《GRE白皮书》.pdf

微臣教育《GRE 阅读白皮书》使用说明 新 GRE 考试改革已经有 4 年之久， 目前市面上针对 GRE 考试各个部分的备考材料层出不穷， 但是最令广大考生头疼和最能拉开差距的阅读部分则一直缺少有效且全面的备考材料。因此， 微臣教育集合团队之力，特推出《GRE 阅读白皮书》 ，作为同学们进行阅读练习时的参考材 料使用。 微臣教育《GRE 阅读白皮书》为目前市面上收录最完整的老 GRE 阅读文章汇总及完整翻译。 所有文章均来自流传于市面上的“大白本”。其中，NO.2~NO.9 为北美老 GRE 文章，其余文 章为 1990 年至 1999 年的国内 GRE 阅读文章，总计 102 个 section，204 篇文章。 本书具有以下特点：

1. 文章收录完整。GRE 考试进入中国已经 25 年，但一直以来市面上最完整的真 题来源却是“大白本”，填空与阅读题目混排且印刷不清晰，尽管题目含金量 很高，使用体验不佳。而本书完整收录“大白本”中所有 GRE 阅读文章，文 章的呈现顺序均按照当时考试中的顺序进行排列，“忠于历史”。而我们之所 以命名《GRE 阅读白皮书》是为了纪念历史上的三个大白本，同时这也是我 们“彩虹书”系列集齐 7 个颜色之后的最终色——白色。 2. 每篇文章均配有中文译文。尽管市面上有少量书籍收录了老 GRE 文章的翻译， 但均已绝版，能拿到手的都是不清晰的影印版，或者译文不利于读者理解， 比如一些生命科学类文章，读完译文的效果不如阅读英文原文。而本书则针 对所有收录的 204 篇文章配以逐字翻译，同时本书将原文和译文的每一句话 进行了编号，方便同学们进行快速定位。本书所有译文均出自微臣教育的老 师和高分学员之手，为业界良心精益求精的心血之作。 （付铮锐，颜桢力，张 超，程杨洋） 3. 文章价值极高。GRE 尽管改革多年，但是新老 GRE 阅读的文章风格并没有出 现太大变化，在近年的新 GRE 考试中，老 GRE 的文章多次复现，这也证明了 老 GRE 文章不论是对于出题者还是应考者都具有极高的借鉴意义。GRE 改革 至今，在市面上新 GRE 文章并不多的情况下，老 GRE 文章是最容易获得的 ETS 官方题目，各培训机构以及备考者都将老 GRE 阅读文章视为备考材料的不二 之选。 本书使用方法：

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长短文章搭配练习。老 GRE 阅读对于长文章阅读极为重视，每个 section 的 两篇文章中都会有一篇长文章，但是新 GRE 阅读对于长文章的考查力度已经 大大减少，每次考试中 2 个计分的 Verbal Section 中有且仅有 1 篇长文章。 因此，同学们在使用老 GRE 作为练习材料时，可以按照每个 section 来做训 练单元，1 长 1 短搭配训练。

2. 循序渐进。在备考的初期，不要限时，有限确保正确率。此阶段可以使用北 美 NO.题和国内 90~94 年的题。备考后期，在保证正确率的前提下，进行限 时训练。时间标准如下：长文章，读文章 4.5 分钟以内，每道题 1 分钟，因 此一篇长文章的时间控制在 4.5+1*7=11.5 分钟之内；短文章读文章 1.5 分钟， 每道题 1 分钟，因此一篇短文章要在 1.5+1*4=5.5 分钟内完成。按上述要求，， 建议各位在 17 分钟内完成 1 个 section。同时，因为本书是按照实际考试时 的文章顺序编排，因此文章难易程度分布均匀，与真实考试情况相似。 3. 一篇文章做至少 3 遍。任何一道题目只做 1 遍是不会留下印象的，因此每篇 文章至少做 3 遍。第 1 遍，模拟在考场上的状态，总结每句话的 3 秒版本， 大胆利用句间关系，段间关系，总结全文的 3 秒版本；第 2 遍，做精读，逐 字读懂文中的每一句话，文中的长难句务必要完全读通。第 3 遍，带着 3 秒 版本，对照中文翻译，再一次通读文章。同时文章一定要常做常新，每看一 遍都会有不同的感受。 此版本为《GRE 阅读白皮书》的 beta1.0 版本，由于时间仓促以及编者水平所限，书中难免 会有疏漏之处。为了让广大考生可以享受到更好的备考材料，诸位读者在阅读本材料时，可 以不吝指出书中有误之处并告知我们，我们会在第一时间对本书进行更新迭代。在本书发现 的任何错漏失误之处以及其他建议，请发邮件至：[email protected]。 本书虽非“藏之名山，传之其人”之作，但实为微臣教育各位团队成员辛勤耕耘之作。我们 本着开源共享原则，将本书电子版传到网络，仅为广大考生备考交流之用，禁止用作任何商 业用途。微臣教育对本书保留一切权利。 编者 2015 年 4 月

No. 2-1 SECTION A ❶Extended debate concerning the exact point of origin of individual folktales told by Afro-American slaves has unfortunately taken precedence over analysis of the tales’ meaning and function. ❷Cultural continuities with Africa were not dependent on importation and perpetuation of specific folktales in their pristine form. ❸It is in the place that tales occupied in the lives of the slaves and in the meaning slaves derived from them that the clearest resemblances to African tradition can be found. ❹Afro-American slaves did not borrow tales indiscriminately from the Whites among whom they lived. ❺Black people were most influenced by those Euro-American tales whose functional meaning and aesthetic appeal had the greatest similarity to the tales with deep roots in their ancestral homeland. ❻Regardless of where slave tales came from, the essential point is that, with respect to language, delivery, details of characterization, and plot, slaves quickly made them their own. ❶不幸的是，对于美国黑奴民间故事中个别民间故事的确切起源地点的争论势头大大盖过 了对这些故事意义和作用的分析。❷黑奴的民间故事与非洲文化的延续性并不取决于加入 并且永久保存特定原始形态的民间故事。❸黑奴的民间故事与非洲传统最明确的相似点体 现在民间故事在奴隶生活中所占据的地位，以及奴隶在民间故事中汲取的意义上。❹美国 黑奴并没有不加区分地从他们生活的白人世界中照搬民间故事。❺使黑人最受影响的是， 那些在功能意义和审美感染力方面，与在黑人祖先家乡深深扎根的故事很相似的欧美故事。 ❻不管黑奴的故事来自哪里，其基本特点是，黑奴很快就把语言、措辞风格、人物塑造的 细节和情节为己所用。

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❶The energy contained in rock within the earth’s crust represents a nearly unlimited energy source, but until recently commercial retrieval has been limited to underground hot water and/or steam recovery systems. ❷These systems have been developed in areas of recent volcanic activity, where high rates of heat flow cause visible eruption of water in the form of geysers and hot springs. ❸In other areas, however, hot rock also exists near the surface but there is insufficient water present to produce eruptive phenomena. ❹Thus a potential hot dry rock (HDR) reservoir exists whenever the amount of spontaneously produced geothermal fluid has been judged inadequate for existing commercial systems. ❶地球地壳岩石中储存的能量代表了一个近似无限的能量源，但是直到最近商业回收工作 还只是局限于开发地下热水以及/或地下蒸汽回收系统。❷这些系统在近来火山活动的区域 中被开发出来，这些区域中高速率的热流引发了可见的、以喷泉和热温泉形式喷发的水。 ❸然而在其它区域中，热岩石也存在于靠近水面的地方，但是没有足够的水来产生喷发的 现象。❹因此，当那些自发产生的地热流被认为不足以满足当前商业系统需要时，一个潜 在的干热岩石(HDR)库就产生了。 ❶As a result of recent energy crisis, new concepts for creating HDR recovery systems—which involve drilling holes and connecting them to artificial reservoirs placed deep within the crust—are being developed. ❷In all attempts to retrieve energy from HDR’s, artificial stimulation will be required to create either sufficient permeability or bounded flow paths to facilitate the removal of heat by circulation of a fluid over the surface of the rock. ❶由于近来的能源危机，建立 HDR 恢复系统的新概念——包括钻洞和把 HDR 和深层地壳 中的人工储存库连接起来——正在逐渐发展。❷所有尝试从 HDR 里提取能量的努力，都需 要人工激励来产生足够大的渗透性或是建造封闭的流道，以推进通过岩石表面的流体循环来 回收热能。 ❶The HDR resource base is generally defined to included crustal rock that is hotter than 150℃, is at depths less than ten kilometers, and can be drilled with presently available equipment. ❷Although wells deeper than ten kilometers are technically feasible, prevailing economic factors will obviously determine the commercial feasibility of wells at such depths. ❸Rock temperatures as low as 100℃ may be useful for space heating; however, for producing electricity, temperatures greater than 200℃ are desirable. ❶HDR 源区通常含有温度高于 150℃的地壳岩石、其深度不小于 10 千米、并且可以用当前 可以得到的设备来钻探岩石。❷尽管钻探深于 10 千米的热源井在技术上是可行的，但流行 的经济因素显然会决定那种深度钻探的商业可行性。❸温度低到 100℃的岩石也可以用作 空间加热；然而，如果是为了产电，人们想要高于 200℃的温度。 ❶The geothermal gradient, which specifically determines the depth of drilling required to reach a desired temperature, is a major factor in the recoverability of geothermal resources. ❷Temperature gradient maps generated from oil and gas well temperature-depth records kept by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists suggest that tappable high-temperature gradients are distributed all across the United States. ❸ (There are many areas, however, for which no temperature gradient records exist.) ❶用来决定钻探到预定温度所需深度的地热梯度(geothermal gradient)在地热能回收中是 一个重要因素。❷从美国石油地质学家协会记录的油气热源井的温度-深度数据中得到的温 度梯度图表明，可开发的高温度梯度区域遍布全美。❸（然而，有很多地区不存在温度梯 度记录。） ❶Indications are that the HDR resource base is very large. ❷If an average geothermal temperature gradient of 22℃per kilometer of depth is used, a staggering 13,000,000 quadrillion B.T.U.’s of total energy are calculated to be contained in crustal rock to a 2

ten-kilometer depth in the United States. ❸If we conservatively estimate that only about 0.2 percent is recoverable, we find a total of all the coal remaining in the United States. ❹The remaining problem is to balance the economics of deeper, hotter, more costly wells and shallower, cooler, less expensive wells against the value of the final product, electricity and/or heat. ❶有迹象表明，HDR 源区是很大的。❷如果平均地热温度梯度为每千米深度 22℃，那么美 国 10 公里深度的地壳岩石所含总能量为 13000000 亿亿英国热量单位的热能，这十分令人 惊讶。❸如果我们作一个保守估计，即这些能量中只有 0.2%可以被重新利用，这部分能量 相当于美国所有剩余煤炭燃烧所释放的能量。❹剩下的问题是如何平衡好更深、更热、更 昂贵的热源井与更浅、更冷、更便宜的热源井这二者与最终产品价值的关系。

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SECTION B ❶Four legal approaches may be followed in attempting to channel technological development in socially useful direction: specific directives, market incentive modifications, criminal prohibitions, and changes in decision-making structures. ❷Specific directives involve the government’s identifying one or more factors controlling research, development, or implementation of a given technology. ❸Directives affecting such factors may vary from administrative regulation of private activity to government ownership of a technological operation. ❹Market incentive modifications are deliberate alterations of the market within which private decisions regarding the development and implementation of technology are made. ❺Such modifications may consist of imposing taxes to cover the costs to society of a given technology, granting subsidies to pay for social benefits of a technology, creating the right to sue to prevent certain technological development, or easing procedural rules to enable the recovery of damages to compensate for harm caused by destructive technological activity. ❻Criminal prohibitions may modify technological activity in areas impinging on fundamental social values, or they may modify human behavior likely to result from technological applications—for example, the deactivation of automotive pollution control devices in order to improve vehicle performance. ❼Alteration of decision-making structures includes all possible modifications in the authority, constitution, or responsibility of private and public entities deciding questions of technological development and implementation. ❽Such alterations include the addition of public-interest members to corporate boards, the imposition by statute of duties on governmental decision-makers, and the extension of warranties in response to consumer action. ❶在试图把技术发展引到对社会有用的方向上，人们可以采用四种法律途径：发布特定指 令、修改市场刺激的方式、严禁犯罪行为以及改变决策结构。❷特定的指令包括，政府决 策控制特定技术的研究、发展以及实施的一个或多个因素。❸影响这些因素的指令是多样 的，从对于私人活动的行政监管到政府掌握的技术操作。❹市场刺激改变指的是对市场进 行慎重改变，改变个人对于技术发展及实施的决定的市场机制。❺这些改变可能包括通过 征税来为社会支付有关特定技术的费用、向某一项为社会带来的好处的技术发放补贴、为限 制某项技术发展而发出的请求、或是放宽赔偿因破坏性技术活动而引起损害的恢复程度的规 定。❻有关犯罪的禁令可能改变侵犯基础社会价值的技术活动，或者改变由技术应用而产 生的人类行为—例如，为了改善车辆性能而使汽车污染物控制装置失效的行为。❼决策结 构的改变包括所有可能的私有或公有实体在决定技术研制和实施时的权利、构成方式及责任。 ❽这些变化包括：向公司董事会增加公职人员、根据税率对政府决策者进行征税以及扩大 对消费者行为的担保。 ❶Effective use of these methods to control technology depends on whether or not the goal of regulation is the optimal allocation of resources. ❷When the object is optimal resource allocation, that combination of legal methods should be used that most nearly yields the allocation that would exist if there were no external costs resulting from allocating resources through market activity. ❸There are external costs when the price set by buyers and sellers of goods fails to include some costs, to anyone, that result from the production and use of the goods. ❹Such costs are internalized when buyers pay them. ❶能否有效使用这些方法来控制科技取决于监管的目标是否为资源的最优分配。❷当目标 是最优资源分配时，如果通过市场活动分配资源而未产生外部费用，那么就应该组合使用这 些法律方法来达到可能的最优分配。❸当买卖双方定的价格无法包含一些由生产和使用这 些商品而产生的费用时，外部费用就产生了。❹这些费用在买家购买商品时会内化到商品 中去。 ❶Air pollution from motor vehicles imposes external costs on all those exposed to it, in the form of soiling, materials damage, and disease: these externalities result from failure to place 4

a price on air, thus making it a free good, common to all. ❷Such externalities lead to nonoptimal resource allocation, because the private net product and the social net product of market activity are not often identical. ❸If all externalities were internalized, transactions would occur until bargaining could no longer improve the situation, thus giving an optimal allocation of resources at a given time. ❶机动车带来的空气污染对那些暴露在其中的人，以污染环境、破坏资源以及传播疾病的 方式产生外在成本：这些外在费用(externality)是由于未能对空气定价而产生的，因此这使 得空气对所有人都是一种免费的好处。❷这种外部费用产生了资源非最优分配，因为市场 活动的私人净产量和社会净产量并不完全一样。❸如果所有外部费用都转移到商品中去， 那么交易可能在讨价还价无法让情况继续改善的时候才会进行，由此达到特定时间资源的最 优分配。

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❶The whole biosphere, like the individual organisms that live inside it, exists in a chemically dynamic state. ❷In this homeostatic system, a great number of organic compounds are synthesized, transformed, and decomposed continuously; together, these processes constitute the major parts of the carbon cycle. ❸For the smooth operation of this cycle, degradation is just as important as synthesis: the green plants produce great quantities of polymers, such as cellulose, and innumerable other compounds like alkaloids, terpenes, and flavonoids, that green plants cannot use as sources of energy during respiration. ❹The release of the carbon in these compounds for recycling depends almost entirely on the action of both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and certain types of fungi. ❺Some bacteria and fungi possess the unique and extremely important biochemical asset of being able to catalyze the oxidation of numerous inert products, thereby initiating reaction sequences that produce carbon dioxide and so return much carbon to a form that actively enters into life cycles once again. ❶整个生物圈，像在里面生长的单个生物体一样，处于化学动态之中。❷在这个内稳态系 统(homeostatic system)里，很多有机化合物被持续地合成、转化以及分解；总体来说，这 些过程组成了碳循环(carbon cycle)的主要部分。❸为了使这个循环平稳运转，降解和合成 一样重要：绿色植物产生大量聚合物（比如细胞质）以及数不清的其他化合物（比如植物碱、 萜烯以及黄酮），而绿色植物不能把这些化合物作为呼吸产生能量的来源。❹这些化合物 中碳的释放几乎完全依赖于有氧和无氧细菌以及特定种类的真菌。❺有的细菌和真菌有独 特并且极其重要的生化性质，可以催化许多不活泼物质的氧化反应，从而开始一系列产生二 氧化碳的反应，许多碳元素就再次还原成可以迅速进入生命循环的形态。

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No. 2-2 SECTION A ❶Even as the number of females processed through juvenile courts climbs steadily, an implicit consensus remains among scholars in criminal justice that male adolescents define the delinquency problem in the United States. ❷We suggest two reasons why this view persists. ❸First, female adolescents are accused primarily of victimless crimes, such as truancy, that do not involve clear-cut damage to persons or property. ❹If committed by adults, these actions are not even considered prosecutable; if committed by juvenile males, they have traditionally been looked on leniently by the courts. ❺Thus, ironically, the plight of female delinquents receives little scrutiny because they are accused of committing relatively minor offenses. ❻Second, the courts have long justified so-called preventive intervention into the lives of young females viewed as antisocial with the rationale that women are especially vulnerable. ❼Traditional stereotypes of women as the weaker and more dependent sex have led to earlier intervention and longer periods of misdirected supervision for female delinquents than for males. ❶即便在少年法庭中受起诉女性的数量稳步增加的时候，刑事司法学者对于美国男性青少 年是实施犯罪的主体仍然心照不宣。❷我们提出两个原因解释这个观点为什么存在。❸第 一，女性青少年被控告的罪大多不涉及受害者（例如逃学） ，并不涉及对于个人或者财物的 明显伤害。❹如果这些行为是由成人做的，那么它们甚至不会被认为是可起诉的；如果是 男性青少年做的，法庭通常会仁慈地对待他们。❺因此讽刺的是，女性犯罪者的困境几乎 没有被仔细研究，因为她们通常是由于次要犯罪而被控告的。❻第二，法庭一直以来以女 性尤其脆弱为基本原理，来证明对被当作反社会的年轻女性的生活进行所谓预防性干预是正 当的。❼人们对女性性别的固有印象是一个弱势且依赖于男性的性别，这个印象导致了对 女性比对男性进行更早的干预及更长时间的错误监管。

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❶Scattered around the globe are more than one hundred regions of volcanic activity known as hot spots. ❷Unlike most volcanoes, hot spots are rarely found along the boundaries of the continental and oceanic plates that comprise the Earth’s crust; most hot spots lie deep in the interior of plates and are anchored deep in the layers of the Earth’s surface. ❸Hot spots are also distinguished from other volcanoes by their lavas, which contain greater amounts of alkali metals than do those from volcanoes at plate margins. ❶ 100 多个火山活动的区域散落在地球各处，它们被认为是热点（hot spot）。❷与大多数 火山不同，热点仅仅出现在大陆和海洋板块的边界处，这些板块组成了地壳；大多数热点存 在于板块内部的深处并被固定在地球表面地层的深处。❸可以通过岩浆来区分热点和其它 火山，热点的岩浆比处在板块边缘的火山的岩浆含有更多的碱金属。 ❶In some cases, plates moving past hot spots have left trails of extinct volcanoes in much the same way that wind passing over a chimney carries off puffs of smoke. ❷It appears that the Hawaiian Islands were created in such a manner by a single source of lava, welling up from a hot spot, over which the Pacific Ocean plate passed on a course roughly from the east toward the northwest, carrying off a line of volcanoes of increasing age. ❸Two other Pacific island chains—the Austral Ridge and the Tuamotu Ridge—parallel the configuration of the Hawaiian chain; they are also aligned from the east toward the northwest, with the most recent volcanic activity near their eastern terminuses. ❶在某些情况下，板块移动经过热点会留下死火山的残迹，这就好像风经过烟囱带走烟雾 一样。❷太平洋板块粗略按照从东向西北的路线经过一个热点，形成一排地质年龄递增的 火山群。❸其它两个太平洋岛屿链——Austral 山脉以及 Tuamotu 山脉——和夏威夷岛屿链 的构造类似；它们也是从东到西北排成一线，其东端是最近火山活动的区域。 ❶That the Pacific plate and the other plates are moving is now beyond dispute; the relative motion of the plates has been reconstructed in detail. ❷However, the relative motion of the plates with respect to the Earth’s interior cannot be determined easily. ❸Hot spots provide the measuring instruments for resolving the question of whether two continental plates are moving in opposite directions or whether one is stationary and the other is drifting away from it. ❹The most compelling evidence that a continental plate is stationary is that, at some hot spots, lavas of several ages are superposed instead of being spread out in chronological sequence. ❺Of course, reconstruction of plate motion from the tracks of hot-spot volcanoes assumes that hot spots are immobile, or nearly so. ❻Several studies support such an assumption, including one that has shown that prominent hot spots throughout the world seem not to have moved during the past ten million years. ❶对于太平洋板块和其它板块移动的观点已经没有争议了；板块的相对移动已经被详细地 重建出来了。❷然而板块的相对运动与地球内部的关系还未能被简单地确定下来。❸热点 为解决两个大陆板块是在反向运动，还是其中一个板块静止而另一个板块漂离的问题提供了 测量工具。❹有关一个大陆板块静止的让人信服的证据是，在某些热点处几个时期熔岩是 重叠在一起的，而不是按照时间顺序向外扩散的。❺的确，从热点火山的路径来重建有关 板块的运动假定热点不运动，或是近似不运动。❻几项研究支持了这个假设，其中一项研 究表明，世界范围内的重大热点似乎没有在过去的 1000 万年里移动。 ❶Beyond acting as frames of reference, hot spots apparently influence the geophysical processes that propel the plates across the globe. ❷When a continental plate comes to rest over a hot spot, material welling up from deeper layers forms a broad dome that, as it grows, develops deep fissures. ❸In some instances, the continental plate may rupture entirely along some of the fissures so that the hot spot initiates the formation of a new ocean. ❹Thus, just as earlier theories have explained the mobility of the continental plates, so hot-spot activity may suggest a theory to explain their mutability. 8

❶除了作为参考框架，热点显然还影响着地球上板块移动的地质物理进程。❷大陆板块在 一个热点附近停留的时候，从深层涌出的材料形成了一个宽的圆丘，这个圆丘在形成过程中 会产生深深的裂缝。❸在某些情况下，大陆板块可能沿着某些裂缝完全断裂，这样热点就 引发了一个新海洋的形成。❹因此，就像之前的理论解释大陆板块移动那样，热点活动可 能也提出一个理论来解释其可变性。

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SECTION B ❶Although scientists observe that an organism’s behavior falls into rhythmic patterns, they disagree about how these patterns are affected when the organism is transported to a new environment. ❷One experimenter, Brown, brought oysters from Connecticut waters to Illinois waters. ❸She noted that the oysters initially opened their shells widest when it was high tide in Connecticut, but that after fourteen days their rhythms had adapted to the tide schedule in Illinois. ❹Although she could not posit an unequivocal causal relationship between behavior and environmental change, Brown concluded that a change in tide schedule is one of several possible exogenous influences (those outside the organism) on the oysters’ rhythms. ❺Another experimenter, Hamner, however, discovered that hamsters from California maintain their original rhythms even at the South Pole. He concluded that endogenous influences (those inside the organism) seem to affect an organism’s rhythmic behavior. ❶尽管科学家观察到生物体的行为是有规律的，但他们对于当生物体被转移到一个新环境 时它们的生活模式会受到什么影响的问题持有不同意见。❷一个叫 Brown 实验者把牡蛎 (oyster)从 Connecticut 水域带到了 Illinois 水域。❸她注意到牡蛎在 Connecticut 涨潮到最 高时把壳张到最大，但是在到了 Illinois 水域 14 天后它们的节奏适应了 Illinois 潮汐的时刻 表。❹虽然她不能断定在行为和环境改变之间是否有明确的因果关系，但是她得出一个结 论：潮汐时间的改变是作用在牡蛎上的其中一种可能的外界影响。❺然而另一位叫 Hamner 的实验者发现，来自 California 的仓鼠(hamsters)即使在南极也会维持它们原先的节奏。他 总结到，内因似乎影响生物体节奏的行为。

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❶Picture-taking is a technique both for annexing the objective world and for expressing the singular self. ❷Photographs depict objective realities that already exist, though only the camera can disclose them. ❸And they depict an individual photographer’s temperament, discovering itself through the camera’s cropping of reality. ❹That is, photography has two antithetical ideals: in the first, photography is about the world and the photographer is a mere observe who counts for little; but in the second, photography is the instrument of intrepid, questing subjectivity and the photographer is all. ❶照相是一种既包含兼并客观世界，又表达独特自我的技术。❷照片描绘已存在的客观现 实，但是只有照相机才能揭示这些现实。❸照片反映一种个人摄影者的气质，这种气质是 通过相机对现实的剪裁而显现的。❹这就是说，摄影技术(photography)有两个对立的观念： 1. 摄影技术是反映世界的，而摄影者仅仅是个观察者，其重要性微乎其微；2.摄影技术是大 胆探索的主观媒介，摄影师决定一切。 ❶These conflicting ideals arise from a fundamental uneasiness on the part of both photographers and viewers of photographs toward the aggressive component in “taking” a picture. ❷Accordingly, the ideal of a photographer as observer is attractive because it implicitly denies that picture-taking is an aggressive act. ❸The issue, of course, is not so clear-cut. ❹What photographers do cannot be characterized as simply predatory or as simply, and essentially, benevolent. ❺As a consequence, one ideal of picture-taking or the other is always being rediscovered and championed. ❶这两个相互对立的观念来自摄影师和观众对“照”相中挑衅成份所表现出来根本上的不安。 ❷同样地，把摄影师当作观察者的观点是有吸引力的，因为这种观念无疑否认了照相也是 一种挑衅行为。❸当然，问题并不是那么显而易见。❹摄影师的行为不能简单地被定性为 强取豪夺，也不能简单地被定性为纯粹的乐善好施。❺因此，关于照相的各种观念被重新 发现并且得到支持。 ❶An important result of the coexistence of these two ideals is a recurrent ambivalence toward photography’s means. ❷Whatever the claims that photography might make to be a form of personal expression on a par with painting, its originality is inextricably linked to the powers of a machine. ❸The steady growth of these powers has made possible the extraordinary informativeness and imaginative formal beauty of many photographs, like Harold Edgerton’s high-speed photographs of a bullet hitting its target or of the swirls and eddies of a tennis stroke. ❹But as cameras become more sophisticated, more automated, some photographers are tempted to disarm themselves or to suggest that they are not really armed, preferring to submit themselves to the limits imposed by premodern camera technology because a cruder, less high-powered machine is thought to give more interesting or emotive results, to leave more room for creative accident. ❺For example, it has been virtually a point of honor for many photographers, including Walker Evans and Cartier-Bresson, to refuse to use modern equipment. ❻These photographers have come to doubt the value of the camera as an instrument of “fast seeing”. ❼Cartier-Bresson, in fact, claims that the modern camera may see too fast. ❶两种观念共存带来的一个重要结果是让人们对摄影手段出现反复的矛盾心理。❷不论摄 影成为一种和绘画相当的表现个人形式的观点是否正确，摄影技术的独创性和照相机器械的 功能是密不可分的。❸照相机功能的持续发展使得创造许多信息奇特、富有想象力的、形 式上有美感的照片成为可能，例如，Harold Edgerton 的关于子弹击中目标，或网球击打时 产生的漩涡(swirls and eddies)的抓拍。❹但是当照相机变得越来越精密、自动化程度越来 越高时，有些摄影师很不情愿用照相机，或表明他们宁愿受制于现代化以前的摄影技术也不 用照相机，因为粗糙的、低级的照相器械被认为更能产生更有趣、动人的效果，可以为创造 性活动留有更大的余地。❺例如，包括 Walker Evans 和 Cartier-Bresson 在内的许多摄影 11

师，以拒绝使用现代设备为荣。❻这些摄影师开始怀疑照相机作为“快速视像”工具的价值。 ❼事实上，Cartier-Bresson 断言：现代照相机视像速度可能过快了。 ❶This ambivalence toward photographic means determines trends in taste. ❷The cult of the future (of faster and faster seeing) alternates over time with the wish to return to a purer past—when images had a handmade quality. ❸This nostalgia for some pristine state of the photographic enterprise is currently widespread and underlies the present-day enthusiasm for daguerreotypes and the wok of forgotten nineteenth-century provincial photographers. ❹Photographers and viewers of photographs, it seems, need periodically to resist their own knowingness. ❶这种对于摄影手段的矛盾心理决定了审美的取向。❷对未来（越来越快的视像速度）的 狂热崇拜常常和回到更纯正的过去（当时图像都具有手工制作的特征）的愿望交替出现。 ❸这种对早期摄影业的怀旧情绪目前十分流行，并且这构成了今日热衷于昔日银版照相法 (daguerreotype)和被遗忘的 19 世纪乡土摄影师的作品的基础。❹看来摄影师和欣赏者需要 时常推翻自己现有知识。

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No. 2-3 SECTION A ❶It is well known that biological changes at the molecular level have morphogenetic consequences, consequences affecting the formation and differentiation of tissues and organs. ❷It is superfluous to point out that gene mutations and disturbances of the bio-synthetic processes in the embryo may result in abnormalities in the morphology (structure) of an organism. ❸However, whereas much is known about causes and consequences at the molecular level, and in spite of an enormous accumulation of chemical and morphological data on embryos of various kinds, our understanding of how genes control morphogenesis is still far from complete. ❹Perhaps one reason for this is that molecular biologists and morphologists speak different languages. ❺Whereas the former speak about messenger-RNA and conformational changes of protein molecules, the latter speak of ectoderms, hypoblasts, and neural crests. ❶众所周知，分子层面上的生物变化会导致有关形态遗传学的后果，这些后果会影响组织 和器官的形成和分化。❷指出胚胎(embryo)中的基因突变以及生物合成过程的干扰也许会 导致生物形态（结构）异常的后果是多此一举。❸然而，尽管人们已经知道很多分子层面 上的原因和后果，并且尽管在不同种类的胚胎中我们已经积累了大量化学和形态学的数据， 但是我们对基因控制形态遗传的理解非常不完整。❹导致这种情况的原因之一可能是，分 子生物学家和形态学家说着不同的语言。❺当前者说信使 RNA 和蛋白质分子的构象的变化 时，后者在说外胚胎(ectoderms)、内胚胎(hypoblasts)和神经嵴(neural crest）。 ❶One solution to this predicament is to try to find some phenomena relevant to morphogenesis which both the molecular biologist and the morphologist can understand and discuss. ❷As morphogenesis must be basically the result of changes in behavior of the individual cells, it seems logical to ask morphologists to describe the morphogenetic events observed in terms of changes in cellular contact, changes in the rate of proliferation of cells, or similar phenomena. ❸Once this is done, it may be appropriate to ask questions about the molecular background for these changes. ❹One may, for instance, ask whether variations in cell contact reflect alterations in the populations of molecules at the cell surface, or one may inquire about the molecular basis for the increased cell mobility involved in cell dispersion. ❶解决这个困境的方法之一是试图找到一些有关形态遗传的现象，即分子生物学家和形态 学家都能理解和讨论的现象。❷由于形态遗传一定是个体细胞行为变化的基本结果，以下 观点看似是符合逻辑的，即请形态学家依据细胞接触的变化、细胞繁殖率的变化或者相似现 象，来描述有关形态遗传所观察到的事件。❸一旦这些完成了，去询问有关这些变化的分 子背景问题也就变得合适了。❹例如，一个人也许会问细胞接触的变化是否会反映细胞表 面分子数量的变化，或者会问细胞扩散中细胞移动性增强的分子基础是什么。 ❶Studies of this kind have been carried out with cells released from tissues in various ways and then allowed to reveal their behavior after being spread out into a thin layer. ❷In many cases, such cells show the ability to reaggregate, after which different cell types may sort themselves out into different layers and even take part in still more intricate morphogenetic events. ❸But in most cases, the behavior of cells in the intact embryo is difficult to study because of the thickness and opacity of the cell masses. ❹The sea urchin embryo, however, has the advantage that it is so transparent that each cell can be easily observed throughout development. ❺Thus, by recording the development of a sea urchin embryo with time-lapse photography, the research scientist might discover previously unknown features of cellular behavior. ❻Perhaps the study of the sea urchin in this manner can provide a medium by which the molecular biologist and the morphologist can begin communicating with each other more effectively about the way in which genes control morphogenesis. 13

❶这类研究已经在进行之中了：细胞以不同的方式从组织中释放出来，然后扩散到一个薄 层，由此来展现它们的行为。❷在许多场合，这种细胞展现了再次聚集(reaggregate)的能力， 而在此之后，不同类型的细胞可能把自己从不同的层次中区分出来，甚至进入更复杂的有关 形态遗传的事件中。❸但在绝大多数情况下，由于细胞团块的厚度和不透明性，细胞在完 好的胚胎中的行为是难以研究的。❹但是，海胆(sea urchin)的胚胎有这样一个优点，即因 为它太透明了，以至于每个细胞在发育过程中都能轻易观察到。❺因此，通过延时摄影把 海胆胚胎的发育过程记录下来，研究者们也许能发现以前未知的细胞行为的特点。❻也许 用这种方法能提供一种媒介，通过这种媒介分析学家和形态学家彼此能关于基因控制形态遗 传有更有效地交流。

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❶The black experience, one might automatically assume, is known to every Black author. ❷Henry James was pondering a similar assumption when he said: “You were to suffer your fate. ❸That was not necessarily to know it.” ❹This disparity between an experience and knowledge of that experience is the longest bridge an artist must cross. ❺Don L. Lee, in his picture of the Black poet, “studying his own poetry and the poetry of other Black poets,” touches on the crucial point. ❻In order to transform his own sufferings—or joys—as a Black person into usable knowledge for his readers, the author must first order his experiences in his mind. ❼Only then can he create feelingly and coherently the combination of fact and meaning that Black audiences require for the re-exploration of their lives. ❽A cultural community of Black authors studying one another’s best works systematically would represent a dynamic interchange of the spirit—corrective and instructive and increasingly beautiful in its recorded expression. ❶人们可能会理所当然地想，每一个黑人作家都熟知黑人的经历。❷Henry James 仔细考 虑了一个类似的假设，他说：“你注定要经历你的命运。❸那并不是说你就理解自己的命运。” ❹在亲身经历和对亲身经历的理解之间的差异是艺术家需要跨越的最长的桥梁。❺Don L. Lee 在他生动地描写黑人诗人“研究自己以及其他黑人的诗歌”时曾涉及到这个关键点。❻为 了将他自己作为黑人的苦难——或是喜悦——转变为对其读者来说有用的认识，黑人作家首 先必须要把脑海中的经历梳理一遍。❼只有这样他才能将黑人读者要重新探索的生活所需 的事实以及意义富有感情地、前后一致地表达出来。❽一个由黑人作家组成、系统研究其 他作家最好的作品的文化团体展现出一种有活力的精神交流，这种用记载文字表达的交流有 纠正和教育的意义，并且会变得越来越美丽。

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SECTION B ❶My objective is to analyze certain forms of knowledge, not in terms of repression or law, but in terms of power. ❷But the word power is apt to lead to misunderstandings about the nature, form, and unity of power. ❸By power, I do not mean a group of institutions and mechanisms that ensure the subservience of the citizenry. ❹I do not mean, either, a mode of subjugation that, in contrast to violence, has the form of the rule. ❺Finally, I do not have in mind a general system of domination exerted by one group over another, a system whose effects, through successive derivations, pervade the entire social body. ❻The sovereignty of the state, the form of law, or the overall unity of a domination are only the terminal forms power takes. ❶我的目的是分析特定形式的知识，不是根据压迫或者法律而是根据权力来分析知识。❷ 但是权力这个词容易引起对于权力性质、形式和统一性的误解。❸我所说的权力这个词， 并不是指一套保证平民服从的制度和机制。❹我也不是指某种形式的征服，这种征服与暴 力相反，它具有统治的形式。❺最后，我所想的权力也不是由一个集团支配另一个集团所 构成的一个普遍体系，这个体系的影响由连续的派生过程（derivations）存在于整个社会中。 ❻国家的主权(sovereignty)、法律的形式以及统治的整体统一性只是权力所表现的最终形式。 ❶It seems to me that power must be understood as the multiplicity of force relations that are immanent in the social sphere; as the process that, through ceaseless struggle and confrontation, transforms, strengthens, or reverses them; as the support that these force relations find in one another, or on the contrary, the disjunctions and contradictions that isolate them from one another; and lastly, as the strategies in which they take effect, whose general design or institutional crystallization is embodied in the state apparatus, in the formulation of the law, in the various social hegemonies. ❶在我看来，权力必须被理解为在社会领域里各种力量关系的总和；被理解为一个过程， 这个过程经过持续的斗争和冲突，改变、加强或颠倒这些力量关系；被理解为这些力量关系 在彼此间所能找到的支持；或者相反，被理解为使它们彼此分离开的分裂与矛盾；最后，被 理解为这些力量关系发挥效果的策略，策略的总体方案或体制性成形过程体现为国家工具 （state apparatus）、体现为法律的制定、体现为各种各样的社会霸权(hegemonies)。 ❶Thus, the viewpoint that permits one to understand the exercise of power, even in its more “peripheral” effects, and that also makes it possible to use its mechanisms as a structural framework for analyzing the social order, must not be sought in a unique source of sovereignty from which secondary and descendent forms of power emanate but in the moving substrate of force relations that, by virtue of their inequality, constantly engender local and unstable states of power. ❷If power seems omnipresent, it is not because it has the privilege of consolidating everything under its invincible unity, but because it is produced from one moment to the next, at every point, or rather in every relation from one point to another. ❸Power is everywhere, not because it embraces everything, but because it comes from everywhere. ❹And if power at times seems to be permanent, repetitious, inert, and self-reproducing, it is simply because the overall effect that emerges from all these mobilities is a concatenation that rests on each of them and seeks in turn to arrest their movement. ❺One needs to be nominalist, no doubt: power is not an institution, and not a structure; neither is it a certain strength we are endowed with; it is the name that one attributes to a complex strategic situation in a particular society. ❶因此，这个观点，即允许人们理解权力的运用——即便在其比较“外围的”效应中——并使 机制作为一种分析社会秩序的结构性框架成为可能的观点，绝不应该从一个独特的、所有次 要和派生的权力形式所来源的主权根源之中寻找，而应该在那个不断运动的深层力量关系中 寻找，这些力量关系凭借其不平等性，不断地导致权力的局部化以及权力不稳定的状态。 ❷如果权力看起来无处不在，那么这并不是因为它具备一种在其不可战胜的统一性下巩固 16

一切的特权，而是因为它从某个瞬间到下一个瞬间的每一点，或更确切地说，从一个点到下 一个点的每一种关系中相继产生。❸权力无处不在，并不是因为它包含一切，而是因为权 力来自各个地方。❹如果权力时常显得永恒、重复、不活跃，且自我再生（self-reproducing）， 那么这仅仅是因为所有这些变化中产生的整体效应是某一系列相互联系的事物，变化建立在 它们当中的每个因素的基础上，并反过来试图去阻遏它们的运动。❺毫无疑问，人们有必 要成为名义主义者（nominalist）；权力既不是某种体制，也不是某种结构；它也不是某种 赋予人们的力量；它是个名称，人们将它赋予给某个特定社会中复杂的战略形势。

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❶The hypothesis of an expanding Earth has never attracted notable support, and if it were not for the historical example of continental drift, such indifference might be a legitimate(合 理的) response to an apparently improbable concept. ❷It should be remembered, however, that drift too was once regarded as illusory, but the idea was kept alive until evidence from physicists compelled geologists to reinterpret their data. ❶对于地球扩张的假设从来都没有得到有力的支持，并且要不是历史上有大陆漂移学说， 这种冷漠的态度也许是对一个明显不合理观点的一个合理反映。❷然而，我们应该记住的 是，板块漂移学说曾经也被认为是虚无缥缈的，但在物理学家的证据迫使地理学家重新解释 他们的数据之前，这种思想一直活跃着。 ❶Of course, it would be as dangerous to overreact to history by concluding that the majority must now be wrong about expansion as it would be to reenact the response that greeted the suggestion that the continents had drifted. ❷The cases are not precisely analogous. ❸There were serious problems with the pre-drift world view that a drift theory could help to resolve, whereas Earth expansion appears to offer no comparable advantages. ❹If, however, physicists could show that the Earth’s gravitational force has decreased with time, expansion would have to be reconsidered and accommodated. ❶当然，通过断定目前大众对扩张学说的认识是错误的，从而对历史产生过激反应，这与 重新支持大陆漂移学说的回应一样危险。❷这个例子是不能精确类比的。❸漂流学说之前 的、对世界形成的观点中几个严重的问题，可以用漂流学说解决，可是地球扩张学说似乎没 有提供类似的好处。❹然而，如果物理学家能够表明地球的引力是随着时间减少的，扩张 学说就要被重新考虑和接纳了。

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No. 3-1 SECTION A ❶Notable as important nineteenth-century novels by women, Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights treat women very differently. ❷Shelley produced a “masculine” text in which the fates of subordinate female characters seem entirely dependent on the actions of male heroes or anti-heroes. ❸Bronte produced a more realistic narrative, portraying a world where men battle for the favors of apparently high-spirited, independent women. ❹Nevertheless, these two novels are alike in several crucial ways. ❺Many readers are convinced that the compelling mysteries of each plot conceal elaborate structures of allusion and fierce, though shadowy, moral ambitions that seem to indicate metaphysical intentions, though efforts by critics to articulate these intentions have generated much controversy. ❻Both novelists use a storytelling method that emphasizes ironic disjunctions between different perspectives on the same events as well as ironic tensions that inhere in the relationship between surface drama and concealed authorial intention, a method I call an evidentiary narrative technique. ❶Mary Shelley 的 Frankenstein 和 Emily Bronte 的 Wuthering Heights 都是 19 世纪由女性 作家创作的重要小说，但它们对于女性的描写截然不同。❷Shelly 展现了一个“男性般”的主 题，而在这个主题中隶属的女性角色的命运似乎完全依赖于男性主角或反男性主角的行为。 ❸Bronte 展现的是一个更加现实的故事，她描绘的是男人为了得到高傲独立女性的芳心而 互相斗争的世界。❹不过，这两本小说在一些关键方面是相似的。❺虽然文学评论家在阐 述作者意图时产生了很多争议，但许多读者相信每段情节中引人入胜的神秘感掩盖了精妙的 影射手法，也掩盖了朦胧但强烈的、表达哲学意图的、道德上的雄心。❻这两个小说家用 了同一种叙述手法，这种手法强调了用不同视角看待同一事件而产生的让人哭笑不得的分歧， 也强调了表面上戏剧性场面与作者暗含的意图之间内在联系，而我把这种方法称为基于证据 的叙事技巧。

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❶Climatic conditions are delicately adjusted to the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere. ❷If there were a change in the atmosphere—for example, in the relative proportions of atmospheric gases—the climate would probably change also. ❸A slight increase in water vapor, for instance, would increase the heat-retaining capacity of the atmosphere and would lead to a rise in global temperatures. ❹In contrast, a large increase in water vapor would increase the thickness and extent of the cloud layer, reducing the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth’s surface. ❶气候条件随地球大气成分的变化而精确地变化。❷如果大气层产生一个变化——比如在 大气气体组成的相对比例上产生变化——那么气候可能也会改变。❸例如，水蒸气的微量 增加会增加大气蓄热能力，并会使得全球气温上升。❹相反，水蒸气的大量增加会增加云 层的厚度和范围，从而减少到达地球表面的太阳能。 ❶The level of carbon dioxide, CO2, in the atmosphere has an important effect on climatic change. ❷Most of the Earth’s incoming energy is short-wavelength radiation, which tends to pass through atmospheric CO2 easily. ❸The Earth, however, reradiates much of the received energy as long-wavelength radiation, which CO2 absorbs and then remits toward the Earth. ❹This phenomenon, known as the greenhouse effect, can result in an increase in the surface temperature of a planet. ❺An extreme example of the effect is shown by Venus, a planet covered by heavy clouds composed mostly of CO2, whose surface temperatures have been measured at 430 ℃ . ❻If the CO2 content of the atmosphere is reduced, the temperature falls. ❼According to one respectable theory, if the atmospheric CO2 concentration were halved, the Earth would become completely covered with ice. ❽Another equally respectable theory, however, states that a halving of the CO 2 concentration would lead only to a reduction in global temperatures of 3℃. ❶大气中 CO2 浓度对气候变化有重要影响。❷地球的大部分入射能量是依靠短波长辐射， 这种辐射往往可以轻易地穿过大气中的 CO2。❸然而，地球会把接收到的能量以长波长的形 式再辐射出去，CO2 吸收长波长辐射，之后再把辐射传送回地球。❹这个现象被认为是温室 效应，它可以导致一个星球表面温度的上升。❺这个影响的一个极端例子是金星，其表面 被大部分由 CO2 组成的厚厚云层覆盖，据测量它的表面温度是 430℃。❻如果大气中二氧 化碳含量减少，那么气温下降。❼根据一个可接受的理论，如果大气中 CO2 浓度减半，那 么地球会完全被冰覆盖。❽然而，另一个同样可以接受的理论说，CO2 浓度减半仅仅会导致 地球温度下降 3℃。 ❶If, because of an increase in forest fires or volcanic activity, the CO 2 content of the atmosphere increased, a warmer climate would be produced. ❷Plant growth, which relies on both the warmth and the availability of CO2 would probably increase. ❸As a consequence, plants would use more and more CO2. ❹Eventually CO2 levels would diminish and the climate, in turn, would become cooler. ❺With reduced temperatures many plants would die; CO2 would thereby be returned to the atmosphere and gradually the temperature would rise again. ❻Thus, if this process occurred, there might be a long-term oscillation in the amount of CO2 present in the atmosphere, with regular temperature increases and decreases of a set magnitude. ❶如果由于山林大火或火山活动的增加而大气中 CO2 含量增加，那么这会产生一个更温暖 的气候。❷依赖温暖和 CO2 的植物生长过程可能会被促进。❸其结果是植物会利用越来越 多的 CO2。❹最终 CO2 浓度会减少，而气候随之变得凉爽。❺气温的降低会使得很多植物 死亡；CO2 会因此回到大气中，并且气温会逐渐回升。❻因此，如果这个过程出现，那么大 气中 CO2 的含量可能出现长期的波动，即气温普遍按照一定量有规律地上升和下降。 ❶Some climatologists argue that the burning of fossil fuels has raised the level of CO 2 in the atmosphere and has caused a global temperature increase of at least 1℃. ❷But a supposed global temperature rise of 1 ℃ may in reality be only several regional 20

temperature increases, restricted to areas where there are many meteorological stations and caused simply by shifts in the pattern of atmospheric circulation. ❸Other areas, for example the Southern Hemisphere oceanic zone, may be experiencing an equivalent temperature decrease that is unrecognized because of the shortage of meteorological recording stations. ❶一些气象学家认为，化石燃料的燃烧使得大气中 CO2 浓度升高，并且使得地球气温上升 了至少 1℃。❷可是假定地球气温上升的 1℃可能实际上只是几个区域的气温增加，这个增 加量被限制在气象站众多的区域，并且只由大气环流模式的变化引发。❸其它地区，例如 南半球的大洋区，可能在经历着未被人们发现的相同温度的降低，这是由于气象记录站的短 缺。

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SECTION B ❶The Food and Drug Administration has recently proposed severe restrictions on the use of antibiotics to promote the health and growth of meat animals. ❷Medications added to feeds kill many microorganisms but also encourage the appearance of bacterial strains that are resistant to anti-infective drugs. ❸Already, for example, penicillin and the tetracyclines are not as effective therapeutically as they once were. ❹The drug resistance is chiefly conferred by tiny circlets of genes, called plasmids, that can be exchanged between different strains and even different species of bacteria. ❺Plasmids are also one of the two kinds of vehicles (the other being viruses) that molecular biologists depend on when performing gene transplant experiments. ❻Even present guidelines forbid the laboratory use of plasmids bearing genes for resistance to antibiotics. ❼Yet, while congressional debate rages over whether or not to toughen these restrictions on scientists in their laboratories, little congressional attention has been focused on an ill-advised agricultural practice that produces known deleterious effects. ❶食品及药物管理局(Food and Drug Administration)最近提议，要对使用抗生素提高食用动 物的健康和生长的行为进行严格限制。❷添加到饲料中的药物，不仅能杀死许多微生物体， 而且有利于那些对抗感染药物的抗药性菌类出现。❸例如，青霉素(penicillin)和四环素 (tetracyclines)已经不像以前那样有疗效了。❹抗药性主要是由那些被称作“质粒(plasmid)” 的基因环状物给予的，它们能在不同种类、不同菌类之间交换。❺质粒也是分子生物学家 在进行基因移植实验时依靠的两种手段之一（另一种是病毒）。❻即使现在的指导方针禁止 实验室使用质粒，这些质粒也携带着对抗抗生素的基因。❼但是，尽管国会对于是否应该 加强科学家在实验室中的限制的争论非常愤怒，但他们对于这段时间已经产生已知有害影响 的不明智的农业实践却不是很在意。

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❶During adolescence, the development of political ideology becomes apparent in the individual; ideology here is defined as the presence of roughly consistent attitudes, more or less organized in reference to a more encompassing, though perhaps tacit, set of general principles. ❷As such, political ideology is dim or absent at the beginning of adolescence. ❸Its acquisition by the adolescent, in even the most modest sense, requires the acquisition of relatively sophisticated cognitive skills: the ability to manage abstractness, to synthesize and generalize, to imagine the future. ❹These are accompanied by a steady advance in the ability to understand principles. ❶在青春期时，个人政治思想意识的发展是很明显的；这里的思想意识可以定义成大体上 一致的态度，这些态度或多或少由广泛、不言而喻的一系列基本原理组织起来的。❷同样， 青春期初期的政治思想意识是朦胧的或是漫不经心的。❸青少年思想意识的获得，即便是 从最普遍的意义上来说，都需要掌握相对复杂的认知技巧：理解抽象事物的能力、综合并概 括的能力、以及想象未来的能力。❹这些能力随着理解原理能力的发展而稳定发展。 ❶The child’s rapid acquisition of political knowledge also promotes the growth of political ideology during adolescence. ❷By knowledge I mean more than the dreary “facts,” such as the composition of county government that the child is exposed to in the conventional ninth-grade civics course. ❸Nor do I mean only information on current political realities. ❹These are facets of knowledge, but they are less critical than the adolescent’s absorption, often unwitting, of a feeling for those many unspoken assumptions about the political system that comprise the common ground of understanding—for example, what the state can appropriately demand of its citizens, and vice versa, or the proper relationship of government to subsidiary social institutions, such as the schools and churches. ❺Thus political knowledge is the awareness of social assumptions and relationships as well as of objective facts. ❻Much of the naiveté that characterizes the younger adolescent’s grasp of politics stems not from an ignorance of “facts” but from conventions of the system, of what is and is not customarily done, and of how and why it is or is not done. ❶政治知识在儿童时期的快速获得也促进了政治知识在青春期时的获得。❷我说的知识， 不只是乏味的“事实”，例如儿童在传统 9 年级公民学课程中学到的州政府的组成的知识。❸ 我说的知识，也不只是指当前政治现状的信息。❹这些都是知识的方方面面，但是它们比 儿童在青春期时无意间获得的，对于那些不可言传的、组成理解的共同基础的政治体系设想 的感觉更次要一些；这种感觉包括，比如国家对其公民要求什么才是适当的，反之亦然，即 公民可向国家提出哪些要求; 或者政府与附属社会机构的适当关系， 比如学校和教会。 ❺ 因此政治知识是有关社会设想和关系的理解，和有关客观事实的理解。❻很多以青少年理 解政治为特征的幼稚表现并不是来源于对“事实”的无知，而是来自对社会系统的常规（什么 是或者不是通常的行为、如何做或者不做某事，以及为什么做或者不做某事）缺乏理解。 ❶Yet I do not want to overemphasize the significance of increased political knowledge in forming adolescent ideology. ❷Over the years I have become progressively disenchanted about the centrality of such knowledge and have come to believe that much current work in political socialization, by relying too heavily on its apparent acquisition, has been misled about the tempo of political understanding in adolescence. ❸Just as young children can count numbers in series without grasping the principle of ordination, young adolescents may have in their heads many random bits of political information without a secure understanding of those concepts that would give order and meaning to the information. ❶可是我并不想过分强调增加政治知识在青春期思想意识的形成里起到的重要作用。❷这 些年来，我逐渐对知识中心论失去幻想，并且相信当前政治社会的工作过分依赖表面上知识 的获得，对于青少年政治理解力的发展有错误的理解。❸就像儿童可以在没有理解数字的 排列的情况下按顺序数数一样，青少年可能在他们脑中有凌乱、零星的政治信息，但缺乏一 个使这些信息有序化、使其有意义的概念的确切理解。 23

❶Like magpies, children’s minds pick up bits and pieces of data. ❷If you encourage them, they will drop these at your feet—Republicans and Democrats, the tripartite division of the federal system, perhaps even the capital of Massachusetts. ❸But until the adolescent has grasped the integumental function that concepts and principles provide, the data remain fragmented, random, disordered. ❶像喜鹊一样，儿童的思维零零星星地收集资料数据。❷如果你鼓励他们，他们会漫不经 心地说出这些概念——共和党和民主党、联邦系统的三权分立、甚至可能是 Massachusetts 首府。❸但是直到青少年理解了概念和原理提供的概括功能之前，资料数据仍然是零碎的、 随机的、无序的。

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No. 3-2 SECTION A ❶The making of classifications by literary historians can be a somewhat risky enterprise. ❷When Black poets are discussed separately as a group, for instance, the extent to which their work reflects the development of poetry in general should not be forgotten, or a distortion of literary history may result. ❸This caution is particularly relevant in an assessment of the differences between Black poets at the turn of the century (1900-1909) and those of the generation of the 1920’s. ❹These differences include the bolder and more forthright speech of the later generation and its technical inventiveness. ❺It should be remembered, though, that comparable differences also existed for similar generations of White poets. ❶文史学家在对文学现象进行分类时可能要冒些风险。❷例如，当黑人诗人被单独作为一 个群体讨论的时候，我们也不应该忘记黑人诗人的成果在某种程度上反映诗歌发展的一般成 就，否则就会歪曲文学的历史。❸这个提醒十分中肯地评价了本世纪初(1900-1909)和 20 世纪 20 年代黑人诗人的差别。❹这些差别包括：20 年代黑人诗人的诗歌比起世纪初黑人 诗人的诗歌，语言更大胆、更直白，诗歌技巧更有创新。❺可人们应该考虑到的是，相似 差别也存在于同时期白人诗人的作品中。 ❶When poets of the 1910’s and 1920’s are considered together, however, the distinctions that literary historians might make between “conservative” and “experimental” would be of little significance in a discussion of Black poets, although these remain helpful classifications for White poets of these decades. ❷Certainly differences can be noted between “conservative” Black poets such as Counter Cullen and Claude McKay and “experimental” ones such as Jean Toomer and Langston Hughes. ❸But Black poets were not battling over old or new styles; rather, one accomplished Black poet was ready to welcome another, whatever his or her style, for what mattered was racial pride. ❶然而，当把 20 世纪前 10 年和 20 世纪 20 年代的诗人放在一起考虑时，文史学家把诗人 分为“传统的”和“试探的”两类，虽然这种分类对于这个时期的白人诗人仍然有用，但它对于 讨论黑人诗人意义不大。❷在“传统的”黑人诗人 Counter Cullen 和 Claude McKay，以及“试 探性”诗人 Jean Toomer 和 Langston Hughes 之间的确可以看到一些差别。❸但是黑人诗 人并没有因为新旧风格而斗争过；相反，一位有成就的黑人诗人乐意欢迎另一位黑人诗人而 不论后者的风格如何；因为对前者来说，重要的是种族的自尊心。 ❶However, in the 1920’s Black poets did debate whether they should deal with specifically racial subjects. ❷They asked whether they should only write about Black experience for a Black audience or whether such demands were restrictive. ❸It may be said, though, that virtually all these poets wrote their best poems when they spoke out of racial feeling, race being, as James Weldon Johnson rightly put it, “perforce the thing the Negro poet knows best.” ❶但是，20 世纪 20 年代的黑人诗人确实争论过他们是否应该特殊处理种族问题。❷他们 提出的问题是：他们是否应该只为黑人读者写黑人的经历，或这种要求是否是一种束缚。 ❸虽然也许可以这样说，但实际上所有这些黑人，当他们说出关系到种族生存的种族感情 时，他们会写出最好的诗篇，正如 James Weldon Johnson 正确指出的那样：“这种诗篇必然 是写黑人诗人最熟悉的事。” ❶At the turn of the century, by contrast, most Black poets generally wrote in the conventional manner of the age and expressed noble, if vague, emotions in their poetry. ❷These poets were not unusually gifted, though Roscoe Jamison and G. M. McClellen may be mentioned as exceptions. ❸They chose not to write in dialect, which, as Sterling Brown has suggested, “meant a rejection of stereotypes of Negro life,” and they refused to write only 25

about racial subjects. ❹This refusal had both a positive and a negative consequence. ❺As Brown observes, “Valuably insisting that Negro poets should not be confined to issues of race, these poets committed [an] error… they refused to look into their hearts and write.” ❻These are important insights, but one must stress that this refusal to look within was also typical of most White poets of the United States at the time. ❼They, too, often turned from their own experience and consequently produced not very memorable poems about vague topics, such as the peace of nature. ❶相比之下，本世纪初多数黑人诗人一般都用那个时期的常规方式来写作，他们的诗歌中 表达了高尚而朦胧的感情。❷这些诗人并非天赋异禀，当然 Roscoe Jamison 和 G. M. McClellen 是例外。❸他们没有用方言写作，这正如 Sterling Brown 所说的“不用方言写作 意味着抛弃黑人生活的传统”，他们不愿只写种族的主题。❹这种做法产生了积极和消极的 两种后果。❺正如 Brown 所注意到的那样，“这些诗人关于黑人诗人不要限于只写种族问 题的主张是有价值的，但同时也犯了一个错误。…他们不愿通过观察人物的内心世界而写 作。”❻这个深刻见解很重要，但是必须强调的是：当时美国大多数白人诗人普遍不愿观察 内心世界。❼他们也常常脱离自己的经历，因此写出类似宁静大自然这样的主题模糊、让 人很快忘记的诗歌作品。

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❶The primary method previously used by paleontologists to estimate climatic changes that occurred during Pleistocene glacial cycles was the determination of 18O/16O ratios in calcareous fossils. ❷However, because this ratio is influenced by a number of factors, the absolute magnitude of the temperature difference between Pleistocene glacial and interglacial cycles could not be unequivocally ascertained. ❸For example, both temperature fluctuations and isotopic changes in seawater affect the 18O/16O ratio. ❹And, since both factors influence the ratio in the same direction, the contribution of each to the 18O/16O cannot be determined. ❶之前古生物学家为了估计更新世(Pleistocene)冰川周期时气候变化而使用的基本方法是 确定钙化化石中 18O/16O 的比例。❷然而，由于这个比例受许多因素影响，更新世冰河时期 与间冰期气温大小的绝对值无法被明确地确定。❸例如，气温浮动和海水中同位素变化影 响 18O/16O 的比例。❹并且由于这两个因素向相同方向影响这个比例，每个因素对于 18O/16O 比例的变化不能被确定下来。 ❶Fortunately, recent studies indicate that the racemization reaction of amino acids can be used to determine more accurately temperatures that occurred during Pleistocene glacial cycles. ❷Only L-amino acids are usually found in the proteins of living organisms, but over long periods of geological time these acids undergo racemization, producing D-amino acids, which are not found in proteins. ❸This reaction depends on both time and temperature; thus, if one variable is known, the reaction can be used to calculate the other. ❶幸运的是，近来的研究表明，氨基酸的外消旋作用(racemization)可被用来更准确地确定 更新世冰河周期的气温。❷通常只有 L 型氨基酸被发现于活生物体的蛋白质中，但经过很 长时间的地质年代，这些氨基酸经历了外消旋作用，产生了 D 型氨基酸，其并不存在于蛋 白质之中。❸这个反应依赖于反应时间和反应温度；因此，如果我们知道其中一个变量， 那么利用这个反应就能计算出另一个变量。

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SECTION B ❶Chimps and children, gulls and Greeks—the ethologists go their merry way, comparing bits of human cultural behavior with bits of genetically programmed animal behavior. ❷True, humans are animals; they share certain anatomical features with other animals, and some items of human behavior may seem analogous to the behavior of other animals. ❸But such analogies can seriously mislead if we fail to look at the context of a particular item of behavior. ❹Thus one ethologist compares the presentation of a twig by a cormorant with gift-giving in humans. ❺Yet the cormorant’s twig-presentation simply inhibits attack and is comparable to other appeasement rituals found in many species. ❻Human gift-giving differs in form and purpose not only from culture to culture, but within the same culture in various social contexts. ❼Everything significant about it derives from its social context. ❽Thus, ethologists can accomplish little—beyond reminding us that we are animals—until they study humans as cultural beings. ❶黑猩猩和儿童，傻子和骗子——人种学家愉快地把人类文化行为的每一点和基因控制动 物行为的每一点进行比较。❷确实，人类是动物；他们有某些相同的解剖特征，并且某些 人类行为的项目和其它动物的行为类似。❸但是如果我们不能考虑到产生这种特殊行为的 环境，那么这种相似性可能带有严重的误导性。❹因此人种学家把鸬鹚送树枝的行为和人 类送礼物的行为作比较。❺可是鸬鹚送树枝的行为仅仅为了减少攻击性，并且这种行为可 以和许多物种中其它抚慰仪式相比较。❻人类送礼物的行为不光在不同文化之中有形式和 目的的差别，并且在同一种文化中的不同社会背景下也有所差别。❼这种行为中所有重要 的部分都来源于社会背景。❽因此，在他们把人类作为文化个体研究之前，没有取得太大 进展——除了提醒我们：我们是动物。

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❶Few areas of neurobehavioral research seemed more promising in the early sixties than that investigating the relationship between protein synthesis and learning. ❷The conceptual framework for this research was derived directly from molecular biology, which had shown that genetic information is stored in nucleic acids and expressed in proteins. ❸Why not acquired information as well? ❶在神经行为研究领域中，很少有比 60 年代早期研究蛋白质合成与学习行为之间关系的研 究更有前途的了。❷此研究的概念框架直接来源于分子生物学，分子生物学显示，基因信 息储存在核酸中，并在蛋白质中表现出来。❸为什么后天获得的信息不能这样呢？ ❶The first step toward establishing a connection between protein synthesis and learning seemed to be block memory (cause amnesia) by interrupting the production of protein. ❷We were fortunate in finding a nonlethal dosage of puromycin that could, it first appeared, thoroughly inhibit brain protein synthesis as well as reliably produce amnesia. ❶建立蛋白质合成和学习行为的第一步，似乎是通过干扰蛋白质的产生来阻碍记忆功能（导 致记忆缺失）。❷我们很幸运地发现了一种非致命剂量的嘌呤霉素(puromycin)，它一开始 可以完全阻碍大脑中蛋白质的合成，并能可靠地产生失忆症状。 ❶Before the actual connection between protein synthesis and learning could be established, however, we began to have doubts about whether inhibition of protein synthesis was in fact the method by which puromycin produced amnesia. ❷First, other drugs, glutarimides—themselves potent protein-synthesis inhibitors—either failed to cause amnesia in some situations where it could easily be induced by puromycin or produced an amnesia with a different time course from that of puromycin. ❸Second, puromycin was found to inhibit protein synthesis by breaking certain amino-acid chains, and the resulting fragments were suspected of being the actual cause of amnesia in some cases. ❹Third, puromycin was reported to cause abnormalities in the brain, including seizures. ❺Thus, not only were decreased protein synthesis and amnesia dissociated, but alternative mechanisms for the amnestic action of puromycin were readily suggested. ❶然而，在蛋白质合成和学习行为之间的联系真正建立起来之前，我们开始怀疑抑制蛋白 质的合成是不是嘌呤霉素产生失忆的方法。❷首先，其他药物，如戊二酸——它们自身是 强有力的蛋白质合成的抑制剂，要么未能在某些能被嘌呤霉素轻易诱发的情况中引起失忆， 要么产生跟嘌呤霉素时间进程不同的失忆。❸第二，人们发现嘌呤霉素可以通过破坏氨基 酸链来阻碍蛋白质合成，并且由此产生的碎片被怀疑是某些情况下失忆的真正原因。❹第 三，报道称嘌呤霉素导致包括癫痫在内的大脑异常。❺因此，不仅蛋白质合成的减少与失 忆被分离开，而且嘌呤霉素导致失忆行为的替代机制也已经被提出。 ❶So, puromycin turned out to be a disappointment. ❷It came to be regarded as a poor agent for amnesia studies, although, of course, it was poor only in the context of our original paradigm of protein-synthesis inhibition. ❸In our frustration, our initial response was simply to change drugs rather than our conceptual orientation. ❹After many such disappointments, however, it now appears unlikely that we will make a firm connection between protein synthesis and learning merely by pursuing the approaches of the past. ❺Our experience with drugs has shown that all the amnestic agents often interfere with memory in ways that seem unrelated to their inhibition of protein synthesis. ❻More importantly, the notion that the interruption or intensification of protein production in the brain can be related in cause-and-effect fashion to learning now seems simplistic and unproductive. ❼Remove the battery from a car and the car will not go. ❽Drive the car a long distance at high speed and the battery will become more highly charged. ❾Neither of these facts proves that the battery powers the car; only a knowledge of the overall automotive system will reveal its mechanism of the locomotion and the role of the battery within that system. 29

❶因此，嘌呤霉素的结果是让人失望的。❷尽管它被认为是失忆研究中的不太理想的药剂， 当然仅仅在我们原先抑制蛋白质合成的环境中不太理想。❸感到挫败之余，我们第一个反 应仅仅是改变药物而非我们的概念导向。❹然而，在很多这样的挫败之后，我们不太可能 只用过去的方法在蛋白质合成和学习行为之间建立稳固的联系。❺我们的用药经验表明， 所有的失忆药剂经常会以一种看起来与其蛋白质合成无关的方式干扰记忆。❻更重要的是， 干扰或加强大脑中蛋白质的产生和学习行为有因果关系的想法，似乎是过于简单且没有效果 的。❼把车里的电池拿掉，车就无法行驶。❽长距离高速开车，车里的电池就会充分充电。 ❾这些事实都没有证明是电池给汽车供能；只有在掌握全面的汽车系统之后，我们才能揭 示它的运转机制，以及电池在该系统中的作用。

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No. 3-3 SECTION A ❶Although pathogenic organisms constantly alight on the skin, they find it a very unfavorable environment and, in the absence of injury, have great difficulty colonizing it. ❷This “self-sterilizing” capacity of the skin results from the tendency of all well-developed ecosystems toward homeostasis, or the maintenance of the status quo. ❶尽管病原体不停地落在皮肤上，它们发现皮肤不是一个很有利的环境，并且在皮肤没有 受伤的情况下，病原体很难定居。❷皮肤的这种“自我灭菌(self-sterilizing)”能力是源自于所 有发育良好的生态系统保持内稳态(homeostasis)的倾向，或者是保持现状的倾向。 ❶Species that typically live in soil, water, and elsewhere rarely multiply on the skin. ❷Undamaged skin is also unfavorable to most human pathogens. ❸The skin is too acid and too arid for some species. ❹The constant shedding of the surface skin layers further hinders the establishment of invaders. ❺The most interesting defense mechanism, however, results from the metabolic activities of the resident flora. ❻Unsaturated fatty acids, an important component of the lipids in sebum collected from the skin surface, inhibit the growth of several bacterial and fungal cutaneous pathogens. ❼These acids are a metabolic product of certain gram-positive members of the cutaneous community, which break down the more complex lipids in freshly secreted sebum. ❶生活在土壤、水体以及其他地方的物种很少在皮肤上繁殖。❷没有受伤的皮肤对很多人 类病原体来说也是它们所不喜欢的。❸对于某些物种，皮肤酸性太高，也太干燥。❹皮肤 表皮的持续脱落进一步阻碍了入侵病原体的定居。❺然而，最有趣的抵御机制是源于定居 植物的新陈代谢活动。❻不饱和脂肪酸(Unsaturated fatty acid)，一种在表皮上收集到的皮 脂上脂类的重要组成部分，阻碍了一些细菌和真菌皮肤病原体的生长。❼这些酸是皮肤上 一些格兰仕阳性群落新陈代谢的产物，它能够分解更复杂的刚分泌的皮脂上的脂类。

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❶“Masterpieces are dumb,” wrote Flaubert, “They have a tranquil aspect like the very products of nature, like large animals and mountains.” ❷He might have been thinking of War and Peace, that vast, silent work, unfathomable and simple, provoking endless questions through the majesty of its being. ❸Tolstoi’s simplicity is “overpowering,” says the critic Bayley, “disconcerting,” because it comes from “his casual assumption that the world is as he sees it.” ❹Like other nineteenth-century Russian writers he is “impressive” because he “means what he says,” but he stands apart from all others and from most Western writers in his identity with life, which is so complete as to make us forget he is an artist. ❺He is the center of his work, but his egocentricity is of a special kind. ❻Goethe, for example, says Bayley, “cared for nothing but himself. Tolstoi was nothing but himself.” ❶“杰作是无声的，”Flaubert 写道：“它们像大自然的产物一样有安静的一面，就像大型动 物和山脉一样安静。”❷这时他也许想到了 War and Peace（战争与和平），这是一部巨大 的无声作品，它深不可测、单纯朴素，通过其庄严的存在引发无尽的问题。❸Tolstoi 的朴 素，如评论家 Bayley 所说的，是“不可抗拒的、令人不安的”，因为这种朴素来自于“他那漫 不经心的假设：世界就是他看到的那个样子”。 ❹像其他 19 世纪沙俄作家那样，Tolstoi 是 “令人敬佩的”，因为他“所说即所想”，但是他和所有其他沙俄作家及多数西方作家不同之处 在于，他完全同生活打成一片，以至于我们忘记了他是一个艺术家。❺他本人就是他作品 的中心，但是他的自我中心是与众不同的。❻例如像 Bayley 所说的，Goethe“只关心他自己”， 而 Tolstoi“除了他自己，什么也没有”。 ❶For all his varied modes of writing and the multiplicity of characters in his fiction, Tolstoi and his work are of a piece. ❷The famous “conversion” of his middle years, movingly recounted in his Confession, was a culmination of his early spiritual life, not a departure from it. ❸The apparently fundamental changes that led from epic narrative to dogmatic parable, from a joyous, buoyant attitude toward life to pessimism and cynicism, from War and Peace to The Kreutzer Sonata, came from the same restless, impressionable depths of an independent spirit yearning to get at the truth of its experience. ❹ “Truth is my hero,” wrote Tolstoi in his youth, reporting the fighting in Sebastopol. ❺Truth remained his hero—his own, not others’, truth. ❻Others were awed by Napoleon, believed that a single man could change the destinies of nations, adhered to meaningless rituals, formed their tastes on established canons of art. ❼Tolstoi reversed all preconceptions; and in every reversal he overthrew the “system,” the “machine,” the externally ordained belief, the conventional behavior in favor of unsystematic, impulsive life, of inward motivation and the solutions of independent thought. ❶尽管他的小说写作方式多样，人物性格多样，但 Tolstoi 与他的作品是一致的。❷在 Confession 中，他感人地描述了他中年时思想著名的“转变”，这是他早期精神生活发展的高 潮，而不是对他早期精神生活的背离。❸从史诗记叙文转变到道德说教的寓言，从欢乐的 生活态度转变到悲观主义和愤世嫉俗的生活态度，从 War and Peace 转变到 The Kreutzer Sonata，这种明显的改变源于一个独立的、渴望从经验中获得真理的、同样焦躁不安、易受 影响的心灵。❹Tolstoi 在青年时期一篇报道 Sebastopol 战斗的文章中写道；“真理是我的英 雄。 ”❺真理一直是他的英雄——他自己的真理，而不是别人的真理。 ❻别人敬畏 Napoleon， 相信个人能改变国家的命运；别人遵守无意义的宗教仪式，按照已确定的艺术准则形成自己 的鉴赏力。❼Tolstoi 则把所有这些偏见通通翻转过来；在每一个翻转中，他推翻“制度”、“机 器”，推翻外来规定的信条，推翻常规的行为，主张无秩序、冲动的生活，主张独立思考的 内在动力和解决方法。 ❶In his work the artificial and the genuine are always exhibited in dramatic opposition: the supposedly great Napoleon and the truly great, unregarded little Captain Tushin, or Nicholas Rostov’s actual experience in battle and his later account of it. ❷The simple is always pitted against the elaborate, knowledge gained from observation against assertions of borrowed 32

faiths. ❸Tolstoi’s magical simplicity is a product of these tensions; his work is a record of the questions he put to himself and of the answers he found in his search. ❹The greatest characters of his fiction exemplify this search, and their happiness depends on the measure of their answers. ❺ Tolstoi wanted happiness, but only hard-won happiness, that emotional fulfillment and intellectual clarity which could come only as the prize of all-consuming effort. ❻He scorned lesser satisfactions. ❶在他的作品中，假与真总是表现为鲜明的对立：人们认为伟大的 Napoleon 跟真正伟大 但被人忽略的、渺小的 Tushin 上尉相对立，或者 Nicholas Rostov 的实战经验同后来他对 战役的报道相对立。❷单纯朴素总是同精巧复杂对立，通过观察得来的知识同借用信念的 主张对立。❸Tolstoi 神奇的单纯朴素就是这种对立张力的产物。❹他的作品是有关向自己 提出问题并在探索中找到答案的记载，他的小说中最主要的人物就是进行这种探索的例证， 人物的幸福取决于找到答案的程度。❺Tolstoi 希望得到幸福，但他希望得到的只是那种来 之不易的幸福，那种只能通过努力换取的、作为奖赏的、感情上的充实和智力上的净化。 ❻他看不起廉价的满足。

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SECTION B ❶The stratospheric ozone layer is not a completely uniform stratum, nor does it occur at the same altitude around the globe. ❷It lies closest to the Earth over the poles and rises to maximum altitude over the equator. ❸In the stratosphere, ozone is continuously being made and destroyed by natural processes. ❹During the day the Sun breaks down some of the oxygen molecules to single oxygen atoms, and these reacting with the oxygen molecules that have not been dissociated, form ozone. ❺However, the sunlight also breaks down ozone by converting some of it back to normal oxygen. ❻In addition naturally occurring nitrogen oxides enter into the cycle and speed the breakdown reactions. ❼The amount of ozone present at any one time is the balance between the processes that create it and those that destroy it. ❶平流臭氧层(stratospheric ozone layer)并不是完全均匀统一的层，它也不出现在地球上相 同海拔高度上。❷它在两极地区离地球最近，而在赤道地区离地球最远。❸在平流层中， 臭氧(ozone)通过自然过程而被不断产生和分解。❹在白天太阳把一部分氧气分子分解成单 个氧原子，并且这些还未分离的氧气分子参与产生臭氧的反应。❺然而，太阳光还分解臭 氧，把它变回普通的氧气。❻此外，自然而然出现的氮氧化物(nitrogen oxides)进入这个循 环并且使分解反应加速。❼任何一个时刻的臭氧量是臭氧产生反应和臭氧分解反应平衡的 结果。 ❶Since the splitting of the oxygen molecules depends directly upon the intensity of solar radiation, the greatest rate of ozone production occurs over the tropics. ❷However ozone is also destroyed most rapidly there, and wind circulation patterns carry the ozone-enriched upper layers of the atmosphere away from the equator. ❸It turns out that the largest total ozone amounts are found at high latitudes. ❹On a typical day the amount of ozone over Minnesota, for example, is 30 percent greater than the amount over Texas, 900 miles farther south. ❺The density and altitude of the ozone layer also change with the seasons, the weather, and the amount of solar activity. ❻Nevertheless, at any one place above the Earth’s surface, the long-term averages maintained by natural processes are believed to be reasonably constant. ❶由于氧气分子的分离直接依赖于太阳辐射强度，所以臭氧生成的最大速率出现在热带地 区。❷可是在热带，臭氧被分解得也是最快的，并且风的循环模式把富含臭氧的大气层上 部带离赤道。❸事实证明，臭氧总量最大的地区是在高纬度地区。❹例如，在典型的白天， Minnesota 地区上空的臭氧量比向南 900 英里外 Texas 地区的臭氧量高 30%。❺臭氧层的 密度和高度也随着季节、天气、太阳活动数目的变化而变化。❻不过，在地球上空的任何 一片区域中，由自然过程维持的长期平均值可被合理地认为是恒定的。 ❶The amount of ozone near the Earth is only a small percent of the amount in the stratosphere, and exchange of molecules between the ozone layer and the air at ground level is thought to be relatively small. ❷Furthermore, the ozone molecule is so unstable that only a tiny fraction of ground-level ozone could survive the long trip to the stratosphere, so the ozone layer will not be replenished to any significant degree by the increasing concentrations of ozone that have been detected in recent years near the earth’s surface. ❸The long-term averages of ozone both near ground level and in the stratosphere are regulated by continuous processes that are constantly destroying and creating it in each of these places. ❹This is why scientists are so concerned about human beings injection into the stratosphere of chemicals like nitrogen oxides, which are catalysts that facilitate the breakdown of ozone. ❺If the ozone layer is depleted significantly, more ultraviolet radiation would penetrate to the Earth’s surface and damage many living organisms. ❶地球附近的臭氧量仅仅是平流层中臭氧量的一小部分，并且人们认为臭氧层和地面附近 分子的交换是相当少的。❷此外，臭氧分子是如此不稳定，以至于只有近地面的微量臭氧 34

可以到达平流层而不被分解，所以臭氧层不会大量地被近年在地面附近发现的、浓度增加的 臭氧补充。❸地面附近的臭氧以及平流层中的臭氧的长期平均值是受这两个区域不断分解 和产生臭氧的过程控制的。❹这就是为什么科学家如此关心人类注入到平流层的化学品， 例如氮氧化物，即促进臭氧分解的催化剂。❺如果臭氧层被明显地消耗，那么更多紫外线 辐射会穿过地球表面并对许多活生物体造成损伤。

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❶Feelings of hopelessness among medieval workers trapped in the poverty cycle gradually lessened as it became possible for women’s labor to supplement a family’s money income by more than pennies. ❷By 1300, women spinners could be found working on their own for wealthy sponsors, even after the introduction in Italy and France of prohibition against advancing money for supplies to women spinners. ❸Historians have usually interpreted this prohibition simply as evidence of women’s economic subjection, since it obliged them to turn to usurers; however, it was also almost certainly a response to a trend toward differential reward for women’s higher skill. ❹Yarn can be spun irregularly and lumpily, but perfectly smooth yarn is worth more. ❺Working for merchant entrepreneurs on time rates, women had been paid hardly more than children; working as entrepreneurs themselves and producing good work by the piece, they could break into the rational system of differential rewards. ❶当女性劳动力有可能对家庭收入提供较大支持时候，在中世纪不断陷入贫困的工人中间 的绝望感逐渐减轻了。❷到了 1300 年，我们发现女织工甚至在采用意大利和法国的禁止预 支工资以及物资的政策的情况下，都能够独自找到为富有承包者打工的工作。❸历史学家 往往把这种禁令简单解释为女性经济从属地位的证据，因为这迫使女工去向放高利贷者求助； 然而，这几乎一定是对于技艺更高的女性不同报酬的反应。❹纱线可以被不规则、不光滑 地纺织，但完美、顺滑纱线的价值更高。❺为商人承包者工作的女性小时工，其收入很难 比童工高；女工像承包者一样工作、按完成的精美作品的件数计酬，她们就能成功冲破阻碍， 享受到合理的区分对待的报酬。

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No. 4-1 SECTION A ❶By the time the American colonists took up arms against Great Britain in order to secure their independence, the institution of Black slavery was deeply entrenched. ❷But the contradiction inherent in this situation was, for many, a source of constant embarrassment. ❸ “It always appeared a most iniquitous scheme to me,” Abigail Adams wrote her husband in 1774, “to fight ourselves for what we are daily robbing and plundering from those who have as good a right to freedom as we have.” ❶在美国殖民地区人民为了独立拿起武器奋起反抗英国殖民者之前，黑奴制度就已经根深 蒂固了。❷但是对很多人来说，这个情况的内在矛盾总会使他们感到尴尬。❸ “这对我来说 好像是一个极其邪恶的阴谋，”Abigail Adams 在 1774 年写信给她的丈夫时说，“我们奋斗 的东西就是我们每天从那些和我们有同样自由权利的人们那里掠夺来的东西。” ❶Many Americans besides Abigail Adams were struck by the inconsistency of their stand during the War of Independence, and they were not averse to making moves to emancipate the slaves. ❷Quakers and other religious groups organized antislavery societies, while numerous individuals manumitted their slaves. ❸In fact, within several years of the end of the War of Independence, most of the Eastern states had made provisions for the gradual emancipation of slaves. ❶和 Abigail Adams 一样，许多美国人在独立战争期间都意识到他们自相矛盾的立场，他们 并不反对解放这些黑奴。❷基督教公谊会教徒和其它宗教团体组织了反奴隶的团体，而同 时许多人也解放了他们的奴隶。❸事实上，在独立战争结束之后的几年之内，大多数东部 的州都制定了逐步解放奴隶的条款。

