Electronic Transmission Control ETC 2004

2004

The Program Automotive Electrics/Automotive Electronics Motor-Vehicle Batteries and Electrical Systems Alternators and Starter Motors Automotive Lighting Technology, Windshield and Rear-Window Cleaning Automotive Sensors Automotive Microelectronics Diesel-Engine Management Diesel-Engine Management: An Overview Electronic Diesel Control EDC Diesel Accumulator Fuel-Injection System Common Rail CR Diesel Fuel-Injection Systems Unit Injector System/Unit Pump System Distributor-Type Diesel Fuel-Injection Pumps Diesel In-Line Fuel-Injection Pumps Gasoline-Engine Management Emissions-Control Technology for Gasoline Engines Gasoline Fuel-Injection System K-Jetronic Gasoline Fuel-Injection System KE-Jetronic Gasoline Fuel-Injection System L-Jetronic Gasoline Fuel-Injection System Mono-Jetronic Ignition Systems for Gasoline Engines Gasoline-Engine Management: Basics and Components Gasoline-Engine Management: Motronic Systems Safety, Comfort and Convenience Systems Conventional and Electronic Braking Systems ESP Electronic Stability Program ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Compressed-Air Systems for Commercial Vehicles (1): Systems and Schematic Diagrams Compressed-Air Systems for Commercial Vehicles (2): Equipment Safety, Comfort and Convenience Systems Audio, Navigation and Telematics in the Vehicle Electronic Transmission Control ETC

Order Number

ISBN

1 987 722 143 1 987 722 128

3-934584-71-3 3-934584-69-1

1 987 722 176 1 987 722 131 1 987 722 122

3-934584-70-5 3-934584-50-0 3-934584-49-7

1 987 722 138 1 987 722 135

3-934584-62-4 3-934584-47-0

1 987 722 175

3-934584-40-3

1 987 722 179 1 987 722 144 1 987 722 137

3-934584-41-1 3-934584-65-9 3-934584-68-3

1 987 722 102 1 987 722 159 1 987 722 101 1 987 722 160 1 987 722 105 1 987 722 130

3-934584-26-8 3-934584-27-6 3-934584-28-4 3-934584-29-2 3-934584-30-6 3-934584-63-2

1 987 722 136

3-934584-48-9

1 987 722 139

3-934584-75-6

1 987 722 103 1 987 722 177 1 987 722 134

3-934584-60-8 3-934584-44-6 3-934584-64-0

1 987 722 165

3-934584-45-4

1 987 722 166 1 987 722 150 1 987 722 132 1 987 722 127

3-934584-46-2 3-934584-25-X 3-934584-53-5 3-934584-79-9

The up-to-date program is available on the Internet at: www.bosch.de/aa/de/fachliteratur/index.htm

The Bosch Yellow Jackets Edition 2004

The Bosch Yellow Jackets

AA/PDT-06.04-En

Electronic Transmission Control ETC

Order No. 1 987 722 127

Expert Know-How and Automotive Technology

ISBN-3-934584-79-9

Expert Know-How and Automotive Technology

Safety, Comfort and Convenience Systems

Electronic Transmission Control ETC

Æ • • • •

Transmission Versions Methods of Transmission Control ECUs and ECU Development Sensors, Actuators and Modules

Automotive Technology

Robert Bosch GmbH

Imprint

Published by: © Robert Bosch GmbH, 2004 Postfach 1129, D-73201 Plochingen, Germany. Automotive Aftermarket Business Sector, Department AA/PDT5. Product Marketing, Diagnostics & Test Equipment. Editor-in-chief: Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Horst Bauer. Editorial staff: Dipl.-Ing. Karl-Heinz Dietsche. Authors: (in alphabetical order) Dipl.-Ing. D. Fornoff (Development AST Actuators), D. Grauman (Sales AST Transmission Actuators), E. Hendriks (Product Management CVT Components), Dipl.-Ing. T. Laux (Product Management Transmission Control), Dipl.-Ing. T. Müller (Product Management Transmission Control), Dipl.-Ing. A. Schreiber (Development ECUs), Dipl.-Ing. S. Schumacher (Development Actuators and Modules), Dipl.-Ing. W. Stroh (Development ECUs) and the editorial team in co-operation with the responsible technical departments at Robert Bosch GmbH. Unless otherwise indicated, the above are employees of Robert Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart.

