of
1,000
Kangri II, clai claimi ming ng it as a firs firstt asce ascent nt
territory territory claimed claimed by Pakista Pakistan n.[11] Since
in a typica typicall 'oropol oropoliti itica call' ripost riposte e.
then Pakista Pakistan n has launched several several
Unusually Unusually for the normally normally secretiv secretive e
attemp attempts ts to displa displace ce the Indian Indian force forces s,
Indi Indian an Army, the the news news and
but with little little succes success s. The most most well well
photograph photographs s of this expedition expedition were
known was in 1987, when an attempt
publis published hed in ' The The Illustr Illustrate ated d Weekly eekly of
was made made by Pakis Pakistan tan to dislod dislodge ge
India India', a widely widely- circul circulate ated d popular popular
India India from from the area. The attack attack was
magazine.[7]
masterminde masterminded d by Pervez Musharraf
The first public mention of a possible confli conflict ct situat situation ion in the Siachen Siachen was an abbrev abbreviat iated ed articl article e titled titled " High High Polit Politics ics in the the Kara Karakora koram m" by Joydeep Joydeep Sircar Sircar in The Telegraph Telegraph newspaper newspaper of Calcutta in 1982[8]. The full text was printed as "Oropol Oropoliti itics cs"
in the Alpine Alpine Journal Journal,
London , in 1984.[9]
(later
Presiden Presidentt of Pakistan Pakistan) heading a
newly raised elite SSG commando commando unit raised raised with United United States States Special Special Operations Forces help in the area.[12] A special special garrison garrison with eight thousand thousand troops troops was built built at Khapalu Khapalu. The immedi immediate ate aim was to captu capture re Bilafo Bilafond nd La but after bitter fighting that included hand to hand combat, the
India launched launched Operation Meghdoot (named
after after the divine cloud
messenger in a Sanskrit play by Kalidasa) on 13 April 1984 when the Kumaon Regiment of the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force Force went into the glacier glacier region. Pakistan Pakistan quickly responded responded with troop troop deployment deployments s and what followed was literally a race to the the top top. With Within in a few few days days, the the Indian Indians s were were in contro controll over over most most of the area area, as Pakistan was beaten to most of the Salto Saltoro ro Ridge high ground ground by about about a week week. The The two two nor north ther ern n pass passes es - Sia Sia La and and Bil Bilaf afon ond d La - were were qui quick ckly ly
Pakis Pakistan tanis is were were thrown thrown back back and the positi positions ons remaine remained d the same. The only Param Vir Chakra - India's highest highest galla gallant ntry ry awa award rd - to be awa award rded ed for for combat in the Siachen area went to Naib Subedar Bana Singh (retired as Subeda Subedarr Major Major/ Honora Honorary ry Captain Captain), who in a daring daylight raid assaulted and captu captured red a Pakis Pakista tani ni post post atop atop a 22,000 foot (6,700 m) peak peak, now now name named d Bana Bana Post.[13] Further Further attempts attempts to reclaim reclaim positions were launched by Pakistan in 1990, 1995, 1996
and even in early 1999,
just prior to the Lahore Lahore Summit. The 1995
attack attack by Pakis Pakistan tan SSG was
secu secure red d by India India. In his memoirs memoirs,
34
significant as it resulted in 40
mainta maintaini ining ng these these outpos outposts ts are are put at
casualties casualties for Pakista Pakistan n troops troops without without
~$300
any changes changes in the positio positions ns. An Indian Indian
Pakista Pakistan n respectiv respectively ely. India has built
IAF IAF MI MI-17 heli helico copt pter er was was sho shott do down in
the world's highest helipad on this
1996.
glacie glacierr at a place place called called Sonam Sonam, which which
[edit]
Current situation
The Indian army controls all of the 70
kilometres (43 mi) long long Siach Siachen en
and ~$200 million for India and
is at 21,000 feet (6,400 m) abov above e the the sea sea leve levell, to serve serve the area area. Indi India a also also installed installed the world' s highest highest telephone
Glacie Glacierr as well as all of its tributa tributary ry
booth on the glacier.[18] One of the
glacie glaciers rs as well well as the three three main main
factors behind the Kargil War in 1999
passes of the Saltoro Ridge
when Pakista Pakistan n sent infiltrators infiltrators to
immedi immediate ately ly west west of the glacier glacier, Sia La,
occupy occupy vacated vacated Indian posts across across the
Bila Bilafo fond nd La, and and Gyon Gyong g La, thus thus
Line of Control was their belief that
holdin holding g onto onto the tactic tactical al advant advantage age of
India would be forced to withdraw from
high ground ground.[14].