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❶The evolution of sex ratios has produced, in most plants and animals with separate sexes, approximately equal numbers of males and females. ❷Why should this be so? ❸Two main kinds of answers have been offered. ❹One is couched in terms of advantage to population. ❺It is argued that the sex ratio will evolve so as to maximize the number of meetings between individuals of the opposite sex. ❻This is essentially a “group selection” argument. ❼The other, and in my view correct, type of answer was first put forward by Fisher in 1930. ❽This “genetic” argument starts from the assumption that genes can influence the relative numbers of male and female offspring produced by an individual carrying the genes. ❾That sex ratio will be favored which maximizes the number of descendants an individual will have and hence the number of gene copies transmitted. ❿Suppose that the population consisted mostly of females: then an individual who produced sons only would have more grandchildren. In contrast, if the population consisted mostly of males, it would pay to have daughters. If, however, the population consisted of equal numbers of males and females, sons and daughters would be equally valuable. Thus a one-to-one sex ratio is the only stable ratio; it is an “evolutionarily stable strategy.” Although Fisher wrote before the mathematical theory of games had been developed, his theory incorporates the essential feature of a game—that the best strategy to adopt depends on what others are doing. ❶在大多数性别分离的植物和动物中，性别比例的演化产生了数量大致相同的雄性和雌性 个体。❷为什么会这样呢？❸科学家对这个问题提出两种解答。❹第一种是通过对种群有 利的条件来表述的。❺这个答案的观点在于，性别比例进化的原因是使相反性别个体间发 生最大数量的交配。❻这就是“种群选择(group selection)”的论点。 ❼另一种答案在我看来 是正确的，它是在 1930 年由 Fisher 提出的。❽这个“基因遗传学(genetic)”论点是从这样的 假设出发的，即基因可以通过影响一个携带基因的个体的方式来影响雄性和雌性后代的相对 数量。❾生物体会选择某个性别比例，这种性别比例可以在最大程度上增加一个个体所能 拥有的后代数量，并因此可以在最大程度上增加传递到后代中的基因复制品的数量。❿假 设种群大多是由雌性个体组成的：那么一个只生产雄性子代个体的个体会有更多的孙代个体。 相反的是，如果一个种群大多由雄性个体组成，那么这更利于生雌性子代个体。但是，如果 种群中包含相同数量的雄性和雌性的个体，那么生雄性和雌性子代个体的可能性相等。因此， 1:1 的性别比是唯一稳定的比例；这是一种“生物演化上稳定的策略”。尽管 Fisher 的理论在 数学上的博弈论（game theory）发展之前就形成了，但是他的理论包含了博弈论的重要特 征——所能采用的最好的方法取决于他们在做什么。 ❶Since Fisher’s time, it has been realized that genes can sometimes influence the chromosome or gamete in which they find themselves so that the gamete will be more likely to participate in fertilization. ❷If such a gene occurs on a sex-determining (X or Y) chromosome, then highly aberrant sex ratios can occur. ❸But more immediately relevant to game theory are the sex ratios in certain parasitic wasp species that have a large excess of females. ❹In these species, fertilized eggs develop into females and unfertilized eggs into males. ❺A female stores sperm and can determine the sex of each egg she lays by fertilizing it or leaving it unfertilized. ❻By Fisher’s argument, it should still pay a female to produce equal numbers of sons and daughters. ❼Hamilton, noting that the eggs develop within their host—the larva of another insect—and that the newly emerged adult wasps mate immediately and disperse, offered a remarkably cogent analysis. ❽Since only one female usually lays eggs in a given larva, it would pay her to produce one male only, because this one male could fertilize all his sisters on emergence. ❾Like Fisher, Hamilton looked for an evolutionarily stable strategy, but he went a step further in recognizing that he was looking for a strategy. ❶自 Fisher 时代以来，人们意识到基因有时影响它们所在的染色体(chromosome)和配子 (gamete),这样配子就更有可能参与到受精过程中来。❷如果一个这样的基因出现在能决定 性别（X 或 Y）染色体上，那么异常的性别比例就很有可能出现。❸但是与博弈论更直接相 38

关的是特定寄生黄蜂种类的性别比例。❹在这些物种中，受精卵发育成雌性个体而未受精 的卵变成雄性个体。❺一个雌性个体储存精子并且能够通过是否使它受精来决定卵的性别。 ❻根据 Fisher 的理论，对于一个雌性个体有利的方案是让它产下相同数量的子代雄性个体 和子代雌性个体。 ❼Hamilton 注意到卵是在它们的寄主——另一只昆虫的幼虫——里面生 长的，并且他还注意到新出现的成年黄蜂立刻进行交配然后分散开来，这提供了一种极有说 服力的分析。❽既然一般只有一个雌性黄蜂在给定的幼虫里面产卵，那么它只需要繁殖一 个雄性黄蜂就能让它受益，因为这只雄性黄蜂可以把所有刚出生的雌性黄蜂受精。❾像 Fisher 一样，Hamilton 寻求一个演化上稳定的策略，但是他更进一步，认识到他是在寻求 一种策略。

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SECTION B ❶Thomas Hardy’s impulses as a writer, all of which he indulged in his novels, were numerous and divergent, and they did not always work together in harmony. ❷Hardy was to some degree interested in exploring his characters’ psychologies, though impelled less by curiosity than by sympathy. ❸Occasionally he felt the impulse to comedy (in all its detached coldness) as well as the impulse to farce, but he was more often inclined to see tragedy and record it. ❹He was also inclined to literary realism in the several senses of that phrase. ❺He wanted to describe ordinary human beings; he wanted to speculate on their dilemmas rationally (and, unfortunately, even schematically); and he wanted to record precisely the material universe. ❻Finally, he wanted to be more than a realist. ❼He wanted to transcend what he considered to be the banality of solely recording things exactly and to express as well his awareness of the occult and the strange. ❶作为一名作家，Thomas Hardy 倾注于其小说中的创作冲动数量众多、不尽相同，并且它 们并不总是和谐一致的。❷在某种程度上，Hardy 感兴趣的是探索他笔下人物的心理，尽 管他更多是被同情心而非好奇心驱动的。❸他偶尔会感觉到喜剧（以全部的超然冷静）和 闹剧的创作冲动，但他更经常倾向于看悲剧并将其记录下来。❹他也倾向于“现实主义文学”， 从这个短语的若干层面上来看。❺他想描绘普通人；他想理性地（以及不幸地，甚至是用 图示的方法）思考他们的困境；他想精确地记录物质世界。❻最后，他不想单纯成为一名 现实主义作家。❼他想超越他所认为的那种仅仅精确记录事物的平庸做法，并想表达他对 超自然事物和奇异事物的意识。 ❶In his novels these various impulses were sacrificed to each other inevitably and often. ❷Inevitably, because Hardy did not care in the way that novelists such as Flaubert or James cared, and therefore took paths of least resistance. ❸Thus, one impulse often surrendered to a fresher one and, unfortunately, instead of exacting a compromise, simply disappeared. ❹A desire to throw over reality a light that never was might give way abruptly to the desire on the part of what we might consider a novelist-scientist to record exactly and concretely the structure and texture of a flower. ❺In this instance, the new impulse was at least an energetic one, and thus its indulgence did not result in a relaxed style. ❻But on other occasions Hardy abandoned a perilous, risky, and highly energizing impulse in favor of what was for him the fatally relaxing impulse to classify and schematize abstractly. ❼When a relaxing impulse was indulged, the style—that sure index of an author’s literary worth—was certain to become verbose. ❽Hardy’s weakness derived from his apparent inability to control the comings and goings of these divergent impulses and from his unwillingness to cultivate and sustain the energetic and risky ones. ❾He submitted to first one and then another, and the spirit blew where it listed; hence the unevenness of any one of his novels. ❿His most controlled novel, Under the Greenwood Tree, prominently exhibits two different but reconcilable impulses—a desire to be a realist-historian and a desire to be a psychologist of love—but the slight interlockings of plot are not enough to bind the two completely together. Thus even this book splits into two distinct parts. ❶在他的小说中，不同的创作冲动经常不可避免地为彼此牺牲。❷说不可避免，是因为 Hardy 没有像 Flaubert 和 James 这些小说家一样谨慎对待创作的方式，所以他选择了费力最 少的创作道路。❸因此，一种创作冲动经常屈服于更新的创作冲动，并且不幸的是，原先 的创作冲动并没有与新的创作冲动妥协，而是直接消失了。❹一种从未实现的表现现实的 欲望，很有可能突然会给这样一种欲望让路，我们可不妨将这种欲望看作科学小说家的欲望， 即去精确、具体地记录一朵花的结构和纹理特征。❺在这种情况下，新的创作冲动至少充 满活力的，所以作家沉浸于其中并不会创作出一种松散的作品风格。❻但在其它情况下， Hardy 会抛弃那种充满风险的、冒险的和极富活力的创作冲动，转而喜欢那种对他来说致命 的、松散的创作冲动，来抽象地进行分类和用图表表述。❼当他沉浸在松散的创作冲动中 时，他的作品风格——作家文学价值的可靠指标——一定会变得冗长。❽Hardy 的缺点一 40

方面来自于他没有能力控制好不同创作冲动的来来往往；另一方面来自于他不愿意去培养和 维持那些充满活力、充满风险的创作冲动。❾他向第一种创作冲动屈服，然后又向另一种 创作冲动屈服，而他的创作灵感则飘忽不定；因此，他的每一部小说都显得参差不齐。❿ 他的最具有控制力的小说 Under the Greenwood Tree 明显展现出两种截然不同但仍可融合的 创作冲动——要成为现实主义作家及史学家的那种欲望，以及要成为爱情心理学家的欲望 ——但小说情节的互相衔接过于微弱，难以将这两种创作冲动全然融为一体。因此，即使是 这部作品也分裂成为两个独立的部分。

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❶Upwards of a billion stars in our galaxy have burnt up their internal energy sources, and so can no longer produce the heat a star needs to oppose the inward force of gravity. ❷These stars, of more than a few solar masses, evolve, in general, much more rapidly than does a star like the Sun. ❸Moreover, it is just these more massive stars whose collapse does not halt at intermediate stages (that is, as white dwarfs or neutron stars). ❹Instead, the collapse continues until a singularity (an infinitely dense concentration of matter) is reached. ❶在我们的星系中,有 10 亿多个星球已经燃尽其内部的能源，并且再也不能发出对抗其内部 重力所需要的热能。❷这些质量比几个太阳还大的星球的演化速度，一般比太阳这样的星 球要快得多。❸而且只有这些质量大得多的星球的坍塌过程并不在中间阶段暂停（例如白 矮星或中子星那样） 。❹相反，坍塌过程一直持续到奇点（密度无限大的物质）的形成。 ❶It would be wonderful to observe a singularity and obtain direct evidence of the undoubtedly bizarre phenomena that occur near one. ❷Unfortunately in most cases a distant observer cannot see the singularity; outgoing light rays are dragged back by gravity so forcefully that even if they could start out within a few kilometers of the singularity, they would end up in the singularity itself. ❶如果能观察这个奇点并在附近直接体验到这个的确奇异的现象，是再好不过的。❷不幸 的是，在绝大多数情况下，一个远距离观察者看不到这个奇点，因为发射出来的光线被重力 吸引得过于强烈，以至于即使光线能射出奇点几公里，最后它也会以回到奇点而告终。

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No. 4-2 SECTION A ❶The evolution of sex ratios has produced, in most plants and animals with separate sexes, approximately equal numbers of males and females. ❷Why should this be so? ❸Two main kinds of answers have been offered. ❹One is couched in terms of advantage to population. ❺It is argued that the sex ratio will evolve so as to maximize the number of meetings between individuals of the opposite sex. ❻This is essentially a “group selection” argument. ❼The other, and in my view correct, type of answer was first put forward by Fisher in 1930. ❽This “genetic” argument starts from the assumption that genes can influence the relative numbers of male and female offspring produced by an individual carrying the genes. ❾That sex ratio will be favored which maximizes the number of descendants an individual will have and hence the number of gene copies transmitted. ❿Suppose that the population consisted mostly of females: then an individual who produced sons only would have more grandchildren. In contrast, if the population consisted mostly of males, it would pay to have daughters. If, however, the population consisted of equal numbers of males and females, sons and daughters would be equally valuable. Thus a one-to-one sex ratio is the only stable ratio; it is an “evolutionarily stable strategy.” Although Fisher wrote before the mathematical theory of games had been developed, his theory incorporates the essential feature of a game—that the best strategy to adopt depends on what others are doing. ❶在大多数性别分离的植物和动物中，性别比例的演化产生了数量大致相同的雄性和雌性 个体。❷为什么会这样呢？❸科学家对这个问题提出两种解答。❹第一种是通过对种群有 利的条件来表述的。❺这个答案的观点在于，性别比例进化的原因是使相反性别个体间发 生最大数量的交配。❻这就是“种群选择(group selection)”的论点。 ❼另一种答案在我看来 是正确的，它是在 1930 年由 Fisher 提出的。❽这个“基因遗传学(genetic)”论点是从这样的 假设出发的，即基因可以通过影响一个携带基因的个体的方式来影响雄性和雌性后代的相对 数量。❾生物体会选择某个性别比例，这种性别比例可以在最大程度上增加一个个体所能 拥有的后代数量，并因此可以在最大程度上增加传递到后代中的基因复制品的数量。❿假 设种群大多是由雌性个体组成的：那么一个只生产雄性子代个体的个体会有更多的孙代个体。 相反的是，如果一个种群大多由雄性个体组成，那么这更利于生雌性子代个体。但是，如果 种群中包含相同数量的雄性和雌性的个体，那么生雄性和雌性子代个体的可能性相等。因此， 1:1 的性别比是唯一稳定的比例；这是一种“生物演化上稳定的策略”。尽管 Fisher 的理论在 数学上的博弈论（game theory）发展之前就形成了，但是他的理论包含了博弈论的重要特 征——所能采用的最好的方法取决于他们在做什么。 ❶Since Fisher’s time, it has been realized that genes can sometimes influence the chromosome or gamete in which they find themselves so that the gamete will be more likely to participate in fertilization. ❷If such a gene occurs on a sex-determining (X or Y) chromosome, then highly aberrant sex ratios can occur. ❸But more immediately relevant to game theory are the sex ratios in certain parasitic wasp species that have a large excess of females. ❹In these species, fertilized eggs develop into females and unfertilized eggs into males. ❺A female stores sperm and can determine the sex of each egg she lays by fertilizing it or leaving it unfertilized. ❻By Fisher’s argument, it should still pay a female to produce equal numbers of sons and daughters. ❼Hamilton, noting that the eggs develop within their host—the larva of another insect—and that the newly emerged adult wasps mate immediately and disperse, offered a remarkably cogent analysis. ❽Since only one female usually lays eggs in a given larva, it would pay her to produce one male only, because this one male could fertilize all his sisters on emergence. ❾Like Fisher, Hamilton looked for an evolutionarily stable strategy, but he went a step further in recognizing that he was looking for a strategy. 43

❶自 Fisher 时代以来，人们意识到基因有时影响它们所在的染色体(chromosome)和配子 (gamete),这样配子就更有可能参与到受精过程中来。❷如果一个这样的基因出现在能决定 性别（X 或 Y）染色体上，那么异常的性别比例就很有可能出现。❸但是与博弈论更直接相 关的是特定寄生黄蜂种类的性别比例。❹在这些物种中，受精卵发育成雌性个体而未受精 的卵变成雄性个体。❺一个雌性个体储存精子并且能够通过是否使它受精来决定卵的性别。 ❻根据 Fisher 的理论，对于一个雌性个体有利的方案是让它产下相同数量的子代雄性个体 和子代雌性个体。 ❼Hamilton 注意到卵是在它们的寄主——另一只昆虫的幼虫——里面生 长的，并且他还注意到新出现的成年黄蜂立刻进行交配然后分散开来，这提供了一种极有说 服力的分析。❽既然一般只有一个雌性黄蜂在给定的幼虫里面产卵，那么它只需要繁殖一 个雄性黄蜂就能让它受益，因为这只雄性黄蜂可以把所有刚出生的雌性黄蜂受精。❾像 Fisher 一样，Hamilton 寻求一个演化上稳定的策略，但是他更进一步，认识到他是在寻求 一种策略。

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❶Tocqueville, apparently, was wrong. ❷Jacksonian America was not a fluid, egalitarian society where individual wealth and poverty were ephemeral conditions. ❸At least so argues E. Pessen in his iconoclastic study of the very rich in the United States between 1825 and 1850. ❶Tocqueville 显然是错了。❷在 Jackson 执政时期， 美国并不是一个流动的平等主义社会， 也不是一个个人贫富瞬息万变的社会。❸至少，在 E. Pessen 在他对 1825 年到 1850 年间 美国巨富进行的打破传统的研究中也是这样展示的。 ❶Pessen does present a quantity of examples, together with some refreshingly intelligible statistics, to establish the existence of an inordinately wealthy class. ❷Though active in commerce or the professions, most of the wealthy were not self-made, but had inherited family fortunes. ❸In no sense mercurial, these great fortunes survived the financial panics that destroyed lesser ones. ❹Indeed, in several cities the wealthiest one percent constantly increased its share until by 1850 it owned half of the community’s wealth. ❺Although these observations are true, Pessen overestimates their importance by concluding from them that the undoubted progress toward inequality in the late eighteenth century continued in the Jacksonian period and that the United States was a class-ridden, plutocratic society even before industrialization. ❶Pessen 确实列举了大量事例以及一些让人耳目一新且简单易懂的统计数字，来证明美国 确实存在极度富有的阶级。❷尽管他们在商界业界非常活跃，但大部分财富不是他们白手 起家获得的，而是通过继承家业获得的。❸可以肯定的是，这些继承来的巨大财富经受住 了金融大恐慌的冲击，而较小规模的财富却被恐慌摧毁。❹实际上，几个城市里最富有的 1%的人一直到 1850 年持续不断地积累自己的财富，他们拥有了全社会一半的财富。❺尽 管这些观察结果是正确的，但 Pessen 还是由于高估了这种情况的重要性而得出了以下结论： 18 世纪末发展起来的不平等现象一直延续到 19 世纪中叶 Jackson 总统执政时期是毫无疑问 的，并且美国在工业化之前就是一个阶级压迫、财阀统治的社会。

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SECTION B ❶ “I want to criticize the social system, and to show it at work, at its most intense.” ❷Virginia Woolf’s provocative statement about her intentions in writing Mrs. Dalloway has regularly been ignored by the critics, since it highlights an aspect of her literary interests very different from the traditional picture of the “poetic” novelist concerned with examining states of reverie and vision and with following the intricate pathways of individual consciousness. ❸But Virginia Woolf was a realistic as well as a poetic novelist, a satirist and social critic as well as a visionary: literary critics’ cavalier dismissal of Woolf’s social vision will not withstand scrutiny. ❶ “我想批判当前的社会制度，并且表现出它在最为剧烈动荡的时候是如何运转的。” ❷Virginia Woolf 有关她创作 Mrs. Dalloway 的意图的让人深思的陈述通常被评论家忽视， 因为这个陈述突出的是她与传统“诗人”小说家形象截然不同的文学兴趣的方面，诗人小说 家关心的是审视人物梦游和想象的状态以及关心跟随个体意识错综复杂的途径。❸但是 Virginia Woolf 既是一个现实小说家又是一个诗意的小说家，既是一个幻想家也是一个讽刺 作家和社会评论家：文学评论家傲慢地忽略 Woolf 批判社会的眼光是站不住脚的。 ❶In her novels, Woolf is deeply engaged by the questions of how individuals are shaped (or deformed) by their social environments, how historical forces impinge on people’s lives, how class, wealth, and gender help to determine people’s fates. ❷Most of her novels are rooted in a realistically rendered social setting and in a precise historical time. ❶在她的小说中，Woolf 深入考虑的问题有：个人是如何被他们所处的社会环境塑造（或改 造），历史的力量是如何冲击人们的生活的，阶级、财富以及性别是如何决定人们的命运的。 ❷她大多数的小说源于用现实主义手法表达的社会环境以及特定的历史时代。 ❶Woolf’s focus on society has not been generally recognized because of her intense antipathy to propaganda in art. ❷The pictures of reformers in her novels are usually satiric or sharply critical. ❸Even when Woolf is fundamentally sympathetic to their causes, she portrays people anxious to reform their society and possessed of a message or program as arrogant or dishonest, unaware of how their political ideas serve their own psychological needs. ❹ (Her Writer’s Diary notes: “the only honest people are the artists,” whereas “these social reformers and philanthropists…harbor…discreditable desires under the disguise of loving their kind…”) ❺Woolf detested what she called “preaching” in fiction, too, and criticized novelist D. H. Lawrence (among others) for working by this method. ❶Woolf 对于社会的关注一般不被承认，因为她极其厌恶艺术中的政治宣传。❷在她的小 说中，改革者的形象通常具有讽刺和强烈批评的意味。❸即便当 Woolf 从根本上赞同改革 者工作的时候，她描写的急切要求改革社会的人还是握有狂妄或虚伪的纲要，而对于他们的 政治主张如何为他们自己的心理需求服务不管不顾。❹（她在 Writer’s Diary 中说：“唯一真 实的人是艺术家们，而那些社会改革家以及慈善家们打着热爱同胞的幌子，其实他们怀有不 可告人的欲望……”）❺Woolf 也憎恨小说中所谓的“说教”，并且批评了小说家 D. H. Lawrence （及其他作家）作品中这种说教的写作方式。 ❶Woolf’s own social criticism is expressed in the language of observation rather than in direct commentary, since for her, fiction is a contemplative, not an active art. ❷She describes phenomena and provides materials for a judgment about society and social issues; it is the reader’s work to put the observations together and understand the coherent point of view behind them. ❸As a moralist, Woolf works by indirection, subtly undermining officially accepted mores, mocking, suggesting, calling into question, rather than asserting, advocating, bearing witness: hers is the satirist’s art. ❶Woolf 本人的社会评论是通过观察而非直接评论的语言表达的，因为对于她来说，小说是 一种深思的艺术，而不是直接的艺术。❷她描述现象，并且提供了可以判断社会及社会问 46

题的材料；应该是读者自己把这些观察到的现象放在一起看，然后理解它们背后连续统一的 观点。❸作为一个道德家，Woolf 用旁敲侧击的方式去创作，巧妙地动摇了官方接受的道德 标准，对此进行暗示和质疑，而非断言、主张或作证：她的作品是讽刺作家的艺术。 ❶Woolf’s literary models were acute social observers like Chekhov and Chaucer. ❷As she put it in The Common Reader, “It is safe to say that not a single law has been framed or one stone set upon another because of anything Chaucer said or wrote; and yet, as we read him, we are absorbing morality at every pore.” ❸Like Chaucer, Woolf chose to understand as well as to judge, to know her society root and branch—a decision crucial in order to produce art rather than polemic. ❶Woolf 的文学榜样是像 Chekhov 和 Chaucer 这样敏锐的社会观察者。❷就像她在 The Common Reader 中说的那样，“可以这样说，不是因为 Chaucer 说了或写了什么，（我们） 才制定出某条法律或者立一块石碑；但当我们拜读他的作品时，我们在字里行间都能感受到 道德的教诲。” ❸像 Chaucer 一样，Woolf 也是用评价和理解的方式去认识她所在社会的根 和枝，她的这种决定对于创作出艺术而非论辩性文章至关重要。

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❶It is a popular misconception that nuclear fusion power is free of radioactivity; in fact, the deuterium-tritium reaction that nuclear scientists are currently exploring with such zeal produces both alpha particles and neutrons. ❷ (The neutrons are used to produce tritium from a lithium blanket surrounding the reactor.) ❸Another common misconception is that nuclear fusion power is a virtually unlimited source of energy because of the enormous quantity of deuterium in the sea. ❹Actually, its limits are set by the amount of available lithium, which is about as plentiful as uranium in the Earth’s crust. ❺Research should certainly continue on controlled nuclear fusion, but no energy program should be premised on its existence until it has proven practical. ❻For the immediate future, we must continue to use hydroelectric power, nuclear fission, and fossil fuels to meet our energy needs. ❼The energy sources already in major use are in major use for good reason. ❶一个普遍的误解是，核聚变产生能量的过程是没有放射性的；事实上，核科学家现在正 在积极探索的氘-氚反应会产生 α 粒子和中子(neutron)。❷（中子的作用是从环绕反应器的 锂再生区中产生氚） 。❸另一个普遍的误解是，由于海水中含有大量的氘，所以核聚变过程 实际上是产生无限能量源的反应。❹事实上，可利用的锂的量是一个限制。❺应该继续研 究可控制的核聚变，但是到核聚变被证明有实用性的时候，能源项目才可以依靠它。❻对 近期来说，我们必须继续利用水能发电、核裂变发电以及化石能源发电来满足我们对于能源 的需求。❼这些早就广泛使用的能源之所以得到广泛使用是有充分原因的。

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No. 4-3 SECTION A ❶Great comic art is never otherwordly, it does not seek to mystify us, and it does not deny ambiguity by branding as evil whatever differs from good. ❷Great comic artists assume that truth may bear all lights, and thus they seek to accentuate contradictions in social action, not gloss over or transcend them by appeals to extrasocial symbols of divine ends, cosmic purpose, or laws of nature. ❸The moment of transcendence in great comic art is a social moment, born out of the conviction that we are human, even though we try to be gods. ❹The comic community to which artists address themselves is a community of reasoning, loving, joyful, compassionate beings, who are willing to assume the human risks of acting rationally. ❺Without invoking gods or demons, great comic art arouses courage in reason, courage which grows out of trust in what human beings can do as humans. ❶伟大的喜剧艺术从不脱离世俗，它不是为了让我们感到神秘，它也并不把与善不同的所 有事物归为邪恶，从而拒绝承认事物的两面性。❷伟大的喜剧演员认为真相可以表现为很 多形式，因此他们试图强调社会活动中的矛盾，而不向神圣目标、宇宙目标以及自然法则求 助来掩盖或者超越这些矛盾。❸伟大喜剧艺术中超越的时刻就是社会性的时刻，这源于一 个信念：尽管我们想成为神，但我们是人类。❹艺术家描写的喜剧社会是一个理性的、有 爱心的、充满欢乐和同情的人的社会，人们愿意承担由于理性行为而引起的风险。❺伟大 的喜剧艺术不向神灵或者恶魔求助，而是激起人们理智的勇气，这种勇气来源于人可以作为 人类而行动的信念。

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❶It has long been known that the rate of oxidative metabolism (the process that uses oxygen to convert food into energy) in any animal has a profound effect on its living patterns. ❷The high metabolic rate of small animals, for example, gives them sustained power and activity per unit of weight, but at the cost of requiring constant consumption of food and water. ❸Very large animals, with their relatively low metabolic rates, can survive well on a sporadic food supply, but can generate little metabolic energy per gram of body weight. ❹If only oxidative metabolic rate is considered, therefore, one might assume that smaller, more active, animals could prey on larger ones, at least if they attacked in groups. ❺Perhaps they could if it were not for anaerobic glycolysis, the great equalizer. ❶人们很早就已经知道，任何动物身上氧化新陈代谢（oxidative metabolism，即用氧气将 食物转化为能量的过程）的速度，都会对其生存方式产生重大影响。❷例如，小型动物较 高的新陈代谢率能给予它单位体重持久的能量和活力，但代价是它们需要不间断地消耗水和 食物。❸而大型动物有相对低的新陈代谢率，仅凭着间断的饮食也可以生存下去，但它每 单位体重产生不了多少新陈代谢的能量。❹人们或许会假设，如果仅考虑氧化新陈代谢速 率的话，如果那些较小较活跃的动物成群结队发起攻击，它们可以捕食较大的动物。❺要 是不存在无氧糖酵解(anaerobic glycolysis)这个重要的均衡因素的话，小型动物能做到这一 点。 ❶Anaerobic glycolysis is a process in which energy is produced, without oxygen, through the breakdown of muscle glycogen into lactic acid and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy provider. ❷The amount of energy that can be produced anaerobically is a function of the amount of glycogen present—in all vertebrates about 0.5 percent of their muscles’ wet weight. ❸Thus the anaerobic energy reserves of a vertebrate are proportional to the size of the animal. ❹If, for example, some predators had attacked a 100-ton dinosaur, normally torpid, the dinosaur would have been able to generate almost instantaneously, via anaerobic glycolysis, the energy of 3,000 humans at maximum oxidative metabolic energy production. ❺This explains how many large species have managed to compete with their more active neighbors: the compensation for a low oxidative metabolic rate is glycolysis. ❶无氧糖酵解指的是指在没有氧气的情况下，将肌肉糖原(muscle glycogen)分解成为乳酸和 ATP（一种提供能量的物质）产生能量的过程。❷无氧呼吸糖酵解产生能量的数值是糖原数 量的一个函数——在所有脊椎动物身上，糖原数量大约是其肌肉湿重的0.5%。❸因此，一 个脊椎动物的无氧能量储备是与该动物的大小成正比的。❹例如，如果一些食肉动物向一 头100吨重的恐龙（它一般表现得迟缓呆钝）发起攻击的话，这头恐龙极有可能在瞬间通过 无氧糖酵解产生出相当于3000个人在最大程度上通过氧化新陈代谢产生的能量。❺这足以 解释许多大型动物是如何成功地与那些更为活跃的“邻居”相竞争抗衡的：用糖酵解弥补较低 的氧化新陈代谢率。 ❶There are limitations, however, to this compensation. ❷The glycogen reserves of any animal are good, at most, for only about two minutes at maximum effort, after which only the normal oxidative metabolic source of energy remains. ❸With the conclusion of a burst of activity, the lactic acid level is high in the body fluids, leaving the large animal vulnerable to attack until the acid is reconverted, via oxidative metabolism, by the liver into glucose, which is then sent (in part) back to the muscles for glycogen resynthesis. ❹During this process the enormous energy debt that the animal has run up through anaerobic glycolysis must be repaid, a debt that is proportionally much greater for the larger vertebrates than for the smaller ones. ❺Whereas the tiny shrew can replace in minutes the glycogen used for maximum effort, for example, the gigantic dinosaur would have required more than three weeks. ❻It might seem that this interminably long recovery time in a large vertebrate would prove a grave disadvantage for survival. ❼Fortunately, muscle glycogen is used only when needed and even then only in whatever quantity is necessary. ❽Only in times of panic or during mortal combat would the entire reserves be consumed. 50

❶然而，这种补偿也有缺陷。❷任何动物的糖原储备在全力搏斗中最多只能维持供能两分 钟，此后，仅剩下普通的氧化新陈代谢作为能量来源。❸剧烈活动结束后，体液中的乳酸 含量极高，大型动物在恢复之前都易受攻击，在恢复过程中，乳酸在肝脏重新转化成葡萄糖， 这些葡萄糖中的一部分随后被传递回肌肉进行糖原的再合成。❹在此过程中，动物通过无 氧糖酵解迅速积累起来的巨大的能量缺失必须予以弥补，从比例上看，这种能量的缺失对于 较大的脊椎动物来说要远大于小型脊椎动物。❺例如，小型动物仅在几分钟之内就能补充 尽最大努力所消耗的糖原，而大恐龙却需要三个多星期的时间。❻这似乎会让人觉得，大 型脊椎动物身上这种无休止的漫长复原期将对其生存构成严重不利的影响。❼值得庆幸的 是，肌肉糖原只在必要的时候才会被使用，而且会按所需要的量使用。❽只有在大型动物 惊慌失措的时候，或在生死攸关的厮杀中，所有糖原储备才会被耗尽。

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SECTION B ❶The dark regions in the starry night sky are not pockets in the universe that are devoid of stars as had long been thought. ❷Rather, they are dark because of interstellar dust that hides the stars behind it. ❸Although its visual effect is so pronounced, dust is only a minor constituent of the material, extremely low in density, that lies between the stars. ❹Dust accounts for about one percent of the total mass of interstellar matter. ❺The rest is hydrogen and helium gas, with small amounts of other elements. ❻The interstellar material, rather like terrestrial clouds, comes in all shapes and sizes. ❼The average density of interstellar material in the vicinity of our Sun is 1,000 to 10,000 times less than the best terrestrial laboratory vacuum. ❽It is only because of the enormous interstellar distances that so little material per unit of volume becomes so significant. ❾Optical astronomy is most directly affected, for although interstellar gas is perfectly transparent, the dust is not. ❶繁星夜空中的黑暗区并非像长期以来人们认为的那样是没有星球存在的。❷相反，黑暗 区黑暗的原因是星际尘埃掩盖了后面的星球。❸虽然星际尘埃的视觉效应如此明显，但是 尘埃只是存在星球间的密度极低的稀疏物质里面的次要成份。❹尘埃大约占星际物质总量 的 1%。❺其余都是氢气和氦气，以及少量其他元素。❻星际物质有点像地球上的云，有 各种形状和大小。❼太阳附近星际物质的平均密度是地球上实验室中最佳真空的千分之一 到万分之一。❽只是由于巨大的星际距离使得单位体积中如此稀少的物质变得如此重要。 ❾光天文学受到了最直接的影响，因为虽然星际气体是完全透明的，但是星际尘埃是不透 明的。

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❶In his 1976 study of slavery in the United States, Herbert Gutman, like Fogel, Engerman, and Genovese, has rightly stressed the slaves’ achievements. ❷But unlike these historians, Gutman gives plantation owners little credit for these achievements. ❸Rather, Gutman argues that one must look to the Black family and the slaves’ extended kinship system to understand how crucial achievements, such as the maintenance of a cultural heritage and the development of a communal consciousness, were possible. ❹His findings compel attention. ❶ Herbert Gutman 在其 1976 年对美国奴隶制度的研究中，像 Fogel, Engerman 和 Genovese 一样，正确地强调了奴隶们的成就。❷但是和这些历史学家不同的是，Gutman 没有把这些 成就归功于种植园主。❸相反，Gutman 认为我们必须注意到黑人家庭以及奴隶们扩大的亲 属体系，这样才能理解那些重要的成就是如何成为可能的，例如对于文化遗产的保护以及群 体意识的发展。❹他的发现引起人们的注意。 ❶Gutman recreates the family and extended kinship structure mainly through an ingenious use of what any historian should draw upon, quantifiable data, derived in this case mostly from plantation birth registers. ❷He also uses accounts of ex-slaves to probe the human reality behind his statistics. ❸These sources indicate that the two-parent household predominated in slave quarters just as it did among freed slaves after emancipation. ❹Although Gutman admits that forced separation by sale was frequent, he shows that the slaves’ preference, revealed most clearly on plantations where sale was infrequent, was very much for stable monogamy. ❺In less conclusive fashion Fogel, Engerman, and Genovese had already indicated the predominance of two-parent households; however, only Gutman emphasizes the preference for stable monogamy and points out what stable monogamy meant for the slaves’ cultural heritage. ❻Gutman argues convincingly that the stability of the Black family encouraged the transmission of—and so was crucial in sustaining—the Black heritage of folklore, music, and religious expression from one generation to another, a heritage that slaves were continually fashioning out of their African and American experiences. ❶Gutman 主要通过一种独特方法重新塑造了家庭和扩大的亲属结构，每位历史学家都应该 利用这种可量化的数据（quantifiable data）的方法，在这个例子中数据主要来自种植园的 出生记录。❷他还利用了前奴隶们的描述来调查数据背后隐含的人类现实。❸这些来源表 明，在奴隶聚集的区域中双亲家庭占据绝大多数，这和解放后奴隶中的情况相同。❹尽管 Gutman 承认由奴隶贩卖造成的分离很频繁，但他证明奴隶们倾向于稳定的一夫一妻制 (monogamy)， 这在贩卖并不频繁的种植园中最能得到体现。 ❺ Fogel, Engerman,和 Genovese 用不太确定的方式指出双亲家庭占主要地位的原因；然而，只有 Gutman 强调了奴隶对于稳 定的一夫一妻制的偏爱，并且指出稳定的一夫一妻制对于奴隶保存文化的意义。❻Gutman 有说服力地论证：黑人家庭的稳定有助于包括民间传说、音乐以及宗教表达在内的黑人文化 传统的传递，因此它在维持文化遗产方面也起重要作用，而这种文化遗产是从黑奴们不断地 从其在非洲和美洲的经历中不断提炼出来的。 ❶Gutman’s examination of other facets of kinship also produces important findings. ❷Gutman discovers that cousins rarely married, an exogamous tendency that contrasted sharply with the endogamy practiced by the plantation owners. ❸This preference for exogamy, Gutman suggests, may have derived from West African rules governing marriage, which, though they differed from one tribal group to another, all involved some kind of prohibition against unions with close kin. ❹This taboo against cousins’ marrying is important, argues Gutman, because it is one of many indications of a strong awareness among slaves of an extended kinship network. ❺The fact that distantly related kin would care for children separated from their families also suggests this awareness. ❻When blood relationships were few, as in newly created plantations in the Southwest, “fictive” kinship 53

arrangements took their place until a new pattern of consanguinity developed. ❼Gutman presents convincing evidence that this extended kinship structure—which he believes developed by the mid-to-late eighteenth century—provided the foundations for the strong communal consciousness that existed among slaves. ❶Gutman 对于(奴隶)亲属关系其它方面的分析也取得了重要的发现。❷Gutman 发现堂兄 妹 堂 姐 弟 之 间 很 少 结 婚 ， 这 种 同 外 部 结 婚 (exogamy) 的 倾 向 和 种 植 园 主 的 内 部 通 婚 (endogamy)形成鲜明的对比。❸Gutman 认为，对外部结婚的偏好可能源于西非约束婚姻的 规定，尽管在不同部落中这些规则不尽相同，但是所有的规则都包括禁止近亲结婚。 ❹Gutman 提出，堂兄妹堂姐弟结婚的禁忌很重要，因为它是许多标志之一，它表明奴隶间 存在着一种对扩大的亲缘网络的强烈意识。❺远房亲戚会照料与家庭分离的孩子，这个事 实也表明了这种意识。❻当血缘关系很少的时候，就像在美国西南部新建的种植园中的情 况一样，“虚拟的”血缘安排就取代了真正的血缘关系，直到新的同血缘模式发展形成。 ❼Gutman 利用有力的证据证明，这种扩大的亲缘结构——他认为是在十八世纪中期至后期 发展起来的——为奴隶之间所存在的那种强烈的集体意识提供了基础。 ❶In sum, Gutman’s study is significant because it offers a closely reasoned and original explanation of some of the slaves’ achievements, one that correctly emphasizes the resources that slaves themselves possessed. ❶总而言之，Gutman 的研究十分重要，因为它对于某些奴隶的成就提出了一个逻辑缜密以 及新颖的解释，这个解释正确地强调了奴隶们自身所拥有的资源。

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No. 5-1 SECTION A ❶A Marxist sociologist has argued that racism stems from the class struggle that is unique to the capitalist system—that racial prejudice is generated by capitalists as a means of controlling workers. ❷His thesis works relatively well when applied to discrimination against Blacks in the United States, but his definition of racial prejudice as “racially-based negative prejudgments against a group generally accepted as a race in any given region of ethnic competition,” can be interpreted as also including hostility toward such ethnic groups as the Chinese in California and the Jews in medieval Europe. ❸However, since prejudice against these latter peoples was not inspired by capitalists, he has to reason that such antagonisms were not really based on race. ❹He disposes thusly (albeit unconvincingly) of both the intolerance faced by Jews before the rise of capitalism and the early twentieth-century discrimination against Oriental people in California, which, inconveniently, was instigated by workers. ❶一位马克思社会主义学家曾经认为，种族主义产生于资本主义体系中特有的阶级斗争 ——种族偏见是资本家激起的、用来控制工人的一种手段。❷当被用来分析美国黑人受到 的歧视时，他的理论相对比较成功，但他把种族偏见定义是：“对特定少数民族竞争区域中 的群体持有一种基于种族的负面预先判断态度”，这个定义可以被解读为：针对在加州的中 国人以及中世纪欧洲的犹太人这类种族群体的敌意。❸然而，既然针对后两个民族的歧视 不是由资本家引起的，那么他必须要说明这种对抗并不真正地基于种族。❹因此，他就是 这样处理资本主义出现之前犹太人受到的排挤以及 20 世纪初期针对加州华人的歧视这两个 历史事件的（尽管难以让人信服），因为把中国人在加州受到的歧视看作是工人激起的是不 合理的。

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❶By 1950, the results of attempts to relate brain processes to mental experience appeared rather discouraging. ❷Such variations in size, shape, chemistry, conduction speed, excitation threshold, and the like as had been demonstrated in nerve cells remained negligible in significance for any possible correlation with the manifold dimensions of mental experience. ❶到 1950 年为止，将大脑过程和精神体验相联系的尝试所获得的结果相当令人沮丧。❷神 经细胞所展现的大小、形状、化学过程、传导速度、刺激阈值等差异与各种心理体验之间可 能的相互联系仍然是微不足道的。 ❶Near the turn of the century, it had been suggested by Hering that different modes of sensation, such as pain, taste, and color, might be correlated with the discharge of specific kinds of nervous energy. ❷However, subsequently developed methods of recording and analyzing nerve potentials failed to reveal any such qualitative diversity. ❸It was possible to demonstrate by other methods refined structural differences among neuron types; however, proof was lacking that the quality of the impulse or its condition was influenced by these differences, which seemed instead to influence the developmental patterning of the neural circuits. ❹Although qualitative variance among nerve energies was never rigidly disproved, the doctrine was generally abandoned in favor of the opposing view, namely, that nerve impulses are essentially homogeneous in quality and are transmitted as “common currency” throughout the nervous system. ❺According to this theory, it is not the quality of the sensory nerve impulses that determines the diverse conscious sensations they produce, but rather the different areas of the brain into which they discharge, and there is some evidence for this view. ❻In one experiment, when an electric stimulus was applied to a given sensory field of the cerebral cortex of a conscious human subject, it produced a sensation of the appropriate modality for that particular locus, that is, a visual sensation from the visual cortex, an auditory sensation from the auditory cortex, and so on. ❼Other experiments revealed slight variations in the size, number, arrangement, and interconnection of the nerve cells, but as far as psychoneural correlations were concerned, the obvious similarities of these sensory fields to each other seemed much more remarkable than any of the minute differences. ❶本世纪初，Hering 提出了不同的感觉模式，例如痛觉、味觉和色觉，感觉模式可能和特 定种类的神经能量的释放有关。❷然而，随后发展起来的记录和分析神经电位(potential) 的方法未能揭示出任何定性差异。❸人们可能用其它方法展现不同类型神经元(neuron)的 精细差异；可是缺乏证据以证明在神经元的各个种类之间存在细微的结构差异，这些结构差 异影响的似乎是神经网络的发展模式。❹尽管不同神经能量的定性差异从未被严格地否定， 但是这个学说由于其对立观点的出现而被抛弃，这个对立观点是：神经冲动在性质上是相同 的并且作为“通用货币”被传输到整个神经系统中。❺根据这个理论，并不是感觉神经冲动的 性质，而是这些神经冲动作用在大脑的不同位置决定它们产生的不同感觉。❻在一个实验 中，当电流刺激施加在一个有意识的人的大脑皮层（cerebral cortex）某一特定感觉区域时， 大脑皮层便产生了一种与那个特定区域相对应的感觉形式（modality），也就是说，从视觉 脑皮层产生视觉，从听觉脑皮层产生听觉，以此类推。❼其它实验揭示出神经细胞在尺寸、 数量、排列、以及相互连接方面的细微差异，但就心理与神经的关系来说，这些感觉区域彼 此之间明显的共同点似乎要比任何彼此间细小的差异留给人印象深刻得多。 ❶However, cortical locus, in itself, turned out to have little explanatory value. ❷Studies showed that sensations as diverse as those of red, black, green, and white, or touch, cold, warmth, movement, pain, posture, and pressure apparently may arise through activation of the same cortical areas. ❸What seemed to remain was some kind of differential patterning effects in the brain excitation: it is the difference in the central distribution of impulses that counts. ❹In short, brain theory suggested a correlation between mental experience and the 56

activity of relatively homogeneous nerve-cell units conducting essentially homogeneous impulses through homogeneous cerebral tissue. ❺To match the multiple dimensions of mental experience psychologists could only point to a limitless variation in the spatiotemporal patterning of nerve impulses. ❶然而，大脑区位理论本身几乎不具有任何解释价值。❷研究表明，不同的感觉，例如红、 黑、绿和白，或者触摸、冷暖、运动、疼痛、姿势以及压力的感觉明显是由激活相同皮质区 域而产生的。❸似乎还剩下某种性质大脑兴奋的不同组合排列效果：正是神经冲动中心分 布的差异起到了重要作用。❹总之，大脑理论暗示了在心理体验与相对同质的神经—细胞 单位的活动之间存在着某种联系，而这些相对同质的神经—细胞单位又通过同质的大脑组织 传输同质的冲动。❺为了把心理体验的多重侧面对应起来，心理学家只能将注意力转向神 经冲动在时空（spatiotemporal）组合排列方面的无限变化。

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SECTION B ❶The transfer of heat and water vapor from the ocean to the air above it depends on a disequilibrium at the interface of the water and the air. ❷Within about a millimeter of the water, air temperature is close to that of the surface water, and the air is nearly saturated with water vapor. ❸But the differences, however small, are crucial, and the disequilibrium is maintained by air near the surface mixing with air higher up, which is typically appreciably cooler and lower in water-vapor content. ❹The air is mixed by means of turbulence that depends on the wind for its energy. ❺As wind speed increases, so does turbulence, and thus the rate of heat and moisture transfer. ❻Detailed understanding of this phenomenon awaits further study. ❼An interacting—and complicating—phenomenon is wind-to-water transfer of momentum that occurs when waves are formed. ❽When the wind makes waves, it transfers important amounts of energy—energy that is therefore not available to provide turbulence. ❶热量和水蒸气从海洋向海洋上方的空气中进行转移，这个转移过程依赖于水面和空气之 间的一种失衡(disequilibrium)。❷在水面上约一毫米的范围内，气温接近表层水的温度， 而空气中的水蒸气也趋于饱和。❸但是，这两方面的差异无论多小都至关重要，并且这种 失衡可以维持下去是由于贴近水面的空气与高处的空气混合在了一起，并且较高处的空气比 接近海面的空气温度低、水含量低。❹两种空气的混合是靠湍流（turbulence），湍流是依 靠风力提供的能源。❺随着风速的加快，湍流的速度也加快，因此热量和湿度的转移比率 也加快。❻对这个现象细致的理解有待于进一步的研究。❼一种相互影响作用——并趋于 复杂化——的现象是在波浪形成时所发生的动量由风到水的转移。❽当风形成波浪时，它 转移很大一部分能量，转移的那部分能量因而不能为湍流提供能量。

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❶Extraordinary creative activity has been characterized as revolutionary, flying in the face of what is established and producing not what is acceptable but what will become accepted. ❷According to this formulation, highly creative activity transcends the limits of an existing form and establishes a new principle of organization. ❸However, the idea that extraordinary creativity transcends established limits is misleading when it is applied to the arts, even though it may be valid for the sciences. ❹Differences between highly creative art and highly creative science arise in part from a difference in their goals. ❺For the sciences, a new theory is the goal and end result of the creative act. ❻Innovative science produces new propositions in terms of which diverse phenomena can be related to one another in more coherent ways. ❼Such phenomena as a brilliant diamond or a nesting bird are relegated to the role of data, serving as the means for formulating or testing a new theory. ❽The goal of highly creative art is very different: the phenomenon itself becomes the direct product of the creative act. ❾Shakespeare’s Hamlet is not a tract about the behavior of indecisive princes or the uses of political power; nor is Picasso’s painting Guernica primarily a propositional statement about the Spanish Civil War or the evils of fascism. ❿What highly creative artistic activity produces is not a new generalization that transcends established limits, but rather an aesthetic particular. Aesthetic particulars produced by the highly creative artist extend or exploit, in an innovative way, the limits of an existing form, rather than transcend that form. ❶非同寻常的创造性活动具有革新的特点，它会超越已经被接受的事物，产生还没有被接 受但最终会被接受的事物。❷根据这个构想，高度创造性活动超越了现有的形式的限制， 建立了新的组织原则。❸然而，在被应用到艺术的时候，创造性活动超越了既有限制的想 法有误导性，尽管这对科学来说可能是正确的。❹高度创造性的艺术和高度创造性的科学 之间的差异一部分是由于二者目标的不同。❺对于科学来说，提出一个新的理论是创造性 行为的目标和结果。❻革新性科学根据某个现象以更加连贯的形式与另一个现象联结而提 出新的命题。❼把类似灿烂的钻石和巢中小鸟这样的现象归为论据，这个论据作为形成或 者检验新理论的手段。❽高度创造性艺术的目标则不同：现象本身变成了创造性艺术的直 接产物。❾Shakespeare 的 Hamlet 并不是一本关于犹豫不决的王子的所作所为或者利用政 治权利的宣传物； Picasso 的画作 Guernica 基本上也不是谴责西班牙内战或法西斯罪恶的 陈述。❿高度创造性艺术活动产生的不是一个超越现有限制的崭新概括，而是一个审美的 特例。高度创造性的艺术家创造的审美特例通过一种创新的方式延伸或利用了现有形式的局 限，而不是超越那种形式。 ❶This is not to deny that a highly creative artist sometimes establishes a new principle of organization in the history of an artistic field; the composer Monteverdi, who created music of the highest aesthetic value, comes to mind. ❷More generally, however, whether or not a composition establishes a new principle in the history of music has little bearing on its aesthetic worth. ❸Because they embody a new principle of organization, some musical works, such as the operas of the Florentine Camerata, are of signal historical importance, but few listeners or musicologists would include these among the great works of music. ❹On the other hand, Mozart’s The Marriage of Figaro is surely among the masterpieces of music even though its modest innovations are confined to extending existing means. ❺It has been said of Beethoven that he toppled the rules and freed music from the stifling confines of convention. ❻But a close study of his compositions reveals that Beethoven overturned no fundamental rules. ❼Rather, he was an incomparable strategist who exploited limits—the rules, forms, and conventions that he inherited from predecessors such as Haydn and Mozart, Handel and Bach—in strikingly original ways. ❶这并不否认一个有高度创造性的艺术家有时基于艺术领域的历史建立新的结构原则；我 们想到其音乐作品有高度审美价值的作曲家 Monte Verdi。❷然而更一般的是，不管创作的 曲子是否建立了音乐的历史上新的结构原则，它都和审美价值关系不大。❸由于一些音乐 59

作品体现了新的结构原则，例如 Florentine Camerata 的歌剧，所以它们在历史上有重要价 值，但很少有听众和音乐学家会把这样的作品归为伟大音乐之作。❹相反，尽管 Mozart 的 The Marriage of Figaro 的创新仅仅限于扩大现有的手法，但是这部作品一定位于大师级音乐 作品之列。❺人们说贝多芬颠覆了规则并且把音乐从令人窒息的传统限制中解放出来。❻ 但是在细细研究他的作品后我们就会发现贝多芬没有颠覆基本的规则。❼相反，他是一位 利用这些限制出类拔萃的大师——这些是他从 Haydn 和 Mozart，Handel 和 Bach 等前人那 里以惊人独创的方式继承的这些规则、形式以及传统。

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No. 5-2 SECTION A ❶Visual recognition involves storing and retrieving memories. ❷Neural activity, triggered by the eye, forms an image in the brain’s memory system that constitutes an internal representation of the viewed object. ❸When an object is encountered again, it is matched with its internal representation and thereby recognized. ❹Controversy surrounds the question of whether recognition is a parallel, one-step process or a serial, step-by-step one. ❺Psychologists of the Gestalt school maintain that objects are recognized as wholes in a parallel procedure: the internal representation is matched with the retinal image in a single operation. ❻Other psychologists have proposed that internal representation features are matched serially with an object’s features. ❼Although some experiments show that, as an object becomes familiar, its internal representation becomes more holistic and the recognition process correspondingly more parallel, the weight of evidence seems to support the serial hypothesis, at least for objects that are not notably simple and familiar. ❶视觉识别(visual recognition)包括存储和提取记忆。❷由眼睛激发的神经活动会在大脑记 忆系统中形成一个被观察物体的内在表示图像。❸当我们再次遇到这个物体时，它会与内 在表示图像相匹配，从而被识别。❹人们对于识别是一步并行(parallel)过程还是多步串联 (serial)过程的问题一直存在分歧。❺Gestalt 学院的心理学家认为物体是通过一步整体的过 程而被认出的：内在表示通过一个步骤与视网膜图像相匹配。❻其他心理学家提出，内在 表示的特征是连续与物体的特征相匹配的。❼尽管一些实验表明，当一个物体越来越熟悉 的时候，它的内在表示会变得更完整，而且识别过程也相应更加并行，但是证据似乎更支持 串联的假设，至少对于那些不是足够简单和熟悉的物体来说是这样的。

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❶In large part as a consequence of the feminist movement, historians have focused a great deal of attention in recent years on determining more accurately the status of women in various periods. ❷Although much has been accomplished for the modern period, premodern cultures have proved more difficult: sources are restricted in number, fragmentary, difficult to interpret, and often contradictory. ❸Thus it is not particularly surprising that some earlier scholarship concerning such cultures has so far gone unchallenged. ❹An example is Johann Bachofen’s 1861 treatise on Amazons, women-ruled societies of questionable existence contemporary with ancient Greece. ❶在很大程度上，由于女权主义运动(feminist movement)的结果，史学家近年来把大量精 力用在更准确地确定妇女在各个历史时期的地位。❷虽然对现当代的研究成果显著，但对 古代文化的研究是更加困难的任务：资料来源数量有限，支离破碎，难以理解，且经常自相 矛盾。❸因此，人们发现这些流传至今的对于古代文化的早期学术研究未遭到质疑的时候 并不是很惊讶。❹其中一个实例就是Johann Bachofen在1861年论述Amazons的论文， Amazons是一个与古希腊同期的由女性统治的社会，但关于这个社会是否存在仍有疑问。 ❶Starting from the premise that mythology and legend preserve at least a nucleus of historical fact, Bachofen argued that women were dominant in many ancient societies. ❷His work was based on a comprehensive survey of references in the ancient sources to Amazonian and other societies with matrilineal customs—societies in which descent and property rights are traced through the female line. ❸Some support for his theory can be found in evidence such as that drawn from Herodotus, the Greek “historian” of the fifth century B. C., who speaks of an Amazonian society, the Sauromatae, where the women hunted and fought in wars. ❹A woman in this society was not allowed to marry until she had killed a person in battle. ❶从史实的核心至少存在于神话、传说中这一前提出发，Bachofen 认为女性在许多古代社 会中占据着统治地位。❷他的研究基于对古代史料来源中的参考材料的综合考虑，而这些 参考材料涉及到 Amazonian 和其它带有母系习俗的社会——在这些社会内，亲缘关系和财 产所有权均通过女性来追溯。❸可以找到一些支持他理论的证据，如从 Herodotus 那里获 取的证据曾谈到某个 Amazonian 社会，即 Sauromatae，在此社会内，女性进行狩猎并在战 争中作战。❹该社会中的女性必须在战斗中杀死一个人之后才能结婚。 ❶Nonetheless, this assumption that the first recorders of ancient myths have preserved facts is problematic. ❷If one begins by examining why ancients refer to Amazons, it becomes clear that ancient Greek descriptions of such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historical fact—real Amazonian societies—but rather to offer “moral lessons” on the supposed outcome of women’s rule in their own society. ❸The Amazons were often characterized, for example, as the equivalents of giants and centaurs, enemies to be slain by Greek heroes. ❹Their customs were presented not as those of a respectable society, but as the very antitheses of ordinary Greek practices. ❶然而，古代神话的最早记述者能将史实保存下来的这一假设是有问题的。❷如果我们首 先审视一下，古人为何会提及Amazon人，情况将会变得显而易见：古希腊对这些社会的描 述，与其说是为了再现亲眼目睹的历史事实——真正的Amazon社会——还不如说是为女性 统治可能产生的后果进行“道德教训”（moral lesson）。❸例如，Amazon人经常被描绘成巨 人和怪物的同类，成为注定要被古希腊英雄杀死的敌人。❹他们的习俗被刻画成一个体面 的社会不应该有的习俗，一个与合乎常规的古希腊习俗构成对立的习俗。 ❶Thus, I would argue, the purpose of accounts of the Amazons for their male Greek recorders was didactic, to teach both male and female Greeks that all-female groups, formed by withdrawal from traditional society, are destructive and dangerous. ❷Myths about the Amazons were used as arguments for the male-dominated status quo, in which groups composed exclusively of either sex were not permitted to segregate themselves permanently from society. ❸Bachofen was thus misled in his reliance on myths for information about the 62

status of women. ❹The sources that will probably tell contemporary historians most about women in the ancient world are such social documents as gravestones, wills, and marriage contracts. ❺Studies of such documents have already begun to show how mistaken we are when we try to derive our picture of the ancient world exclusively from literary sources, especially myths. ❶因此，我认为对于记述神话的古希腊男性来说，描述 Amazon 人的目的是说教，要教导 古希腊的男性和女性这样一个道理，即那些脱离了传统社会而形成的纯女性群体是有破坏性 的、是危险的。❷有关 Amazon 人的神话是用来为男人统治的现状作辩护的，在这种状况 下，仅仅由单一性别构成的群体是不允许与社会永久性隔绝开来的。❸如此说来，Bachofen 依赖神话来获取有关女性地位的史料是有误导性的。❹有关古代世界的妇女的、可能对当 代史学家最具价值的史料是如墓碑、遗嘱、婚约一类的社会性文献。❺对这类文献资料的 研究很早就证明我们犯了多么大的错误，即当我们试图只从文学材料中，尤其是从神话中， 获取我们对古代世界的理解时犯的错误。

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SECTION B ❶Initially the Vinaver theory that Malory’s eight romances, once thought to be fundamentally unified, were in fact eight independent works produced both a sense of relief and an unpleasant shock. ❷Vinaver’s theory comfortably explained away the apparent contradictions of chronology and made each romance independently satisfying. ❸It was, however, disagreeable to find that what had been thought of as one book was now eight books. ❹Part of this response was the natural reaction to the disturbance of set ideas. ❺Nevertheless, even now, after lengthy consideration of the theory’s refined but legitimate observations, one cannot avoid the conclusion that the eight romances are only one work. ❻It is not quite a matter of disagreeing with the theory of independence, but of rejecting its implications: that the romances may be taken in any or no particular order, that they have no cumulative effect, and that they are as separate as the works of a modern novelist. ❶起初 Vinaver 提出一个理论：Malory 的八部罗曼史(romance)曾被认为是基本上统一的整 体，但实际上却是八部独立的作品，这个理论让人有种解脱感，但也引起了令人不悦的震惊。 ❷Vinaver 的理论圆满解释了（作品的）时间顺序上明显的冲突，并且让每一部浪漫主义作 品都令人满意。❸然而让人不爽的是，之前认为的一本书现在变成了八本书。❹产生这种 反响的原因部分是由于对既定思想受到干扰的自然反应。❺不过就算现在，在对这个理论 进行长期准确合理的观察之后，我们也无法逃避这个结论，即这八部作品仍然只是一个作品。 ❻这并不在于不同意八部作品的独立性，而是在于它排斥了这个理论的含义，即我们可以 以任意顺序或者不按顺序去理解罗曼史、这些罗曼史没有累积效应以及它们和现代小说家的 作品一样独立。

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❶We can distinguish three different realms of matter, three levels on the quantum ladder. ❷The first is the atomic realm, which includes the world of atoms, their interactions, and the structures that are formed by them, such as molecules, liquids and solids, and gases and plasmas. ❸This realm includes all the phenomena of atomic physics, chemistry, and, in a certain sense, biology. ❹The energy exchanges taking place in this realm are of a relatively low order. ❺If these exchanges are below one electron volt, such as in the collisions between molecules of the air in a room, then atoms and molecules can be regarded as elementary particles. ❻That is, they have “conditional elementarity” because they keep their identity and do not change in any collisions or in other processes at these low energy exchanges. ❼If one goes to higher energy exchanges, say 104 electron volts, then atoms and molecules will decompose into nuclei and electrons; at this level, the latter particles must be considered as elementary. ❽We find examples of structures and processes of this first rung of the quantum ladder on Earth, on planets, and on the surfaces of stars. ❶我们可区分三个领域的物质，或者说量子阶梯（quantum ladder）上的三个层次。❷首 先是原子领域（atomic realm），它包括原子世界、原子相互反应以及由原子形成的结构， 例如分子、液体和固体、气体和等离子体（plasma）。❸这个领域内包括原子物理、原子 化学、以及在某种意义上原子生物学的全部现象。❹在这个领域内发生的能量交换具有一 种较低的序列。❺假如这些交换的能量低于一个电子伏特（electron volt），例如房间内空 气分子之间发生的碰撞，那么原子和分子即可被看作基本粒子（elementary particle）。❻ 换句话说，它们具有“有条件的基本性”，因为它们保持一致，在任何低能量交换的碰撞或其 它过程中保持不变。❼假如原子或者分子来到更高的能量交换层，比如 电子伏特的能量 交换层，那么原子和分子将会分解成为原子核（nucleus）和电子；在此层上，后两种粒子 必须被视作基本粒子。 ❽在地球、行星以及星球的表面上，我们可以发现量子阶梯的第一 层上的结构和过程的实例。 ❶The next rung is the nuclear realm. ❷Here the energy exchanges are much higher, on the order of millions of electron volts. ❸As long as we are dealing with phenomena in the atomic realm, such amounts of energy are unavailable, and most nuclei are inert: they do not change. ❹However, if one applies energies of millions of electron volts, nuclear reactions, fission and fusion, and the processes of radioactivity occur; our elementary particles then are protons, neutrons, and electrons. ❺In addition, nuclear processes produce neutrinos, particles that have no detectable mass or charge. ❻In the universe, energies at this level are available in the centers of stars and in star explosions. ❼Indeed, the energy radiated by the stars is produced by nuclear reactions. ❽The natural radioactivity we find on Earth is the long-lived remnant of the time when now-earthly matter was expelled into space by a major stellar explosion. ❶下一个梯级为核领域（nuclear realm）。❷在这个领域里，能量交换层次更高，在数百 万电子伏特的序列上。❸只要我们所处理的是原子领域之中的现象，我们就不可能获得这 个数量级能量，而且绝大多数的核表现为惰性的：它们不发生变化。❹然而，当我们应用 数百万电子伏特的能量时，核反应、核的聚变裂变以及放射过程同时发生；那么我们的基本 粒子就是质子（proton）、中子以及电子。 ❺此外，核反应过程还产生中微子（neutrino）， 这是一种质量和电荷都无法测定的粒子。❻在宇宙中，人们可以在星球中心或星球爆炸中 获得这个层次上的能量。❼的确，星球辐射出来的能量就是核反应产生的。❽我们在地球 上发现的自然放射现象是由某个时候起持续很长时间的残留物所致，现在地球上的放射物是 通过一次重大星球爆炸进入太空的。 ❶The third rung of the quantum ladder is the subnuclear realm. ❷Here we are dealing with energy exchanges of many billions of electron volts. ❸We encounter excited nucleons, new types of particles such as mesons, heavy electrons, quarks, and gluons, and also antimatter in large quantities. ❹The gluons are the quanta, or smallest units, of the force 65

(the strong force) that keeps the quarks together. ❺As long as we are dealing with the atomic or nuclear realm, these new types of particles do not occur and the nucleons remain inert. ❻But at subnuclear energy levels, the nucleons and mesons appear to be composed of quarks, so that the quarks and gluons figure as elementary particles. ❶量子阶梯上的第三梯级是亚核领域（subnuclear realm） 。❷在这里我们处理的是亿电子 伏特的能量交换。❸我们遇到的是活跃的核子（nucleon） 、新类型粒子——例如介子（meson） 、 重电子、夸克（quark） 、以及胶子（gluon），还有大量的反物质（antimatter）。❹胶子是 某股力量（强力）的量子，或者说是最小的单位，正是这股力量将夸克结合在一起。❺只 要我们所处理的是原子领域或核领域，便不会产生这些新类型的粒子，核子保持其惰性。 ❻但在亚核能量层上，核子和介子可能是由夸克构成的，这样，夸克和胶子便充当基本粒 子。

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No. 5-3 SECTION A ❶The belief that art originates in intuitive rather than rational faculties was worked out historically and philosophically in the somewhat wearisome volumes of Benedetto Croce, who is usually considered the originator of a new aesthetic. ❷Croce was, in fact, expressing a very old idea. ❸Long before the Romantics stressed intuition and self-expression, the frenzy of inspiration was regarded as fundamental to art, but philosophers had always assumed it must be controlled by law and by the intellectual power of putting things into harmonious order. ❹This general philosophic concept of art was supported by technical necessities. ❺It was necessary to master certain laws and to use intellect in order to build Gothic cathedrals, or set up the stained glass windows of Chartres. ❻When this bracing element of craftsmanship ceased to dominate artists’ outlook, new technical elements had to be adopted to maintain the intellectual element in art. ❼ Such were linear perspective and anatomy. ❶艺术源于直觉而非理性的想法是 Benedetto Croce 在他稍显乏味的历史和哲学著作中提出 的，他也被认为是新美学的创始人。❷事实上，Croce 在展现一个非常古老的理念。❸早 在浪漫主义艺术家们强调直觉和自我表现力之前，灵感的癫狂就被看作是艺术的基础，但是 哲学家们一直认为灵感应该受制于规律以及理清事物顺序的理性力量。❹这个关于艺术的 一般哲学概念被技术的必要性支持。❺要建设哥特大教堂(Gothic cathedrals)或者建造沙特 尔大教堂(Chartres)的彩色玻璃窗户需要熟知某些规律并且能运用智慧。❻当令人兴奋的要 素不能继续支配艺术家的视野时，人们必须采用新的技术要素来保持艺术中的理性元素。 ❼这些元素就是直线透视图和解剖学。

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❶Computer programmers often remark that computing machines, with a perfect lack of discrimination, will do any foolish thing they are told to do. ❷The reason for this lies, of course, in the narrow fixation of the computing machine’s “intelligence” on the details of its own perceptions—its inability to be guided by any large context. ❸In a psychological description of the computer intelligence, three related adjectives come to mind: single-minded, literal-minded, and simpleminded. ❹Recognizing this, we should at the same time recognize that this single-mindedness, literal-mindedness, and simplemindedness also characterizes theoretical mathematics, though to a lesser extent. ❶计算机程序员常常说，由于计算机器缺乏完美的鉴别力，只要我们让它做，它就会做任 何傻事。❷当然，这么说的原因在于计算机器的“智能”被狭隘地固定在它所感知的细节上 ——它不能被更大的环境引导。❸在计算机智能的心理学描述中，三个相关的形容词进入 我们的脑海：思维专一的、思维精确的以及思维简单的。❹认识到这一点，我们同时也应 该认识到这种专一、精确以及简单的思维也是理论数学的特点，尽管其程度没有那么深。 ❶Since science tries to deal with reality, even the most precise sciences normally work with more or less imperfectly understood approximations toward which scientists must maintain an appropriate skepticism. ❷Thus, for instance, it may come as a shock to mathematicians to learn that the Schrodinger equation for the hydrogen atom is not a literally correct description of this atom, but only an approximation to a somewhat more correct equation taking account of spin, magnetic dipole, and relativistic effects; and that this corrected equation is itself only an imperfect approximation to an infinite set of quantum field-theoretical equations. ❸Physicists, looking at the original Schrodinger equation, learn to sense in it the presence of many invisible terms in addition to the differential terms visible, and this sense inspires an entirely appropriate disregard for the purely technical features of the equation. ❹This very healthy skepticism is foreign to the mathematical approach. ❶既然科学尝试去处理现实问题，那么即使是最精确的科学通常也会借助或多或少不精确 的近似来进行工作，科学家必须对这种近似保持适当的怀疑态度。❷例如，可能会让数学 家们感到震惊的是，氢原子的 Schrodinger 方程并不是对原子精确描述，它只是对考虑到自 旋、磁偶极子以及相对论效应的精确方程的某种近似；他们还可能感到震惊的是，这种精确 的方程本身也只是一种对于无限量子场-理论方程集合的不完美近似。❸物理学家观察原始 Schrodinger 方程，了解到除了独特的可见关系之外，还存在着许多隐性关系，这个感觉激 发了一种对于方程纯技术特点完全合理的忽视。❹这种良性的质疑对于数学方法来说是不 寻常的。 ❶Mathematics must deal with well-defined situations. ❷Thus, mathematicians depend on an intellectual effort outside of mathematics for the crucial specification of the approximation that mathematics is to take literally. ❸Give mathematicians a situation that is the least bit ill-defined, and they will make it well-defined, perhaps appropriately, but perhaps inappropriately. ❹In some cases, the mathematicians’ literal-mindedness may have unfortunate consequences. ❺The mathematicians turn the scientists’ theoretical assumptions, that is, their convenient points of analytical emphasis, into axioms, and then take these axioms literally. ❻This brings the danger that they may also persuade the scientists to take these axioms literally. ❼The question, central to the scientific investigation but intensely disturbing in the mathematical context—what happens if the axioms are relaxed?—is thereby ignored. ❶数学必须处理明确规定的情况。❷因此，数学家们依靠数学以外的知识来详细说明他们 按照字面理解的近似性。❸给予数学家一个尽可能确切的情景，他们就会把情景变成完全 确切的场景，这个变化可能是合理的，但也可能是不合理的。❹在某些情况下，数学家精 确的思维可能会导致不理想的结果。❺数学家把科学家做出的理论假设，即为了需要而分 析强调的论点，变成公理，然后再照字面含义理解公理。❻这就会带来风险，即他们可能 68

劝说科学家也照字面理解这些公理。❼因此，如果公理不严谨而产生的问题就被忽略了， 而这个问题是一个对于科学研究至关重要、但对于数学领域极其令人不安的问题。 ❶The physicist rightly dreads precise argument, since an argument that is convincing only if it is precise loses all its force if the assumptions on which it is based are slightly changed, whereas an argument that is convincing though imprecise may well be stable under small perturbations of its underlying assumptions. ❶物理学家敬畏精确论断的做法是正确的，因为一个只有在精确情况下才有说服力的论断 在其假设条件稍微改变时就会失去全部说服力，而一个不精确但却有说服力的论断，在其基 本假设受到微扰时，会保持稳定。

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SECTION B ❶In eighteenth-century France and England, reformers rallied around egalitarian ideals, but few reformers advocated higher education for women. ❷Although the public decried women’s lack of education, it did not encourage learning for its own sake for women. ❸In spite of the general prejudice against learned women, there was one place where women could exhibit their erudition: the literary salon. ❹Many writers have defined the woman’s role in the salon as that of an intelligent hostess, but the salon had more than a social function for women. ❺It was an informal university, too, where women exchanged ideas with educated persons, read their own works and heard those of others, and received and gave criticism. ❶在 18 世纪的法国和英国，改革家们集体支持平等主义理想，但几乎没有改革家支持女性 接受高等教育。❷虽然公众责备女性缺乏教育，但这并不鼓励女性为了知识而追求知识。 ❸尽管大众对有文化女性普遍存在偏见，但女性在一个地方可以展现自己学识的渊博：文 学沙龙（literary salon）。❹许多作家将女性在沙龙中的角色定义为一位聪明的女主人，但 对于女性来说沙龙不仅仅有社交的功能。❺沙龙也是一所非官方的大学，在这所大学里女 性可以与有知识的人交换思想、阅读自己的作品并倾听别人的作品、接受并提出批评。 ❶In the 1750’s, when salons were firmly established in France, some English women, who called themselves “Bluestocking,” followed the example of the salonnieres (French salon hostesses) and formed their own salons. ❷Most Bluestockings did not wish to mirror the salonnieres; they simply desired to adapt a proven formula to their own purpose—the elevation of women’s status through moral and intellectual training. ❸Differences in social orientation and background can account perhaps for differences in the nature of French and English salons. ❹The French salon incorporated aristocratic attitudes that exalted courtly pleasure and emphasized artistic accomplishments. ❺The English Bluestockings, originating from a more modest background, emphasized learning and work over pleasure. ❻Accustomed to the regimented life of court circles, salonnieres tended toward formality in their salons. ❼The English women, though somewhat puritanical, were more casual in their approach. ❶在 18 世纪 50 年代，当法国的沙龙已经牢固建立起来的时候，一些英国女性自称“蓝袜女 （bluestocking）”，她们模仿法国沙龙女主人 (salonnieres)的样子建立了自己的沙龙。❷ 大多数蓝袜女并不想照搬法国沙龙女主人；她们只是想适应一种公认惯例来满足自己的目的 ——即通过道德和智力上的训练来提高女性的地位。❸社会潮流和社会背景的差异，或许 可以说明法国沙龙和英国沙龙性质上的差异。❹法国沙龙体现贵族的态度，这种态度赞同 宫廷般的享乐以及强调艺术上的造诣。❺英国蓝袜女来自更普通的家庭背景，强调学问与 工作应该大于享乐。❻法国沙龙女主人习惯于过受严格管制的宫廷生活，她们在沙龙里往 往遵守礼节。❼虽然英国女性在某种程度上表现出拘谨克制，但她们在做事的方式方法上 表现地更加随意。 ❶At first, the Bluestockings did imitate the salonnieres by including men in their circles. ❷However, as they gained cohesion, the Bluestockings came to regard themselves as a women’s group and to possess a sense of female solidarity lacking in the salonnieres, who remained isolated from one another by the primacy each held in her own salon. ❸In an atmosphere of mutual support, the Bluestockings went beyond the salon experience. ❹They traveled, studied, worked, wrote for publication, and by their activities challenged the stereotype of the passive woman. ❺Although the salonnieres were aware of sexual inequality, the narrow boundaries of their world kept their intellectual pursuits within conventional limits. ❻Many salonnieres, in fact, camouflaged their nontraditional activities behind the role of hostess and deferred to men in public. 70

❶起初，蓝袜女确实模仿了法国沙龙女主人，将男性融入到她们的圈子中。❷然而，随着 她们的凝聚力越来越强，蓝袜女逐渐把自己看作一个女性团体，并拥有了一种女性团结的意 识，而这是法国沙龙女主人所缺乏的，法国沙龙女主人中每个成员由于在自己的沙龙中的崇 高地位而和其他成员隔绝开来。❸在一种互相支持的氛围中，蓝袜女超越了沙龙的经验。 ❹她们旅行、学习、工作，发表文章，用自己的行为挑战了消极女性的陈规陋习。❺尽管 法国沙龙女主人意识到性别的不平等，但她们所在小世界的狭隘界限把她们的学术追求限制 在传统的范围之内。❻实际上许多法国沙龙女主人在公开场合服从男性，而将其非传统的 行为藏在女主人这一角色的背后。 ❶Though the Bluestockings were trailblazers when compared with the salonnieres, they were not feminists. ❷They were too traditional, too hemmed in by their generation to demand social and political rights. ❸Nonetheless, in their desire for education, their willingness to go beyond the confines of the salon in pursuing their interests, and their championing of unity among women, the Bluestockings began the process of questioning women’s role in society. ❶虽然与法国沙龙女主人相比，蓝袜女是先驱者，但她们并非女权主义者。❷她们太传统 了，过分受到其所在时代的束缚，以至于不可能提出社会与政治权利方面的要求。❸虽然 如此，由于她们对教育的渴望，蓝袜女愿意超越沙龙的局限，去追求自己的兴趣并且支持女 性团结，她们开辟了质疑女性社会角色这一过程的先河。

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❶When the same parameters and quantitative theory are used to analyze both termite colonies and troops of rhesus macaques, we will have a unified science of sociobiology. ❷Can this ever really happen? ❸As my own studies have advanced, I have been increasingly impressed with the functional similarities between insect and vertebrate societies and less so with the structural differences that seem, at first glance, to constitute such an immense gulf between them. ❹Consider for a moment termites and macaques. ❺Both form cooperative groups that occupy territories. ❻In both kinds of society there is a well-marked division of labor. ❼Members of both groups communicate to each other hunger, alarm, hostility, caste status or rank, and reproductive status. ❽From the specialist’s point of view, this comparison may at first seem facile—or worse. ❾But it is out of such deliberate oversimplification that the beginnings of a general theory are made. ❶用相同的参数和定量理论分析白蚁群和猕猴群时，我们就会有一门统一的科学：社会生 物学。❷情况真的会这样吗？❸当我展开研究时，我对昆虫社会和脊椎动物社会之间的功 能相似性有越来越深刻的印象，而对初看起来有鸿沟的结构差异却印象较浅。❹考虑一下 白蚁和猕猴。❺二者都形成了占据领土的合作型群体。❻在这两种社会中存在明确的劳动 分工。❼这两个群体的成员都能互相通报有关饥饿、警报、敌情、等级地位、生殖状况的 信息。❽从专家的观点来看，这种比较初看似乎非常容易。❾但正是由于这种慎重的简化， 一般理论才开始形成。

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No. 6-1 SECTION A ❶A mysterious phenomenon is the ability of over-water migrants to travel on course. ❷Birds, bees, and other species can keep track of time without any sensory cues from the outside world, and such “biological clocks” clearly contribute to their “compass sense.” ❸For example, they can use the position of the Sun or stars, along with the time of day, to find north. ❹But compass sense alone cannot explain how birds navigate the ocean: after a flock traveling east is blown far south by a storm, it will assume the proper northeasterly course to compensate. ❺Perhaps, some scientists thought, migrants determine their geographic position on Earth by celestial navigation, almost as human navigators use stars and planets, but this would demand of the animals a fantastic map sense. ❻Researchers now know that some species have a magnetic sense, which might allow migrants to determine their geographic location by detecting variations in the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field. ❶候鸟在水面上按照一定航线飞行的能力是一种神秘的现象。❷鸟类、蜜蜂以及其它物种 能够不通过任何外界感官的线索而知道时间，而且这个“生物钟”显然对它们的“方向感”有所 帮助。❸例如，它们可以利用太阳或者星星的位置，再加上一天中的时刻，来找到北方。 ❹但是仅有方向感是不能解释鸟类如何在海上导航的：在一个正在向东飞行的鸟群被一个 风暴远远地刮向南方后，鸟群会采取正确的东北方向航道来补偿误差。❺也许有科学家认 为候鸟是通过天体导航来得知自己的地理位置，就像人类的导航器利用星星和行星一样，但 是这需要动物具有极佳的方向感。❻研究者们现在知道有些物种可以感受磁场，这使候鸟 能够通过探测磁场强度变化来确定它们的地理位置。

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❶Roger Rosenblatt’s book Black Fiction, in attempting to apply literary rather than sociopolitical criteria to its subject, successfully alters the approach taken by most previous studies. ❷As Rosenblatt notes, criticism of Black writing has often served as a pretext for expounding on Black history. ❸Addison Gayle’s recent work, for example, judges the value of Black fiction by overtly political standards, rating each work according to the notions of Black identity which it propounds. ❶Roger Rosenblatt 的著作 Black Fiction 尝试用文学标准而非社会政治的标准来研究这个课 题，成功地改变了此前大多数研究所采取的方法。❷就像 Rosenblatt 提到的那样，有关黑 人文学作品的评论常常被用来作为解释黑人历史的托辞。❸例如 Addison Gayle 最近的著作 用过度政治化的标准评判了黑人小说的价值，按照黑人对作品的见解来评价每一个作品。 ❶Although fiction assuredly springs from political circumstances, its authors react to those circumstances in ways other than ideological, and talking about novels and stories primarily as instruments of ideology circumvents much of the fictional enterprise. ❷Rosenblatt’s literary analysis discloses affinities and connections among works of Black fiction which solely political studies have overlooked or ignored. ❶尽管小说确实是在政治环境中产生的，但是作者对政治环境的反应却和政治主张 (ideological)无关，而且主要以政治主张为工具来讨论小说和故事会在很大程度上限制小说 事业的发展。❷Rosenblatt 的文学分析揭示了被单纯政治研究忽视的黑人小说作品间的相 似与联系。 ❶Writing acceptable criticism of Black fiction, however, presupposes giving satisfactory answers to a number of questions. ❷First of all, is there a sufficient reason, other than the racial identity of the authors, to group together works by Black authors? ❸Second, how does Black fiction make itself distinct from other modern fiction with which it is largely contemporaneous? ❹Rosenblatt shows that Black fiction constitutes a distinct body of writing that has an identifiable, coherent literary tradition. ❺Looking at novels written by Blacks over the last eighty years, he discovers recurring concerns and designs independent of chronology. ❻These structures are thematic, and they spring, not surprisingly, from the central fact that the Black characters in these novels exist in a predominantly White culture, whether they try to conform to that culture or rebel against it. ❶然而，要想写出让人满意的有关黑人小说的评论，首先要保证对很多问题能给出让人满 意的答案。❷首先，除了作者的种族身份外，有没有足够的理由去把黑人作家的作品归为 一类？❸第二，如何把黑人小说同其他同时代及现代小说区分开来？❹Rosenblatt 指出， 黑人小说形成了一套写作体系，这个体系有独特的、统一连贯的文学传统。❺翻看近八十 年黑人小说，他发现了重复出现的、不随时间改变而改变的关注点和行文结构。❻这些结 构都是主题性的，它们无疑源于一个中心事实，即这些小说中的黑人角色处在一个由白人统 治的文化中，无论他们是顺应还是反抗那种文化。 ❶Black Fiction does leave some aesthetic questions open. ❷Rosenblatt’s thematic analysis permits considerable objectivity; he even explicitly states that it is not his intention to judge the merit of the various works—yet his reluctance seems misplaced, especially since an attempt to appraise might have led to interesting results. ❸For instance, some of the novels appear to be structurally diffuse. ❹Is this a defect, or are the authors working out of, or trying to forge, a different kind of aesthetic? ❺In addition, the style of some Black novels, like Jean Toomer’s Cane, verges on expressionism or surrealism; does this technique provide a counterpoint to the prevalent theme that portrays the fate against which Black heroes are pitted, a theme usually conveyed by more naturalistic modes of expression? ❶ Black Fiction 确实留下了一些美学上的问题没有解决。❷Rosenblatt 的主题分析允许有 很大的客观性；他甚至明确表明评判每个作品的价值并不是他的目的——可他的这种不情愿 74

貌似不合时宜，尤其是因为评价作品可能得到很有意思的结果。❸比如说，一些小说的结 构看起来很散。❹这是个缺点，还是作者在创造另外一种美学标准呢？❺另外，有些黑人 小说（比如说 Jean Toomer 的 Cane），其风格接近于表现主义(expressionism)或超现实主 义(surrealism)；流行主题刻画了黑人英雄（主人公）与之相抗争的命运，这种技巧是否为 流行的主题提供了一个和谐的对应呢？这个主题通常被更加自然主义的表现手法表达出来。 ❶In spite of such omissions, what Rosenblatt does include in his discussion makes for an astute and worthwhile study. ❷Black Fiction surveys a wide variety of novels, bringing to our attention in the process some fascinating and little-known works like James Weldon Johnson’s Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man. ❸Its argument is tightly constructed, and its forthright, lucid style exemplifies levelheaded and penetrating criticism. ❶尽管有这些疏漏，Rosenblatt 在他的讨论中涉及到的内容有助于深入的、有价值的研究。 ❷黑人小说广泛考察了很多小说，在这个过程中，我们注意到了一些引人入胜但不为人知 的作品，比如 James Weldon Johnson 的 Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man。❸这部作品 的论证构建得紧凑严密，而且它的直截了当、客观冷静、敏锐透彻的风格是文学评论中的典 范。

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SECTION B ❶The molecules of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere affect the heat balance of the Earth by acting as a one-way screen. ❷Although these molecules allow radiation at visible wavelengths, where most of the energy of sunlight is concentrated, to pass through, they absorb some of the longer-wavelength, infrared emissions radiated from the Earth’s surface, radiation that would otherwise be transmitted back into space. ❸For the Earth to maintain a constant average temperature, such emissions from the planet must balance incoming solar radiation. ❹If there were no carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, heat would escape from the Earth much more easily. ❺The surface temperature would be so much lower that the oceans might be a solid mass of ice. ❶地球大气层中的二氧化碳分子会作为一种单向热量过滤网(one-way screen)来影响地球 上的热平衡。❷虽然二氧化碳分子允许太阳光能量最集中的可见光通过，但这些分子也吸 收从地球表面发出的、波长较长的红外线辐射能，这部分辐射如果没有被吸收就会被输送到 太空中。❸为了使地球的平均温度恒定，从地球发出的辐射能必须和太阳辐射能相平衡。 ❹要是大气中没有二氧化碳，热量便更容易从地球上散失。❺而地球表面的温度也会低得 多，低到使得海洋凝结成一个大冰块的程度。 ❶Today, however, the potential problem is too much carbon dioxide. ❷The burning of fossil fuels and the clearing of forests have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 15 percent in the last hundred years, and we continue to add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. ❸Could the increase in carbon dioxide cause a global rise in average temperature, and could such a rise have serious consequences for human society? ❹Mathematical models that allow us to calculate the rise in temperature as a function of the increase indicate that the answer is probably yes. ❶然而目前潜在的问题是二氧化碳过多。❷在过去的一百年中，人们燃烧化石燃料(fossil fuel)以及砍伐森林的行为使得大气中二氧化碳的含量增加了 15%，而目前二氧化碳含量仍 然在因我们而增加。❸二氧化碳的增加是否能够导致全球平均气温升高，以及气温的升高 是否会对人类社会产生严重后果呢？❹我们可以把温度变化作为二氧化碳增加量的函数来 建立数学模型，而模型的计算结果告诉我们问题的答案很可能是肯定的。 ❶Under present conditions a temperature of-18℃ can be observed at an altitude of 5 to 6 kilometers above the Earth. ❷Below this altitude (called the radiating level), the temperature increases by about 6℃ per kilometer approaching the Earth’s surface, where the average temperature is about 15℃. ❸An increase in the amount of carbon dioxide means that there are more molecules of carbon dioxide to absorb infrared radiation. ❹As the capacity of the atmosphere to absorb infrared radiation increases, the radiating level and the temperature of the surface must rise. ❶在现有条件下，海拔 5-6 千米处的温度是零下 18℃（这个海拔以下叫做辐射高度）。❷ 高度每下降 1 千米，气温上升约 6℃，而地表平均温度约为 15 摄氏度。❸而二氧化碳含量 增加意味着有更多二氧化碳分子来吸收红外辐射能。❹随着大气吸收红外辐射能能力的增 加，辐射高度和地表温度必然上升。 ❶One mathematical model predicts that doubling the atmospheric carbon dioxide would raise the global mean surface temperature by 2.5℃. ❷This model assumes that the atmosphere’s relative humidity remains constant and the temperature decreases with altitude at a rate of 6.5℃ per kilometer. ❸The assumption of constant relative humidity is important, because water vapor in the atmosphere is another efficient absorber of radiation at infrared wavelengths. ❹Because warm air can hold more moisture than cool air, the relative humidity will be constant only if the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere increases as the temperature rises. ❺Therefore, more infrared radiation would be absorbed and reradiated back to the Earth’s surface. ❻The resultant warming at the surface could be 76

expected to melt snow and ice, reducing the Earth’s reflectivity. ❼More solar radiation would then be absorbed, leading to a further increase in temperature. ❶有一个数学模型预测，如果大气中二氧化碳含量翻倍，那么地表平均气温增加 2.5℃。❷ 这个模型做了两个假设：1. 大气相对湿度保持不变；2. 以及气温随着海拔升高以每千米 6.5℃ 递减。❸对于相对湿度恒定的假设十分重要，因为大气中的水蒸气也会有效吸收红外波长 的辐射。❹由于热空气比冷空气可以容纳更多的水分，所以只有在大气中水蒸气含量随着 温度上涨而上涨的时候，相对湿度才会保持不变。❺因此，更多红外辐射会被吸收然后反 射回地表。❻随之而来的地表变暖会熔化冰雪，减少地球对热能的反射。❼更多的辐射能 会被吸收，这将会导致地表温度进一步的增加。

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❶Some modern anthropologists hold that biological evolution has shaped not only human morphology but also human behavior. ❷The role those anthropologists ascribe to evolution is not of dictating the details of human behavior but one of imposing constraints—ways of feeling, thinking, and acting that “come naturally” in archetypal situations in any culture. ❸Our “frailties”—emotions and motives such as rage, fear, greed, gluttony, joy, lust, love—may be a very mixed assortment, but they share at least one immediate quality: we are, as we say, “in the grip” of them. ❹And thus they give us our sense of constraints. ❶一些当代人类学家认为，生物进化不仅塑造了人类的形态，还塑造了人类的行为。❷这 些人类学家归因于生物进化的作用，不是对人类行为细节的支配，而是将各种限制强加于人 类——在任何文化的典型情景中都会有“自然表露”的情感、思维、行动。❸我们的“弱点”—— 情感和动机，如愤怒、恐惧、贪吃、暴食、享乐、淫欲、爱——或许是一种极其复杂的混合 体，但它们至少有一个共同的、人们可以直接感知的特点：正如我们所说的那样，我们受它 们的“支配”。❹因此，它们给予我们约束感。 ❶Unhappily, some of those frailties—our need for ever-increasing security among them—are presently maladaptive. ❷Yet beneath the overlay of cultural detail, they, too, are said to be biological in direction, and therefore as natural to us as are our appendixes. ❸We would need to comprehend thoroughly their adaptive origins in order to understand how badly they guide us now. ❹And we might then begin to resist their pressure. ❶不幸的是，这些弱点中的一些弱点——包括我们对不断增加的安全感的需求——目前不 适应人类发展。❷然而在文化细节的覆盖之下，这些弱点同样有生物演化的趋向，因此这 对我们来说就和我们有阑尾一样正常。❸我们需要彻底理解这些弱点的适应性起因，从而 了解它们是多么严重地误导了我们。❹然后我们才可以开始抵制弱点的压力。

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No. 6-2 SECTION A Whether the languages of the ancient American peoples were used for expressing abstract universal concepts can be clearly answered in the case of Nahuatl. Nahuatl, like Greek and German, is a language that allows the formation of extensive compounds. By the combination of radicals or semantic elements, single compound words can express complex conceptual relations, often of an abstract universal character. The tlamatinime (“those who know”) were able to use this rich stock of abstract terms to express the nuances of their thought. They also availed themselves of other forms of expression with metaphorical meaning, some probably original, some derived from Toltec coinages. Of these forms the most characteristic in Nahuatl is the juxtaposition of two words that, because they are synonyms, associated terms, or even contraries, complement each other to evoke one single idea. Used as metaphor, the juxtaposed terms connote specific or essential traits of the being they refer to, introducing a mode of poetry as an almost habitual form of expression.