Reproduction, duplication and translation of this publication, either in whole or in part, is permissible only with our prior written consent and provided the source is quoted. Illustrations, descriptions, schematic diagrams and the like are for explanatory purposes and illustration of the text only. They cannot be used as the basis for the design, installation, or specification of products. We accept no liability for the accuracy of the content of this document in respect of applicable statutory regulations. Robert Bosch GmbH is exempt from liability, Subject to alteration and amendment. Printed in Germany. Imprimé en Allemagne. 1st Edition, March 2004 English translation of the 1st German edition dated: June 2004 (1.0)

Robert Bosch GmbH

Electronic Transmission Control ETC Robert Bosch GmbH

Robert Bosch GmbH

Contents

4 Transmissions for Motor Vehicles 4 Transmission in the Drivetrain 6 Transmission Requirements 7 Manual Transmission 8 Automated Shift Transmission (AST) 12 Dual-Clutch Transmission (DCT) 13 Automatic Transmission (AT) 22 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) Toroid Transmission 30 30 31 32

Electronic Transmission Control Drivetrain Management Market Trends Control of Automated Shift Transmission 36 Control of Automatic Transmissions 52 Control of Continuously Variable Transmission 54 54 55 56

Sensors Application in Motor Vehicles Transmission Speed Sensors Micromechanical Pressure Sensors 59 Temperature Sensors 60 Position Sensors 61 Sensor-Signal Processing 62 Electronic Control Unit (ECU) 62 Operating Conditions, Design, Data Processing 68 ECUs for Electronic Transmission Control 75 Thermo-Management 77 Processes and Tools Used in ECU Development 78 Software Development 92 Electrohydraulic Actuators 92 Application, Function, and Requirements 93 Design and Operating Concept 94 Actuator Types 103 Simulation in Development

106 Modules for Transmission Control 106 Application 107 Module Types 111 Technical Terms and Abbreviations 111 Technical Terms 114 Abbreviations

Robert Bosch GmbH

The drivetrain is designed to transfer the energy generated by the engine to the wheels of the vehicle with the minimum possible loss of energy. To do this, the drivetrain components – engine, transmission, clutch, and brakes – must be matched as well as possible. The best results are achieved using electronic transmission control (ETC). Electronic transmission control can coordinate overall control of the individual systems and components with convenient and energy-saving shifting strategies. The automated shift transmission (AST) is a manually shifted transmission with electric or electrohydraulic actuators for operating the clutch and the gearshift mechanism. In conjunction with suitable shifting strategies, the AST is so economical that it is now used in the first 3-liter automobile. Gearshift sophistication (ease of shifting) can be increased with a dual-clutch transmission (DCT). This transmission prevents interruption of the tractive force during gearshift operation. The advantageous fuel consumption values are retained. New electronically controlled automatic transmissions (AT) open up a whole new field of potential for reducing fuel consumption by selecting the best operating point. They can also lock up the hydraulic converter within broad ranges. Their different shifting strategies can even shape the character of the vehicle – from economical to sporty requirements. The continuously variable transmission (CVT) also offers a high degree of convenience in conjunction with favorable fuel-consumption figures. Its electronic control system can operate the engine in either the optimum fuel-consumption range or the ultimate high-performance range. This volume of the Automotive Engineering Technical Know-How series introduces you to the various transmission types together with the accompanying variants of electronic transmission control and its components. The table of contents and the detailed index of technical terms will help you to find the individual subject areas, and the list of abbreviations sets out the abbreviations commonly used in the field of electronic transmission control.