Siache Siachen n in return return for Pakis Pakistan tan pulling pulling
[15]
Gyon Gyong g La (Pass Pass)
itself is at 35-1 35-100-29 29N, 77-0 77-044-15 15 E; that
back back from from Kargil Kargil. Both Both sides sides have been
high high point point is contr controll olled ed by India. The
wishin wishing g to disenga disengage ge from from the costly costly
Pakista Pakistanis nis control control the glacial glacial valley valley just
military military outposts outposts but after after the Kargil
five five kilome kilometer ters s south southwes westt of Gyong Gyong La.
War India has backed off from
The The line line where where Indian Indian and Pakis Pakistan tanii
withdra withdrawin wing g in Siachen Siachen, wary wary that that the
troops troops are presently presently holding holding onto their
Kargi Kargill scena scenario rio could play play out again again if
respectiv respective e posts is being increasin increasingly gly
they vacate their Siachen Glacier posts
refer referred red to as the Actua Actuall Groun Ground d
without without any official official confirma confirmation tion of
[16][17] [17] Posit Position ion Line Line (AGPL AGPL).[16]
their positions positions.
The The Pakis Pakistan tanis is have have been been unable unable get
During her tenure as Prime Prime Minister Minister of
up to the crest of the Saltoro Ridge,
Pakistan, Ms Benazir Benazir Bhutto Bhutto, visited the
while the Indians cannot come down
area area west of Gyon Gyong g La, makin making g her her the the
and abandon their strategic high posts.
first premier from either side to get to
A cease fire went into effect in 2003.
the Siache Siachen n region region. On June 12, 2005, 2005,
Even Even befor before e then then, every every year more
Prime Minister Minister Manmohan Manmohan Singh
soldiers soldiers were killed because because of severe severe
became the first Indian Prime Minister Minister
weathe weatherr than than enemy enemy firing. The two
to visit the area, calling calling for a peacef peaceful ul
sides sides have have lost lost an estima estimated ted 2,000
resolu resolutio tion n of the problem problem. In the
personnel primarily due to frostbite,
previo previous us year, the Presiden Presidentt of India,
avalanches and other complicat complications ions.
Abdul Kalam Kalam became the first head of
Bot Both natio ations ns have have 150 manne anned d
state to visit visit the area area. India India based based Jet
outpos outposts ts along the glacie glacierr, with with some some
Airways plans plans to open open a charte chartered red
3,000
troop troops s each each. Offici Official al figur figures es for
servic service e to the glacie glacierr' s neares nearestt airlink airlink,
35
the Thoise airbase, mainly for military
By 21 May, the Ind Indian army had
purposes purposes. Pakistan Pakistan' s PIA flies tourists tourists
isolated isolated Tiger Tiger Hill from three direction directions s,
and trekkers daily to Skardu, which is
east east, north north and and south south. In order order to
the jumping jumping off off point point for K 2, the
inflict inflict casualties casualties the enemy positions positions
world world' s second second highes highestt point point just just 33
on Tiger Hill were subjected to artillery
kilo kilom meter eters s (20.5 mile miles s) nort north hwes west of the the
and mortar mortar fire fire. A fresh fresh battal battalion ion, 18
Siache Siachen n area area, althou although gh bad weathe weatherr
Grenadiers was brought in to capture
frequentl frequently y grounds grounds these scheduled scheduled
the peak peak with with regim regiment ents s holdin holding g the
flights.