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❶Many theories have been formulated to explain the role of grazers such as zooplankton in controlling the amount of planktonic algae (phytoplankton) in lakes. ❷The first theories of such grazer control were merely based on observations of negative correlations between algal and zooplankton numbers. ❸A low number of algal cells in the presence of a high number of grazers suggested, but did not prove, that the grazers had removed most of the algae. ❹The converse observation, of the absence of grazers in areas of high phytoplankton concentration, led Hardy to propose his principle of animal exclusion, which hypothesized that phytoplankton produced a repellent that excluded grazers from regions of high phytoplankton concentration. ❺This was the first suggestion of algal defenses against grazing. ❶科学家提出了许多理论来解释例如浮游动物(zooplankton)一类的食草动物(grazer)在控 制湖中浮游水藻(浮游植物，phytoplankton)数量的作用。❷最初有关这种食草动物控制作 用的理论依据的只是基于藻类数量与浮游动物数量之间负相关关系的观察。❸在有大量食 草动物的环境里只存在少量藻类细胞表明但未证明：食草动物吃掉了绝大多数藻类。❹相 反情况的观察，即在高密度浮游植物的区域里没有食草动物，使得 Hardy 提出了他关于动 物排斥原理，这个原理假设浮游植物产生了一种驱避剂来驱赶高密度浮游植物区域中的食草 动物。 ❺这是第一个有关藻类植物抵御食草动物所作的暗示。 ❶Perhaps the fact that many of these first studies considered only algae of a size that could be collected in a net (net phytoplankton), a practice that overlooked the smaller phytoplankton (nannoplankton) that we now know grazers are most likely to feed on, led to a de-emphasis of the role of grazers in subsequent research. ❷Increasingly, as in the individual studies of Lund, Round, and Reynolds, researchers began to stress the importance of environmental factors such as temperature, light, and water movements in controlling algal numbers. ❸These environmental factors were amenable to field monitoring and to simulation in the laboratory. ❹Grazing was believed to have some effect on algal numbers, especially after phytoplankton growth rates declined at the end of bloom periods, but grazing was considered a minor component of models that predicted algal population dynamics. ❶可能基于这个事实，即初步研究中的很多研究只考虑了那些尺寸可以用网收集起来的水 藻（net phytoplankton）——而这个做法忽略了更小的、食草动物最有可能以其为食的浮游 植物（即微型浮游植物，nannoplankton），这使得研究者们在接下来的实验中轻视食草动 物的角色。❷就像 Lund, Round 以及 Reynolds 在他们单独的实验中所做的那样，研究者们 开始越来越强调诸如温度、光线、水流运动等环境因素在控制藻类数量上的重要性。❸这 些环境因素可经受起实地检测以及实验室中模拟的检验。❹人们认为食草动物的摄食行为 会对水藻数量产生一定影响，特别是在浮游植物生长率增长末期下降之后，但是它的摄食行 为被看作是一个预测水藻种群动态次要的组成部分。 ❶The potential magnitude of grazing pressure on freshwater phytoplankton has only recently been determined empirically. ❷Studies by Hargrave and Geen estimated natural community grazing rates by measuring feeding rates of individual zooplankton species in the laboratory and then computing community grazing rates for field conditions using the known population density of grazers. ❸The high estimates of grazing pressure postulated by these researchers were not fully accepted, however, until the grazing rates of zooplankton were determined directly in the field, by means of new experimental techniques. ❹Using a specially prepared feeding chamber, Haney was able to record zooplankton grazing rates in natural field conditions. ❺In the periods of peak zooplankton abundance, that is, in the late spring and in the summer, Haney recorded maximum daily community grazing rates, for nutrient-poor lakes and bog lakes, respectively, of 6.6 percent and 114 percent of daily phytoplankton production. ❻Cladocerans had higher grazing rates 80

than copepods, usually accounting for 80 percent of the community grazing rate. ❼These rates varied seasonally, reaching the lowest point in the winter and early spring. ❽Haney’s thorough research provides convincing field evidence that grazers can exert significant pressure on phytoplankton population. ❶浮游动物对淡水中的浮游植物产生压力的潜在强度只是在最近才通过经验确定下来。 ❷Hargrave 和 Geen 所做的实验对自然条件下的群落食草比例进行了估计，估计的方法是 测量实验室中单个浮游动物种群的摄食率，之后用已知食草动物种群密度计算实地条件下群 落摄食率。❸这二位研究者假设的食草压力高的估计，直到浮游动物的摄食率通过新的实 验技术被直接确认后，才被充分接受。❹利用特制的喂食室，Haney 能够记录浮游动物在 自然实地环境下的摄食率。❺在浮游动物达到顶峰饱和的时期内，即春季后期和夏季，Haney 记录了每日种群摄食率的最大值，对于营养匮乏的湖水以及沼泽湖而言，分别是每日浮游植 物繁殖量的 6.6%和 114%。❻水蚤类动物比桡足动物有更高的摄食率，一般占群落摄食率 的 80%。❼这些比率随季节变化而变化，在冬天和初春达到最低。❽Haney 详细的研究为 提供了有说服力的实地证据，证明了食草动物的确能对浮游植物的种群数量产生巨大的压力。

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SECTION B ❶Hydrogeology is a science dealing with the properties, distribution, and circulation of water on the surface of the land, in the soil and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere. ❷The hydrologic cycle, a major topic in this science, is the complete cycle of phenomena through which water passes, beginning as atmospheric water vapor, passing into liquid and solid form as precipitation, thence along and into the ground surface, and finally again returning to the form of atmospheric water vapor by means of evaporation and transpiration. ❶水文地质学(hydrogeology)是一门研究水在地表中、土壤中、岩石中以及大气中的性质、 分布、循环的科学。❷水循环作为这门科学中一个主要的话题，指的是多种现象组成的完 整循环，即水以大气中的气态转变成液态和固态的降水，降水随后进入地表，最后通过蒸发 和蒸腾作用(evaporation and transpiration)重新变成大气中的水的形态。 ❶The term “geohydrology” is sometimes erroneously used as a synonym for “hydrogeology.” ❷Geohydrology is concerned with underground water. ❸There are many formations that contain water but are not part of the hydrologic cycle because of geologic changes that have isolated them underground. ❹These systems are properly termed geohydrologic but not hydrogeologic. ❺Only when a system possesses natural or artificial boundaries that associate the water within it with the hydrologic cycle may the entire system properly be termed hydrogeologic. ❶ “地质水文学”这个术语有时候会被错误地当作“水文地质学”的同义词。❷地质水文学研 究的是地下水。❸很多地质岩层都含有水，却不是水循环的一部分，这是因为地质变化已 经把水隔离在地下了。❹这些系统正确的叫法应该是地质水文系统而不是水文地质系统。 ❺只有当一个系统具有与水文学循环中的水相联系的自然或者人工界限的时候，整个水系 才能被叫作水文地质系统。

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❶The historian Frederick J. Turner wrote in the 1890’s that the agrarian discontent that had been developing steadily in the United States since about 1870 had been precipitated by the closing of the internal frontier—that is, the depletion of available new land needed for further expansion of the American farming system. ❷Not only was Turner’s thesis influential at the time, it was later adopted and elaborated by other scholars, such as John D. Hicks in The Populist Revolt (1931). ❸Actually, however, new lands were taken up for farming in the United States throughout and beyond the nineteenth century. ❹In the 1890’s, when agrarian discontent had become most acute, 1,100,000 new farms were settled, which was 500,000 more than had been settled during the previous decade. ❺After 1890, under the terms of the Homestead Act and its successors, more new land was taken up for farming than had been taken up for this purpose in the United States up until that time. ❻It is true that a high proportion of the newly farmed land was suitable only for grazing and dry farming, but agricultural practices had become sufficiently advanced to make it possible to increase the profitability of farming by utilizing even these relatively barren lands. ❶历史学家 Frederick J. Turner 在 19 世纪 90 年代写到：“自 1870 年以来，美国农民不满 的情绪随着国内边远地区(即用尽可以作为美国农业系统进一步扩张的新土地)的消失而持 续增长。” ❷Turner 的观点不仅在当时很有影响力，之后还被其他学者,如 John D. Hicks 在 The Populist Revolt（1931）一书中采用并加以详细阐述。❸然而实际上，美国的新土地在 整个 19 世纪都被开垦完了。❹在 19 世纪 90 年代，当农民的不满愈发激烈时，有 110 万 个新的农场建立了起来，这比之前 10 年内建立的农场还多 50 万个。❺1890 年后，根据宅 地法案(Homestead Act)以及其后续法案的法令，农民拥有了比之前还多的土地。❻的确大 部分新开垦的农田确实只适合放牧以及旱作农业，但是农业实践已经足够先进，农民即使利 用这些相对贫瘠的土地也可以增加利润。 ❶The emphasis given by both scholars and statesmen to the presumed disappearance of the American frontier helped to obscure the great importance of changes in the conditions and consequences of international trade that occurred during the second half of the nineteenth century. ❷In 1869 the Suez Canal was opened and the first transcontinental railroad in the United States was completed. ❸An extensive network of telegraph and telephone communications was spun: Europe was connected by submarine cable with the United States in 1866 and with South America in 1874. ❹By about 1870 improvements in agricultural technology made possible the full exploitation of areas that were most suitable for extensive farming on a mechanized basis. ❺Huge tracts of land were being settled and farmed in Argentina, Australia, Canada, and in the American West, and these areas were joined with one another and with the countries of Europe into an interdependent market system. ❻As a consequence, agrarian depressions no longer were local or national in scope, and they struck several nations whose internal frontiers had not vanished or were not about to vanish. ❼Between the early 1870’s and the 1890’s, the mounting agrarian discontent in America paralleled the almost uninterrupted decline in the prices of American agricultural products on foreign markets. ❽Those staple-growing farmers in the United States who exhibited the greatest discontent were those who had become most dependent on foreign markets for the sale of their products. ❾Insofar as Americans had been deterred from taking up new land for farming, it was because market conditions had made this period a perilous time in which to do so. ❶学者和政治家对美国边远地区的消失给予的强调，促进掩盖了 19 世纪后半叶国际贸易状 况及其后果产生变化的巨大重要性。❷1869 年苏伊士运河开通，而美国境内第一条跨大陆 铁路竣工。❸密集的电报网络和电话通信也建成了：欧洲在 1866 年利用海底电缆与美国连 接，而在 1874 年又与南美连接。❹到了约 1870 年，农业技术的进步使得充分利用大规模 机械化耕种区域成为可能。❺在阿根廷、澳大利亚、加拿大以及美国西部，大面积土地被 开垦，并且这些区域相互连接，并和欧洲国家连接形成独立市场体系。❻其结果是，农业 83

萧条不再是本地或者本国的事情，萧条袭击了多个国家，无论其国内尚未开发的边远地区是 否消失。❼在 19 世纪 70 年代到 90 年代之间，美国农民积聚的不满几乎和国际市场中美国 农产品价格持续下架同时出现。❽表现出最大程度不满的、生产大宗农产品的农民变成了 最依赖国外市场来销售他们农产品的人。❾对于阻止美国人开垦新土地来说，市场情况使 得在当时这么做成为十分危险的事情。

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No. 6-3 SECTION A ❶The use of heat pumps has been held back largely by skepticism about advertisers’ claims that heat pumps can provide as many as two units of thermal energy for each unit of electrical energy used, thus apparently contradicting the principle of energy conservation. ❷Heat pumps circulate a fluid refrigerant that cycles alternatively from its liquid phase to its vapor phase in a closed loop. ❸The refrigerant, starting as a low-temperature, low-pressure vapor, enters a compressor driven by an electric motor. ❹The refrigerant leaves the compressor as a hot, dense vapor and flows through a heat exchanger called the condenser, which transfers heat from the refrigerant to a body of air. ❺Now the refrigerant, as a high-pressure, cooled liquid, confronts a flow restriction which causes the pressure to drop. ❻As the pressure falls, the refrigerant expands and partially vaporizes, becoming chilled. ❼It then passes through a second heat exchanger, the evaporator, which transfers heat from the air to the refrigerant, reducing the temperature of this second body of air. ❽Of the two heat exchangers, one is located inside, and the other one outside the house, so each is in contact with a different body of air: room air and outside air, respectively. ❶热泵(heat pump)的使用受到限制在很大程度上是由于人们对广告商的声明持怀疑态度， 即对于每单位被消耗的电能来说，热泵可产生多达两单位的热能，所以这显然违背能量守恒 定理。❷热泵使流动的制冷剂(fluid refrigerant)在闭合环路里面循环，制冷剂不断在液态和 气态之间交替。❸制冷剂在开始时以低温低压蒸汽状态进入由电动机驱动的压缩机 (compressor)。❹离开压缩机时，制冷剂是稠密热蒸汽状态并且进入叫做冷凝机(condenser) 的热交换机，这个热交换机把制冷剂中的热量转到第一团空气中。❺现在制冷剂是高压冷 却的液体，它遇到了使液体压力降低的流量限制。❻随着压力的降低，制冷剂膨胀，其中 一部分汽化变冷。❼制冷剂随后通过第二个热交换机——蒸发机(evaporator)，蒸发机把空 气中的热量传到制冷剂中，降低第二团空气的温度。❽在两个热交换机中，一个被放在室 内，另一个在室外，这样每个交换机分别与室内和室外的不同气体相遇。 ❶The flow direction of refrigerant through a heat pump is controlled by valves. ❷When the refrigerant flow is reversed, the heat exchangers switch function. ❸This flow-reversal capability allows heat pumps either to heat or cool room air. ❹Now, if under certain conditions a heat pump puts out more thermal energy than it consumes in electrical energy, has the law of energy conservation been challenged? ❺No, not even remotely: the additional input of thermal energy into the circulating refrigerant via the evaporator accounts for the difference in the energy equation. ❶制冷剂在热泵中的流向是由阀门(valve)控制的。❷当制冷剂的流向被逆转时，热交换机 也互相转换其功能。❸这个流向逆转能力使得热泵可以对空气进行加热或者冷却。❹现在， 如果在特定条件下一个热泵释放的热能比消耗的电能还多，那么能量守恒定律是否被质疑了？ ❺没有，一点也没有：通过蒸发机而额外输入到循环流动致冷剂中的热能足以解释能量平 衡中的差异。 ❶Unfortunately, there is one real problem. ❷The heating capacity of a heat pump decreases as the outdoor temperature falls. ❸The drop in capacity is caused by the lessening amount of refrigerant mass moved through the compressor at one time. ❹The heating capacity is proportional to this mass flow rate: the less the mass of refrigerant being compressed, the less the thermal load it can transfer through the heat-pump cycle. ❺The volume flow rate of refrigerant vapor through the single-speed rotary compressor used in heat pumps is approximately constant. ❻But cold refrigerant vapor entering a compressor is at lower pressure than warmer vapor. ❼Therefore, the mass of cold refrigerant—and

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thus the thermal energy it carries—is less than if the refrigerant vapor were warmer before compression. ❶不幸的是，这里存在一个实际的问题。❷热泵的加热能力随着室外温度的下降而降低。 ❸加热能力下降是由于压缩机中一次流过的致冷剂质量的减少。❹加热能力和制冷剂质量 流率成正比：被压缩制冷剂的质量越少，传递到热泵循环中的热量就越少。❺流经单速旋 转压缩机的致冷剂气体，其体积流率是大致恒定的。❻但是进入压缩机的制冷剂气体的压 力要低于较暖气体的压力。 ❼因此，制冷剂的质量——以及因此它携带的热能——要低于 另一种情况下的质量，即致冷剂气体在被压缩之前温度较高的情况。 ❶Here, then, lies a genuine drawback of heat pumps: in extremely cold climates—where the most heat is needed—heat pumps are least able to supply enough heat. ❶那么这里存在着一个热泵真正缺陷：在极寒冷的气候条件中——即最需要热量之时—— 热泵却最不能提供充分的热量。

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❶All of Francoise Duparc’s surviving paintings blend portraiture and genre. ❷Her subjects appear to be acquaintances whom she has asked to pose; she has captured both their self-consciousness and the spontaneity of their everyday activities, the depiction of which characterizes genre painting. ❸But genre painting, especially when it portrayed members of the humblest classes, was never popular in eighteenth-century France. ❹The Le Nain brothers and Georges de La Tour, who also chose such themes, were largely ignored. ❺Their present high standing is due to a different, more democratic political climate and to different aesthetic values: we no longer require artists to provide ideal images of humanity for our moral edification but rather regard such idealization as a falsification of the truth. ❻Duparc gives no improving message and discreetly refrains from judging her subjects. ❼In brief, her works neither elevate nor instruct. ❽This restraint largely explains her lack of popular success during her lifetime, even if her talent did not go completely unrecognized by her eighteenth-century French contemporaries. ❶所有 Francoise Duparc 的现存画作融合了肖像画和风俗画的风格。❷她的绘画对象似乎 都是她的熟人，而这些人是应她邀请来摆造型；在她的绘画中，她抓住了这些人物在日常生 活中的做作与自然，而这些恰恰构成了风俗画的特征。❸但是风俗画，特别是描绘底层阶 级的风俗画，在 18 世纪的法国并没有受到人们的关注。❹选择了相同题材的 Le Nain 兄弟 以及 Georges de La Tour 也被人们忽略了。❺他们当今很高的地位是由于有一个截然不同的、 更为民主的政治环境以及一个截然不同的审美标准：我们不再要求艺术家们为了道德教育而 创作出完美的人类形象，而是把这种理想化处理看作对真理的歪曲。❻Duparc 没有美化她 的作品，谨慎地避免评价她的作品。❼简单地说，她的作品既没有升华也没有说教。❽虽 然她的天赋没有被 18 世纪法国同时代的人完全忽视，但她的这种克制很大程度上解释了她 的作品在她有生之年没有受青睐的原因。

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SECTION B ❶Mycorrhizal fungi infect more plants than do any other fungi and are necessary for many plants to thrive, but they have escaped widespread investigation until recently for two reasons. ❷First, the symbiotic association is so well-balanced that the roots of host plants show no damage even when densely infected. ❸Second, the fungi cannot as yet be cultivated in the absence of a living root. ❹Despite these difficulties, there has been important new work that suggests that this symbiotic association can be harnessed to achieve more economical use of costly superphosphate fertilizer and to permit better exploitation of cheaper, less soluble rock phosphate. ❺Mycorrhizal benefits are not limited to improved phosphate uptake in host plants. ❻In legumes, mycorrhizal inoculation has increased nitrogen fixation beyond levels achieved by adding phosphate fertilizer alone. ❼Certain symbiotic associations also increase the host plant’s resistance to harmful root fungi. ❽Whether this resistance results from exclusion of harmful fungi through competition for sites, from metabolic change involving antibiotic production, or from increased vigor is undetermined. ❶菌根真菌(Mycorrhizal fungi)比任何其它真菌影响更多的植物，并且对于许多植物的生长 是必需的，但是直到最近它才被广泛地调查研究。❷这有两个原因：一是植物和菌根真菌 之间的共生关系(symbiotic association)十分平衡，寄主植物的根部即使被严重感染也不会表 现出受损的迹象。❸二是这种真菌至今还必须在有活植物根部的前提下才能被培养起来。 ❹尽管存在这些困难，新的研究表明利用这种共生关系可以让我们更节约地使用昂贵的过 磷酸盐化肥(superphosphate fertilizer)和更好地利用便宜但较难溶解的磷酸盐岩石。❺菌根 真菌的益处并不只限于提高寄主植物摄取磷酸盐上。❻对豆科植物(legume)来说，接种菌 根真菌可以提高它们的固氮能力，且这种方法要比单独施磷肥料的效果还好。❼某些共生 关系也可以帮助寄主植物抵抗那些对其根部有害的真菌。❽植物抵抗力的增加是来自地盘 的争夺以抵抗有害真菌，来自抗菌素产生的变化，还是来自活力的增强，这到现在还未确定。

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❶In the early 1950’s, historians who studied preindustrial Europe (which we may define here as Europe in the period from roughly 1300 to 1800) began, for the first time in large numbers, to investigate more of the preindustrial European population than the 2 or 3 percent who comprised the political and social elite: the kings, generals, judges, nobles, bishops, and local magnates who had hitherto usually filled history books. ❷One difficulty, however, was that few of the remaining 97 percent recorded their thoughts or had them chronicled by contemporaries. ❸Faced with this situation, many historians based their investigations on the only records that seemed to exist: birth, marriage, and death records. ❹As a result, much of the early work on the nonelite was aridly statistical in nature; reducing the vast majority of the population to a set of numbers was hardly more enlightening than ignoring them altogether. ❺Historians still did not know what these people thought or felt. ❶20 世纪 50 年代早期，众多研究前工业化时代欧洲（此处我们可将其界定为约自 1300 年 至 1800 年这一时期的欧洲）的史学家，首次开始调查前工业化时代欧洲的大部分人，而非 那些构成政治与社会精英阶层的 2%到 3%的人口，即国王、将军、法官、贵族、主教、以 及地方官，正是这些精英充斥着史学著作。❷然而，一个棘手的难题是，在这剩余的 97% 的人口中，几乎没有人将他们的思想记录下来，或很少被同代人记录在编年史中。❸面对 这个情况，许多史学家将其研究建立在那些唯一可能存在的记录上：出生、婚姻、及死亡记 录。❹这样一来，大部分对非精英阶层的早期研究实际上只是枯燥的统计学研究；将人口 中广大平民大众抽象为一组数字，与其说数字具有任何启迪作用，还不如将它彻底忽略。 ❺史学家依然对这些人的想法和感受一无所知。 ❶One way out of this dilemma was to turn to the records of legal courts, for here the voices of the nonelite can most often be heard, as witnesses, plaintiffs, and defendants. ❷These documents have acted as “a point of entry into the mental world of the poor.” ❸Historians such as Le Roy Ladurie have used the documents to extract case histories, which have illuminated the attitudes of different social groups (these attitudes include, but are not confined to, attitudes toward crime and the law) and have revealed how the authorities administered justice. ❹It has been societies that have had a developed police system and practiced Roman law, with its written depositions, whose court records have yielded the most data to historians. ❺In Anglo-Saxon countries hardly any of these benefits obtain, but it has still been possible to glean information from the study of legal documents. ❶摆脱这个困境的一种方法是让史学家把注意力转到法庭的档案记录上，因为在档案里最 能听见非精英阶层作为证人、原告、被告的声音。❷这些文献史料充当了一个“深入到穷人 精神世界的切入口”。❸Le Roy Ladurie 等史学家从文献史料中挖掘出某些个案历史，阐明 了不同社会群体的态度（这些态度包括但不局限于对犯罪和法律的态度），并揭示出当局是 如何执行审判的。❹只有那些拥有完备发达的警察体系，并实施罗马法的国家，以其书面 证词、其法庭记载才能为史学家提供最多的信息。❺在 Anglo-Saxon 国家几乎得不到这种 益处，但通过对法庭文献的研究，我们仍能搜集到有用信息。 ❶The extraction of case histories is not, however, the only use to which court records may be put. ❷Historians who study preindustrial Europe have used the records to establish a series of categories of crime and to quantify indictments that were issued over a given number of years. ❸This use of the records does yield some information about the nonelite, but this information gives us little insight into the mental lives of the nonelite. ❹We also know that the number of indictments in preindustrial Europe bears little relation to the number of actual criminal acts, and we strongly suspect that the relationship has varied widely over time. ❺In addition, aggregate population estimates are very shaky, which makes it difficult for historians to compare rates of crime per thousand in one decade of the

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preindustrial period with rates in another decade. ❻Given these inadequacies, it is clear why the case history use of court records is to be preferred. ❶然而，对个案历史的挖掘并不是法庭记录的唯一用途。❷研究前工业化时代欧洲的史学 家还利用这些记录来建立一系列犯罪类型，并统计出在特定数量的年份中发出的起诉书。 ❸法庭记录的这个用途确实能提供一定的有关非精英阶层的信息，但这种信息几乎无法使 我们深入了解非精英阶层的精神生活。❹我们还知道，前工业化时代欧洲起诉书的数量与 实际犯罪行为的数量几乎没有联系，并且我们深深地怀疑，二者间的关系会随着时间的推移 而有很大变化。❺此外，总体性人口估计极不可靠，这就使史学家难以将前工业时代一个 十年期的千人犯罪率与另一个十年期的千人犯罪率做比较。❻考虑到这些缺点，法庭记录 的个案历史受到人们的青睐的原因便显而易见了。

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No. 7-1 SECTION A ❶Our visual perception depends on the reception of energy reflecting or radiating from that which we wish to perceive. ❷If our eyes could receive and measure infinitely delicate sense-data, we could perceive the world with infinite precision. ❸The natural limits of our eyes have, of course, been extended by mechanical instruments; telescopes and microscopes, for example, expand our capabilities greatly. ❹There is, however, an ultimate limit beyond which no instrument can take us; this limit is imposed by our inability to receive sense-data smaller than those conveyed by an individual quantum of energy. ❺Since these quanta are believed to be indivisible packages of energy and so cannot be further refined, we reach a point beyond which further resolution of the world is not possible. ❻It is like a drawing a child might make by sticking indivisible discs of color onto a canvas. ❶我们的视觉依赖于从我们想要看到的物体上反射或者辐射的能量。❷如果我们的眼睛可 以接收并测量无限精细的感觉素材，那么我们就可以无限精确地感知这个世界。❸当然， 我们眼睛先天的极限可以借助机械仪器来扩展；例如，望远镜和显微镜就极大地增强了我们 的视觉能力。❹然而，存在着一个最终的极限，无论我们用什么仪器都不能超越这个极限； 这个极限的存在是因为我们无法感知比单个量子(quantum)能量更小的素材。❺因为这些量 子被认为是能量不可分割的个体且不能被进一步细分，所以我们到达了一个无法进一步分解 世界的境地。❻这就像孩子把不可分割的颜色圆片贴到油画布上来作画一样。 ❶We might think that we could avoid this limitation by using quanta with extremely long wavelengths; such quanta would be sufficiently sensitive to convey extremely delicate sense-data. ❷And these quanta would be useful, as long as we only wanted to measure energy, but a completely accurate perception of the world will depend also on the exact measurement of the lengths and positions of what we wish to perceive. ❸For this, quanta of extremely long wavelengths are useless. ❹To measure a length accurately to within a millionth of an inch, we must have a measure graduated in millionths of an inch; a yardstick graduated in inches in useless. ❺Quanta with a wavelength of one inch would be, in a sense, measures that are graduated in inches. ❻Quanta of extremely long wavelength are useless in measuring anything except extremely large dimensions. ❶我们也许会想，可以利用超长波长量子来超越这个极限；这种量子可以足够灵敏地传递 极其精细的感觉素材。❷如果我们只想测量能量，这些量子十分有用，但是要想完全准确 地感知世界，就在于我们是否能准确测量我们希望见到的物体的长度和位置。❸对于从这 个角度来说，超长波长量子就没有用了。❹我们要想测量到百万分之一英寸的精度，就必 须要有能测量到百万分之一英寸的测量工具；以一英寸为刻度的测量工具是没有用的。❺ 从某种意义上说，波长为一英寸的量子是刻度为一英寸的测量工具。❻超长波长量子除了 在超大尺寸测量以外用处不大。 ❶Despite these difficulties, quanta have important theoretical implications for physics. ❷It used to be supposed that, in the observation of nature, the universe could be divided into two distinct parts, a perceiving subject and a perceived object. ❸In physics, subject and object were supposed to be entirely distinct, so that a description of any part of the universe would be independent of the observer. ❹The quantum theory, however, suggests otherwise, for every observation involves the passage of a complete quantum from the object to the subject, and it now appears that this passage constitutes an important coupling between observer and observed. ❺We can no longer make a sharp division between the two in an effort to observe nature objectively. ❻Such an attempt at objectivity would distort the crucial interrelationship of observer and observed as parts of a single whole. ❼But, even for

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scientists, it is only in the world of atoms that this new development makes any appreciable difference in the explanation of observations. ❶尽管有这样那样的困难，量子在物理学上仍有重要的理论意义。❷人们过去常常认为， 观察自然的时候，宇宙可以分为两个不同的部分，一个是观察的主体而另一个是被观察的客 体。❸在物理学中，主体和客体也应该是完全不同的，这样，对于宇宙任何一部分的描述 是独立于观察者的。❹然而，量子理论并不这样认为，因为每一个观察都包括了一个完整 的量子从客体进入主体的路径，而且在现在看来，这个路径构成了观察者和被观察者之间重 要的联结。❺我们要想更客观的观察自然，就不能明显区分主体和客体了。❻我们达到客 观的尝试会扭曲作为单一整体组成部分的观察者和观察物之间的重要相互关系。❼但是， 即便是对科学家来说，也只有在原子世界中这个新的进展才会在现象解释中产生明显的差异。

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❶Tillie Olsen’s fiction and essays have been widely and rightly acknowledged as major contributions to American literature. ❷Her work has been particularly valued by contemporary feminists. ❸Yet few of Olsen’s readers realize the extent to which her vision and choice of subject are rooted in an earlier literary heritage—the tradition of radical political thought, mostly socialist and anarchist, of the 1910’s and 1920’s, and the Old Left tradition of the 1930’s. ❹I do not mean that one can adequately explain the eloquence of her work in terms of its political origins, or that left-wing politics were the single most important influence on it. ❺My point is that its central consciousness—its profound understanding of class and gender as shaping influences on people’s lives—owes much to that earlier literary heritage, a heritage that, in general, has not been sufficiently valued by most contemporary literary critics. ❶Tillie Olsen 的小说和散文被广泛并正确地认为是对美国文学作出了主要贡献。❷她的作 品尤其被同时期的女权主义者看重。❸可是没有多少 Olsen 的读者意识到她对主题的选择 和洞察来源于之前的文学传统——20 世纪前 10 年和 20 世纪 20 年代多数社会主义者和无 政府主义者的激进政治思想传统，以及 20 世纪 30 年代遗留下来的旧左翼传统(Old Left tradition)。❹我并不是说可以根据政治起源完全解释她作品中的生动流畅，也不是说作品 完全被左翼政治影响。❺我是想说，作品的中心思想，即有关阶级和性别对人们生活的影 响的深刻认识，主要归功于之前的文学传统，而大多数文学评论家还没有对这种文学传统提 起足够的重视。

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SECTION B ❶Currently, the paramount problem in the field of biomaterials, the science of replacing diseased tissue with human-made implants, is control over the interface, or surface, between implanted biomaterials and living tissues. ❷The physical properties of most tissues can be matched by careful selection of raw materials: metals, ceramics, or several varieties of polymer materials. ❸Even the requirement that biomaterials processed from these materials be nontoxic to host tissue can be met by techniques derived from studying the reactions of tissue cultures to biomaterials or from short-term implants. ❹But achieving necessary matches in physical properties across interfaces between living and non-living matter requires knowledge of which molecules control the bonding of cells to each other—an area that we have not yet explored thoroughly. ❺Although recent research has allowed us to stabilize the tissue-biomaterial interface by controlling either the chemical reactions or the microstructure of the biomaterial, our fundamental understanding of how implant devices adhere to tissues remains woefully incomplete. ❶当今在生物材料(biomaterials)——这个将病变组织替换为人造移植组织的学科中，最重 要的问题是对于移植生物材料与原生组织(living tissues)交界面（或表面）的控制。❷大多 数组织的生理性质可以通过精心挑选原材料的方式得到匹配：金属、陶瓷或几种聚合物的变 体。❸甚至对于从这些材料中制得的生物材料都可以通过一些途径来满足对受植者组织无 毒害的要求，这些途径是：研究组织培养对生物材料的反应或研究短期移植的效果。❹但 是，要达到有原生组织和非原生组织交界面生理性质的匹配需要某些知识，即什么样的分子 控制细胞间的结合——而对这一领域，我们尚未充分探索。❺尽管近期的研究使我们能够 通过控制生物材料的化学反应或微观结构来固定住组织—生物材料间的界面，然而我们对于 移植物如何与组织黏合在一起这一问题的理解还少得可怜。

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❶Islamic law is a particularly instructive example of “sacred law.” ❷Islamic law is a phenomenon so different from all other forms of law—notwithstanding, of course, a considerable and inevitable number of coincidences with one or the other of them as far as subject matter and positive enactments are concerned—that its study is indispensable in order to appreciate adequately the full range of possible legal phenomena. ❸Even the two other representatives of sacred law that are historically and geographically nearest to it, Jewish law and Roman Catholic canon law, are perceptibly different. ❶伊斯兰法(Islamic law)是“宗教法律”中尤其具有启发性的例子。❷伊斯兰法的形式和其它 所有法律的形式截然不同——尽管对于法律题材和成文条款来说，相互之间的确有很多巧合， 因此为了充分理解所有可能的法律现象，研究伊斯兰法是必不可少的。❸即使其它两个代 表宗教的、从历史上和地域上最接近伊斯兰法的法律——犹太法(Jewish law)和罗马天主教 教会法(Roman Catholic canon law)，也和伊斯兰法有明显的差异。 ❶Both Jewish law and canon law are more uniform than Islamic law. ❷Though historically there is a discernible break between Jewish law of the sovereign state of ancient Israel and of the Diaspora (the dispersion of Jewish people after the conquest of Israel), the spirit of the legal matter in later parts of the Old Testament is very close to that of the Talmud, one of the primary codifications of Jewish law in the Diaspora. ❸Islam, on the other hand, represented a radical breakaway from the Arab paganism that preceded it; Islamic law is the result of an examination, from a religious angle, of legal subject matter that was far from uniform, comprising as it did the various components of the laws of pre-Islamic Arabia and numerous legal elements taken over from the non-Arab peoples of the conquered territories. ❹All this was unified by being subjected to the same kind of religious scrutiny, the impact of which varied greatly, being almost nonexistent in some fields, and in others originating novel institutions. ❺This central duality of legal subject matter and religious norm is additional to the variety of legal, ethical, and ritual rules that is typical of sacred law. ❶犹太法和教会法都比伊斯兰法更加一致统一。❷尽管在历史上，作为主权国家的古代以 色列的犹太法与大流散时期（Diaspora, 以色列被征服后犹太人被驱逐出故土的时期）的犹 太法相比有明显的不同，但是旧约全书(Old Testament)后半部的法律精神，与大流散时期编 纂整理的、犹太法基本法典之一的犹太法典(Talmud)的法律精神十分相近。❸另一方面， 伊斯兰教则是与之前阿拉伯异教的完全决裂；伊斯兰法是从宗教角度对由（1）前伊斯兰阿 拉伯半岛法律的各个组成部分,以及（2）从被征服领土上的非阿拉伯各民族那里拿来的、许 多元素组成的、对极不一致的法律题材审查的结果。❹所有这些因素由于接受同种宗教审 查，而被统一了起来，这种审查的影响差异巨大，在某些领域几乎不存在，而在其它领域产 生了新的制度。❺法律题材和宗教规范的中心二元论(central duality)，增加了宗教法律特 有的法律条例、道德准则以及宗教仪式的多样性。 ❶In its relation to the secular state, Islamic law differed from both Jewish and canon law. ❷Jewish law was buttressed by the cohesion of the community, reinforced by pressure from outside; its rules are the direct expression of this feeling of cohesion, tending toward the accommodation of dissent. ❸Canon and Islamic law, on the contrary, were dominated by the dualism of religion and state, where the state was not, in contrast with Judaism, an alien power but the political expression of the same religion. ❹But the conflict between state and religion took different forms; in Christianity it appeared as the struggle for political power on the part of a tightly organized ecclesiastical hierarchy, and canon law was one of its political weapons. ❺Islamic law, on the other hand, was never supported by an organized institution; consequently, there never developed an overt trial of strength. ❻There merely existed discordance between application of the sacred law and many of the regulations framed by Islamic states; this antagonism varied according to place and time.

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❶在与世俗国家的关系中，伊斯兰法不同于犹太法和天主教法。❷犹太法受到犹太人团体 的凝聚力的支持，并被来自外界的压力加强；犹太法的条文是对凝聚情感的直接表达，倾向 于调和不同意见。❸相反，天主教法和伊斯兰法受到宗教和国家二元论的支配，这里的国 家与犹太相反，它并不是异己力量，而是对于相同宗教的政治表现形式。❹但是国家和宗 教之间的冲突呈现不同的形式；在基督教中，冲突表现为组织严密的、等级森严的僧侣统治 集团之间的关于政治权利的斗争，天主教法则是一种政治武器。❺另一方面，伊斯兰法从 没得到有组织机构的支持；因此，伊斯兰法也从未发展到能与国家进行公开力量较量的地步。 ❻在实施宗教法以及伊斯兰国家制定的规则之间存在的冲突；这种冲突对抗随着地点和时 间变化。

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No. 7-2 SECTION A ❶Eight percent of the Earth’s crust is aluminum, and there are hundreds of aluminum-bearing minerals and vast quantities of the rocks that contain them. ❷The best aluminum ore is bauxite, defined as aggregates of aluminous minerals, more or less impure, in which aluminum is present as hydrated oxides. ❸Bauxite is the richest of all those aluminous rocks that occur in large quantities, and it yields alumina, the intermediate product required for the production of aluminum. ❹Alumina also occurs naturally as the mineral corundum, but corundum is not found in large deposits of high purity, and therefore it is an impractical source for making aluminum. ❺Most of the many abundant non-bauxite aluminous minerals are silicates, and, like all silicate minerals, they are refractory, resistant to analysis, and extremely difficult to process. ❻The aluminum silicates are therefore generally unsuitable alternatives to bauxite because considerably more energy is required to extract alumina from them. ❶地壳中百分之八的元素是铝(aluminum)，而且有成百上千种含铝矿物以及大量岩石含有 铝。❷最好的铝矿石是铝土矿(bauxite)，它由纯度或高或低的铝矿组成，而且铝是以氢氧 化物的形式存在的。❸铝土矿是大量存在的铝矿石中铝含量最高的石，并且它能产生氧化 铝，这是制造铝的必需的中间产物。❹氧化铝也天然存在于金刚砂(corundum)中，但人们 没有发现大量高纯度的金刚砂，所以金刚砂不是实际制铝的材料。❺大多数含有大量铝的 非铝土矿材料是硅酸盐，和所有硅材料一样，硅酸盐难熔、难分解，并且极难加工。❻因 此，硅酸铝一般不适合作铝土矿的替代物，因为从其中提取铝需要大量的能量。

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❶Traditionally, the study of history has had fixed boundaries and focal points—periods, countries, dramatic events, and great leaders. ❷It also has had clear and firm notions of scholarly procedure: how one inquires into a historical problem, how one presents and documents one’s findings, what constitutes admissible and adequate proof. ❶传统上，历史研究有固定的范围和侧重点——研究包括时代、国家、戏剧性事件以及杰 出的领袖。❷历史研究的方法也具有某些清晰明确的观念：如何探究某一历史问题，如何 展现和证明其研究发现，什么构成了可接受且充分的证据。 ❶Anyone who has followed recent historical literature can testify to the revolution that is taking place in historical studies. ❷The currently fashionable subjects come directly from the sociology catalog: childhood, work, leisure. ❸The new subjects are accompanied by new methods. ❹Where history once was primarily narrative, it is now entirely analytic. ❺The old questions “What happened?” and “How did it happen?” have given way to the question “Why did it happen?” ❻Prominent among the methods used to answer the question “Why” is psychoanalysis, and its use has given rise to psychohistory. ❶任何一个关注近期历史学文献的人都可以证实，历史学研究正在发生一场革命。❷最近 流行的研究主题直接来自社会学目录：研究人们的童年、工作以及闲暇时光。❸新的研究 主题采用新的研究方法。❹以前历史主要是叙述性的，现在全部成为分析性的。❺过去的 问题，例如“发生了什么？”“怎么发生的？”的问题已经让位于“它为什么会发生？”的问题。 ❻在回答“为什么”这一问题的方法中，最突出的就是精神分析法(psychoanalysis)，而它的 应用使得心理历史学诞生。 ❶Psychohistory does not merely use psychological explanations in historical contexts. ❷Historians have always used such explanations when they were appropriate and when there was sufficient evidence for them. ❸But this pragmatic use of psychology is not what psychohistorians intend. ❹They are committed, not just to psychology in general, but to Freudian psychoanalysis. ❺This commitment precludes a commitment to history as historians have always understood it. ❻Psychohistory derives its “facts” not from history, the detailed records of events and their consequences, but from psychoanalysis of the individuals who made history, and deduces its theories not from this or that instance in their lives, but from a view of human nature that transcends history. ❼It denies the basic criterion of historical evidence: that evidence be publicly accessible to, and therefore assessable by, all historians. ❽And it violates the basic tenet of historical method: that historians be alert to the negative instances that would refute their theses. ❾Psychohistorians, convinced of the absolute rightness of their own theories, are also convinced that theirs is the “deepest” explanation of any event, and that other explanations fall short of the truth. ❶心理历史学在历史学研究领域里不仅仅利用心理学解释问题。❷历史学家们总是当解释 是恰当的、并有充分证据的时候利用它们。❸但是，这种对于心理学的实际运用并不是心 理史学家想要的。❹他们是坚定的，不仅是对一般意义上的心理学，更是对 Freud 精神分 析法。❺对 Freud 学说的肯定，排除了历史学家对他们一直以来所理解的传统历史学的坚 持。❻心理历史学的“事实”不是源于历史，即对历史事件和其后果的详尽纪录，而是源于对 创造了历史的个人进行的精神分析；其演绎得出的理论不是源于他们生活中的这个或那个实 例，而是源于某个关于超越历史的人类本性的观点。❼它否认历史证据的基本标准：证据 是公开可获得的而能被所有的史学家评估。❽并且它违背历史学方法的基本准则，即史学 家对那些有可能驳倒其论点的反面事例保持警惕。❾心理历史学家坚信自己的理论是完全 正确的，也坚信他们的解释是对任何历史事件所能做出的“最深刻的”解释，而其它解释都无 法触及真理。 ❶Psychohistory is not content to violate the discipline of history (in the sense of the proper mode of studying and writing about the past); it also violates the past itself. ❷It denies to 98

the past an integrity and will of its own, in which people acted out of a variety of motives and in which events had a multiplicity of causes and effects. ❸It imposes upon the past the same determinism that it imposes upon the present, thus robbing people and events of their individuality and of their complexity. ❹Instead of respecting the particularity of the past, it assimilates all events, past and present, into a single deterministic schema that is presumed to be true at all times and in all circumstances. ❶心理历史学并不满足于违背历史学这一学科（从这样一种意义上来说，即用合适的方式 来解释对过去历史的研究以及写作方式）；它也违背了过去的历史本身。❷它否认过去的 历史具有完整性和自身的目的性，而在过去，人们的行动是出于许多不同的动机，历史事件 也拥有许多不同的原因和后果。❸它将强加于过去的决定论也强加于现在，由此剥夺了人 与事件的独特性和复杂性。❹它没有尊重历史的特殊性，而是将所有的历史事件，包括过 去的和现在的，吸纳到一个单一的决定论模式中，而这一决定论模式被假定为在所有时间和 情形中都是正确的。

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SECTION B ❶Jean Wagner’s most enduring contribution to the study of Afro-American poetry is his insistence that it be analyzed in a religious, as well as secular, frame of reference. ❷The appropriateness of such an approach may seem self-evident for a tradition commencing with spirituals and owing its early forms, rhythms, vocabulary, and evangelical fervor to Wesleyan hymnals. ❸But before Wagner a secular outlook that analyzed Black poetry solely within the context of political and social protest was dominant in the field. ❶Jean Wagner 对美国黑人诗歌研究做出最持久的贡献是他如下的主张，即美国黑人诗歌 应该用宗教和世俗的参照框架来分析。❷对于美国黑人诗歌这个起源于圣歌（spiritual）并 从 Wesleyan 赞美诗集之中借鉴了其早期形式、节奏、词汇、以及狂热激情的文学传统来说， 这种方法显然是非常恰当的。❸但在 Wagner 之前，一种仅把黑人诗歌放在政治和社会抗 议的背景中进行分析的世俗观点在这一领域中占据了主导地位。 ❶It is Wagner who first demonstrated the essential fusion of racial and religious feeling in Afro-American poetry. ❷The two, he argued, form a symbiotic union in which religious feelings are often applied to racial issues and racial problems are often projected onto a metaphysical plane. ❸Wagner found this most eloquently illustrated in the Black spiritual, where the desire for freedom in this world and the hope for salvation in the next are inextricably intertwined. ❶正是 Wagner 最早证明了种族和宗教情感在美国黑人诗歌中的有机融合。❷他指出这二 者形成了一种共生结合(symbiotic union)，其中宗教的情感常常被应用于种族问题，种族问 题也常常被放在形而上学的层面去考虑。❸Wagner 发现这一点在黑人圣歌中得到了最有力 的证明，在黑人圣歌中，对现世自由的渴望以及对后世灵魂超度的希望被不可分割地交织在 一起。

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❶Two relatively recent independent developments stand behind the current major research effort on nitrogen fixation, the process by which bacteria symbiotically render leguminous plants independent of nitrogen fertilizer. ❷The one development has been the rapid, sustained increase in the price of nitrogen fertilizer. ❸The other development has been the rapid growth of knowledge of and technical sophistication in genetic engineering. ❹Fertilizer prices, largely tied to the price of natural gas, huge amounts of which go into the manufacture of fertilizer, will continue to represent an enormous and escalating economic burden on modern agriculture, spurring the search for alternatives to synthetic fertilizers. ❺And genetic engineering is just the sort of fundamental breakthrough that opens up prospects of wholly novel alternatives. ❻One such novel idea is that of inserting into the chromosomes of plants discrete genes that are not a part of the plants’ natural constitution: specifically, the idea of inserting into nonleguminous plants the genes, if they can be identified and isolated, that fit the leguminous plants to be hosts for nitrogen-fixing bacteria. ❼Hence, the intensified research on legumes. ❶两项相对近期并且独立的发展促进了当前研究者对固氮作用（nitrogen fixation）重大研 究，而固氮作用是指细菌通过此作用，以共生(symbiotic)关系的方式使豆科植物不再依赖于 氮肥。❷这一项进展使氮肥价格持续急剧上涨。❸另一项进展是基因工程领域中知识和技 术先进性的快速增长。❹化肥价格很大程度上与天然气价格相关，而大量天然气被用于化 肥生产，所以化肥价格会继续对现代农业构成不断升级的巨大经济负担，这促使人们寻找合 成化肥的替代物。❺而基因工程恰好是从根本上的科技突破，它展现出全新替代手段的许 多前景。❻其中一个新奇的想法是，把分离的、不属于该植物自然组成部分的基因注入到 该植物的染色体（chromosome）中；具体地说，这个想法是在非豆科植物内注入这样一些 基因，即让豆科植物能够充当具备固氮作用细菌的寄主的基因，如果这些基因能被分辨及分 离出来的话。❼由此，对豆科植物的研究逐渐深入。 ❶Nitrogen fixation is a process in which certain bacteria use atmospheric nitrogen gas, which green plants cannot directly utilize, to produce ammonia, a nitrogen compound plants can use. ❷It is one of nature’s great ironies that the availability of nitrogen in the soil frequently sets an upper limit on plant growth even though the plants’ leaves are bathed in a sea of nitrogen gas. ❸The leguminous plants—among them crop plants such as soybeans, peas, alfalfa, and clover—have solved the nitrogen supply problem by entering into a symbiotic relationship with the bacterial genus Rhizobium; as a matter of fact, there is a specific strain of Rhizobium for each species of legume. ❹The host plant supplies the bacteria with food and a protected habitat and receives surplus ammonia in exchange. ❺Hence, legumes can thrive in nitrogen-depleted soil. ❶固氮作用是这样一个过程，即某些细菌能利用绿色植物无法直接利用的氮气（nitrogen） 制造出氨（ammonia），这是一种植物可利用的氮化合物。❷下述情形是自然界中的一个 讽刺，即虽然植物的叶子浸在氮气的海洋中，但土壤可提供氮肥的量往往对植物生长构成上 限。❸豆科植物——它们中包括类似大豆、豌豆、苜蓿、以及翘摇等作物——通过与根瘤 菌（rhizobium）产生共生关系从而解决了氮肥供应的问题；实际上，对每一种豆科植物来 说，都存在着一种特定的根瘤菌。❹寄主植物为细菌提供食物和一个有保护的栖息地，而 作为交换条件，寄主植物也将剩余的氨接收过来。❺这样，豆科植物在氮肥缺失的 （nitrogen-depleted）土壤中仍能茂盛生长。 ❶Unfortunately, most of the major food crops—including maize, wheat, rice, and potatoes—cannot. ❷On the contrary, many of the high-yielding hybrid varieties of these food crops bred during the Green Revolution of the 1960’s were selected specifically to give high yields in response to generous applications of nitrogen fertilizer. ❸This poses an additional, formidable challenge to plant geneticists: they must work on enhancing fixation within the existing symbioses. ❹Unless they succeed, the yield gains of the Green 101

Revolution will be largely lost even if the genes in legumes that equip those plants to enter into a symbiosis with nitrogen fixers are identified and isolated, and even if the transfer of those gene complexes, once they are found, becomes possible. ❺The overall task looks forbidding, but the stakes are too high not to undertake it. ❶不幸的是，绝大多数主要粮食作物——包括玉米、小麦、水稻以及土豆——无法解决这 一问题。 ❷相反，20 世纪 60 年代这些在绿色革命（green revolution）期间培育出来的粮 食作物，它们的许多高产量杂交品种被选择出来的原因是为了针对大量施用的氮肥获得高产 量。 ❸这就对植物遗传学家提出了一个额外艰巨的挑战：他们必须在现存的共生关系范围 内来研究如何提高固氮率。❹除非他们能取得成功，不然绿色革命的产量收益将在很大程 度上受到损失，即使；（1）在豆科植物中使植物与固氮细菌共生的基因可被辨认分离开， 并且（2）这些基因综合体（gene complex）在被发现之后，其移植成为可能。❺这项任务 看上去十分严峻，但其赌注是如此之高以至于我们不能不从事这个研究。

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No. 7-3 SECTION A ❶Of Homer’s two epic poems, the Odyssey has always been more popular than the Iliad, perhaps because it includes more features of mythology that are accessible to readers. ❷Its subject (to use Maynard Mack’s categories) is “life-as-spectacle,” for readers, diverted by its various incidents, observe its hero Odysseus primarily from without; the tragic Iliad, however, presents “life-as-experience”: readers are asked to identify with the mind of Achilles, whose motivations render him a not particularly likable hero. ❸In addition, the Iliad, more than the Odyssey, suggests the complexity of the gods’ involvement in human actions, and to the extent that modern readers find this complexity a needless complication, the Iliad is less satisfying than the Odyssey, with its simpler scheme of divine justice. ❹Finally, since the Iliad presents a historically verifiable action, Troy’s siege, the poem raises historical questions that are absent from the Odyssey’s blithely imaginative world. ❶在 Homer 的两部史诗级诗歌中，Odyssey 比 Iliad 更受人们欢迎，可能是因为前者包含了 更多容易被读者理解的神话特征。❷ Odyssey 的主题（用 Maynard Mack 的分类）是“生活 似外部景观”，因为读者被各种情节吸引着，基本上从外在来观察英雄奥德赛；然而，悲剧 Iliad 呈现的是“生活似内心感受”：它要求读者了解 Achilles 的内心，而 Achilles 的动机让他 成为不讨人喜欢的英雄。❸此外，Iliad 比 Odyssey 更多展现众神卷入人间活动的复杂性， 而且到了一个现代读者都觉得这种复杂性没有必要的程度，Iliad 不如 Odyssey 那么令人满意， 后者对神圣公正的体系更简单。❹最后，由于 Iliad 展现的是历史上可以证实的战斗——围 攻特洛伊，这部史诗产生了一些有关历史的问题，而这些问题在 Odyssey 想像的欢乐世界中 并不存在。

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❶Flatfish, such as the flounder, are among the few vertebrates that lack approximate bilateral symmetry (symmetry in which structures to the left and right of the body’s midline are mirror images). ❷Most striking among the many asymmetries evident in an adult flatfish is eye placement: before maturity one eye migrates, so that in an adult flatfish both eyes are on the same side of the head. ❸While in most species with asymmetries virtually all adults share the same asymmetry, members of the starry flounder species can be either left-eyed (both eyes on the left side of head) or right-eyed. ❹In the waters between the United States and Japan, the starry flounder populations vary from about 50 percent left-eyed off the United States West Coast, through about 70 percent left-eyed halfway between the United States and Japan, to nearly 100 percent left-eyed off the Japanese coast. ❶和蝶形比目鱼(flounder)一样，普通比目鱼(Flatfish)是少数几种缺少近似两侧对称（即以 中线为准左右两侧呈镜像对称）的脊椎动物(vertebrate)。❷在成年比目鱼的不对称现象中 最引人注目的是它眼睛的位置：成年之前它的眼睛会移动，而成年之后它的两个眼睛在头部 的同一侧。❸虽然在大多数不对称的物种中，完全成熟的个体有完全一样的不对称性，但 星鲽比目鱼(starry flounder)的眼睛要么是左侧眼的（两个眼睛同在头左侧），要么是右侧 眼的。❹在美国和日本的水域中，星鲽比目鱼的不对称性不同：在美国西海岸星鲽比目鱼 大约 50%是左侧眼的，美日中间海域中大约 70%是左侧眼的，而在日本海域附近几乎 100% 都是左侧眼的。 ❶Biologists call this kind of gradual variation over a certain geographic range a “cline” and interpret clines as strong indications that the variation is adaptive, a response to environmental differences. ❷For the starry flounder this interpretation implies that a geometric difference (between fish that are mirror images of one another) is adaptive, that left-eyedness in the Japanese starry flounder has been selected for, which provokes a perplexing questions: what is the selective advantage in having both eyes on one side rather than on the other? ❶生物学家把这种在一定地理范围内的渐变叫做“渐变群(cline)”，并把渐变群解释为对环境 差异有强适应性的群落。❷对于星鲽比目鱼来说，这个解释意味着（在互成镜像的比目鱼 之间）几何图形的差异是适应性的，而且这意味着在日本，左眼星鲽比目鱼被自然选择出来， 这 引 发 了 一 个 让 人 费 解的 问 题 ： 两 只 眼 睛 都 在左 边 而 不 再 右 边 的 选 择优 势 (selective advantage)又是什么呢？ ❶The ease with which a fish can reverse the effect of the sidedness of its eye asymmetry simply by turning around has caused biologists to study internal anatomy, especially the optic nerves, for the answer. ❷In all flatfish the optic nerves cross, so that the right optic nerve is joined to the brain’s left side and vice versa. ❸This crossing introduces an asymmetry, as one optic nerve must cross above or below the other. ❹G. H. Parker reasoned that if, for example, a flatfish’s left eye migrated when the right optic nerve was on top, there would be a twisting of nerves, which might be mechanically disadvantageous. ❺For starry flounders, then, the left-eyed variety would be selected against, since in a starry flounder the left optic nerve is uppermost. ❶比目鱼可以如此轻易地用转向的方法改变眼睛由不对称而引发的单侧效应，这使得生物 学家们去研究其内部解剖结构，尤其是视觉神经，来获得答案。❷所有比目鱼的视觉神经 都交叉，这样右侧视觉神经和脑子左侧相连，反之亦然。❸交叉也产生了不对称性，因为 一个视觉神经必须在其它神经上面或者下面交叉。❹G. H. Parker 推论道，例如，如果一个 比目鱼的左眼在移动的时候右侧视觉神经在上面，那就会产生神经的缠绕(twisting)，这会 产生机能上的危害。❺那么对于星鲽比目鱼来说，由于其左视觉神经在最上端，那么左眼 品种就不会被选择出来。 ❶The problem with the above explanation is that the Japanese starry flounder population is almost exclusively left-eyed, a natural selection never promotes a purely less advantageous 104

variation. ❷As other explanations proved equally untenable, biologists concluded that there is no important adaptive difference between left-eyedness and right-eyedness, and that the two characteristics are genetically associated with some other adaptively significant characteristic. ❸This situation is one commonly encountered by evolutionary biologists, who must often decide whether a characteristic is adaptive or selectively neutral. ❹As for the left-eyed and right-eyed flatfish, their difference, however striking, appears to be an evolutionary red herring. ❶上述解释的问题在于，日本星鲽比目鱼几乎完全是左侧眼的，而一个自然选择过程不会 使其成为比右侧眼比目鱼更不利的品种。❷考虑到其它解释同样站不住脚，生物学家得出 一个结论：左侧眼和右侧眼之间并不存在重大的适应性差异，而且这两个特征和其它重要的 适应性特征在基因上有联系。❸这个情况是进化生物学家经常遇到的，这些生物学家必须 经常决定某一个特征是具有适应性的还是在自然选择上中性的。❹对于左侧眼和右侧眼比 目鱼来说，虽然它们之间的差别很明显，但看起来这些差别好像还是进化论中转移人们注意 力的闲话(red herring, 本意为熏鲱鱼)。

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SECTION B ❶If a supernova (the explosion of a massive star) triggered star formation from dense clouds of gas and dust, and if the most massive star to be formed from the cloud evolved into a supernova and triggered a new round of star formation, and so on, then a chain of star-forming regions would result. ❷If many such chains were created in a differentially rotating galaxy, the distribution of stars would resemble the observed distribution in a spiral galaxy. ❶如果一个超新星（大质量星球的爆炸）引发由密集气体云层和灰尘层的星球形成，并且 如果由云形成的质量最大的星球演化为超新星、触发新一轮星球的形成，循环往复，那么一 系列能形成星球的区域便产生了。❷如果许多这样的系列在一个以不同方式旋转的星系中 形成的话，那么星球的分布将类似于观察到的螺旋状星系（spiral galaxy）内的星球分布。 ❶This line of reasoning underlies an exciting new theory of spiral-galaxy structure. ❷A computer simulation based on this theory has reproduced the appearance of many spiral galaxies without assuming an underlying density wave, the hallmark of the most widely accepted theory of the large-scale structure of spiral galaxies. ❸That theory maintains that a density wave of spiral form sweeps through the central plane of a galaxy, compressing clouds of gas and dust, which collapse into stars that form a spiral pattern. ❶这个推理思路是一个令人兴奋的、关于螺旋状星系结构新的理论基础。❷建立在这个理 论上的计算机模拟再现了许多螺旋状星系的外观，而且模拟并不假定基本密度波的存在，而 基本密度波是最为人们所广泛接受的螺旋状星系大尺度结构理论的特点。❸这个理论认为 螺旋状密度波的形式贯穿星系的中央层面，将气体和尘埃的云层压缩，而这些云层则坍缩为 一颗颗星球，形成一个螺旋状结构。

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❶The first mention of slavery in the statutes of the English colonies of North America does not occur until after 1660—some forty years after the importation of the first Black people. ❷Lest we think that slavery existed in fact before it did in law, Oscar and Mary Handlin assure us that the status of Black people down to the 1660’s was that of servants. ❸A critique of the Handlins’ interpretation of why legal slavery did not appear until the 1660’s suggests that assumptions about the relation between slavery and racial prejudice should be reexamined, and that explanations for the different treatment of Black slaves in North and South America should be expanded. ❶在北美英国殖民地的法规中，直到1660年才首次提及奴隶制度——即第一批黑人被输入 到美洲后约40年。❷Oscar 和 Mary Hadlin使我们确信，直到17世纪60年代黑人都一直是 充当佣人，除非我们认为奴隶制度的存在早于其在法律上的存在。❸针对Hadlin夫妇对于合 法的奴隶制为何在17世纪60年代才出现的解读持批评的意见表明，有关奴隶制和种族偏见 之间的关系的各种假设应该被重新剖析，并且有关黑奴在北美洲和南美洲所遭受的不同待遇 的解释也应该扩充。 ❶The Handlins explain the appearance of legal slavery by arguing that, during the 1660’s, the position of White servants was improving relative to that of Black servants. ❷Thus, the Handlins contend, Black and White servants, heretofore treated alike, each attained a different status. ❸There are, however, important objections to this argument. ❹First, the Handlins cannot adequately demonstrate that the White servant’s position was improving during and after the 1660’s; several acts of the Maryland and Virginia legislatures indicate otherwise. ❺Another flaw in the Handlins’ interpretation is their assumption that prior to the establishment of legal slavery there was no discrimination against Black people. ❻It is true that before the 1660’s Black people were rarely called slaves. ❼But this should not overshadow evidence from the 1630’s on that points to racial discrimination without using the term slavery. ❽Such discrimination sometimes stopped short of lifetime servitude or inherited status—the two attributes of true slavery—yet in other cases it included both. ❾The Handlins’ argument excludes the real possibility that Black people in the English colonies were never treated as the equals of White people. ❶在解释合法的奴隶制为何会出现时，Handlin 夫妇辩解道：17 世纪 60 年代期间，白人佣 人的地位相对于黑人佣人的地位不断上升。❷因此，Handlin 夫妇认为，对于在此之前待遇 相当的黑人佣人和白人佣人来说，每一种人获得了一种不同的地位。❸然而，对于 Handlin 夫妇的观点有一些重要反对声音。❹首先，Handlin 夫妇无法充分证明白人佣人的地位在 17 世纪 60 年代期间和之后有任何改善，Maryland 和 Virginia 的立法机构所颁布的几项法 案表明情况恰恰相反。❺Handlin 夫妇解释中的另一缺陷是，他们认为在合法的奴隶制确立 之前，黑人没有受到歧视。❻确实，17 世纪 60 代之前，黑人很少被叫做奴隶。❼但这一 点不应该掩盖 17 世纪 30 代年起就存在的证据，该证据证明了虽然“奴隶制”这个词不再被使 用，但种族歧视依然存在。❽这种种族歧视有时不实行终身奴隶身份或世袭奴隶地位—— 这是真正奴隶制的两大特征——然而，在其它情形中，种族歧视包括了这二者。❾Handlin 夫妇的论点排除了这样一种真正的可能性，即在英国殖民地的黑人从不曾获得过与白人平待 的待遇。 ❶This possibility has important ramifications. ❷If from the outset Black people were discriminated against, then legal slavery should be viewed as a reflection and an extension of racial prejudice rather than, as many historians including the Handlins have argued, the cause of prejudice. ❸In addition, the existence of discrimination before the advent of legal slavery offers a further explanation for the harsher treatment of Black slaves in North than in South America. ❹Freyre and Tannenbaum have rightly argued that the lack of certain traditions in North America—such as a Roman conception of slavery and a Roman Catholic emphasis on equality—explains why the treatment of Black slaves was more severe there than in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of South America. ❺But this cannot be the 107

whole explanation since it is merely negative, based only on a lack of something. ❻A more compelling explanation is that the early and sometimes extreme racial discrimination in the English colonies helped determine the particular nature of the slavery that followed. ❶这种可能性可以推出重要的结论。❷假如黑人从一开始就遭到歧视，那么合法的奴隶制 应被看作种族歧视的一种反映和延伸，而不应该像 Handlin 夫妇等许多史学家指出的那样， 被看作种族偏见的起因。❸此外，合法奴隶制出现之前就已经存在的种族歧视可进一步解 释黑奴在北美洲的待遇为什么会比南美洲黑奴的待遇更严酷。❹Freyre 和 Tannenbaum 正 确地指出，北美洲某些传统的缺失——如古罗马有关奴隶制度的观念以及罗马天主教对于平 等的强调——可以说明黑奴在北美受到的待遇要比在南美洲西班牙和葡萄牙殖民地的黑奴 受到的待遇更为严酷的原因。❺但这并不能构成一种完整的解释，因为它仅仅是以缺乏某 些事物为依据、从反面进行解释的。❻一种更令人信服的解释是，英国殖民地早期的、并 且在某些情况下极端的种族歧视，决定了随之发展起来的奴隶制度的特征。

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No. 8-1 SECTION A ❶Geologists have long known that the Earth’s mantle is heterogeneous, but its spatial arrangement remains unresolved—is the mantle essentially layered or irregularly heterogeneous? ❷The best evidence for the layered mantle thesis is the well-established fact that volcanic rocks found on oceanic islands, islands believed to result from mantle plumes arising from the lower mantle, are composed of material fundamentally different from that of the midocean ridge system, whose source, most geologists contend, is the upper mantle. ❶地质学家很早就知道，地球的地幔（mantle）是由异质构成的，但是地幔的空间结构问 题一直没有被解决——从本质上说地幔究竟是分层排列还是以不规则的方式由异质构成的 呢？❷支持地幔分层理论最好的证据是一个明确的事实，即在海岛上发现的火山岩（人们 认为由下层地幔升上来的地幔柱状熔岩流产生的海岛）是由完全不同于海洋中部山脊系统物 质的物质构成的，而这一系统的形成原因，大多数地质学家认为是上部地幔。 ❶Some geologists, however, on the basis of observations concerning mantle xenoliths, argue that the mantle is not layered, but that heterogeneity is created by fluids rich in “incompatible elements” (elements tending toward liquid rather than solid state) percolating upward and transforming portions of the upper mantle irregularly, according to the vagaries of the fluids’ pathways. ❷We believe, perhaps unimaginatively, that this debate can be resolved through further study, and that the underexplored midocean ridge system is the key. ❶然而，一些地质学家，根据对地幔捕虏岩体（xenolith）的观察，认为地幔并非是分层排 列的，相反，地幔的异质性是由那些含有很多“不相容成分(incompatible elements)”的流体 构成（成分趋向于流体而非固体），这些流体根据流体的路线向上扩散并不规则地改变上层 地幔的组成。❷我们也许没什么想象力地相信,这一争论可通过进一步的研究而得以解决， 而且关键在于尚未被充分探索的海洋中部山脊系统。

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❶Many literary detectives have pored over a great puzzle concerning the writer Marcel Proust: what happened in 1909? ❷How did Contre Saint-Beuve, an essay attacking the methods of the critic Saint Beuve, turn into the start of the novel Remembrance of Things Past? ❸A recently published letter from Proust to the editor Vallette confirms that Fallois, the editor of the 1954 edition of Contre Saint-Beuve, made an essentially correct guess about the relationship of the essay to the novel. ❹Fallois proposed that Proust had tried to begin a novel in 1908, abandoned it for what was to be a long demonstration of Saint-Beuve’s blindness to the real nature of great writing, found the essay giving rise to personal memories and fictional developments, and allowed these to take over in a steadily developing novel. ❶许多文学考据家在思考一个关于作家 Marcel Proust 的巨大谜题：1909 年发生了什么？ ❷ Contre Saint-Beuve 这篇攻击评论家 Saint Beuve 批评方法的散文，是如何转变成小说 Remembrance of Things Past 的开头的？❸最近发表的一封来自 Proust 给编辑 Vallette 的信 中证实了 1954 年版 Contre Saint-Beuve 的编辑 Fallois 做的一个有关散文和小说之间关系的 正确猜测。 ❹ Fallois 提出，Proust 尝试在 1908 年开始写一部小说，由于 Saint-Beuve 长 期以来表现出对于伟大文学作品真正本质的盲目无知而放弃了这部小说，Proust 发现这个 散文引发了个人回忆以及虚构情节的发展，并且用一部稳定发展的小说取代了这些回忆及发 展。 ❶Draft passages in Proust’s 1909 notebooks indicate that the transition from essay to novel began in Contre Saint-Beuve, when Proust introduced several examples to show the powerful influence that involuntary memory exerts over the creative imagination. ❷In effect, in trying to demonstrate that the imagination is more profound and less submissive to the intellect than Saint-Beuve assumed, Proust elicited vital memories of his own and, finding subtle connections between them, began to amass the material for Remembrance. ❸By August, Proust was writing to Vallette, informing him of his intention to develop the material as a novel. ❹Maurice Bardeche, in Marcel Proust, romancier, has shown the importance in the drafts of Remembrance of spontaneous and apparently random associations of Proust’s subconscious. ❺As incidents and reflections occurred to Proust, he continually inserted new passages altering and expanding his narrative. ❻But he found it difficult to control the drift of his inspiration. ❼The very richness and complexity of the meaningful relationships that kept presenting and rearranging themselves on all levels, from abstract intelligence to profound dreamy feelings, made it difficult for Proust to set them out coherently. ❽The beginning of control came when he saw how to connect the beginning and the end of his novel. ❶在 Proust 1909 年的笔记本中的草稿表明，他从散文到小说的转变开始于 Contre Saint-Beuve 这篇文章，此时 Proust 引入了几个例子来展现无意识的记忆对于创作想象力产 生的强有力的影响。❷实际上，在试图展现想象力比 Saint-Beuve 假设的更加深刻且更不容 易屈服于理性的过程中，Proust 引出了他自己的至关重要的记忆，他发现这些记忆之中微 妙的联系，并开始为 Remembrance 来积累素材。❸到了 8 月，Proust 写信给 Vallette，告 诉 Vallette 他想把这些材料写成小说的意图。 ❹在 Marcel Proust, romancier 一书中，Maurice Bardeche 展现了 Remembrance 草稿中 Proust 潜意识里那些自发且看似不规则的联系的重 要性。❺随着在 Proust 身上发生的各种事件和思绪，他连续不断地将新的段落插入进去， 改变并扩展其叙事结构。❻但是他发现，控制他飘忽不定的灵感很难。❼正是这些有意义 的联系的丰富性和复杂性——在所有层次上各种有意义的联系，从抽象的理性到深刻的梦幻 般的情感，层出不穷并不断重新组合排列——使得 Proust 很难将它们错落有致地安排好。 ❽当他明白如何将其小说的开头和结尾联系起来的时候，他才开始有了某种控制感。 ❶Intrigued by Proust’s claim that he had “begun and finished” Remembrance at the same time, Henri Bonnet discovered that parts of Remembrance’s last book were actually started 110

in 1909. ❷Already in that year, Proust had drafted descriptions of his novel’s characters in their old age that would appear in the final book of Remembrance, where the permanence of art is set against the ravages of time. ❸The letter to Vallette, drafts of the essay and novel, and Bonnet’s researches establish in broad outline the process by which Proust generated his novel out of the ruins of his essay. ❹But those of us who hoped, with Kolb, that Kolb’s newly published complete edition of Proust’s correspondence for 1909 would document the process in greater detail are disappointed. ❺For until Proust was confident that he was at last in sight of a viable structure for Remembrance, he told few correspondents that he was producing anything more ambitious than Contre Saint-Beuve. ❶Proust 声称他在同一时间“开始并完成”了 Remembrance，这使得 Henri Bonnet 发现 Remembrance 最后一卷的部分章节（的创作）实际上开始于 1909 年。❷在那一年里，Proust 已经拟出对于他小说中主人公老年时的描绘，这些人物会出现在 Remembrance 的最后一卷， 而在这一卷中，他用艺术的永恒与时间带来的破坏相抗衡。❸给 Vallette 的信、散文和小说 的草稿以及 Bonnet 的研究以宽泛的线条勾勒出 Proust 从他的散文碎片中创作出小说的过 程。❹但是我们当中那些希望 Kolb 新出版的 1909 年 Proust 的完整书信会更为详细地记录 的人，加上 Kolb 本人，都会感到失望。❺因为直到 Proust 相信他至少为 Remembrance 找 到一个可行的结构的时候，他才刚告诉与其保持书信往来的人：他正在创作一部比 Contre Saint-Beuve 更有雄心的作品。

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SECTION B ❶Traditional research has confronted only Mexican and United States interpretations of Mexican-American culture. ❷Now we must also examine the culture as we Mexican Americans have experienced it, passing from a sovereign people to compatriots with newly arriving settlers to, finally, a conquered people—a charter (a grant or guarantee of rights, franchises, or privileges from the sovereign power of a state or country) minority on our own land. ❶对墨西哥-美国文化的传统研究一直面临着只有墨西哥式和美国式两种解释。❷对于这种 文化，现在我们也必须按照美籍墨西哥人所经历的那样来考察：从一个独立自主的民族变成 新来居民的同胞，最后变成一个被征服的民族，一个在自己的土地上持有许可的少数民族。 ❶When the Spanish first came to Mexico, they intermarried with and absorbed the culture of the indigenous Indians. ❷This policy of colonization through acculturation was continued when Mexico acquired Texas in the early 1800’s and brought the indigenous Indians into Mexican life and government. ❸In the 1820’s, United States citizens migrated to Texas, attracted by land suitable for cotton. ❹As their numbers became more substantial, their policy of acquiring land by subduing native populations began to dominate. ❺The two ideologies clashed repeatedly, culminating in a military conflict that led to victory for the United States. ❻Thus, suddenly deprived of our parent culture, we had to evolve uniquely Mexican-American modes of thought and action in order to survive. ❶当西班牙人首次来到墨西哥时，他们同当地的印第安人通婚并吸收印第安人的文化。❷ 这种文化适应的殖民政策在 19 世纪初的墨西哥取得 Texas 州时得到了延续，并把当地印第 安人引入墨西哥的生活方式和政治体制。❸19 世纪 20 年代时，美国公民因 Texas 土地适宜 种植棉花而迁移到那里。❹当移民人数越来越多时，用征服本地人的办法来获取土地的政 策开始盛行。❺两种思想不断发生冲突，发展到顶点就爆发了军事冲突，结果美国获胜。 ❻这样，墨西哥人突然被剥夺了自己的传统文化，为了生存他们不得不逐渐演化为独特的 美籍墨西哥人的思想行为方式。

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❶Until about five years ago, the very idea that peptide hormones might be made anywhere in the brain besides the hypothalamus was astounding. ❷Peptide hormones, scientists thought, were made by endocrine glands and the hypothalamus was thought to be the brains’ only endocrine gland. ❸What is more, because peptide hormones cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, researchers believed that they never got to any part of the brain other than the hypothalamus, where they were simply produced and then released into the bloodstream. ❶直到大约五年前，肽类激素(peptide hormones)可以在除了下丘脑(hypothalamus)以外大 脑任何部位形成的想法还会让人们感到震惊。❷科学家认为，肽类激素是由内分泌腺 (endocrine glands)分泌的，而且下丘脑被认为是大脑唯一的内分泌腺。❸更重要的是，肽 类激素无法穿越大脑血液的屏障，研究者们相信它不会到达除了下丘脑外的任何区域，而下 丘脑产生这类激素并把它们释放到血液中。 ❶But these beliefs about peptide hormones were questioned as laboratory after laboratory found that antiserums to peptide hormones, when injected into the brain, bind in places other than the hypothalamus, indicating that either the hormones or substances that cross-react with the antiserums are present. ❷The immunological method of detecting peptide hormones by means of antiserums, however, is imprecise. ❸Cross-reactions are possible and this method cannot determine whether the substances detected by the antiserums really are the hormones, or merely close relatives. ❹Furthermore, this method cannot be used to determine the location in the body where the detected substances are actually produced. ❶但是这些有关肽类激素的观点被实验室中的发现质疑了，人们在实验室中发现当肽类激 素的抗血清被注射到大脑中的时候，它会在大脑其它区域，而不是下丘脑中，发生凝固现象， 这意味着那里存在激素或者是和抗血清发生交叉反应的物质。❷然而，免疫学上用抗血清 检测肽类激素的方法是不准确的。❸（这个方法）可能出现交叉反应，且不能确定被抗血 清检测到的物质是激素还是只是与它相似的物质。❹此外，这种方法无法确定检测到的物 质的实际产生部位。 ❶New techniques of molecular biology, however, provide a way to answer these questions. ❷It is possible to make specific complementary DNA’s (cDNA’s) that can serve as molecular probes to seek out the messenger RNA’s (mRNA’s) of the peptide hormones. ❸If brain cells are making the hormones, the cells will contain these mRNA’s. ❹If the products the brain cells make resemble the hormones but are not identical to them, then the cDNA’s should still bind to these mRNA’s, but should not bind as tightly as they would to mRNA’s for the true hormones. ❺The cells containing these mRNA’s can then be isolated and their mRNA’s decoded to determine just what their protein products are and how closely the products resemble the true peptide hormones. ❶然而，新的分子生物学的方法为我们寻求答案提供了一个途径。❷我们可以制作出特定 的互补 DNA（cDNA），这种 DNA 是寻找肽类激素的信使 RNA（mRNA）的分子探针。❸ 如果脑细胞制造激素，那么细胞内会含有这种 mRNA。❹如果脑细胞制造的物质和肽类激 素相似但不是肽类激素，那么 cDNA 还是会和 mRNA 结合，只是不会和与肽类激素的 mRNA 结合得一样紧。❺含有这些 mRNA 的细胞之后就会被分离出来，它们的 mRNA 就会被解码 以确定它们的蛋白质产物和真正的肽类激素相似的程度。 ❶The molecular approach to detecting peptide hormones using cDNA probes should also be much faster than the immunological method because it can take years of tedious purifications to isolate peptide hormones and then develop antiserums to them. ❷Roberts, expressing the sentiment of many researchers, states: “I was trained as an endocrinologist. ❸But it became clear to me that the field of endocrinology needed molecular biology input. ❹The process of grinding out protein purifications is just too slow.” 113

❶用 cDNA 探针检测肽类激素的分子方法也比免疫方法快得多，因为对肽类激素进行许多 次枯燥的提纯、培养抗血清需要几年的时间。❷Roberts 表达了许多研究人员的心声，他说： “我经过训练而成为一位内分泌学家。❸但是我越来越清楚地意识到内分泌学中需要引入分 子生物学。❹蛋白质提纯的过程真的是太慢了。” ❶If, as the initial tests with cDNA probes suggest, peptide hormones really are made in the brain in areas other than the hypothalamus, a theory must be developed that explains their function in the brain. ❷Some have suggested that the hormones are all growth regulators, but Rosen’s work on rat brains indicates that this cannot be true. ❸A number of other researchers propose that they might be used for intercellular communication in the brain. ❶如果就像用 cDNA 探针的初步测试表明的那样，肽类激素还可以在除了下丘脑以外的其 它部位产生，那么我们必须提出一种理论来解释其在大脑中的作用。❷有人提出，激素是 唯一的生长调节剂，但是 Rosen 的有关老鼠大脑的工作指出这个观点并非正确。❸许多其 他研究人员提出，这种肽类激素可能用于脑细胞间的信息交流。