Robert Bosch GmbH 4

Transmissions for Motor Vehicles

Transmission in the Drivetrain


Internal-combustion engine, characteristics for torque and power

Nm

kW

Mmax

0

rpm

Engine speed nE

2

æ STS0216E Engine output PE

Engine torque ME

Pmax

Internal-combustion engines do not have a constant torque and power characteristic over the speed range available to them (idle to high idle speed). The optimum “elastic” speed range lies between maximum torque and maximum power (Figure 1). For this reason, a vehicle cannot start off from a state of rest where the engine is stopped. To do this, it requires a power take-up element (e.g. clutch). Furthermore, the available engine torque is not sufficient for gradients and powerful acceleration. For this purpose, a suitable gear ratio for adapting traction and torque and for optimizing fuel consumption must be made available. Engines only have one direction of rotation as well, with the result that they require a changeover facility for forward and reverse travel. As Figure 2 shows, the transmission is situated in a central position on the drivetrain and thus substantially influences the drivetrain’s effectiveness. In addition, an analysis of the losses that arise in the drivetrain show that, after the engine, it is the transmission which offers the most possibilities for optimization based on NEFZ driving cycle (Figure 3). 3

Drivetrain (overview)

Energy balance in the drivetrain (source: Opel)

100%

6% Kinetic energy

Primary energy

100%

2

Engine 20%

1 80%

3

8%

4

æ STS0217E

Fig. 2 1 Engine 2 Transmission 3 Front axle 4 Rear axle with differential (output)

30% Manual 34% transmission 28%

Losses

Rolling resistance

Direction of travel

Aerodynamic drag

1

Transmission in the Drivetrain

æ STS0218E

Every motor vehicle engine operates within a specific speed range which is limited by the idle speed and the maximum speed. Power and torque are not offered uniformly and the maximum values are only available in partial ranges. Transmissions therefore convert the engine torque and the engine speed in accordance with vehicle traction requirements in such a way that the power remains roughly constant. They also allow the different directions of rotation for forward and reverse travel.

Robert Bosch GmbH Transmissions for Motor Vehicles

Benz patent motor carriage from 1886 with belt and chain drives When Daimler, Maybach, and Benz launched their first road vehicles, pioneers of motive power engineering had already developed the machine parts required for power transmission to a considerable extent. Names such as Leonardo da Vinci, Dürer, Galileo, Hooke, Bernoulli, Euler, Grashof, and Bach had played a significant role in these developments. Power transmission in an automobile must guarantee the functions of starting and enginespeed and torque conversion for forward and reverse travel. These functions call for actuators and shifting elements which intervene in the power-flow and perform engine-speed and torque conversion. The first operational Benz patent motor carriage appeared in 1886. It was the first threewheel vehicle to be conceived in its entirety specifically for motorized road traffic. It may well have had just one gear, but it did not have a start-up clutch. In order to get the carriage moving at all, it was necessary to push it or crank it with the flywheel. A single-cylinder four-stroke engine with a displacement of 984 cc and a power output of 0.88 HP (0.65 kW) served as the drive unit for this Benz three-wheeler.

Benz utilized the following machine parts to transfer the motive force of his engine to the road: The end of the engine’s crankshaft held the flywheel, which ensured that the engine ran more smoothly and which could also be used to crank the engine. Since the engine was built over the rear axle, a bevel gear arranged at right angles transmitted power in a small space to a belt drive, which reduced the rotational speed slightly to an intermediate shaft. Finally, a chain drive reduced the speed further to the powered axle. The belt and chain drives dating from the origins of the automobile were gradually replaced by a gear train. But, today, they are experiencing a renaissance in the form of the continuously variable transmission (CVT). A CVT transmission consists of a variator with two V-pulleys and a flexible steel push-belt. As soon as the pressure of the transmission oil displaces the moving V-pulley halves, this changes the position of the steel push-belt between the two pulleys and with it the gear ratio. This technology allows continuous adjustment of the gear ratio without interrupting the power transmission and operation of the engine in its most favorable power range.