firm firm base base. On the night night of July 3, 18
Since September 2007, India has opened opened up mountainee mountaineering ring and trekking trekking expeditio expeditions ns to the forbidding forbidding glacial glacial heights. The expeditions expeditions are also meant to show to the internatio international nal audience audience that Indian troops troops hold hold "almost almost all domina dominatin ting g height heights s" on the importa important nt Saltoro Saltoro
Grenadiers Grenadiers captured the eastern eastern slope slope but further advance was held up due to effect effective ive enemy enemy fire fire from from Helmet Helmet To Top, India India Gate Gate featur features es on the western western slop slope e. By morn mornin ing g July 4 th Tig Tiger er Hill Hill was was capt captur ured ed by by the the 18 th Gre Grena nadi dier ers s, effectivel effectively y ending Pakista Pakistan n' s Kargil Kargil War War. The
Ridge Ridge and, to show that that Pakis Pakistan tanii
, ,(I)
also known as the was an armed
troops are not within 15 miles (24 km)
conflict between India and Pakistan
of the 43.5-mile (70 km) Siac Siache hen n
that took place between May and July
Glacier.[19] Despite Despite protests protests from
1999
Pakis Pakistan tan, India India mainta maintains ins that that it doesn doesn' t
The cause of the war was the
need Pakista Pakistan n's approval approval to send
infiltratio infiltration n of Pakista Pakistani ni soldiers soldiers and
trek trekke kers rs to Siac Siache hen n, in what what it says says is
Kashmiri militants into positions on the
essentiall essentially y an Indian territory territory.[20]
Indian side of the Line of Control Control,
Coordinates:
35.5 35.5°
N 77.0 7.0° E
in the Kargil district district of Kashmir.
which serves as the de facto border betwee between n the two states states. During During and
India India fought fought a brief brief borde borderr skirmi skirmish sh with Pakistan in the Indian state of Kashmir in 1999. Dubbed the Kargil War, after after the infiltratio infiltration n of Pakista Pakistani ni soldiers soldiers and paramilitar paramilitary y in the Kargil area area, India India recla reclaime imed d the terri territor tory y through through military military and diplomatic diplomatic chan channe nels ls. Pakista istan n lost lost 4000 sold soldiiers ers, while India lost little over 500.
direct directly ly after after the war, Pakis Pakistan tan blamed blamed the fighting entirely on independent Kashmiri Kashmiri insurgents insurgents, but documents documents left behind by casualties and later statements statements by Pakista Pakistan n' s Prime Prime Minister Minister and Chief Chief of Army Army Staff Staff showed involvement involvement of Pakistan Pakistanii paramilita paramilitary ry force forces s. The Indian Army, supported by the Indian Air Force, attacke attacked d the Pakista Pakistani ni positions positions and, with international diplomatic support,
36
eventually eventually forced forced a Pakist Pakistani ani
nation nations s took took notice notice of the confli conflict ct and
withdrawal withdrawal across the Line of Control Control
desired to end it.
(LoC).
The first hint of the possible use of a
The war is one of the most recent
nuclear bomb was on May 31 when
examples of high altitude altitude warfare warfare in
Pakistani foreign secretary Shamshad
mountainous terrain, and posed posed
Ahmad made a statement warning that
significant logistical problems problems for the
an escala escalatio tion n of the limite limited d confli conflict ct
combat combating ing sides. This This was the first first
could could lead lead Paki Pakist stan an to use " any any
direct direct ground ground war betwee between n any two
weap weapon on" in its its arsenal.[47] This was
countries countries after they had developed
immediately immediately interpreted interpreted as an obvious obvious
nuclear nuclear weapons weapons. (India and Pakista Pakistan n
threat of a nuclear retaliation by
both test-detonated detonated fission devices devices in
Pakis Pakistan tan in the event of an extend extended ed
May 1998, though the first Indian
war war, and and the the lead leader er of Pakistan's
nuclear nuclear test was conducted conducted in 1974.)
senate note noted d, "The The purp purpos ose e of
The The confli conflict ct led to height heightene ened d tensio tension n
developing developing weapons weapons becomes becomes
betwee between n the two nation nations s and increa increased sed
meaningless if they are not used when
defence spending on the part of India.
they are needed."[48] Many such
In Pakistan Pakistan, the aftermath aftermath caused caused
ambiguous ambiguous statement statements s from from officials officials of
instability instability to the government and the
both countries were viewed as an
economy, and and, on October 12, 1999, 1999, a
impend impending ing nuclea nuclearr crisis crisis. The limite limited d
coup coup d' etat etat by the milita military ry placed placed
nuclea nuclearr arsena arsenals ls of both both sides sides,
army chief Pervez Musharraf in power power.