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No. 8-2 SECTION A ❶Ragtime is a musical form that synthesizes folk melodies and musical techniques into a brief quadrille-like structure, designed to be played—exactly as written—on the piano. ❷A strong analogy exists between European composers like Ralph Vaughan Williams, Edvard Grieg, and Anton Dvorak who combined folk tunes and their own original materials in larger compositions and the pioneer ragtime composers in the United States. ❸Composers like Scott Joplin and James Scott were in a sense collectors or musicologists, collecting dance and folk music in Black communities and consciously shaping it into brief suites or anthologies called piano rags. ❶Ragtime 是一种音乐形式，它将民间旋律和音乐技巧结合成为简短的四对方阵舞曲般的 (quadrille-like)结构，这是为了能在钢琴上按照乐谱所写丝毫不差地演奏。❷Ralph Vaughan Williams，Edvard Grieg 和 Anton Dvorak 等欧洲作曲家，将民间曲调和他们自己的原创音 乐融合在规模较大的音乐作品中，这些欧洲作曲家和美国 ragtime 先驱作曲家之间存在着一 种强烈的类比。❸从某种意义上说，Scott Joplin 和 James Scott 等作曲家是音乐收集者或音 乐学者，他们将黑人社区的舞蹈音乐和民间音乐收集起来，并有意识地将其塑造成为简短的 被称为 piano rags 的组曲或选集。 ❶It has sometimes been charged that ragtime is mechanical. ❷For instance, Wilfred Mellers comments, “rags were transferred to the pianola roll and, even if not played by a machine, should be played like a machine, with meticulous precision.” ❸However, there is no reason to assume that ragtime is inherently mechanical simply because commercial manufacturers applied a mechanical recording method to ragtime, the only way to record pianos at that date. ❹Ragtime’s is not a mechanical precision, and it is not precision limited to the style of performance. ❺It arises from ragtime’s following a well-defined form and obeying simple rules within that form. ❶时常有人谴责 ragtime 过于机械。❷例如，Wilfred Mellers 评论道：“Ragtime 被改编成 自动钢琴的纸卷（演奏的音乐），就算不是真的由机器演奏，也应像由机器演奏一样，做到 完全精准。” ❸然而，仅因为商业制造商采用了一种机械的录音方法来录制 ragtime——这 是当时录制钢琴音乐的唯一方法——我们没有理由假设 ragtime 在本质上就是机械的。 ❹ragtime 并不是一种机械式的精确，这种精确也没有限制其表演风格。❺它的产生是由于 ragtime 遵循了一个极为明确的形式并服从这一形式内的简单规则。 ❶The classic formula for the piano rag disposes three to five themes in sixteen-bar strains, often organized with repeats. ❷The rag opens with a bright, memorable strain or theme, followed by a similar theme, leading to a trio of marked lyrical character, with the structure concluded by a lyrical strain that parallels the rhythmic developments of the earlier themes. ❸The aim of the structure is to rise from one theme to another in a stair-step manner, ending on a note of triumph or exhilaration. ❹Typically, each strain is divided into two 8-bar segments that are essentially alike, so the rhythmic-melodic unit of ragtime is only eight bars of 2/4 measure. ❺Therefore, themes must be brief with clear, sharp melodic figures. ❻Not concerned with development of musical themes, the ragtime composer instead sets a theme down intact, in finished form, and links it to various related themes. ❼Tension in ragtime compositions arises from a polarity between two basic ingredients: a continuous bass—called by jazz musicians a boom-chick bass—in the pianist’s left hand, and its melodic, syncopated counterpart in the right hand. ❶ragtime 的经典形式是在十六小节的乐段内表现三至五个主题，通常以重复的方式而组织 起来。❷ragtime 以一个欢快动人的乐段或主题开始，之后是一个相似的主题，发展成为一 个具有显著抒情色彩的三重奏(trio)，整个结构以一段抒情旋律告终，该旋律与此前几个主 115

题的节奏发展配合起来。❸此种结构的目的是以阶梯上升的方式从一个主题升至另一个主 题，最后以胜利或激昂的音符结束。❹一般每一乐段分成两个八小节的片断，从根本上说 它们是相似的，因此 ragtime 的节奏-旋律单位仅为 2/4 拍的八个小节。❺因此，各个主题 必须简短，旋律音型清晰、鲜明。❻ragtime 作曲家并不注重音乐主题的发展，相反，他们 完整地将主旋律以一种完美的形式写下，并与各种有关的主旋律相连结。❼ragtime 作品中 的张力源自两个基本成分之间的两极对立：一个是钢琴家的左手演奏的不间断的低声部，即 爵士音乐家口中的 boom-chick bass，另一个是钢琴家的右手演奏的旋律性的、采用切分音 的对应声部。 ❶Ragtime remains distinct from jazz both as an instrumental style and as a genre. ❷Ragtime style stresses a pattern of repeated rhythms, not the constant inventions and variations of jazz. ❸As a genre, ragtime requires strict attention to structure, not inventiveness or virtuosity. ❹It exists as a tradition, a set of conventions, a body of written scores, separate from the individual players associated with it. ❺In this sense ragtime is more akin to folk music of the nineteenth century than to jazz. ❶无论是作为一种器乐风格，还是一种体裁，ragtime 和爵士乐有着显著区别。❷ragtime 风格强调节奏的重复，而不是爵士乐那种持续不断的发挥和变奏的模式。❸作为一种音乐 流派，ragtime 需要严格注意结构，而不是创新或精湛的技巧。❹它作为一种传统的、有既 定准则的、有既定书面总谱构成的整体而存在，独立于与之有联系的个体演奏者。❺从这 层意义上而言，ragtime 更趋近于 19 世纪的民间音乐，而爵士乐相距较远。

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❶Echolocating bats emit sounds in patterns—characteristic of each species—that contain both frequency-modulated (FM) and constant-frequency (CF) signals. ❷The broadband FM signals and the narrowband CF signals travel out to a target, reflect from it, and return to the hunting bat. ❸In this process of transmission and reflection, the sounds are changed, and the changes in the echoes enable the bat to perceive features of the target. ❶用声波定位（Echolocating）的蝙蝠以特定的模式发出声音——声音是每种蝙蝠所独有的 ——包括调频（FM）信号和恒频（CF）信号。❷宽带 FM 信号和窄带 CF 信号被发射至目 标物，经目标物反射到正在觅食的蝙蝠。❸在发射与反射的过程中，声音发生改变，这种 回声的变化使蝙蝠可以察觉出目标的特征。 ❶The FM signals report information about target characteristics that modify the timing and the fine frequency structure, or spectrum, of echoes—for example, the target’s size, shape, texture, surface structure, and direction in space. ❷Because of their narrow bandwidth, CF signals portray only the target’s presence and, in the case of some bat species, its motion relative to the bat’s. ❸Responding to changes in the CF echo’s frequency, bats of some species correct in flight for the direction and velocity of their moving prey. ❶FM 信号能提供目标物的特征，这些特征改变了回声的时间控制、精细频率结构，或频谱 ——例如，目标物的大小，形状，质地，表层结构，以及空间方向。❷由于其带宽窄，CF 信号只能描绘出目标物的存在，以及在某些蝙蝠种类中目标物相对蝙蝠的运动。❸通过对 CF 回声频率中的变化做出反应，一些种类的蝙蝠为了追踪运动中的猎物而调整自己的飞行 的方向和速度。

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SECTION B ❶The social sciences are less likely than other intellectual enterprises to get credit for their accomplishments. ❷Arguably, this is so because the theories and conceptual constructs of the social sciences are especially accessible: human intelligence apprehends truths about human affairs with particular facility. ❸And the discoveries of the social sciences, once isolated and labeled, are quickly absorbed into conventional wisdom, where upon they lose their distinctiveness as scientific advances. ❶相比其它智力活动，社会科学很少因为其成就而受到称赞。❷可以认为，其原因是社会 科学的理论和概念的构建特别容易理解：人类的智力十分容易理解和人类自身有关的真理。 ❸并且社会科学的发现一旦被提出、命名之后，它们马上被吸收进已有的智慧中，接着这 些发现就失去了作为科学发展的独特性。 ❶This underappreciation of the social sciences contrasts oddly with what many see as their overutilization. ❷Game theory is pressed into service in studies of shifting international alliances. ❸Evaluation research is called upon to demonstrate successes or failures of social programs. ❹Models from economics and demography become the definitive tools for examining the financial base of social security. ❺Yet this rush into practical applications is itself quite understandable: public policy must continually be made, and policymakers rightly feel that even tentative findings and untested theories are better guides to decision-making than no findings and no theories at all. ❶人们低估社会科学和过度应用社会科学形成了鲜明的反差。❷博弈论(game theory)要为 国际联盟变化的研究做出贡献。❸评价研究要为社会计划的成败进行评估。❹经济学和人 口学的模型则成为检验有关社会安全的财政基础的决定性工具。❺然而这种对社会科学成 果的仓促应用也是可以理解的：公共政策必须不断地被制定出来，并且决策者会自然而然地 认为，就算是试探性的发现和没有经过检验的理论也比没有成果、没有理论对决策的指导好 得多。

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❶The term “Ice Age” may give a wrong impression. ❷The epoch that geologists know as the Pleistocene and that spanned the 1.5 to 2.0 million years prior to the current geologic epoch was not one long continuous glaciation, but a period of oscillating climate with ice advances punctuated by times of interglacial climate not very different from the climate experienced now. ❸Ice sheets that derived from an ice cap centered on northern Scandinavia reached southward to Central Europe. ❹And Beyond the margins of the ice sheets, climatic oscillations affected most of the rest of the world; for example, in the deserts, periods of wetter conditions (pluvials) contrasted with drier, interpluvial periods. ❺Although the time involved is so short, about 0.04 percent of the total age of the Earth, the amount of attention devoted to the Pleistocene has been incredibly large, probably because of its immediacy, and because the epoch largely coincides with the appearance on Earth of humans and their immediate ancestors. ❶“冰川期”这个术语有可能会给人留下错误印象。❷被地质学家称为更新纪(Pleistocene) 的时代，跨越了目前地质时代之前 150 万至 200 万年的时期，这段时期并非是一个持续的 冰川作用过程，而是一个由波动的气候构成的时期，其间冰川的推进被间冰期不时打断，而 这种间冰期气候与我们现在的气候差异不大。❸以 Scandinavia 半岛北部为中心的某一冰盖 的冰原，向南延展到中欧。❹在冰原之外的地区，气候的波动影响到世界其他大部地区； 例如，在沙漠中，环境较为潮湿的时期（即洪积期，pluvial）与较为干燥的间洪期（interpluvial） 形成对比。❺虽然这段时间很短，约为地球总年龄的 0.04%，但人们投入到更新纪的注意 力却是难以置信的大，可能是由于这段时期的短暂，且因为这一时期在很大程度上与地球上 出现人类及其直接的祖先的时期一致。 ❶There is no reliable way of dating much of the Ice Age. ❷Geological dates are usually obtained by using the rates of decay of various radioactive elements found in minerals. ❸Some of these rates are suitable for very old rocks but involve increasing errors when used for young rocks; others are suitable for very young rocks and errors increase rapidly in older rocks. ❹Most of the Ice Age spans a period of time for which no element has an appropriate decay rate. ❶没有任何可靠的方法能给大部分冰川期断代。❷地质年代通常是利用矿物质中所发现的 各种放射性元素的衰变率来断定的。❸这些比率中的一些适用于非常古老的岩石，但用来 研究年龄较小的岩石时却会增加误差；其它的比率适用于年龄较小的岩石，但用于较古老的 岩石会增加误差。❹冰川期中的绝大部分所跨越时期中，没有任何元素有适当的衰变率。 ❶Nevertheless, researchers of the Pleistocene epoch have developed all sorts of (all sorts of: 各种各样的) more or less fanciful model schemes of how they would have arranged the Ice Age had they been in charge of events. ❷For example, an early classification of Alpine glaciation suggested the existence there of four glaciations, named the Gunz, Mindel, Riss, and Wurm. ❸This succession was based primarily on a series of deposits and events not directly related to glacial and interglacial periods, rather than on the more usual modern method of studying biological remains found in interglacial beds themselves interstratified within glacial deposits. ❹Yet this succession was forced willy-nilly onto the glaciated parts of Northern Europe, where there are partial successions of true glacial ground moraines and interglacial deposits, with hopes of ultimately piecing them together to provide a complete Pleistocene succession. ❺Eradication of the Alpine nomenclature is still proving a Herculean task (herculean task: 需要付出巨大气力的工作;极为艰巨的工作). ❶可是，更新纪的研究者们发展出各种或多或少有些新奇的模型体系，来表明如果由他们 掌控地质事件，他们将如何来安排整个冰川期。❷例如，对 Alpine 冰川的作用所作的一次 早期分类暗示在那里曾存在过四次冰川作用，叫 Gunz，Mindel，Riss，Wurm。❸这个序 列主要依据一系列与冰川期和间冰期并不直接相关的地质沉积物和地质事件，而非依据更普 遍的现代方法，去研究间冰层中所发现的生物残留物，而这些间冰层本身又在冰川沉积物发 119

生间层化。❹然而，这一序列演替却被胡乱强加给北欧那些发生过冰川作用的地区,这部分 地区只有部分真正的冰川底碛(ground moraine)和间冰期沉积物，人们希望能最终将它们拼 接起来，以提供一个完整的更新纪演替过程。❺去除阿尔卑斯命名法依然被证明是一项艰 巨的任务。 ❶There is no conclusive evidence about the relative length, complexity, and temperatures of the various glacial and interglacial periods. ❷We do not know whether we live in a postglacial period or an interglacial period. ❸The chill truth seems to be that we are already past the optimum climate of postglacial time. ❹Studies of certain fossil distributions and of the pollen of certain temperate plants suggest decreases of a degree or two in both summer and winter temperatures and, therefore, that we may be in the declining climatic phase leading to glaciation and extinction. ❶有关各个冰川期和间冰期的相对长度、复杂度以及温度，人们没有任何结论性的证据。 ❷我们不知道我们生活在一个后冰川期还是在间冰期。❸一个严峻的真相似乎是：我们早 已经过了后冰川期的最佳气候。❹对一些化石分布和对某些温带植物的花粉所作的研究表 明，无论是夏天、冬天，气温都降低了 1 到 2 度，因此，我们有可能处在一个气候日趋下 降的阶段，这会导致冰川作用和生物灭绝。

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No. 8-3 SECTION A ❶The deep sea typically has a sparse fauna dominated by tiny worms and crustaceans, with an even sparser distribution of larger animals. ❷However, near hydrothermal vents, areas of the ocean where warm water emerges from subterranean sources, live remarkable densities of huge clams, blind crabs, and fish. ❶一般来说，深海中分布着稀少的动物群，它们以小虫和甲壳纲动物为主，较大型的动物 则更为稀少。❷然而，在热液排放口，即海洋中热水从地下源头涌出的区域附近，却生存 着极为密集的巨形蛤蜊，瞎眼蟹和鱼类。 ❶Most deep-sea faunas rely for food on particulate matter, ultimately derived from photosynthesis, falling from above. ❷The food supplies necessary to sustain the large vent communities, however, must be many times the ordinary fallout. ❸The first reports describing vent faunas proposed two possible sources of nutrition: bacterial chemosynthesis, production of food by bacteria using energy derived from chemical changes, and advection, the drifting of food materials from surrounding regions. ❹Later, evidence in support of the idea of intense local chemosynthesis was accumulated: hydrogen sulfide was found in vent water; many vent-site bacteria were found to be capable of chemosynthesis; and extremely large concentrations of bacteria were found in samples of vent water thought to be pure. ❺This final observation seemed decisive. ❻If such astonishing concentrations of bacteria were typical of vent outflow, then food within the vent would dwarf any contribution from advection. ❼Hence, the widely quoted conclusion was reached that bacterial chemosynthesis provides the foundation for hydrothermal-vent food chains—an exciting prospect because no other communities on Earth are independent of photosynthesis. ❶大多数深海动物群把从上面掉落下来的微粒物质作为食物，而这些微粒物质最终来源于 光合作用(photosynthesis)。❷但是，用以供给规模庞大的热液口动物群落所必需的食物供 给一定会是一般落食量的许多倍。❸最初描述热液口动物群的报告提出了两种可能的营养 物来源：细菌化学合成(bacterial chemosynthesis)，即细菌利用化学反应产生的能量制造食 物，以及对流(advection)，即从周围漂来的食物。❹后来，支持剧烈局部化学合成这一思 想的证据逐渐积累起来：在热液口的水中发现了硫化氢(hydrogen sulfide)；人们发现许多热 液口附近的细菌具有化学合成的能力；此外，人们在那些曾被认为纯净无物的热液口的水样 中，发现了大量密集的细菌。❺这个最终的观察似乎具有决定性意义。❻假如密度多到令 人震惊的细菌可以典型地代表热液口溢出物的话，那么热液口内的食物将使平流带来食物的 贡献显得微不足道。❼因此，一个被广泛引用的结论说：细菌化学合成给热液口的食物链 提供了基础——这是一个令人兴奋的期望，因为地球上没有任何其他动物群落可独立于光合 作用之外。 ❶There are, however, certain difficulties with this interpretation. ❷For example, some of the large sedentary organisms associated with vents are also found at ordinary deep-sea temperatures many meters from the nearest hydrothermal sources. ❸This suggests that bacterial chemosynthesis is not a sufficient source of nutrition for these creatures. ❹Another difficulty is that similarly dense populations of large deep-sea animals have been found in the proximity of “smokers”—vents where water emerges at temperatures up to 350℃. ❺No bacteria can survive such heat, and no bacteria were found there. ❻Unless smokers are consistently located near more hospitable warm-water vents, chemosynthesis can account for only a fraction of the vent faunas. ❼It is conceivable, however, that these large, sedentary organisms do in fact feed on bacteria that grow in warm-water vents, rise in the vent water, and then rain in peripheral areas to nourish animals living some distance from the warm-water vents. 121

❶但是，这一解释存在某些难点。❷例如，与热液口相联系的某些庞大静栖生物是在正常 水温中被发现的，它离最近的热液源有好几米的距离。❸这表明细菌化学合成不足以构成 这些生物体充足的营养来源。❹另一点难点是，同样密集的庞大深海动物种群在“冒烟口” 附近被发现——所谓“冒烟口”，是指水以高达 350℃的温度涌出的热液口。❺没有任何细菌 能在这样的高温下存活，在那里也从未发现任何细菌。❻除非“冒烟口”始终位于更为适宜的 热液口附近，否则化学合成仅能解释一小部分热液口动物群。❼但是这一点是可以想象的， 事实上这些庞大静栖生物确实以细菌为生，这些细菌在热液口内生长，随热液口的水升涌， 之后洒落到周边区域，为生存在离热液口一定距离的动物提供营养物。 ❶Nonetheless advection is a more likely alternative food source. ❷Research has demonstrated that advective flow, which originates near the surface of the ocean where suspended particulate matter accumulates, transports some of that matter and water to the vents. ❸Estimates suggest that for every cubic meter of vent discharge, 350 milligrams of particulate organic material would be advected into the vent area. ❹Thus, for an average-sized vent, advection could provide more than 30 kilograms of potential food per day. ❺In addition, it is likely that small live animals in the advected water might be killed or stunned by thermal and/or chemical shock, thereby contributing to the food supply of vents. ❶尽管如此，对流是一种更有可能的替代食物源。❷研究证明，对流——形成于悬浮的微 粒物质积聚的海面附近——将一部分物质和水输送到热液口。❸估算表明，每立方米热液 口释放物中有 350 毫克的微粒有机物将通过对流水流来到热液口区域。❹因此，对于每个 中等规模的热液口来说，对流水流每天可提供 30 公斤以上的潜在食物。❺此外，在对流水 流中生活的小动物有可能被热休克和（或）化学休克杀死或弄晕，从而进一步增加了热液口 的食物供给。

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❶Throughout human history there have been many stringent taboos concerning watching other people eat or eating in the presence of others. ❷There have been attempts to explain these taboos in terms of inappropriate social relationships either between those who are involved and those who are not simultaneously involved in the satisfaction of a bodily need, or between those already satiated and those who appear to be shamelessly gorging. ❸Undoubtedly such elements exist in the taboos, but there is an additional element with a much more fundamental importance. ❹In prehistoric times, when food was so precious and the on-lookers so hungry, not to offer half of the little food one had was unthinkable, since every glance was a plea for life. ❺Further, during those times, people existed in nuclear or extended family groups, and the sharing of food was quite literally supporting one’s family or, by extension, preserving one’s self. ❶在人类历史进程中，有关看着他人进食或当着他人的面进食存在很多严格的禁忌。❷人 们试图对这些禁忌做出解释，所依据的要么是在满足了身体需求和没有满足身体需求的人之 间（即吃饭和没吃饭的人之间） ，要么是那些早已获得满足人与那些不知羞耻地狼吞虎咽的 人之间的不平等的社会关系。❸毋庸置疑，这样的因素确实存在于这些禁忌中，但从根本 上来说还有一个因素更重要。❹在史前时代，当食物是如此之珍贵，而旁观者又是如此之 饥饿时，不将自己少得可怜的食物分一半给别人是难以想象的，因为旁观者每一眼都是一次 对生命的乞求。❺进一步说，在这个时期，人们生存在核心家庭或大家庭家族内，按字面 说分享食物是在维系自己的家庭，或更广的意义上说，是在保存自我。

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SECTION B ❶That Louise Nevelson is believed by many critics to be the greatest twentieth-century sculptor is all the more remarkable because the greatest resistance to women artists has been, until recently, in the field of sculpture. ❷Since Neolithic times, sculpture has been considered the prerogative of men, partly, perhaps, for purely physical reasons: it was erroneously assumed that women were not suited for the hard manual labor required in sculpting stone, carving wood, or working in metal. ❸It has been only during the twentieth century that women sculptors have been recognized as major artists, and it has been in the United States, especially since the decades of the fifties and sixties, that women sculptors have shown the greatest originality and creative power. ❹Their rise to prominence parallels the development of sculpture itself in the United States: while there had been a few talented sculptors in the United States before the 1940’s, it was only after 1945—when New York was rapidly becoming the art capital of the world—that major sculpture was produced in the United States. ❺ Some of the best was the work of women. ❶Louise Nevelson 被许多评论家认为是 20 世纪最伟大的雕塑家，这个观点越来越令人瞩 目，因为直到最近，雕塑界仍存在对女性艺术家的最强烈抵制。❷新石器时代以来，雕塑 一直被视为男性的特权，部分程度上可能纯粹是因为生理原因：人们误以为女性不适合做雕 石、刻木、摆弄金属这些繁重的体力劳动。❸直到二十世纪的时候，女艺术家才被当作主 流艺术家，并且只有在美国被认可，特别是自五六十年代以来，女雕塑家们展现出了非凡的 独特性和创造力。❹她们地位的提升伴随着雕塑本身在美国的发展：尽管在 20 世纪 40 年 代之前美国已经出现一些富有才华的雕塑家，但是只有在 1945 年之后，当纽约迅速变成世 界艺术之都时，美国才产生了一些重要的雕塑作品。❺一些最杰出的作品就出自女性之手。 ❶By far the most outstanding of these women is Louise Nevelson, who in the eyes of many critics is the most original female artist alive today. ❷One famous and influential critic, Hilton Kramer, said of her work, “For myself, I think Ms. Nevelson succeeds where the painters often fail.” ❶到现在为止，这些女性中最杰出的便是Louise Nevelson，她在许多评论家的眼中是当代 最具独创性的女艺术家。❷一位著名而有影响力的评论家Hilton Kramer对她的作品评述道： “对我来说，我认为Nevelson女士在其他画家常常失败的地方取得了成功。” ❶Her works have been compared to the Cubist constructions of Picasso, the Surrealistic objects of Miro, and the Merzbau of Schwitters. ❷Nevelson would be the first to admit that she has been influenced by all of these, as well as by African sculpture, and by Native American and pre-Columbian art, but she has absorbed all these influences and still created a distinctive art that expresses the urban landscape and the aesthetic sensibility of the twentieth century. ❸Nevelson says, “I have always wanted to show the world that art is everywhere, except that it has to pass through a creative mind.” ❶她的作品被用来和 Picasso 的立体派结构、Miro 的超现实主义物体、以及 Schwittdrs 的 Merzbau 作比较。❷Nevelson 第一个站出来承认她确实受到了这些作品的影响，并且她还 受到非洲雕塑以及土著美洲人和前哥伦布艺术的影响，但她吸收融合了这些影响并创造了出 一种独特的艺术，这种艺术表现了都市风景以及 20 世纪的审美观。❸Nevelson 说：“我一 直希望能向世人展示艺术无处不在，但它必须通过有创造力的头脑展现。” ❶Using mostly discarded wooden objects like packing crates, broken pieces of furniture, and abandoned architectural ornaments, all of which she has hoarded for years, she assembles architectural constructions of great beauty and power. ❷Creating very freely with no sketches, she glues and nails objects together, paints them black, or more rarely white or gold, and places them in boxes. ❸These assemblages, walls, even entire environments create a mysterious, almost awe-inspiring atmosphere. ❹Although she has denied any symbolic or religious intent in her works, their three-dimensional grandeur and 124

even their titles, such as Sky Cathedral and Night Cathedral, suggest such connotations. ❺In some ways, her most ambitious works are closer to architecture than to traditional sculpture, but then neither Louise Nevelson nor her art fits into any neat category. ❶Nevelson 用的材料大多是像废弃包装箱一类的木质物件，破家具，以及被扔掉的建筑装 饰物——这些是她多年积存下来的——她组装出极具美感和力度的建筑物般的结构。❷她 不用草图，只是自由地创作，将物体粘合或钉在一起，将它们涂成黑色，或更少见的白色或 金黄色，将它们放在盒子里。❸这些聚合在一起的艺术品、墙，甚至整个的环境都营造出 一种神秘的、几乎让人敬畏的氛围。❹虽然她否认她作品中具有任何象征性的或宗教意图， 但作品的三维立体的恢宏气势以及它们的标题，例如 Sky Cathedral 以及 Night Cathedral， 都暗示出这样一种含义。❺在某些方面，她最为雄心勃勃的作品更接近于环境艺术品，而 不是传统雕塑，从某种程度上说，无论是 Louise Nevelson 还是她的作品，都无法被归纳到 任何明确的范畴中。

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❶Volcanic rock that forms as fluid lava chills rapidly is called pillow lava (pillow lava: 枕状 熔岩). ❷This rapid chilling occurs when lava erupts directly into water (or beneath ice) or when it flows across a shoreline and into a body of water. ❸While the term “pillow lava” suggests a definite shape, in fact geologists disagree. ❹Some geologists argue that pillow lava is characterized by discrete, ellipsoidal masses. ❺Others describe pillow lava as a tangled mass of cylindrical, interconnected flow lobes. ❻Much of this controversy probably results from unwarranted extrapolations of the original configuration of pillow flows from two-dimensional cross sections of eroded pillows in land outcroppings (OUTCROP (outcrop: n.露出地面的岩层)). ❼Virtually any cross section (cross section: n.横截面) cut through a tangled mass of interconnected flow lobes would give the appearance of a pile of discrete ellipsoidal masses. ❽Adequate three-dimensional images of intact pillows are essential for defining the true geometry of pillowed flows and thus ascertaining their mode of origin. ❾Indeed, the term “pillow,” itself suggestive of discrete masses, is probably a misnomer. ❶流动的熔岩迅速冷却时形成的火山熔岩被称为枕状岩(pillow lava)。❷这种迅速冷却发生 在熔岩直接喷发进水中（或冰下）时，或发生在当熔岩流过海岸线并进入水体时。❸尽管“枕 状岩”这一术语暗示出某种确定的形状，但实际上地质学家不同意这种叫法。❹一些地质学 家认为，枕状岩的特征是分散的椭球形岩块。❺其他地质学家将枕状熔岩描述成一大块纠 缠在一起的圆柱形的、与熔岩流相联结的瓣状物。❻这种争论很大程度上可能来自于对枕 状熔岩原初构造的无根据的推断，而这些推断是根据露出地表的岩层中被侵蚀的枕状岩的二 维截面得到的。❼事实上任何一块由相互连结的熔岩流裂片构成的、联结在一起的岩块的 截面，外观几乎都是这种分散的椭球形。❽足够多的、完好无损的枕状岩的三维图像，在 确定枕状熔岩流真正的几何形状上特别重要，人们由此确定其起源方式。❾的确，“枕状岩” 这一术语本身暗示着互相分离的岩块，或许是一个名称上的误用。

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No. 9-1 SECTION A ❶Many critics of Emily Bronte’s novel Wuthering Heights see its second part as a counterpoint that comments on, if it does not reverse, the first part, where a “romantic” reading receives more confirmation. ❷Seeing the two parts as a whole is encouraged by the novel’s sophisticated structure, revealed in its complex use of narrators and time shifts. ❸Granted that the presence of these elements need not argue an authorial awareness of novelistic construction comparable to that of Henry James, their presence does encourage attempts to unify the novel’s heterogeneous parts. ❹However, any interpretation that seeks to unify all of the novel’s diverse elements is bound to be somewhat unconvincing. ❺This is not because such an interpretation necessarily stiffens into a thesis (although rigidity in any interpretation of this or of any novel is always a danger), but because Wuthering Heights has recalcitrant elements of undeniable power that, ultimately, resist inclusion in an all-encompassing interpretation. In this respect, Wuthering Heights shares a feature of Hamlet. ❶许多研究Emily Bronte的小说Wuthering Heights的评论家，将小说的第二部分看作一种对 比，第二部分即便没有反对第一部分，也是在评论第一部分，而在小说第一部分中对于“浪 漫”的解读得到了更充分的证实。❷将小说的两部分看作一个整体，受到了小说复杂结构的 支持，而这种复杂结构体现在小说对叙述者们以及时间交替的复杂运用之中。❸必须承认 的是，这些因素的存在并不能说明作者对于小说结构的意识可与Henry James相比；但这些 因素的存在确实试图把小说中的不同因素统一起来。❹然而，任何试图将小说中所有形形 色色的因素统一起来的做法，在某种程度上注定是无法令人信服的。❺这不是因为这样的 一种解释会僵化为一个主题（尽管僵化在对这部或任何一部小说的解释中总是危险的），而 是因为Wuthering Heights中一些难以调和的因素具有无法否认的力量，它最终无法被包括在 一个包罗万象的解释中。在这一方面，Wuthering Heights跟Hamlet有相同特点。

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❶The determination of the sources of copper ore used in the manufacture of copper and bronze artifacts of Bronze Age civilizations would add greatly to our knowledge of cultural contacts and trade in that era. ❷Researchers have analyzed artifacts and ores for their concentrations of elements, but for a variety of reasons, these studies have generally failed to provide evidence of the sources of the copper used in the objects. ❸Elemental composition can vary within the same copper-ore lode, usually because of varying admixtures of other elements, especially iron, lead, zinc, and arsenic. ❹And high concentrations of cobalt or zinc, noticed in some artifacts, appear in a variety of copper-ore sources. ❺Moreover, the processing of ores introduced poorly controlled changes in the concentrations of minor and trace elements in the resulting metal. ❻Some elements evaporate during smelting and roasting; different temperatures and processes produce different degrees of loss. ❼Finally, flux, which is sometimes added during smelting to remove waste material from the ore, could add quantities of elements to the final product. ❶确定用于制造青铜时代文明国家铜器和青铜器的铜矿石来源，会大大增加我们对于那个 时代文化交流和贸易往来的了解。❷研究者们分析了铜制品和铜矿石中铜的含量，但是由 于种种原因，这些研究未能为制品中铜的产地提供证据。❸通常是由于不同程度混合其他 元素，特别是铁、铅、锌和砷，铜矿中各种组成成分在同一矿藏中可能会有差异。❹并且 在一些制品中发现的高浓度钴和锌可能来源于许多产地。❺此外，矿石的加工会使生产出 的金属中的次要和微量元素的含量发生变化，而这种变化不能被很好地控制。❻一些元素 在熔化和烘烤过程中蒸发掉；不同的温度和加工工艺会产生不同程度的损失。❼最后，为 了在熔解过程中从矿石中去除废料而加入的助熔剂会给最终产物增加大量元素。 ❶An elemental property that is unchanged through these chemical processes is the isotopic composition of each metallic element in the ore. ❷Isotopic composition, the percentages of the different isotopes of an element in a given sample of the element, is therefore particularly suitable as an indicator of the sources of the ore. ❸Of course, for this purpose it is necessary to find an element whose isotopic composition is more or less constant throughout a given ore body, but varies from one copper ore body to another or, at least, from one geographic region to another. ❶在这些化学处理过程中不变的元素性质就是矿石中每个金属元素的同位素构成。❷同位 素构成是一种元素的不同同位素在给定样品中的百分比，因此它尤其适合作为矿石产地的指 示物。❸当然，为了达到这个目的我们需要找到一个元素，这个元素的同位素构成在给定 的矿体中几乎是恒定的，但它在不同矿体之间是不同的，或者至少在不同地理区域中是不同 的。 ❶The ideal choice, when isotopic composition is used to investigate the source of copper ore, would seem to be copper itself. ❷It has been shown that small but measurable variations occur naturally in the isotopic composition of copper. ❸However, the variations are large enough only in rare ores; between samples of the common ore minerals of copper, isotopic variations greater than the measurement error have not been found. ❹An alternative choice is lead, which occurs in most copper and bronze artifacts of the Bronze Age in amounts consistent with the lead being derived from the copper ores and possibly from the fluxes. ❺The isotopic composition of lead often varies from one source of common copper ore to another, with variations exceeding the measurement error; and preliminary studies indicate virtually uniform isotopic composition of the lead from a single copper-ore source. ❻While some of the lead found in an artifact may have been introduced from flux or when other metals were added to the copper ore, lead so added in Bronze Age processing would usually have the same isotopic composition as the lead in the copper ore. ❼Lead isotope studies may thus prove useful for interpreting the archaeological record of the Bronze Age. 128

❶当利用同位素来检查铜矿产地的时候，理想的选择似乎是铜自身的同位素。❷事实表明， 铜的同位素构成在天然状态下有微小但可以探测到的变化。❸可是，只有在稀有矿石中这 些变化才足够大；在普通铜矿石的样本中，人们还没有发现大于测量误差的同位素构成变化。 ❹另一种选择是铅元素，它出现在大多数青铜时代的铜制品或青铜制品中，含量与从铜矿 石以及助熔剂中取得铅的含量一致。❺铅的同位素构成通常随铜矿石常见产地的不同而不 同，这个波动超过了测量误差；并且初步的研究表明，单个铜矿石产地铅的同位素组成实际 上是相同的。❻虽然在制品中发现的铅是助熔剂引入或者是其他加入铜矿石的金属，但在 青铜时代加工过程中加入的铅与铜矿石中的铅有相同的同位素构成。❼因此，有关铅同位 素的研究对于解读青铜时代的考古记录大有帮助。

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SECTION B ❶Since the Hawaiian Islands have never been connected to other land masses, the great variety of plants in Hawaii must be a result of the long-distance dispersal of seeds, a process that requires both a method of transport and an equivalence between the ecology of the source area and that of the recipient area. ❶鉴于夏威夷群岛从来没有同其他大片陆地相连接，那里种类繁多的植物很可能是种子长 距离传播的结果，这一传播过程要求有运输种子的方式，同时也要求种子产出地区和种子接 受地区的生态环境相同。 ❶There is some dispute about the method of transport involved. ❷Some biologists argue that ocean and air currents are responsible for the transport of plant seeds to Hawaii. ❸Yet the results of flotation experiments and the low temperatures of air currents cast doubt on these hypotheses. ❹More probable is bird transport, either externally, by accidental attachment of the seeds to feathers, or internally, by the swallowing of fruit and subsequent excretion of the seeds. ❺While it is likely that fewer varieties of plant seeds have reached Hawaii externally than internally, more varieties are known to be adapted to external than to internal transport. ❶有关种子传播的方式存在一些争议。❷有些生物学家认为，是洋流和气流把植物的种子 传播到夏威夷的。❸但是漂浮实验的结果以及低温气流质疑了这些假设。❹更有可能的是 种子通过鸟类传播，要么通过外部方法，即种子偶尔粘到鸟类羽毛上，要么通过内部方法， 即鸟吞食果实后排泄出种子。❺虽然很有可能种子更多地通过内部方法而非外部方法到达 夏威夷的，但是我们知道更多的是外部方法。

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❶A long-held view of the history of the English colonies that became the United States has been that England’s policy toward these colonies before 1763 was dictated by commercial interests and that a change to a more imperial policy, dominated by expansionist militarist objectives, generated the tensions that ultimately led to the American Revolution. ❷In a recent study, Stephen Saunders Webb has presented a formidable challenge to this view. ❸According to Webb, England already had a military imperial policy for more than a century before the American Revolution. ❹He sees Charles II, the English monarch between 1660 and 1685, as the proper successor of the Tudor monarchs of the sixteenth century and of Oliver Cromwell, all of whom were bent on extending centralized executive power over England’s possessions through the use of what Webb calls “garrison government.” ❺Garrison government allowed the colonists a legislative assembly, but real authority, in Webb’s view, belonged to the colonial governor, who was appointed by the king and supported by the “garrison,” that is, by the local contingent of English troops under the colonial governor’s command. ❶一个长期被人们认为的、关于英国殖民地最终变成了美国的英属殖民地的历史的观点是： 1763年之前英国对这些殖民地的政策一直受到商业利益支配，而向一种更专制的政策的变 化，以扩张主义军事目标为主导，这种变化造成了种种不安，并最终导致了美国独立战争。 ❷在最近的研究中，Stephen Saunders Webb向上述观点发难。❸根据Webb的观点，英国 在美国独立战争之前的一个多世纪，就已经实施了军事专制政策。❹他将1660年到1685年 期间的英国君主Charles二世看作十六世纪Tudor君主和Oliver Cromwell的继承者，所有这些 人都要通过Webb所谓的“驻军政府”的运用来扩展英国对其领地的中央集权化的行政控制权。 ❺驻军政府允许殖民地民众拥有立法议会；但在Webb看来，真正的权力属于殖民地总督， 总督由国王任命，并得到“驻军”的拥护，驻军是由殖民地总督指挥的当地英军分遣队。 ❶According to Webb, the purpose of garrison government was to provide military support for a royal policy designed to limit the power of the upper classes in the American colonies. ❷Webb argues that the colonial legislative assemblies represented the interests not of the common people but of the colonial upper classes, a coalition of merchants and nobility who favored self-rule and sought to elevate legislative authority at the expense of the executive. ❸It was, according to Webb, the colonial governors who favored the small farmer, opposed the plantation system, and tried through taxation to break up large holdings of land. ❹Backed by the military presence of the garrison, these governors tried to prevent the gentry and merchants, allied in the colonial assemblies, from transforming colonial America into a capitalistic oligarchy. ❶根据Webb的观点，驻军政府的目的是为皇家政策提供军事支持，这种皇家政策是为了限 制美洲殖民地上层阶级的权力。❷Webb认为，殖民地立法议会所代表的，不是普通民众的 利益，而是殖民地上层阶级的利益，这一上层阶级由商人和贵族联合而成，他们倾向于自治， 并试图以牺牲行政权来提高立法权。❸根据Webb所说的，正是殖民地总督倾向小农，反对 种植园制度，并通过税收来打破土地的大规模持有。❹依靠驻军的军事存在作后盾，这些 总督试图要阻止在殖民地议会中结成联盟的贵族和商人把北美殖民地转变为资本主义寡头 统治。 ❶Webb’s study illuminates the political alignments that existed in the colonies in the century prior to the American Revolution, but his view of the crown’s use of the military as an instrument of colonial policy is not entirely convincing. ❷England during the seventeenth century was not noted for its military achievements. ❸Cromwell did mount England’s most ambitious overseas military expedition in more than a century, but it proved to be an utter failure. ❹Under Charles II, the English army was too small to be a major instrument of government. ❺Not until the war with France in 1697 did William III persuade Parliament to create a professional standing army, and Parliaments price for doing so was to keep the army under tight legislative control. ❻While it may be true that the crown 131

attempted to curtail the power of the colonial upper classes, it is hard to imagine how the English army during the seventeenth century could have provided significant military support for such a policy. ❶Webb的研究阐明了在美国独立战争之前的那个世纪中存在于殖民地的政治联盟，但他的 有关英国国王将军队利用为殖民政策的工具，这一观点不能完全让人信服。❷英国在17世 纪期间并不因军事成就闻名。❸Cromwell的确发动了英国一个多世纪中最有野心的海外军 事远征，但这次最终被证明是一次彻底的失败。❹在Charles II统治期间，英国军队规模太 小了，以至于不可能成为政府统治的主要工具。❺直至1697年与法国交战，William三世才 说服国会创立一支专业的常备部队，而国会对这一做法提出的条件是，必须将该部队置于牢 固的立法控制之下。❻尽管Webb所说的那样，英王曾试图削弱殖民地上层阶级的力量也许 是对的，但实在难以想象17世纪的英国军队会为这样的政策提供重要的军事支持。

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No. 9-2 SECTION A ❶A serious critic has to comprehend the particular content, unique structure, and special meaning of a work of art. ❷And here she faces a dilemma. ❸The critic must recognize the artistic element of uniqueness that requires subjective reaction; yet she must not be unduly prejudiced by such reactions. ❹Her likes and dislikes are less important than what the work itself communicates, and her preferences may blind her to certain qualities of the work and thereby prevent an adequate understanding of it. ❺Hence, it is necessary that a critic develop a sensibility informed by familiarity with the history of art and aesthetic theory. ❻On the other hand, it is insufficient to treat the artwork solely historically, in relation to a fixed set of ideas or values. ❼The critic’s knowledge and training are, rather, a preparation of the cognitive and emotional abilities needed for an adequate personal response to an artwork’s own particular qualities. ❶一个严肃的评论家必须要领悟一部艺术作品的特定内容、独特结构、以及特殊含义。❷ 在这里，她面临着进退两难的情况。❸这位评论家必须识别出带有独特性的艺术元素，而 做到这一点需要主观反应；可是，她绝不应该对这些反应有过分的偏见。❹她自己的喜好 厌恶与作品所传达出的内容相比并不重要，并且她的好恶可能使她对作品的某些特质视而不 见，从而使她无法充分理解该作品。❺因此，一个评论家有必要培养这样一种敏感性，由 熟悉艺术史和美学理论而形成的敏感性。❻另一方面，仅仅从历史的角度来看待一个艺术 作品的一套固有思想和价值观是不够的。❼评论家的学识和训练是其认知能力和情感能力 的一种准备，而这些能力是对艺术作品自身的特质做出一种充分的个人反应所需要的。

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❶Viruses, infectious particles consisting of nucleic acid packaged in a protein coat (the capsid), are difficult to resist. ❷Unable to reproduce outside a living cell, viruses reproduce only by subverting the genetic mechanisms of a host cell. ❸In one kind of viral life cycle, the virus first binds to the cell’s surface, then penetrates the cell and sheds its capsid. ❹The exposed viral nucleic acid produces new viruses from the contents of the cell. ❺Finally, the cell releases the viral progeny, and a new cell cycle of infection begins. ❻The human body responds to a viral infection by producing antibodies: complex, highly specific proteins that selectively bind to foreign molecules such as viruses. ❼An antibody can either interfere with a virus’s ability to bind to a cell, or can prevent it from releasing its nucleic acid. ❶病毒是由包裹在蛋白质外壳（即衣壳，capsid）中的由核酸组成的传染性粒子，人类很难 不被其感染。❷病毒不能在活细胞外繁殖，只能通过破坏寄生细胞的遗传机制来繁殖。❸ 在某种病毒的生命周期中，病毒首先结合到寄主细胞表面，然后渗透进细胞，脱去其衣壳。 ❹裸露的病毒核酸在寄生细胞中产生新的病毒。❺最后，细胞释放出病毒的后代，新一轮 病毒传染周期又开始了。❻人体对病毒传染的反应是产生抗体，这是一种非常特殊、复杂 的蛋白质，它有选择地结合到例如病毒这样的外来分子上。❼抗体既能干扰病毒结合到细 胞中的能力，又能阻止病毒释放核酸。 ❶Unfortunately, the common cold, produced most often by rhinoviruses, is intractable to antiviral defense. ❷Humans have difficulty resisting colds because rhinoviruses are so diverse, including at least 100 strains. ❸The strains differ most in the molecular structure of the proteins in their capsids. ❹Since disease-fighting antibodies bind to the capsid, an antibody developed to protect against one rhinovirus strain is useless against other strains. ❺Different antibodies must be produced for each strain. ❶不幸的是，抗病毒防御机制很难防住由鼻病毒(rhinoviruses)引起的普通感冒。❷人类很 难抵御感冒是因为鼻病毒多种多样，它至少有 100 种。❸鼻病毒菌株大多因为衣壳中蛋白 质分子结构的不同而不同。❹既然抗病的抗体会结合到衣壳上，产生的抵御作用只对某一 种鼻病毒菌株有用，而对其他菌株无效。❺那么，必须要针对每一种菌株产生不同的抗体。 ❶A defense against rhinoviruses might nonetheless succeed by exploiting hidden similarities among the rhinovirus strains. ❷For example, most rhinovirus strains bind to the same kind of molecule (delta-receptors) on a cell’s surface when they attack human cells. ❸Colonno, taking advantage of these common receptors, devised a strategy for blocking the attachment of rhinoviruses to their appropriate receptors. ❹Rather than fruitlessly searching for an antibody that would bind to all rhinoviruses, Colonno realized that an antibody binding to the common receptors of a human cell would prevent rhinoviruses from initiating an infection. ❺Because human cells normally do not develop antibodies to components of their own cells, Colonno injected human cells into mice, which did produce an antibody to the common receptor. ❻In isolated human cells, this antibody proved to be extraordinarily effective at thwarting the rhinovirus. ❼Moreover, when the antibody was given to chimpanzees, it inhibited rhinoviral growth, and in humans it lessened both the severity and duration of cold symptoms. ❶一种利用鼻病毒潜在的相似性来抵抗鼻病毒的方法或许能取得成功。❷例如，大多数鼻 病毒袭击人体细胞时，会结合到寄生细胞表面的同类分子（delta 受体）上。❸Colonno 利 用这些共同的受体设计出一种阻止鼻病毒依附到相应受体上的方法。❹Colonno 不是漫无 目的地寻找一种会结合到所有鼻病毒地抗体，他意识到一种能结合到人类细胞共同受体的抗 体能阻止鼻病毒引发其他感染活动。❺由于人体的细胞通常不产生针对自身细胞组分的抗 体，Colonno 把人体细胞注入老鼠体内，老鼠的确产生一种共同受体的抗体。❻在分离出来 地人体细胞中，这种抗体被证明能非常有效地抵抗鼻病毒。❼而且，把这种抗体注入黑猩 猩体内能抑制鼻病毒的生长；注入人体能减轻感冒症状的严重程度和持久度。 ❶Another possible defense against rhinoviruses was proposed by Rossman, who described rhinoviruses’ detailed molecular structure. ❷Rossman showed that protein sequences 134

common to all rhinovirus strains lie at the base of a deep “canyon” scoring each face of the capsid. ❸The narrow opening of this canyon possibly prevents the relatively large antibody molecules from binding to the common sequence, but smaller molecules might reach it. ❹Among these smaller, nonantibody molecules, some might bind to the common sequence, lock the nucleic acid in its coat, and thereby prevent the virus from reproducing. ❶其它可能抵御鼻病毒的方法由详细描述了鼻病毒分子结构的 Rossman 提出。❷Rossman 展示了所有鼻病毒菌株都相同的蛋白质序列，这个序列处于在每一个衣壳表面的深“谷”底部。 ❸峡谷狭窄的出口能阻止较大的抗体分子结合到这共同序列中，但是较小的分子还是可能 结合到序列中。❹在这些较小的非抗体分子中，有些可能结合到共同序列中，把核酸锁定 在衣壳中，从而阻止了病毒的繁殖。

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SECTION B ❶Diamonds, an occasional component of rare igneous rocks called lamproites and kimberlites, have never been dated satisfactorily. ❷However, some diamonds contain minute inclusions of silicate minerals, commonly olivine, pyroxene, and garnet. ❸These minerals can be dated by radioactive decay techniques because of the very small quantities of radioactive trace elements they, in turn, contain. ❹Usually, it is possible to conclude that the inclusions are older than their diamond hosts, but with little indication of the time interval involved. ❺Sometimes, however, the crystal form of the silicate inclusions is observed to resemble more closely the internal structure of diamond than that of other silicate minerals. ❻It is not known how rare this resemblance is, or whether it is most often seen in inclusions of silicates such as garnet, whose crystallography is generally somewhat similar to that of diamond; but when present, the resemblance is regarded as compelling evidence that the diamonds and inclusions are truly cogenetic. ❶金刚石是一种稀有火成岩（也叫 lamproites 和 kimberlites）中偶尔出现的组成成分，其 年代的确定还不令人满意。❷然而一些金刚石中包含微量的硅酸盐材料，一般是橄榄石、 辉石和石榴石。❸这些材料可以通过放射衰变技术确定其年份，因为它们中含有非常少量 的放射性元素。❹通常，我们可以得出结论：这些内含物的年代比金刚石的更久远，但这 并不能告诉我们内含物和金刚石年代的间隔。❺然而，有时我们观察到硅酸盐晶状内含物 的形状更像金刚石内部结构，而不像硅酸盐的内部结构。❻目前我们还不知道这种相似性 有多罕见，或者说这种相似性是否在硅酸盐（例如石榴石）中最常见，这种石榴石的内含物 的晶体结构和金刚石的晶体结构大致相似；但是这种相似性的存在被认为是金刚石和其内含 物同族的有力证据。

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❶Discussion of the assimilation of Puerto Ricans in the United States has focused on two factors: social standing and the loss of national culture. ❷In general, excessive stress is placed on one factor or the other, depending on whether the commentator is North American or Puerto Rican. ❸Many North American social scientists, such as Oscar Handlin, Joseph Fitzpatrick, and Oscar Lewis, consider Puerto Ricans as the most recent in a long line of ethnic entrants to occupy the lowest rung on the social ladder. ❹Such a “sociodemographic” approach tends to regard assimilation as a benign process, taking for granted increased economic advantage and inevitable cultural integration, in a supposedly egalitarian context. ❺However, this approach fails to take into account the colonial nature of the Puerto Rican case, with this group, unlike their European predecessors, coming from a nation politically subordinated to the United States. ❻Even the “radical” critiques of this mainstream research model, such as the critique developed in Divided Society, attach the issue of ethnic assimilation too mechanically to factors of economic and social mobility and are thus unable to illuminate the cultural subordination of Puerto Ricans as a colonial minority. ❶对于在美国的波多黎各人的同化问题的探讨一直聚焦在两个因素上：社会地位以及民族 文化的丧失。❷总的来说，评论者过分强调这个或那个因素取决于他到底是北美人还是波 多黎各人。❸许多北美社会科学家，Oscar Handlin、 Joseph Fitzpatrick、Oscar Lewis，将 波多黎各人看作一长串少数民族入境者中来得最晚的一批，他们占据着社会的最底层。❹ 这样一种“社会人口学”方法倾向于把同化看作一个良性过程，把经济优势的增加以及在一个 所谓平等的环境中不可避免的文化整合看作理所当然。❺然而，这一研究方法没有考虑到 波多黎各例子中的殖民地性质，因为与欧洲早先移民者所不同的是，该群体来自一个在政治 上属于美国的国家。❻即使是对这一主流研究模型的“激进”批评，如Divided Society一书中 的批判，将少数民族同化问题过分机械地与经济和社会流动的因素联系起来，也不能阐明波 多黎各人作为一个殖民地少数民族的文化从属关系。 ❶In contrast, the “colonialist” approach of island-based writers such as Eduardo Seda-Bonilla, Manuel Maldonado-Denis, and Luis Nieves-Falcon tends to view assimilation as the forced loss of national culture in an unequal contest with imposed foreign values. ❷There is, of course, a strong tradition of cultural accommodation among other Puerto Rican thinkers. ❸The writings of Eugenio Fernandez Mendez clearly exemplify this tradition, and many supporters of Puerto Rico’s commonwealth status share the same universalizing orientation. ❹But the Puerto Rican intellectuals who have written most about the assimilation process in the United States all advance cultural nationalist views, advocating the preservation of minority cultural distinctions and rejecting what they see as the subjugation of colonial nationalities. ❶相反，出生在波多黎各岛的作家们，例如Eduardo Seda–Bonilla， ManuelMaldonado-Denis， Luis Nieves-Falcon等，他们所采用的“殖民论”方法倾向于将同化看作与强加的外来价值观的 不公平竞争之中的被迫丢失民族文化的现象。❷当然，强烈的文化融合的传统，也存在于 其他波多黎各思想家之间。 ❸Eugenio Fernandez Mendez的著作显然为这一传统提供了一 个例证，而许多波多黎各联邦地位的支持者也有与此相同的世界化倾向。❹但是，那些对 美国少数民族同化过程论述得最多的波多黎各知识分子，提出了某些文化民族主义观点，提 倡保存少数民族文化的特色，拒绝他们心目中那种殖民地少数民族的从属地位。 ❶This cultural and political emphasis is appropriate, but the colonialist thinkers misdirect it, overlooking the class relations at work in both Puerto Rican and North American history. ❷They pose the clash of national cultures as an absolute polarity, with each culture understood as static and undifferentiated. ❸Yet both the Puerto Rican and North American traditions have been subject to constant challenge from cultural forces within their own societies, forces that may move toward each other in ways that cannot be written off as mere “assimilation.” ❹Consider, for example, the indigenous and Afro-Caribbean traditions in 137

Puerto Rican culture and how they influence and are influenced by other Caribbean cultures and Black cultures in the United States. ❺The elements of coercion and inequality, so central to cultural contact according to the colonialist framework play no role in this kind of convergence of racially and ethnically different elements of the same social class. ❶强调文化和政治的因素是恰当的，但殖民论思想家们强调得过多了，忽略了对波多黎各 历史和北美历史中起作用的阶级关系。❷他们将民族文化的碰撞看成绝对的两极，每一种 文化都被理解成静态的和无差别的。❸可是波多黎各传统和北美传统都遭到来自其社会内 部文化力量的持续挑战，这些力量可能会以某些方式相互靠近，而仅用“同化”是不能将这些 力量抹杀的。❹例如，我们考虑一下波多黎文化中本地传统和非洲—加勒比传统的相互影 响，还要考虑这些文化传统和加勒比其它文化及美国黑人文化之间的相互影响。❺高压政 策与不平等这两种因素，放在殖民论的框架里来看，对于文化交流中十分重要，但在同一社 会阶层内这种不同民族与种族因素的融合过程中，这两个因素根本不起任何作用。

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No. 9-3 SECTION A ❶Classical physics defines the vacuum as a state of absence: a vacuum is said to exist in a region of space if there is nothing in it. ❷In the quantum field theories that describe the physics of elementary particles, the vacuum becomes somewhat more complicated. ❸Even in empty space, particles can appear spontaneously as a result of fluctuations of the vacuum. ❹For example, an electron and a positron, or antielectron, can be created out of the void. ❺Particles created in this way have only a fleeting existence; they are annihilated almost as soon as they appear, and their presence can never be detected directly. ❻They are called virtual particles in order to distinguish them from real particles, whose lifetimes are not constrained in the same way, and which can be detected. ❼Thus it is still possible to define that vacuum as a space that has no real particles in it. ❶经典物理把真空(vacuum)定义为空无一物的状态：据说真空存在于什么都没有的空间中。 ❷在描述基本粒子物理学的量子场理论中，真空变得更复杂了。❸即使是在虚无的空间中， 粒子可能由于真空的波动而自发地出现。❹例如，一个电子和一个质子，或者是反电子， 可以从虚无中产生。❺通过这种方式创造的粒子只存在于一瞬间；它们一出现就会湮灭， 并且它们的存在不可能被直接探测到。❻为了和实物粒子进行区分，它们被称为虚粒子 (virtual particles)，实粒子的寿命并不像虚粒子一样受限制，而且实粒子可以被检测到。❼ 因此，我们可以把真空定义为没有实粒子的空间。 ❶One might expect that the vacuum would always be the state of lowest possible energy for a given region of space. ❷If an area is initially empty and a real particle is put into it, the total energy, it seems, should be raised by at least the energy equivalent of the mass of the added particle. ❸A surprising result of some recent theoretical investigations is that this assumption is not invariably true. ❹There are conditions under which the introduction of a real particle of finite mass into an empty region of space can reduce the total energy. ❺If the reduction in energy is great enough, an electron and a positron will be spontaneously created. ❻Under these conditions the electron and positron are not a result of vacuum fluctuations but are real particles, which exist indefinitely and can be detected. ❼In other words, under these conditions the vacuum is an unstable state and can decay into a state of lower energy; i.e., one in which real particles are created. ❶人们可能会认为，真空是在一片给定区域空间内具有最低能量的状态。❷如果一片区域 初始是空的，我们把一个实粒子放入其中，总能量应该至少增加了那个被加入粒子的能量。 ❸近期的一些理论研究的结果令人吃惊：上述假设不一定总是正确。❹某些情况下，在空 区域引入一个有限质量的实粒子会降低总能量。❺如果能量降低得足够多，就会自发产生 一个电子和一个质子。❻在这些条件下，电子和质子不是由空间波动产生，它们是确实存 在的且可被探测到的实粒子。❼换句话说，在这些条件下真空不稳定，它可以通过衰变进 入能量更低的状态，即产生实粒子的状态。 ❶The essential condition for the decay of the vacuum is the presence of an intense electric field. ❷As a result of the decay of the vacuum, the space permeated by such a field can be said to acquire an electric charge, and it can be called a charged vacuum. ❸The particles that materialize in the space make the charge manifest. ❹An electric field of sufficient intensity to create a charged vacuum is likely to be found in only one place: in the immediate vicinity of a super heavy atomic nucleus, one with about twice as many protons as the heaviest natural nuclei known. ❺A nucleus that large cannot be stable, but it might be possible to assemble one next to a vacuum for long enough to observe the decay of the vacuum. ❻Experiments attempting to achieve this are now under way.

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❶真空衰变的必要条件是存在一个强电场。❷作为真空衰变的结果，充斥着强电场的空间 可以说成带电荷的空间，而且这个空间能被称为带电真空。❸空间中物质化的粒子会显示 出电荷的存在。❹只有在一个地方存在用足够强的电场制造的带电真空：在紧挨着超重原 子核的附近，这种超重原子核的质子数是已知最重的天然原子核的两倍。❺那么大的核不 可能稳定，但是有可能把这种原子核聚集到接近真空的地方，我们从而有更长的时间来观察 真空的衰变。❻为达到此目的的实验正在进行中。

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❶Simone de Beauvoir’s work greatly influenced Betty Friedan’s—Indeed, made it possible. ❷Why, then, was it Friedan who became the prophet of women’s emancipation in the United States? ❸Political conditions, as well as a certain anti-intellectual bias, prepared Americans and the American media to better receive Friedan’s deradicalized and highly pragmatic The Feminine Mystique, published in 1963, than Beauvoir’s theoretical reading of women’s situation in The Second Sex. ❹In 1953 when The Second Sex first appeared in translation in the United States, the country had entered the silent, fearful fortress of the anticommunist McCarthy years (1950-1954), and Beauvoir was suspected of Marxist sympathies. ❺Even The Nation, a generally liberal magazine, warned its readers against “certain political leanings” of the author. ❻Open acknowledgement of the existence of women’s oppression was too radical for the United States in the fifties, and Beauvoir’s conclusion, that change in women’s economic condition, though insufficient by itself, “remains the basic factor” in improving women’s situation, was particularly unacceptable. ❶Simone de Beauvoir的作品对 Betty Friedan的作品产生了巨大的影响——事实上,它使 Friedan的作品得以成为可能。❷既然如此，为什么是Friedan成为了美国妇女解放倡导者呢？ ❸政治条件，以及某种反知识分子的偏见，使美国民众和传媒作好准备，更好地接受Friedan 于1963年发表的非激进化的和高度实用的The Feminine Mystique一书，而不是Beauvoir在 The Second Sex中对女性境遇的理论解读。❹1953 年，当The Second Sex以译著的形式首度 的美国出现时，整个国家已进入反共产主义者麦卡锡时代（1950—1954）的寂静、恐惧的 堡垒之中，而人们怀疑Beauvoir信奉马克思主义思想。❺即使是The Nation这样一份一般来 说较为自由的杂志，也警告其读者要注意The Second Sex的作者“某些政治倾向”。❻公开承 认妇女压迫的存在，对于50年代的美国来说过于激进了，而Beauvoir的结论，即妇女经济条 件的改变，尽管本身并不充分，但依然是改变妇女境况的“基本因素”，这一点更让人无法接 受。

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SECTION B ❶One of the questions of interest in the study of the evolution of spiders is whether the weaving of orb webs evolved only once or several times. ❷About half the 35,000 known kinds of spiders make webs; a third of the web weavers make orb webs. ❸Since most orb weavers belong either to the Araneidae or the Uloboridae families, the origin of the orb web can be determined only by ascertaining whether the families are related. ❶在蜘蛛进化过程的研究中一个有趣的问题是，蜘蛛织的圆形网(orb web)是进化了一次还 是多次。❷35000 种已知种类的蜘蛛中有一半织网；织网的蜘蛛中有三分之一织圆网。❸ 由于大多数织圆网的蜘蛛都属于 Araneidae 或 Uloboridae 家族，所以我们只要弄清楚这两 个家族是否有联系，我们就能确定圆形蜘蛛网的起源。 ❶Recent taxonomic analysis of individuals from both families indicates that the families evolved from different ancestors, thereby contradicting Wiehle’s theory. ❷This theory postulates that the families must be related, based on the assumption that complex behavior, such as web building, could evolve only once. ❸According to Kullman, web structure is the only characteristic that suggests a relationship between families. ❹The families differ in appearance, structure of body hair, and arrangement of eyes. ❺Only Uloborids lack venom glands. ❻Further identification and study of characteristic features will undoubtedly answer the question of the evolution of the orb web. ❶近来有关两个家族中个体的分类学分析指出，这两个家族由不同祖先进化而来，这也否 定了 Wiehle 的理论。❷他的理论假定这两个家族一定存在联系，并且假设类似织网的复杂 行为只能进化一次。❸依据 Kullman 的说法，蜘蛛网的结构是唯一体现两个家族之间联系 的特征。❹不同家族的外观、体毛结构以及眼睛位置不同。❺只有 Uloborids 家族缺少毒 腺。❻对于特点特征的进一步的识别和研究无疑会解释有关圆形蜘蛛网进化的疑问。

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❶ “Popular art” has a number of meanings, impossible to define with any precision, which range from folklore to junk. ❷The poles are clear enough, but the middle tends to blur. ❸The Hollywood Western of the 1930’s, for example, has elements of folklore, but is closer to junk than to high art or folk art. ❹There can be great trash, just as there is bad high art. ❺The musicals of George Gershwin are great popular art, never aspiring to high art. ❻Schubert and Brahms, however, used elements of popular music—folk themes—in works clearly intended as high art. ❼The case of Verdi is a different one: he took a popular genre—bourgeois melodrama set to music (an accurate definition of nineteenth-century opera)—and, without altering its fundamental nature, transmuted it into high art. ❽This remains one of the greatest achievements in music, and one that cannot be fully appreciated without recognizing the essential trashiness of the genre. ❶从民间艺术(folklore)到废物艺术(junk)，“通俗艺术”有多种含义，因此我们不可能准确地 定义它。❷这些艺术的两极是足够明显的，但是两极之间区域的划分比较模糊。❸例如， 20 世纪 30 年代好莱坞西部电影中就有通俗艺术的元素，但与其说这个通俗艺术像高雅艺术， 不如说它更像是废物艺术。❹有伟大的废物艺术，就像有糟糕的高雅艺术一样。❺George Gershwin 的音乐剧是伟大的通俗艺术，但他并没有追求当高雅艺术。❻然而，Schubert 和 Brahms 在高雅艺术作品中运用了民间主题的流行音乐元素。❼Verdi 的情况则不同：他运 用了流行流派——配有音乐的资产阶级情节（19 世纪歌剧的准确定义）——并且他没有改 变流派的基本特征，就把它变成了高雅艺术。❽这种音乐流派仍是音乐中最伟大的成就之 一，并且人们只有意识到这种流派拙劣的特点，才会充分欣赏这类音乐。 ❶As an example of such a transmutation, consider what Verdi made of the typical political elements of nineteenth-century opera. ❷Generally in the plots of these operas, a hero or heroine—usually portrayed only as an individual, unfettered by class—is caught between the immoral corruption of the aristocracy and the doctrinaire rigidity or secret greed of the leaders of the proletariat. ❸Verdi transforms this naive and unlikely formulation with music of extraordinary energy and rhythmic vitality, music more subtle than it seems at first hearing. ❹There are scenes and arias that still sound like calls to arms and were clearly understood as such when they were first performed. ❺Such pieces lend an immediacy to the otherwise veiled political message of these operas and call up feelings beyond those of the opera itself. ❶作为这种在艺术上转变的例子，我们考虑一下 Verdi 是如何处理 19 世纪歌剧中典型政治 元素的。❷一般在这些歌剧情节中，一个男性或女性英雄——通常只是被刻画为一个不受 阶级约束的个体——突然被发现处在两个极端之间而无法脱身：一端是贵族不道德的堕落， 而另一端是无产阶级领导人教条的僵化或不可告人的贪欲。❸Verdi 用充满动感和活力的音 乐把这种幼稚而且不太可能的俗套进行改变，所用的音乐比初次听到时更加微妙。❹现在 仍然有那些场景和咏叹调，它们听起来像是对于拿起武器的召唤，并且在它们首演时观众就 是这么理解的。❺这样的曲目把直接性赋予了歌剧中被掩盖的政治信息，并且唤起了某些 超过歌剧本身的情感。 ❶Or consider Verdi’s treatment of character. ❷Before Verdi, there were rarely any characters at all in musical drama, only a series of situations which allowed the singers to express a series of emotional states. ❸Any attempt to find coherent psychological portrayal in these operas is misplaced ingenuity. ❹The only coherence was the singer’s vocal technique: when the cast changed, new arias were almost always substituted, generally adapted from other operas. ❺Verdi’s characters, on the other hand, have genuine consistency and integrity, even if, in many cases, the consistency is that of pasteboard melodrama. ❻The integrity of the character is achieved through the music: once he had become established, Verdi did not rewrite his music for different singers or countenance alterations or substitutions of somebody else’s arias in one of his operas, as every 143

eighteenth-century composer had done. ❼When he revised an opera, it was only for dramatic economy and effectiveness. ❶我们或者考虑 Verdi 对于角色的处理。❷在 Verdi 之前，音乐剧中没有任何角色，只有一 系列歌手表达感情状态的情况。❸任何在这些歌剧中寻找连贯一致的心理刻画的尝试都是 对独创性的误用。❹唯一具有连贯性的就是歌手的发声技巧：当演员阵容发生变化的时候， 新的咏叹调总是被从其它歌剧中改编而来的片段取代。❺在另一方面，Verdi 的角色有真正 的连贯性以及一致性，尽管在许多场合下，这种连贯性仅仅是低劣音乐剧中的连贯性。❻ 角色的一致性是通过音乐来达到的：一旦 Verdi 确立了自己的地位，他便不会像 18 世纪的 作曲家那样，为了不同歌手而重新编写乐曲、同意对其做出更改，或是在任何一部歌剧中使 用他人的咏叹调。❼当他修改歌剧的时候，那仅仅是为了达到戏剧上的简洁和有效性。

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No. 9-4 SECTION A ❶Theorists are divided concerning the origin of the Moon. ❷Some hypothesize that the Moon was formed in the same way as were the planets in the inner solar system (Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Earth)—from planet-forming materials in the presolar nebula. ❸But, unlike the cores of the inner planets, the Moon’s core contains little or no iron, while the typical planet-forming materials were quite rich in iron. ❹Other theorists propose that the Moon was ripped out of the Earth’s rocky mantle by the Earth’s collision with another large celestial body after much of the Earth’s iron fell to its core. ❺One problem with the collision hypothesis is the question of how a satellite formed in this way could have settled into the nearly circular orbit that the Moon has today. ❻Fortunately, the collision hypothesis is testable. ❼If it is true, the mantle rocks of the Moon and the Earth should be the same geochemically. ❶理论家关于月球的起源有不同意见。❷有人假设，月亮的形成和太阳系内部行星（水星、 金星、火星和地球）的形成方式是一样的，它们都是起源于前太阳系星云中构成行星的物质。 ❸但是与行星内核不同，月球内核含有极少量的铁元素，或者说不含铁元素，但是构成行 星的典型物质含铁丰富。❹其他理论家提出：月球是地球大量铁元素沉入核心以后跟其它 巨大天体碰撞而撕裂出来的地球地幔岩石。❺碰撞说存在的一个问题是：用这种方式组成 的卫星是如何形成月球目前所呈现的那种接近圆形的轨道呢？❻幸运的是，碰撞说是可以 验证的。❼如果碰撞说正确，那么月球与地球地幔岩石的地质化学成份应该是相同的。

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❶Surprisingly enough, modern historians have rarely interested themselves in the history of the American South in the period before the South began to become self-consciously and distinctively “Southern”—the decades after 1815. ❷Consequently, the cultural history of Britain’s North American empire in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries has been written almost as if the Southern colonies had never existed. ❸The American culture that emerged during the Colonial and Revolutionary eras has been depicted as having been simply an extension of New England Puritan culture. ❹However, Professor Davis has recently argued that the South stood apart from the rest of American society during this early period, following its own unique pattern of cultural development. ❺The case for Southern distinctiveness rests upon two related premises: first, that the cultural similarities among the five Southern colonies were far more impressive than the differences, and second, that what made those colonies alike also made them different from the other colonies. ❻The first, for which Davis offers an enormous amount of evidence, can be accepted without major reservations; the second is far more problematic. ❶足以令人吃惊的是，现代历史学家对于美国南部某段时期的历史一直兴趣不大——这就 是在 1815 年之后的几十年中，在南方开始变得自觉的、与众不同的“具有南方特色”之前。 ❷因此，在 17 和 18 世纪英国的北美殖民地帝国的文化历史中，南部的殖民地好像从来没 有存在过一样。 ❸从殖民地时代以及独立战争时代兴起的美国文化被描述为仅仅是对新英 格兰清教徒(puritan)文化的延伸。❹然而 Davis 教授近来提出，美国南部在这个时期开始与 美国社会的其它部分产生差异，遵循南部独特的文化发展模式。❺南部具有独特性的情况 基于两个前提：1. 五个南部殖民地文化的相似性比差异更明显；2. 让这些殖民地相像的因 素也是把它们和其它殖民地相区分的因素。❻Davis 为第一个前提提供了极为大量充分的证 据，人们可以接受这个前提而不存疑；第二个前提则成问题的多。 ❶What makes the second premise problematic is the use of the Puritan colonies as a basis for comparison. ❷Quite properly, Davis decries the excessive influence ascribed by historians to the Puritans in the formation of American culture. ❸Yet Davis inadvertently adds weight to such ascriptions by using the Puritans as the standard against which to assess the achievements and contributions of Southern colonials. ❹Throughout, Davis focuses on the important, and undeniable, differences between the Southern and Puritan colonies in motives for and patterns of early settlement, in attitudes toward nature and Native Americans, and in the degree of receptivity to metropolitan cultural influences. ❶使第二个前提成问题的是把清教殖民地用作比较的基础。❷Davis 十分恰当地强烈反对历 史学家们赋予清教徒在美国文化形成中的过多影响。❸但是通过把清教徒当作一种衡量南 方殖民地居民的成就与贡献的标准，Davis 无意中对史学家夸大清教徒作用的做法添砖加瓦。 ❹从头到尾，Davis 把研究的焦点放在一些重要并且不可否认的差异上：早期殖民开发的动 机与模式，对自然界及印第安人的态度，以及对大都市文化影响的接受程度。 ❶However, recent scholarship has strongly suggested that those aspects of early New England culture that seem to have been most distinctly Puritan, such as the strong religious orientation and the communal impulse, were not even typical of New England as a whole, but were largely confined to the two colonies of Massachusetts and Connecticut. ❷Thus, what in contrast to the Puritan colonies appears to Davis to be peculiarly Southern—acquisitiveness, a strong interest in politics and the law, and a tendency to cultivate metropolitan cultural models—was not only more typically English than the cultural patterns exhibited by Puritan Massachusetts and Connecticut, but also almost certainly characteristic of most other early modern British colonies from Barbados north to Rhode Island and New Hampshire. ❸Within the larger framework of American colonial life, then, not the Southern but the Puritan colonies appear to have been distinctive, and even

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they seem to have been rapidly assimilating to the dominant cultural patterns by the late Colonial period. ❶然而，近期学术界强有力地表明，那些早期新英格兰文化中似乎最“清教徒的”方面，例如 强烈的宗教趋向和团体意识，并不是典型新英格兰的全部，但很大程度上被限制在麻省和康 州。❷因此，和清教殖民地形成对比的东西在 Davis 看来显得具有特殊南方特征——占有 欲、对政治和法律强烈的兴趣以及培养大都市文化模式的趋势——不仅仅要比清教徒的麻省 和康州展现的文化模式更具有英国色彩，并且几乎毫无疑问地构成大多数其他早期近代英国 殖民地的特征，从 Barbados 北到 Rhode Island 和 New Hampshire。 ❸那么，在美国殖民 地居民生活更为广阔的框架内，是清教殖民地而非南部殖民地，才显得与众不同，并且即使 是它们在殖民后期也迅速趋近于主流文化模式。

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SECTION B ❶For some time scientists have believed that cholesterol plays a major role in heart disease because people with familial hypercholesterolemia, a genetic defect, have six to eight times the normal level of cholesterol in their blood and they invariably develop heart disease. ❷These people lack cell-surface receptors for low-density lipoproteins (LDL’s), which are the fundamental carriers of blood cholesterol to the body cells that use cholesterol. ❸Without an adequate number of cell-surface receptors to remove LDL’s from the blood, the cholesterol-carrying LDL’s remain in the blood, increasing blood cholesterol levels. ❹Scientists also noticed that people with familial hypercholesterolemia appear to produce more LDL’s than normal individuals. ❺How, scientists wondered, could a genetic mutation that causes a slowdown in the removal of LDL’s from the blood also result in an increase in the synthesis of this cholesterol-carrying protein? ❶科学家们认识到胆固醇(cholesterol)在诱发心脏疾病时起到主要作用已经有一段时间了， 因为患有家族性血胆固醇过多症（hypercholesterolemia，一种基因缺陷）的人的血液中胆 固醇含量比正常值高 6-8 倍，而他们都患有心脏疾病。❷这些人缺少细胞表面低密度脂蛋 白（LDL’s）的受体，这个受体是将血液中的胆固醇运送到利用胆固醇的细胞中的搬运者。 ❸要是没有足够多的细胞表面受体把 LDL’s 从血液中移除，那么搬运胆固醇的 LDL’s 会留在 血液中，提高血胆固醇含量。❹科学家们还注意到，患有家族性血胆固醇过多症的人比常 人有更多的 LDL’s。❺科学家好奇的是，使得去除血液中的 LDL’s 变慢的基因变异是如何导 致搬运胆固醇蛋白合成的增加的？ ❶Since scientists could not experiment on human body tissue, their knowledge of familial hypercholesterolemia was severely limited. ❷However, a breakthrough came in the laboratories of Yoshio Watanabe of Kobe University in Japan in 1980. ❸Watanabe noticed that a male rabbit in his colony had ten times the normal concentration of cholesterol in its blood. ❹By appropriate breeding, Watanabe obtained a strain of rabbits that had very high cholesterol levels. ❺These rabbits spontaneously developed heart disease. ❻To his surprise, Watanabe further found that the rabbits, like humans with familial hypercholesterolemia, lacked LDL receptors. ❼Thus, scientists could study these Watanabe rabbits to gain a better understanding of familial hypercholesterolemia in humans. ❶由于科学家无法在人体组织上进行试验，他们对于家族性血胆固醇过多症的认识受到了 严重的限制。❷然而，1980 年日本 Kobe 大学 Yoshio Watanabe 的实验室实现了突破。 ❸Watanabe 注意到，在他饲养的一群兔子中，有一只雄性兔子的血胆固醇浓度是正常值的 10 倍。❹通过合理的繁殖，Watanabe 获得了一个高胆固醇兔子品种。❺这些兔子自然都 患上了心脏病。❻让他感到惊奇的是，他进一步发现这些兔子和患有家族性血胆固醇过多 症的人一样，都缺少 LDL 受体。❼因此，科学家可以研究这些 Watanabe 兔子来加深对人 们对于家族性血胆固醇过多症的理解。 ❶Prior to the breakthrough at Kobe University, it was known that LDL’s are secreted from the liver in the form of a precursor, called very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL’s), which carry triglycerides as well as relatively small amounts of cholesterol. ❷The triglycerides are removed from the VLDL’s by fatty and other tissues. ❸What remains is a remnant particle that must be removed from the blood. ❹What scientists learned by studying the Watanabe rabbits is that the removal of the VLDL remnant requires the LDL receptor. ❺Normally, the majority of the VLDL remnants go to the liver where they bind to LDL receptors and are degraded. ❻In the Watanabe rabbit, due to a lack of LDL receptors on liver cells, the VLDL remnants remain in the blood and are eventually converted to LDL’s. ❼The LDL receptors thus have a dual effect in controlling LDL levels. ❽They are necessary to prevent oversynthesis of LDL’s from VLDL remnants and they are necessary for the normal removal of LDL’s from the blood. ❾With this knowledge, scientists are now well on the way toward 148

developing drugs that dramatically lower cholesterol levels in people afflicted with certain forms of familial hypercholesterolemia. ❶在 Kobe 大学取得突破之前，人们就已经知道 LDL’s 是被肝脏以前体的形式分泌的，这个 前体叫超低密度脂蛋白（VLDL’s），它搬运的是甘油三酸酯(triglycerides)以及相对少量的 胆固醇(cholesterol)。❷甘油三酸酯被脂肪和其它组织从 VLDL’s 上移除。❸剩下的是必须 从血液中才能移除的残留粒子。❹通过研究 Watanabe 兔子，科学家了解到需要 LDL 受体 来移除 VLDL 残留物。❺一般来说，大多数 VLDL 残留物进入肝脏，它们在肝脏中与 LDL 受体结合并被分解。❻在 Watanabe 兔子中，由于肝脏细胞中缺乏 LDL 受体，VLDL 残留物 会存留在血液中并最终被转化为 LDL’s。❼所以，LDL 受体对控制 LDL 浓度有双重影响。 ❽它们防止从 VLDL 残留物到 LDL’s 的过度合成，并且它们对于移除血液中的 LDL’s 也是必 需的。❾具备了这些知识，科学家们现在正在研发能显著减低家族性血胆固醇过多症患者 的胆固醇浓度的药物。

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❶When speaking of Romare Bearden, one is tempted to say, “A great Black American artist.” ❷The subject matter of Bearden’s collages is certainly Black. ❸Portrayals of the folk of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, whom he remembers from early childhood, of the jazz musicians and tenement roofs of his Harlem days, of Pittsburgh steelworkers, and his reconstruction of classical Greek myths in the guise of the ancient Black kingdom of Benin, attest to this. ❹In natural harmony with this choice of subject matter are the social sensibilities of the artist, who remains active today with the Cinque Gallery in Manhattan, which he helped found and which is devoted to showing the work of minority artists. ❶说到 Romare Bearden，人们会说“他是一位伟大的美国黑人艺术家。” ❷Bearden 的拼贴 画主题肯定是关于黑人的。❸他的作品描绘了儿时记忆中 North Carolina 州 Mecklenburg 的村民们，描绘了他住在 Harlem 时结识的爵士音乐家和廉价出租房，描绘了 Pittsburgh 的 钢铁工人，还在古代黑人 Benin 王国的伪装下重塑了经典希腊神话——所有这一切都证实了 这一点。❹和这种题材的选择协调一致的是艺术家(Romare Bearden)的社会敏感性，他至 今仍活跃在 Manhattan 的 Cinque 画廊，这个画廊是在他的帮助下建立的，他致力于在该 画廊展出少数民族艺术家的作品。 ❶Then why not call Bearden a Black American artist? ❷Because ultimately this categorization is too narrow. ❸ “What stands up in the end is structure,” Bearden says. ❹ “What I try to do is amplify. If I were just creating a picture of a farm woman from back home, it would have meaning to her and people there. ❺But art amplifies itself to something universal.” ❶那么，为什么不能把 Romare Bearden 称为美国黑人艺术家呢？❷因为说到底，这个归类 太狭窄了。❸ “最终站得住脚的东西是结构，” Bearden 说。❹ “我要做的是放大。如果我的 作品中只呈现了一个从后院走出来的农妇，那这只对她和当地人有意义。❺但艺术要做的 是放大成为有普遍意义的东西。”

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No. 9-5 SECTION A ❶Zooplankton, tiny animals adapted to an existence in the ocean, have evolved clever mechanisms for obtaining their food, miniscule phytoplankton (plant plankton). ❷A very specialized feeding adaptation in zooplankton is that of the tadpolelike appendicularian who lives in a walnut-sized (or smaller) balloon of mucus equipped with filters that capture and concentrate phytoplankton. ❸The balloon, a transparent structure that varies in design according to the type of appendicularian in habiting it, also protects the animal and helps to keep it afloat. ❹Water containing phytoplankton is pumped by the appendicularian’s muscular tail into the balloon’s incurrent filters, passes through the feeding filter where the appendicularian sucks the food into its mouth, and then goes through an exit passage. ❺Found in all the oceans of the world, including the Arctic Ocean, appendicularians tend to remain near the water’s surface where the density of phytoplankton is greatest. ❶浮游动物(zooplankton)是适应海洋环境的微小动物，它们已经进化出巧妙的获取食物 ——微小浮游植物(phytoplankton)的机制。❷浮游动物中，有一种高度分化的取食机制是 蝌蚪状尾索浮游动物(tadpolelike appendicularian)的取食机制，这种浮游动物生活在胡桃大 小（或更小）的、由粘液(mucus)构成且配有捕获以及集中浮游植物的过滤器的气囊里。❸ 这个气囊是一个透明的、根据其中尾索浮游动物不同而图案不同的结构，它能保护动物并使 它漂浮。❹含有浮游植物的海水被尾索浮游动物肌肉发达的尾部压进气囊的入水过滤器， 尾索浮游动物通过取食过滤器把食物吸入口中，然后把海水排出出口。❺尾索浮游动物可 以在世界上所有海域，包括北冰洋的海域中找到，它们往往停留在浮游植物密集的水面附近。

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❶Students of United States history, seeking to identify the circumstances that encouraged the emergence of feminist movements, have thoroughly investigated the mid-nineteenth-century American economic and social conditions that affected the status of women. ❷These historians, however, have analyzed less fully the development of specifically feminist ideas and activities during the same period. ❸Furthermore, the ideological origins of feminism in the United States have been obscured because, even when historians did take into account those feminist ideas and activities occurring within the United States, they failed to recognize that feminism was then a truly international movement actually centered in Europe. ❹American feminist activists who have been described as “solitary” and “individual theorists” were in reality connected to a movement—utopian socialism—which was already popularizing feminist ideas in Europe during the two decades that culminated in the first women’s rights conference held at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. ❺Thus, a complete understanding of the origins and development of nineteenth-century feminism in the United States requires that the geographical focus be widened to include Europe and that the detailed study already made of social conditions be expanded to include the ideological development of feminism. ❶研究美国历史的学者为了探索女权主义运动出现的环境，详细地研究了 19 世纪中期美国 影响女性地位的经济和社会条件。❷然而，这些历史学家并没有充分分析那个时代女权主 义的观点和活动。❸此外，美国女权主义的思想来源也不明确，因为就算当历史学家考虑 美国出现的那些女权思想和活动时，他们也未能意识到女权主义之后是一个以欧洲为中心的 世界性运动。❹那些被称为“单独的”以及“独特的”美国女权主义活动家事实上和一个运动 ——空想社会主义(utopian socialism)有关，这个运动已经在这 20 年中在欧洲普及女权主义 思想，并在 1848 年在纽约 Seneca Falls 召开的第一届女权大会时达到顶点。❺因此，要 想完全理解 19 世纪美国女权主义运动发展的起源，我们必须拓宽地域范围，将欧洲也包含 其中，并且必须扩充已经进行详尽研究的社会条件，将女权主义运动的政治主张的发展包含 其中。 ❶The earliest and most popular of the utopian socialists were the Saint-Simonians. ❷The specifically feminist part of Saint-Simonianism has, however, been less studied than the group’s contribution to early socialism. ❸This is regrettable on two counts. ❹By 1832 feminism was the central concern of Saint-Simonianism and entirely absorbed its adherents’ energy; hence, by ignoring its feminism, European historians have misunderstood Saint-Simonianism. ❺Moreover, since many feminist ideas can be traced to Saint-Simonianism, European historians’ appreciation of later feminism in France and the United States remained limited. ❶最早并最受欢迎的空想社会主义者是 Saint-Simonian 主义者。 ❷然而，Saint-Simonian 主义特定的女权主义与该团体对早期社会主义的贡献相比，没有得到足够的研究。 ❸这在 两方面让人们感到遗憾。❹到 1832 年为止，女权主义已经成为 Saint-Simonian 学说的焦 点，并且吸引了其拥护者全部精力；因此，欧洲历史学家由于忽略了其女权主义而对 Saint-Simonian 主义产生了误解。❺此外，由于许多女权主义思想可追溯到 Saint-Simonian 主义，所以欧洲历史学家们对在法国和美国后期女权主义运动的评价仍然十分有限。 ❶Saint-Simon’s followers, many of whom were women, based their feminism on an interpretation of his project to reorganize the globe by replacing brute force with the rule of spiritual powers. ❷The new world order would be ruled together by a male, to represent reflection, and a female, to represent sentiment. ❸This complementarity reflects the fact that, while the Saint-Simonians did not reject the belief that there were innate differences between men and women, they nevertheless foresaw an equally important social and political role for both sexes in their utopia.