Benz patent motor carriage from 1886 with its machine parts (source: DaimlerChrysler Classic)

1

2

3

4

1 2

5

æ UTS0354Y

5

Transmission History 1

æ UTS0355Y


3 4 5

Engine Belt drive to intermediate shaft Bevel gear Crankshaft with flywheel Chain drive to powered axle


Transmission Requirements

Transmission Requirements Every motor vehicle places quite specific demands on its transmission. Each of the transmission types differ in terms of design and associated features. The objectives or main points of emphasis in transmission development can be divided into the following categories: comfort and convenience, fuel consumption, driveability, installation space, and production costs. Comfort and Convenience Essential requirements in terms of comfort and convenience are, in addition to a smooth gear change without engine-speed jumps, comfortable gearshifts irrespective of engine load and operating conditions, and a low level of noise. Nor should there be any loss of convenience over the entire lifetime of the transmission.

Fig. 1 1 Input shaft 2 Main shaft 3 Shifting elements 4 Countershaft 5 Output shaft

Driveability The following transmission functions ensure good driveability: shifting points adapted to the relevant driving situation, recognition of the type of driver, high accelerating performance, engine braking action during downhill driving, suppression of gear change during cornering at high speed, and recognition of winter road conditions. Installation Space Depending on the type of drive, there are different stipulations for the space available: Thus, the transmission for a rear-wheel drive should be as small as possible in terms of diameter, while the transmission for a front-wheel drive should be as low as possible in overall length. There are also precisely defined specifications for satisfying requirements in a crash test.

Production Costs Fuel Consumption The preconditions for the lowest production costs possible are: The following transmission characteristics production in large-scale numbers, are essential in keeping fuel consumption as simple control-system layout and low as possible: automated assembly. large transmission-ratio range, high mechanical effi1 Manually shifted transmission (section, source: DaimlerChrysler) ciency, “intelligent” shifting 1 2 3 5 strategy, low power for control, low weight, and stand-by control, torque converter lockup clutch, low churning losses (resistance of the transmission oil passing through the gears), etc.

4

æ UTS0219Y

6


Manual Transmission Application Manually shifted transmissions are the simplest and most inexpensive transmissions for car drivers (final users). For this reason, they still dictate the market in Europe.

Due to increasing engine performance and higher vehicle weight together with decreasing cd values, 5-speed manual transmissions have been superseding the previously dominant 4-speed manual transmissions since the beginning of the 1980s. And now the 6-speed transmission is virtually standard. This development provided, on the one hand, safe starting and good acceleration and, on the other hand, lower engine speeds at higher road speeds, and thus reduced fuel consumption.

Design The design of a manually shifted transmission (Figures 1 and 2) incorporates a single-plate dry clutch as the power take-up element and for interrupting the power-flow during gear changes, gears mounted on two shafts, positive clutches as shifting elements, actuated via a synchronizer assembly. Features The main features of the manual transmission are: high efficiency, compact, light design, economical construction, absence of comfortable operation (clutch pedal, manual gear changing), driver-dependent shifting strategy, interruption of tractive force during gearshifting.

Power-flow in a standard drive (5-speed transmission)

1st gear

4th gear

2nd gear

5th gear

3rd gear

Reverse gear

æ UTS0220E

2

Manually Shifted Transmission

7


Automated Shift Transmission (AST)

Automated Shift Transmission (AST) Application Automated shift transmissions (AST), or automated manual transmissions (AMT), help to simplify transmission operation and increase economic operation. They are an add-on solution to conventional manual transmissions. The previously manual gearshifts are now performed by pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical means. Bosch favors the electrical solution described below (Figure 1). Design and Operating Concept The AST is made possible by electronic clutch management (ECM), supplemented by two servomotors (selection and shifting motors) for selection and shifting. Depending on the system used, the required electrical control signals can be issued directly from a shift lever actuated by the driver or from an intermediate electronic control system. Thanks to the electric-motor-driven actuators of the AST concept, it is possible at little expense to achieve automation of the transmission complete with the associated increase in convenience. An important argument for the transmission manufacturers here is the ability to reuse existing production facilities.