paradoxic paradoxically ally could have led to
One of the main concerns in the internatio international nal community community during the Kargi Kargill crisis crisis was that that both both neighb neighbour ours s had access to weapons weapons of mass destruction, and if the war intensified, it could have led to nuclear war. Both countries countries had tested tested their nuclear capabili ility a year before in 1998; Ind India conducted its first rst test in 1974 while it was Pakis Pakistan tan's first first-ever ever nuclear nuclear test. Many pundits believed the tests to be
tactical cal' 'tacti
nuclea nuclearr warfa warfare re in the belief
that a nuclear strike would not have ended ended in total total nuclea nuclearr warfa warfare re with with mutual assured assured destructio destruction n, as could could have occurred occurred between the United States and the USSR. Some experts experts believe that following nuclear tests in 1998,
Pakistan Pakistanii military military was
emboldened emboldened by its nuclear nuclear deterrent deterrent cover to markedl markedly y increase increase coercion coercion against against India.[49]
an indication indication of the escalating escalating stakes stakes
The The nature nature of the India- Pakis Pakistan tan
in the the scen scenar ario io in Sout South h Asia Asia. With With the the
conflict conflict took took a more sinister proportion proportion
outbre outbreak ak of clashe clashes s in Kashm Kashmir ir just just a
when when the U.S. receiv received ed intellige intelligence nce
year year after after the nuclea nuclearr tests tests, many many
that Pakista Pakistani ni nuclear nuclear warheads were being being moved moved towards towards the border border. Bill Bill
37
Clinton Clinton tried to dissuade dissuade Pakista Pakistan n
use non-conven conventio tional nal weapons weapons. One
prime minister Nawaz Sharif from
milita militant nt group group even even claime claimed d to posses possess s
nuclear brinkmanship, even threateni threatening ng
chemic chemical al weapon weapons s; this this was later found
Pakista Pakistan n of dire consequenc consequences es.
to be a hoax, and even the gas masks
Accor Accordin ding g to a White White House House official,
were were most most like likely ly intend intended ed by the
Sharif Sharif seeme seemed d to be genuin genuinely ely
Pakista Pakistanis nis as protectio protection n from an Indian
surprised surprised by this supposed missile
attack attack. The Pakistani Pakistani allegations allegations of
movement and responded that India
India India using using banned banned chemic chemicals als in its
was probabl probably y planni planning ng the same. This This
bombs bombs were were proven proven to be unfound unfounded ed
was later confirmed in an article in
by the U .S. admi admini nist stra rati tion on at the the time time
May 2000, which stated that Ind India too
and the OPCW.[
had readie readied d at least least five five nuclea nuclearr-
Aftermath
tipped ballistic ballistic missiles missiles.[50] Sensing a deteriorat deteriorating ing military military scenario scenario, diplom diplomati atic c isolat isolation ion, and the risks of a larger larger conventio conventional nal and nuclear nuclear war, Sharif ordered ordered the Pakistani Pakistani army to vacate vacate the Kargi Kargill height heights s. He later claimed in his official biography that General General Pervez Pervez Musharraf Musharraf had moved nuclear nuclear warheads warheads without without informing informing him.[51] Recently Recently however however, Pervez Pervez Musharraf Musharraf revealed revealed in his memoirs that Pakis Pakistan tan’s nuclea nuclearr delive delivery ry system system was not operat operation ional al during during the Kargi Kargill war;[19] someth something ing that that would would have have put Pakista Pakistan n under serious disadvanta disadvantage ge if the conflict went nuclear.