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❶ Saint-Simonian 的追随者大多是女性，他们将其女权主义思想建立在对 Saint-Simonian 的方案的解释上，这个方案即以精神力量的统治代替野蛮力量，从而重新整合世界。❷世 界新秩序将由一名男性和一名女性一起统治的，男性代表理性思考（reflection），女性则 象征情感（sentiment）。❸这种互补性反映出一个事实，即虽然 Saint-Simonian 主义者没 有拒绝男性与女性之间内在差异，但他们预见到在他们的理想国中一种两性同等重要的社会 和政治作用。 ❶Only a few Saint-Simonians opposed a definition of sexual equality based on gender distinction. ❷This minority believed that individuals of both sexes were born similar in capacity and character, and they ascribed male-female differences to socialization and education. ❸The envisioned result of both currents of thought, however, was that women would enter public life in the new age and that sexual equality would reward men as well as women with an improved way of life. ❶只有少数 Saint-Simonian 主义者反对以男女性别差异为基础的关于性别平等的定义。 ❷ 这个少数派认为，两性中的个别个体出生时在能力和性格方面是相似的，并且他们将男女差 异归为适应社会以及教育的结果。 ❸但是这两股思潮所想象的共同结果是，新时代中男性 和女性会进入公共生活，而男女平等将会以一种改善的生活方式回馈男人和女人。

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SECTION B ❶Historically, a cornerstone of classical empiricism has been the notion that every true generalization must be confirmable by specific observations. ❷In classical empiricism, the truth of “All balls are red,” for example, is assessed by inspecting balls; any observation of a non red ball refutes unequivocally the proposed generalization. ❶历史上，古典经验主义的基础是这样一个概念，即每一个正确的推论都必须能被具体的 观察验证。❷例如，在古典经验主义中，“所有的球都是红色的”这一论断的真实性，就是通 过检验所有的球来评估的；任何观察中，只要发现一个不是红色的球，就能推翻这个论断。 ❶For W. V. O. Quine, however, this constitutes an overly “narrow” conception of empiricism. ❷ “All balls are red,” he maintains, forms one strand within an entire web of statements (our knowledge); individual observations can be referred only to this web as a whole. ❸As new observations are collected, he explains, they must be integrated into the web. ❹Problems occur only if a contradiction develops between a new observation, say, “That ball is blue,” and the preexisting statements. ❺In that case, he argues, any statement or combination of statements (not merely the “offending” generalization, as in classical empiricism) can be altered to achieve the fundamental requirement, a system free of contradictions, even if, in some cases, the alteration consists of labeling the new observation a “hallucination.” ❶但是，对于 W.V.O. Quine 而言，这只构成了对经验主义过于“狭隘”的理解。❷他认为，“所 有的球都是红色的”是整张陈述之网（即我们的知识）中的一股绳；个别的观察只能归属于 整张网。❸他解释道，随着新的观察被收集到，它们必须被整合到这个网中。❹问题只有 在以下情况下才会发生，即只有当新的观察，如“那个球是蓝色的”，与已存在的陈述之间发 生矛盾。❺在那种情况下，他认为，任何一项陈述或一组陈述（而不是像在古典经验主义 中那样，仅仅是那个“矛盾的”理论）可以被改变，用来实现基本的要求——一个没有矛盾的 系统，即使在某些情况下这种改变包括给新的观察贴上“幻觉”的标签。

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❶Until recently astronomers have been puzzled by the fate of red giant and supergiant stars. ❷When the core of a giant star whose mass surpasses 1.4 times the present mass of our Sun (M⊙) exhausts its nuclear fuel, it is unable to support its own weight and collapses into a tiny neutron star. ❸The gravitational energy released during this implosion of the core blows off the remainder of the star in a gigantic explosion, or a supernova. ❹Since around 50 percent of all stars are believed to begin their lives with masses greater than 1.4M⊙, we might expect that one out of every two stars would die as a supernova. ❺But in fact, only one star in thirty dies such a violent death. ❻The rest expire much more peacefully as planetary nebulas. ❼Apparently most massive stars manage to lose sufficient material that their masses drop below the critical value of 1.4 M⊙ before they exhaust their nuclear fuel. ❶直到最近，天文学家还在被红巨星以及超巨星的命运困惑着。❷当质量超过太阳当前质 量(M⊙)1.4 倍的巨星的内核耗尽其核能时，它便支撑不住自身重量，塌缩成一个微小的中子 星。❸核内爆产生的重力能会将星球或超新星中残余物在一次巨大爆炸中炸掉。❹由于所 有星球中有大约 50%的星球在形成初期的质量被认为大于 1.4 M⊙ ，我们预计两个星球中就 有一个在死后会变为超新星。 ❺但实际上， 30 个星球中只有 1 个会以这种暴亡的方式死去。 ❻其余星球以变成行星状星云这种更加平静的方式死去。❼显然质量最大的星球能够丢掉 足够的材料，这样在它耗尽核燃料前，它的质量就可以降到 1.4 M⊙ 这个关键值以下。 ❶Evidence supporting this view comes from observations of IRC+10216, a pulsating giant star located 700 light-years away from Earth. ❷A huge rate of mass loss (1 M⊙ every 10,000 years) has been deduced from infrared observations of ammonia (NH3) molecules located in the circumstellar cloud around IRC+10216. ❸Recent microwave observations of carbon monoxide (CO) molecules indicate a similar rate of mass loss and demonstrate that the escaping material extends outward from the star for a distance of at least one light-year. ❹Because we know the size of the cloud around IRC+10216 and can use our observations of either NH3 or CO to measure the outflow velocity, we can calculate an age for the circumstellar cloud. ❺IRC+10216 has apparently expelled, in the form of molecules and dust grains, a mass equal to that of our entire Sun within the past ten thousand years. ❻This implies that some stars can shed huge amounts of matter very quickly and thus may never expire as supernovas. ❼Theoretical models as well as statistics on supernovas and planetary nebulas suggest that stars that begin their lives with masses around 6 M ⊙ shed sufficient material to drop below the critical value of 1.4 M⊙. ❽IRC+10216, for example, should do this in a mere 50,000 years from its birth, only an instant in the life of a star. ❶支持这个观点的证据来自对于 IRC+10216 的观察，它是指位于距地球 700 光年处一颗有 规律跳动的巨星。❷人们通过环绕 IRC+10216 的云层里面氨(NH3)分子的红外观测推断出这 个星球巨大的质量减少速率(每 10,000 年减少 1 M⊙)。❸近期一氧化碳(CO)的微波观测显示 出一个近似的损耗率，并且证明了逃逸的材料至少向外延伸 1 光年的距离。❹因为我们知 道 IRC+10216 周围云层的大小，并且能利用我们观测 NH3 或 CO 的结果来测量逃逸速率， 所以我们可以计算环绕星球云层的年龄。❺在过去的 10000 年中，IRC+10216 已经以分子 和尘土颗粒的形式排出了相当于我们的整个太阳质量的物质。❻这意味着有的星球能够非 常快速地丢掉大量物质，因此它们死后不会变为超新星。❼超新星的理论模型和数据以及 行星状星云表明，形成初期质量约为 6 M⊙ 的星球丢掉足够多的物质来使质量降到 1.4M⊙ 以下。❽例如，IRC+10216 在生成后仅仅 50000 年内就使质量降到 1.4M⊙以下，这段时间 仅仅是星球生命中的一瞬。 ❶But what place does IRC+10216 have in stellar evolution? ❷Astronomers suggest that stars like IRC+10216 are actually “protoplanetary nebulas”—old giant stars whose dense cores have almost but not quite rid themselves of the fluffy envelopes of gas around them. ❸Once the star has lost the entire envelope, its exposed core becomes the central star of the 155

planetary nebula and heats and ionizes the last vestiges of the envelope as it flows away into space. ❹This configuration is a full-fledged planetary nebula, long familiar to optical astronomers. ❶但是 IRC+10216 在星球演化中处于什么地位呢？❷天文学家表示，像 IRC+10216 的星球 实际上是“原始行星的星云”——古老巨星，其稠密内核几乎但没有完全摆脱掉它们周围轻薄 的气体层。❸星球一旦完全失去气体层，那么它暴露的内核变成行星状星云的中心星球， 并且在最后剩余的气体层逃离到空间中的时候对其加热并离子化。❹很早之前光学天文学 家就已熟知，这个构造是一个充分发展的行星状星云。

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No. 9-6 SECTION A ❶The recent change to all-volunteer armed forces in the United States will eventually produce a gradual increase in the proportion of women in the armed forces and in the variety of women’s assignments, but probably not the dramatic gains for women that might have been expected. ❷This is so even though the armed forces operate in an ethos of institutional change oriented toward occupational equality and under the federal sanction of equal pay for equal work. ❸The difficulty is that women are unlikely to be trained for any direct combat operations. ❹A significant portion of the larger society remains uncomfortable as yet with extending equality in this direction. ❺Therefore, for women in the military, the search for equality will still be based on functional equivalence, not identity or even similarity of task. ❻Opportunities seem certain to arise. ❼The growing emphasis on deterrence is bound to offer increasing scope for women to become involved in novel types of noncombat military assignments. ❶最近在美国发生的志愿军武装力量的变化，最终会逐渐增加妇女在军队中的比例，以及 妇女可能担当的任务种类的比例，但是这种变化也许不会产生妇女原来预期的那种明显的益 处。❷即使军队在一种职业平等的制度变化的思潮中，以及在联邦政府同工同酬的法令指 导下运转，情况仍是这样。❸困难在于妇女不可能经过训练直接参与作战。❹社会中大部 分人至今对于向这个方向扩展男女平等仍感到不安。❺因此，对于军队中的妇女来说，追 求平等将仍然以职务等同为基础，而不是以任务相同相似为基础。❻机遇一定会出现。❼ 军事上的威慑因素的强化必然会给妇女提供参与新型非战斗性军事任务以越来越大的活动 范围。

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❶Of the thousands of specimens of meteorites found on Earth and known to science, only about 100 are igneous; that is, they have undergone melting by volcanic action at some time since the planets were first formed. ❷These igneous meteorites are known as achondrites because they lack chondrules—small stony spherules found in the thousands of meteorites (called “chondrites”) composed primarily of unaltered minerals that condensed from dust and gas at the origin of the solar system. ❸Achondrites are the only known samples of volcanic rocks originating outside the Earth-Moon system. ❹Most are thought to have been dislodged by interbody impact from asteroids, with diameters of from 10 to 500 kilometers, in solar orbit between Mars and Jupiter. ❶在千余种地球上发现并且科学界已知的陨石样本中，只有大约 100 颗是火成的(igneous)； 这就是说，自从行星形成初期之后的某个时期，这些陨石经历了火山活动引起的熔化状态。 ❷这些火成陨石被认为是无球粒陨石(achondrites)，因为它们缺少球粒(chondrules)——球 粒是在上千种球粒陨石中发现的小球形石头，而小球形石头基本是由源于太阳系的灰尘和气 体凝结而成的未变化的矿物组成的。❸无球粒陨石是唯一已知发源于地月系统以外的火山 岩石样本。❹人们认为大多数无球粒陨石是被行星星际间冲击力挤压的，小行星的直径从 10-500 千米不等，在火星和木星之间的太阳系轨道上运行。 ❶Shergottites, the name given to three anomalous achondrites so far discovered on Earth, present scientists with a genuine enigma. ❷Shergottites crystallized from molten rock less than 1.1 billion years ago (some 3.5 billion years later than typical achondrites) and were presumably ejected into space when an object impacted on a body similar in chemical composition to Earth. ❶ Shergottites 是迄今为止在地球上发现的三个异常的无球粒陨石的名字，它们对科学家来 说是一个真正的谜团。❷ 在不到 11 亿年前，Shergottites 由熔化的岩石结晶而成（它们比 一般无球粒陨石要晚 35 亿年），我们推测它们是在被一个化学成分类似于地球的天体撞击 后弹射到太空中的。 ❶While most meteorites appear to derive from comparatively small bodies, shergottites exhibit properties that indicate that their source was a large planet, conceivably Mars. ❷In order to account for such an unlikely source, some unusual factor must be invoked, because the impact needed to accelerate a fragment of rock to escape the gravitational field of a body even as small as the Moon is so great that no meteorites of lunar origin have been discovered. ❶虽然大多数陨石看起来是从相对较小的天体中演化而来的，shergottites 展现出的性质表 明它们是来自一个大的星球——这可以让我们想到火星。❷为了解释这个未必可能的起源， 我们必须借助于一些非常规参数，因为把一个岩石碎片加速到逃离月球重力场的速度所需要 的冲击力很大，以至于我们还未发现来自月球的陨石。 ❶While some scientists speculate that shergottites derive from Io (a volcanically active moon of Jupiter), recent measurements suggest that since Io’s surface is rich in sulfur and sodium, the chemical composition of its volcanic products would probably be unlike that of the shergottites. ❷Moreover, any fragments dislodged from Io by interbody impact would be unlikely to escape the gravitational pull of Jupiter. ❶虽然一些科学家推测 shergottites 来自 Io（木星的一个活火山卫星），近期的测量显示 Io 表面富含硫和钠，而这种火山爆发产物的化学成分很可能和 shergottites 的化学成分不同。 ❷此外，由于星际撞击而从 Io 上弹射出来的碎片都不太可能逃脱木星的引力场。 ❶The only other logical source of shergottites is Mars. ❷Space-probe photographs indicate the existence of giant volcanoes on the Martian surface. ❸From the small number of impact craters that appear on Martian lava flows, one can estimate that the planet was volcanically active as recently as a half-billion years ago—and may be active today. ❹The great 158

objection to the Martian origin of shergottites is the absence of lunar meteorites on Earth. ❺An impact capable of ejecting a fragment of the Martian surface into an Earth-intersecting orbit is even less probable than such an event on the Moon, in view of the Moon’s smaller size and closer proximity to Earth. ❻A recent study suggests, however, that permafrost ices below the surface of Mars may have altered the effects of impact on it. ❼If the ices had been rapidly vaporized by an impacting object, the expanding gases might have helped the ejected fragments reach escape velocity. ❽Finally, analyses performed by space probes show a remarkable chemical similarity between Martian soil and the shergottites. ❶Shergottites 在逻辑上说得通的来源就只有火星了。❷宇宙探测器的照片显示，在火星表 面存在着巨大火山。❸从火星熔岩流中出现的少数火山爆发口可以推测出，火星上的火山 在 5 亿年以前仍然活跃并且现在可能仍然在活跃。❹对于 Shergottites 起源于火星持最大反 对意见的人认为地球上没有发现来自月球的陨石。❺产生一个能把火星表面碎片弹射到与 地球交叉轨道上的冲击力甚至比产生从月球弹射的力的可能性还要小。❻然而最近的研究 表明，火星表面下冻土的冰层可能已经改变了冲击力的影响。❼如果冰被撞击物体快速汽 化，那么膨胀的蒸汽可能帮助弹射的碎片达到火星的逃逸速度。❽最后，宇宙探测器的分 析表明，火星土壤和 Shergottites 的化学成分有明显的相似性。

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SECTION B ❶The transplantation of organs from one individual to another normally involves two major problems: (1) organ rejection is likely unless the transplantation antigens of both individuals are nearly identical, and (2) the introduction of any unmatched transplantation antigens induces the development by the recipient of donor-specific lymphocytes that will produce violent rejection of further transplantations from that donor. ❷However, we have found that among many strains of rats these “normal” rules of transplantation are not obeyed by liver transplants. ❸Not only are liver transplants never rejected, but they even induce a state of donor-specific unresponsiveness in which subsequent transplants of other organs, such as skin, from that donor are accepted permanently. ❹Our hypothesis is that (1) many strains of rats simply cannot mount a sufficiently vigorous destructive immune-response(using lymphocytes) to outstrip the liver’s relatively great capacity to protect itself from immune-response damage and that (2) the systemic unresponsiveness observed is due to concentration of the recipient’s donor-specific lymphocytes at the site of the liver transplant ❶从一个个体到另一个个体的器官移植通常包括两个主要问题：（1）器官排斥是非常有可 能发生的，除非两个个体的移植抗原几乎相同；（2）引入任何不匹配的移植抗原会导致接 受器官产生针对特定移植体的淋巴细胞(lymphocyte)，这种淋巴细胞会对那个移植体进一步 的移植产生强烈的排斥现象。❷然而，我们已经发现，在许多品种的老鼠中，肝脏移植并 没有遵守这些移植的“正常”法则。❸不仅肝脏移植从来没有出现排斥，而且肝脏移植甚至引 发了供体特异性无应答（donor-specific unresponsiveness)的状态，在这种状态下后续其他 器官的移植，如皮肤，从同一供体移植的器官会被永久接受。❹我们的假设是：（1）很多 品种的老鼠完全不能积累足够的精力（用淋巴细胞）发动有摧毁力的免疫应答，来超越肝脏 相对大的、保护自身不受免疫应答破坏的能力，以及（2）被观察到的系统性的不应答，是 因为接受者的供者特异性淋巴集中在肝脏移植的部位了。

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❶Practically speaking, the artistic maturing of the cinema was the single-handed achievement of David W. Griffith (1875-1948). ❷Before Griffith, photography in dramatic films consisted of little more than placing the actors before a stationary camera and showing them in full length as they would have appeared on stage. ❸From the beginning of his career as a director, however, Griffith, because of his love of Victorian painting, employed composition. ❹He conceived of the camera image as having a foreground and a rear ground, as well as the middle distance preferred by most directors. ❺By 1910 he was using close-ups to reveal significant details of the scene or of the acting and extreme long shots to achieve a sense of spectacle and distance. ❻His appreciation of the camera’s possibilities produced novel dramatic effects. ❼By splitting an event into fragments and recording each from the most suitable camera position, he could significantly vary the emphasis from camera shot to camera shot. ❶实际说来，电影艺术的成熟是 David W. Griffith(1875-1948)一手带动的。❷在 Griffith 之 前，喜剧影片中的摄影技术仅仅涉及到把演员放在静止的照相机前面，并且当他们在台上时 显示其全身影像。❸然而，在他的导演生涯初期，Griffith 由于热爱 Victorian 绘画而在摄影 中运用了构图法(composition)。❹他设想，电影画面有一个前景和一个背景，而且还有大 多数导演喜欢的中景。 ❺到 1910 年的时候，他用特写镜头(close-up)来展现场景或表演中 的重要细节，并且用特长镜头(extreme long shot)来获得场面感和距离感。❻他对于电影可 能性的鉴赏力产生了许多新奇的戏剧效果。 ❼通过把一个事件分割成多个片段并对每个片 段用最适合的镜头位置进行拍摄，他得以在镜头之间变换侧重点。 ❶Griffith also achieved dramatic effects by means of creative editing. ❷By juxtaposing images and varying the speed and rhythm of their presentation, he could control the dramatic intensity of the events as the story progressed. ❸Despite the reluctance of his producers, who feared that the public would not be able to follow a plot that was made up of such juxtaposed images, Griffith persisted, and experimented as well with other elements of cinematic syntax that have become standard ever since. ❹These included the flashback, permitting broad psychological and emotional exploration as well as narrative that was not chronological, and the crosscut between two parallel actions to heighten suspense and excitement. ❺In thus exploiting fully the possibilities of editing, Griffith transposed devices of the Victorian novel to film and gave film mastery of time as well as space. ❶Griffith 也通过有创意的剪辑来实现戏剧效果。❷通过并排放置图像以及改变图像展示的 速度和节奏，他得以随故事的发展来控制事件的戏剧力度。❸尽管他的制片人有些勉强， 担心大众不能够接受由并排放置图像组成的情节，但是 Griffith 坚持己见，用电影语言的其 他元素进行实验，这些元素从此变成了一个标准规范。❹这些元素包括闪回镜头(flashback)、 广泛的心理及情感上的探索、非正常时序的叙述以及为了增加悬念及刺激性的两个平行动作 的交叉剪切。❺通过如此淋漓尽致地利用剪辑带来的种种可能性，Griffith 将 Victorian 小说 中的技巧移植到电影里，并且展现了对电影在时间和空间上的驾驭能力。 ❶Besides developing the cinema’s language, Griffith immensely broadened its range and treatment of subjects. ❷His early output was remarkably eclectic: it included not only the standard comedies, melodramas, westerns, and thrillers, but also such novelties as adaptations from Browning and Tennyson, and treatments of social issues. ❸As his successes mounted, his ambitions grew, and with them the whole of American cinema. ❹When he remade Enoch Arden in 1911, he insisted that a subject of such importance could not be treated in the then conventional length of one reel. ❺Griffith’s introduction of the American-made multireel picture began an immense revolution. ❻Two years later, Judith of Bethulia, an elaborate historicophilosophical spectacle, reached the unprecedented length of four reels, or one hour’s running time. ❼From our contemporary viewpoint, the

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pretensions of this film may seem a trifle ludicrous, but at the time it provoked endless debate and discussion and gave a new intellectual respectability to the cinema. ❶除了发展电影语言之外，Griffith 极大地扩展了（电影）主题范围以及处理手法。❷他早 期的作品显得十分兼容并包(eclectic)：作品不光包括了标准喜剧、音乐剧、西部影片以及恐 怖片，还包括了对 Browning and Tennyson 文学作品的改编以及对社会问题的处理。❸他的 野心随着他越来越多的成就而增长，同时美国电影也在成长。❹他在 1911 年重拍 Enoch Arden 时坚持认为，如此重要的题材无法在传统的一个盘片的篇幅之内得到充分展现。 ❺Griffith 对美国制造的多盘片影片的引入引起了巨大的革命。❻两年之后，Judith of Bethulia 这部精心制作的历史哲学片，运用了前所未有的四盘片，放映时间长达一个小时。 ❼从我们现代的观点来看，这部电影的自命不凡之处显得有点可笑，但是当时它引发了无 休止的争论及讨论，并且把电影在文化活动中提高到了让人刮目相看的程度。

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1990 年 04 月 SECTION A ❶Because of its accuracy in outlining the Earth’s subsurface, the seismic-reflection method remains the most important tool in the search for petroleum reserves. ❷In field practice, a subsurface is mapped by arranging a series of wave-train sources, such as small dynamite explosions, in a grid pattern. ❸As each source is activated, it generates a wave train that moves downward at a speed determined uniquely by the rock’s elastic characteristics. ❹As rock interfaces are crossed, the elastic characteristics encountered generally change abruptly, which causes part of the energy to be reflected back to the surface, where it is recorded by seismic instruments. ❺The seismic records must be processed to correct for positional differences between the source and the receiver, for unrelated wave trains, and for multiple reflections from the rock interfaces. ❻Then the data acquired at each of the specific source locations are combined to generate a physical profile of the subsurface, which can eventually be used to select targets for drilling. ❶由于地震反射法(seismic-reflection method)在描绘地表下情况的准确性，该方法一直是 探寻石油储存的最重要的工具。❷在实地作业中，地表下情况是这样被描绘的，即通过将 一系列波列源，例如小规模炸药爆炸，排列为一个网格模式。❸当每一个波列源被触发时， 它就产生一个波列，该波列会以一个特定速度向下移动，下移的速度仅仅取决于岩石的弹性 特征。❹当波列穿过岩石的界面时，界面的弹性特征一般会突然改变，这导致一部分能量 反射回到地面被地震仪记录下来。❺地震记录必须加以处理来纠正波列源与接收器之间的 位置差异，纠正无关的波列，以及纠正来自岩石界面的多重反射。❻然后，把每一个特定 波列源位置获取的数据综合起来，得出一个地下物理剖面图，而这一剖面图最终能被用来选 择钻探目标。

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❶Modern archaeological finds can still contribute much to the study of ancient literature. ❷For example, forty years ago a survey of the early Greek dramatist Aeschylus’ plays would have started with The Suppliant Women. ❸Many factors internal to the play, but perhaps most especially the prominence of the chorus (which in this play has the main role), led scholars to consider it one of Aeschylus’ earlier works. ❹The consensus was that here was a drama truly reflecting an early stage in the evolution of tragedy out of choral lyric. ❺The play was dated as early as the 490’s B.C., in any event, well before Aeschylus’ play The Persians of 472 B.C. ❻Then, in 1952, a fragment of papyrus found at Oxyrhynchus was published stating the official circumstances and results of a dramatic contest. ❼The fragment announced that Aeschylus won first prize with his Danaid tetralogy, of which The Suppliant Women is the opening play, and defeated Sophocles in the process. ❽Sophocles did not compete in any dramatic contest before 468 B.C., when he won his first victory. ❾Hence, except by special pleading (e. g., that the tetralogy was composed early in Aeschylus’ career but not produced until the 460’s B.C.), the Danaid tetralogy must be put after 468 B.C. ❿In addition, a few letters in the fragment suggest the name Archedemides, archon in 463 B.C., thus perhaps tying the plays to that precise date, almost exactly halfway between Aeschylus’ Seven Against Thebes of 467 B.C. and his Oresteia. ❶现代考古发现仍然对古代文学研究有很大贡献。❷例如，40年前一个关于早期古希腊喜 剧作家Aeschylus剧目的调查研究，有可能是以喜剧 The Suppliant Women 为开端的。❸很 多因素对该剧目起到了内在作用，但可能合唱团（在该剧目中起主要作用）的显著地位是最 特殊的，这让学者们认为该剧目是Aeschylus的早期作品之一。❹学者们公认的是，确实有 一出戏剧真实反映了悲剧从合唱抒情诗中演化的早期阶段。❺该剧目被认为是公元前490 年代的作品，无论如何，它都早于Aeschylus公元前472年的剧目The Persians。❻之后到了 1952年，在Oxyrhynchus发现的一块纸莎草纸碎片被公之于众，它陈述了官方情况和一次戏 剧比赛的结果。❼这块碎片宣布Aeschylus的Danaid四部曲获得了第一名，而在这个四部曲 中The Suppliant Women是开场剧目，并且在此过程中击败了Sophocles。❽Sophocles 在公 元前468年以前从来没有参加过任何戏剧比赛，而在这一年他取得了自己的第一次胜利。❾ 因此，除非有特殊的辩解（例如，该四部曲是在Aeschylus的早期职业生涯中写的，但是直 到公元前460年才完成），否则Danaid四部曲必须被放在公元前468年之后。❿此外，一些 书信的碎片说明，Archedemides是公元前463年的统治者的名字，因此我们可能可以把剧目 和准确日期联系起来，这几乎正好是在Aeschylus公元前467年的作品Seven Against Thebes 和Oresteia 之间。 ❶The implication of the papyrus administered a severe shock to the vast majority of classical scholars, who had confidently asserted that not only the role of the chorus but also language, metrics, and characterization all pointed to an early date. ❷The discovery has resulted in no less than a total reevaluation of every chronological criterion that has been applied to or derived from Aeschylus’ plays. ❸The activity has been brisk, and a new creed has now spread. ❹The prominence of the chorus in The Suppliant Women now is seen not as a sign of primitivism but as analogous to the massive choral songs of the Oresteia. ❺Statistics have been formulated, or reformulated, to show that stylistically The Suppliant Women does actually occupy a position after The Persians and Seven Against Thebes, which now become the “primitive” plays, and before the Oresteia. ❻While the new doctrine seems almost certainly correct, the one papyrus fragment raises the specter that another may be unearthed, showing, for instance, that it was a posthumous production of the Danaid tetralogy which bested Sophocles, and throwing the date once more into utter confusion. ❼This is unlikely to happen, but it warns us that perhaps the most salutary feature of the papyrus scrap is its message of the extreme difficulty of classifying and categorizing rigidly the development of a creative artist. ❶纸莎草纸的含义在大部分古典学者中引起了轰动，学者们此前自信地认为不仅是合唱队 164

的作用，语言、韵律、以及人物性格都指向早期年代。❷这个发现导致的结果不亚于对每 个年代标准进行彻底重新评估，而这些标准已经被应用于 Aeschylus 的剧目，或是源自他的 剧目。❸重新评估的活动进行得很活跃，并且一种新的信条已经传播开来。❹合唱队在 The Suppliant Women 中的显著地位已经不再被当作原始主义的象征，而是被看作与 Oresteia 类似的大型合唱歌曲。❺统计资料已经明确地表明，或重新表明：在文体上，The Suppliant Women 确实是占据了现在已经变成了“原始”剧目的 The Persians 和 Seven Against Thebes 之后的位置，并且处于 Oresteia 之前。❻虽然新的教条看起来几乎完全是正确的，但是纸 莎草纸的碎片引起了这样一种疑虑，即另一个残片还可能会被挖出来，来表明：The Suppliant Women 是 Danaid 死后出版的四部曲中的作品，还借此击败了 Sophocles , 并使作品的创作 年代再一次陷入完全混乱之中。❼这种情形虽然不太可能发生，但它提醒了我们，也许纸 莎草纸最有益的特征是它传达出来的这样一种信息，即要想对一个有创造力的作家的发展过 程进行严格的划分和分类是极其困难的。

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SECTION B ❶ Scholars often fail to see that music played an important role in the preservation of African culture in the United States. ❷They correctly note that slavery stripped some cultural elements from Black people—their political and economic systems—but they underestimate the significance of music in sustaining other African cultural values. ❸African music, unlike the music of some other cultures, was based on a total vision of life in which music was not an isolated social domain. ❹In African culture music was pervasive, serving not only religion, but all phases of life, including birth, death, work, and play. ❺The methods that a community devises to perpetuate itself come into being to preserve aspects of the cultural legacy that that community perceives as essential. ❻Music, like art in general, was so inextricably a part of African culture that it became a crucial means of preserving the culture during and after the dislocations of slavery. ❶学者们通常没有意识到，在美国，音乐在保存非洲文化中的重要地位。❷虽然学者们正 确地指出，奴隶制剥夺了黑人身上某些文化因素——他们的政治与经济体制，但学者们低估 了音乐在维持其它非洲文化价值方面的重要性。❸与一些其它文化的音乐不同，非洲音乐 以对人生全部理解为基础，而生活中音乐不是一种孤立在社会之外的领域。❹在非洲文化 中，音乐无所不在，不仅仅服务于宗教，而且服务于生活的所有方面，包括生老病死，工作 娱乐。❺一个社会所创造出来使自身永存的方法得以形成，来保存在这个社会中具有本质 意义的文化遗产的各个方面。❻音乐，就像一般意义上的艺术一样，构成了非洲文化中如 此不可分割的一个部分，以至于它在奴隶制的解体过程中以及在奴隶制解体之后，变成了保 存文化的至关重要的手段。

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❶Traditionally, pollination by wind has been viewed as a reproductive process marked by random events in which the vagaries of the wind are compensated for by the generation of vast quantities of pollen, so that the ultimate production of new seeds is assured at the expense of producing much more pollen than is actually used. ❷Because the potential hazards pollen grains are subject to as they are transported over long distances are enormous, wind-pollinated plants have, in the view above, compensated for the ensuing loss of pollen through happenstance by virtue of producing an amount of pollen that is one to three orders of magnitude greater than the amount produced by species pollinated by insects. ❶在过去的研究中，风媒授粉(pollination by wind)一直被看作是一个以随机事件为标志的 繁殖过程，在此过程中，风的随机性由于大量花粉的产生被补偿，因此新种子的繁殖得以保 证，而其代价是传播所需的花粉要远超过实际的使用量。❷由于花粉粒在长距离的运输过 程中潜在着巨大危险，按上述观点来看，风媒授粉植物补偿了由随机事件造成的花粉损失， 其途径是，制造出大于虫媒授粉(pollinated by insects)植物所产生的花粉量的一至三个数量 级的花粉量。 ❶However, a number of features that are characteristic of wind-pollinated plants reduce pollen waste. ❷For example, many wind-pollinated species fail to release pollen when wind speeds are low or when humid conditions prevail. ❸Recent studies suggest another way in which species compensate for the inefficiency of wind pollination. ❹These studies suggest that species frequently take advantage of the physics of pollen motion by generating specific aerodynamic environments within the immediate vicinity of their female reproductive organs. ❺It is the morphology of these organs that dictates the pattern of airflow disturbances through which pollen must travel. ❻The speed and direction of the airflow disturbances can combine with the physical properties of a species’ pollen to produce a species-specific pattern of pollen collision on the surfaces of female reproductive organs. ❼Provided that these surfaces are strategically located, the consequences of this combination can significantly increase the pollen-capture efficiency of a female reproductive organ. ❶然而，一些风媒授粉植物所独有的特征可减少花粉浪费。❷例如，许多风授粉植物在风 速过慢或湿度高时，就停止释放花粉。❸近期的研究表明，植物还利用另一种方法来补偿 风媒授粉的低效率。❹这些研究指出，植物经常通过在紧靠其植物雌性生殖器官来形成特 定的空气动力环境，从而来利用花粉运动的物理原理。❺正是这些生殖器官的形态规定了 气流干扰的模式，花粉必须通过该模式传播。❻气流干扰的速度及方向会和植物花粉的物 理属性结合起来，在雌性植物生殖器官表面产生一种该植物所特有的花粉碰撞模式。❼只 要在这些表面进行有策略的排布，这种组合可以大大提升雌性生殖器官捕捉花粉的效率。 ❶A critical question that remains to be answered is whether the morphological attributes of the female reproductive organs of wind-pollinated species are evolutionary adaptations to wind pollination or are merely fortuitous. ❷A complete resolution of the question is as yet impossible since adaptation must be evaluated for each species within its own unique functional context. ❸However, it must be said that, while evidence of such evolutionary adaptations does exist in some species, one must be careful about attributing morphology to adaptation. ❹For example, the spiral arrangement of scale-bract complexes on ovule-bearing pine cones, where the female reproductive organs of conifers are located, is important to the production of airflow patterns that spiral over the cone’s surfaces, thereby passing airborne pollen from one scale to the next. ❺However, these patterns cannot be viewed as an adaptation to wind pollination because the spiral arrangement occurs in a number of non-wind-pollinated plant lineages and is regarded as a characteristic of vascular plants, of which conifers are only one kind, as a whole. ❻Therefore, the spiral arrangement is not likely to be the result of a direct adaptation to wind pollination. 167

❶一个尚未解决的重要问题是，风媒授粉植物的雌性生殖器官的形态特征是对风媒授粉的 一种进化适应，还是仅仅是偶然发生的。❷对这一问题作完整解答至今仍然不可能，因为 对于每一种植物来说，必须在植物自身独特的功能背景中来评估适应能力。❸但是，必须 指出的是，尽管在某些植物种类中确实存在进化适应的证据，但将形状归因于适应，我们应 该对其持谨慎态度。❹例如，带有胚珠的松球的鳞苞综合体的螺旋状排布，就是松柏目植 物雌性生殖器官的所在位置，这对于气流模式的形成与产生非常重要，而这些气流模式在松 球的表面盘旋上升，从而把空气的花粉从一个鳞苞传播至下一个鳞苞。❺但是，这些模式 不能被看作对于风媒授粉的一种适应，因为螺旋形排布出现在一系列非风媒授粉的植物后代 身上，并被看作一个所有维管植物(vascular plant)都具备的特征，而松柏目植物仅是维管植 物中的其中一种。❻因此，这种螺旋形排布不太可能是对风媒授粉直接适应的结果。

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1990 年 10 月 SECTION A ❶It has been known for many decades that the appearance of sunspots is roughly periodic, with an average cycle of eleven years. ❷Moreover, the incidence of solar flares and the flux of solar cosmic rays, ultraviolet radiation, and x-radiation all vary directly with the sunspot cycle. ❸ But after more than a century of investigation, the relation of these and other phenomena, known collectively as the solar-activity cycle, to terrestrial weather and climate remains unclear. ❹For example, the sunspot cycle and the allied magnetic-polarity cycle have been linked to periodicities discerned in records of such variables as rainfall, temperature, and winds. ❺Invariably, however, the relation is weak, and commonly of dubious statistical significance. ❶人们在几十年前就已知道，太阳黑子(sunspot)的出现有近似的周期性，这个周期平均是 11 年。❷此外，太阳耀斑(solar flare)的出现，太阳外层射线、紫外线辐射以及 X 射线辐射 的波动，都与太阳黑子周期有直接关系。❸但是经过一个多世纪的研究，科学家们仍然没 有弄清太阳活动的周期现象与地球上天气及气候之间的关系。❹比如，太阳黑子周期和相 关磁极性周期一直是与可观察到的一些变量记录的周期性联系起来的，比如降水、温度和风 的记录。 ❺然而，这种联系是很弱的，一般具有不确定的统计学意义。 ❶Effects of solar variability over longer terms have also been sought. ❷The absence of recorded sunspot activity in the notes kept by European observers in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries has led some scholars to postulate a brief cessation of sunspot activity at that time (a period called the Maunder minimum. ❸The Maunder minimum has been linked to a span of unusual cold in Europe extending from the sixteenth to the early nineteenth centuries. ❹The reality of the Maunder minimum has yet to be established, however, especially since the records that Chinese naked-eye observers of solar activity made at that time appear to contradict it. ❺Scientists have also sought evidence of long-term solar periodicities by examining indirect climatological data, such as fossil records of the thickness of ancient tree rings. ❻These studies, however, failed to link unequivocally terrestrial climate and the solar-activity cycle, or even to confirm the cycle’s past existence. ❶人们在探索长期太阳变化的影响。❷17 世纪晚期及 18 世纪早期欧洲观察者的太阳黑子 活动记录的缺失使得一些学者推测当时太阳活动有一个短暂的停止 （这段时间叫做 Maunder 极小期）。❸人们将 Maunder 极小期与 16 至 19 世纪的异常寒冷联系了起来。❹然而， Maunder 极小期的真实性还有待证实，特别是由于中国肉眼观察者对当时太阳活动的记录 与 Maunder 极小期相违背。❺科学家们通过仔细检查间接的气候数据，例如古代树木年轮 厚度的化石记录，来寻找太阳长期周期性的证据。 ❻然而，这些研究未能将地球气候和太 阳活动周期明确地联系在一起，甚至没有确定周期过去是否存在。 ❶If consistent and reliable geological or archaeological evidence tracing the solar-activity cycle in the distant past could be found, it might also resolve an important issue in solar physics: how to model solar activity. ❷Currently, there are two models of solar activity. ❸The first supposes that the Sun’s internal motions (caused by rotation and convection) interact with its large-scale magnetic field to produce a dynamo, a device in which mechanical energy is converted into the energy of a magnetic field. ❹In short, the Sun’s large-scale magnetic field is taken to be self-sustaining, so that the solar-activity cycle it drives would be maintained with little overall change for perhaps billions of years. ❺The alternative explanation supposes that the Sun’s large-scale magnetic field is a remnant of the field the Sun acquired when it formed, and is not sustained against decay. ❻In this model, the solar mechanism dependent on the Sun’s magnetic field runs down more quickly. ❼Thus, the characteristics of the solar-activity cycle could be expected to change over a 169

long period of time. ❽Modern solar observations span too short a time to reveal whether present cyclical solar activity is a long-lived feature of the Sun, or merely a transient phenomenon. ❶如果我们可以找到将太阳活动周期追溯到遥远过去的、连续且可靠的地理学及考古学证 据，那么这会解决太阳物理学上一个重要的问题：如何建立太阳活动的模型。❷目前有两 种太阳活动的模型。❸第一个模型假设了太阳内部运动（由自转和对流引起）和太阳大规 模磁场相互作用而构成一个发电机，即一个把机械能转化为电磁能的装置。❹简而言之， 太阳大规模磁场（的能量）是自给自足的，由此产生太阳活动的周期会维持下去，10 亿年 之内不会有什么变化。❺另一种解释假定了太阳大规模磁场是太阳在形成时获得磁场的一 点残余，磁场无法维持而不衰减。❻在这个模型中，依靠太阳磁场来维持太阳活动的机制 会更快耗尽磁场。❼因此，人们预计太阳活动的周期特征会在长时间内变化。❽现代太阳 观测时间跨度过短，无法揭示目前周期性的太阳活动是太阳的长期特征，还是只是一个短暂 现象。

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❶The common belief of some linguists that each language is a perfect vehicle for the thoughts of the nation speaking it is in some ways the exact counterpart of the conviction of the Manchester school of economics that supply and demand will regulate everything for the best. ❷Just as economists were blind to the numerous cases in which the law of supply and demand left actual wants unsatisfied, so also many linguists are deaf to those instances in which the very nature of a language calls forth misunderstandings in everyday conversation, and in which, consequently, a word has to be modified or defined in order to present the idea intended by the speaker: “He took his stick—no, not John’s, but his own.” ❸No language is perfect, and if we admit this truth, we must also admit that it is not unreasonable to investigate the relative merits of different languages or of different details in languages. ❶某些语言学家一致认为每种语言都是一个载体，可用来完美地表达使用这种语言的民族 的思想，这一语言学思想在某种程度上与曼彻斯特经济学派所坚信的观点相同，构成了一种 完全对等的理论，而该经济学派认为，供求关系制约着一切并调节至最佳状态。❷正如这 些经济家对大量供求规律使实际需求不得满足的实例视而不见那样，许多语言学家对下述情 形也可谓是充耳不闻，在这些情况下，语言的性质本身就有可能导致日常交谈中的种种误解， 因此在这种情况下，为了表达说话者的意图，一个词语必须经过修饰或界定：“他拿了他的 拐杖——不，不是约翰的，而是他自己的。” ❸没有一种语言是完美的，假如我们承认这一 真理，我们同样也必须承认，对不同语言的相对优劣，或对不同语言中的不同细节进行分析 并不是无稽之谈。

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SECTION B ❶It is frequently assumed that the mechanization of work has a revolutionary effect on the lives of the people who operate the new machines and on the society into which the machines have been introduced. ❷For example, it has been suggested that the employment of women in industry took them out of the household, their traditional sphere, and fundamentally altered their position in society. ❸In the nineteenth century, when women began to enter factories, Jules Simon, a French politician, warned that by doing so, women would give up their femininity. ❹Friedrich Engels, however, predicted that women would be liberated from the “social, legal, and economic subordination” of the family by technological developments that made possible the recruitment of “the whole female sex into public industry.” ❺Observers thus differed concerning the social desirability of mechanization’s effects, but they agreed that it would transform women’s lives. ❶人们经常假定机械化的工作对操作新机器的人以及引入机器的社会产生革命性的影响。 ❷例如，有人认为女性在工业中就业让她们走出了家庭这个传统活动范围，并且从根本上 改变了她们在社会上的地位。❸19 世纪时，当女性开始进入工厂时，法国政治家 Jules Simon 警告说，如果这么做，那么女性会失去女性的气质。❹然而，Friedrich Engels 预言，技术 发展把女性从“社会上、法律上以及经济上的从属地位”中解放出来，并且技术发展使“把全 社会女性招收进公共工业中”成为可能。 ❺观察者们因此在机械化影响社会的效果的问题 上意见不一，但是他们都同意这会改变女性的生活。 ❶Historians, particularly those investigating the history of women, now seriously question this assumption of transforming power. ❷They conclude that such dramatic technological innovations as the spinning jenny, the sewing machine, the typewriter, and the vacuum cleaner have not resulted in equally dramatic social changes in women’s economic position or in the prevailing evaluation of women’s work. ❸The employment of young women in textile mills during the Industrial Revolution was largely an extension of an older pattern of employment of young, single women as domestics. ❹It was not the change in office technology, but rather the separation of secretarial work, previously seen as an apprenticeship for beginning managers, from administrative work that in the 1880’s created a new class of “dead-end” jobs, thenceforth considered “women’s work.” ❺The increase in the numbers of married women employed outside the home in the twentieth century had less to do with the mechanization of housework and an increase in leisure time for these women than it did with their own economic necessity and with high marriage rates that shrank the available pool of single women workers, previously, in many cases, the only women employers would hire. ❶历史学家，尤其是那些研究女性历史的历史学家，现在严肃地质疑有关机械化改变力量 的假设。❷他们总结到，像纺织机、缝纫机、打字机以及真空吸尘器这样引人注目的科技 创新并没有对女性经济地位或是对女性工作现行评价上引起同样引人注目的社会变化。❸ 纺织厂在工业革命时期雇佣年轻女性是对之前雇佣年轻单身女性做家务这种旧模式的一种 延伸。❹不是办公室科技的变化，而是以前被看作是初级经理实习秘书的工作从行政工作 中的分离，使得 19 世纪 80 年代产生了一种从事“无出路”职业的社会阶级，从那时起这份工 作被认为是“女性的工作”。 ❺20 世纪在外工作已婚女性数量的增加与其说和家庭工作的机 械化以及与这些女性闲暇时间的增加有关，不如说和妇女本身的经济需要以及和以前只有女 性雇主才愿意雇佣的单身女性来源减少的高结婚率有关。 ❶Women’s work has changed considerably in the past 200 years, moving from the household to the office or the factory, and later becoming mostly white-collar instead of blue-collar work. ❷Fundamentally, however, the conditions under which women work have changed little since before the Industrial Revolution: the segregation of occupations by gender, lower pay for women as a group, jobs that require relatively low levels of skill and 172

offer women little opportunity for advancement all persist, while women’s household labor remains demanding. ❸Recent historical investigation has led to a major revision of the notion that technology is always inherently revolutionary in its effects on society. ❹Mechanization may even have slowed any change in the traditional position of women both in the labor market and in the home. ❶在过去的 200 年中，女性工作发生了翻天覆地的变化，从家庭中到办公室或者工厂中， 以及后来大多变成白领而非蓝领工作。❷然而从根本上说，女性工作的环境在工业革命之 后变化不大：以性别来划分的工作、对于女性群体较低的报酬以及技术要求低且女性升职空 间小的工作都一直存在，而妇女做家务劳动依然需要大量精力。❸近来历史研究对于科技 总是对社会产生内在革命性影响的观点做了修正。❹机械化甚至减缓了妇女在劳动市场中 以及家中的传统位置的变化。

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❶Warm-blooded animals have elaborate physiological controls to maintain constant body temperature (in humans, 37℃). ❷Why then during sickness should temperature rise, apparently increasing stress on the infected organism? ❸It has long been known that the level of serum iron in animals falls during infection. ❹Garibaldi first suggested a relationship between fever and iron. ❺He found that microbial synthesis of siderophores—substances that bind iron—in bacteria of the genus Salmonella declined at environmental temperatures above 37℃ and stopped at 40.3℃. ❻Thus, fever would make it more difficult for an infecting bacterium to acquire iron and thus to multiply. ❼Cold-blooded animals were used to test this hypothesis because their body temperature can be controlled in the laboratory. ❽Kluger reported that of iguanas infected with the potentially lethal bacterium A. hydrophilia, more survived at temperatures of 42℃ than at 37℃, even though healthy animals prefer the lower temperature. ❾When animals at 42℃ were injected with an iron solution, however, mortality rates increased significantly. ❿Research to determine whether similar phenomena occur in warm-blooded animals is sorely needed. ❶温血动物有复杂的生理机制来保持体温恒定（人类体温为 37℃）。❷既然被感染的生物 体会承受更大的压力，那么为什么在生病的时候体温会上升？❸人们很早就知道动物血清 的含铁量在被感染后会下降。❹Garibaldi 首先提出了发烧和铁元素之间的关系。❺他发现 Salmonella 属的细菌中含铁元素细胞（一种和铁元素结合的物质）的微生物合成在环境温度 高于 37℃时下降，并在 40.3℃时停止。❻因此，发烧会使得入侵细菌更难获得繁殖所需的 铁元素(iron)。❼在过去，冷血动物常被用来测试这个假设，因为人们能在实验室中控制它 们的体温。❽Kluger 报道说用潜在致命的细菌感染美洲蜥蜴(iguanas)，蜥蜴在 42℃比在 37℃ 能更多地存活，尽管健康的动物更喜欢 37℃的温度。❾然而，当动物在 42℃被注射含铁的 溶液时，死亡率显著提高。❿温血动物是否会有相似的情况需要研究来决定。

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1991 年 02 月 SECTION A ❶As Gilbert White, Darwin, and others observed long ago, all species appear to have the innate capacity to increase their numbers from generation to generation. ❷The task for ecologists is to untangle the environmental and biological factors that hold this intrinsic capacity for population growth in check over the long run. ❸The great variety of dynamic behaviors exhibited by different populations makes this task more difficult: some populations remain roughly constant from year to year; others exhibit regular cycles of abundance and scarcity; still others vary wildly, with outbreaks and crashes that are in some cases plainly correlated with the weather, and in other cases not. ❶和 Gilbert White、Darwin 以及其他人很早之前观察的一样，所有物种都表现出一代比一 代个体数量增加的天生能力。❷生态学家的任务是弄清长期维持种群数量内在增长力的环 境因素和生物因素。❸不同种群表现出来的动态行为的多样性使得这个任务变得更加困难： 一些种群年年数量大致不变；一些种群展现出规律的多和少；还是一部分种群变化巨大，这 些种群会爆发式增长和毁灭式减少，在有些时候仅仅是和天气有关，而其他情况下则和天气 无关。 ❶To impose some order on this kaleidoscope of patterns, one school of thought proposes dividing populations into two groups. ❷These ecologists posit that the relatively steady populations have “density-dependent” growth parameters; that is, rates of birth, death, and migration which depend strongly on population density. ❸The highly varying populations have “density-independent” growth parameters, with vital rates buffeted by environmental events; these rates fluctuate in a way that is wholly independent of population density. ❶为了梳理这种混乱的变化模式，某个思想流派提出把种群分成两组。❷这些生态学家断 定，相对稳定的种群具有和密度相关的生长参数；也就是说，出生率、死亡率以及迁移率都 十分依赖种群密度大小。❸强烈变化的种群具有独立于种群密度的生长参数，这些种群数 量的变化率在它受到环境变化的冲击时而涨跌，其波动方式完全不依赖与种群密度。 ❶This dichotomy has its uses, but it can cause problems if taken too literally. ❷For one thing, no population can be driven entirely by density-independent factors all the time. ❸No matter how severely or unpredictably birth, death and migration rates may be fluctuating around their long-term averages, if there were no density-dependent effects, the population would, in the long run, either increase or decrease without bound (barring a miracle by which gains and losses canceled exactly). ❹Put another way, it may be that on average 99 percent of all deaths in a population arise from density-independent causes, and only one percent from factors varying with density. ❺The factors making up the one percent may seem unimportant, and their cause may be correspondingly hard to determine. ❻Yet, whether recognized or not, they will usually determine the long-term average population density. ❶这种二分法(dichotomy)有它的用处，但是如果我们过于机械地理解这个方法的话也会产 生问题。❷一个原因是，没有一个种群完全被与种群密度无关的参数驱动。❸不管出生率、 死亡率、迁移率围绕它们长期平均值波动有多么准确严密或者多么无法预测，要不是有依赖 于种群密度的参数的影响，种群会在长期无限增加或减少（不考虑增加和减少相互抵消的奇 迹）。❹换句话说，种群死亡数有可能 99％是由于独立于密度的因素决定的，而只有 1％ 是由随密度变化的因素决定的。❺占 1％的因素可能看起来不重要，并且产生这些因素的原 因可能很难对应地确定。❻但是，不管我们是否能够认识到，这些因素通常会决定长期平 均种群密度。 ❶In order to understand the nature of the ecologist’s investigation, we may think of the density-dependent effects on growth parameters as the “signal” ecologists are trying to 175

isolate and interpret, one that tends to make the population increase from relatively low values or decrease from relatively high ones, while the density-independent effects act to produce “noise” in the population dynamics. ❷For populations that remain relatively constant, or that oscillate around repeated cycles, the signal can be fairly easily characterized and its effects described, even though the causative biological mechanism may remain unknown. ❸For irregularly fluctuating populations, we are likely to have too few observations to have any hope of extracting the signal from the overwhelming noise. ❹But it now seems clear that all populations are regulated by a mixture of density-dependent and density-independent effects in varying proportions. ❶为了理解生态学家研究的性质，我们可以把和影响生长参数的依赖种群密度效应看作生 态学家要分离和解释的“信号”，这个信号往往让种群数在低的时候增加、在高的时候减少， 而把与种群密度无关的影响看作种群动态中的“噪声”。 ❷对于数量保持相对恒定的种群， 或者是以重复周期增加和减少的种群，即使我们仍然不知道其中真正的生物学机制，我们还 能比较容易地确定这种信号的特征。❸对于数量不规则浮动的种群，我们很可能没有足够 的观察资料，不能指望从中提取出被噪声湮没的信号。❹但是现在我们明白，所有种群是 被不同比例的种群密度相关及种群密度无关的影响共同调节的。

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❶In Raisin in the Sun, Lorraine Hansberry does not reject integration or the economic and moral promise of the American dream; rather, she remains loyal to this dream while looking, realistically, at its incomplete realization. ❷Once we recognize this dual vision, we can accept the play’s ironic nuances as deliberate social commentaries by Hansberry rather than as the “unintentional” irony that Bigsby attributes to the work. ❸Indeed a curiously persistent refusal to credit Hansberry with a capacity for intentional irony has led some critics to interpret the play’s thematic conflicts as mere confusion, contradiction, or eclecticism. ❹ Isaacs, for example, cannot easily reconcile Hansberry’s intense concern for her race with her ideal of human reconciliation. ❺But the play’s complex view of Black self-esteem and human solidarity as compatible is no more “contradictory” than Du Bois’ famous, well-considered ideal of ethnic self-awareness coexisting with human unity, or Fanon’s emphasis on an ideal internationalism that also accommodates national identities and roles. ❶在 Raisin in the Sun 中，Lorraine Hansberry 并不反对民族融合以及美国梦在经济和道德 上的前景；相反，她坚持这个梦想，同时她很现实地看到这个梦想没有完全实现的一面。 ❷一旦认识到这个双重的视角，我们就可以理解这个剧本包含的 Hansberry 对于社会所作 的精心评论的讽刺寓意，而不是 Bigsby 所给予作品的那样，将其看作“无意识的讽刺”。❸ 的确，人们坚持否认 Hansberry 具备有意识讽喻的能力，这个奇怪的现象使得一些评论家把 剧本主题的冲突仅仅解读为混乱、矛盾或是调和、折衷。❹例如，Isaacs 无法轻易地将 Hansberry 对于种族的强烈关注与理想中人类和谐的思想结合在一起。❺但是剧本把黑人 自尊和人类团结看作和谐共处的复杂观点并不比 Du Bois 著名的、考虑周全的种族自我意识 和人类团结的理想更加“矛盾”，也不比 Fanon 对于同样可适用于国家特色以及角色的国际主 义的强调更加“矛盾”。

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SECTION B ❶Some recent historians have argued that life in the British colonies in America from approximately 1763 to 1789 was marked by internal conflicts among colonists. ❷Inheritors of some of the viewpoints of early twentieth-century Progressive historians such as Beard and Becker, these recent historians have put forward arguments that deserve evaluation. ❶最近一些历史学家认为，大致在1763年到1789年之间美洲英属殖民地的人们的生活是以 殖民者之间的内部冲突为特征的。❷作为20世纪早期“进步派”史学家（如Beard和Becker） 的某些观点的继承者，这些史学家提出的观点值得我们去评估。 ❶The kind of conflict most emphasized by these historians is class conflict. ❷Yet with the Revolutionary War dominating these years, how does one distinguish class conflict within that larger conflict? ❸Certainly not by the side a person supported. ❹Although many of these historians have accepted the earlier assumption that Loyalists represented an upper class, new evidence indicates that Loyalists, like rebels, were drawn from all socioeconomic classes. ❺ (It is nonetheless probably true that a larger percentage of the well-to-do joined the Loyalists than joined the rebels.) ❻Looking at the rebel side, we find little evidence for the contention that lower-class rebels were in conflict with upper-class rebels. ❼Indeed, the war effort against Britain tended to suppress class conflicts. ❽Where it did not, the disputing rebels of one or another class usually became Loyalists. ❾Loyalism thus operated as a safety valve to remove socioeconomic discontent that existed among the rebels. ❿Disputes occurred, of course, among those who remained on the rebel side, but the extraordinary social mobility of eighteenth-century American society (with the obvious exception of slaves) usually prevented such disputes from hardening along class lines. Social structure was in fact so fluid—though recent statistics suggest a narrowing of economic opportunity as the latter half of the century progressed—that to talk about social classes at all requires the use of loose economic categories such as rich, poor, and middle class, or eighteenth-century designations like “the better sort.” Despite these vague categories, one should not claim unequivocally that hostility between recognizable classes cannot be legitimately observed. Outside of New York, however, there were very few instances of openly expressed class antagonism. ❶这些史学家强调得最多的一种冲突是阶级冲突。❷但是，革命战争（Revolutionary War） 在这些年占据着主导地位，我们如何能够在这个更大的冲突下区分阶级冲突呢？❸当然这 不是从一个人选择的派别来看的。❹虽然这些史学家中很多人接受早期的一种假设，即效 忠派(loyalist)代表上层阶级，而新证据表明效忠派和叛党一样，都来自所有的社会经济阶级。 ❺（然而可能正确的是，富裕阶级中加入效忠派人要比加入叛党的人多。）❻来看叛党这 一边，我们几乎不能发现任何这样的证据显示下层叛党与上层叛党之间存在冲突。❼实际 上，战争中反对英国的行动倾向于抑制阶级冲突。❽当无法抑制冲突的时候，任何一个阶 层中持异议的叛党分子总是会变成效忠派。❾因此,效忠主义充当了一个安全阀，用来消除 存在于叛党中的对社会经济的不满。❿当然，那些继续留在叛党一侧的人会出现争执，但 是18世纪美国社会（当然奴隶除外）巨大的社会流动性通常能防止这些争执顺着阶级发展 下去。事实上，社会结构是如此有流动性——尽管最近的数据表明，经济机会随着该世纪后 半期的进程而缩小——以至于要想谈论社会阶层，就必须采用一些宽松的经济范畴，如富人 阶层、穷人阶层、中产阶层，或者采用像18世纪“the better sort”这类名称。尽管存在这些模 糊的范畴，但我们应该毫不含糊地声称：可辨认出的阶级之间的敌意可以被合理地观察到。 但是，在纽约之外，很少存在公开表达的阶级对立的例子。 ❶Having said this, however, one must add that there is much evidence to support the further claim of recent historians that sectional conflicts were common between 1763 and 1789. ❷The “Paxton Boys” incident and the Regulator movement are representative examples of the widespread, and justified, discontent of western settlers against colonial or state governments dominated by eastern interests. ❸Although undertones of class conflict 178

existed beneath such hostility, the opposition was primarily geographical. ❹Sectional conflict—which also existed between North and South—deserves further investigation. ❶但是，说了这些之后，我们还必须补充：有相当多的证据可以支持近期史学家进一步的 断言，即在1763年到1789年间地区性冲突普遍存在。❷ “Paxton Boys事件”与“Regulator运 动”是两个有代表性的案例，反映出西部殖民者反对由东部利益主导的殖民地或州政府的广 泛的、合理的不满。❸尽管潜在的阶级冲突存在于种族敌对状态之下，但这一矛盾主要是 地理上的。❹地区性冲突——在南北方之间同样存在——值得我们作进一步的研究。 ❶In summary, historians must be careful about the kind of conflict they emphasize in eighteenth-century America. ❷Yet those who stress the achievement of a general consensus among the colonists cannot fully understand that consensus without understanding the conflicts that had to be overcome or repressed in order to reach it. ❶总之，历史学家们应该小心对待他们强调的18世纪美国的冲突种类。❷然而，那些强调 在殖民者之间达成共识成就的史学家不能完全理解这种共识，而如果他们不理解这样一种矛 盾，那么这种矛盾只有在被克服或镇压之后才有可能获得那种共识。

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❶Since 1953, many experimental attempts to synthesize the chemical constituents of life under “primitive Earth conditions” have been performed, but none of these experiments has produced anything approaching the complexity of the simplest organism. ❷They have demonstrated, however, that a variety of the complex molecules currently making up living organisms could have been present in the early ocean and atmosphere, with only one limitation: such molecules are synthesized far less readily when oxygen-containing compounds dominate the atmosphere. ❸Therefore some scientists postulatethat the Earth’s earliest atmosphere, unlike that of today, was dominated by hydrogen, methane, and ammonia. ❶1953 年以来，科学家做出了许多实验性尝试，试图在“原始地球状况”下合成生命体的化 学成份，然而没有任何一项实验能制造出复杂性接近于最简单的生物体的东西。❷尽管如 此，他们还是证明了，目前构成生物体的各种复杂分子很有可能在早期的海洋和大气层就已 存在，但有唯一的一个局限：当含氧元素化合物占大气层物质的绝大部分时，这些分子很难 被合成。❸因此，某些科学家假设，地球最早的大气层与现在的不同，早期大气的主要成 分是氢气、甲烷和氨。 ❶From these studies, scientists have concluded that the surface of the primitive Earth was covered with oceans containing the molecules fundamental to life. ❷Although, at present, scientists cannot explain how these relatively small molecules combined to produce larger, more complex molecules, some scientists have precipitously ventured hypotheses that attempt to explain the development, from lager molecules, of the earliest self-duplicating organisms. ❶科学家们从这些研究中得出结论：原始地球的表面被含有构成生命体必要分子的海洋覆 盖着。❷虽然目前来说，科学家还无法解释这些相对小的分子是如何结合起来而变成大而 复杂的分子的，但有些科学家已迫不及待地提出一些大胆假设，试图解释最早的那些自我复 制的生命体是如何从这些较大的分子发展而来的。

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1991 年 04 月 SECTION A ❶Isadora Duncan’s masterly writings on the dance reveal the depth of her determination to create a lyric form of the art which was free of characterization, storytelling, and the theatrical exhibition of skills. ❷She wished to discard the traditional methods and established vocabularies of such dance forms as ballet and to explore the internal sources of human expressiveness. ❸She shunned bodily ornamentation and strove to use only the natural movements of her body, undistorted by acrobatic exaggeration and stimulated only by internal compulsion. ❹In her recitals Duncan danced to the music of Beethoven, Wagner, and Gluck, among others, but, contrary to popular belief, she made no attempt to visualize or to interpret the music; rather, she simply relied on it to provide the inspiration for expressing inner feelings through movement. ❺She did not regard this use of music as ideal, however, believing that she would someday dispense with music entirely. ❻That day never came. ❶Isadora Duncan 巧妙论述舞蹈的文章显示了她要创立一种抒情艺术形式的坚定决心，这 一艺术形式应摆脱人物塑造、故事叙述、以及戏剧化的技巧展现。❷她希望抛弃传统手法， 抛弃芭蕾舞这一类的舞蹈形式的已有词汇，去探索人类表现力的内在起源。❸她避开身体 上的修饰，并试图仅采用身体的自然动作，这种动作不被杂技的夸张而扭曲，而仅仅被内在 激情驱使。❹在她的独舞表演中，Duncan 伴随着 Beethoven、Wagner、Gluck 等人的音乐 翩翩起舞，但与主流想法不同，她并不试图将音乐视觉化，或对音乐做出诠释；相反，她仅 仅把音乐作为激发内心情感的灵感，通过动作来表达内心情感。❺然而，她并不觉得对音 乐的这一用法是最理想的，因为她认为有一天她将完全抛弃音乐。❻但那一天从不曾来到 过。

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❶The recent, apparently successful, prediction by mathematical models of an appearance of El Nino—the warm ocean current that periodically develops along the Pacific coast of South America—has excited researchers. ❷Jacob Bjerknes pointed out over 20 years ago how winds might create either abnormally warm or abnormally cold water in the eastern equatorial Pacific. ❸Nonetheless, until the development of the models no one could explain why conditions should regularly shift from one to the other, as happens in the periodic oscillations between appearances of the warm El Nino and the cold so-called anti-El Nino. ❹The answer, at least if the current model that links the behavior of the ocean to that of the atmosphere is correct, is to be found in the ocean. ❶最近，用数学模型预测 El Nino 现象——即在南美洲沿岸太平洋海域周期性出现的暖流 ——的到来显然是成功了，这让研究者十分兴奋。❷Jacob Bjerknes 在 20 年前指出气流是 如何可能在太平洋赤道东部产生异常的暖流或寒流。❸然而直到这些模型被发展出来时， 还没有一个人能解释为什么这两种情况会定期从一种向另一种切换，就像定期变化的暖 El Nino 和冷 El Nino（反 El Nino) 一样。❹如果目前把海洋活动和大气活动联系起来的模型 是正确，那么问题的答案至少可以在海洋中找到。 ❶It has long been known that during an El Nino, two conditions exist: (1) unusually warm water extends along the eastern Pacific, principally along the coasts of Ecuador and Peru, and (2) winds blow from the west into the warmer air rising over the warm water in the east. ❷These winds tend to create a feedback mechanism by driving the warmer surface water into a “pile” that blocks the normal upwelling of deeper, cold water in the east and further warms the eastern water, thus strengthening the wind still more. ❸The contribution of the model is to show that the winds of an El Nino, which raise sea level in the east, simultaneously send a signal to the west lowering sea level. ❹According to the model, that signal is generated as a negative Rossby wave, a wave of depressed, or negative, sea level, that moves westward parallel to the equator at 25 to 85 kilometers per day. ❺Taking months to traverse the Pacific, Rossby waves march to the western boundary of the Pacific basin, which is modeled as a smooth wall but in reality consists of quite irregular island chains, such as the Philippines and Indonesia. ❶长期以来人们就已知道，出现 El Nino 现象期间存在两种现象：（1）异常暖流在太平洋 沿东岸延伸，主要是在 Ecuador 和 Peru 的海岸，以及（2）从西部吹来的气流进入由东部 暖流产生的暖空气中。❷这些气流往往利用水面上较温暖的水“堆积”产生一种反馈机制，这 种反馈机制阻挡了东部深海冷水的上涌，并且进一步为东部海水加热，由此进一步加强了风。 ❸这个模型的贡献在于它显示出从东部海面上升形成的 El Nino 气流，同时也向西海岸发 送一个信号来降低其海平面。❹根据这个模型，信号是作为一个负 Rossby 浪而产生的，这 是一种下凹的（或叫海平面以下的）信号以每天 25 到 84 千米的速度向西平移到赤道的波 浪。❺Rossby 浪用几个月时间穿越太平洋，它到达了太平洋盆地的西部边界，这个盆地被 建模成光滑的屏障，但实际上盆地是由很多不规则的岛屿群带，如 Philippines 和 Indonesia 组成的。 ❶When the waves meet the western boundary, they are reflected, and the model predicts that Rossby waves will be broken into numerous coastal Kelvin waves carrying the same negative sea-level signal. ❷These eventually shoot toward the equator, and then head eastward along the equator propelled by the rotation of the Earth at a speed of about 250 kilometers per day. ❸When enough Kelvin waves of sufficient amplitude arrive from the western Pacific, their negative sea-level signal overcomes the feedback mechanism tending to raise the sea level, and they begin to drive the system into the opposite cold mode. ❹This produces a gradual shift in winds, one that will eventually send positive sea-level Rossby waves westward, waves that will eventually return as cold cycle-ending positive Kelvin waves, beginning another warming cycle. 182

❶当波浪遇到盆地西部的边界时，它们就返回，并且该模式预测 Rossby 浪将被分解成大量 沿海岸的 Kelvin 浪，而 Kelvin 浪带着相同的负海平面的信号。❷这些浪最终冲向赤道，然 后被地球以每天 250 千米的自转速度推动向东流动。❸当 Kelvin 浪以足够大的振幅到到达 西太平洋的时候，它们的海平面以下的信号克服了提高海平面的反馈机制，并且海浪开始把 整个系统变成相反的寒冷模式。❹这就导致了气流的逐渐转变，这个转变最终把正海平面 Rossby 浪向西推送，浪最后会以冷的、结束循环的 Kelvin 浪返回，又开始另一个暖的循环。

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SECTION B ❶Historians have only recently begun to note the increase in demand for luxury goods and services that took place in eighteenth-century England. ❷McKendrick has explored the Wedgwood firm’s remarkable success in marketing luxury pottery; Plumb has written about the proliferation of provincial theaters, musical festivals, and children’s toys and books. ❸While the fact of this consumer revolution is hardly in doubt, three key questions remain: Who were the consumers? What were their motives? And what were the effects of the new demand for luxuries? ❶历史学家刚刚开始注意 18 世纪英格兰对奢侈品及奢侈服务需求的增加。❷ McKendrick 探索了 Wedgwood 公司在销售陶器奢侈品上取得巨大成功的原因；Plumb 写了有关地方剧 院、音乐节以及儿童的玩具和书籍大量出现的情况。❸尽管消费者革命的事实没有疑问， 但是仍有三个问题没有解决：消费者是谁？他们的动机是什么？以及新出现的对于奢侈品的 需求的影响是什么？ ❶An answer to the first of these has been difficult to obtain. ❷Although it has been possible to infer from the goods and services actually produced what manufactures and servicing trades thought their customers wanted, only a study of relevant personal documents written by actual consumers will provide a precise picture of who wanted what. ❸We still need to know how large this consumer market was and how far down the social scale the consumer demand for luxury goods penetrated. ❹With regard to this last question, we might note in passing that Thompson, while rightly restoring laboring people to the stage of eighteenth-century English history, has probably exaggerated the opposition of these people to the inroads of capitalist consumerism in general; for example, laboring people in eighteenth-century England readily shifted from home-brewed beer to standardized beer produced by huge, heavily capitalized urban breweries. ❶我们很难得到第一个问题的答案。❷尽管人们可能从实际生产的商品或者服务中推测出 制造商和服务业认为的消费者的需要，但是只有研究实际消费者所写的相关私人文献才能提 供对于谁想要什么的准确描述。❸我们仍然需要了解消费者市场有多大以及消费者对于奢 侈品的需要会沿着社会等级向下渗透到多远。❹对于最后一个问题，我们可以顺便提一下， 虽然 Thompson 正确地恢复了劳动人民在 18 世纪英国历史中的地位，但他可能夸大了他们 反对资本主义侵蚀的程度；在 18 世纪英格兰，劳动人民很快从饮用家酿啤酒转变为饮用大 型资本化的城市啤酒厂生产的标准化啤酒。 ❶To answer the question of why consumers became so eager to buy, some historians have pointed to the ability of manufacturers to advertise in a relatively uncensored press. ❷This, however, hardly seems a sufficient answer. ❸McKendrick favors a Veblen model of conspicuous consumption stimulated by competition for status. ❹The “middling sort” bought goods and services because they wanted to follow fashions set by the rich. ❺Again, we may wonder whether this explanation is sufficient. ❻Do not people enjoy buying things as a form of self-gratification? ❼If so, consumerism could be seen as a product of the rise of new concepts of individualism and materialism, but not necessarily of the frenzy for conspicuous competition. ❶为了回答消费者为什么变得如此迫切地去购物的问题，一些历史学家提到了生产商在审 查相对宽松的报纸上做广告的能力。❷然而，这个观点看起来不充分。 ❸ McKendrick 赞 成 Veblen 的模型，即由社会地位的竞争引发的明显的消费倾向。❹“中等阶层”购买物品和 服务是因为它们想跟随富人定下的潮流。❺我们可能会再一次考虑这个解释是否充分。❻ 人们不喜欢把购买物品作为一种自我满足么？❼如果是这样，那么消费主义可以看作个人 主义以及物质主义新概念兴起的产物，但不一定是疯狂公开竞争的产物。

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❶Finally, what were the consequences of this consumer demand for luxuries? ❷McKendrick claims that it goes a long way toward explaining the coming of the Industrial Revolution. ❸But does it? ❹What, for example, does the production of high-quality pottery and toys have to do with the development of iron manufacture or textile mills? ❺It is perfectly possible to have the psychology and reality of a consumer society without a heavy industrial sector. ❶最后，消费者对于奢侈品的需求的结果是什么？❷ McKendrick 主张，这种需求对于解释 工业革命的来临很有帮助。❸但是事实是这样么？❹例如，生产高质量陶器以及玩具与钢 铁制造或是纺织厂的发展有什么关系？❺一个消费社会的心理和现实是完全可能存在的， 但不一定要拥有重工业部门。 ❶That future exploration of these key questions is undoubtedly necessary should not, however, diminish the force of the conclusion of recent studies: the insatiable demand in eighteenth-century England for frivolous as well as useful goods and services foreshadows our own world. ❶然而，未来对于这些关键问题的探索无疑是必要的——这个观点不应该削弱目前研究结 论的说服力：18 世纪英格兰对于无用商品以及有用商品和服务的贪得无厌的需求预示着我 们这个世界的特征。

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❶Researchers are finding that in many ways an individual bacterium is more analogous to a component cell of a multicellular organism than it is to a free-living, autonomous organism. ❷Anabaena, a freshwater bacteria, is a case in point. ❸Among photosynthetic bacteria, Anabaena is unusual: it is capable of both photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation. ❹Within a single cell, these two biochemical processes are incompatible: oxygen produced during photosynthesis, inactivates the nitrogenase required for nitrogen fixation. ❺In Anabaena communities, however, these processes can coexist. ❻When fixed nitrogen compounds are abundant, Anabaena is strictly photosynthetic and its cells are all alike. ❼When nitrogen levels are low, however, specialized cells called heterocysts are produced which lack chlorophyll (necessary for photosynthesis) but which can fix nitrogen by converting nitrogen gas into a usable form. ❽Submicroscopic channels develop which connect the heterocyst cells with the photosynthetic ones and which are used for transferring cellular products between the two kinds of Anabaena cells. ❶科研人员发现，在很多方面单个细菌更像多细胞生物体的一个组成细胞，而不像独立生 存的、自由行动的生物体。❷项圈藻属(Anabaena)就是一个典型例子，它是一种淡水细菌。 ❸在所有进行光合作用的细菌中，项圈藻属是与众不同的：它既能进行光合作用，又能固 氮(nitrogen fixation)。❹在单个细胞内，这两个生化过程是无法共存的：在光合作用中产 生的氧气会导致固氮所必需的固氮酶失活。❺然而，在项圈藻属群落中，这两个过程可以 共存。❻当大量存在已经被固定的含氮化合物时，项圈藻属只能进行光合作用，而且它的 所有细胞都进行光合作用。❼但是，当氮含量较低时就会产生称为“异形细胞(heterocyst)” 的特异细胞，这些特异细胞缺乏光合作用所必需的叶绿素(chlorophyll)，但却可以通过将氮 元素转化成为可利用的形式来达到固氮的目的。❽亚微观导管的形成产生了能将异形细胞 和光合作用的细胞连接起来的，这种导管用来传递两种项圈藻属细胞间的细胞产物。

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1991 年 10 月 SECTION A ❶Aided by the recent ability to analyze samples of air trapped in glaciers, scientists now have a clearer idea of the relationship between atmospheric composition and global temperature change over the past 160,000 years. ❷In particular, determination of atmospheric composition during periods of glacial expansion and retreat (cooling and warming) is possible using data from the 2,000 meter Vostok ice core drilled in Antarctica. ❸The technique involved is similar to that used in analyzing cores of marine sediments, where the ratio of the two common isotopes of oxygen, 18O and 16O, accurately reflects past temperature changes. ❹Isotopic analysis of oxygen in the Vostok core suggests mean global temperature fluctuations of up to 10 degrees centigrade over the past 160,000 years. ❶借助最近发展起来的冰川中空气样品分析，目前科学家对过去160,000年中大气构成与全 球气温变化之间的关系有了一个更清楚的了解。❷尤其是，科学家可以利用南极洲2,000米 深处Vostok冰芯挖掘到的数据，来确定冰川的扩张和消退（降温和升温）期间的大气构成。 ❸涉及的技术类似于分析海洋沉积物核心所用的技术，其中氧气的两个普通同位素（18O 和 16O） 的比率精确地反映出过去的温度变化。❹对Vostok冰芯中氧气进行的同位素分析表明， 在过去的160,000年中，全球平均气温波动变化达到10摄氏度。 ❶Data from the Vostok core also indicate that the amount of carbon dioxide has fluctuated with temperature over the same period: the higher the temperature, the higher the concentration of carbon dioxide and the lower the temperature, the lower the concentration. ❷Although change in carbon dioxide content closely follows change in temperature during periods of deglaciation, it apparently lags behind temperature during periods of cooling. ❸The correlation of carbon dioxide with temperature, of course, does not establish whether changes in atmospheric composition caused the warming and cooling trends or were caused by their. ❶Vostok冰芯的数据还表明，同一时期内二氧化碳的数量也随着温度变化而变化：气温越 高，二氧化碳含量越高；气温越低，二氧化碳含量越低。❷尽管在冰川消退期，二氧化碳 含量的变化紧随着气温的变化，但在降温期，二氧化碳含量的变化滞后于气温变化。❸当 然，二氧化碳与气温的关系无法确定大气构成的变化是否导致了升温和降温趋势，或者大气 构成是被升温和降温趋势改变。 ❶The correlation between carbon dioxide and temperature throughout the Vostok record is consistent and predictable. ❷The absolute temperature changes, however, are from 5 to 14 times greater than would be expected on the basis of carbon dioxide’s own ability to absorb infrared radiation, or radiant heat. ❸This reaction suggests that, quite aside from changes in heat-trapping gases, commonly known as greenhouse gases, certain positive feedbacks are also amplifying the temperature change. ❹Such feedbacks might involve ice on land and sea, clouds, or water vapor, which also absorb radiant heat. ❶二氧化碳与气温的关系，在Vostok的整个记录中是连贯的、可预测的。❷但是，绝对温 度变化比人们所期待的要超出4至15倍，而人们的预期所依据的是二氧化碳自身吸收红外辐 射或辐射热的能力。❸这种反应说明，除了吸热气体——即通常所称为的温室气体，某些 正反馈也会扩大温度变化。❹这种反馈可能涉及到陆地上和海洋中的冰、云、或水蒸气， 它们也都会吸收辐射热。 ❶Other data from the Vostok core show that methane gas also correlates closely with temperature and carbon dioxide. ❷The methane concentration nearly doubled, for example, between the peak of the penultimate glacial period and the following interglacial period. ❸Within the present interglacial period it has more than doubled in just the past 300 years and is rising rapidly. ❹Although the concentration of atmospheric methane is more than two orders of magnitude lower than that of carbon dioxide, it cannot be ignored: the 187

radiative properties of methane make it 20 times more effective, molecule for molecule, than carbon dioxide in absorbing radiant heat. ❺On the basis of a simulation model that climatological researchers have developed, methane appears to have been about 25 percent as important as carbon dioxide in the warming that took place during the most recent glacial retreat 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. ❶来自 Vostok 冰芯的其它数据显示，甲烷气体也与温度和二氧化碳密切相关。❷例如，在 倒数第二个冰川期高峰与随后的间冰期之间，甲烷的含量几乎翻倍。❸在目前的间冰期范 围内，它在过去短短的 300 年就已经增加了两倍多，并仍在迅速增长。❹尽管大气种甲烷 的含量要比二氧化碳低两个数量级还多，但它仍不能忽视：甲烷的辐射特性使其在吸收辐射 热上，就分子和分子相比， 比二氧化碳高 20 倍。❺从气候学研究者建立的某个模拟模型 的基础上看，在 8000 至 10000 年之前的最近一次冰川消退期间发生的升温过程中，甲烷似 乎发挥了相当于二氧化碳 25%的作用。

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❶In The Women of Mexico City, 1796-1857, Sylvia Marina Arrom argues that the status of women in Mexico City improved during the nineteenth century. ❷According to Arrom, households headed by females and instances of women working outside the home were much more common than scholars have estimated; efforts by the Mexican government to encourage female education resulted in increased female literacy; and influential male writers wrote pieces advocating education, employment, and increased family responsibilities for women, while deploring women’s political and marital inequality. ❸Mention of the fact that the civil codes of 1870 and 1884 significantly advanced women’s rights would have further strengthened Arrom’s argument. ❶在 The Women of Mexico City, 1796-1857 这本书里，Sylvia Marina Arrom 认为墨西哥城中 女人的地位在 19 世纪得到了提升。❷根据 Arrom 的说法，以女性为主的家庭以及妇女在 家庭外工作的景象，比学者们估计得更为普遍；墨西哥政府为鼓励妇女接受教育而做出的努 力使得妇女文化得到了提高；并且，有影响力的男性作家也写文章提倡为女性提供教育、就 业以及更多家庭责任，同时为女性在政治上和婚姻上遇到的不平等而惋惜。❸如果提及这 样一个事实，即 1870 年和 1884 年的民法(civil codes)大大提高了妇女的权益，则有可能进 一步加强 Arrom 的论点。 ❶Arrom does not discuss whether women’s improved status counteracted the effects on women of instability in the Mexican economy during the nineteenth century. ❷However, this is not so much a weakness in her work as it is the inevitable result of scholars’ neglect of this period. ❸Indeed, such gaps in Mexican history are precisely what make Arrom’s pioneering study an important addition to Latin American women’s history. ❶但 Arrom 没有讨论女性地位的提高是否抵消了 19 世纪墨西哥经济不稳定对妇女产生的 影响。❷然而，这并不是她的作品里的一个弱点，因为这是学者忽视这段时期而导致的一 个不可避免的结果。❸确实，墨西哥历史上这样的空白正是让 Arrom 的开拓性研究成为拉 丁美洲妇女历史的一种重要补充。