1

Automated shift transmission as add-on solution for manual transmission

Conventional

with AST

Declutching replaced by

Clutch servo unit

R N D

replaced by Selection and shifting

Selection and shifting motors

æ UTS0221E

8

In the simplest system, the mechanical linkage is merely replaced by a remote switch. The shift lever (tip lever or switch with H gearshift pattern) just outputs electrical signals. Power take-up and clutching are performed as in the manual transmission, partly linked to a gearshift recommendation. In fully automatic systems, the transmission and power take-up element are automated. A lever or tip switch is the control element for the driver. The driver can skip the automatic facility with a manual setting or with +/– buttons. Automatically controlling a multispeed transmission requires a complex shifting strategy which also takes into account the present total running resistance (determined by load and road profile). To support the synchronization process in the interruption of tractive force during the gearshift operation, an electronic enginecontrol facility (depending on the shift type) automatically closes the throttle briefly. The design of automated shift transmissions is characterized by the following features: basic design as for manual transmissions, actuation of clutch and gear change by actuators (pneumatic, hydraulic or electric-motor-driven), and electronic control. Features The main features of the automated shift transmission are: compact design, high efficiency, adaptation to existing transmission possible, more competitively priced than automatic or CVT transmissions, simple operation, suitable shifting strategies for achieving optimum fuel consumption and best consumption figures, and interruption of tractive force during gearshifting.


Examples of AST in Series Production AST Electric-Motor-Driven Opel Corsa (Easytronic, Figure 2a), Ford Fiesta (Durashift),

9

AST Electrohydraulic DaimlerChrysler Sprinter (Sequentronic, Figure 2b), BMW-M with SMG2, Toyota MR2, Ford Transit, VW Lupo, Ferrari, Alfa, BMW 325i/330i.

AST with Electromechanical Drum Transmission Smart. 2


Series examples of AST (sources: Opel, DaimlerChrysler)

a

4

1

2

3

5

6

7

æ UTS0222Y

b

Fig. 2 a Easytronic (Opel Corsa) b Sequentronic (DaimlerChrysler) 1 Transverse transmission 2 Clutch servo unit with integrated ECU 3 Tip lever 4 Shifting/ selection motor 5 Longitudinal transmission 6 Shifting/ selection motor 7 Shift lever

Robert Bosch GmbH Automated Shift Transmission (AST)

AST Components The components of an AST must be able to withstand high loads in terms of temperature, leak-tightness, lifetime, and vibration. Table 1 lists the most important requirements.

1

Operating life Vibrations

Table 1

4

2

3

4

5 6

7

DC Motors for Gear Selection and Engagement There are two types of DC motor for AST (Figures 5 and 6): The selector motor has a short response time. The shift motor has a high rotational force.

Demands placed on AST components

Leak-tightness

Integrated ECU (view)

1

Clutch Servo Unit The clutch servo unit (Figures 4 and 5) with integrated electronic control unit (ECU) (Figure 3) serves to actuate the clutch. The entire AST function is also incorporated in the electronics. The clutch servo unit comprises integrated ECU, housing with cooling function, DC motor, helical gear, push rod, and return spring. Temperature

105°C permanent 125°C briefly Winding and commutation system Steam jet Splash water Transmission fluid 1 million shift cycles 7...20 g sine Armature mounting Electrical / electronic components Electronics PCB

The transmission types for the selector motor and the shift motor can be set up symmetrically (left and right), and different mounting bores are also possible. The layout of the 6-pin connector can be chosen as desired.

Clutch servo unit (section)

1

Fig. 4 11 Actuator motor 12 ECU 13 Worm 14 Worm gear 15 Worm-gear shaft 16 Pin 17 Position sensor 18 Compensation spring 19 Push rod 10 Master cylinder

3

æ UAE0949-1Y

Fig. 3 1 Monitoring computer 2 Flash memory 3 Microcomputer (16-bit) 4 Travel-sensor contacts 5 DC converter 6 Driver stage for electric motors 7 Bridge driver


10

2

9

3

8

7

5

4

6

æ UTS0224Y

10


5


11

Clutch servo unit with integrated ECU and DC motors for gear selection and engagement (view)

a

b

3

4

Fig. 5 a Clutch servo unit with integrated ECU b Shifting motor c Selection motor

5

1 2

EC Motors EC motors are brushless, permanently excited, electronically commutated DC motors and are used as an alternative to the DC motors. They are equipped with a rotorposition sensor, supplied with direct current via control and power electronics (Figure 7), and characterized by long lifetime and the minimal space they take up.