Indian PM A.B.Vajpa Vajpaye yee e flashes flashes the V sign after the Parliamentary elections in which which his coalit coalition ion emerge emerged d the victor victors s. His handling handling of the Kargil Kargil crisis crisis is believed to have played a big part in garnering the votes. The aftermath of the war saw the rise of the Indian stock market market by over 30%. The next Indian Indian national national budget budget
Additi Additiona onally lly, the threat threat of WMD
included included major major increase increases s in military military
includ included ed a suspec suspected ted use of chemical
spen spendi ding ng. From rom the the end end of the war war
and even biological biological weapons weapons. Pakistan
until February 2000, the economy economy of
accuse accused d India India of using using chemic chemical al
India was bullish. There was a surge in
weapons weapons and incendiary incendiary weapons weapons such
patriotism, with many celebrities
as napalm against against the Kashmiri Kashmiri
pitchi pitching ng in toward towards s the Kargi Kargill cause cause.[53]
figh fighte ters rs. Indi India a, on the other other hand hand,
Indians were also angered by the
showcased a cache of gas masks masks,
death of pilot Ajay Ahuja under
among other other firearms, as proof that
controvers controversial ial circumst circumstances ances, and
Pakis Pakistan tan may may have have been been prepa prepared red to
especially especially after after Indian Indian authorities authorities
38
report reported ed that that Ahuja Ahuja had been been
did not fully inform the government
murder murdered ed and his body body mutilated by
about about the intrusio intrusions ns, adding adding that the
Pakis Pakistan tanii troo troops ps. The war had also
army army chief chief Ved Ved Prakas Prakash h Malik Malik, was
produced produced higher higher than expected expected
initially reluctant to use the full strike
fatali fatalitie ties s for the Indian Indian military military, with with a
capabi capabilit lity y of the Indian Indian Air Forc Force e,
sizeable sizeable percentag percentage e of them including including
instead instead requestin requesting g only helicopter
newly commissioned officers. One
gunship support.[56] Soon Soon after after the
month month later later, the Atlantique Incident -
confli conflict ct, India India also also decide decided d to comple complete te
where a Pakistan Pakistan Navy plane plane was shot shot
the the proj projec ectt - prev previo ious usly ly sta stall lled ed by by
down down by by India India - brie briefl fly y reig reigni nite ted d fear fears s
Paki Pakist stan an - to fen fence ce the the ent entir ire e LOC LOC.[57]
of a confl conflict ict between between the two countries.
The The Kargi Kargill victor victory y was followed followed by the 13th
Indian General Elections to the
Afte Afterr the war, the Indian Indian govern governmen mentt
Lok Sabha, which which gave gave a decisi decisive ve
severed severed ties with Pakistan Pakistan and
mandate to the NDA govern governmen mentt. It
increased increased defence preparednes preparedness s. Since
was was re-elec electe ted d to power power in
the Kargil Kargil conflict conflict, India India raise raised d its
September–October 1999 with a
defence defen ce budge budgett as it sought to acquire
majority of 303 seats out of 545 in the
more more state state of the art equipm equipment ent;
Lok Sabha. On the diplom diplomati atic c front front, the
howeve howeverr, a few few irregu irregular lariti ities es came came to
confli conflict ct was a major major boost boost to In Ind do-U. S.
light light during during this this period period of height heightene ened d
relations, as the United United States States
military expenditure.[54] There There was also also
appreciat appreciated ed Indian attempts to restrict restrict
severe criticism of the intelligence
the conflict to a limited geographic
agencies like RAW RAW, which failed to
area area. These These ties were were furthe furtherr
predic predictt either either the intrus intrusion ions s or the
strengthen strengthened ed following following the 9/11 attacks
identity identity/number number of infiltrato infiltrators rs during
and a general shift in foreign policy of
the war. An intern internal al assess assessmen mentt repor reportt
the two nations. Re Relatio lations ns with Israe Israell –
by the the arme armed d forc forces es, publ publis ishe hed d in an
which which had discre discreetl etly y aided aided India India with with
Indian Indian magazi magazine ne, showed showed severa severall other other
ordnance ordnance supply and matériel such as
fail failin ings gs, incl includ uding ing " a sense sense of
unmanned unmanned aerial aerial vehicles vehicles and laser-
compla complacen cency cy" and being being " unprep unprepar ared ed
guide guided d bomb bombs s, as well well as satellite
for a conv convention entional al war" on the
imagery – also were bolstered bolstered
presumpti presumption on that nuclearism would
following the end of the conflict.[58]
sustai sustain n peace peace. It also also highlig highlighte hted d the lapses in comm command and and cont control rol, the insufficie insufficient nt troop troop levels and the dearth dearth of large large-calibre guns like the Bofors.[55] In 2006, retired Air Chief Marshal Marshal, A.Y. Tipn Tipnis is, alleg alleged ed that that the Indian Indian Army Army
39
believed to have felt let down by the prime minister minister' s decision decision to withdraw the remaini remaining ng fighters fighters. Howeve Howeverr, some some author authors s, includ including ing ex-CENTCOM Commander Anthony Anthony Zinni, and and ex-PM Nawa Nawaz z Shar Sharif if, stat state e that that it was was the the In 1999 TIME reported from the front line[59] of the combat and provided one of the few images of a Pakistani soldier at his post. Faced with the possibility of internatio international nal isolation isolation, the already fragile Pakistani economy was [60][61] 61] weakened further.[60][ The morale of its
forces forces after after the withdrawal withdrawal was affected[62] as many units of the
Genera Generall who reque requeste sted d Sharif Sharif to [70][71] 71] withdraw withdraw the Pakista Pakistani ni troops troops.[70][ With
Sharif placing the onus of the Kargil attac attacks ks squar squarely ely on the army army chief chief Perve Pervez z Mushar Musharraf raf, there there was an atmosphere atmosphere of uneasines uneasiness s between between the two two. On October 12, 1999, General Musharraf Musharraf staged a bloodless bloodless coup d' état , ousting ousting Nawaz Sharif .