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SECTION B ❶Present-day philosophers usually envision their discipline as an endeavor that has been, since antiquity, distinct from and superior to any particular intellectual discipline, such as theology or science. ❷Such philosophical concerns as the mind-body problem or, more generally, the nature of human knowledge, they believe, are basic human questions whose tentative philosophical solutions have served as the necessary foundations on which all other intellectual speculation has rested. ❶当今哲学家通常把他们的学科想象为自古以来一直区别且优于诸如神学或科学这种特定 智力学科的一种努力。❷他们相信，例如哲学对于灵魂与肉体问题的关注，或者更一般地， 对于人类认识本性的关注，都是人类基本的问题，而哲学上试探性的解决方案为所有其他知 识的思考提供了必要的基础。 ❶The basis for this view, however, lies in a serious misinterpretation of the past, a projection of modern concerns onto past events. ❷The idea of an autonomous discipline called “philosophy,” distinct from and sitting in judgment on such 3pursuits as theology and science turns out, on close examination, to be of quite recent origin. ❸When, in the seventeenth century, Descartes and Hobbes rejected medieval philosophy, they did not think of themselves, as modern philosophers do, as proposing a new and better philosophy, but rather as furthering “the warfare between science and theology” . ❹They were fighting, albeit discreetly, to open the intellectual world to the new science and to liberate intellectual life from ecclesiastical philosophy and envisioned their work as contributing to the growth, not of philosophy, but of research in mathematics and physics. ❺This link between philosophical interests and scientific practice persisted until the nineteenth century, when decline in ecclesiastical power over scholarship and changes in the nature of science provoked the final separation of philosophy from both. ❶然而，这个观点的依据存在于对过去的严重误解之中，即把现代的关注放在过去的事件 上。❷仔细想想，把哲学作为一个独立的、区别于神学和科学的、并对这些学科做出判断 的学科的想法原来是源于近代。❸当 17 世纪 Descartes 和 Hobbes 抵制中世纪哲学时，他 们并没有像现代哲学家一样认为自己提出的是更新颖的、更完善的哲学，而是认为自己在煽 动神学和科学的战争。❹他们力争为新科学开辟智力世界，并且为了把智力生活从基督教 哲学中解放出来而奋斗，尽管这种奋斗是谨慎小心的，他们把自己的工作设想为对数学和物 理学研究的促进，而不是对哲学本身的促进。❺哲学上的兴趣点与科学实践之间的联系持 续到 19 世纪，那时候基督教对于学术研究控制的削弱以及科学性质的改变将哲学从神学和 科学中分离出来。 ❶The demarcation of philosophy from science was facilitated by the development in the early nineteenth century of a new notion, that philosophy’s core interest should be epistemology, the general explanation of what it means to know something. ❷Modern philosophers now trace that notion back at least to Descartes and Spinoza, but it was not explicitly articulated until the late eighteenth century, by Kant, and did not become built into the structure of academic institutions and the standard self-descriptions of philosophy professors until the late nineteenth century. ❸Without the idea of epistemology, the survival of philosophy in an age of modern science is hard to imagine. ❹Metaphysics, philosophy’s traditional core—considered as the most general description of how the heavens and the earth are put together—had been rendered almost completely meaningless by the spectacular progress of physics. ❺Kant, however, by focusing philosophy on the problem of knowledge, managed to replace metaphysics with epistemology, and thus to transform the notion of philosophy as “queen of sciences” into the new notion of philosophy as a separate, foundational discipline. ❻Philosophy became “primary” no longer in the sense of “highest” but in the sense of “underlying”. ❼After Kant, philosophers were able to 190

reinterpret seventeenth-and eighteenth-century thinkers as attempting to discover “How is our knowledge possible?” and to project this question back even on the ancients. ❶一个新观点的发展在 19 世纪初推动了哲学与科学的划分，这个新观点认为哲学核心兴趣 应该是认识论(epistemology)，认识论用来普遍解释认识某事物的含义。❷目前，现代哲学 家把这个观点至少追溯到了 Descartes 和 Spinoza 时代，但是这个观点直到 18 世纪末期才 被 Kant 清楚地阐述出来，并且直到 19 世纪末期它才融合到学术机构中以及哲学教授自我 描述的标准的学科中。❸要是没有认识论这个概念，我们难以想象哲学学科在现代科学的 时代中如何能生存下去。❹作为哲学的传统核心，形而上学(metaphysics)被看作是对于天 地合一最普遍的解释，但它由于物理学惊人的进步而变得完全没有意义。❺然而，Kant 把 哲学聚焦到认识问题上，想方设法用认识论来取代形而上学，因此把哲学看作是“科学的皇 后”的理念转变为了把哲学看作一个独立、基础学科的理念。❻哲学变得更加“基本”，不再 那么“高高在上”，而是一个“基础”。 ❼哲学家们以 Kant 为模仿对象，可以把 17 至 18 世纪 思想家重新解释为试图发现“人类的认识是如何可能的”，并且甚至可以把这个问题放到古人 身上。

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❶Biologists have long maintained that two groups of pinnipeds, sea lions and walruses, are descended from a terrestrial bearlike animal, whereas the remaining group, seals, shares an ancestor with weasels. ❷But the recent discovery of detailed similarities in the skeletal structure of the flippers in all three groups undermines the attempt to explain away superficial resemblance as due to convergent evolution—the independent development of similarities between unrelated groups in response to similar environmental pressures. ❸Flippers may indeed be a necessary response to aquatic life; turtles, whales, and dugongs also have them. ❹But the common detailed design found among the pinnipeds probably indicates a common ancestor. ❺Moreover, walruses and seals drive themselves through the water with thrusts of their hind flippers, but sea lions use their front flippers. ❻If anatomical similarity in the flippers resulted from similar environmental pressures, as posited by the convergent evolution theory, one would expect walruses and seals, but not seals and sea lions, to have similar flippers. ❶生物学家长时间以来一直认为：有两类鳍足类动物，一类是海狮和海象，它们是起源于 一种陆生的类似熊的动物，而另一类鳍足类动物——海豹和鼬鼠有共同祖先。❷但是近期 人们发现这三类动物鳍的骨骼结构相似，这个发现削弱了一个尝试，即把相似性解释为趋同 进化(convergent evolution)——无关种群间的相似性是通过对相似环境压力做出反应而独 立发展出来——的尝试。❸鳍也许是动物对水下生活的一个必要的反应；乌龟、鲸鱼以及 儒艮都有鳍。❹但是在鳍足类动物中发现的共同的结构也许表明它们拥有同一个祖先。❺ 此外，海象和海豹用它们后鳍推力来作为推动力，而海狮用的是前鳍。❻正如趋同进化理 论说的那样，如果鳍足类动物解剖结构上的相似性是由相似的环境压力导致的，那么人们认 为海象和海豹，而不是海狮与海豹有相似的鳍。

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1992 年 02 月 SECTION A ❶The more that is discovered about the intricate organization of the nervous system, the more it seems remarkable that genes can successfully specify the development of that system. ❷Human genes contain too little information even to specify which hemisphere of the brain each of a human’s 1011 neurons should occupy, let alone the hundreds of connections that each neuron makes. ❷For such reasons, we can assume that there must be an important random factor in neural development, and in particular, that errors must and do occur in the development of all normal brains. ❶人们对于神经系统(nervous system)复杂的组织发现越多，基因可以成功地详细说明这个 系统发展的观点就越明显。❷人类基因包含的信息少得无法详细说明人类1011个神经细胞中 任意一个细胞应该占据大脑的哪个半球，更不用提说明每个神经细胞形成的上百种连接了。 ❸由于这些原因，我们可以假设在神经发展过程中一定存在一种重要的随机因素，特别是 误差一定并且确实出现在所有正常大脑的发展过程中。 ❶The most vivid expression of such errors occurs in genetically identical (isogenic) organisms. ❷Even when reared under the same conditions, isogenic organisms are rarely exact copies of one another, and their differences have revealed much about the random variations that result from an organism’s limited supply of genetic information. ❸In isogenic Daphniae, for example, even though the position, size, and branching pattern of each optic neuron are remarkably constant, there is some variability in connectivity, and the number of synapses varies greatly. ❹This variability is probably the result of random scatter beyond the resolution of genetic control and is best termed “imprecision,” since its converse, the degree of clustering about a mean, is conventionally, called “precision.” ❶这类误差最生动地表现在同基因（isogenic）的生物体身上。❷即使在同样的条件下培育， 同基因生物体也很少会互相复制，而且它们之间的差异体现了很多随机差异，这些差异的产 生是由于生物体基因信息提供的数量是有限的。❸例如，在同基因水蚤身上，虽然它们每 个视觉神经细胞的位置、尺寸和分支结构非常稳定，但细胞在连接性方面却存在一些差异， 并且突触的数量差异巨大。❹这种差异性有可能是由视觉神经细胞的随机分布超过了基因 控制的精确程度所导致的，并且它可以被最恰当地称为“不精确”,因为它的对立面——在均值 周围的群集程度——在传统上被称为“精确”。 ❶Imprecision should be distinguished from developmental mistakes: wrongly migrated neurons, incorrect connections, and the like. ❷To use a computer analogy, minor rounding-off errors occur universally and are analogous to imprecision, but occasionally a binary digit is incorrectly transmitted, perhaps ruining a calculation, and this incorrect transmission is analogous to a developmental mistake. ❸Thus, imprecision is a form of inaccuracy inherent within the limits of design, but mistakes are forms of gross fallibility. ❶我们应该区分发展的不精确性与发展的错误：发展错误是指那些错误移位的神经细胞、 错误的连接以及类似的情况。❷用电脑来类比，次要的舍入误差的发生十分普遍并且这些 误差类似于不精确性，但是有时一个二进制数字被错误传输可能毁掉整个运算，这种错误传 输类似于发展错误。❸因此，不精确性是一种在设计范围以内的、固有的、不准确的形式， 但发展错误是严重错误的形式。 ❶Both imprecision and gross fallibility can plausibly be blamed on the insufficiency of genetic information, since either could be reduced by adding more information. ❷It is universally accepted among information theorists that codes and languages can be made mistake-resistant by incorporating redundancy. ❸However, since the amount of space available in any information system is limited, increased redundancy results in decreased precision. ❹For example, π when written incorrectly in English, “three point oen four two, 193

“can be understood correctly even though a typographical error has occurred. ❺More precision could be gained, however, if those 24 spaces were filled with Arabic numerals; then π could be expressed to 23 significant digits, although any error would significantly change the meaning. ❻There exists a trade-off, the more precisely a system is specified, using a given limited amount of information, the greater the danger of gross mistakes. ❼The overall scheme by which genetic information is rationed out in organisms, therefore, must involve a compromise between two conflicting priorities: precision and the avoidance of gross mistakes. ❶不精确性和严重错误都可以合理地归因于不充分的基因信息上，因为任何一种情形都可 通过增加更多的信息来减少。❷信息理论学家之间的一个普遍认同的原理是，密码和语言 可以通过引入冗余信息来抵制错误。❸然而，既然任何信息系统中所能利用的空间是有限 的， 多余信息的增加反而会降低精确性。 ❹例如，当 π 被错误地写成英语“three point oen four two”时，即便一个印刷错误出现，人们也可以理解。❺然而，如果这 24 个空填满阿拉伯数 字，人们可以获得更高的精确度； 然后，即使任何误差都会极大地改变其意义，π 也可以 被表述为 23 个有意义的数字。❻存在这样一种折衷平衡：一个系统在用给定的有限数量信 息的情况下，越是被精确地说明，它发生严重错误的危险性越高。❼因此对于生物体来说， 基因信息被定量分配给生物体的整体方案，必定会包括两个对立的优先原则之间的妥协：精 确性以及避免严重错误。

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❶In a recent study, David Cressy examines two central questions concerning English immigration to New England in the 1630’s: what kinds of people immigrated and why? ❷Using contemporary literary evidence, shipping lists, and customs records, Cressy finds that most adult immigrants were skilled in farming or crafts, were literate, and were organized in families. ❸Each of these characteristics sharply distinguishes the 21,000 people who left for New England in the 1630’s from most of the approximately 377,000 English people who had immigrating to America by 1700. ❶在最近的一项研究中，David Cressy 分析了 17 世纪 30 年代英国人移居新英格兰的活动 中两个关键问题：即什么样的人移民，以及他们为什么要移民？❷Cressy 利用当代书面证 据、海运目录和海关记录，发现绝大多数成年移民者具备熟练的农业和手工业技能、读写能 力，并且他们是以家庭为单位组织起来的。❸以上每一个特征都鲜明地区分了 17 世纪 30 年代移民到新英格兰的 21,000 人和 18 世纪移民到美国的约 377,000 英国人。 ❶With respect to their reasons for immigrating, Cressy does not deny the frequently noted fact that some of the immigrants of the 1630’s, most notably the organizers and clergy, advanced religious explanations for departure, but he finds that such explanations usually assumed primacy only in retrospect. ❷When he moves beyond the principal actors, he finds that religious explanations were less frequently offered and he concludes that most people immigrated because they were recruited by promises of material improvement. ❶至于移民者的移民原因， Cressy 并不否认这样一个常被提起的事实，即 17 世纪 30 年代 移民中的一些人，特别是那些组织者和神职人员，提出了对于移民动机的宗教解释，但他发 现这些解释一般仅在事后回顾中才占有最重要的位置。❷当不考虑主要行动者时，他发现 宗教解释不常被提及，他总结道：大多数加入移民队伍的人希望物质得到改善。

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SECTION B ❶The outpouring of contemporary American Indian literature in the last two decades, often called the Native American Renaissance, represents for many the first opportunity to experience Native American poetry. ❷The appreciation of traditional oral American Indian literature has been limited, hampered by poor translations and by the difficulty, even in the rare culturally sensitive and aesthetically satisfying translation, of completely conveying the original’s verse structure, tone, and syntax. ❶现代美国印第安文学在过去二十年中的大量涌现，它也常被称为印第安文艺复兴(Native American Renaissance)，对很多人来说这是第一个体验印第安诗歌的机会。❷对于传统口 头印第安文学的欣赏一直都受到限制，其障碍是拙劣的翻译以及完整传达原始诗歌结构、基 调、句法的困难，这些困难就算在不可多得的、文化上敏锐的以及审美上令人满意的翻译中 依然存在。 ❶By writing in English and experimenting with European literary forms, contemporary American Indian writers have broadened their potential audience, while clearly retaining many essential characteristics of their ancestral oral traditions. ❷For example, Pulitzer-prizewinning author N. Scott Momaday’s poetry often treats art and mortality in a manner that recalls British romantic poetry, while his poetic response to the power of natural forces recalls Cherokee oral literature. ❸In the same way, his novels, an art form European in origin, display an eloquence that echoes the oratorical grandeur of the great nineteenth-century American Indian chiefs. ❶通过使用英语写作并且尝试欧洲文学形式，当代美国印第安作家拓宽了读者范围，同时 明确地保持了其祖先口语传统中的重要特征。❷例如，普利策奖获得者 N. Scott Momaday 的诗歌通常用让人回忆起英国浪漫主义诗歌的方式来处理艺术和死亡，而他对于自然力量诗 意一般的回应让人想起 Cherokee 口头文学。❸他的小说源于欧洲艺术形式，以相同的方式 展现了 19 世纪伟大美洲印第安首领庄严演讲时的雄辩。

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❶Quantum mechanics is a highly successful theory: it supplies methods for accurately calculating the results of diverse experiments, especially with minute particles. ❷The predictions of quantum mechanics, however, give only the probability of an event, not a deterministic statement of whether or not the event will occur. ❸Because of this probabilism, Einstein remained strongly dissatisfied with the theory throughout his life, though he did not maintain that quantum mechanics is wrong. ❹Rather, he held that it is incomplete: in quantum mechanics the motion of a particle must be described in terms of probabilities, he argued, only because some parameters that determine the motion have not been specified. ❺If these hypothetical “hidden parameters” were known, a fully deterministic trajectory could be defined. ❻Significantly, this hidden-parameter quantum theory leads to experimental predictions different from those of traditional quantum mechanics. ❼Einstein’s ideas have been tested by experiments performed since his death, and as most of these experiments support traditional quantum mechanics, Einstein’s approach is almost certainly erroneous. ❶量子力学(quantum mechanics)是一项极为成功的理论：它提供了多种方法来精确计算出 不同实验的结果，尤其是微粒子的实验。❷然而，量子力学仅能预测某一事件发生的可能 性，而不能明确说明该事件是否会发生。❸虽然 Einstein 并不认为量子理论是错误的，但 是正因为这种可能性，他一生都对这一理论感到强烈的不满。❹他认为量子理论是不完整 的：他解释到，在量子力学中粒子的运动之所以必须要用概率来描述，仅仅是因为决定粒子 运动的某些参数尚未确定。❺如果这些假设的“隐性参数”能被确定，那么一种绝对明确的粒 子运动轨道就被确定。❻十分重要的是，这个隐性参数量子理论导致了一些试验性的预测， 这些预测不同于传统量子力学所做出的预测。❼Einstein 去世之后，科学家从事了一系列的 实验以验证他的思想，由于这些实验中的大多数还是在支持传统量子力学的，所以 Einstein 的方法几乎肯定是错误的。

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1992 年 04 月 SECTION A ❶The 1960’s witnessed two profound social movements: the civil rights movement and the movement protesting the war in Vietnam. ❷Although they overlapped in time, they were largely distinct. ❸For a brief moment in 1967, however, it appeared that the two movements might unite under the leadership of Martin Luther King, Jr. ❶20 世纪 60 年代见证了两场意义深远的社会运动：民权运动(civil rights movement)和反 越战(war in Vietnam)运动。❷尽管二者在时间上有重叠，但它们仍有很大差异。❸然而， 在 1967 年中的一段短暂时间内，这两项运动有可能都是由 Martin Luther King, Jr.领导的。 ❶King’s role in the antiwar movement appears to require little explanation, since he was the foremost advocate of nonviolence of his time. ❷But King’s stance on the Vietnam War cannot be explained in terms of pacifism alone. ❸After all, he was something of a latecomer to the antiwar movement, even though by 1965 he was convinced that the role of the United States in the war was indefensible. ❹Why then the two years that passed before he translated his private misgivings into public dissent? ❺Perhaps he believed that he could not criticize American foreign policy without endangering the support for civil rights that he had won from the federal government. ❶作为他所在时代最杰出的非暴力拥护者，King 在反越战运动中的地位毋庸置疑。❷但 King 对越战的立场不能仅用和平主义解释。❸尽管早在 1965 年他就相信美国在越战中的 角色是站不住脚的，但在一定程度上他是反越战运动中的后来者。❹那么为什么两年之后 他才将个人的疑虑转化为公众的异议呢？❺或许他认为批评美国外交政策的会危及到他从 政府那里赢得的对于民权运动的支持。

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❶What causes a helix in nature to appear with either a dextral (“right-handed,” or clockwise) twist or a sinistral (“left-handed,” or counterclockwise) twist is one of the most intriguing puzzles in the science of form. ❷Most spiral-shaped snail species are predominantly dextral. ❸But at one time, handedness (twist direction of the shell) was equally distributed within some snail species that have become predominantly dextral or, in a few species, predominantly sinistral. ❹What mechanisms, control handedness and keep left-handedness rare? ❶是什么导致螺旋状物体呈现右旋（“右利手的”，或顺时针方向的）或左旋（“左利手的”， 或逆时针方向的），这个问题是形态科学中最有趣的问题之一。❷大多数螺旋形状的蜗牛 种类以右旋为主。❸但是曾经旋向性（handedness, 蜗牛壳的旋转方向）在一些蜗牛种类中 是平均分配的，但现在已经变成了以右旋为主，或者在很少的种类中以左旋为主。❹什么 机制控制了旋向性并且让左旋保持稀少呢？ ❶It would seem unlikely that evolution should discriminate against sinistral snails if sinistral and dextral snails are exact mirror images, for any disadvantage that a sinistral twist in itself could confer on its possessor is almost inconceivable. ❷But left- and right-handed snails are not actually true mirror images of one another. ❸Their shapes are noticeably different. ❹Sinistral rarity might, then, be a consequence of possible disadvantages conferred by these other concomitant structural features. ❺In addition, perhaps left- and right-handed snails cannot mate with each other, having incompatible twist directions. ❻Presumably an individual of the rarer form would have relative difficulty in finding a mate of the same hand, thus keeping the rare form rare or creating geographically separated right-and left-handed populations. ❶下述情况看来不太可能的：如果左旋蜗牛和右旋蜗牛是完全镜像的话，进化歧视左旋蜗 牛；因为一个左旋的旋向会给蜗牛带来伤害的说法几乎是不能让人信服的。❷但是蜗牛的 左旋和右旋实际并不是彼此完全的镜像。❸它们的形状有明显不同。❹那么，左旋蜗牛数 目稀少的原因可能是其它伴随的结构特征会对蜗牛产生不利影响。❺此外，左旋和右旋的 蜗牛也许不能相互交配，因为它们具有无法匹配的旋向。❻假设一个形态较为稀有的个体 在寻找相同旋向的配偶时相对困难，那么它保持了稀有形态的稀有性，或者说造成了地理上 左旋种群和右旋种群的隔离。 ❶But this evolutionary mechanism combining dissymmetry, anatomy, and chance does not provide an adequate explanation of why right-handedness should have become predominant. ❷It does not explain, for example, why the infrequent unions between snails of opposing hands produce fewer offspring of the rarer than the commoner form in species where each parent contributes equally to handedness. ❸Nor does it explain why, in a species where one parent determines handedness, a brood is not exclusively right- or left-handed when the offspring would have the same genetic predisposition. ❹In the European pond snail Lymnaea peregra, a predominantly dextral species whose handedness is maternally determined, a brood might be expected to be exclusively right or left-handed—and this often occurs. ❺However, some broods possess a few snails of the opposing hand, and in predominantly sinistral broods, the incidence of dextrality is surprisingly high. ❶但是这种与不对称性、解剖学和偶然性结合的进化机制，不能充分解释为什么右旋占据 主导。❷例如，它没有解释在每个亲本都贡献同样的旋向性的物种中，为什么形态稀少的、 旋向相反的蜗牛交配产生的后代要比常见形态交配产生的少。❸它也没有解释为什么在一 个亲本决定旋向的物种中，在后代本来应该有相同的基因倾向的情况下，一窝后代并不是完 全右旋或者完全左旋的。❹在一种右旋占主导的物种——欧洲的池塘蜗牛 Lymnaea peregra 中，其旋向性是由母体决定的，一窝后代预计会是完全右旋或完全左旋，而这也确实经常发 199

生。❺然而，有些后代拥有很少的旋向相反的蜗牛，并且在以左旋为主的那几窝蜗牛中， 右旋发生的几率出人意料地“高”。 ❶Here, the evolutionary theory must defer to a theory based on an explicit developmental mechanism that can favor either right or left-handedness. ❷In the case of Lymnaea peregra, studies indicate that a dextral gene is expressed during egg formation; i.e., before egg fertilization, the gene produces a protein, found in the cytoplasm of the egg, that controls the pattern of cell division and thus handedness. ❸In experiments, an injection of cytoplasm from dextral eggs changes the pattern of sinistral eggs, but an injection from sinistral eggs does not influence dextral eggs. ❹One explanation for the differing effects is that all Lymnaea peregra eggs begin left-handed but most switch to being right-handed. ❺Thus, the path to a solution to the puzzle of handedness in all snails appears to be as twisted as the helix itself. ❶这里，进化理论必须遵守这样一种理论，该理论基于明确的发展机制之上，这种发展机 制要么有利于左旋，要么有利于右旋。❷研究表明，在Lymnaea peregra的例子中，右旋基 因可以在卵子形成过程中表现出来；也就是说，在卵子授精前，该基因会产生一种蛋白质， 这种蛋白质存在于卵子的细胞质中，控制着细胞分裂的模式，由此控制旋向。❸在实验中， 注射来自右旋卵子的细胞质，可改变左旋卵子的模式；但是注射来自左旋卵子的细胞质，不 能影响到右旋卵子。❹对于这种不同效果的一个解释是，所有Lymnaea peregra的卵子都开 始于左旋，但绝大部分卵子转变成了右旋。❺因此，解决所有蜗牛身上旋向之谜的路，似 乎跟这一螺旋体本身一样纠结。

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SECTION B ❶Recently some scientists have concluded that meteorites found on Earth and long believed to have a Martian origin might actually have been blasted free of Mars’s gravity by the impact on Mars of other meteorites. ❷This conclusion has led to another question: whether meteorite impacts on Earth have similarly driven rocks from this planet to Mars. ❶近来，一些科学家总结出，在地球上发现的、长久以来被认为来自火星的陨石实际上可 能是被其它陨石撞击火星而炸出来脱离火星引力的陨石。❷这个结论引出了另一个问题： 陨石对地球的冲击是否也让岩石脱离地球到达火星。 ❶According to astronomer S. A. Phinney, kicking a rock hard enough to free it from Earth’s gravity would require a meteorite capable of making a crater more than 60 miles across. ❷Moreover, even if Earth rocks were freed by meteorite impact, Mars’s orbit is much larger than Earth’s, so Phinney estimates that the probability of these rocks hitting Mars is about one-tenth as great as that of Mars’s rocks hitting Earth. ❸To demonstrate this estimate, Phinney used a computer to calculate where 1,000 hypothetical particles would go if ejected from Earth in random directions. ❹He found that 17 of the 1,000 particles would hit Mars. ❶根据天文学家 S. A. Phinney 的说法， 狠狠踢一块石头让它摆脱地球引力束缚需要一个能 制造出方圆 60 多英里陨石坑的陨石。❷此外，就算地球上的岩石被陨石的冲击力推动而脱 离地球引力，火星轨道比地球轨道大很多，所以 Phinney 推测这些陨石击中火星的概率是火 星陨石撞击地球概率的十分之一。❸为了证明这个推测，Phinney 用电脑计算出如果地球上 1000 个假想粒子以任意方向发射出去，那么它们会运动到哪里。❹他发现 1000 个粒子中 有 17 个会击中火星。

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❶A “scientistic” view of language was dominant among philosophers and linguists who affected to develop a scientific analysis of human thought and behavior in the early part of this century. ❷Under the force of this view, it was perhaps inevitable that the art of rhetoric should pass from the status of being regarded as of questionable worth (because although it might be both a source of pleasure and a means to urge people to right action, it might also be a means to distort truth and a source of misguided action) to the status of being wholly condemned. ❸If people are regarded only as machines guided by logic, as they were by these “scientistic” thinkers, rhetoric is likely to be held in low regard; for the most obvious truth about rhetoric is that it speaks to the whole person. ❹It presents its arguments first to the person as a rational being, because persuasive discourse, if honestly conceived, always has a basis in reasoning. ❺Logical argument is the plot, as it were, of any speech or essay that is respectfully intended to persuade people. ❻Yet it is a characterizing feature of rhetoric that it goes beyond this and appeals to the parts of our nature that are involved in feeling, desiring, acting, and suffering. ❼It recalls relevant instances of the emotional reactions of people to circumstances—real or fictional—that are similar to our own circumstances. ❽Such is the purpose of both historical accounts and fables in persuasive discourse: they indicate literally or symbolically how people may react emotionally, with hope or fear, to particular circumstances. ❾A speech attempting to persuade people can achieve little unless it takes into account the aspect of their being related to such hopes and fears. ❶一个关于语言的“科学”的观点在哲学家和语言学家中盛行，哲学家和语言学家们在这个世 纪前半叶喜欢用科学分析方法来分析人类的思想和行为。❷在这个观点的影响下，修辞艺 术不可避免地从被认为有可疑价值（因为尽管修辞艺术可能产生愉悦并且是一个促使人们正 确行动的方式，但是它也是一个扭曲事实的方式并且是使人误入歧途的行为的来源）的状态 变为被完全谴责的状态。❸如果人们仅仅被看作由逻辑引导的机器，就像这些“科学”的思想 家那样，那么修辞很可能被看低了；因为对于修辞学最显而易见的真理就是它是对完整的人 说话。❹修辞学首先作为一个理性的人提出论点，因为如果有说服力的演讲要是被如实理 解的话，那么它就要以推理为基础。❺在有说服力的演讲或者文章中，逻辑论点就像情节 一样。❻可是修辞学的突出特征是，它超越了这一点，并且诉诸于人类天性里和情感、希 望、行动以及苦难有关的那一部分。❼它使得人们回忆联想起人们和这些情形都有共通之 处。❽其目的是，它们真实地或带象征意味地示意人们如何从情感上对特定情形做出反应， 或抱有希望，或心怀恐惧。❾一个尝试说服人们的演讲只有在考虑到人们与希望、恐惧的 联系时才会成功。 ❶Rhetoric, then, is addressed to human beings living at particular times and in particular places. ❷From the point of view of rhetoric, we are not merely logical thinking machines, creatures abstracted from time and space. ❸The study of rhetoric should therefore be considered the most humanistic of the humanities, since rhetoric is not directed only to our rational selves. ❹It takes into account what the “scientistic” view leaves out. ❺If it is a weakness to harbor feelings, then rhetoric may be thought of as dealing in weakness. ❻But those who reject the idea of rhetoric because they believe it deals in lies and who at the same time hope to move people to action, must either be liars themselves or be very naive; pure logic has never been a motivating force unless it has been subordinated to human purposes, feelings, and desires, and thereby ceased to be pure logic. ❶那么，修辞学是与生活在特定时间、特定地点的人们进行对话。❷从修辞学的观点来看， 我们不只是逻辑思考的机器和从时间、空间中抽象出来的生物。❸因此，修辞学的研究应 该被看作人文学科中最具有人文气息的学科，因为修辞学不仅仅指向理性的我们。❹它包 含了“科学的”观点中遗漏的东西。❺如果怀有某种情感是一个弱点的话，那么修辞学可被认 为是在处理这种弱点。❻但是那些反对修辞学观点的人们要么一定是骗子，要么特别幼稚， 202

因为他们认为修辞学在和谎言打交道并且同时希望鼓动人们去行动；纯逻辑从来都不是一个 推动力，除非它服从于人类的目的、情感以及欲望，但这样一来它就不再是纯逻辑了。

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1992 年 10 月 ❶Hank Morgan, the hero of Mark Twain’s A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court, is a nineteenth-century master mechanic who mysteriously awakening in sixth-century Britain, launches what he hopes will be a peaceful revolution to transform Arthurian Britain into an industrialized modern democracy. ❷The novel, written as a spoof of Thomas Malory’s Morte d’ Arthur, a popular collection of fifteenth-century legends about sixth-century Britain, has been made into three upbeat movies and two musical comedies. ❸None of these translations to screen and stage, however, dramatize the anarchy at the conclusion of A Connecticut Yankee, which ends with the violent overthrow of Morgan’s three-year-old progressive order and his return to the nineteenth century, where he apparently commits suicide after being labeled a lunatic for his incoherent babblings about drawbridges and battlements. ❹The American public, although enjoying Twain’s humor, evidently rejected his cynicism about technological advancement and change through peaceful revolution as antithetical to the United States doctrine of progress. ❶ Hank Morgan，Mark Twain 所著的 A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court 中的英雄， 是一位 19 世纪的高超技师，他神秘地在 6 世纪的英国醒来，发动了一场将亚瑟王的英国改 造成工业化现代民主的社会的和平革命。❷这部小说是对于 Thomas Malory 的 Morte d’ Arthur（一部在 15 世纪时受欢迎的有关 6 世纪英国传奇故事集）的滑稽模仿，它被制作成 三部欢快轻松的电影以及两部音乐喜剧。❸然而，在搬上舞台和荧屏的改编作品中，没有 一部没有强调 A Connecticut Yankee 结尾处的无政府状态，而原作的结尾以暴力推翻了 Morgan 建立的三年逐渐进步的秩序，并且 Morgan 回到了 19 世纪，在那里他显然在因为他 对于吊桥以及城垛前后不一的胡言乱语而被贴上疯癫标签后选择了自杀。❹尽管美国大众 喜欢 Twain 的幽默，但明显拒绝了他对于技术进步以及和平革命带来的变化所采取的玩世 不恭的态度，因为这种态度是和美国进步主义对立的。

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SECTION A ❶The intensive work of materials scientists and solid-state physicists has given rise to a class of solids known as amorphous metallic alloys, or glassy metals. ❷There is a growing interest among theoretical and applied researchers alike in the structural properties of these materials. ❶材料科学家以及固态物理学家通过大量研究，制造出一类被认为是非定形金属合金或玻 璃金属的固体。❷理论研究者和应用研究者都对这些材料的结构性质产生了越来越大的兴 趣。 ❶When a molten metal or metallic alloy is cooled to a solid, a crystalline structure is formed that depends on the particular alloy composition. ❷In contrast, molten nonmetallic glass-forming materials, when cooled, do not assume a crystalline structure, but instead retain a structure somewhat like that of the liquid—an amorphous structure. ❸At room temperature, the natural long-term tendency for both types of materials is to assume the crystalline structure. ❹The difference between the two is in the kinetics or rate of formation of the crystalline structure, which is controlled by factors such as the nature of the chemical bonding and the ease with which atoms move relative to each other. ❺Thus, in metals, the kinetics favors rapid formation of a crystalline structure, whereas in nonmetallic glasses the rate of formation is so slow that almost any cooling rate is sufficient to result in an amorphous structure. ❻For glassy metals to be formed, the molten metal must be cooled extremely rapidly so that crystallization is suppressed. ❶当熔融的金属或金属合金被冷却至固体时，晶体结构(crystalline structure)就形成了，并 且晶体结构取决于特定合金组成成分。❷相反，熔融的形成玻璃的非金属材料，在冷却时 并不形成晶体结构，而是保持和它在液态时类似的结构——一种非定形结构。❸室温下， 这两种材料的长期自然趋势是形成晶体结构。❹二者差别在于形成晶体结构的变化历程或 速率，这个速率是由化学键性质以及原子相对移动的难易程度等因素决定的。 ❺因此在金 属中，变化倾向于晶体结构迅速的形成，而在非金属中，晶体形成速率如此之慢以至于几乎 任何冷却速率都足以形成非定形结构。❻为了形成玻璃金属，熔化的金属必须被急速冷却， 这样结晶过程就被抑制了。 ❶The structure of glassy metals is thought to be similar to that of liquid metals. ❷One of the first attempts to model the structure of a liquid was that by the late J. D. Bernal of the University of London, who packed hard spheres into a rubber vessel in such a way as to obtain the maximum possible density. ❸The resulting dense, random-packed structure was the basis for many attempts to model the structure of glassy metals. ❹Calculations of the density of alloys based on Bernal-type models of the alloys metal component agreed fairly well with the experimentally determined values from measurements on alloys consisting of a noble metal together with a metalloid, such as alloys of palladium and silicon, or alloys consisting of iron, phosphorus, and carbon, although small discrepancies remained. ❺One difference between real alloys and the hard spheres used in Bernal models is that the components of an alloy have different sizes, so that models based on two sizes of spheres are more appropriate for a binary alloy, for example. ❻The smaller metalloid atoms of the alloy might fit into holes in the dense, random-packed structure of the larger metal atoms. ❶玻璃金属的结构被认为和液体金属的结构相似。❷伦敦大学已故的 J. D. Bernal 做了一个 对于液体结构建模最初的尝试，而他为了达到可能的最大密度，把硬球堆积进橡胶容器。 ❸由此产生的随机密堆结构(random-packed structure)是建立玻璃金属结构模型的基础。 ❹基于 Bernal 式金属合金组成成分模型密度的计算，与通过实验测量金属中贵金属（noble metal）以及类金属（例如钯和硅的合金，或含有铁、磷以及碳的合金）的量而得到的值吻 合得相当好，虽然还存在一些小的差异。 ❺真合金和 Bernal 模型中所用的硬球之间的一个 205

差异是合金组成成分存在大小差异，所以对于两组分合金来说用两种不同大小的球更合适。 ❻合金中较小的类金属原子可能填入较大金属原子组成的随机密堆结构的空隙中。 ❶One of the most promising properties of glassy metals is their high strength combined with high malleability. ❷In usual crystalline materials, one finds an inverse relation between the two properties, whereas for many practical applications simultaneous presence of both properties is desirable. ❸One residual obstacle to practical applications that is likely to be overcome is the fact that glassy metals will crystallize at relatively low temperatures when heated slightly. ❶玻璃金属中最有前途的性质就是高强度以及高可塑性。❷在常规晶体材料中，人们发现 这两个性质是呈反比关系的，而许多实际应用需要这两个性质同时存在。❸实际应用中剩 下的一个可能被克服的障碍是这样的事实，即玻璃金属在稍微加热的时候就在比较低的温度 下结晶了。

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SECTION B ❶In a perfectly free and open market economy, the type of employer—government or private—should have little or no impact on the earnings differentials between women and men. ❷However, if there is discrimination against one sex, it is unlikely that the degree of discrimination by government and private employers will be the same. ❸Differences in the degree of discrimination would result in earnings differentials associated with the type of employer. ❹Given the nature of government and private employers, it seems most likely that discrimination by private employers would be greater. ❺Thus, one would expect that, if women are being discriminated against, government employment would have a positive effect on women’s earnings as compared with their earnings from private employment. ❻The results of a study by Fuchs support this assumption. ❼Fuchs’s results suggest that the earnings of women in an industry composed entirely of government employers would be 14. 6 percent greater than the earnings of women in an industry composed exclusively of private employees, other things being equal. ❶在完全自由并且开放的市场经济中，雇主的类型——政府或是私人——理应对男女两性 的收入差异几乎或根本不产生影响。❷但是，如果存在对一种性别的歧视，那么政府雇主 和私人雇主产生歧视的程度不太可能完全一样。❸歧视程度的差异会导致与雇主类型有关 的收入差异。❹考虑到政府雇主和私人雇主的性质，很有可能是私人雇主会有更大的歧视 差异。❺因此，我们可能想到：如果女性被歧视，那么政府雇佣相比私人雇佣对于女性收 入会有更积极的影响。❻Fuchs 的研究结果支持了这个假设。❼Fuchs 的结果表明，在其他 因素完全一样的情况下，某个产业中女性完全由政府雇佣组成的收入会比完全由私人雇佣组 成的收入高 14.6%。 ❶In addition, both Fuchs and Sanborn have suggested that the effect of discrimination by consumers on the earnings of self-employed women may be greater than the effect of either government or private employer discrimination on the earnings of women employees. ❷To test this hypothesis, Brown selected a large sample of White male and female workers from the 1970 Census and divided them into three categories: private employees, government employees, and self-employed. ❸ (Black workers were excluded from the sample to avoid picking up earnings differentials that were the result of racial disparities.) ❹ Brown’s research design controlled for education, labor-force participation, mobility, motivation, and age in order to eliminate these factors as explanations of the study’s results. ❺Brown’s results suggest that men and women are not treated the same by employers and consumers. ❻For men, self-employment is the highest earnings category, with private employment next, and government lowest. ❼For women, this order is reversed. ❶此外，Fuchs 和 Sanborn 认为，来自消费者的歧视对于个体经营的女性的收入会比政府 雇佣和私人雇佣对于女性的收入影响更大。❷为了验证这个假设，Brown 从 1970 人口普 查结果中选择了大量白人男性和女性工人样本，然后把他们分为三类：私人雇员，政府雇员 以及个体经营者。❸（黑人工人没有选入样本是为了避免由种族差异导致的收入差异）。 ❹Brown 的实验设计控制了样本的教育程度、劳动力参与程度、流动程度、工作积极程度 以及年龄，这是为了消除这些因素对于研究结果解释的影响。❺Brown 的结果表明，雇主 和消费者把男性和女性区别对待。❻对于男性来说，个体经营的收入最高，私人雇佣次之， 而政府雇佣最低。❼对于女性来说，这个顺序正相反。 ❶One can infer from Brown’s results that consumers discriminate against self-employed women. ❷In addition, self-employed women may have more difficulty than men in getting good employees and may encounter discrimination from suppliers and from financial institutions. ❶我们可以从 Brown 的研究结果中推断出，消费者对于女性个体经营者存在歧视。 ❷此外， 女性个体经营者可能比男性更难得到好雇员，而且会遇到来自供应商和金融机构的歧视。 207

❶Brown’s results are clearly consistent with Fuch’s argument that discrimination by consumers has a greater impact on the earnings of women than does discrimination by either government or private employers. ❷Also, the fact that women do better working for government than for private employers implies that private employers are discriminating against women. ❸The results do not prove that government does not discriminate against women. ❹They do, however, demonstrate that if government is discriminating against women, its discrimination is not having as much effect on women’s earnings as is discrimination in the private sector. ❶Brown 的研究结果明显与 Fuchs 的论证一致，即来自消费者的歧视比来自政府雇主或私 人雇主的歧视对于女性收入的影响更大。❷另外，女性为政府雇主比为私人雇主工作得更 好的事实意味着私人雇主在歧视女性。❸这些结果并没有证明政府不歧视女性。❹然而， 这些结果表明，如果政府在歧视女性，那么它的歧视对女性收入的影响不如来自私人雇员的 歧视的影响。

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❶The success of fluoride in combating dental decay is well established and, without a doubt, socially beneficial. ❷However, fluoride’s toxic properties have been known for a century. ❸In humans excessive intake (for adults, over 4 milligrams per day) over many years can lead to skeletal fluorosis, a well-defined skeletal disorder, and in some plant species, fluoride is more toxic than ozone, sulfur dioxide, or pesticides. ❶目前，用氟化物(fluoride)可以成功地对抗蛀牙已经是一个确定的事实，并且毫无疑问的 是，这对社会有益。❷然而一个世纪以来，氟化物的毒性也被人们熟知。❸持续几年过量 摄入氟化物（对成人而言每天超过4毫克）会导致人们骨骼氟中毒——一种清晰可辨的骨骼 病，而在某些植物身上，氟化物的毒性比臭氧、二氧化硫或杀虫剂更高。 ❶Some important questions remain. ❷For example, the precise lower limit at which the fluoride content of bone becomes toxic is still undetermined. ❸And while fluoride intake from water and air can be evaluated relatively easily, it is much harder to estimate how much a given population ingests from foodstuffs because of the wide variations in individual eating habits and in fluoride concentrations in foodstuffs. ❹These difficulties suggest that we should be wary of indiscriminately using fluoride, even in the form of fluoride-containing dental products. ❶一些重要问题仍然存在。❷例如，对于骨骼中氟化物的量小到什么程度才没有毒性的问 题，现在尚无定论。❸并且，虽然从水和空气中摄取的氟化物的量相对容易估计，但要估 算出特定人口通过饮食摄取的氟化物含量要难得多，因为每个人的饮食习惯不同，食物中的 氟化物含量也不同。❹这些困难表明，我们应该谨慎对待随意使用氟化物的行为，即使在 使用含氟化物的刷牙产品时也不例外。

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1993 年 02 月 SECTION A ❶It is now established that the Milky Way is far more extended and of much greater mass than was hitherto thought. ❷However, all that is visible of the constituents of the Milky Way’s corona (outer edge), where much of the galaxy’s mass must be located, is a tiny fraction of the corona’s mass. ❸Thus, most of the Milky Way’s outlying matter must be dark. ❶现在人们已经确定，银河系比迄今为止所想象的要广阔得多，质量也大得多。❷然而， 在银河系的冕（corona，即外缘，该星系的很大一部分质量均位于此）的成份中，全部可见 物质仅仅是银冕中非常小的一部分。❸因此，绝大部分的银河系边沿物质必定是暗的。 ❶Why? Three facts are salient. ❷First, dwarf galaxies and globular clusters, into which most of the stars of the Milky Way’s corona are probably bound, consist mainly of old stars. ❸Second, old stars are not highly luminous. ❹Third, no one has detected in the corona the clouds of gaseous matter such as hydrogen and carbon monoxide that are characteristic of the bright parts of a galaxy. ❺At present, therefore, the best explanation—though still quite tentative—for the darkness of the corona is that the corona is composed mainly of old, burned-out stars. ❶这是为什么呢？有三个明显的事实。❷第一，矮星系(dwarf galaxies)和球状星团(globular clusters)——银冕的绝大多数星球可能汇集于其中——主要由古老的星球组成。❸第二，年 代久远的星球不会特别明亮。❹第三，没有人在银冕中发现诸如氢气和一氧化碳之类的气 体物质构成的云团，而这些气体云团构成了银河系的明亮部分。❺因此，尽管仍带有相当 的推测性，但目前有关银冕暗淡最佳解释是，它主要是由年代久远、已燃尽的星球构成的。

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❶One of the principal themes of Walzer’s critique of liberal capitalism is that it is insufficiently egalitarian. ❷Walzer’s case against the economic inequality generated by capitalism and in favor of “a radical redistribution of wealth” is presented in a widely cited essay entitled “In Defense of Equality.” ❶Walzer 对自由资本主义(liberal capitalism)的批判的首要主题是，这种自由资本主义不够 平等。❷Walzer 反对资本主义体制导致的经济不平等，赞成“根本性的财富重新分配”，这 一论点出现在一篇被广泛引用论文《捍卫平等》中。 ❶The most striking feature of Walzer’s critique is that, far from rejecting the principle of reward according to merit, Walzer insists on its validity. ❷People who excel should receive the superior benefits appropriate to their excellence. ❸But people exhibit a great variety of qualities—“intelligence, physical strength, agility and grace, artistic creativity, mechanical skill, leadership, endurance, memory, psychological insight, the capacity for hard work—even moral strength, sensitivity, the ability to express compassion.” ❹Each deserves its proper recompense, and hence a proper distribution of material goods should reflect human differences as measured on all these different scales. ❺Yet, under capitalism, the ability to make money (“the green thumb (an unusual ability to make plants grow) of bourgeois society”) enables its possessor to acquire almost “every other sort of social good,” such as the respect and esteem of others. ❶Walzer 的批判中最显著的特征是，他并不反对“按劳分配”的原则，反而坚持其有效性。 ❷优秀的人应该得到与他们的优秀相匹配的好处。❸但是，人们会展现许多品质——“智慧、 体魄、敏捷、优雅、艺术创造力、机械技术、领导力、耐力、记忆力、心理洞察力，完成困 难工作的能力——甚至精神力量、敏感、及表达怜悯之心的能力。”❹每种品质都应该得到 报酬，因此，一种恰当的物质财富分配方式应能反映出所有这些标准衡量出来的人类差异。 ❺然而，在资本主义下，赚钱的能力（green thumb）使其拥有者能获得几乎“其它所有社 会利益”，例如他人的尊敬和仰慕。 ❶The centerpiece of Walzer’s argument is the invocation of a quotation from Pascal’s Pensees, which concludes: “Tyranny is the wish to obtain by one means what can only be had by another.” ❷Pascal believes that we owe different duties to different qualities. ❸So we might say that infatuation is the proper response to charm, and awe the proper response to strength. ❹In this light, Walzer characterizes capitalism as the tyranny of money (or of the ability to make it). ❺And Walzer advocates as the means of eliminating this tyranny and of restoring genuine equality “the abolition of the power of money outside its sphere.” ❻What Walzer envisions is a society in which wealth is no longer convertible into social goods with which it has no intrinsic connection. ❶Walzer论点的中心是对Pascal的《思想录》中一句引文的引用，该著作在最后总结道：“暴 政就是希望用一种方法获得只有通过另一种方法才能获得的东西。”❷Pascal相信，我们对 不同的品质有不同的义务。❸因此我们可以说迷恋是对魅力的恰当反应，敬畏是对力量的 恰当反应。❹根据这个原理，Walzer将资本主义体制描绘成金钱的（或赚钱能力的）暴政。 ❺Walzer提倡，作为消除这种暴政以及恢复真正平等的手段，应该“废除金钱在其范围之外 的作用。” ❻Walzer想象的是这样一个社会，即在这个社会中物质财富将不再能转化为与之 没有内在联系的社会财富。 ❶Walzer’s argument is a puzzling one. ❷After all, why should those qualities unrelated to the production of material goods be rewarded with material goods? ❸Is it not tyrannical, in Pascal’s sense, to insist that those who excel in “sensitivity” or “the ability to express compassion” merit equal wealth with those who excel in qualities (such as “the capacity for hard work”) essential in producing wealth? ❹Yet Walzer’s argument, however deficient, does point to one of the most serious weaknesses of capitalism—namely, that it brings to predominant positions in a society people who, no matter how legitimately they have earned 211

their material rewards, often lack those other qualities that evoke affection or admiration. ❺Some even argue plausibly that this weakness may be irremediable: in any society that, like a capitalist society, seeks to become ever wealthier in material terms disproportionate rewards are bound to flow to the people who are instrumental in producing the increase in its wealth. ❶Walzer 的论点是令人困惑的。❷毕竟，为什么那些与物质财富的创造毫无联系的品质， 要以物质利益来作为酬报呢？❸在 Pascal 看来，如果坚持认为那些在“敏感”和“善于表达怜 悯之心”方面优秀的人，应获取与那些在物质财富创造过程中有优秀的品质（诸如“勤奋工作 的能力”）的人同等的物质财富， 这难道不也是暴政吗？❹然而，Walzer 的论点，尽管是 不充分的，但确实指出了资本主义体制中最严重的一个弱点，即它将某一类人置于社会中的 显赫位置，这类人无论以怎样合法的方式获得了物质回报，都常常缺乏那些受人喜欢和爱戴 的品质。❺某些学者甚至合理地指出，这一弱点可能是无法弥补的：在任何一个类似于资 本主义社会的社会中，只要社会始终追求物质的富足，过多的财富注定会流入到那些在其财 富增长过程中非常重要的人的口袋中。

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SECTION B ❶The outpouring of contemporary American Indian literature in the last two decades, often called the Native American Renaissance, represents for many the first opportunity to experience Native American poetry. ❷The appreciation of traditional oral American Indian literature has been limited, hampered by poor translations and by the difficulty, even in the rare culturally sensitive and aesthetically satisfying translation, of completely conveying the original’s verse structure, tone, and syntax. ❶现代美国印第安文学在过去二十年中的大量涌现，它也常被称为印第安文艺复兴(Native American Renaissance)，对很多人来说这是第一个体验印第安诗歌的机会。❷对于传统口 头印第安文学的欣赏一直都受到限制，其障碍是拙劣的翻译以及完整传达原始诗歌结构、基 调、句法的困难，这些困难就算在不可多得的、文化上敏锐的以及审美上令人满意的翻译中 依然存在。 ❶By writing in English and experimenting with European literary forms, contemporary American Indian writers have broadened their potential audience, while clearly retaining many essential characteristics of their ancestral oral traditions. ❷For example, Pulitzer-prizewinning author N. Scott Momaday’s poetry often treats art and mortality in a manner that recalls British romantic poetry, while his poetic response to the power of natural forces recalls Cherokee oral literature. ❸In the same way, his novels, an art form European in origin, display an eloquence that echoes the oratorical grandeur of the great nineteenth-century American Indian chiefs. ❶通过使用英语写作并且尝试欧洲文学形式，当代美国印第安作家拓宽了读者范围，同时 明确地保持了其祖先口语传统中的重要特征。❷例如，普利策奖获得者 N. Scott Momaday 的诗歌通常用让人回忆起英国浪漫主义诗歌的方式来处理艺术和死亡，而他对于自然力量诗 意一般的回应让人想起 Cherokee 口头文学。❸他的小说源于欧洲艺术形式，以相同的方式 展现了 19 世纪伟大美洲印第安首领庄严演讲时的雄辩。

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❶Recent findings suggest that visual signals are fed into at least three separate processing systems in the brain, each with its own distinct function. ❷One system appears to process information about shape perception; a second, information about color; a third, information about movement, location, and spatial organization. ❸An understanding of the functions and capabilities of these three systems can shed light on how artists manipulate materials to create surprising visual effects. ❶最近的发现表明，视觉信号(visual signal)进入了大脑中的至少三个分离的处理系统，每 一个系统都有自己独特的功能。❷第一个系统似乎处理关于形状感知的信息，第二个系统 是处理关于颜色的信息，第三个系统是处理关于运动、地点和空间构成。❸关于这三个系 统功能和能力的认识可以清楚地解释艺术家是如何处理材料来创造令人惊奇的视觉效果的。 ❶It is possible to summarize the functions of the three subsystems of the visual system as follows. ❷The parvo system carries highly detailed information about stationary objects and about borders that are formed by contrasting colors. ❸It does not, however, carry information about specific colors. ❹Because much of the information about the shape of objects can be represented by their borders, we suspect that this system is important in shape perception. ❺The blob system processes information about colors, but not about movement, shape discrimination, or depth. ❻The magno system carries information about movement and depth. ❼It is good at detecting motion but poor at scrutinizing stationary images. ❽In addition it appears to be colorblind; it is unable to perceive borders that are visible only on the basis of color contrast. ❶可以把这三个子系统的功能总结如下。❷微小系统（parvo system) 携带关于静止物体和 对比色形成边界的非常详细的信息。❸然而，它并没有携带任何关于具体颜色的信息。❹ 因为很多关于物体形状的信息可以被它们的边界表示，我们怀疑这个系统在形状感知上是很 重要的。❺色块系统（blob system) 处理有关颜色的信息，但不处理关于运动、形状识别 或深度的信息。❻大系统（magno system)携带关于运动和深度的信息。❼它善于探测运动 但是不善于仔细观察静止的画面。❽此外它似乎还是色盲；它不能感知在色彩对比的基础 上才能看见的边界。 ❶Cells in the parvo system can distinguish between two colors at any relative brightness of the two. ❷Cells in the color-blind magno system, on the other hand, are analogous to a black-and-white photograph in the way they function: they signal information about the brightness of surfaces but not about their colors. ❸For any pair of colors there is a particular brightness ratio at which two colors, for example red and green, will appear as the same shade of gray in a black-and-white photograph, hence any border between them will vanish. ❹Similarly at some relative red-to-green brightness level, the red and green will appear identical to the magno system. ❺The red and green are then called equiluminant. ❻A border between two equiluminant colors has color contrast but no luminance contrast. ❶小系统中的细胞能在任何相关亮度的两种颜色中做出区分。❷而另一方面，在色盲大系 统中的细胞和黑白照片起到的作用相似：它们能传递出有关表面亮度的信息，但不能传递出 它们颜色的信息。❸在任何一对颜色中，都存在一个特定的亮度比，在这个比例中两个颜 色，例如红色和绿色，在黑白照片中会表现出同样的灰色渐变，因此任何它们之间的边界都 会消失。❹同样地，在一些相对红绿亮度层次上，红色和绿色对于大系统来说完全一样。 ❺红色和绿色被称为是等亮度的。❻两个等亮度颜色的边界有颜色对比，但没有亮度对比。 ❶Many artists have seemed to be empirically aware of these underlying principles and have used them to maximize particular effects. ❷Some of the peculiar effects of Op Art, for example, probably arise from color combinations that are strong activators of the parvo system but are weak stimuli for the magno system. ❸An object that is equiluminant with its background looks vibrant and unstable. ❹The reason is that the parvo system can signal the object’s shape but the magno system cannot see its borders and therefore cannot signal 214

either the movement or the position of the object. ❺Hence it seems to jump around, drift, or vibrate on the canvas. ❶许多艺术家似乎已经根据经验认识到了这些基本原理，并且已经把它们运用到最大化特 定效果中。❷例如一些光效应绘画艺术(Op Art)的特效可能来自颜色混合，这些混合对小系 统有强烈的刺激，但是对大系统的刺激较弱。❸一个和自身背景亮度相等的物体看起来是 颤动的、不稳定的。❹其理由是小系统可以发出物体形状的信息，但是大系统不能看见物 体的边界，并因此无法传递物体运动或位置的信息。❺因此它在画布上看起来跳来跳去、 漂浮或颤动。

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1993 年 04 月 SECTION A Although, recent years have seen substantial reductions in noxious pollutants from individual motor vehicles, the number of such vehicles has been steadily increasing consequently, more than 100 cities in the United States still have levels of carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and ozone (generated by photochemical reactions with hydrocarbons from vehicle exhaust) that exceed legally established limits. There is a growing realization that the only effective way to achieve further reductions in vehicle emissions—short of a massive shift away from the private automobile—is to replace conventional diesel fuel and gasoline with cleaner-burning fuels such as compressed natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, ethanol, or methanol. All of these alternatives are carbon-based fuels whose molecules are smaller and simpler than those of gasoline. These molecules burn more cleanly than gasoline, in part because they have fewer, if and, carbon-carbon bonds, and the hydrocarbons they do emit are less likely to generate ozone. The combustion of larger molecules, which have multiple carbon-carbon bonds, involves a more complex series of reactions. These reactions increase the probability of incomplete combustion and are more likely to release uncombusted and photochemically active hydrocarbon compounds into the atmosphere. On the other hand, alternative fuels do have drawbacks. Compressed natural gas would require that vehicles have a set of heavy fuel tanks—a serious liability in terms of performance and fuel efficiency—and liquefied petroleum gas faces fundamental limits on supply. Ethanol and methanol, on the other hand, have important advantages over other carbon-based alternative fuels: they have a higher energy content per volume and would require minimal changes in the existing network for distributing motor fuel. Ethanol is commonly used as a gasoline supplement, but it is currently about twice as expensive as methanol, the low cost of which is one of its attractive features. Methanol’s most attractive feature, however, is that it can reduce by about 90 percent the vehicle emissions that form ozone, the most serious urban air pollutant. Like any alternative fuel, methanol has its critics. Yet much of the criticism is based on the use of “gasoline clone” vehicles that do not incorporate even the simplest design improvements that are made possible with the use of methanol. It is true, for example, that a given volume of methanol provides only about one-half of the energy that gasoline and diesel fuel do; other things being equal, the fuel tank would have to be somewhat larger and heavier. However, since methanol-fueled vehicles could be designed to be much more efficient than “gasoline clone” vehicles fueled with methanol, they would need comparatively less fuel. Vehicles incorporating only the simplest of the engine improvements that methanol makes feasible would still contribute to an immediate lessening of urban air pollution.

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❶Paule Marshall’s Brown Girl, Brownstones (1959) was a landmark in the depiction of female characters in Black American literature. ❷Marshall avoided the oppressed and tragic heroine in conflict with White society that had been typical of the protest novels of the early twentieth century. ❸Like her immediate predecessors, Zora Neale Hurston and Gwendolyn Brooks, she focused her novel on an ordinary Black woman’s search for identity within the context of a Black community. ❹But Marshall extended the analysis of Black female characters begun by Hurston and Brooks by depicting her heroine’s development in terms of the relationship between her Barbadian American parents, and by exploring how male and female roles were defined by their immigrant culture, which in turn was influenced by the materialism of White America. ❺By placing characters within a wider cultural context, Marshall attacked racial and sexual stereotypes and paved the way for explorations of race, class, and gender in the novels of the 1970’s. ❶Paule Marshall 的 Brown Girl, Brownstones (1959)是美国黑人文学中描写女性人物的里程 碑式作品。❷Marshall 避开了 20 世纪初期抗议小说中被压迫的、悲惨的女主角与白人社会 之间普遍的冲突。❸与她的前辈 Zora Neale Hurston 以及 Gwendolyn Brooks 一样，她的小 说聚焦在普通黑人妇女在黑人社会中寻求自我的描写上。❹但是 Marshall 通过描绘女主人 公和她从巴巴多斯岛移民到美国的父母的关系，以及通过探寻移民文化如何确定男性和女性 角色的方式 （而移民文化也随之被白人统治的美国物质主义影响），延伸了 Hurston 和 Brooks 创造的对于黑人女性角色的分析。❺Marshall 把人物角色放入更广泛的文化背景中，抨击 了有关种族和性别的陈规陋习，并且为 20 世纪 70 年代的小说中种族、阶层以及性别的探 索铺平道路。

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SECTION B ❶Many philosophers disagree over the definition of morality, but most disputants fall intoone of two categories: egocentrics, who define morality as the pursuit of self-fulfillment, and sociocentrics, who define morality as an individual’s obligations to society. ❷Where does the truth lie? ❸Fortunately, the stem of the word “morality” provides some clues. ❹The word “mores” originally referred to the customs of preliterate cultures. ❺Mores, which embodied each culture’s ideal principles for governing every citizen, were developed in the belief that the foundation of a community lies in the cultivation of individual powers to be placed in service to the community. ❻These mores were concerned with such skills as food-gathering and warfare as well as an individual’s relationships with others. ❼Thus, I submit, “morality” must be concerned with what is honored by the community at large. ❽However, self-fulfillment is important to morality because unfulfilled citizens, no matter how virtuous, cannot perform the duties morality assigns them. ❶许多哲学家在道德一词的定义上意见不合，但大部分争论者都可以归入两大类中的一类： 个人中心(egocentrics)论者和社会中心(sociocentrics)论者，个人中心论者将道德定义为对自 我实现的追求，社会中心论者则将道德定义为个人对于社会的义务。❷真相是什么？❸幸 运的是，道德一词的词根可以提供一些线索。❹Mores 一词最初指的是有文字记载之前的 文化的习俗。❺Mores，这种体现了每种文化制约每个公民的理想准则，是在这样一种信仰 中发展而来的，即一个社会的基础在于个人能力的培养，将这些个人能力运用到对社会的服 务之中。❻这些习俗涉及到诸如觅食、参与战争以及人际关系。❼因此，我承认“道德”必 然涉及到整个社会所遵循的一切。❽但是自我实现对于道德也是重要的，因为不追求自我 实现的公民，不管多么有美德，也无法履行道德所赋予他们的义务。

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❶The complications frequently accompanying diabetes, such as impairment of vision and of kidney function, are now thought to result from the lack of continuous control of blood glucose concentrations. ❷The healthy pancreas, in response to increases in blood glucose concentration, releases small quantities of insulin throughout the day and thereby maintains the concentration within physiological limits (normoglycemia). ❸But the diabetic generally receives only one large dose daily. ❹The diabetic’s blood glucose concentration can thus fluctuate greatly during the interval between doses, and it has been suggested that the complications result from the periods of high concentrations of blood glucose (hyperglycemia). ❺Many investigators thus believe that restoration of normoglycemia might halt the progression of such complications and perhaps even reverse them. ❶目前，糖尿病(diabetes)的常见并发症，例如视觉和肾脏功能损伤，被认为是由缺乏对血 糖浓度持续控制而造成的。❷健康的胰腺(pancreas)对于血糖浓度升高的反应是在一天中持 续释放少量胰岛素(insulin)，由此将血糖浓度维持在生理极限(正常血糖, normoglycemia)之 内。❸但是糖尿病患者通常每天只释放一次大剂量的胰岛素。❹因此，糖尿病患者的血糖 浓度在两次释放之间产生大波动，而且并发症就是在高血糖浓度（高血糖, hyperglycemia） 的时候产生的。❺许多调查人员因此认为正常血糖可能阻止甚至逆转那些并发症的发展。 ❶There are three primary techniques that have been investigated for restoration of normoglycemia. ❷They are: transplantation of whole, healthy pancreases; transplantation of islets of Langerhans, that portion of the pancreas that actually secretes insulin; and implantation of artificial pancreases. ❸There has, in fact, been a great deal of success in the development of these techniques and each seems, on the whole, promising. ❹Nonetheless, it will undoubtedly be many years before any one of them is accepted as a treatment for diabetes. ❶人们研究了三个主要的使血糖恢复正常的技术。 ❷它们分别是：1.移植完整健康的胰腺； 2.移植实际分泌胰岛素的胰岛 3.移植人工胰腺。❸事实上，这些技术已经有了长足发展，并 且每个技术整体上看起来前景光明。 ❹不过，上述方法中任意一种要想作为糖尿病的治疗 方法肯定还需要很多年时间。 ❶To many people, the obvious approach would seem to be simply to transplant pancreases from cadavers in the same manner that kidneys and other organs are routinely transplanted. ❷That was the rationale in 1966 when the first recorded pancreas transplant was performed. ❸Between 1966 and 1975, there were forty-six pancreas transplants in forty-five other patients in the United States and five other countries. ❹But only one of these patients is still alive with a functioning graft, and surgeons have found that the procedure is not as simple as they once thought. ❶对于很多人来说，最显而易见的方式仅仅就是从尸体中像移植肾和其他器官一样移植胰 腺。❷移植胰腺就是首个有记载的胰腺移植手术完成时的基本原理。 ❸在 1966 到 1975 年之间，在美国和其它 5 个国家，有 46 个胰腺移植到另外 45 个患者的体内。❹但是这些 患者中只有一位仍然靠移植胰腺生活着，医生们发现移植步骤并不像他们之前想象的那样简 单。 ❶The surviving patient has required no insulin since the operation. ❷Another patient survived 638 days without requiring insulin. ❸And one patient survived a transplantation for more than a year, but died when he chose not to take the immunosuppressive drugs. ❹These results, though meager, suggest that the procedure has the potential for success. ❶那位存活下来的患者自从手术之后就不需要胰岛素了。❷另外一位患者活了 638 天而没 有用胰岛素。❸此外，还有一位患者在进行移植后存活了一年多的时间，但是他由于没有 继续服用抑制免疫力的药物而去世了。❹移植患者的结果虽然很少，但它们表明移植步骤 是有成功的可能性的。 219

❶The rest of the patients, however, either rejected the transplant or died within a short period. ❷There does not appear to be any technical problem with the procedure. ❸Rather, most of the patients were already so severely debilitated by the complications of diabetes that they could not withstand the surgery and the immunosuppressive regimen required to prevent rejection. ❹More than half of the patients, furthermore, also required a kidney transplant. ❺Most investigators now agree that the simultaneous transplantation of both organs is too great a shock to the patient and greatly increases the total risk. ❶然而，余下的患者要么排斥移植物，要么在短期之内就去世了。❷移植的过程好像没有 任何技术问题。❸但是，大多数患者的身体状况已经严重被糖尿病的并发症削弱了，以至 于他们禁不起手术和服用为了避免身体排斥而服用的抑制免疫的药物。❹此外，多于一半 的患者还需要进行肾脏移植。❺现在大多数观察者都认为同时移植这两个器官对于患者的 冲击过大，这会极大增加手术整体风险。

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SECTION C ❶In February 1848 the people of Paris rose in revolt against the constitutional monarchy of Louis-Philippe. ❷Despite the existence of excellent narrative accounts, the February Days, as this revolt is called, have been largely ignored by social historians of the past two decades. ❸For each of the three other major insurrections in nineteenth-century Paris—July 1830, June 1848, and May 1871—there exists at least a sketch of participants’ backgrounds and an analysis, more or less rigorous, of the reasons for the occurrence of the uprisings. ❹Only in the case of the February Revolution do we lack a useful description of participants that might characterize it in the light of what social history has taught us about the process of revolutionary mobilization. ❶在 1848 年 2 月，巴黎人民发动了一场暴动起义来反抗 Louis-Philippe 的君主立宪制 (constitutional monarchy)。❷尽管对于这场起义的叙事描述很不错，但这个被称为二月革 命的起义在过去 20 年中很大程度上被社会历史学家忽视了。❸对于 19 世纪巴黎的其它三 个主要的暴乱——1830 年 7 月， 1848 年 6 月以及 1871 年 5 月——里的任何一次暴乱来说， 至少存在参与者背景的大概信息以及对起义发生原因或多或少严谨的分析。❹只有在二月 革命这个案例中，我们缺少对于参与者的有用的描述，而这个描述有可能会按照与社会历史 有关的革命动员过程所教我们的内容来描述这场革命的性质。 ❶Two reasons for this relative neglect seem obvious. ❷First, the insurrection of February has been overshadowed by that of June. ❸The February Revolution overthrew a regime, to be sure, but met with so little resistance that it failed to generate any real sense of historical drama. ❹Its successor, on the other hand, appeared to pit key socioeconomic groups in a life-or-death struggle and was widely seen by contemporary observers as marking a historical departure. ❺Through their interpretations, which exert a continuing influence on our understanding of the revolutionary process, the impact of the events of June has been magnified, while, as an unintended consequence, the significance of the February insurrection has been diminished. ❻Second, like other “successful” insurrections, the events of February failed to generate the most desirable kinds of historical records. ❼Although the June insurrection of 1848 and the Paris Commune of 1871 would be considered watersheds of nineteenth-century French history by any standard, they also present the social historian with a signal advantage: these failed insurrections created a mass of invaluable documentation as a by-product of authorities’ efforts to search out and punish the rebels. ❶忽视二月革命的两个原因似乎是显然的。❷首先，二月起义被六月起义掩盖了。❸二月 革命确实推翻了一个政体，但它遇到的反抗太小了，以至于它未能产生任何真正的历史剧变 感。❹而另一方面，之后发生的革命却似乎将两个社会经济群体置于要么你死要么我亡的 斗争中，而当代观察家普遍把它看作一次历史性重大转折。❺通过他们的解读——正是这 些解读对我们理解革命过程有持续影响——六月事件的影响得以被夸大，而与此同时，作为 一个无心而为的结果，二月起义的意义则被贬低了。❻其次，像其它“成功的”起义一样，二 事件未能产生最让人满意的历史记载。❼尽管 1838 年六月起义以及 1871 年巴黎公社被所 有评判标准认为是 19 世纪法国历史的分水岭，但是它们同样为社会历史学家提供了一个明 显优势：这些失败的起义，作为政府当局试图查出并惩罚叛党的意外收获，产生了大量无价 的文件记载史料。 ❶Quite different is the outcome of successful insurrections like those of July 1830 and February 1848. ❷Experiences are retold, but participants typically resume their daily routines without ever recording their activities. ❸Those who played salient roles may become the objects of highly embellished verbal accounts or in rare cases, of celebratory articles in contemporary periodicals. ❹And it is true that the publicly acknowledged leaders of an uprising frequently write memoirs. ❺However, such documents are likely to be highly 221

unreliable, unrepresentative, and unsystematically preserved, especially when compared to the detailed judicial dossiers prepared for everyone arrested following a failed insurrection. ❻As a consequence, it may prove difficult or impossible to establish for a successful revolution a comprehensive and trustworthy picture of those who participated, or to answer even the most basic questions one might pose concerning the social origins of the insurgents. ❶然而，像 1830 年 7 月和 1848 年 2 月这些成功的起义，它们的后果截然不同。❷起义的 经验不断被复述，但参与者大多继续做他们例行的事务，从未将其活动记录下来。❸那些 发挥过显著作用的人变成了高度渲染的文字记述的对象，或者有时成为当代期刊中歌颂性文 章的对象。❹确实，每次起义中公认的领袖们会写回忆录。❺但是，尤其是当这类文档和 起义失败后为每个被逮捕的人所准备的详尽法律卷宗相比的时候，它们有可能是极不可靠的、 缺乏代表性的而且不能系统地保存的。❻因此，如果想为一次成功的革命建立起包含所有 参与者的一个综合而又可信的记录，或者要回答我们可能针对起义者的社会背景提出的最基 本的问题，那么这可能会显得十分困难，甚至根本不可能。

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❶One advantage of breeding African bees with other bee types (Africanization) may be resistance to the parasitic mite Varroa jacobsoni, a major threat to modern beekeeping. ❷In parts of Europe, this mite is devastating honeybees and killing many colonies despite preventive measures by beekeepers. ❸But in Brazil Varroa jacobsoni has been present in Africanized bees since 1972 without the loss of a single colony, even though beekeepers there undertook no preventive measures. ❹The mites lay eggs within the brood cells of immature bees, and developing mites feed on the hemolymph (blood) of bee pupae. ❺But fewer mites reproduce in Africanized bees than in European bees. ❻Some researchers point out that this resistance may be related to the Africanized worker bee’s shorter development period, which prevents some mites from reaching maturity. ❼Recently the mite has become a serious problem in colonies of European bees in North America. ❽ Africanization of these bees may be the best safeguard against this parasite. ❶共同饲养非洲蜜蜂和其它蜜蜂有一个优点是可以抵制寄生螨 Varroa jacobsoni 的入侵，这 种寄生螨是现代养蜂业的主要威胁。❷在欧洲部分地区，尽管养蜂人采取了预防措施，可 这种寄生螨仍然是毁灭性的，会杀死很多蜜蜂群落。❸但是在巴西，自 1972 年以来 Varroa jacobsoni 寄生螨一直存在于非洲化蜜蜂中，但即使养蜂人没有采取任何预防措施，一个蜂 群都没有损失。❹寄生螨在未成熟蜜蜂的卵细胞中产卵，发育中的寄生螨以蜂蛹的血淋巴 (hemolymph)为食。❺但是非洲蜜蜂中的寄生螨的繁殖要比在欧洲蜜蜂中的少。❻某些研 究人员指出，这种抗寄生螨入侵的性质可能和非洲蜜蜂的工蜂发育期较短有关，而这妨碍了 某些寄生螨生长成熟。❼最近，寄生螨已经成为北美的欧洲蜜蜂群的严重问题。❽使这些 蜜蜂非洲化也许是抵御这种寄生螨的最佳措施。

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1993 年 10 月 SECTION A ❶National character is not formally considered by social scientists in discussing economic and social development today. ❷They believe that people differ and that these differences should be taken into account somehow, but they have as yet discovered no way to include such variables in their formal models of economic and social development. ❸The difficulty lies in the nature of the data that supposedly define different national characters. ❹Anthropologists and others are on much firmer ground when they attempt to describe the cultural norms for a small homogeneous tribe or village than when they undertake the formidable task of discovering the norms that exist in a complex modern nation-state composed of many disparate groups. ❺The situation is further complicated by the nature of judgments about character, since such judgments are overly dependent on impressions and since, furthermore, impressions are usually stated in qualitative terms, it is impossible to make a reliable comparison between the national characters of two countries. ❶如今，当社会学家讨论经济和发展时，国民性格(National character)并不被正式地考虑在 其中。❷社会学家们认为人与人之间有差异，而这些差异应被纳入考虑，但他们至今没有 想出任何方法能将这些变量囊括到经济、社会发展的正式模式中。❸这样做的困难在于定 义不同国民性格的数据的性质。❹当人类学家和其他专家试图描述一个小规模的同类部落 或村落的文化规范时，他们的依据要比揭示存在于一个复杂的、由许多完全不同的群体所构 成的现代独立国家的规范这个艰巨的任务要确凿得多。❺性格判断的性质使这种情形变得 更加复杂，因为这些判断过分依赖于印象，并且因为这些印象是以定性(qualitative)的术语 表达出来的，因此我们几乎不可能在两个国家的两种国民性格之间进行可靠的比较。

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❶One of the simplest and best known kinds of crystal is the ionic salt, of which a typical example is sodium chloride or ordinary table salt. ❷The fundamental components of an ionic salt are ions: atoms or molecules that have become electrically charged by gaining or losing one or more electrons. ❸In forming sodium chloride, for example, sodium atoms give up an electron (thereby becoming positively charged) and chlorine atoms gain an electron (thereby becoming negatively charged). ❹The ions are attracted to one another by their opposite charges, and they stack together compactly, like tightly packed spheres. ❶一种最简单且最为人们所知的晶体就是离子盐(ionic salt)，离子盐中最典型的例子就是氯 化钠或普通食盐。❷离子盐基本组成成分是离子：即得失一个或多个电子而带电的原子或 分子。❸例如，在形成氯化钠的过程中，钠离子给出一个电子（而带正电）并且氯原子得 到一个电子（而带负电）。❹离子通过相斥电性而与其他离子连接，而且它们紧密排布， 像紧紧塞满的球体。 ❶Recently, scientists at Michigan State University created a new kind of crystal called an electride. ❷In electrides, the anions (negative ions) are completely replaced by electrons, which are trapped in naturally formed cavities within a framework of regularly stacked cations (positive ions). ❸Electrides are the first examples of ionic salts in which all these anionic sites are occupied solely by electrons. ❶最近，Michigan State 大学的科学家制造出一种新的晶体，叫做电子晶体(electride)。❷ 在电子晶体中，阴离子（带负电的离子）完全被电子取代，这些电子被束缚在由整齐堆积的 阳离子自然形成的腔体里。❸电子晶体是第一个离子盐的例子，而离子中阴离子的位置被 电子占据。 ❶Unlike other types of anions, anionic electrons do not behave as if they were simple charged spheres. ❷In particular, because of their low mass and their tendency to interact with one another over great distances, they cannot be “pinned down” to any one location. ❸Instead, they wander close to and among the atoms lining the cavity and interact with electrons in nearby cavities, perhaps changing places with them. ❶和其他种类阴离子不同，阴离子电子的行为并不像简单带电球体。❷尤其是由于它们质 量很轻以及它们隔着很远距离还有相互作用的趋势，所以它们不能被固定在某个位置。❸ 相反，它们在组成腔体的原子间移动，并且和周围腔体中的电子产生相互作用，这个作用可 能是位置的交换。 ❶The properties of an electride depend largely on the distance between the cavities that hold trapped electrons. ❷When the trapped electrons are far apart, they do not interact strongly, and so behave somewhat like an array of isolated negative charges. ❸When they are closer together, they begin to display properties associated with large ensembles of identical particles. ❹When they are still closer, the ensemble properties dominate and the electrons “delocalize”: they are no longer tightly bound within individual cavities but are more or less free to pass through the spaces within the frame-work of positive ions. ❶电子晶体的性质在很大程度上依赖于束缚电子的腔体之间的距离。❷当被束缚的电子相 距很远时，它们之间并没有强烈相互作用，而是像一排分离的负电荷一样。❸当这些电子 互相靠近的时候，它们开始展现出类似大量相同粒子聚在一起的整体效应的性质。❹当它 们相距更近时，整体效应处在支配地位并且电子“离域(delocalize)”：电子不再被紧紧束缚在 单个腔体中，而是或多或少地通过阳离子结构中空间区域自由活动。 ❶By synthesizing electrides from a variety of materials, one can vary the geometry of the anionic cavities and their relation to the surrounding cations. ❷The resulting properties may make it possible for electrides to become a basis for economically useful new materials and devices. ❸For instance, because the electrons in some electrides are very weakly bound, these crystals could be effective as photosensitive detectors, in which an impinging photon 225

liberates an electron, resulting in a small electric current. ❹The same weak binding could also make electrides useful in solar-energy converters and as cathodes in batteries. ❺One obstacle is the tendency of electrides to decompose through reaction with air and water. ❻Researchers are seeking ways to increase their stability. ❶通过从许多材料中合成电子晶体，我们能够改变阳离子腔体的几何结构和它们与周围阴 离子的联系。❷由此产生的性质可能让电子晶体变为经济划算且实用的新材料及器件的基 础。❸例如，由于某些电子晶体中电子的结合很弱，这些晶体可在高效光感探测器中，其 中一个冲击光子释放一个电子，从而产生一个小的电流。❹同样，这种结合很弱的性质也 会让电子晶体成为有用的太阳能转换器材料和电池中阴极材料。❺一个困难是电子晶体会 通过与空气及水的反应而产生分解的趋势。❻研究者正在想办法增加它们的稳定性。

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SECTION B ❶Typically the queen honeybee is mother to all the bees in a hive; after mating with several male drones from other colonies, she lays fertilized eggs that develop into all-female worker bees and lays unfertilized eggs that become all-male drones. ❷When a queen dies, workers often lay unfertilized eggs that hatch into drones. ❸Yet workers rarely reproduce while a queen reigns. ❶一般来说，雌蜂(queen honeybee)是一个蜂巢(hive)中所有蜜蜂的母亲；雌蜂与一些来自 其它蜂群中的雄蜂(male drone)交配后产卵，受精卵发育成全雌性工蜂；未受精的卵则变成 全雄性的雄蜂。❷当雌蜂死去，工蜂(worker)通常产下会孵化成雄蜂的未受精卵。❸但在 雌蜂统治期间，工蜂几乎不繁殖后代。 ❶According to natural selection theory, a worker would enhance her fitness—or ability to propagate her genes—by hatching her own eggs in addition to or in place of the queen’s. ❷But a typical worker’s fitness would be diminished if other workers’ sons, who have less genetic material in common with the worker, supplanted the queen’s sons (the worker’s brothers). ❸Researchers, testing the hypothesis that workers usually somehow block each other’s attempts to reproduce, put unfertilized eggs laid by workers and by the queen into a hive. ❹Other workers quickly devoured the workers’ eggs while leaving the queen’s eggs alone. ❶根据自然选择理论(natural selection theory)，工蜂通过孵化雌蜂的卵和自己的卵，或者 只孵化它自己产的卵，来提高工蜂自身的适应能力——或传播雌蜂的基因的能力。❷但如 果其它工蜂的雄性后代（具有较少与该工蜂相同的基因物质）替代了雌蜂的雄性后代（该工 蜂的兄弟） ，工蜂的适应能力反而会降低。❸研究者们要检验这样一种假设，即工蜂常会以 某种方式阻碍其它工蜂繁殖后代，他们将工蜂和雌蜂所产的未受精的卵放在同一个蜂巢中。 ❹其它工蜂迅速地将该工蜂的卵吞食一空，而雌蜂的卵却安然无恙。

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❶ In the fields of Delano, California, in 1965, Luis Valdez started the Teatro Campesino (Farmworker’s Theater), and with it initiated the renaissance of Mexican American theater. ❷The Teatro Campesino had an avowedly political purpose: to rally campesinos (farmworkers) in support of the farm workers’ strike then being organized by Cesar Chavez. ❸Valdez’ dramatic presentations, called actos, spoke to a campesino audience and addressed topics and themes directly related to the strike. ❹Valdez’ early actos were composed of a series of scenes about the strike experience acted by campesino volunteers. ❺His later actos were presented by a newly constituted professional company, still called the Teatro Campesino, and addressed such themes as the impact of the Vietnam War on Mexican Americans and the dangers of assimilation, themes relevant to urban Mexican Americans as well as to campesinos. ❻All Valdez’ actos contained elements of song and dance, relied little on stage effects or props, and featured the use of masks. ❼These dramatic elements, along with an intensely social or political purpose and the use of a mixture of Spanish, English, and Mexican American dialects in the dialogues, which realistically capture the flavor of Mexican American conversation, are still characteristic both of the acto and of most other forms of Mexican American theater today. ❶1965 年，在加利福尼亚州 Delano 田野里，Luis Valdez 创办了 Teatro Campesino（农业 工人剧社），由此开启了美国墨西哥戏剧的复兴。❷Teatro Campesino 有一个公开宣布的 政治目的：将 campesinos（农业工人们）团结起来，支持当时由 Cesar Chavez 组织的农业 工人大罢工。❸Valdez 创作的被称为 actos 的戏剧表演，面向由 campesinos 构成的观众， 涉及的话题和主题与罢工直接相关。❹Valdez 早期的 actos 由一系列有关罢工经历的场景构 成,由 campesino 志愿者表演。❺他后期的剧作由一个新组建的，但仍被称为 Teatro Campesino 的专业剧团上演，所涉及的主题包括越南战争对墨西哥裔美国人的影响以及民族 同化的危险，这类主题不仅与农业工人，还与城市中墨西哥裔美国人相关。❻Valdez 的所 有剧作都包含歌舞元素，极少依赖舞台效果或道具，并且以运用面具为特点。❼这些戏剧 元素，连同一种强烈的社会或政治目的，以及对西班牙语、英语、和墨西哥裔方言的混合使 用（这些方言真实地捕捉住了墨西哥裔美国人对话的韵味），不仅仅为 acto 这类剧作所特 有，而且也仍是当今绝大多数其它形式墨西哥裔美国人的戏剧的特色。 ❶Innovative as it is, the acto owes much to the theater traditions of other periods and regions. ❷Like early Spanish American religious dramas, secular folk dramas, and the Mexican carpas of a somewhat later period, actos are usually performed outdoors by traveling groups of players or by local theater groups. ❸The improvised comic satire of the actos is often attributed to Valdez’ study of the Italian commedia dell’ arte of the sixteenth century, although some critics see it as a direct reflection of the comic and improvisational qualities of the more contemporary and local carpas of Mexican theater. ❹The Italian influence is likely, whatever Valdez immediate source: the Mexican carpas themselves are said to have originated from the theater pieces of a sixteenth-century Spanish writer inspired by encounters with Italian commedia dell’ arte troupes on tour in Spain. ❺The English-language theater has provided elements as well: Valdez himself has acknowledged his debt to the agitprop socialist theater that appeared in the United States during the 1920’s and 1930’s. ❻In particular, his actos contain the same assortment of semiallegorical characters and the same blend of music, chorus, and dialogue found in some of the agitprop pieces, as well as the same fierce spirit of social and political critique. ❼Finally, many of Valdez’ later theater pieces freely incorporate characters, plots and symbols drawn from the indigenous myths and rituals of the pre-Hispanic peoples of Latin America. ❽In fact, no other art form illustrates more clearly the depth and complexity of the Mexican American heritage itself than does the acto of Luis Valdez and the Teatro Campesino. ❶尽管 Valdez 的戏剧有创新之处，但 acto 这类剧作在很大程度上归功于其它时期和地区的 戏剧传统。❷如早期西班牙裔美国人的宗教戏剧、世俗民间戏剧以及之后某个时期的墨西 228