6

2 3 4 5 6

DC motor (section)

1

2 3

4 5

æ UTS0226Y

The motors with their aluminum housings are mounted directly on the transmission. They have a brush holder with integrated connector. This also contains an integrated double Hall-effect sensor (IC) with a resolution of 40 increments per engine revolution. A Hall-effect sensor with output channels for the rotor angle (lateral pulse) and the direction (high and low) can detect the position of the output shaft. A 20-pin magnet on the rotor shaft allows a resolution of 9° per increment. In relation to the transmission step-up ratio, it is possible to obtain a resolution of between 0.59° per increment and 0.20° per increment at the output. Depending on the requirement, the gear has a crank or eccentric drive. The worm-gear pair has 1 to 4 teeth.

æ UTS0225Y

c

6

7

Fig. 6 1 Solid pinion for manual-transmission intervention 2 Armature bearing with pressed-on ball bearing (axial lock with clamp) 3 20-pin ring magnet and double Hall sensor 4 Vibration-resistant winding 5 Narrow armature shape for high dynamics

EC motor (schematic)

2 3 S N

1

æ UAE0282-1Y

1

Housing with cooling function Helical gear DC motor Return spring Push rod Integrated ECU

Fig. 7 1 Electrical machine with rotor position sensor 2 Control and power electronics 3 Power supply


Dual-Clutch Transmission (DCT)

Dual-Clutch Transmission (DCT) Application Dual-clutch transmissions, DCT (Figure 1), are seen as the further development of the AST. They operate without interruption of tractive force, a major drawback of the AST. The DCT’s main benefit lies in its lower fuel consumption compared with automated shift transmissions. The dual-clutch transmission was used for the first time in 1992 in motor racing (Porsche). However, owing to the high computation effort required in the control system to ensure a comfortable overlapping gearshift, it failed to make it into mass production. With the availability of high-power computers, several manufacturers (e.g. VW, Audi) are now working on introducing dualclutch transmissions for mass production. 1

Design The design of dual-clutch transmissions is characterized by the following features: basic design as for manual transmissions, gears mounted on three shafts, two clutches, actuation of clutch and shifting elements via transmission-shift control and actuators.

Dual-clutch transmission, DCT (cutaway view, source: VW)

1

Fig. 1 11 Output for right front wheel 12 Bevel-gear drive for rear axle 13 Parking lock 14 Oil cooler 15 Output shaft 1 16 Input shaft 2 17 Mechatronic module 18 Input shaft for oil pump 19 Return shaft 10 Input shaft 1 11 Dual clutch

Since its requirements profile matches that of an automatic transmission in terms of convenience and functionality, it has found its niche in the superior, luxury vehicle categories. Dual-clutch transmissions also match the wishes of vehicle manufacturers for modular concepts since both manually shifted and automated shift transmissions can be manufactured on the same production line.

2

3

11

4

5

10

6

9

8

7

æ UTS0227Y

12


Operating Concept The dual-clutch transmission operates as follows: The gear wheels assigned to the gear steps are divided into groups of even and uneven gears. Although it is similar in terms of basic design to a conventional manual countershaft transmission, there is one crucial difference: Even the main shaft is split – namely into a solid shaft and a surrounding hollow shaft, both coupled to a gear train.

13

the gears is thus possible. In this way, the gear change can take place between the two partial transmissions, in the same way as in an automatic transmission, without interruption of tractive force (Figure 2). Features The main features of the dual-clutch transmission are: similar levels of convenience to an automatic transmission, high efficiency, no interruption of tractive force during gearshifting, skipping of a gear possible, takes up more space than an AST, high bearing forces, solid construction.