Northern Northern Light Infantry Infantry were
Benazir Benazir Bhutto Bhutto, an opposi oppositio tion n leader leader
destroyed,[63] and the government government
and former former prime prime minist minister er, called called the
refuse refused d to even even recogn recognise ise the dead dead
Kargi Kargill War "Pakis Pakistan tan's great greatest est
[64][65] [65] bodies of its soldiers,[64] an issue that
provo provoked ked outrag outrage e and protes protests ts in the [66][67] 67] Northern Northern Areas Areas.[66][ Pakistan initially
blund blunder er". Many Many ex-offic officia ials ls of the the milita military ry and the ISI (Pakistan's principal intelligenc intelligence e agency agency) also were of the
did not acknow acknowled ledge ge many many of its
view view that that "Karg Kargil il was a wast waste e of time time"
casual casualtie ties s, but Sharif Sharif later later said said that that
and and "coul could d not not have have resul resulte ted d in any
over ver 4,000 Pakis kistani tani troo roops wer were kill killed ed
adva advant ntag age e" on the large largerr issu issue e of
in the operat operation ion and that that Pakis Pakistan tan had
Kashmir.[72] A retired retired Pakista Pakistani ni Army
lost lost the conflict conflict. Resp Respond onding ing to this this,
Gene Genera rall, Lt Gen Ali Kuli Kuli Khan Khan,
Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf
lamb lambas aste ted d the the war war as " a disast disaster er
said said, "It hurt hurts s me when when an ex- prem premie ierr
bigger than the East Pakistan Pakistan
unde underm rmin ines es his his own forc forces es," and and
tragedy",[73] adding that the plan was
claimed claimed that Indian casualties casualties were
flawed "flawed
more more than than that that of Pakis Pakista tan n.[68]
tactic tactical al planning planning and execu executio tion n" that that
Many in Pakistan had expected a victory over the Indian milit military ary based on Pakist Pakistani ani official official reports on the war,[60] but were dismayed by the turn of events events and questi questione oned d the eventu eventual al [13][69] [69] retreat.[13] The military leadership leadership is
in terms terms of its concep conceptio tion n,
ende ended d in "sacr sacrif ific icin ing g so many many [74][73] 73] soldiers.". The Pakistani Pakistani media too .".[74][
was vocal in its criticism of the whole plan plan and the eventu eventual al climbd climbdown own from from the Kargil heights since there were no gains to show for the loss of lives and
40
only resulted resulted in internati international onal
perf perfor orma manc nce e in the the war war - whic which h eve even n
condemnati condemnation on for its actions actions.[75]
drew praise from a retired Indian Lt.