哥 carpas 戏剧一样，actos 这类剧作通常在室外由巡回剧团或由地方性剧团的演员演出。 ❸Actos 这类即兴的喜剧讽刺常被认为是出自 Valdez 对 16 世纪意大利即兴喜剧(commedia dell’arte)的研究，尽管某些评论家将其看作是更加当代、更具地方色彩的墨西哥 carpas 戏 剧中喜剧性质和即兴性质的一种直接反映。❹不管 Valdez 的创作来源是什么，意大利的影 响都是可能的：墨西哥的 carpas 戏剧据说本身就源自 16 世纪西班牙作家的戏剧作品，而这 些西班牙作家又是从和在西班牙国内巡回演出的意大利 commedia dell’arte（即兴喜剧）剧 团的接触中获得灵感的。❺英语戏剧同样也提供了某些因素：Valdez 自己就曾经承认借鉴 了 20 世纪 20-30 年代美国出现的带有宣传鼓动性质的社会主义戏剧。❻特别是他的 actos 剧作包含了同样毫不留情的社会和政治评论，包含了各种半讽喻式人物，也混杂了在某些宣 传鼓动类作品中才有的音乐、合唱及对话。❼最后， Valdez 许多后期戏剧作品灵活地融入 了一些取自西班牙征服拉丁美洲之前一些民族当地神话和礼仪的人物、情节及象征。❽事 实上，没有任何其它艺术形式，能比 Luis Valdez 的 actos 剧作以及农业工人剧社（the Teatro Campesino）更清晰地体现墨西哥裔美国人的文学遗产本身所达到的那种深度和复杂性。

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1994 年 02 月 SECTION A ❶Analyzing the physics of dance can add fundamentally to a dancer’s skill. ❷Although dancers seldom see themselves totally in physical terms—as body mass moving through space under the influence of well-known forces and obeying physical laws—neither can they afford to ignore the physics of movement. ❸For example, no matter how much a dancer wishes to leap off the floor and then start turning, the law of conservation of angular momentum absolutely prevents such a movement. ❶对舞蹈的物理学原理进行分析可以从根本上增强舞者的技艺。❷虽然舞者很少会完全从 物理学的角度来看待自己——身体的质量在众所周知的力的影响下在空间中的运动，这种运 动遵循着物理规律——但是，他们也不可能完全无视物理学原理。❸例如，无论舞者多么 希望能从地面上跳跃起并紧接着开始旋转，角动量（angular momentum）守恒定律是绝对 不允许这样的动作出现的。 ❶Some movements involving primarily vertical or horizontal motions of the body as a whole, in which rotations can be ignored, can be studied using simple equations of linear motion in three dimensions. ❷However, rotational motions require more complex approaches that involve analyses of the way the body’s mass is distributed, the axes of rotation involved in different types of movement, and the sources of the forces that produce the rotational movement. ❶有些主要涉及到人体全身垂直或水平运动的动作（其中，旋转可忽略不计）可通过简单 三维线性运动方程来研究。❷然而，旋转运动则需要更复杂的研究方法，涉及到对人体重 量分配方式的研究，对不同类型的动作中所涉及到的旋转轴的分析，以及旋转动作力量来源 的分析。

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❶Human relations have commanded people’s attention from early times. ❷The ways of people have been recorded in innumerable myths, folktales, novels, poems, plays, and popular or philosophical essays. ❸Although the full significance of a human relationship may not be directly evident, the complexity of feelings and actions that can be understood at a glance is surprisingly great. ❹For this reason psychology holds a unique position among the sciences. ❺“Intuitive” knowledge may be remarkably penetrating and can significantly help us understand human behavior, whereas in the physical sciences such commonsense knowledge is relatively primitive. ❻If we erased all knowledge of scientific physics from our modern world, not only would we not have cars and television sets, we might even find that the ordinary person was unable to cope with the fundamental mechanical problems of pulleys and levers. ❼On the other hand if we removed all knowledge of scientific psychology from our world, problems in interpersonal relations might easily be coped with and solved much as before. ❽We would still “know” how to avoid doing something asked of us and how to get someone to agree with us; we would still “know” when someone was angry and when someone was pleased. ❾One could even offer sensible explanations for the “whys” of much of the self’s behavior and feelings. ❿In other words, the ordinary person has a great and profound understanding of the self and of other people which, though unformulated or only vaguely conceived, enables one to interact with others in more or less adaptive ways. Kohler, in referring to the lack of great discoveries in psychology as compared with physics, accounts for this by saying that “people were acquainted with practically all territories of mental life a long time before the founding of scientific psychology.” ❶人类关系自古就引起了人们的注意。❷人们的习惯被记录在无数神话、民间故事、小说、 剧作和通俗或哲学文章中。❸虽然人类关系的全部意义并不直接鲜明，但是人类显而易见 的复杂感情和行为却多得惊人。❹因此心理学在各门科学中有独一无二的地位。❺ “直觉的” 知识可以是非常透彻地并有效帮助我们理解人类的行为，而在自然科学中这种通识知识是相 对原始的。❻如果我们把现代世界上所有自然科学知识都抹去，我们不仅会没有汽车和电 视，我们甚至可能会发现，普通人无法顺利解决滑轮和杠杆这样的基本的力学问题。❼但 是，如果我们把世界上所有心理学知识都抹去，人际关系中的许多问题还是可以和以前一样 被轻易解决。❽我们仍然会“知道”如何避免做别人要我们做的事情以及如何使别人同意我们 的意见；我们仍然会“知道”，别人什么时候生气了，什么时候开心了。❾人们甚至可以提出 许多合理的解释，来解释自身行为和感情的许多原因。❿换句话说，普通人非常了解自己 和他人，尽管（理解力）没有用公式表达出来或者只是被模糊地体会到，这也能使人以多少 能适应的方式去和其他人交流。Kohler在谈到心理学与物理学相比缺少伟大的发现时，解释 了这一点，他说：“人们在创建科学心理学以前很长时间，就已经非常熟悉精神生活中几乎 所有的领域。” ❶Paradoxically, with all this natural, intuitive, commonsense capacity to grasp human relations, the science of human relations has been one of the last to develop. ❷Different explanations of this paradox have been suggested. ❸One is that science would destroy the vain and pleasing illusions people have about themselves; but we might ask why people have always loved to read pessimistic, debunking writings, from Ecclesiastes to Freud. ❹It has also been proposed that just because we know so much about people intuitively, there has been less incentive for studying them scientifically; why should one develop a theory, carry out systematic observations, or make predictions about the obvious? ❺In any case, the field of human relations, with its vast literary documentation but meager scientific treatment, is in great contrast to the field of physic in which there are relatively few nonscientific books. ❶矛盾的是，虽然我们拥有所有自然的、直觉的、常识性的能力来掌握人类关系，但人类 关系的科学的发展一直很缓慢。❷针对这个悖论的有不同的解释。❸其中一种解释认为， 科学会摧毁人们有关自身的自负、乐观的幻想；但是我们会问，那人们为什么总还喜欢去阅 读悲观的、揭露真相的作品——从传道书(Ecclesiastes)到 Freud 呢？❹还有人提出，正是 231

因为我们已经用直觉了解人了解得那么多，所以我们缺乏科学研究的动力：对于显然的事情 人们为什么还要发展出理论、进行系统的观察或做出预测呢？❺在任何案例中，人类关系 的这个领域，有大量的记录，但科学论述十分贫乏，这与物理领域完全相反，在物理领域几 乎没有非科学的书。

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SECTION B ❶Although a historical lack of access to formal Spanish-language education initially limited the opportunities of some Chicanos to hone their skills as writers of Spanish, their bilingual culture clearly fostered an exuberant and compelling oral tradition. ❷It has thus generally been by way of the emphasis on oral literary creativity that these Chicano writers, whose English-language works are sometimes uninspired, developed the powerful and arresting language that characterized their Spanish-language works. ❸This Spanish-English difference is not surprising. ❹When writing in Spanish, these authors stayed close to the spoken traditions of their communities where publication, support, and instructive response would come quickly in local or regional newspapers. ❺Works in English, however, often required the elimination of nuance or colloquialism, the adoption of a formal tone, and the adjustment of themes or ideas to satisfy the different demands of national publications. ❶虽然历史上正规西班牙语教育的机会的缺乏起初限制了某些 Chicano 人磨练自己的技术 以及成为西班牙语作家的机会，但他们的双语文化显然培养了一种丰富的、引人入胜的口语 传统。❷因此，就是通过强调口语文学的创造性，这些 Chicano 作家才形成了铿锵有力且 让人着迷的语言，这也是他们的西班牙语作品的特征，尽管其英语作品有时没有灵性。❸ 西班牙语与英语之间的差异并不令人感到意外。❹当这些作家用西班牙语写作时，他们会 接近他们这个群体的口语传统，而在群体中出版、支持和有启发性的回应很快会在当地报纸 中体现出来。❺然而，英语作品通常需要消除语言里的微妙差别和口语用法、采取正式的 语气、调整主题或想法来满足全国性出版物的不同的需要。

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❶The two claws of the mature American lobster are decidedly different from each other. ❷The crusher claw is short and stout; the cutter claw is long and slender. ❸Such bilateral asymmetry, in which the right side of the body is, in all other respects, a mirror image of the left side, is not unlike handedness in humans. ❹But where the majority of humans are right-handed, in lobsters the crusher claw appears with equal probability on either the right or left side of the body. ❶成熟美洲龙虾两个螯注定互不相同。❷捣螯短而壮；剪螯长而细。❸这种两侧的不对称 性，和人类用手的倾向性不同。❹人类大多数习惯用右手，而龙虾捣螯出现在躯体左边或 者右边的概率是相等的。 ❶Bilateral asymmetry of the claws comes about gradually. ❷In the juvenile fourth and fifth stages of development, the paired claws are symmetrical and cutterlike. ❸Asymmetry begins to appear in the juvenile sixth stage of development, and the paired claws further diverge toward well-defined cutter and crusher claws during succeeding stages. ❹An intriguing aspect of this development was discovered by Victor Emmel. ❺He found that if one of the paired claws is removed during the fourth or fifth stage, the intact claw invariably becomes a crusher, while the regenerated claw becomes a cutter. ❻Removal of a claw during a later juvenile stage or during adulthood, when asymmetry is present, does not alter the asymmetry; the intact and the regenerate claws retain their original structures. ❶龙虾两侧螯的不对称性是逐渐产生的。❷在龙虾幼年生长的第四和第五个阶段，成对的 螯是对称的并且呈剪切状。❸不对称性是在龙虾幼年生长的第六个阶段出现的，而在接下 来的阶段中，成对的螯进一步分化成剪螯和捣螯。❹Victor Emmel 发现了龙虾生长中有趣 的地方。❺他发现，如果成对的螯中的一只在第四或第五阶段被去除，另一只螯一定长成 捣螯，而新长出来的螯变成剪螯。❻在龙虾幼年后期或成年后去除一只螯，这时不对称性 已经存在，不对称性不会改变；完好的和新生的螯保持它们原有的结构。 ❶These observations indicate that the conditions that trigger differentiation must operate in a random manner when the paired claws are intact but in a nonrandom manner when one of the claws is lost. ❷One possible explanation is that differential use of the claws determines their asymmetry. ❸Perhaps the claw that is used more becomes the crusher. ❹This would explain why, when one of the claws is missing during the fourth or fifth stage, the intact claw always becomes a crusher. ❺With two intact claws, initial use of one claw might prompt the animal to use it more than the other throughout the juvenile fourth and fifth stages, causing it to become a crusher. ❶这些观察结果表明，引发分化的条件必须在成对螯完好时按随机的方式触发，但当失去 一只螯时则按非随机方式触发。❷一个可能的解释是，螯分化之后的用途决定了它们的不 对称性。❸频繁使用的螯可能变成捣螯。❹这就可以解释当一只螯在第四或者第五阶段消 失的时候，完好无损的螯总是变成捣螯。❺两只螯都完好无损的话，最初使用某只螯可能 促使这个动物在幼年第四和第五阶段更多地使用那只螯，从而使那只螯变成捣螯。 ❶To test this hypothesis, researchers raised lobsters in the juvenile fourth and fifth stages of development in a laboratory environment in which the lobsters could manipulate oyster chips. ❷ (Not coincidentally, at this stage of development lobsters typically change from a habitat where they drift passively, to the ocean floor where they have the opportunity to be more active by burrowing in the substrate.) ❸Under these conditions, the lobsters developed asymmetric claws, half with crusher claws on the left, and half with crusher claws on the right. ❹In contrast, when juvenile lobsters were reared in a smooth tank without the oyster chips, the majority developed two cutter claws. ❺This unusual configuration of symmetrical cutter claws did not change when the lobsters were subsequently placed in a manipulatable environment or when they lost and regenerated one or both claws. 234

❶为了验证这个假设，研究人员在可以让龙虾摆弄牡蛎碎屑的实验室环境中饲养发展到第 四和第五阶段的龙虾。❷（并非巧合的是，发展到这个阶段的龙虾往往从被动漂流的栖息 地转移到有机会更加主动在底部挖掘地洞的海底。）❸在这些条件下，龙虾长出不对称的 螯，一半龙虾捣螯在左，而另一半捣螯在右。❹相反，当幼年龙虾被饲养在没有牡蛎碎屑 的光滑的水缸里时，大多数龙虾长出两只剪螯。❺随后把这些龙虾放入可以摆弄牡蛎碎屑 的环境中，使其失去并重新长出一只或者两只螯，这个不常见的对称剪螯的结构不会改变。

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1994 年 04 月 SECTION A ❶Defenders of special protective labor legislation for women often maintain that eliminating such laws would destroy the fruits of a century-long struggle for the protection of women workers. ❷Even a brief examination of the historic practice of courts and employers would show that the fruit of such laws has been bitter: they are, in practice, more of a curse than a blessing. ❶妇女特别保护劳工法的支持者经常持以下观点，即废除这样的法律会毁掉用一个世纪时 间才争取到的保护女性工人的成果。❷即使对法庭和雇主历史上的惯例作一个简短的考察， 也能看出这类法律的后果是苦涩的：在实践中，它们与其说是保佑，不如说是诅咒。 ❶Sex-defined protective laws have often been based on stereotypical assumptions concerning women’s needs and abilities, and employers have frequently used them as legal excuses for discriminating against women. ❷After the Second World War, for example, businesses and government sought to persuade women to vacate jobs in factories, thus making room in the labor force for returning veterans. ❸The revival or passage of state laws limiting the daily or weekly work hours of women conveniently accomplished this. ❹Employers had only to declare that overtime hours were a necessary condition of employment or promotion in their factory, and women could be quite legally fired, refused jobs, or kept at low wage levels, all in the name of “protecting” their health. ❺By validating such laws when they are challenged by lawsuits, the courts have colluded over the years in establishing different, less advantageous employment terms for women than for men, thus reducing women’s competitiveness on the job market. ❻At the same time, even the most well-intentioned lawmakers, courts, and employers have often been blind to the real needs of women. ❼The lawmakers and the courts continue to permit employers to offer employee health insurance plans that cover all known human medical disabilities except those relating to pregnancy and childbirth. ❶以性别界定的保护法通常是建立在有关妇女的需求和能力的固有印象的基础之上，而雇 主们把它们当成歧视妇女的合法借口。❷例如，第二次世界大战后，工商企业和政府部门 试图劝说妇女离开工厂的岗位，为归来的老兵在劳动力市场中腾出位置。❸限制女工每日 劳动时间或每周劳动时间的州级法律的恢复或通过，实现了这一目标。❹雇主们只要宣布 超时加班是妇女在他们工厂中得到雇佣以及升职的一个必要条件，这样妇女就被合法解雇或 被拒绝雇佣，或者是她们一直拿着低工资，所有这一切都以“保护”她们身体健康的名义。❺ 当法律受到诉讼的挑战时，法庭确认这类法律的有效性，在过去几年中与雇主串通，建立起 男女有别的、对女性更不利的条件，由此削弱了妇女在就业市场上的竞争力。❻同时，即 使是最善意的立法者、法庭和雇主也经常看不到妇女的真正需求。❼立法者和法庭继续允 许雇主提供雇员健康保险计划，这些计划包含所有已知的人类医疗伤残，而不包含那些与怀 孕和生育相关的医疗伤残。 ❶Finally, labor laws protecting only special groups are often ineffective at protecting the workers who are actually in the workplace. ❷Some chemicals, for example, pose reproductive risks for women of childbearing years; manufacturers using the chemicals comply with laws protecting women against these hazards by refusing to hire them. ❸Thus the sex-defined legislation protects the hypothetical female worker, but has no effect whatever on the safety of any actual employee. ❹The health risks to male employees in such industries cannot be negligible, since chemicals toxic enough to cause birth defects in fetuses or sterility in women are presumably harmful to the human metabolism. ❺Protective laws aimed at changing production materials or techniques in order to reduce such hazards would benefit all employees without discriminating against any. ❶最后，只保护特殊群体的劳工法，在保护那些处于工位的工人时，常常是无效的。❷例 236

如，有些化学品对育龄妇女构成生育危险；使用这些化学品的制造商们为了遵守法律，保护 妇女免受风险，就不雇佣她们。❸因此，以性别界定的立法保护的只是假想的女性工人， 但对保护实际雇员的安全不具有任何作用。❹这些行业对男性雇员构成的健康危险不能被 忽视，因为足以导致胎儿生育缺陷或妇女不育症的有毒化学物质大概也会危害人类的新陈代 谢。❺改变生产材料或工艺来减少此类危险的保护法，可能会对所有雇员有利，而不会产 生任何歧视。 ❶In sum, protective labor laws for women are discriminatory and do not meet their intended purpose. ❷Legislators should recognize that women are in the work force to stay, and that their needs—good health care, a decent wage, and a safe workplace—are the needs of all workers. ❸Laws that ignore these facts violate women’s rights for equal protection in employment. ❶总之，面向妇女的保护劳工法是歧视性的，也不能满足预期的目标。❷立法者理应认识 到，妇女会一直存在于劳动力中，并且她们的需求——良好的医保、体面的收入、以及安全 的工作环境——是所有工人的需求。❸无视这些事实的法律违背了妇女享受平等就业保护 的权利。

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❶While it is true that living organisms are profoundly affected by their environment, it is equally important to remember that many organisms are also capable of altering their habitat significantly, sometimes limiting their own growth. ❷The influence of the biological component of an ecosystem is often greater in fresh waters than that in marine or terrestrial systems, because of the small size of many freshwater bodies. ❸Many of the important effects of organisms are related to their physiology, especially growth and respiration. ❹By their growth many species can deplete essential nutrients within the system, thus limiting their own growth or that of other species. ❺Lund has demonstrated that in Lake Windermere the alga Asterionella is unable to grow in conditions that it itself has created. ❻Once a year, in the spring, this plant starts to grow rapidly in the lake, using up so much silica from the water that by late spring there is no longer enough to maintain its own growth. ❼The population decreases dramatically as a result. ❶尽管生物深受其周围环境影响是一个事实，但同样重要的是，许多生物也能显著地影响 环境，这有时甚至会抑制生物自身的生长。❷一个生态系统(ecosystem)的生物组成部分对 淡水水域的影响通常比对海洋系统或陆地系统的影响显著，这是因为许多淡水水体的规模小。 ❸生物对环境的重要影响往往与它们的生理机能相关，尤其是生长和呼吸。❹在生物生长 过程中，它们会耗尽所在生态系统中的基础营养物质，因而抑制了自身或其它物种的生长。 ❺Lund 证明了 Windermere 湖中的 Asterionella 水藻不能在自身创造的环境中生存。❻每 年春天，这种植物开始在湖中迅速生长，耗尽湖水中的硅酸盐，导致在晚春时再也没有足够 的硅酸盐来维持它们的生长。❼其结果是这种水藻的数量骤降。

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SECTION B ❶It is their sensitive response to human circumstance that accounts for the persistence of certain universal ideas. ❷Rabbi Meir, a second-century scholar, admonished his disciples to look not at the pitcher but at its contents because, he stated, “Many a new pitcher has been found to be full of old wine.” ❸This was his way of emphasizing the importance of the distinction between form and idea, and of stressing that the integrity of an idea is more important than the form of its expression. ❶对人类环境的敏锐反应可以解释某些普适思想存在的原因。❷公元二世纪的学者 Rabbi Meir 告诫自己的弟子，要看罐子装了什么、而不要看罐子本身，他说：“这是因为许多新罐 装的是旧酒”。❸这就是他强调形式和思想之间区别的重要性，以及思想的完整性比思想的 形式更为重要的方式。 ❶Creative ideas not only produce their own instruments of survival as time and circumstances demand, but permit the substitution of new forms for old under the pressure of changed circumstances. ❷For example democracy, as an idea, originated in ancient Greece and was carried from there to Western Europe and the Americas. ❸But it did not retain the ancient Greek form: it passed through several reforming processes and exists today in many countries. ❹Democratic governments differ in form because democracy is in principle dynamic and has therefore responded to local needs. ❶创造性思想不仅根据时代和环境的需要得以幸存下来，而且还会在环境改变的压力下以 新形式取代旧形式。❷例如民主，作为一种思想起源于古希腊并且被传到了西欧以及美洲。 ❸但是它并没有保持古希腊的形式：它经历数次改革，现在存在于多个国家之中。❹民主 政府也在形式上不同，因为民主在原则上是变化的，所以会针对地方需要做出反应。

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❶Before 1965 many scientists pictured the circulation of the ocean’s water mass as consisting of large, slow-moving currents, such as the Gulf Stream. ❷That view, based on 100 years of observations made around the globe, produced only a rough approximation of the true circulation. ❸But in the 1950’s and the 1960’s, researchers began to employ newly developed techniques and equipment, including subsurface floats that move with ocean currents and emit identification signals, and ocean-current meters that record data for months at fixed locations in the ocean. ❹These instruments disclosed an unexpected level of variability in the deep ocean. ❺Rather than being characterized by smooth, large-scale currents that change seasonally (if at all), the seas are dominated by what oceanographers call mesoscale fields: fluctuating, energetic flows whose velocity can reach ten times the mean velocity of the major currents. ❶在 1965 年之前，许多科学家把海水水流循环描绘成由类似墨西哥湾水流组成的巨大而慢 流速水流。❷这个基于 100 年环球观察的观点，只是做了一个有关真正循环的粗略近似。 ❸但是在 20 世纪 50 和 60 年代，研究者们开始利用新发展的技术和装备，包括随海水水流 移动并且发射识别信号的水下浮子，以及在海中固定位置持续记录数月资料的洋流仪。❹ 这些工具揭示了深海中人们未曾想到的可变性。❺海水被海洋学家称作中等尺度现象控制 着（起伏不定、强劲有力的洋流，这些洋流的速度可以达到主洋流平均速度的 10 倍），而 不是以随季节变化的平稳大尺度洋流（如果有的话）为特征的。 ❶Mesoscale phenomena—the oceanic analogue of weather systems—often extend to distances of 100 kilometers and persist for 100 days (weather systems generally extend about 1,000 kilometers and last 3 to 5 days in any given area). ❷More than 90 percent of the kinetic energy of the entire ocean may be accounted for by mesoscale variability rather than by large-scale currents. ❸Mesoscale phenomena may, in fact, play a significant role in oceanic mixing, air-sea interactions, and occasional—but far-reaching—climatic events such as El Nino, the atmospheric-oceanic disturbance in the equatorial Pacific that affects global weather patterns. ❶中等尺度现象是把海洋比作天气系统的一种说法，它的规模通常达到 100km 并且持续 100 天（天气系统的规模通常达到 1000km 并在任意区域持续 3-5 天）。❷整个海洋中多 于 90%的动能是由中等尺度的变化产生的，而不是由大尺度洋流产生的。❸实际上，中等 尺度现象在海洋混合、海水与空气的相互作用以及偶尔出现——但是意义重大——的天气事 件（例如厄尔尼诺现象）中起到了关键的作用（厄尔尼诺现象是指在赤道太平洋产生的、影 响全球天气模式的、大气与海洋之间的扰动）。 ❶Unfortunately, it is not feasible to use conventional techniques to measure mesoscale fields. ❷To measure them properly, monitoring equipment would have to be laid out on a grid at intervals of at most 50 kilometers, with sensors at each grid point lowered deep in the ocean and kept there for many months. ❶不幸的是，利用传统技术来测量中等尺寸现象并不可行。❷为了正确测量它们，我们应 该在间隔至多 50km 的网格中放置监视装置，每个格点上的监视装置配有下潜足够深并且放 置好几个月的传感器。 ❶Because using these techniques would be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming, it was proposed in 1979 that tomography be adapted to measuring the physical properties of the ocean. ❷In medical tomography x-rays map the human body’s density variations (and hence internal organs); the information from the x-rays, transmitted through the body along many different paths, is recombined to form three-dimensional images of the body’s interior. ❸It is primarily this multiplicative increase in data obtained from the multipath transmission of signals that accounts for oceanographers’ attraction to tomography: it allows the measurement of vast areas with relatively few instruments. ❹Researchers reasoned that low-frequency sound waves, because they are so well described 240

mathematically and because even small perturbations in emitted sound waves can be detected, could be transmitted through the ocean over many different paths and that the properties of the ocean’s interior—its temperature, salinity, density, and speed of currents—could be deduced on the basis of how the ocean altered the signals. ❺Their initial trials were highly successful, and ocean acoustic tomography was born. ❶ 由 于 利 用 这 些 技 术 会 极 为 昂 贵 和 耗 时 ， 所 以 1979 年 有 人 提 出 X 线 断 层 摄 影 术 (tomography)应被用来测量海洋的物理性质。❷在医学领域，X 线断层摄影术绘制人体密度 变化（因而显示人体内部器官）；来自 X 射线的信息在人体内以不同的路径传输，在体外 重新汇合从而形成三维图像。❸正是这种主要来自多个路径的信号所获得的资料成倍的增 长，说明了海洋学家对于 X 线断层摄影术的兴趣：它使得用相对较少的仪器进行大范围测 量成为可能。❹研究者们推断，由于低频音波在数学上被很好地描述出来并且由于即使是 在发射的声波中的一些小扰动也可以被检测到，所以低频音波可以在海中通过很多路径传播； 研究者们还推断，海洋内部的性质——温度、盐度、密度、水流速度——可以根据信号被海 水的改变情况来推断出。❺他们的初步尝试取得很大成功，而海洋声学摄影术就此诞生。

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1994 年 10 月 SECTION A ❶The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1868, prohibits state governments from denying citizens the “equal protection of the laws.” ❷Although precisely what the framers of the amendment meant by this equal protection clause remains unclear, all interpreters agree that the framers’ immediate objective was to provide a constitutional warrant for the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which guaranteed the citizenship of all persons born in the United States and subject to United States jurisdiction. ❸This declaration, which was echoed in the text of the Fourteenth Amendment, was designed primarily to counter the Supreme Court’s ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford that Black people in the United States could be denied citizenship. ❹The act was vetoed by President Andrew Johnson, who argued that the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, did not provide Congress with the authority to extend citizenship and equal protection to the freed slaves. ❺Although Congress promptly overrode Johnson’s veto, supporters of the act sought to ensure its constitutional foundations with the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment. ❶在 1868 年获得批准的美国宪法(Constitution)第十四修正案(Amendment)禁止州政府剥 夺公民享受“平等的法律保护”。❷尽管该修正案的制定者制定这一平等保护条款的确切意图 仍然不明确，但所有解释者都认为：该制定者的直接目标是为 1868 年的《民权法》（Civil Rights Act）提供宪法保障，这个法案保证所有在美国出生并服从美国司法管辖的人都享有 公民权。❸这个在第十四修正案文本中被重新提及的宣言，其主要目的是对抗最高法院在 “Dred Scott v. Sandford”案子中的判决，此判决认定在美国的黑人可以被剥夺公民权利。❹ 民权法案被 Andrew Johnson 总统否决，他认为第十三修正案虽废除了奴隶制， 但并未赋 予国会给予已获自由的奴隶公民权和平等保护的权力。❺尽管国会迅速推翻了约翰逊总统 的否决，但《民权法》的支持者试图以通过第十四修正案的方式来确保其宪法基础。 ❶The broad language of the amendment strongly suggests that its framers were proposing to write into the Constitution not a laundry list of specific civil rights but a principle of equal citizenship that forbids organized society from treating any individual as a member of an inferior class. ❷Yet for the first eight decades of the amendment’s existence, the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the amendment betrayed this ideal of equality. ❸In the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, for example, the Court invented the “state action” limitation, which asserts that “private” decisions by owners of public accommodations and other commercial businesses to segregate their facilities are insulated from the reach of the Fourteenth Amendment’s guarantee of equal protection under the law. ❶第十四修正案笼统的语言强烈表明，其制定者想要写入宪法的不是一张具体民权法案的 详细清单，而是一种平等公民权利的原则，这个原则禁止组织化的社会把任何个人当作劣等 阶级的一员。❷可是在第十四修正案出现的最初 80 年里，最高法院对于修正案的解读违背 了其公平性的目的。❸例如在 1883 年的《民权诉讼案》中，法院发明了“州政府行动”的限 制，这个限制声称公共旅馆及其他商业机构的所有者做出的、对其设施实行种族隔离的“私 人”决定，不在第十四修正案中法律所保证的平等保护范围之内。 ❶After the Second World War, a judicial climate more hospitable to equal protection claims culminated in the Supreme Court’s ruling in Brown v. Board of Education that racially segregated schools violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. ❷Two doctrines embraced by the Supreme Court during this period extended the amendment’s reach. ❸First, the Court required especially strict scrutiny of legislation that employed a “suspect classification,” meaning discrimination against a group on grounds that could be construed as racial. ❹This doctrine has broadened the application of the Fourteenth Amendment to other, nonracial forms of discrimination, for while some justices 242

have refused to find any legislative classification other than race to be constitutionally disfavored, most have been receptive to arguments that at least some nonracial discriminations, sexual discrimination in particular, are “suspect” and deserve this heightened scrutiny by the courts. ❺Second, the Court relaxed the state action limitation on the Fourteenth Amendment, bringing new forms of private conduct within the amendment’s reach. ❶二战后，一个更利于平等保护主张的法律氛围由于高等法院的 Brown v. Board of Education 一案中的裁决而到达顶点，最高法院对此案做出裁定，即实施种族隔离的学校违 反了第十四修正案的适用条款。❷最高法院在这一时期所信奉的两个法律原则超越了修正 案的适用范围。❸第一，最高法院要求对采用“怀疑分类”的立法进行格外严格的审查，所谓 “怀疑分类”指的是可能被认为是与种族有关的而对某一群体进行的歧视。❹这一法律原则把 第十四修正案的适用范围扩大到了其他非种族的歧视，因为尽管某些法官拒绝认为种族之外 的任何立法分类都是违反宪法的，他们还是接受下列观点：至少某些非种族的歧视，尤其是 性别歧视，可被列为“怀疑对象”，法庭应该给予更加严格的审查。❺第二，最高法院放宽了 州政府行动对第十四修正案的限制，将各种新形式的个人行为也纳入到第十四修正案的适用 范围。

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❶The Earth’s magnetic field is generated as the molten iron of the Earth’s outer core revolves around its solid inner core. ❷When surges in the molten iron occur, magnetic tempests are created. ❸At the Earth’s surface, these tempests can be detected by changes in the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field. ❹For reasons not fully understood, the field itself reverses periodically every million years or so. ❺During the past million years, for instance, the magnetic north pole has migrated between the Antarctic and the Arctic. ❶当地球外核熔化的铁绕着地球坚实的内核不断地旋转时，地球的磁场便形成了。❷当熔 化的铁出现涌动时，磁暴(tempest)便产生了。❸在地球表面，这类磁暴可以通过探测地球 磁场的强度变化来得到。❹磁场大约每一百万年会有规律地逆转一次，其中的原因不详。 ❺例如，在过去的一百万年中，北磁极曾在南北极之间变动过一次。 ❶Clearly, geophysicists who seek to explain and forecast changes in the field must understand what happens in the outer core. ❷Unlike meteorologists, however, they cannot rely on observations made in their own lifetimes. ❸Whereas atmospheric storms arise in a matter of hours and last for days, magnetic tempests develop over decades and persist for centuries. ❹Fortunately scientists have been recording changes in the Earth’s magnetic field for more than 300 year ❶显然，那些要解释和预测磁场变化的地质物理学家必须要弄清楚地球的外核在发生着什 么。❷但是，与气象学家所不同的是，地质物理学家不能指望用毕生所得的观察资料。❸ 大气风暴在数小时内即可形成并只能持续几天的时间，然而磁暴却得花几十年才会发展起来， 并会持续几个世纪。❹值得庆幸的是，科学家已经记录地球磁场的变化长达 300 多年了。

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SECTION B ❶The defoliation of millions of acres of trees by massive infestations of gypsy moth caterpillars is a recurring phenomenon in the northeastern United States. ❷In studying these outbreaks, scientists have discovered that affected trees fight back by releasing toxic chemicals, mainly phenols, into their foliage. ❸These noxious substances limit caterpillars’ growth and reduce the number of eggs that female moths lay. Phenols also make the eggs smaller, which reduces the growth of the following year’s caterpillars. ❹Because the number of eggs a female moth produces is directly related to her size, and because her size is determined entirely by her feeding success as a caterpillar, the trees’ defensive mechanism has an impact on moth fecundity. ❶百万英亩的树木被舞毒蛾毛虫(gypsy moth caterpillars)大规模侵袭而落叶，这一现象在美 国东北部反复发生。❷通过研究这些害虫的爆发，科学家们发现受影响的树木会通过释放 有毒的化学物质（主要是苯酚）到叶子里的方式来反击。❸这些有毒物质限制了毛毛虫的 生长，也限制了雌蛾产卵的数量，苯酚也会使卵变小，从而限制了之后几年毛毛虫的生长。 ❹由于雌蛾产卵的数量和它的体型大小直接相关，并且因为它的体型大小完全取决于它在 毛毛虫阶段是否被很好地喂养，所以树的防御机制对蛾的繁殖能力有影响。 ❶The gypsy moth is also subject to attack by the nucleopolyhedrosis virus, or wilt disease, a particularly important killer of the caterpillars in outbreak years. ❷Caterpillars contract wilt disease when they eat a leaf to which the virus, encased in a protein globule, has become attached. ❸Once ingested by a caterpillar, the protein globule dissolves, releasing thousands of viruses, or virions, that after about two weeks multiply enough to fill the entire body cavity. ❹When the caterpillar dies, the virions are released to the outside, encased in a new protein globule synthesized from the caterpillar’s tissues and ready to be picked up by other caterpillars. ❶舞毒蛾也是被 nucleopolyhedrosis 病毒或萎蔫病攻击的主要对象，这两种病在虫灾突发 的年份里是极其重要的毛毛虫杀手。❷毛毛虫会感染萎蔫病(wilt disease)，它们吃了带有病 毒的叶子的时候，蛋白质小球会把病毒包裹住。❸一旦被毛毛虫吃掉，蛋白质小球就会溶 解，释放出上千个病毒或病毒颗粒，大约两周之后病毒会繁殖到足够多的数量，充满整个毛 毛虫的体腔。❹在毛毛虫死的时候，病毒就会被释放到外部，被毛毛虫的组织合成的蛋白 质小球包裹住，准备被其它毛毛虫捡起来吃掉。 ❶Knowing that phenols, including tannins, often act by associating with and altering the activity of proteins, researchers focused on the effects on caterpillars of ingesting the virus and leaves together. ❷They found that on tannin-rich oak leaves, the virus is considerably less effective at killing caterpillars than when it is on aspen leaves, which are lower in phenols. ❸In general, the more concentrated the phenols in tree leaves, the less deadly the virus. ❹Thus, while highly concentrated phenols in tree leaves reduce the caterpillar population by limiting the size of caterpillars and, consequently, the size of the female’s egg cluster, these same chemicals also help caterpillars survive by disabling the wilt virus. ❺Forest stands of red oaks, with their tannin-rich foliage, may even provide caterpillars with safe havens from disease. ❻In stands dominated by trees such as aspen, however, incipient gypsy moth outbreaks are quickly suppressed by viral epidemics. ❶研究者已知包括单宁酸(tannins)在内的苯酚经常通过和蛋白质活动联系在一起或是改变 蛋白质活动来起作用，他们集中研究毛毛虫吃病毒和吃叶子之后受到的影响。❷他们发现， 在含有大量单宁酸的橡树叶上，病毒杀死毛毛虫的效果，和苯酚含量较低的杨树相比要差得 多。❸总体来说，树叶中聚集的苯酚含量越高，病毒的杀伤力就越低。❹因此，当树叶中 含有高浓度的苯酚时，相同的化学物质通过限制毛毛虫体型的方式限制了其数量、由此限制 了雌性卵的聚集并且通过使萎蔫病毒失效的方式来帮助毛毛虫存活。❺红橡树林有含单宁 245

酸量很高的叶子，它甚至可以为毛毛虫提供一个远离疾病的安全避难所。❻然而，在以杨 树为主的树林中，最初舞毒蛾虫灾的爆发能很快地被病毒流行病所抑制。 ❶Further research has shown that caterpillars become virtually immune to the wilt virus as the trees on which they feed respond to increasing defoliation. ❷The trees’ own defenses raise the threshold of caterpillar vulnerability to the disease, allowing populations to grow denser without becoming more susceptible to infection. ❸For these reasons, the benefits to the caterpillars of ingesting phenols appear to outweigh the costs. ❹Given the presence of the virus, the trees’ defensive tactic apparently has backfired. ❶进一步的研究表明，随着毛毛虫赖以生存的树木对落叶的增加做出反应，毛毛虫对萎蔫 病毒变得几乎具有了免疫力。❷树木本身的防御反而提高了毛虫受萎蔫病感染的阈值，在 没有让毛毛虫变得更加容易受感染的情况下使它们变得更密集。❸由于这些原因，毛毛虫 摄取苯酚的利大于弊。❹考虑到病毒的存在，树木的防御手段显然是事与愿违的。

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❶The sweep of narrative in A. N. Wilson’s biography of C. S. Lewis is impressive and there is much that is acute and well argued. ❷But much in this work is careless and unworthy of its author. ❸Wilson, a novelist and an accomplished biographer, has failed to do what any writer on such a subject as Lewis ought to do, namely work out a coherent view of how the various literary works by the subject are to be described and commented on. ❹Decisions have to be made on what to look at in detail and what to pass by with just a mention. ❺Wilson has not thought this problem out. ❻For instance, Till We Have Faces, Lewis’ treatment of the Eros and Psyche story and one of his best-executed and most moving works, is merely mentioned by Wilson, though it illuminates Lewis’ spiritual development, whereas Lewis’ minor work Pilgrim’s Regress is looked at in considerable detail. ❶ A. N. Wilson 为 C. S. Lewis 而作的传记气势磅礴，令人印象深刻，并且很多地方的思路敏 锐并且论证充分。❷但是这部作品中也有不少地方处理得很随便，与作者名声不符。 ❸Wilson 是一位小说家以及一位造诣深厚的传记作家，但他没能做到任何一个作家在处理 一个论述 Lewis 的题目时都应该能做到的事情，即制定一个一致统一的观点来描述和评论同 这个题目有关的、Lewis 创作的、不同主题的文学作品。❹作者要决定什么样的作品要进行 详细考察，而什么样的作品只是提一下。❺Wilson 还没有想清楚这个问题。❻例如在 Till We Have Faces 中，Lewis 对于爱欲和心灵故事的处理以及他处理得最好、最感人的作品，只是 被 Wilson 略微提及，尽管这部作品详细说明了 Lewis 的心路历程；而 Lewis 的次要作品 Pilgrim’s Regress 却被 Wilson 进行了详细的考察。

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1995 年 04 月 SECTION A ❶Influenced by the view of some twentieth-century feminists that women’s position within the family is one of the central factors determining women’s social position, some historians have underestimated the significance of the woman suffrage movement. ❷These historians contend that nineteenth-century suffragist was less radical and, hence, less important than, for example, the moral reform movement or domestic feminism—two nineteenth-century movements in which women struggled for more power and autonomy within the family. ❸True, by emphasizing these struggles, such historians have broadened the conventional view of nineteenth-century feminism, but they do a historical disservice to suffragism. ❹Nineteenth-century feminists and anti-feminist alike perceived the suffragists’ demand for enfranchisement as the most radical element in women’s protest, in part because suffragists were demanding power that was not based on the institution of the family, women’s traditional sphere. ❺When evaluating nineteenth-century feminism as a social force, contemporary historians should consider the perceptions of actual participants in the historical events. ❶某些20世纪女权主义者认为，女性的家庭地位是决定妇女社会地位的一个核心因素，受 该观点的影响，某些史学家低估了妇女选举权运动(woman suffrage movement)的重要意义。 ❷这些史学家认为，19世纪的选举权运动，并没有那么激进，因此，这项运动重要程度不 及以下的运动，例如道德改革运动和家庭女权主义这类运动，而在两项19世纪的运动中， 妇女为获取家庭内部更大的权力和自治而奋斗。❸的确，通过强调这些斗争，这些史学家 拓宽了有关19世纪女权主义的传统观点，但却从历史上伤害了女性选举权运动。❹19世纪 的女权主义者和反女权主义者，都把选举权运动的成员对公民选举的授予视为妇女抗议中最 激进的因素，一部分是因为选举权运动的成员所要求获得的权力不是基于家庭，即妇女的传 统空间。❺当代史学家在评估19世纪女权主义作为一种社会力量时，应考虑这些历史事件 实际参加者的感受。

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❶Many objects in daily use have clearly been influenced by science, but their form and function, their dimensions and appearance, were determined by technologists, artisans, designers, inventors, and engineers—using non-scientific modes of thought. ❷Many features and qualities of the objects that a technologist thinks about cannot be reduced to unambiguous verbal descriptions; they are dealt with in the mind by a visual, nonverbal process. ❸In the development of Western technology, it has been non-verbal thinking, by and large, that has fixed the outlines and filled in the details of our material surroundings. ❹Pyramids, cathedrals, and rockets exist not because of geometry or thermodynamics, but because they were first a picture in the minds of those who built them. ❶我们在日常生活中用到的许多物品显然受到科学的影响，但是它们的形态与功能，大小 与外观，是由技术专家、艺术家、设计家、发明家以及工程师利用非科学模式的思维决定的。 ❷技术专家认为物品的很多特征和性质不可言传；这些特征和特性是在大脑中经过形象的 非语言思维过程加工的。❸在西方科技发展过程中，是非语言思维过程决定物品轮廓并且 为其补充其细节的。❹金字塔，大礼堂以及火箭的产生不是因为几何学或者热力学，而是 因为它首先在建造者大脑里面形成形象。 ❶The creative shaping process of a technologist’s mind can be seen in nearly every artifact that exists. ❷For example, in designing a diesel engine, a technologist might impress individual ways of nonverbal thinking on the machine by continually using an intuitive sense of rightness and fitness. ❸What would be the shape of the combustion chamber? ❹Where should the valves be placed? ❺Should it have a long or short piston? ❻Such questions have a range of answers that are supplied by experience, by physical requirements, by limitations of available space, and not least by a sense of form. ❼Some decisions, such as wall thickness and pin diameter, may depend on scientific calculations, but the nonscientific component of design remains primary. ❶技术专家大脑中富有创造性的造型过程几乎在每一个现存手工艺术品中都可以看到。❷ 比如，在设计柴油机的过程中，技术专家通过不断运用有关正确性、合适性的直觉来表达和 机器有关的个人特有的非语言方式。❸燃烧室的形状是什么样子的？❹阀门应该在哪里放 置？❺是用长还是短的活塞？❻这些问题由一系列通过经验、物理要求、有限可用空间以 及一种相当重要的形式感来提供答案。❼有些决定，比如燃烧室壁厚度和销的直径，可能 会依赖于科学计算，但设计中的非科学成分仍然是基础。 ❶Design courses, then, should be an essential element in engineering curricula. ❷Nonverbal thinking, a central mechanism in engineering design, involves perceptions, the stock-in-trade of the artist, not the scientist. ❸Because perceptive processes are not assumed to entail “hard thinking,” nonverbal thought is sometimes seen as a primitive stage in the development of cognitive processes and inferior to verbal or mathematical thought. ❹But it is paradoxical that when the staff of the Historic American Engineering Record wished to have drawings made of machines and isometric views of industrial processes for its historical record of American engineering, the only college students with the requisite abilities were not engineering students, but rather students attending architectural schools. ❶那么设计课应该是工程学专业课里面不可或缺的基本组成部分。❷非语言思维是工程设 计里核心机制，它包含艺术家而非科学家的惯用手段——感知能力。❸由于感知过程并不 需要“硬思维”，所以非语言思维有时被看作认知过程发展的初级阶段，并且低于语言思维或 数学思维。❹但矛盾的是，当 Historic American Engineering Record 的编辑人员想请人画出 机器以及工业制造工序的等角图(isometric views)时，唯一具有此项能力的大学生并非工程 类学生，而是建筑学学生。 ❶If courses in design, which in a strongly analytical engineering curriculum provide the background required for practical problem-solving, are not provided, we can expect to encounter silly but costly errors occurring in advanced engineering systems. ❷For example, 249

early models of high-speed railroad cars loaded with sophisticated controls were unable to operate in a snowstorm because a fan sucked snow into the electrical system. ❸Absurd random failures that plague automatic control systems are not merely trivial aberrations; they are a reflection of the chaos that results when design is assumed to be primarily a problem in mathematics. ❶如果在分析性很强的工科课程里不提供解决实际问题的基础知识的设计教程，那么我们 会在复杂工程系统中遇到很愚蠢但代价巨大的错误。❷比如说，早期装备有精密控制系统 的高速电动火车无法在暴风雪天气中运行，因为其鼓风机会把雪吸进电力系统中。❸自动 控制系统中发生的荒唐的随机故障并不只是小故障；它们反映了当人们认为设计问题主要是 数学问题时发生的混乱现象。

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SECTION B ❶One explanation for the tendency of animals to be more vigilant in smaller groups than in larger ones assumes that the vigilant behavior—looking up, for example—is aimed at predators. ❷If individuals on the edge of a group are more vigilant because they are at greater risk of being captured, then individuals on average would have to be more vigilant in smaller groups, because the animals on the periphery of a group form a greater proportion of the whole group as the size of the group diminishes. ❶小群动物比大群动物有更大的警觉性，这显示出警觉行为（如抬头观望）是针对掠食者 的行为。❷如果说处在动物群边缘的动物更加警觉是因为它们承受着更大被抓住的危险， 那么小群动物中个体平均警觉性更高是因为动物群越小，处在动物群边缘的动物数占整个动 物群的比例就越大。 ❶However, a different explanation is necessary in cases where the vigilant behavior is not directed at predators. ❷J. Krebs has discovered that great blue herons look up more often when in smaller flocks than when in larger ones, solely as a consequence of poor feeding conditions. ❸Krebs hypothesizes that the herons in smaller flocks are watching for herons that they might follow to better feeding pools, which usually attract larger numbers of the birds ❶然而，如果警觉行为并不直接针对掠食者，那么我们就需要做出不同的解释了。❷J. Krebs 发现小群中的大苍鹭比大群中的大苍鹭更加频繁地抬头，这仅仅是因为捕食的条件太差。 ❸Krebs 假定：小群中的苍鹭在找苍鹭群，它们能够带领小群苍鹭去食物条件较好的地方， 而这些地方通常能吸引大批苍鹭。

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❶The earliest controversies about the relationship between photography and art centered on whether photography’s fidelity to appearances and dependence on a machine allowed it to be a fine art as distinct from merely a practical art. ❷Throughout the nineteenth century, the defense of photography was identical with the struggle to establish it as a fine art. ❸Against the charge that photography was a soulless, mechanical copying of reality, photographers asserted that it was instead a privileged way of seeing, a revolt against commonplace vision, and no less worthy an art than painting. ❶最早有关摄影和艺术之间相互关系的争论集中在摄影保真度和对机器的依赖程度是否能 使摄影成为一种不同于实用技术的美的艺术。❷整个 19 世纪，为摄影的辩护是为了努力把 摄影确立为一种美的艺术。❸为了反驳“摄影没有灵魂，它只是用机器复制现实”的指责，摄 影师断言摄影是一种独特的观察方式，是对普通视觉的一种背离，是至少和绘画有同等价值 的艺术。 ❶Ironically, now that photography is securely established as a fine art, many photographers find it pretentious or irrelevant to label it as such. ❷Serious photographers variously claim to be finding, recording, impartially observing, witnessing events, exploring themselves—anything but making works of art. ❸In the nineteenth century, photography’s association with the real world placed it in an ambivalent relation to art; late in the twentieth century, an ambivalent relation exists because of the Modernist heritage in art. ❹That important photographers are no longer willing to debate whether photography is or is not a fine art, except to proclaim that their own work is not involved with art, shows the extent to which they simply take for granted the concept of art imposed by the triumph of Modernism: the better the art, the more subversive it is of the traditional aims of art. ❶讽刺的是，虽然摄影已经完全确立了其作为美的艺术的地位，但很多摄影师认为这是自 负的，是名不副实的。❷严肃的摄影师用多种方式声称，要对事物进行不带偏见地发现、 记录、客观观察、见证事件、探索自我——唯独没有进行艺术品创造。❸19 世纪时，摄影 与现实世界的联系使其与艺术之间有一种矛盾的关系；到 20 世纪晚期，这种矛盾关系依然 存在，这是由于现代派艺术传统的影响。❹除了声称他们的作品与艺术没有直接关系之外， 重要的摄影师不愿争辩摄影是否是一种美的艺术的问题，这个现象表明他们把现代主义所成 功强加的艺术的概念看作是理所应当的程度：越好的艺术，越是反对现实艺术的传统目标的 艺术观。 ❶Photographers’ disclaimers of any interest in making art tell us more about the harried status of the contemporary notion of art than about whether photography is or is not art. ❷For example, those photographers who suppose that, by taking pictures, they are getting away from the pretensions of art as exemplified by painting remind us of those Abstract Expressionist painters who imagined they were getting away from the intellectual austerity of classical Modernist painting by concentrating on the physical act of painting. ❸Much of photography’s prestige today derives from the convergence of its aims with those of recent art, particularly with the dismissal of abstract art implicit in the phenomenon of Pop painting during the 1960’s. ❹Appreciating photographs is a relief to sensibilities tired of the mental exertions demanded by abstract art. ❺Classical Modernist painting—that is, abstract art as developed in different ways by Picasso, Kandinsky, and Matisse—presupposes highly developed skills of looking and a familiarity with other paintings and the history of art. ❻Photography, like Pop painting, reassures viewers that art is not hard; photography seems to be more about its subjects than about art. ❶摄影师否认对创造艺术感兴趣，这告诉我们，与其说是有关摄影是否是艺术的问题，不 如说有关当代艺术观所处困境的问题。❷例如，那些认为可以通过照相来摆脱以绘画为典 范的艺术主张的摄影师让我们想起那些抽象表现主义画家，他们全神贯注于绘画的身体动作， 摆脱传统现代派绘画作品要求高度理解力。❸当代摄影作品的名声大多来自对于那些近期 发展起来的艺术在目标方面的认同，尤其是对于 60 年代流行画中蕴含的对抽象艺术的否定 252

态度的认同。❹欣赏摄影作品是对（欣赏）抽象艺术所要求脑力消耗时厌倦的感官的一种 解脱。❺传统的现代派绘画——由 Picasso, Kandinsky, Matisse 以不同方式发展起来的抽象 艺术——是以高度发达的审视技能以及对其他绘画和艺术史的熟悉程度为先决条件。❻而 摄影作品和流行画一样，让观赏者消除顾虑并且意识到艺术并不难欣赏，因为摄影作品似乎 比起重视艺术技巧来更重视题材。 ❶Photography, however, has developed all the anxieties and self-consciousness of a classic Modernist art. ❷Many professionals privately have begun to worry that the promotion of photography as an activity subversive of the traditional pretensions of art has gone so far that the public will forget that photography is a distinctive and exalted activity—in short, an art. ❶然而，摄影发展了传统现代派艺术的全部渴望和自我意识。❷许多摄影专家私下开始担 心：提倡摄影作为一种反对现实艺术传统要求的活动已经开展得太多了，结果使得公众忘记 摄影是一种独特而典雅的活动——简而言之，摄影是一门艺术。

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1995 年 10 月 SECTION A ❶It is possible for students to obtain advanced degrees in English while knowing little or nothing about traditional scholarly methods. ❷The consequences of this neglect of traditional scholarship are particularly unfortunate for the study of women writers. ❸If the canon—the list of authors whose works are most widely taught—is ever to include more women, scholars must be well trained in historical scholarship and textual editing. ❹Scholars who do not know how to read early manuscripts, locate rare books, establish a sequence of editions, and so on are bereft of crucial tools for revising the canon. ❶学生们有可能在对传统学术研究方法知之甚少甚至一无所知的情况下获得高级英文学位。 ❷这种对传统学术研究的忽视带来的后果对女作家的研究尤为不幸。❸如果在作家的真作 集——即那些被最广泛传授的作家的作品名册中——包含更多女性作家作品，那么学者们必 须在历史研究和文本编辑方面受到过良好训练。❹那些不知如何去阅读古代手稿、定位孤 本、确定版本顺序等的学者,就缺乏一些修订作家名录的重要工具。 ❶To address such concerns, an experimental version of the traditional scholarly methods course was designed to raise students’ consciousness about the usefulness of traditional learning for any modern critic or theorist. ❷To minimize the artificial aspects of the conventional course, the usual procedure of assigning a large number of small problems drawn from the entire range of historical periods was abandoned, though this procedure has the obvious advantage of at least superficially familiarizing students with a wide range of reference sources. ❸Instead students were engaged in a collective effort to do original work on a neglected eighteenth-century writer, Elizabeth Griffith, to give them an authentic experience of literary scholarship and to inspire them to take responsibility for the quality of their own work. ❶为了解决这些问题，人们设计出一种实验性的、有关传统学术研究方法的教案，以便让 学生意识到传统学问对任何一个当代批评家或理论家的作用。❷为了尽量减少传统课程中 的人为因素，一种常用的做法已被放弃，即给学生指定大量的、从所有历史时期范围中抽出 的小问题来回答，尽管这一做法有其明显的优点，即至少能让学生肤浅了解一系列范围广泛 的参考资料。❸相反，学生置身于一种集体努力之中，根据被忽略的十八世纪作家 E·Griffith 进行的独创性的研究，这给予学生们文学考据的亲身经历，并激励他们对其自身研究工作的 质量负责。 ❶Griffith’s work presented a number of advantages for this particular pedagogical purpose. ❷First, the body of extant scholarship on Griffith was so tiny that it could all be read in a day; thus students spent little time and effort mastering the literature and had a clear field for their own discoveries. ❸Griffith’s play The Platonic Wife exists in three versions, enough to provide illustrations of editorial issues but not too many for beginning students to manage. ❹In addition, because Griffith was successful in the eighteenth century, as her continued productivity and favorable reviews demonstrate, her exclusion from the canon and virtual disappearance from literary history also helped raise issues concerning the current canon. ❶Griffith 的作品能为这一特定的数学目的提供许多有利条件。❷首先，有关 Griffith 的现 存全部考据材料是如此之少，以至于一天就可读完；因此，学生们没有花太多的时间精力就 掌握了全部文献，并且为自己的发现找到了一个明确的领域。❸Griffith 的剧本 The Platonic Wife 有 3 个版本，足以提供编辑问题的例证，但对于初学者来说这种材料不是很多，他们 可以掌握。❹此外，由于 Griffith 在 18 世纪非常成功——正如她层出不穷的作品和获得的 好评证明的那样，但她却没有处在名作家之列，并几乎从文学史销声匿迹，这也对目前的经 典作家名录提出了疑问。 254

❶The range of Griffith’s work meant that each student could become the world’s leading authority on a particular Griffith text. ❷For example, a student studying Griffith’s Wife in the Right obtained a first edition of the play and studied it for some weeks. ❸This student was suitably shocked and outraged to find its title transformed into A Wife in the Night in Watt’s Bibliotheca Britannica. ❹Such experiences, inevitable and common in working on a writer to whom so little attention has been paid, serve to vaccinate the student—I hope for a lifetime—against credulous use of reference sources. ❶Griffith的作品范围意味着每个学生都可能成为世界范围内研究Griffith某一特定文章的权 威。❷例如，一个研究Griffith作品Wife in the Right的学生得到该剧的第一版，并对其进行 了几周的研究。❸自然这位学生既惊讶又气愤地发现，此剧的标题在Watt所著的Bibliotheca Britannica中变成了Wife in the Night。❹这样的经历——在研究这样一个很少被注意到的作 家的过程中是不可避免也是十分普遍的——起到了预防的效果，它让这位学生——我希望在 他一辈子当中——反对不加鉴别就轻信使用参考出处的行为。

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❶Experiments show that insects can function as pollinators of cycads, rare, palmlike tropical plants. ❷Furthermore, cycads removed from their native habitats—and therefore from insects native to those habitats—are usually infertile. ❸Nevertheless, anecdotal reports of wind pollination in cycads cannot be ignored. ❹The structure of cycads male cones is quite consistent with the wind dispersal of pollen, clouds of which are released from some of the larger cones. ❺The male cone of Cycas circinalis, for example, sheds almost 100 cubic centimeters of pollen, most of which is probably dispersed by wind. ❻Still, many male cycad cones are comparatively small and thus produce far less pollen. ❼Furthermore, the structure of most female cycad cones seems inconsistent with direct pollination by wind. ❽Only in the Cycas genus are the females’ ovules accessible to airborne pollen, since only in this genus are the ovules surrounded by a loose aggregation of megasporophylls rather than by a tight cone. ❶实验表明，昆虫可以充当苏铁科植物（cycad, 一种数量稀少的、类似棕榈树的热带植物） 的传粉者的角色。❷此外，从原栖息地迁出的铁树——当然树上的昆虫也离开了它们的栖 息地——通常不结果实。❸不过，我们不能忽略有关铁树风力传粉的趣闻报道。❹铁树雄 性球果的构造满足风力传粉的要求，大量花粉从较大的球果上洒落下来。❺例如，Cycas circinalis 的雄性球果会散落约 100 平方厘米的花粉， 其中大部分花粉都很有可能随风传播。 ❻尽管这样，许多雄性铁树球果相对较小，因此产生的花粉也少。❼此外，大多数雌性铁 树球果的结构看起来和风力传粉的要求不一致。❽只有卷属铁树的雌性胚珠可以接触到空 气中的花粉，因为只有这种种属的胚珠是由大孢子叶松散包裹，而不是被紧密球果包裹的。

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SECTION B ❶The term “remote sensing” refers to the techniques of measurement and interpretation of phenomena from a distance. ❷Prior to the mid-1960’s the interpretation of film images was the primary means for remote sensing of the Earth’s geologic features. ❸With the development of the optomechanical scanner, scientists began to construct digital multispectral images using data beyond the sensitivity range of visible light photography. ❹These images are constructed by mechanically aligning pictorial representations of such phenomena as the reflection of light waves outside the visible spectrum, the refraction of radio waves, and the daily changes in temperature in areas on the Earth’s surface. ❺Digital multispectral imaging has now become the basic tool in geologic remote sensing from satellites. ❶术语“遥感(remote sensing)”指的是测量及解译远距离现象的技术。❷在 20 世纪 60 年代 中期之前，对胶片图形的解译是对地球地质特征进行遥感的主要方法。❸随着光机械扫描 器的发展，科学家们开始建立数字化多谱线图，利用可见光摄影术可以感知可见光摄影范围 之外的数据。❹这些图像是通过对可见光谱外光波的反射、无线电波的折射以及地球表面 区域温度日常变化等现象进行机械校准的图形来表达构建的。❺数字化多谱线图现在已经 成为来自卫星的地质遥感的基本工具。 ❶The advantage of digital over photographic imaging is evident: the resulting numerical data are precisely known, and digital data are not subject to the vagaries of difficult-to-control chemical processing. ❷With digital processing, it is possible to combine a large number of spectral images. ❸The acquisition of the first multispectral digital data set from the multispectral scanner (MSS) aboard the satellite Landsat in 1972 consequently attracted the attention of the entire geologic community. ❹Landsat MSS data are now being applied to a variety of geologic problems that are difficult to solve by conventional methods alone. ❺These include specific problems in mineral and energy resource exploration and the charting of glaciers and shallow seas. ❶数码成像的优点是明显的：产生的数字数据是精确已知的，并且数字数据不会被难以控 制的化学过程的不规则变化影响。❷通过数字化的处理，综合大量的谱线图是可能的。❸ 第一次获得多谱线数字数据是 1972 年从 Landsa 卫星上安装的多谱线扫描器（MSS）发送 出来的多谱线数字数据，因此这吸引了整个地质界的注意。❹Landsat MSS 数据现在正被 应用于很多地质问题中，这些问题仅用传统方法很难解决。❺这些问题包括一些具体的矿 物和能量资源探索，以及冰川和浅海的制图。 ❶A more fundamental application of remote sensing is to augment conventional methods for geologic mapping of large areas. ❷Regional maps present compositional, structural, and chronological information for reconstructing geologic evolution. ❸Such reconstructions have important practical applications because the conditions under which rock units and other structural features are formed influence the occurrence of ore and petroleum deposits and affect the thickness and integrity of the geologic media in which the deposits are found. ❶遥感的一个更基本的应用是增强对大片地域地质绘图的传统方法。❷区域地图展现了再 现地质进化的组成、结构和年代的信息。❸这种再现有重要的实际应用，因为岩石单位以 及其它结构特征形成的条件会影响矿石和石油贮藏的出现，并且会影响被发现贮藏所在的地 质媒介的厚度和整体性。 ❶Geologic maps incorporate a large, varied body of specific field and laboratory measurements, but the maps must be interpretative because field measurements are always limited by rock exposure, accessibility and labor resources. ❷With remote-sensing techniques it is possible to obtain much geologic information more efficiently than it can be obtained on the ground. ❸These techniques also facilitate overall interpretation. ❹Since 257

detailed geologic mapping is generally conducted in small areas, the continuity of regional features that have intermittent and variable expressions is often not recognized, but in the comprehensive views of Landsat images these continuities are apparent. ❺However, some critical information cannot be obtained through remote sensing, and several characteristics of the Landsat MSS impose limitations on the acquisition of diagnostic data. ❻Some of these limitations can be overcome by designing satellite systems specifically for geologic purposes; but, to be most effective, remote-sensing data must still be combined with data from field surveys and laboratory tests, the techniques of the earlier twentieth century. ❶地质地图包含了多而广的具体实地测量和实验室测量，但是地图一定要具有解译性，因 为实地测量往往是被暴露的岩石、人们是否可到达以及劳动力资源限制。❷有了遥感技术， 与从地面获得的信息相比，人们能更有效地获得更多地质信息。❸这些技术也促进了整体 的解译。❹因为详细地质地图的绘制总体上是在小范围内进行的，那些间断的、有变化的 地域性特征的连续性常常无法被识别，但是在 Landsat 图像的综合视图中，这些连续性就很 明显。❺但是一些关键信息不能通过遥感来获取，并且一些 Landsat MSS 的特征会对诊断 性数据的获得产生限制。❻其中一些限制可以通过专门为地质目的而设计的卫星系统克服； 但是，为了达到最有效的程度，遥感数据仍然必须和实地调查以及实验室测试得到的数据相 结合，而后两者是 20 世纪早期的技术。

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❶Although the development of new infrastructure (such public facilities as power plants, schools, and bridges) is usually determined by governmental planning, sometimes this development can be planned more flexibly and realistically by private investors who anticipate profit from the collection of user fees. ❷Such profits can contribute to the financing of more infrastructure if demand proves great enough, whereas the reluctance of developers to invest in such projects can signal that additional infrastructure is not needed. ❸During the economic boom of the 1980’s, for example, the state of Virginia authorized private developers to build a $300 million toll road. ❹These developers obtained the needed right-of-way from property owners, but by 1993 they still had not raised the necessary financing. ❺The unwillingness of investors to finance this project does not negate the viability of privately financed roads; rather, it illustrates a virtue of private financing. ❻If a road appears unlikely to attract enough future traffic to pay for the road, then it should not be built. ❶尽管新的基础设施（例如发电站、学校和桥梁等公共设施）的开发通常由政府的规划决 定，但有时个人投资者更为灵活且更现实地进行规划开发项目，而个人投资者预期通过收取 用户的缴费来获利。❷如果需求足够强劲，利润有助于吸引更多资金来发展更多基础设施， 而（如果）开发者不愿意在这样工程项目上投资，这预示着不需要额外的基础设施了。❸ 例如在 20 世纪 80 年代的经济增长的时候，Virginia 州批准了私人开发者斥资 3 亿美金修建 收费公路。❹这些开发者从所有者中获得了所需的地，但他们到了 1993 年还没有筹到足够 的资金。❺投资者们不愿意投资这个项目并不否定个人出资修建公路的优点。相反，这恰 恰体现出个人筹集资金的优点。❻如果一条路在将来不能吸引足够的通行车辆来付道路建 设费，那么这条路就不应该建设。

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1996 年 04 月北美 SECTION A ❶As people age, their cells become less efficient and less able to replace damaged components. ❷At the same time their tissues stiffen. ❸For example, the lungs and the heart muscle expand less successfully, the blood vessels become increasingly rigid, and the ligaments and tendons tighten. ❶随着人们年龄的增长，细胞的效率下降并且受损部位（的细胞）更不容易被取代。❷同 时组织也会硬化。❸比如，心肺肌肉扩张能力变弱、血管变硬以及韧带及跟腱硬化。 ❶Few investigators would attribute such diverse effects to a single cause. ❷Nevertheless, researchers have discovered that a process long known to discolor and toughen foods may also contribute to age-related impairment of both cells and tissues. ❸That process is nonenzymatic glycosylation, whereby glucose becomes attached to proteins without the aid of enzymes. ❹When enzymes attach glucose to proteins (enzymatic glycosylation), they do so at a specific site on a specific protein molecule for a specific purpose. ❺In contrast, the nonenzymatic process adds glucose haphazardly to any of several sites along any available peptide chain within a protein molecule. ❶很少会有研究者把这么多不同的结果归于单一的原因。❷可是他们发现，已被熟知的食 物褪色和变硬的过程也可能引发与年龄相关的细胞与组织损伤的结果。❸这个过程叫做非 酶糖基化(nonenzymatic glycosylation)，即葡萄糖不需要酶的作用就可以附着在蛋白质上。 ❹当酶把葡萄糖附着在蛋白质上（酶糖基化）时，蛋白质是特定的，附着位置和目的也是 特定的。❺相比之下，非酶糖基化过程把葡萄糖随机附着在蛋白质分子内任意几个可利用 的肽键的位置上。 ❶This nonenzymatic glycosylation of certain proteins has been understood by food chemists for decades, although few biologists recognized until recently that the same steps could take place in the body. ❷Nonenzymatic glycosylation begins when an aldehyde group (CHO) of glucose and an amino group (NH2) of a protein are attracted to each other. ❸The molecules combine, forming what is called a Schiff base within the protein. ❹This combination is unstable and quickly rearranges itself into a stabler, but still reversible, substance known as an Amadori product. ❶食品化学家在几十年前就已经了解特定蛋白质的非酶糖基化作用，可是直到最近才有生 物学家意识到人体内可能进行着同样的过程。❷当一个葡萄糖的醛基(aldehyde group)和蛋 白质的氨基相互吸引的时候，非酶糖基化过程就开始了。❸分子和分子结合，形成了蛋白 质中所谓的 Schiff 基。❹这个结合是不稳定的，它会迅速重组，形成一个更稳定但可逆的 物质，叫 Amadori 产物。 ❶If a given protein persists in the body for months or years, some of its Amadori products slowly dehydrate and rearrange themselves yet again, into new glucose-derived structures. ❷These can combine with various kinds of molecules to form irreversible structures named advanced glycosylation end products (AGE’s). ❸Most AGE’s are yellowish brown and fluorescent and have specific spectrographic properties. ❹More important for the body, many are also able to cross-link adjacent proteins, particularly ones that give structure to tissues and organs. ❺Although no one has yet satisfactorily described the origin of all such bridges between proteins, many investigators agree that extensive cross-linking of proteins probably contributes to the stiffening and loss of elasticity characteristic of aging tissues. ❶如果上述蛋白质在人体内成年累月地存留，部分 Amadori 产物会缓慢地脱水并且再次重 组成一个由葡萄糖衍生的结构。❷这个结构可以同多种分子结合，形成一个叫做晚期糖基 化终端产物（AGE’s）的不可逆结构。❸大多数 AGE’s 是黄棕色、发荧光并且有特定光谱特 性的物质。❹更重要的是，对人体来说这些物质很多都可以与临近蛋白质交叉连接，特别 260

是那些构建组织和器官结构的蛋白质。❺尽管现在还没有人能够对蛋白质间连接的起因给 出一个令人满意的描述，但是许多研究人员一致认为，大范围蛋白质交叉连接是器官硬化和 僵化并且逐渐衰老的原因。 ❶In an attempt to link this process with the development of cataracts (the browning and clouding of the lens of the eye as people age), researchers studied the effect of glucose on solutions of purified crystallin, the major protein in the lens of the eye. ❷Glucose-free solutions remained clear, but solutions with glucose caused the proteins to form clusters, suggesting that the molecules had become cross-linked. ❸The clusters diffracted light, making the solution opaque. ❹The researchers also discovered that the pigmented cross-links in human cataracts have the brownish color and fluorescence characteristic of AGE’s. ❺These data suggest that nonenzymatic glycosylation of lens crystallins may contribute to cataract formation. ❶为了将这个过程和白内障（其症状是老年人眼球呈现棕色且变得混浊）的发生相联系， 研究人员研究了葡萄糖对眼球晶体中主要蛋白质提纯后的结晶溶液的作用。❷无葡萄糖的 溶液保持清澈，但有葡萄糖的溶液使得蛋白质聚集成簇，这意味着分子交叉连接了。❸成 簇蛋白质使光发生衍射，溶液看起来不那么透明了。❹研究人员还发现人类白内障染色的 交叉连接呈现 AGE’s 特有的棕色和荧光。❺这些资料表明眼球晶体结晶的非酶糖基化作用 可能会引起白内障。

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❶Writing of the Iroquois nation, Smith has argued that through the chiefs’ council, tribal chiefs traditionally maintained complete control over the political affairs of both the Iroquois tribal league and the individual tribes belonging to the league, whereas the sole jurisdiction over religious affairs resided with the shamans. ❷According to Smith, this division was maintained until the late nineteenth century, when the dissolution of the chiefs’ council and the consequent diminishment of the chiefs’ political power fostered their increasing involvement in religious affairs. ❶写到 Iroquois 部落时，Smith 认为，部落酋长通过会议传统地维持对 Iroquois 部落及其 从属部落政治事务的完全控制，唯独管理宗教事务的权利归 shamans。❷根据 Smith 的看 法，19 世纪末酋长会议的瓦解和随之而来的首领政治权利的削弱这两个事件让酋长更多地 参与宗教事务，而在此之前这个分工一直存在。 ❶ However, Smith fails to recognize that this division of power between the tribal chiefs and shamans was not actually rooted in Iroquois tradition; rather, it resulted from the Iroquois’ resettlement on reservations early in the nineteenth century. ❷Prior to resettlement, the chiefs’ council controlled only the broad policy of the tribal league; individual tribes had institutions—most important, the longhouse—to govern their own affairs. ❸In the longhouse, the tribe’s chief influenced both political and religious affairs. ❶然而，Smith 没有意识到部落酋长和 shamans 之间权利的分配并不来源于 Iroquois 的传 统；相反，它是 19 世纪初期 Iroquois 在保护区重新定居的结果。❷在重新定居之前，酋长 会议只控制了部落联盟的一般政策；个别部落管理自己的事物——最重要的是长屋。❸在 长屋中，部落首领既影响政治也影响宗教事物。

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SECTION B ❶Mary Barton, particularly in its early chapters, is a moving response to the suffering of the industrial worker in the England of the 1840’s. ❷What is most impressive about the book is the intense and painstaking effort made by the author, Elizabeth Gaskell, to convey the experience of everyday life in working-class homes. ❸Her method is partly documentary in nature: the novel includes such features as a carefully annotated reproduction of dialect, the exact details of food prices in an account of a tea party, an itemized description of the furniture of the Barton’ s living room, and a transcription (again annotated) of the ballad “The Oldham Weaver.” ❹The interest of this record is considerable, even though the method has a slightly distancing effect. ❶ Mary Barton，尤其是在前几章，是一个对于 17 世纪 40 年代英国工业工人所受苦难的感 人写照。❷这本书最感人的是作者 Elizabeth Gaskell 所作的强烈的、煞费苦心的努力，这是 为了传达工人家庭日常生活的经历。❸她的方法部分是记录性的：小说包括了这些特写： 精心注释的方言、茶话会上食物价格的准确细节、Barton 起居室中家具的逐件记载、对民 歌 The Oldham Weaver 的改编（也是加注释的）。❹关于这个记载有趣的报道有很多，尽 管表现的方法有些客观。 ❶As a member of the middle class, Gaskell could hardly help approaching working-class life as an outside observer and a reporter, and the reader of the novel is always conscious of this fact. ❷But there is genuine imaginative re-creation in her accounts of the walk in Green Heys Fields, of tea at the Bartons’ house, and of John Barton and his friend’s discovery of the starving family in the cellar in the chapter “Poverty and Death.” ❸Indeed, for a similarly convincing re-creation of such families’ emotions and responses (which are more crucial than the material details on which the mere reporter is apt to concentrate), the English novel had to wait 60 years for the early writing of D. H. Lawrence. ❹If Gaskell never quite conveys the sense of full participation that would completely authenticate this aspect of Mary Barton, she still brings to these scenes an intuitive recognition of feelings that has its own sufficient conviction. ❶作为中产阶级的一员，Gaskell 不禁以局外观察者和记者的身份来靠近工人阶级的生活， 而这部小说的读者总是能意识到这个事实。❷但是在她的报道中，在绿色牧场里漫步、在 Barton 家里饮茶以及在“贫穷与死亡”这一章中 John Barton 和他的朋友们在地下室中发现挨 饿的一家人，都是富有想象力的再创造。❸的确，为了对这类家庭的情感和回应进行同样 令人信服的再创造（这比新闻记者仅仅易于集中的细节素材更重要），英国小说界不得不要 等 60 年才等到了 D. H. Lawrence 的早期作品。❹要是 Gaskell 没有充分表达出能证明 Mary Barton 在这方面完全可信的全身心投入的意识，那么她仍然把直觉意识到的、自身有足够 说服力的感情带到这些场景中。 ❶The chapter “Old Alice’s History” brilliantly dramatizes the situation of that early generation of workers brought from the villages and the countryside to the urban industrial centers. ❷The account of Job Legh, the weaver and naturalist who is devoted to the study of biology, vividly embodies one kind of response to an urban industrial environment: an affinity for living things that hardens, by its very contrast with its environment, into a kind of crankiness. ❸The early chapters—about factory workers walking out in spring into Green Heys Fields; about Alice Wilson, remembering in her cellar the twig-gathering for brooms in the native village that she will never again see; about Job Legh, intent on his impaled insects—capture the characteristic responses of a generation to the new and crushing experience of industrialism. ❹The other early chapters eloquently portray the development of the instinctive cooperation with each other that was already becoming an important tradition among workers. 263

❶ Old Alice’s History 这一章极好地展现了老一代工人从乡村到城市工业中心的情景。❷ Job Legh 是一位致力于生物学研究的织布工人和自然主义者，对他的描述生动地体现出他 对于城市工业化的环境的一种回应：对于活物的喜爱僵化成一种偏执，这恰好和他所在的环 境形成鲜明对比。❸之前的章节——有关工厂工人春天在绿色牧场上散步；有关 Alice Wilson 在地下室里回忆的在她再也看不到的家乡中用树枝做扫帚的情景；有关 Job Legh 专 心研究钉在板上的昆虫——这些所有的描写抓住了一代人对于工业主义新的痛苦经历的独 特回应。❹前几章中的其它章节有说服力地描绘了和别人进行本能合作行动的发展，这样 的合作已经在工人中变成一种重要的传统。

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❶As of the late 1980’s, neither theorists nor large-scale computer climate models could accurately predict whether cloud systems would help or hurt a warming globe. ❷Some studies suggested that a four percent increase in stratocumulus clouds over the ocean could compensate for a doubling in atmospheric carbon dioxide, preventing a potentially disastrous planet-wide temperature increase. ❸On the other hand, an increase in cirrus clouds could increase global warming. ❶直到 20 世纪 80 年代末期，理论学家和大型计算机气象模型都未能准确预测出云层系统 是在帮助还是伤害变暖的地球。❷一些研究显示，海面上空层积云(stratocumulus cloud)增 加 4%就可以抵消大气中二氧化碳的成倍增长，阻止可能出现的全球范围气温增高。❸但另 一方面，卷云(cirrus cloud)的增加会导致全球变暖。 ❶That clouds represented the weakest element in climate models was illustrated by a study of fourteen such models. ❷Comparing climate forecasts for a world with double the current amount of carbon dioxide, researchers found that the models agreed quite well if clouds were not included. ❸But when clouds were incorporated, a wide range of forecasts was produced. ❹With such discrepancies plaguing the models, scientists could not easily predict how quickly the world’s climate would change, nor could they tell which regions would face dustier droughts or deadlier monsoons. ❶云层是气候模型中最薄弱的元素，有 14 个类似的模型都表现出了这一点。❷和二氧化碳 翻倍的世界中的天气预报作比较，研究者们发现，如果不考虑云层因素，这些模型的结果非 常一致。❸但是当我们把云层因素包含进来时，预报产生的结果差别就很大了。❹由于这 些差异让模型预测得不准确，科学家无法简单地预测世界气候变化会有多快，他们也无法指 出哪个地区会面临灰尘满天的干旱或是更加致命的暴雨。

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1996 年 04 月 SECTION A ❶For many years, Benjamin Quarles’ seminal account of the participation of African Americans in the American Revolution has remained the standard work in the field. ❷According to Quarles, the outcome of this conflict was mixed for African American slaves who enlisted in Britain’s fight against its rebellious American colonies in return for the promise of freedom: the British treacherously resold many into slavery in the West Indies, while others obtained freedom in Canada and Africa. ❸Building on Quarles’ analysis of the latter group, Sylvia Frey studied the former slaves who emigrated to British colonies in Canada. According to Frey, these refugees—the most successful of the African American Revolutionary War participants—viewed themselves as the ideological heirs of the American Revolution. ❹Frey sees this inheritances reflected in their demands for the same rights that the American revolutionaries had demanded from the British: land ownership, limits to arbitrary authority and burdensome taxes, and freedom of religion. ❶多年以来，Benjamin Quarles 所著的关于非裔美国人参与美国独立战争 (American Revolution)中的重要论述，仍然是该领域中的杰出范例。❷根据 Quarles 的观点，这场战 争的结果对于黑奴是复杂的，这些黑奴应召入伍参加英国的队伍来反对美国人，是为了换取 英国人所承诺的自由：英国人奸诈地将许多参加战争的黑奴又倒卖到西印度群岛，而另一些 奴隶则在加拿大和非洲获得了自由。❸在 Quarles 对后者的分析的基础上，Sylvia Frey 研 究了迁移到加拿大的英国殖民地的黑奴。❹根据 Frey 的研究，这些难民——美国独立战争 中最成功的参与者——把自己看作美国独立战争思想(ideological)的继承人，Frey 在这些人 的要求中看到美国革命者对英国殖民者提出的同样的要求：土地所有权、限制仲裁机构权力、 限制赋税和宗教信仰自由。

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❶Over the years, biologists have suggested two main pathways by which sexual selection may have shaped the evolution of male birdsong. ❷In the first, male competition and intrasexual selection produce relatively short, simple songs used mainly in territorial behavior. ❸In the second, female choice and intersexual selection produce longer, more complicated songs used mainly in mate attraction; like such visual ornamentation as the peacock’s tail, elaborate vocal characteristics increase the male’s chances of being chosen as a mate, and he thus enjoys more reproductive success than his less ostentatious rivals. ❹The two pathways are not mutually exclusive, and we can expect to find examples that reflect their interaction. ❺Teasing them apart has been an important challenge to evolutionary biologists. ❶这些年来生物学家认为，有两个途径可以让雌雄淘汰现象塑造雄性鸟鸣声的进化。❷第 一个途径是，雄性内的竞争和同性选择会让雄鸟产生相对短且简单的鸟鸣，这种鸟鸣主要用 在领地行为之中。❸第二个途径是，雌性的选择和两性间的选择会产生长且更复杂的鸟鸣， 这种鸟鸣主要用于提高雄鸟吸引力；和孔雀尾巴这类视觉装饰物一样，精妙的鸟鸣特征会增 加雄鸟被选为交配对象的机率，因此这类雄鸟比它那些不那么招摇的竞争对手有更大的繁殖 成功率。❹这两种途径并不是相互排斥的，我们可以找到例子来表现两种途径之间的联系。 ❺把这两种途径梳理清楚是对进化生物学家的一个重要挑战。 ❶Early research confirmed the role of intrasexual selection. ❷In a variety of experiments in the field, males responded aggressively to recorded songs by exhibiting territorial behavior near the speakers. ❸The breakthrough for research into intersexual selection came in the development of a new technique for investigating female response in the laboratory. ❹When female cowbirds raised in isolation in sound-proof chambers were exposed to recordings of male song, they responded by exhibiting mating behavior. ❺By quantifying the responses, researchers were able to determine what particular features of the song were most important. ❻In further experiments on song sparrows, researchers found that when exposed to a single song type repeated several times or to a repertoire of different song types, females responded more to the latter. ❼The beautyof the experimental design is that it effectively rules out confounding variables; acoustic isolation assures that the female can respond only to the song structure itself. ❶早期研究证实了同性选择的作用。❷在多个实地实验中，雄鸟在话筒边表现出领地行为， 来对录好的鸟鸣进行有侵略性的回应。❸实验室中一种新的研究雌鸟回应的技术使得雌雄 间选择的研究中出现了突破。❹当隔音室中被单独饲养的雌性燕八哥(cowbird)接触到雄性 鸟鸣的录音时，它表现出了交配行为来作为对雄鸟鸟鸣的回应。❺通过对雌鸟回应进行量 化，研究者们可以确定出究竟是哪种鸟鸣特征最重要。❻在对北美歌雀(sparrows)的进一步 研究中，研究者发现雌性在接触重复多次的同一个鸟鸣类型或接触不同鸟鸣类型的时候，会 对后者产生更多回应。❼这个实验设计的美在于它有效地排除了混淆的变量：听觉隔离保 证了雌鸟只会对鸟鸣结构本身产生回应。 ❶If intersexual selection operates as theorized, males with more complicated songs should not only attract females more readily but should also enjoy greater reproductive success. ❷At first, however, researchers doing fieldwork with song sparrows found no correlation between larger repertoires and early mating, which has been shown to be one indicator of reproductive success; further, common measures of male quality used to predict reproductive success, such as weight, size, age, and territory, also failed to correlate with song complexity. ❶如果雌雄间选择过程和理论一样，那么鸟鸣更复杂的雄鸟应该不仅更容易吸引雌鸟，还 会有更大的繁殖成功率。❷然而，起初在野外研究北美歌雀的研究者们没有发现复杂曲目 与（雄鸟）提早交配之间的联系，而这个联系是体现繁殖成功率的指标；进一步说，用来预 267