Each partial shaft is assigned its own clutch at the transmission input. Since now two gears are engaged during the gear change (both the active gear and the neighboring, preselected gear), a faster change between

Dual-clutch transmission, operating principle with power-flow when accelerating in 1st gear (source: VW)

1 2

3

4

5

10

6

6

7

11

8

12 13

9

14

æ UTS0228Y

2

Dual-Clutch Transmission (DCT)

Fig. 2 11 Engine drive 12 Input shaft 1 13 Input shaft 2 14 Clutch 1 (closed) 15 Clutch 2 (open) 16 Output to differential 17 Reverse gear 18 6th gear 19 5th gear 10 Differential 11 2nd gear (preselected) 12 4th gear 13 3rd gear 14 1st gear (active)


Automatic Transmission (AT)

Automatic Transmission (AT) Application Automatic power-shift transmissions, or simply automatic transmissions (AT) perform power take-up, select the gear ratios, and carry out the gearshifts themselves. A hydrodynamic converter acts as the power take-up element. Design and Operating Concept Transmission with Ravigneaux PlanetaryGear Set The four-shaft planetary-gear set known as the Ravigneaux set is the basis of many automatic 4-speed transmissions. Figure 1 shows the schematic, the shifting logic, and a speedladder diagram for this transmission. The transmission schematic clearly shows the layout of the gear wheels and shifting elements. Sun gears B, C and planetary-gear carrier S can be connected via clutches CB, CC and CS to shaft A, which is guided by the converter turbine into the transmission. Shafts S and C can be connected with the aid of brakes BS and BC to the transmission housing. 1

A planetary-gear set of this type has a kinematic degree of freedom of 2. This means that, when two speeds are specified, all the other speeds are established. The individual gears are shifted in such a way that via two shifting elements the speeds of two shafts are defined either as drive speed ndr or as housing speed nC = 0 rpm. The speed-ladder diagram clearly shows the speed ratios in the transmission. The speeds are entered upwards on the speed ladders for the individual shafts of the overlapping or shift transmission. The gaps of the speed ladders are derived from the gear ratios or numbers of teeth such that the speeds belonging to a particular point of operation can be connected by a straight line. At a specific drive speed, the five reference lines characterize the speed ratios in four forward gears and one reverse gear. Only the three shafts B, C and S between the input shaft “in” (corresponding to A) and the output shaft “out” are available for the different gearshifts. All three shafts can be

4-speed automatic transmission based on Ravigneaux planetary-gear set

a

c

CB CC BC BS CS

TCC in

TWP L

C B

A

Sun = C

Bridge = S Ring gear = out Sun = B

6,000 rpm

S

out

Engine speed

14

4

3,000

3 2 1 R

0

–3,000 Shifting range

Fig. 1 a Transmission schematic b Shifting logic c Speed-ladder diagram

1

2

Gear

3

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

2

3

Gear steps with simple gearshifts

4

CC

CS

CB

BS

BC

itot

R

–2.550

N 1

2.800

2

1.508

3

1.000

4

0.718

æ UTS0229E

b


connected to input shaft A, but then constructively only two shafts can still be connected to the transmission housing. The simultaneous shifting of two brakes is not useful for gearshifts as this blocks the transmission. Of equally little use is the simultaneous connection of one shaft to the housing and to the input shaft. The simultaneous shifting of two clutches always results in the direct gear (i = 1). This retains exactly the five gears shown in the shifting logic and in the speed diagram. Beyond the numbers of teeth that are possible within the framework of the installation conditions, the designer still has the option of changing the individual gear ratios, where a direct gear is always specified with i = 1. Finally, these transmissions still make it possible with simple gearshifts to skip gears by cutting in one shifting element and cutting out another shifting element. It is possible to shift from 1st gear into 2nd or 3rd gear, and from 4th gear into 3rd or 2nd gear. From 2nd and 3rd gear, all other gears can be reached with simple gearshifts. However, it is not possible to shift more than four forward gears with the Ravigneaux set. An automatic transmission with five gears therefore requires either another basic transmission or a front-mounted or rearmounted range-change unit to expand the Ravigneaux set. But such an expansion stage requires at least two shifting elements. An example of this is the 5HP19 automatic transmission from ZF, which has three clutches, four brakes, and a one-way clutch to shift only five forward gears. Obviously, it is also possible to attain more than 5 gears with range-change units but shifting effort then becomes increasingly more pronounced and gearshifts of several shifting elements for one gear change cannot be avoided.