Desp Despit ite e calls calls by many many for a prob probe e, no public public commis commissio sion n of inquir inquiry y was set up to investigate the people responsib responsible le for initiating initiating the conflict conflict. However However, the Pakistani Pakistani political political party, PML(N) unveiled a white paper in 2006, which states that Nawaz Sharif constituted constituted an inquiry inquiry committee committee that recommende recommended d a court marti martial al for General General Pervez Pervez Musharraf Musharraf .[76] The party allege alleges s that Musharr Musharraf af "stole stole the report report" after after topplin toppling g the governm government ent, to save himsel himselff. The report report also also claims claims that that India India knew knew about about the plan 11 months months before before its launch launch, enablin enabling g a comple complete te victo victory ry for India India on milita military ry, diplomatic diplomatic and economic economic fronts fronts.[77] A statement in June, 2008 by a former army corps commander commander of Pakista Pakistan n
General[25] - the regiment was incorp incorpora orated ted into into the regular regular army army. The war showed showed that that despit despite e a tactic tacticall ally y sound plan that had the element of surpris surprise e, little little ground groundwor work k had been been done done to gauge gauge the politi politico co- diplom diplomati atic c ramifications.[81] And like like previous previous unsuccessfu unsuccessfull infiltratio infiltrations ns attempts attempts like Operation Gibraltar that sparked sparked the 1965
war, there there was little little coordinat coordination ion
or informati information on sharing sharing among among the branch branches es of the Pakistan military. One U.S. Intell Intellige igence nce study study is report reported ed to have have stated stated that Kargi Kargill was yet anothe anotherr example example of Pakist Pakistan an’s (lack lack of ) grand strategy, repeating repeating the follies follies of the previous previous wars.[82] All these factors contri contribut buted ed to a strate strategic gic failur failure e for for Pakista Pakistan n in Kargil Kargil.
that that Shari Shariff "was was neve neverr brie briefe fed d by the army army" on the Karg Kargil il attac attack k,[78] had reignited the demand for a proble on the the epis episod ode e by lega legall & polit politic ical al [79][80] 80] groups.[79][ Though Though the Kargil Kargil conflict conflict
had brought the Kashmir dispute into inte intern rnat atio iona nall focu focus s – whic which h was was one one of the the aims aims of of Pa Pakist kistan an – it had had don done e so in negative negative circumst circumstances ances that eroded eroded its credibility credibility, since the infiltration infiltration
The Indian Peace Peace Keeping Keeping Force Force (IPKF) carried out a mission in northern and eastern Sri Lanka Lanka, in 1987–1990 to disarm the LTTE as per the Indo Indo- Sri Sri Lank Lanka a acco accord rd. In what what was was labe labele led d as Operation Operation Pawan Pawan , the Indian Air Force Force flew about 70,000 sorties to and within Sri Lanka Lanka, withou withoutt a single single aircraf aircraftt lost lost or mission aborted.
came came just just after after a peace peace proces process s betwee between n the two countr countries ies was underw underway ay. The sanctit sanctity y of the LoC LoC too received international recognition.
In November 1988, the Maldives Government Government appealed India for military help help agains againstt a mercenary invas invasion ion. On
Afte Afterr the the war war, a few few chan change ges s were were
the night of November 3, 1988, the
made made to the army. In recognit recognition ion of
Indian Indian Air Force Force airlif airlifted ted a parachute
the Northern Northern Light Infantry Infantry' s
41
battalion battalion group group from Agra and flew flew
months. In In 1974, India tested a device
them non-stop over 2000 km to
of up up to to 15 kilo ilotons. The te test wa was a
Maldives Maldives. The Indian paratrooper paratroopers s
peaceful ul "peacef
landed at Hulule, secured secured the airfield airfield
codena codenamed med "Operat Operation ion Smiling Smiling
and restored the Government rule at
Buddha".
nuclear nuclear explos explosion ion" and was
Malé within within hours hours. The brief brief, bloodl bloodless ess operat operation ion showed showed the capabi capabilit lity y of the Indian Indian Air Forc Force e in what what was labeled labeled as Operation Operation Cactus Cactus .
On May 11 and May 13, 1998, 1998, India conducted conducted five undergrou underground nd nuclear nuclear tests (3 on May 11 and 2 on May 13)
India India has a well well develo developed ped missil missile e capabi capabilit lities ies, which which traces traces its roots roots to the Indian Space Program Program.
and declared declared itself itself a nuclear state. []
Overview Overview and recent recent developmen developments ts
The The Indian Indian milita military ry today today ranks ranks as the world's third largest largest after the USA and China in terms terms of troop troops s. Over Over a
The Integrated Integrated Guided Missile
millio million n stron strong g, the paramilitary unit of
Develo Developme pment nt Progr Program am (IGMDP IGMDP) was
the Republic of India is the world 's
formed in 1983 with the aim of
largest largest and most elite paramilitar paramilitary y
achieving achieving self- sufficienc sufficiency y in missile missile
force force. Eager Eager to portra portray y itself itself as a
develo developme pment nt & produc productio tion n.