测繁殖成功率的常规雄鸟品质指标，例如体重、大小、年龄以及领地范围，也没有和鸟鸣复 杂程度联系起来。 ❶The confirmation researchers had been seeking was finally achieved in studies involving two varieties of warblers. ❷Unlike the song sparrow, which repeats one of its several song types in bouts before switching to another, the warbler continuously composes much longer and more variable songs without repetition. ❸For the first time, researchers found a significant correlation between repertoire size and early mating, and they discovered further that repertoire size had a more significant effect than any other measure of male quality on the number of young produced. ❹The evidence suggests that warblers use their extremely elaborate songs primarily to attract females, clearly confirming the effect of intersexual selection on the evolution of birdsong. ❶研究者们最终在一个包含两种鸣鸟的研究中找到了他们一直在寻找的证据。❷鸣鸟不像 北美歌雀那样在变化鸟鸣前一阵阵地重复之前鸟鸣，它们不重复地持续创作更长、变化更多 的鸟鸣。❸科学家首次发现曲目数量和提早交配之间的重要联系，他们进一步还发现，曲 目数量比其它任何雄鸟品质指标对幼鸟创作鸟鸣数量的影响都要大。❹证据表明，雄性鸣 鸟利用它们尤为复杂精妙的鸟鸣来吸引雌鸟，这无疑证明了雌雄间选择对于鸟鸣声的影响。

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SECTION B ❶An experiment conducted aboard Space Lab in 1983 was the first attempt to grow protein crystals in the low-gravity environment of space. ❷That experiment is still cited as evidence that growing crystals in microgravity can increase crystal size: the authors reported that they grew lysozyme protein crystals 1,000 times larger than crystals grown in the same device on Earth. ❸Unfortunately, the authors did not point out that their crystals were no larger than the average crystal grown using other, more standard techniques in an Earth laboratory. ❶1983 年在太空实验室外进行的实验是人们第一次在低重力太空环境下培养蛋白质晶体的 实验。❷这个实验仍然被引用为微重力下培养晶体能够增加晶体大小的证据：实验者报告 说他们在微重力下培养的溶解酵素(lysozyme)蛋白晶体比在地球上用相同装置培养的大了 1000 倍。❸不幸的是，实验者们并没有指出他们的晶体比地球实验室中利用其它更常规的 技术制作的晶体要更大。 ❶No research has yet produced results that could justify the enormous costs of producing crystals on a large scale in space. ❷To get an unbiased view of the usefulness of microgravity crystal growth, crystals grown in space must be compared with the best crystals that have been grown with standard techniques on Earth. ❸Given the great expense of conducting such experiments with proper controls, and the limited promise of experiments performed thus far, it is questionable whether further experiments in this area should even be conducted. ❶目前没有研究可以证明太空中大规模生产晶体的巨大开销是合理的。❷为了得到公正的 有关微重力晶体培养的看法，太空中培养的晶体一定要和在地球上利用标准技术培养的最佳 晶体相比较。❸考虑到实施具有适当控制的此类实验带来的巨大开销，以及迄今为止已做 实验渺茫的希望，在这个领域中是否做更深入的实验仍然是个问题。

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❶In 1923 the innovative Russian filmmaker Dziga Vertov described filmmaking as a process that leads viewers toward a “fresh perception of the world.” ❷Vertov’s description of filmmaking should apply to films on the subject of art. ❸Yet films on art have not had a powerful and pervasive effect on the way we see. ❶在 1923 年，俄罗斯创新派制片人 Dziga Vertov 将制片描述为一个把观众引向“新鲜感知 世界”的过程。❷Vertov 对于制片的描述应该应用在艺术影片上。❸然而艺术影片还没有对 我们所看到的事物产生强有力和有说服力的效果 ❶Publications on art flourish, but these books and articles do not necessarily succeed in teaching us to see more deeply or more clearly. ❷Much writing in art history advances the discourse in the field but is unlikely to inform the eye of one unfamiliar with its polemics. ❸Films, however, with their capacity to present material visually and to reach a broader audience, have the potential to enhance visual literacy (the ability to identify the details that characterize a particular style) more effectively than publications can. ❹Unfortunately, few of the hundred or so films on art that are made each year in the United States are broadcast nationally on prime-time television. ❶艺术出版物蓬勃成长，但是这些书籍和文章并不一定能成功地教会我们看得更深、更清 晰。❷艺术史中很多著作超越了此领域中的演讲，但它们不太可能在有争议的情况下去启 发一个外行人。❸然而，电影可以用视觉来展现物质世界并且可以拥有广泛的观众群体， 电影有潜力比出版物更能有效地增强人们的视觉认识能力（认出一个特定风格细节的能力）。 ❹不幸的是，美国每年制作大约一百个艺术电影中很少有电影在电视黄金时间向全国播放。 ❶The fact that films on art are rarely seen on prime-time television may be due not only to limitations on distribution but also to the shortcomings of many such films. ❷Some of these shortcomings can be attributed to the failure of art historians and filmmakers to collaborate closely enough when making films on art. ❸These professionals are able, within their respective disciplines, to increase our awareness of visual forms. ❹For close collaboration to occur, professionals in each discipline need to recognize that films on art can be both educational and entertaining, but this will require compromise on both sides. ❶电视黄金时段内很少能看到艺术影片的事实不仅是因为对艺术影片传播的限制，还是因 为这些影片本身的缺陷。❷其中一些缺陷是由于艺术历史学家以及制片人未能在制作艺术 影片时紧密合作。 ❸这些专家能够在他们各自领域中增加我们对于视觉形式的意识。❹为 了能紧密地合作，各领域专家们应该意识到艺术影片在具有教育意义的同时也可以娱乐大众， 但是这需要这两方面的妥协。 ❶A filmmaker who is creating a film about the work of an artist should not follow the standards set by rock videos and advertising. ❷Filmmakers need to resist the impulse to move the camera quickly from detail to detail for fear of boring the viewer, to frame the image for the sake of drama alone, to add music for fear of silence. ❸Filmmakers are aware that an art object demands concentration and, at the same time, are concerned that it may not be compelling enough—and so they hope to provide relief by interposing “real” scenes that bear only a tangential relationship to the subject. ❹But a work of art needs to be explored on its own terms. ❺On the other hand, art historians need to trust that one can indicate and analyze, not solely with words, but also by directing the viewer’s gaze. ❻The specialized written language of art history needs to be relinquished or at least tempered for the screen. ❼Only an effective collaboration between filmmakers and art historians can create films that will enhance viewers’ perceptions of art. ❶一个正在创造关于艺术家作品电影的制片人不应该遵循摇滚视频和广告设下的标准。❷ 制片人需要克制住为了不让观众感到无聊而让摄像机在细节之间快速移动的冲动，需要为戏 剧性事件单独设计图像，需要添加音乐防止冷场。 ❸制片人意识到一个艺术物体需要聚焦， 270

同时，制片人担心它可能不足以吸引眼球——所以他们希望通过插入和主题关系不大的“真 实”场景来起到缓和作用。❹但是人们应该根据一件艺术品自身去探索它。❺另一方面，艺 术历史学家需要相信，人们不光可以通过语言，还可以通过引导观众们的注意力来指明和分 析。❻人们应该放弃艺术史特定的写作用语，或者至少去过滤这些语言。❼只有制片人和 艺术历史学家之间有效的合作才会产生增强观众对艺术感知力的电影。

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1996 年 10 月 SECTION A ❶This is not to deny that the Black gospel music of the early twentieth century differed in important ways from the slave spirituals. ❷Whereas spirituals were created and disseminated in folk fashion, gospel music was composed, published, copyrighted, and sold by professionals. ❸Nevertheless, improvisation remained central to gospel music. ❹One has only to listen to the recorded repertoire of gospel songs to realize that Black gospel singers rarely sang a song precisely the same way twice and never according to its exact musical notation. ❺They performed what jazz musicians call “head arrangements” proceeding from their own feelings and from the way “the spirit” moved them at the time. ❻This improvisatory element was reflected in the manner in which gospel music was published. ❼Black gospel composers scored the music intended for White singing groups fully, indicating the various vocal parts and the accompaniment, but the music produced for Black singers included only a vocal line and piano accompaniment. ❶不可否认的是， 二十世纪早期黑人福音音乐(Black gospel music)在很多重要方面与黑奴圣 歌(slave spiritual)有所不同。❷圣歌是以民歌的形式被创造和传播的，而福音音乐是由专业 人士创作、出版、拿到版权后出售的。❸可是，即兴创作对于福音音乐仍然是很重要的。 ❹人们去听福音歌曲录制的全部曲目就会了解到黑人福音歌手几乎不会两次演唱完全一样 的歌曲，他们演唱也不遵循确切的乐谱。❺他们从自己的感觉以及当时“心灵”的驱使出发， 演唱的是爵士音乐家口中的“天资编排”的曲目。❻这种即兴元素反映在福音音乐的出版方式 上。❼黑人福音音乐作曲家为白人合唱团而创作的谱曲很完整，在其中指明了不同的声部 和伴奏，但为黑人歌手而创作的音乐只有一行谱线以及一个钢琴伴奏。

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❶About a century ago, the Swedish physical scientist Arrhenius proposed a law of classical chemistry that relates chemical reaction rate to temperature. ❷According to the Arrhenius equation, chemical reactions are increasingly unlikely to occur as temperatures approach absolute zero, and at absolute zero (zero degrees Kelvin, or minus 273 degrees Celsius) reactions stop. ❸However, recent experimental evidence reveals that although the Arrhenius equation is generally accurate in describing the kind of chemical reaction that occurs at relatively high temperatures, at temperatures closer to zero a quantum-mechanical effect known as tunneling comes into play; this effect accounts for chemical reactions that are forbidden by the principles of classical chemistry. ❹Specifically, entire molecules can “tunnel” through the barriers of repulsive forces from other molecules and chemically react even though these molecules do not have sufficient energy, according to classical chemistry, to overcome the repulsive barrier. ❶大约一个世纪前，瑞典物理学家 Arrhenius 提出了一个经典化学法则，即化学反应速度与 反应温度有关。 ❷根据 Arrhenius 的方程，当反应温度越趋向绝对零度(absolute zero)时， 化学反应就越不可能发生；并且当温度达到绝对零度（Kelvin 零度或-273℃）时，反应停止。 ❸然而，最近研究证据表明，尽管 Arrhenius 的方程研究在较高温度中发生的化学反应时 是基本准确的，但是当温度接近绝对零度时，一种叫做隧穿(tunneling)的量子力学效应就会 起作用；这种效应为经典化学法则中不能发生的化学反应提供了合理的解释。❹具体来说， 全部分子能够“隧穿”与其他分子间的斥力壁垒(barrier)而进行化学反应，尽管在经典化学中 这些分子是没有足够能量来穿透这道壁垒的。 ❶The rate of any chemical reaction, regardless of the temperature at which it takes place, usually depends on a very important characteristic known as its activation energy. ❷Any molecule can be imagined to reside at the bottom of a so-called potential well of energy. ❸A chemical reaction corresponds to the transition of a molecule from the bottom of one potential well to the bottom of another. ❹In classical chemistry, such a transition can be accomplished only by going over the potential barrier between the wells, the height of which remains constant and is called the activation energy of the reaction. ❺In tunneling, the reacting molecules tunnel from the bottom of one to the bottom of another well without having to rise over the barrier between the two wells. ❻Recently researchers have developed the concept of tunneling temperature: the temperature below which tunneling transitions greatly outnumber Arrhenius transitions, and classical mechanics gives way to its quantum counterpart. ❶无论反应发生的温度是多少，任何化学反应的速度通常取决于一个非常重要的性质，即 活化能(activation energy)。❷任何分子都可被想象成处于所谓势能阱(potential well of energy)的底部。❸一个化学反应相当于把分子从一个势能阱底部转移到另一个势能阱的底 部。❹在经典化学中，这种转移只能通过穿越阱与阱之间的势能壁垒来实现，转移时阱的 高度保持不变，这个高度称为反应活化能。❺在隧穿效应中，参与反应的分子不用穿越阱 间的壁垒，而是从一个阱的底部隧穿到另一个阱的底部。❻最近的研究还发展出了隧穿温 度的概念：在隧穿温度以下，隧穿转移在数量上大大超过了 Arrhenius 转移，并且经典力学 为量子力学让路。 ❶This tunneling phenomenon at very low temperatures suggested my hypothesis about a cold prehistory of life: the formation of rather complex organic molecules in the deep cold of outer space, where temperatures usually reach only a few degrees Kelvin. ❷Cosmic rays (high-energy protons and other particles) might trigger the synthesis of simple molecules, such as interstellar formaldehyde, in dark clouds of interstellar dust. ❸Afterward complex organic molecules would be formed, slowly but surely, by means of tunneling. ❹After I offered my hypothesis, Hoyle and Wickramasinghe argued that molecules of interstellar formaldehyde have indeed evolved into stable polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch. ❺Their conclusions, although strongly disputed, have generated excitement among 273

investigators such as myself who are proposing that the galactic clouds are the places where the prebiological evolution of compounds necessary to life occurred. ❶这种极低温度下的隧穿现象让人想到我关于史前寒冷时期生命的假说：在宇宙空间极度 寒冷（通常温度只有几 K）时，会形成相当复杂的有机分子。❷宇宙射线（高能质子和其 他微粒）可能会触发简单分子的合成，例如在星际尘埃暗云中合成星际间的甲醛。❸此后， 复杂的有机分子必然会通过隧穿的方式缓慢合成。❹在我提出我的假说后，Hoyle 和 Wickramasinghe 证明星际甲醛确实会合成纤维素和淀粉这样稳定的多糖。❺尽管还存在激 烈的争论，但他们的结论引起了和我类似的研究者的浓厚兴趣，因为我提出银河系云团是生 命起源之前生命演化中必需的化合物形成的地方。

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SECTION B ❶Although the hormone adrenaline is known to regulate memory storage, it does not pass from the blood into brain cells. ❷We are faced with an apparent paradox: how can a hormone that does not act directly on the brain have such a large effect on brain function? ❶尽管我们知道肾上腺素(adrenaline)能调节记忆力，但是肾上腺素并不从血液进入脑细胞。 ❷于是我们遇到一个明显的悖论：一种并不直接作用于大脑的激素如何能对大脑的功能有 如此巨大的影响？ ❶Recently, we tested the possibility that one of the hormone’s actions outside the brain might be responsible. ❷Since one consequence of adrenaline release in an animal is an increase in blood glucose levels, we examined the effects of glucose on memory in rats. ❸We found that glucose injected immediately after training enhances memory tested the next day. ❹Additional evidence was provided by negative findings: drugs called adrenergic antagonists, which block peripheral adrenaline receptors, disrupted adrenaline’s ability to regulate memory but did not affect memory enhancements produced by glucose that was not stimulated by adrenaline. ❺These results are as they should be if adrenaline affects memory modulation by increasing blood glucose levels. ❶最近，我们检验了其中一种大脑外激素活动与记忆调节有关的可能性。❷因为动物分泌 肾上腺素的一个结果是血液中葡萄糖含量增加，所以我们测试了葡萄糖对老鼠记忆力的影响。 ❸我们发现，如果老鼠在训练后马上注入葡萄糖，老鼠在第二天实验时的记忆力会提高。 ❹其他的证据是由负向发现得到的：一种叫肾上腺素功能对抗剂(adrenergic antagonist)的 药物，会阻碍体表肾上腺受体，扰乱肾上腺素调节记忆的能力，但并不影响由非肾上腺素激 发的葡萄糖引起记忆力的提高。❺如果肾上腺素是通过增加血液中葡萄糖含量来影响记忆 力的调节，那么其实验结果就应是这样。

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❶The age at which young children begin to make moral discriminations about harmful actions committed against themselves or others has been the focus of recent research into the moral development of children. ❷Until recently, child psychologists supported pioneer developmentalist Jean. Piaget in his hypothesis that because of their immaturity, children under age seven do not take into account the intentions of a person committing accidental or deliberate harm, but rather simply assign punishment for transgressions on the basis of the magnitude of the negative consequences caused. ❸According to Piaget, children under age seven occupy the first stage of moral development, which is characterized by moral absolutism (rules made by authorities must be obeyed) and imminent justice (if rules are broken, punishment will be meted out). ❹Until young children mature, their moral judgments are based entirely on the effect rather than the cause of a transgression. ❺However, in recent research, Keasey found that six-year-old children not only distinguish between accidental and intentional harm, but also judge intentional harm as naughtier, regardless of the amount of damage produced. ❻Both of these findings seem to indicate that children, at an earlier age than Piaget claimed, advance into the second stage of moral development, moral autonomy, in which they accept social rules but view them as more arbitrary than do children in the first stage. ❶最近儿童道德发展研究的焦点是，儿童开始对施加在自己或者他人身上的伤害行为做道 德上区分的年龄。❷直到最近，儿童心理学家还是支持发展心理学家 Jean Piaget 的假设， 这个假设是：由于儿童们的不成熟，7 岁以下的儿童不会考虑一个人意外伤害或故意伤害的 意图，而是根据后果的严重程度来对过失进行惩罚。❸根据 Piaget 的说法，7 岁以下的儿 童处于道德发展的第一阶段，这个阶段的特点是绝对的道德标准（权威制定的规则必须遵守） 和立时惩处（违反规则的人要受惩罚）。❹在孩子成熟以前，他们的道德评判都是完全基 于后果而不是基于导致过失的原因。❺然而，在近期的研究中，Keasey 发现 6 岁小孩不仅 可以区分无意和有意伤害，还可以分辨出，无论伤害的大小，故意伤害的行为更恶劣。❻ 这些发现似乎都指出，儿童在 Piaget 认为的年龄之前就已经进入道德发展的第二阶段，即 道德自主标准阶段了，在这个阶段中他们接受社会规则，但看这些规则看得不像第一阶段的 儿童那样绝对。 ❶Keasey’s research raises two key questions for developmental psychologists about children under age seven: do they recognize justifications for harmful actions, and do they make distinctions between harmful acts that are preventable and those acts that have unforeseen harmful consequences? ❷Studies indicate that justifications excusing harmful actions might include public duty, self-defense, and provocation. ❸For example, Nesdale and Rule concluded that children were capable of considering whether or not an aggressor’s action was justified by public duty: five year olds reacted very differently to “Bonnie wrecks Ann’s pretend house” depending on whether Bonnie did it “so somebody won’t fall over it” or because Bonnie wanted “to make Ann feel bad.” ❹Thus, a child of five begins to understand that certain harmful actions, though intentional, can be justified; the constraints of moral absolutism no longer solely guide their judgments. ❶Keasey 的研究对于发展心理学家提出了两个关于 7 岁以下儿童的关键问题：这些儿童是 否承认对故意伤害的辩解，以及他们是否可以区分出可避免的伤害行为与后果不可预见的伤 害行为？❷研究指出，对伤害行为的辩解包括公众责任、自卫和激怒。❸例如，Nesdale 和 Rule 总结道，儿童能够根据公众责任想出攻击者的行为是否正当：五岁孩子对“Bonnie 弄坏了 Ann 的假房子”的反应不一，取决于 Bonnie 这么做是由于“别人不会被绊倒”还是由于 Bonnie“想让 Ann 难受”。 ❹因此五岁的孩子开始明白，尽管某些伤害行为是故意的，但它 也可能是正当的；道德绝对标准的约束不再是他们判断的唯一标准了。 ❶Psychologists have determined that during kindergarten children learn to make subtle distinctions involving harm. ❷Darley observed that among acts involving unintentional 276

harm, six-year-old children just entering kindergarten could not differentiate between foreseeable, and thus preventable, harm and unforeseeable harm for which the perpetrator cannot be blamed. ❸Seven months later, however, Darley found that these same children could make both distinctions, thus demonstrating that they had become morally autonomous. ❶心理学家已经确定，幼儿园时期的儿童已经知道伤害的细微区别了。❷Darley 观察到， 在那些无意伤害的行为中，刚进入幼儿园的六岁小孩无法区分由于可预见所以可预防的伤害 行为，以及无法遇见的伤害行为之间的差别。❸但 7 个月之后，Darley 发现这些小孩就可 以区分二者了，这表明他们进入到了道德自主的阶段。

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1997 年 04 月 SECTION A ❶Geologists Harris and Gass hypothesized that the Red Sea rift developed along the line of a suture (a splice in the Earth’s crust) formed during the late Proterozoic era, and that significant observable differences in the composition of the upper layers of rocks deposited on either side of the suture give clues to the different natures of the underlying igneous rocks. ❶地质学家 Harris 和 Gass 假设红海峡谷是沿着缝隙（地球地壳上的一个接缝）形成的，这 个缝隙是在原生代末期形成的，他们还假设，在缝隙任意一侧的上层岩石沉积的组成成分中 观察到的重要差异为下层火成岩性质的差异提供线索。 ❶Other geologists argued that neither the upper rock layer nor the underlying igneous rocks on the one side of the rift differ fundamentally from the corresponding layers on the other side. ❷These geologists believe, therefore, that there is inadequate evidence to conclude that a suture underlies the rift. ❶其它地质学家认为，上层岩石层和在裂缝一侧的下层火成岩都没有和另一侧对应层有根 本上的差异。❷这些地质学家由此认为，得出裂缝下有缝隙的结论是不充分的。 ❶In response, Harris and Gass asserted that the upper rock layers on the two sides of the rift had not been shown to be of similar age, structure, or geochemical content. ❷Furthermore, they cited new evidence that the underlying igneous rocks on either side of the rift contain significantly different kinds of rare metals. ❶作为回应，Harris 和 Gass 声称在裂缝两侧的上层岩石层没有显示出相似的年龄、结构和 地质化学物质。❷此外，他们引用了新证据，即在裂缝任意一侧下层的火成岩包含明显不 同种的稀有金属。

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❶Proponents of different jazz styles have always argued that their predecessors’ musical style did not include essential characteristics that define jazz as jazz. ❷Thus, 1940’s swing was belittled by beboppers of the 1950’s, who were themselves attacked by free jazzers of the 1960’s. ❸The neoboppers of the 1980’s and 1990’s attacked almost everybody else. ❹The titanic figure of Black saxophonist John Coltrane has complicated the arguments made by proponents of styles from bebop through neobop because in his own musical journey he drew from all those styles. ❺His influence on all types of jazz was immeasurable. ❻At the height of his popularity, Coltrane largely abandoned playing bebop, the style that had brought him fame, to explore the outer reaches of jazz. ❶不同爵士乐风格的倡导者总是试图提出理由来证明，他们前辈的音乐风格并没有包含明 确规定爵士乐基本特征的内容。❷因此，20 世纪 40 年代的 swing 为 50 年代的 bebop 被爵 士音乐家轻视，而 beboppers 音乐家又遭到自由爵士音乐家的攻击。❸80 年代和 90 年代 的 neobebop 爵士音乐家几乎攻击其他每一个人。❹黑人萨克斯演奏大家 John Coltrane 卷 入了这场由 bebop 到 neobebop 的倡导者掀起的争论中，因为在他自己的音乐历程中，他 汲取了所有这些爵士乐风格的精华。❺他对所有形式的爵士乐的影响都无法估量。❻在他 的声望达到顶峰时，Coltrane 放弃了演奏 bebop，虽然这种音乐风格给他带来了名气，但 他要探索爵士乐更深远的层次。 ❶Coltrane himself probably believed that the only essential characteristic of jazz was improvisation, the one constant in his journey from bebop to open-ended improvisations on modal, Indian, and African melodies. ❷On the other hand, this dogged student and prodigious technician—who insisted on spending hours each day practicing scales from theory books—was never able to jettison completely the influence of bebop, with its fast and elaborate chains of notes and ornaments on melody. ❶也许 Coltrane 自己认为，爵士乐唯一的基本特征是即兴，在他从 bebop 爵士乐到根据典 型的印第安和非洲曲调而进行的无止境的即兴演奏的过程中，这是一个不变的事物。❷另 一方面，这位执着的研究者和惊人的技巧家，每天坚持花费好几个小时按理论书反复练习音 阶，绝不能完全抛弃 bebop 曲调的那种一连串快速精巧的音符和装饰音的影响。 ❶Two stylistic characteristics shaped the way Coltrane played the tenor saxophone, he favored playing fast runs of notes built on a melody and depended on heavy, regularly accented beats. ❷The first led Coltrane to “sheets of sound,” where he raced faster and faster, pile-driving notes into each other to suggest stacked harmonies. ❸The second meant that his sense of rhythm was almost as close to rock as to bebop. ❶两个风格特征形成 Coltrane 演奏次中音萨克斯的方式：第一，他喜欢演奏以曲调为基础 的一连串快速音符；第二，他依靠沉重有力的、合乎规则的加重音的拍子。❷前者把 Coltrane 引向“大片音响”，在这里，他使渐快的重音相互比赛，形成“丰满均称”的和谐。❸后者意味 着他的节奏感不但接近 bebop，而且几乎接近摇滚乐。 ❶Three recordings illustrate Coltrane’s energizing explorations. ❷Recording Kind of Blue with Miles Davis, Coltrane found himself outside bop, exploring modal melodies. ❸Here he played surging, lengthy solos built largely around repeated motifs—an organizing principle unlike that of free jazz saxophone player Ornette Coleman, who modulated or altered melodies in his solos. ❹On Giant Steps, Coltrane debuted as leader, introducing his own compositions. ❺Here the sheets of sound, downbeat accents, repetitions, and great speed are part of each solo, and the variety of the shapes of his phrases is unique. ❻Coltrane’s searching explorations produced solid achievement. ❼My Favorite Things was another kind of watershed. ❽Here Coltrane played the soprano saxophone, an instrument seldom used by jazz musicians. ❾Musically, the results were astounding. ❿ With the soprano’s piping sound, ideas that had sounded dark and brooding acquired a feeling of giddy fantasy. 279

❶三张唱片显示出 Coltrane 充满活力的探索。❷和 Miles Davis 一起录制 Kind of Blue 使得 Coltrane 发现自己要超越 bop，去探索典型的曲调。❸在这里，他主要围绕重复的主题进 行长时间、汹涌的独奏，这是一种有组织的演奏方法，不像不受拘束的、爵士萨克斯演奏家 Ornette Coleman 在独奏中不断转变或改变曲调。❹在唱片 Giant Steps 中，Coltrane 首次 作为领奏登台，引入了自己的创作。❺在这里，大片音响，强调重音，反复和急速演奏是 每一个独奏的组成部分，他乐句形式的多样化是独特的。❻Coltrane 的探索产生了巨大成 功。❼唱片 My Favorite Things 是另一种重要探索。❽在这里，Coltrane 演奏高音萨克斯， 这是爵士音乐家很少使用的乐器。❾其音效令人震惊。❿使用高音萨克斯的尖锐音效使得 原来听起来低沉忧桑的音乐主题听起来有一种轻浮荒唐的感觉。 ❶When Coltrane began recording for the Impulse! Label, he was still searching. ❷His music became raucous, physical. ❸His influence on rockers was enormous, including Jimi Hendrix, the rock guitarist, who, following Coltrane, raised the extended guitar solo using repeated motifs to a kind of rock art form. ❶当 Coltrane 开始为 Impulse! Label 公司录制唱片时，他仍在不断探索。❷他的音乐变得 喧闹而激昂。 ❸他对摇滚音乐家的影响是巨大的，这包括摇滚乐吉他演奏家 Jimi Hendrix, 他 追随 Coltrane, 把运用重复基调的、扩展了吉他独奏延伸到了某种摇滚乐的艺术形式。

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SECTION B ❶A special mucous coating that serves as a chemical camouflage allows clown fish to live among the deadly tentacles of the unsuspecting sea anemone. ❷Utterly dependent on this unlikely host for protection from predators, clown fish have evolved in isolated communities, a pattern that has led to unusual behavioral adaptations. ❶作为一种化学伪装，一种特殊的黏液(mucous)涂层能让小丑鱼在致命的、未料到的海葵 触须之间存活下来。❷小丑鱼完全依靠似乎不太可能的寄主的保护来远离捕食者，它已经 进化成独立的生物群落，这是一种导致异常行为适应的模式。 ❶The rigidly defined hierarchy of each clown-fish community is dominated by a monogamous breeding pair consisting of the largest fish, a female, and the next largest, a male, attended by a fixed number of sexually immature fish ranging in size from large to tiny. ❷A remarkable adaptation is that the development of these juveniles is somehow arrested until the hierarchy changes; then they grow in lockstep, maintaining their relative sizes. ❸While the community thus economizes on limited space and food resources, life is risky for newly spawned clown fish. ❹On hatching, the hundreds of larvae drift off into the plankton. ❺If, within three weeks, the defenseless larval clown fish locates a suitable anemone (either by pure chance or perhaps guided by chemicals secreted by the anemone), it may survive. ❻However, if an anemone is fully occupied, the resident clown fish will repel any newcomer. ❶每一个小丑鱼群落都有严格定义的等级制度，这是由单配的(monogamous)、有繁殖能力 的一对小丑鱼控制的群落，这对小丑鱼由最大的雌鱼和第二大的雄鱼组成，伴随着一群数量 固定的、尚未性成熟的、大小不一的鱼。❷一个显著的适应机制是，这些幼鱼的发育在等 级制度发生变化前，在某种程度上是被抑制的；接着他们步调一致地生长，保持他们的相对 体型。❸当这个群落由此节省了有限的空间和食物资源时，群落对于新孵化出来的小丑鱼 来说生活还是危险的。❹在孵化时，上百条幼鱼漂流到了浮游生物中。❺如果在三周之内， 无防御能力的小丑鱼幼鱼找到一个合适的海葵定居（要么完全是偶然，要么是由海葵分泌的 化学物质所引导），它就能生存下来。❻然而，如果一个海葵被占满了，已经定居的小丑 鱼会排斥任何新来的鱼。 ❶Though advantageous for established community members, the suspended and staggered maturation of juveniles might seem to pose a danger to the continuity of the community: there is only one successor for two breeding fish. ❷Should one of a pair die, the remaining fish cannot swim off in search of a mate, nor is one likely to arrive. ❸It would seem inevitable that reproduction must sometimes have to halt, pending the chance arrival and maturation of a larval fish of the appropriate sex. ❶尽管对于已建立群落的成员是有好处的，但是幼鱼暂停成熟和交错成熟可能会对群落的 延续造成危险：两条有繁殖能力的小鱼中只有一条是继承者（即配偶）。❷要是一对鱼中 的一条死了，剩下的那条鱼既不能游走去寻找配偶，配偶也不太可能到来。❸以下情况似 乎是必然的，即有时在等待一条性别合适的幼鱼的偶尔到来并生长成熟以前，繁殖必须要停 止。 ❶This, however, turns out not to be the case. ❷In experiments, vacancies have been contrived by removing an established fish from a community. ❸Elimination of the breeding male triggers the prompt maturation of the largest juvenile. ❹Each remaining juvenile also grows somewhat, and a minuscule newcomer drops in from the plankton. ❺Removal of the female also triggers growth in all remaining fish and acceptance of a newcomer, but the female is replaced by the adult male. ❻Within days, the male’s behavior alters and physiological transformation is complete within a few months. ❼Thus, whichever of the breeding pair is lost, a relatively large juvenile can fill the void, and reproduction can resume 281

with a minimal loss of time. ❽Furthermore, the new mate has already proved its ability to survive. ❶然而，结果并不是这样的。❷在实验中，（实验者）把一条已确认的小丑鱼从群落中移 除从而腾出空缺。❸淘汰有繁殖能力的雄鱼可激发最大的幼鱼加速成熟。❹剩下每一条幼 鱼也稍稍长大一些，并且一个极小的新来的小丑鱼从浮游生物进入群落。❺除去雌鱼也会 引发所有剩余小丑鱼的成长，并且接纳新来的小丑鱼，但是这条雌鱼会被成年雄鱼替代。 ❻几天之内，雄鱼的行为改变了，并且生理上的改变会在数月中完成。❼因此，无论有繁 殖能力的双发中哪一方缺失了，一条相对大的幼鱼能填补空缺，而繁殖可以在最少时间损失 里重新启动。❽此外，新的配偶已经证明了自己的存活能力。 ❶This transformation of a male into a female, or protandrous hermaphroditism, is rare among reef fish. ❷The more common protogynous hermaphroditism, where females change into males, does not occur among clown fish. ❸An intriguing question for further research is whether a juvenile clown fish can turn directly into a female or whether it must function first as a male. ❶这种从雄性到雌性的转变，或者雄性先成熟的雌雄同体现象，在岩礁鱼中是很罕见的。 ❷更加常见的雌性先成熟的雌雄同体（其中雌鱼变成了雄鱼）过程并不在小丑鱼中发生。 ❸进一步的研究中让人感兴趣的问题是，小丑鱼幼鱼是否可以直接变成雌鱼还是必须首先 作为雌鱼起作用。

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❶Comparing designs in music with visual designs raises interesting questions. ❷We are familiar with the easy transfers of terms denoting qualities from one field to another. ❸The basic problem can be put this way: can music sound the way a design looks? ❹The elements of music are not the same as those of painting. ❺They may be analogous, but to be analogous is not to be identical. ❻Is it possible, then, for the same broad characteristics to emerge from different perceptual conditions? ❶比较音乐作品和视觉作品时会产生有趣的问题。❷我们知道，把含义相同的术语从一个 领域转移到另一领域很容易。❸基本问题可以这样表述：能不能用看绘画作品的方式听音 乐作品？❹音乐跟绘画的要素不完全相同。❺它们可能相似，但相似不是相同。❻那么有 没有这种可能，即相同的综合特征在不同的感觉条件中体现出来？ ❶Two facts about the relation between broad characteristics of a work and their perceptual conditions must be kept distinct. ❷First, the global characteristics of a visual or auditory complex are determined by the discernible parts and their relationships. ❸Thus, any notable change in the parts or their relationships produces a change in some of the global characteristics. ❹Second, a change in the parts or their relationships may leave other global characteristics unchanged. ❶要弄清楚一件作品的综合特征与感知条件之间的关系，我们必须先分清两个事实。❷首 先，一件视觉或听觉作品的综合特征是由可分辨的部分以及这些部分的相互关系决定的。 ❸因此，这些部分中任何明显的变化都会导致部分综合特征发生变化。❹第二，局部或者 局部关系的变化可能不会使整体综合特征中其他部分产生变化。

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1997 年 11 月 SECTION A ❶Investigators of monkeys’ social behavior have always been struck by monkeys’ aggressive potential and the consequent need for social control of their aggressive behavior. ❷Studies directed at describing aggressive behavior and the situations that elicit it, as well as the social mechanisms that control it, were therefore among the first investigations of monkeys’ social behavior. ❶研究猴子群体行为的调查者总是对猴子的攻击冲动以及随之而来对它们攻击行为进行的 群体控制的需要具有浓厚的兴趣。❷因此，有关描述猴子攻击行为和引发攻击的环境，以 及控制这种行为的群体机制的研究就成为首个对猴子群体行为研究的中心。 ❶Investigators initially believed that monkeys would compete for any resource in the environment: hungry monkeys would fight over food, thirsty monkeys would fight over water, and, in general, any time more than one monkey in a group sought the same incentive simultaneously, a dispute would result and would be resolved through some form of aggression. ❷However, the motivating force of competition for incentives began to be doubted when experiments like Southwick’s on the reduction of space or the withholding of food failed to produce more than temporary increases in intragroup aggression. ❸Indeed, food deprivation not only failed to increase aggression but in some cases actually resulted in decreased frequencies of aggression. ❶研究者一开始认为猴子们会为了环境中的资源争斗：饿的猴子会为食物争斗，渴的猴子 会为水争斗，并且总的来说，任何时候只要在猴群中有一只以上的猴子同时寻找同一个刺激 物时，争斗就会发生并且会以某种斗争的形式得到解决。❷然而，当 Southwick 减少空间 或限制食物的实验只能暂时增加群体内斗争的时候，为刺激物而争斗的理论开始受到质疑。 ❸实际上，食物的缺乏不仅没有增加斗争，而且还在某些情况下使得斗争频率减小。 ❶Studies of animals in the wild under conditions of extreme food deprivation likewise revealed that starving monkeys devoted almost all available energy to foraging, with little energy remaining for aggressive interaction. ❷Furthermore, accumulating evidence from later studies of a variety of primate groups, for example, the study conducted by Bernstein, indicates that one of the most potent stimuli for eliciting aggression is the introduction of an intruder into an organized group. ❸Such introductions result in far more serious aggression than that produced in any other types of experiments contrived to produce competition. ❶关于野生动物在食物极度匮乏的条件下的研究也显示出，饥饿的猴子付出了几乎全部的 能量去觅食，几乎没有为群内斗争保存能量。❷此外，后来很多对灵长类动物群体的研究， 例如 Bernstein 的研究，得到的更多证据显示，一个最强有力的、会引发斗争的刺激是在一 个有组织的群体中引入一个入侵者。❸这种引入产生的后果，会比在任何其它专门设计让 猴子产生斗争的实验的后果要更加严重。 ❶These studies of intruders suggest that adult members of the same species introduced to one another for the first time show considerable hostility because, in the absence of a social order, one must be established to control interanimal relationships. ❷When a single new animal is introduced into an existing social organization, the newcomer meets even more serious aggression. ❸Whereas in the first case aggression establishes a social order, in the second case resident animals mob the intruder, thereby initially excluding the new animal from the existing social unit. ❹The simultaneous introduction of several animals lessens the effect, if only because the group divides its attention among the multiple targets. ❺If, however, the several animals introduced to a group constitute their own social unit, each group may fight the opposing group as a unit; but, again, no individual is subjected to mass 284

attack, and the very cohesion of the groups precludes prolonged individual combat. ❻The submission of the defeated group, rather than unleashing unchecked aggression on the part of the victorious group, reduces both the intensity and frequency of further attack. ❼Monkey groups therefore see to be organized primarily to maintain their established social order rather than to engage in hostilities per se. ❶这些关于入侵者的研究认为，同一物种中成年成员首次被引见给另一成员时会显示出相 当大的敌意，因为在没有社会秩序的情况下，必须建立一种秩序来控制动物间的关系。❷ 当新的单个动物被引入一个现存的群体组织中时，新来者会碰到更严重的斗争。❸但是在 第一种情况下，斗争建立起了群体秩序，在第二种情况下已定居的动物会围攻入侵者，从而 一开始就把新动物排除在现存群体单元之外。❹几只动物的同时入侵会缓解这个效应，这 只是因为群体把注意力分散到了多个目标。❺然而，如果这几只被引入到群体中的动物建 立了自己的群体单元，每一个群体也许作为一个整体来和另一个群体斗争；但是同样地，没 有个体会遭受大规模攻击，并且群体的凝聚力防止了更长时间的个体斗争。❻失败群体的 投降，而非胜利群体不加控制的发泄，减轻了后续攻击的强度和次数。❼因此，猴群看起 来主要是为了维持它们已经建立起来的社会秩序，而不是为了敌意本身而组织起来的。

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Analysis of prehistoric air trapped in tiny bubbles beneath the polar ice sheets and of the composition of ice surrounding those bubbles suggests a correlation between carbon dioxide levels in the Earth’s atmosphere and global temperature over the last 160,000 years. Estimates of global temperature at the time air in the bubbles was trapped rely on measuring the relative abundances of hydrogen and its heavier isotope, deuterium, in the ice surrounding the bubbles. When global temperatures are relatively low, water containing deuterium tends to condense and precipitate before reaching the poles; thus, ice deposited at the poles when the global temperature was cooler contained relatively less deuterium than ice deposited at warmer global temperatures. Estimates of global temperature based on this information, combined with analysis of the carbon dioxide content of air trapped in ice deep beneath the polar surface, suggest that during periods of postglacial warming carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere increased by approximately 40 percent.

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SECTION B ❶Bracken fern has been spreading from its woodland strongholds for centuries, but the rate of encroachment into open countryside has lately increased alarmingly throughout northern and western Britain. ❷A tough competitor, bracken reduces the value of grazing land by crowding out other vegetation. ❸The fern is itself poisonous to livestock, and also encourages proliferation of sheep ticks, which not only attack sheep but also transmit diseases. ❹No less important to some people are bracken’s effects on threatened habitats and on the use of uplands for recreational purposes, even though many appreciate its beauty. ❶几个世纪以来，欧洲蕨一直在丛林区发源地蔓延，但是近来欧洲蕨侵占英国整个北部和 西部开阔的农村地区的速度却在增加，这令人担忧。❷欧洲蕨是难对付的竞争者，它以挤 掉其它植物的生长空间的方式降低放牧地的价值。❸这种欧洲蕨本身对牲畜有毒，同时也 促使羊虱大量繁殖，羊虱不但袭击羊群，还传播疾病。❹对一些人同样重要的是欧洲蕨影 响受威胁的居住地，并影响具有娱乐用途的山地的利用，即使不少人仍在欣赏欧洲蕨的优美。 ❶Biological controls may be the only economic solution. ❷One potentially cheap and self-sustaining method of halting the spread of bracken is to introduce natural enemies of the plant. ❸Initially unrestrained by predators of their own, foreign predators are likely to be able to multiply rapidly and overwhelm intended targets. ❹Because bracken occurs throughout the world, there is plenty of scope for this approach. ❺Two candidates, both moths from the Southern Hemisphere, are now being studied. ❶用生物方法对欧洲蕨进行控制也许是唯一经济划算的解决办法。❷一种阻止欧洲蕨蔓延 的可能既便宜又能自给自足的方法是引入该植物的天敌。❸一开始外来的掠食者不受其掠 食者的制约，很可能迅速繁殖，战胜预期要消灭的目标。❹由于欧洲蕨遍及全世界，这种 方法有广阔的应用空间。❺可选用的昆虫是出生在南半球的两种飞蛾，它们目前是研究对 象。 ❶Of course, biological control agents can safely be released only if it can be verified that they feed solely on the target weed. ❷The screening tests have so far been fraught with difficulties. ❸The first large shipment of moths succumbed to a disease. ❹Growing enough bracken indoors is difficult, and the moths do not readily exploit cut stems. ❺These are common problems with rearing insects for biological control. ❶当然，只有能证实控制目标生物的生物仅以目标杂草为食时才会被安全地释放。❷这种 筛选实验至今困难重重。❸首批大量装运的飞蛾病死了。❹室内饲养足够的欧洲蕨有困难， 飞蛾也不易利用切断的茎。❺这些是把昆虫培育成控制生物所普遍存在的问题。 ❶Other problems can be foreseen. ❷Policymakers need to consider many factors and opinions such as the cost of control compared to existing methods, and the impact of the clearance of bracken on the landscape, wildlife, and vegetation. ❸In fact, scientists already have much of the information needed to assess the impact of biological control of bracken, but it is spread among many individuals, organizations, and government bodies. ❹The potential gains for the environment are likely to outweigh the losses because few plants, insects, mammals, and birds live associated only with bracken, and many would benefit from a return of other vegetation or from a more diverse mosaic of habitats. ❺But legal consequences of attempts at biological control present a potential minefield. ❻For example, many rural tenants still have the right of “estovers” , the right to cut bracken as bedding for livestock and uses. ❼What would happen if they were deprived of these rights? ❽Once a biological control agent is released, it is difficult to control its speed. ❾What consideration is due landowners who do not want to control bracken? ❿According to law, the release of the biological control agents must be authorized by the secretary of state for the 287

environment. But Britain lacks the legal and administrative machinery to assemble evidence for and against release. ❶人们也预见了其它问题。❷决策者需要考虑许多因素和意见；例如，与当前方法相比生 物控制方法所花费的成本、清除欧洲蕨对风景、野生动物和植物所造成的影响。❸事实上， 科学家已经掌握评估用生物方法控制欧洲蕨的影响所需的大量信息，但是这些信息也分散在 许多个人组织和政府机关中间。❹对于环境保护来说，潜在的收益能超过损失，因为几乎 没有什么植物、昆虫、哺乳动物的生存只与欧洲蕨相关联，许多植物、昆虫和哺乳动物由于 其他植物的回归、由于更加多样化的栖息地而受益匪浅。❺但是用生物控制方法尝试的法 律后果是一个可能的雷区。❻例如，许多农村房客仍然具有拥有“必需品”的权利，以及把欧 洲蕨作为牲畜的铺垫的权利。❼如果他们的这些权利被剥夺，会造成什么后果呢？❽一旦 某种控制生物释放出来，人们很难控制其蔓延速度。❾土地所有者不想控制欧洲蕨的话， 他们应该得到什么样的照顾呢？❿根据法律，释放控制生物必需由州环境部长批准。但是 英国缺乏收集赞成和反对释放控制生物证据的法律的行政机构。

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❶Allen and Wolkowitz’s research challenges the common claim that homework—waged labor performed at home for a company—is primarily a response to women workers’ needs and preferences. ❷By focusing on a limited geographical area in order to gather in-depth information, the authors have avoided the methodological pitfalls that have plagued earlier research on homework. ❸Their findings disprove accepted notions about homeworkers: that they are unqualified for other jobs and that they use homework as a short-term strategy for dealing with child care. ❶Allen 和 Wolkowitz 的研究挑战了传统观点，即员工在家为公司做的有报酬工作主要是应 女性的需要和偏好。❷为了收集有深度的信息，作者重点关注一个有限的地区，避免再次 落入之前他们在家庭工作的研究方式上的陷阱。❸他们的发现否定了被广泛接受的有关家 庭工作者的观点，即女性不能胜任其它工作，只是把家庭工作作为短期照看孩子的策略。 ❶The authors conclude that the persistence of homework cannot be explained by appeal to such notions, for, in fact, homeworkers do not differ sharply from other employed women. ❷Most homeworkers would prefer to work outside the home but are constrained from doing so by lack of opportunity. ❸In fact, homework is driven by employers’ desires to minimize fixed costs: homeworkers receive no benefits and are paid less than regular employees. ❶作者们总结道，家庭工作的存在不能被解释为人们喜欢这个工作，因为实际上家中工作 者和被雇佣的女性并无太大差异。❷大多数家庭工作者更愿意在户外工作，但她们却由于 缺乏机会而作罢。❸事实上，家中的工作是雇主想最小化固定开销的结果：家中工作者没 有津贴且比一般员工的工资少。

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1998 年 04 月 SECTION A Much of the research on hallucinogenic drugs such as LSD has focused on the neurotransmitter serotonin, a chemical that when released from a presynaptic serotonin-secreting neuron causes the transmission of a nerve impulse across a synapse to an adjacent postsynaptic, or target, neuron. There are two major reasons for this emphasis. First, it was discovered early on that many of the major hallucinogens have a molecular structure similar to that of serotonin. In addition, animal studies of brain neurochemistry following administration of hallucinogens invariably reported changes in serotonin levels. Early investigators correctly reasoned that the structural similarity to the serotonin molecule might imply that LSD’s effects are brought about by an action on the neurotransmission of serotonin in the brain. Unfortunately, the level of technical expertise in the field of brain research was such that this hypothesis had to be tested on peripheral tissue (tissue outside the brain). Two different groups of scientists reported that LSD powerfully blockaded serotonin’s action. Their conclusions were quickly challenged, however. We now know that the action of a drug at one site in the body does not necessarily correspond to the drug’s action at another site, especially when one site is in the brain and the other is not. By the 1960’s, technical advances permitted the direct testing of the hypothesis that LSD and related hallucinogens act by directly suppressing the activity of serotonin-secreting neurons themselves—the so-called presynaptic hypothesis. Researchers reasoned that if the hallucinogenic drugs act by suppressing the activity of serotonin-secreting neurons, then drugs administered after these neurons had been destroyed should have no effect on behavior, because the system would already be maximally suppressed. Contrary to their expectations, neuron destruction enhanced the effect of LSD and related hallucinogens on behavior. Thus, hallucinogenic drugs apparently do not act directly on serotonin-secreting neurons. However, these and other available data do support an alternative hypothesis that LSD and related drugs act directly at receptor sites on serotonin target neurons (the postsynaptic hypothesis). The fact that LSD elicits “serotonin syndrome”—that is, causes the same kinds of behaviors as does the administration of serotonin—in animals whose brains are depleted of serotonin indicates that LSD acts directly on serotonin receptors, rather than indirectly through the release of stores of serotonin. The enhanced effect of LSD reported after serotonin depletion could be due to a proliferation of serotonin receptor sites on serotonin target neurons. This phenomenon often follows neuron destruction or neurotransmitter depletion; the increase in the number of receptor sites appears to be a compensatory response to decreased input. Significantly, this hypothesis is supported by data from a number of different laboratories.

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❶When literary periods are defined on the basis of men’s writing, women’s writing must be forcibly assimilated into an irrelevant grid: a Renaissance that is not a renaissance for women, a Romantic period in which women played very little part, a modernism with which women conflict. ❷Simultaneously, the history of women’s writing has been suppressed, leaving large, mysterious gaps in accounts of the development of various genres. ❸Feminist criticism is beginning to correct this situation. ❹Margaret Anne Doody, for example, suggests that during “the period between the death of Richardson and the appearance of the novels of Scott and Austen,” which has “been regarded as a dead period,” late-eighteenth-century women writers actually developed “the paradigm for women’s fiction of the nineteenth century—something hardly less than the paradigm of the nineteenth-century novel itself.” ❺Feminist critics have also pointed out that the twentieth-century writer Virginia Woolf belonged to a tradition other than modernism and that this tradition surfaces in her work precisely where criticism has hitherto found obscurities, evasions, implausibilities, and imperfections. ❶当以男性的作品来定义文学的时期时，女性的作品一定会被强行吸纳进一个不相关的体 系中：一个不是为了女性的文艺复兴，一个几乎没有女性参与的浪漫主义时期，一个与女性 产生冲突的现代主义。❷同时，女性写作的历史也受到了抑制，在许多不同流派的发展中 留下了明显而神秘的空缺。❸女性主义评论家开始纠正这种情况。❹例如，Margaret Anne Doody 表示，在“从 Richardson 去世到 Scott 和 Austen 小说出现”这段“被认为是作品稀少的 时期”之中， 18 世纪末的女性作家实际上发展出了“19 世纪女性小说的典范”——这个典范 比 19 世纪的小说本身更具有典范特征。❺女性主义评论家也指出，20 世纪作家 Virgina Woolf 的风格是源于一种非现代主义的传统，这些评论家还指出这种传统恰恰在评论她的文 章时发现其晦涩难懂、闪烁其词、难以置信以及有瑕疵的地方浮现出来。

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SECTION B ❶The origin of the theory that major geologic events may occur at regular intervals can be traced back not to a study of volcanism or plate tectonics but to an investigation of marine extinctions. ❷In the early 1980’s, scientists began to look closely at the question of how these extinctions occur. ❸Two paleontologists, Raup and Sepkoski, compiled a master list of marine species that died out during the past 268 million years and noted that there were brief periods during which many species disappeared at once. ❹These mass extinctions occurred at surprisingly regular intervals. ❶主要地质事件可能会按固定的时间间隔发生，这个理论的起源可以追溯到对灭绝海洋生 物的研究，而不是对火山活动的研究，也不是对板块构造地质学(plate tectonics)的研究。 ❷在 20 世纪 80 年代早期，科学家们开始着重关注这些海洋生物如何灭绝的问题。❸两位 古生物学家，Raup 和 Sepkoski 收集了在过去 2.68 亿年中灭绝的大量海洋生物物种的名录， 并且发现许多物种在短暂时期内突然消失。❹令人惊奇的是，发生大量物种灭绝的时间间 隔是固定的。 ❶Later studies revealed that extinctions of terrestrial reptiles and mammals also occurred periodically. ❷These findings, combined with the research of Raup and Sepkoski, led scientists to hypothesize the existence of some kind of cyclically recurring force powerful enough to affect living things profoundly. ❸Speculation that so powerful a force might affect geologic events as well led geologists to search for evidence of periodicity in episodes of volcanism, seafloor spreading, and plate movement. ❶之后的研究显示，陆地爬行动物和哺乳动物的灭绝也是按周期发生的。❷把这些发现跟 Raup 和 Sepkoski 的研究结合在一起，科学家假设存在某种重复发生的、能够深深影响生物 的强大力量。❸对于力量强大到可以影响发生地质事件的推测，使地质学家们去探索发生 火山活动、海床扩展和板块运动周期性的证据。

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❶A recent history of the Chicago meat-packing industry and its workers examines how the industry grew from its appearance in the 1830’s through the early 1890’s. ❷Meat-packers, the author argues, had good wages, working conditions, and prospects for advancement within the packinghouses, and did not cooperate with labor agitators since labor relations were so harmonious. ❸Because the history maintains that conditions were above standard for the era, the frequency of labor disputes, especially in the mid-1880’s, is not accounted for. ❹The work ignores the fact that the 1880’s were crucial years in American labor history, and that the packinghouse workers’ efforts were part of the national movement for labor reform. ❶最近一项关于芝加哥肉类加工业的历史资料，考察了从 19 世纪 30 年代出现一直到 19 世纪 90 年代该行业的生长发展情况。❷作者认为：当时肉类加工业有高工资、良好的工作 环境和发展前景，并且不与劳工运动的煽动者合作，这是由于劳资关系很和睦。❸由于这 份历史资料认为肉类加工的条件高于当地标准，所以经常发生劳资纠纷，尤其是在 19 世纪 80 年代中期的纠纷，没有被解释清楚。❹这份研究忽视了在美国劳工运动史上 19 世纪 80 年代这个关键年份，同时也忽视了肉类加工业工人的努力是全国劳工改革运动的一部分。 ❶In fact, other historical sources for the late nineteenth century record deteriorating housing and high disease and infant mortality rates in the industrial community, due to low wages and unhealthy working conditions. ❷Additional data from the University of Chicago suggest that the packinghouses were dangerous places to work. ❸The government investigation commissioned by President Theodore Roosevelt which eventually led to the adoption of the 1906 Meat Inspection Act found the packinghouses unsanitary, while social workers observed that most of the workers were poorly paid and overworked. ❶事实上，19 世纪末的其它史料记载了，在工业区内住房条件的退化、疾病流行、婴儿死 亡率高，是由低工资和不卫生的工作条件造成的。❷芝加哥大学的另一些数据指出，在肉 类加工工厂工作是很危险的。❸Theodore Roosevelt 总统委托的政府调查发现肉类加工工厂 不卫生，这最终导致了 1906 年肉类加工业地考察法案(Meat Inspection Act)的通过，而社工 也观察到大多数工人工资低，且过度劳动。 ❶The history may be too optimistic because most of its data date from the 1880’s at the latest, and the information provided from that decade is insufficiently analyzed. ❷Conditions actually declined in the 1880’s, and continued to decline after the 1880’s, due to a reorganization of the packing process and a massive influx of unskilled workers. ❸The deterioration in worker status, partly a result of the new availability of unskilled and hence cheap labor, is not discussed. ❹Though a detailed account of work in the packing-houses is attempted, the author fails to distinguish between the wages and conditions for skilled workers and for those unskilled laborers who comprised the majority of the industry’s workers from the 1880’s on. ❺While conditions for the former were arguably tolerable due to the strategic importance of skilled workers in the complicated slaughtering, cutting, and packing process (though worker complaints about the rate and conditions of work were frequent), pay and conditions for the latter were wretched. ❶该史料也许过分乐观，因为大多数关于 19 世纪 80 年代的最新数据和信息没有经过充分 分析。❷实际上 19 世纪 80 年代的情况持续下滑，这是由于肉类加工工艺流程的重组和大 批非技术工人的流入。 ❸人们没有讨论工人地位的退化，部分是由于可供选择的非技术工 人使得劳动力变得低廉。❹虽然人们有详细记录肉类的加工工厂工人的情况的打算，但是 作者未能区分技术工人与 19 世纪 80 年代以后占工人绝大多数的非技术工人的工资和条件 的差别。❺由于在复杂的屠宰、切割、包装过程中技术工人的极端重要性，前者的条件是 可以容忍的（虽然工人经常抱怨工资低、工作条件差），后者（非技术工人）的报酬和条件 就很差了。 293

❶The author’s misinterpretation of the origins of the feelings the meat-packers had for their industrial neighborhood may account for the history’s faulty generalizations. ❷The pride and contentment the author remarks upon were, arguably, less the products of the industrial world of the packers—the giant yards and the intricate plants—than of the unity and vibrance of the ethnic cultures that formed a viable community on Chicago’s South Side. ❸Indeed, the strength of this community succeeded in generating a social movement that effectively confronted the problems of the industry that provided its livelihood. ❶作者误解了肉类加工业工人对附近企业有感情的缘由，这可以说明史料被错误概括。❷ 作者对工人的自豪感和满足感的叙述是有争议的，与其说是肉类加工业的产品、巨大的院子 和复杂的工厂生产的产品，倒不如说是芝加哥南部少数民族的团结一致和生气勃勃生产的产 品。❸的确，这个群体的力量成功地发动了一个社会运动，该运动有效处理了肉类加工业 工人的生计问题。

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1998 年 11 月 SECTION A ❶When we consider great painters of the past, the study of art and the study of illusion cannot always be separated. ❷By illusion I mean those contrivances of color, line, shape, and so forth that lead us to see marks on a flat surface as depicting three-dimensional objects in space. ❸I must emphasize that I am not making a plea, disguised or otherwise, for the exercise of illusionist tricks in painting today, although I am, in fact, rather critical of certain theories of non-representational art. ❹But to argue over these theories would be to miss the point. ❺That the discoveries and effects of representation that were the pride of earlier artists have become trivial today I would not deny for a moment. ❻Yet I believe that we are in real danger of losing contact with past masters if we accept the fashionable doctrine that such matters never had anything to do with art. ❼The very reason why the representation of nature can now be considered something commonplace should be of the greatest interest to art historians. ❽Never before has there been an age when the visual image was so cheap in every sense of the word. ❾We are surrounded and assailed by posters and advertisements, comics and magazine illustrations. ❿We see aspects of reality represented on television, postage stamps, and food packages. Painting is taught in school and practiced as a pastime, and many modest amateurs have mastered tricks that would have looked like sheer magic to the fourteenth-century painter Giotto. Even the crude colored renderings on a cereal box might have made Giotto’s contemporaries gasp. Perhaps there are people who conclude from this that the cereal box is superior to a Giotto; I do not. But I think that the victory and vulgarization of representational skills create a problem for both art historians and critics. ❶当我们考虑以往伟大的画家时，我们不能总是把有关美术和幻觉的研究分开。❷我说的 幻觉是指对于色彩、线条、形状等元素的推敲，这样的推敲引导我们把平面中的符号描绘成 立体空间事物。❸我必须强调的是，我没有为现在绘画中运用的幻觉手法做隐蔽或公开的 辩护，尽管事实上我还是批判某些非写实的美术理论的。❹但是争论这些观点会跑题。❺ 写实手法的发现及其影响是早期美术家的骄傲，但是它现在变得不重要了，我对此一点也不 会否认。❻可是我相信，如果我们接受与美术无关的时髦教条，那么我们就处于和以往的 大师失联的危险中。❼目前对自然的写实被认为是司空见惯的原因应该也是美术历史学家 所极为感兴趣的。❽不管从什么意义上说，从没有出现过一个视觉图像如此廉价的时代。 ❾我们被海报、广告、连环画和杂志插画包围和困扰着。❿我们看到现实的方方面面被再 现在电视、邮票以及食品包装袋上。学校讲授绘画，练习绘画被当作消遣，并且许多普通业 余爱好者掌握了一些在 14 世纪画家 Giotto 看来像魔术一般的技巧。就算谷物盒上粗糙的色 彩处理都会让与 Giotto 同时代的人惊讶不已。可能有人会从这点得出谷物盒超越了 Giotto 的结论；我并不这么认为。我认为写实技巧的胜利和普及对美术历史学家和评论家都提出了 一个问题。 ❶In this connection it is instructive to remember the Greek saying that to marvel is the beginning of knowledge and if we cease to marvel we may be in danger of ceasing to know. ❷I believe we must restore our sense of wonder at the capacity to conjure up by forms, lines, shades, or colors those mysterious phantoms of visual reality we call “pictures” . ❸Even comics and advertisements, rightly viewed, provide food for thought. ❹Just as the study of poetry remains incomplete without an awareness of the language of prose, so, I believe, the study of art will be increasingly supplemented by inquiry into the “linguistics” of the visual image. ❺The way the language of art refers to the visible world is both so obvious and so mysterious that it is still largely unknown except to artists, who use it as we use all language—without needing to know its grammar and semantics. ❶在这个方面，回忆一下希腊名言对我们有帮助，即“好奇是知识的开端，如果我们停止好 295

奇，那么我们也会处于不再认识的危险之中”。❷我认为我们必须恢复好奇感，即对于被形 式、线条、阴影或色彩这些我们称之为“图画”的反映视觉现实的、神秘幻景所唤起的能力的 好奇感。❸甚至连环漫画和广告，在被正确看待的情况下，都会为思想提供食粮。❹就像 研究诗歌而不懂散文语言是不完整的一样，我认为美术的研究会愈发被探究视觉图像的“语 言学家”所补充。❺美术语言表达可见世界的方式多么显而易见，又多么神秘，以至于除了 艺术家之外，大多数人还是对其了解甚少，而艺术家们就像我们使用所有语言一样地使用它， 不需要知道它的语法和句法。

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❶The 1973 Endangered Species Act made into legal policy the concept that endangered species of wildlife are precious as part of a natural ecosystem. ❷The nearly unanimous passage of this act in the United States Congress, reflecting the rising national popularity of environmentalism, masked a bitter debate. ❸Affected industries clung to the former wildlife policy of valuing individual species according to their economic usefulness. ❹They fought to minimize the law’s impact by limiting definitions of key terms, but they lost on nearly every issue. ❺The act defined “wildlife” as almost all kinds of animals—from large mammals to invertebrates—and plants. ❻ “Taking” wildlife was defined broadly as any action that threatened an endangered species; areas vital to a species’ survival could be federally protected as “critical habitats”. ❼Though these definitions legislated strong environmentalist goals, political compromises made in the enforcement of the act were to determine just what economic interests would be set aside for the sake of ecological stabilization. ❶1973 年的濒危物种法案将“野生濒危物种是自然生态系统中最珍贵的一部分”的概念写进 法律政策中。❷这个法案在美国国会几乎全票通过，这反映出当时环境保护主义在全美国 越来越流行，但它掩盖了一场激烈的争论。❸受影响的企业坚持之前的野生动物政策，该 政策根据某个物种的经济价值来评价这个物种。❹这些企业力争通过限定关键术语的定义 来使法案的影响达到最小，但是他们几乎在每一个问题上都失败了。❺法案将“野生动物” 定义为几乎所有类型的动物——从大型哺乳动物到无脊椎动物——以及植物。❻“捕猎”野生 动物被广泛定义为任何威胁珍稀物种的行为；对于物种生存至关重要的区域被联邦政府作为 “重大栖息地”来保护。❼尽管这些定义立法描述了环境保护人士的坚定目标，但实施法案时 做出政治上的妥协决定的是：什么经济利益要为生态的稳定平衡而被放在一旁。

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SECTION B ❶From the 1900’s through the 1950’s waitresses in the United States developed a form of unionism based on the unions’ defining the skills that their occupation included and enforcing standards for the performance of those skills. ❷This “occupational unionism” differed substantially from the “worksite unionism” prevalent among factory workers. ❸Rather than unionizing the workforces of particular employers, waitress locals sought to control their occupation throughout a city. ❹Occupational unionism operated through union hiring halls, which provided free placement services to employers who agreed to hire their personnel only through the union. ❺Hiring halls offered union waitresses collective employment security, not individual job security—a basic protection offered by worksite unions. ❻That is, when a waitress lost her job, the local did not intervene with her employer but placed her elsewhere; and when jobs were scarce, the work hours available were distributed fairly among all members rather than being assigned according to seniority. ❶从 20 世纪最初 10 年到 20 世纪 50 年代，美国女服务员创建了一种工会制度，该制度基 于服务行业包含的技能以及这些技能的实施标准。❷这种“行业工会制度(occupational unionism)”与当时在工厂工人中盛行的“工地工会制度(worksite unionism)”不同。❸女服务 员工会的地方分会寻求的是控制整个城市的女服务员行业，而不是使某些雇主的员工加入工 会。❹行业工会制度的运作是通过职业介绍所，介绍所为同意只通过工会雇佣员工的雇主 提供免费的员工就业安排。❺职业介绍所为工会女服务员提供集体就业的安全保障，而非 个别职位的安全保障——这是一种工地工会提供的基本保障。❻这就是说，一个女服务员 失业了，地方分会并不干涉该雇主，而是把这位女服务员安排到另外地方，当职位紧缺时， 地方分会把工作时间平均分配给工会所有成员，而不是根据长幼分配。

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❶In prehistoric times brachiopods were one of the most abundant and diverse forms of life on Earth: more than 30,000 species of this clamlike creature have been cataloged from fossil records. ❷Today brachiopods are not as numerous, and existing species are not well studied, partly because neither the animal’s fleshy inner tissue nor its shell has any commercial value. ❸Moreover, in contrast to the greater diversity of the extinct species, the approximately 300 known surviving species are relatively uniform in appearance. ❹Many zoologists have interpreted this as a sign that the animal has been unable to compete successfully with other marine organisms in the evolutionary struggle. ❶在史前时代，腕足动物(brachiopod)是世界上最大量、最多样的生命形式之一：根据化石 提供的信息，人类记载了超过 30000 种类似蛤蜊的物种。❷现在腕足动物不像之前那么多， 且现存物种没有被很好的研究，一部分是因为它们的内在肉状组织和壳没有商业价值。❸ 此外，和大量灭绝的物种不同的是，已知存活的大约 300 种物种在外观上相对单一。❹许 多动物学家把这作为一个腕足动物无法进在化斗争中战胜其他海洋生物的信号。 ❶Several things, however, suggest that the conventional view needs revising. ❷For example, the genus Lingula has an unbroken fossil record extending over more than half a billion years to the present. ❸Thus, if longevity is any measure, brachiopods are the most successful organisms extant. ❹Further, recent studies suggest that diversity among species is a less important measure of evolutionary success than is the ability to withstand environmental change, such as when a layer of clay replaces sand on the ocean bottom. ❺The relatively greater uniformity among the existing brachiopod species may offer greater protection from environmental change and hence may reflect highly successful adaptive behavior. ❶然而，有几件事情表明这个传统的观点需要修正。❷例如，舌形贝属腕足动物(Lingula) 有从 5 亿多年前延续到现在的、不间断的化石记录。❸因此，如果能长期生存是物种成功 的标准的话，那么腕足动物是现存最成功的物种。❹另外，最近的研究表明，物种的多样 性与其承受例如海底泥土取代沙层的环境变化的能力相比，不是那么重要。❺在现存腕足 动物中，相对较高的统一性也许能针对环境变化对其提供更强的保护，因而这种统一性展现 高度成功的适应性行为。 ❶The adaptive advantages of uniformity for brachiopods can be seen by considering specialization, a process that occurs as a result of prolonged colonization of a uniform substrate. ❷Those that can survive on many surfaces are called generalists, while those that can survive on a limited range of substrates are called specialists. ❸One specialist species, for example, has valves weighted at the base, a characteristic that assures that the organism is properly positioned for feeding in mud and similar substrates; other species secrete glue allowing them to survive on the face of underwater cliffs. ❹The fossil record demonstrates that most brachiopod lineages have followed a trend toward increased specialization. ❺However, during periods of environmental instability, when a particular substrate to which a specialist species has adapted is no longer available, the species quickly dies out. ❻Generalists, on the other hand, are not dependent on a particular substrate, and are thus less vulnerable to environmental change. ❼One study of the fossil record revealed a mass extinction of brachiopods following a change in sedimentation from chalk to clay. ❽Of the 35 brachiopod species found in the chalk, only 6 survived in the clay, all of them generalists. ❶考虑到腕足动物长期聚集在单一海底底层而导致的特化(specialization)过程，我们就可以 看出它们的一致性适应优势。❷那些可以在多种地表上生存的物种叫普适性物种 (generalists)，而那些只能在海底底部有限区域内的物种叫做特定性物种(specialist)。❸例 如，一个特定性物种在其底部有用来加大重量的瓣膜(valve)，这个特征保证生物体粘在泥土 以及相似海底底层上适当的位置，以满足其取食的要求；其它物种分泌粘液，这些粘液把它 们粘在水下峭壁上使其生存下去。❹化石记录显示出，大多数腕足动物家族遵循特定的特 299

化方向。❺然而，在环境不稳定的时期，即特定性生物已经适应的某块海底底部不复存在 时，这些生物很快会灭绝。❻可是，普适性物种不依赖于某一种海底底部，因此它们对于 环境变化不那么脆弱。❼一个有关化石记录的研究显示，海底沉积物由白垩变为泥土之后， 大量腕足动物灭绝。❽在白垩中发现的 35 个腕足物种中，只有 6 种在泥土中存活，且存活 的都是普适性物种。 ❶As long as enough generalist species are maintained, and studies of arctic and subarctic seas suggest that generalists are often dominant members of the marine communities there, it seems unlikely that the phylum is close to extinction. ❶只要有足够多的普适性物种，并且北冰洋和亚北冰洋表明普适性物种是那里海洋群 落的主要成员，那么腕足门动物看起来不太可能濒临灭绝。

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1999 年 04 月 SECTION A ❶Eight times within the past million years, something in the Earth’s climatic equation has changed, allowing snow in the mountains and the northern latitudes to accumulate from one season to the next instead of melting away. ❷Each time, the enormous ice sheets resulting from this continual buildup lasted tens of thousands of years until the end of each particular glacial cycle brought a warmer climate. ❸Scientists speculated that these glacial cycles were ultimately driven by astronomical factors: slow, cyclic changes in the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit and in the tilt and orientation of its spin axis. ❹But up until around 30 years ago, the lack of an independent record of ice-age timing made the hypothesis untestable. ❶在过去的 100 万年中，地球气候平衡变化了 8 次，这使得山上的雪和北部高纬度地区的 积雪终年积而不化。❷每一次，雪积聚而形成巨大的冰盖持续上万年，直到冰河期结束时 带来温暖的气候。❸科学家推测，冰河周期最终是由天文因素导致的：地球轨道离心率 (eccentricity)的慢速周期变化，以及地球自转轴倾斜方向的慢速周期变化。❹但是直到约 30 年前，由于缺少地球冰河时期时间的独立记录，这个假设变得不可验证了。 ❶Then in the early 1950’s Emiliani produced the first complete record of the waxings and wanings of past glaciations. ❷It came from a seemingly odd place, the seafloor. ❸Single-cell marine organisms called “foraminifera” house themselves in shells made from calcium carbonate. ❹When the foraminifera die, sink to the bottom, and become part of seafloor sediments, the carbonate of their shells preserves certain characteristics of the seawater they inhabited. ❺In particular, the ratio of a heavy isotope of oxygen (oxygen-18) to ordinary oxygen (oxygen-16) in the carbonate preserves the ratio of the two oxygens in water molecules. ❶之后在 20 世纪 50 年代，Emiliani 完成了有关之前冰河时期第一个全面记录。❷这个记 录在一个看起来很奇怪的地方——海底找到的。❸单细胞海洋生物“有孔虫(foraminifera)” 寄生在碳酸钙构成的贝壳里。❹有孔虫死亡沉到海底变成海底沉积物的一部分时，它们贝 壳中的碳酸盐保留了它们生存的海水的某些特性。❺特别地，贝壳中氧元素更重的同位素 （氧-18）和一般氧元素（氧-16）的比例与水分子中这两种氧元素的比例相同。 ❶It is now understood that the ratio of oxygen isotopes in seawater closely reflects the proportion of the world’s water locked up in glaciers and ice sheets. ❷A kind of meteorological distillation accounts for the link. ❸Water molecules containing the heavier isotope tend to condense and fall as precipitation slightly sooner than molecules containing the lighter isotope. ❹Hence, as water vapor evaporated from warm oceans moves away from its source, its oxygen-18 returns more quickly to the oceans than does its oxygen-16. ❺What falls as snow on distant ice sheets and mountain glaciers is relatively depleted of oxygen-18. ❻As the oxygen-18-poor ice builds up, the oceans become relatively enriched in the isotope. ❼The larger the ice sheets grow, the higher the proportion of oxygen-18 becomes in seawater—and hence in the sediments. ❶人们现在了解到，海水中氧元素同位素(isotopes)的比例可以近似反映世界上冰川和冰盖 内水的比例。❷一种气象蒸馏方法可以解释二者之间的联系。❸含有较重同位素的水分子 往往比含有较轻同位素的水分子更容易凝聚，并以降水的方式落下来。❹因而，当水蒸气 从温暖的海面蒸发而远离海面，水中的氧-18 比氧-16 更快回到海中。❺在远处冰盖和山里 冰川上的降雪中几乎没有氧-18。❻随着含有较少氧-18 的冰的堆积，海洋中氧-18 的含量变 得相对丰富。❼冰盖长得越大，海水中氧-18 的比例就越高——因而沉积物中氧-18 比例也 越高。 ❶Analyzing cores drilled from seafloor sediments, Emiliani found that the isotopic ratio rose and fell in rough accord with the Earth’s astronomical cycles. ❷Since that pioneering 301

observation, oxygen-isotope measurements have been made on hundreds of cores. ❸A chronology for the combined record enables scientists to show that the record contains the very same periodicities as the orbital processes. ❹Over the past 800,000 years, the global ice volume has peaked every 100,000 years, matching the period of the orbital eccentricity variation. ❺In addition, “wrinkles” superposed on each cycle—small decreases or surges in ice volume—have come at intervals of roughly 23,000 and 41,000 years, in keeping with the precession and tilt frequencies of the Earth’s spin axis. ❶通过分析从海底沉积物钻出的芯，Emiliani 发现同位素比例的起伏和地球的天文周期大致 吻合。❷由于他开辟性的观察，人们在上百种芯中测量氧同位素的含量。❸一个综合记录 的编年史使得科学家得出结论，即芯的记录和地球轨道的周期恰好相同。❹在过去的 800000 年中，全球冰量每 100000 年达到极大，这与地球轨道离心率变化周期相符。❺此 外，每个周期上面的“褶皱”——冰量的小幅起伏——的间隔大致是 23000 年和 41000 年， 这与岁差以及地球自转轴的倾斜频率相符合。

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❶Although Victor Turner’s writings have proved fruitful for fields beyond anthropology, his definition of ritual is overly restrictive. ❷Ritual, he says, is “prescribed formal behavior for occasions not given over to technological routine, having reference to beliefs in mystical beings or powers.” ❸“Technological routine” refers to the means by which a social group provides for its material needs. ❹Turner’s differentiating ritual from technology helps us recognize that festivals and celebrations may have little purpose other than play, but it obscures the practical aims, such as making crops grow or healing patients, of other rituals. ❺Further, Turner’s definition implies a necessary relationship between ritual and mystical beliefs. ❻However, not all rituals are religious; some religions have no reference to mystical beings; and individuals may be required only to participate in, not necessarily believe in, a ritual. ❼Turner’s assumption that ritual behavior follows belief thus limits the usefulness of his definition in studying ritual across cultures. ❶尽管 Victor Turner 的作品在人类学以及众多学科领域中成果丰硕，但是他对于宗教仪式 的定义过于狭隘了。❷他说宗教仪式(ritual)是“规定的正式仪式活动，且与常规技术活动相 反，相信信仰的存在和信仰的力量”。❸“常规技术活动”指的是一个社会群体为了生存而获 取物质需要的手段。❹Turner 把仪式和技术分离开来的做法让我们认识到，节日和庆祝活 动只是表演而没有其他目的，但是这个做法掩盖了其他宗教活动的实用目的，例如让农作物 生长或是治愈病人。❺进一步说，Turner 的定义暗示了宗教活动和神秘信仰之间必然的联 系。 ❻然而，并不说所有的宗教活动都有宗教性质；一些宗教与神秘存在无关，并且个体 只是被要求去参加宗教活动而不需要去信仰这个宗教。❼因此，Turner 的宗教活动行为遵 循信仰的假设限制了他的定义在跨文化宗教研究中的用途。

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SECTION B ❶Benjamin Franklin established that lightning is the transfer of positive or negative electrical charge between regions of a cloud or from cloud to earth. ❷Such transfers require that electrically neutral clouds, with uniform charge distributions, become electrified by separation of charges into distinct regions. ❸The greater this separation is, the greater the voltage, or electrical potential of the cloud. ❹Scientists still do not know the precise distribution of charges in thunderclouds nor how separation adequate to support the huge voltages typical of lightning bolts arises. ❺According to one theory, the precipitation hypothesis, charge separation occurs as a result of precipitation. ❻Larger droplets in a thundercloud precipitate downward past smaller suspended droplets. ❼Collisions among droplets transfer negative charge to precipitating droplets, leaving the suspended droplets with a positive charge, thus producing a positive dipole in which the lower region of the thundercloud is filled with negatively charged raindrops and the upper with positively charged suspended droplets. ❶Benjamin Franklin 证实闪电是云层间或者云层与地面间正电荷或负电荷的转移。❷电荷 的转移要求电荷均匀分布的中性云被分隔成不同区域而呈带电状态。❸分隔得越远，云的 电压或电位越高。❹科学家既不知道雷雨云中电荷分布的确切情况，也不知道多大的间隔 才能足够支持电闪雷鸣的巨大电压。❺根据降水假说，降水导致了电荷间隔的发生。❻在 雷雨云中较大的水滴向下降落，经过较小的悬浮水滴。❼水滴间的碰撞把负电荷转移到沉 降的水滴中，留下带正电荷的悬浮水滴，由此在较低的充满着带负电荷雨滴的雷雨层中产生 正偶极(positive dipole)，而在这个正偶极中，雷雨云的下部充满带负电荷的雨滴而上部充满 带正电荷的悬浮雨滴。

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❶Before Laura Gilpin (1891-1979), few women in the history of photography had so devoted themselves to chronicling the landscape. ❷Other women had photographed the land, but none can be regarded as a landscape photographer with a sustained body of work documenting the physical terrain. ❸Anne Brigman often photographed woodlands and coastal areas, but they were generally settings for her artfully placed subjects. ❹Dorothea Lange’s landscapes were always conceived of as counterparts to her portraits of rural women. ❶在 Laura Gilpin (1891-1979)之前，摄影史上还没有一位女性能投入如此大的精力来按时 间顺序记录风景(landscape)。❷其他女性的确也拍摄陆地风景，但都不能被认为是持续实 地描述自然环境作品的风景摄影师。❸Anne Brigman 大多拍摄森林和海岸地区，但这些风 景只不过是她为拍摄对象而精心安排的背景。❹人们通常认为 Dorothea Lange 的风景摄影 作品只是她的乡下妇女肖像的陪衬。 ❶At the same time that Gilpin’s interest in landscape work distinguished her from most other women photographers, her approach to landscape photography set her apart from men photographers who, like Gilpin, documented the western United States. ❷Western American landscape photography grew out of a male tradition, pioneered by photographers attached to government and commercial survey teams that went west in the 1860’s and 1870’s. ❸These explorer-photographers documented the West that their employers wanted to see: an exotic and majestic land shaped by awesome natural forces, unpopulated and ready for American settlement. ❹The next generation of male photographers, represented by Ansel Adams and Eliot Porter, often worked with conservationist groups rather than government agencies or commercial companies, but they nonetheless preserved the “heroic” style and maintained the role of respectful outsider peering in with reverence at a fragile natural world. ❶在 Gilpin 对于风景作品的兴趣使她从女性摄影师中脱颖而出的同时，她的陆地摄影方法 也和男性摄影师的方法有区别，而这些男性摄影师和 Gilpin 一样，都在记录美国西部。❷ 美国西部风景摄影是男性摄影师的传统，由那些 19 世纪 60、70 年代去西部的政府和商业 调查团队的摄影师发扬光大。❸这些探险摄影师记录了一个他们雇主愿意看到的西部：一 片由让人敬畏的自然力量形成的奇特而宏伟的土地，这片土地人烟稀少，等待开发。❹下 一代摄影师以 Ansel Adams 和 Eliot Porter 为代表，他们经常与环境保护主义团队合作，而 不是与政府机构或商业公司合作，但他们仍然保持了“崇高”的作风，仍然做恭恭敬敬的外来 者，用敬畏的眼光凝视着脆弱的自然界。 ❶For Gilpin, by contrast, the landscape was neither an empty vista awaiting human settlement nor a jewel-like scene resisting human intrusion, but a peopled landscape with a rich history and tradition of its own, an environment that shaped and molded the lives of its inhabitants. ❷Her photographs of the Rio Grande, for example, consistently depict the river in terms of its significance to human culture: as a source of irrigation water, a source of food for livestock, and a provider of town sites. ❸Also instructive is Gilpin’s general avoidance of extreme close-ups of her natural subjects: for her, emblematic details could never suggest the intricacies of the interrelationship between people and nature that made the landscape a compelling subject. ❹While it is dangerous to draw conclusions about a “feminine” way of seeing from the work of one woman, it can nonetheless be argued that Gilpin’s unique approach to landscape photography was analogous to the work of many women writers who, far more than their male counterparts, described the landscape in terms of its potential to sustain human life. ❶相反，对于 Gilpin 来说，陆地景观既不是一片等待人类开发的、空洞的景色，也不是像 珠宝般抵制人类入侵的景色，而是一片有着丰富历史和传统的陆地风景、一个形成和塑造当 地居民性格的环境。❷例如，在她拍摄的作品 Rio Grande 中，她从始至终根据它对人类文 化的重要性来进行描绘：一个作为灌溉水的源头、一个为牲畜提供食物的来源、一个城镇的 305

供给者。❸同样具有启发意义的是，Gilpin 避免用特写镜头来拍摄大自然的对象：对她而言， 象征性的细节永远不能表达人与形成迷人风景的大自然间错综复杂的相互关系。❹尽管从 一个妇女的摄影作品中得出用“女性化”的角度来去观察的结论是危险的，但它可以展现出 Gilpin 独特的风景摄影手法与许多女性作家的作品是相似的，而这些女性作家在根据风景维 持人类生活的潜力来描绘风景方面远胜于男性同行。 ❶Gilpin never spoke of herself as a photographer with a feminine perspective: she eschewed any discussion of gender as it related to her work and maintained little interest in interpretations that relied on the concept of a “woman’s eye.” ❷Thus it is ironic that her photographic evocation of a historical landscape should so clearly present a distinctively feminine approach to landscape photography. ❶Gilpin 从不说自己是一个具有女性化视角的摄影师：在谈论她的作品时，她回避任何有关 性别的讨论，而且她对那些依靠“女人视角”的概念所做出的解释没有一点兴趣。❷因此，具 有讽刺意味的是，她用摄影对历史地貌的再现竟然清晰地展现了一个陆地风景摄影者独特的 女性化的手法。

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