potential superpower, India India began began an
Present Presently ly it comprises comprises five core missile programs
intense intense phase of moderniza modernization tion and upgrad upgradati ation on of its armed forces forces in the lat late 1990s. Ind India is focusing more on
Agni ballistic ballistic missile missile Prithvi Prithvi ballistic ballistic missile missile Akash Akash surfac surface e-to-air air missil missile e Tri Trishul shul surface surface- to- air missile Nag anti-tank tank guided guided missile missile
developing developing indigenous indigenous military military equipments equipments rather than relying on other countries for military supplies. This change in policy has paid off well for the Indian Armed Armed Forces Forces. Most Most of
This program has given India self relian reliance ce in Missil Missile e develo developme pment nt. So, attempts like Missile Technology echnology Contro Controll Regime Regime ( MTCR MTCR) to contro controll
the Indian Indian naval naval ships ships and submar submarine ines s, military military armoured armoured vehicles vehicles, missiles missiles and ammunition ammunition are indigenously indigenously designed designed and manufactu manufactured red.
access access to and availability availability of advanced advanced weapon weapon systems systems for developing developing nations nations are not a major concern for India now.
Apart from from diverting diverting resourc resources es towards towards indigenousl indigenously y manufactur manufacturing ing military military equipm equipment ent, the Indian Indian Governm Government ent is
In 1966, India had declared that it can produce produce nuclear nuclear weapons weapons within 18
also focusing on collabora collaborating ting with other countries countries to develop develop cutting cutting-
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edge military technology technology and weapons weapons.
destroyed destroyed ammunition worth Rs. 378
Jointly developed by Russia and India,
crore.
the world' s only supersonic cruise missile, known as the BrahMos, was
In Indepe Independe ndent nt India India, the gallantr gallantry y
successfull fully y test-fired in 2001. In 1997,
awards awards for exemplary exemplary display display of
India India agreed agreed to partic participa ipate te in the
bravery in war time are the Param Param Vir
development development of Russia Russia's Prospective
Chakra, Maha Maha Vir Chakra Chakra and Vir
Air Complex Complex for Tactica Tacticall Air Forces Forces
Chakra in the decrea decreasin sing g orde orderr of
progra program m. One of the primary primary object objective ives s
importa importance nce. Their Their peace peace time time
of the the prog progra ram m is to deve develo lop p a 5 th
equivalents equivalents are the Ashoka Chakra,
generation fighter fighter aircraft aircraft, a prototype
Kirti Chakra and Shaurya Shaurya Chakra. The
of which which, know known n as the Su-47, flew its
latter latter two awards awards were formerly formerly known
firs firstt suc succes cessful sful tes test-flig fligh ht in 1997. Indi India a
as Ashok Ashoka a Chakra Chakra, Class Class II and Ashoka
is also collaborating collaborating with Israel to
Chakra Chakra, Class Class III respectively.
develop Unmanned Unmanned Aerial Aerial Vehicl Vehicles es and
Someti Sometimes mes, the peace time awards awards are
anti-missile missile defense systems.
besto bestowed wed on civili civilians ans as well well. For For
India India is now focusi focusing ng on purch purchasi asing ng
merito meritorio rious us servic service e, the awards awards are are
the technology technology behind behind the military military
Param Vishisht Seva Medal Medal , Athi
equipment equipment rather rather than the military military
Vishisht Vishisht Seva Medal and Vishisht Vishisht Seva
equipm equipment ent. Recen Recentt exampl examples es of the
Medal in decreasing order of
successfu successfull implementa implementation tion of this
importance.
Indian Indian policy policy includ include e the purcha purchase se of Sukhoi Su-30 MKI multi multi-role role fighte fighterr aircraft aircraft and T-90 main battle tanks from Russia and diesel diesel-powere powered d Scorpene Scorpene submarines submarines from France. In 2004,
Indi India a pur purcha chased sed US$ 5.7 bill billio ion n
worth worth of milita military ry equipm equipment ent from from other other countr countries ies, making making it the developin developing g world' s leading leading arms- purchaser purchaser.
On April 28, 2000, ammunition ammunition worth Rs. 393
crore was destroyed due to a fire
at the Bharatpur ammunition ammunition depot. Another fire at Pathankot sub-depot depot result resulted ed in loss loss of ammo ammo worth worth Rs. 27.39
cror crore e. On May 24, 2001, 2001, another
blaze blaze at the Birdhwal sub-depot depot
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