Transmission with Lepelletier Planetary-Gear Set A more elegant way of shifting five and more gears was devised by the French engineer Lepelletier. He expanded the Ravigneaux set to include a range-change transmission for only two shafts of the Ravigneaux set in order to drive them with means other than the drive speed. The unusual feature of the Lepelletier planetary-gear set as set out in Figure 2 (following page) lies in the fact that the additional three-shaft planetary-gear set reduces the speed of shaft D in respect to that of shaft A. In the first three gears of this 6-speed automatic transmission, the shifting logic corresponds to the logic of the 4-speed Ravigneaux set. The gear ratios are greater by the orbit ratio of the internal gear to the carrier at the fixed sun gear of the additional planetary-gear set. In 4th and 5th gears, shaft S is connected via clutch KS to shaft A. It rotates faster than shafts B and C. The transmission ratios are produced from the gearshifts in 4th gear: S = A and B = D and in 5th gear S = A and C = D. Without the additional transmission from A to D, the gear ratios in 3rd, 4th and 5th gears would be identical and all i = 1. The 6th gear of this 6-speed automatic transmission corresponds in terms of the shifting logic again to the 4th gear of the 4-speed automatic transmission. Even the gearshifts of the reverse gears are identical in these 4-speed and 6-speed automatic transmissions.

15



tion were removed and replaced by an additional brake BE, the vehicle could be started with this brake instead of the converter.

The 6-speed automatic transmission (Figure 3) also makes possible wide gear steps with simple gearshifts, which can be necessary particularly in the case of rapid downshifts. The Lepelletier planetary-gear set therefore differs from the Ravigneaux set only in that it has an additional planetary-gear set with a fixed gear ratio. The number of shifting elements remains the same. They are simply used repeatedly for the additional gears. In terms of space, weight, and cost, this transmission is more suitable than a 5-speed automatic transmission. With the numbers of teeth shown in Figure 2, this 6-speed automatic transmission achieves a setting range of φ = 6 with easily shiftable gear spacings. The additional planetary-gear set consists of sun gear E, internal gear A, and planetarygear carrier D and is used in reverse gear and the first 5 gears as a fixed ratio stage. Shaft E is permanently connected as reaction member to the transmission housing. If this connec2

Power Take-Up Elements In the majority of automatic transmissions which are geared towards convenience, a hydrodynamic converter adopts the power take-up function. A hydrodynamic converter is an ideal power take-up element because of the way it works as a turbo element. In order to minimize converter losses during vehicle operation, it is however (as often as is possible) locked up with the torque converter lockup clutch (TCLC).

When used with very high-torque turbodiesel engines, the converter can no longer be designed to achieve optimum results for all operating states. A drive of this type requires a relatively soft converter characteristic for safe starting in cold conditions. The maximum pump torque may only have an effect at high speeds so that the drag losses do not stall the weak engine without suffi-

6-speed automatic transmission based on Lepelletier planetary-gear set

a

c

CB CC BC BS CS

TCLC

TWP L

in

D E

C B

A

Sun = C

Bridge = S Ring gear = out Sun = B

6,000 rpm

S

out

Engine speed

16

6

3,000

5 4

3 2 1 R

0

–3,000 Shifting range

Fig. 2 a Transmission schematic b Shifting logic c Speed-ladder diagram

1

2

3

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

2

Gear

4

5

CC

CS

CB

BS

BC

itot

R

–3.400

N 1

4.171

2

2.340

3

4

5

6

3

1.521

3

4

5

6

4

1.143

5

0.867

4

5

6

6

0.691

æ UTS0231E

b


cient charge-air pressure. At normal operating temperatures and at speeds at which sufficient charge-air pressure is available, a hard converter characteristic with a steep rise in pump torque as engine speed increases is advantageous. Series applications with fast and accurate pressure control now also make it possible to start up comfortably with friction clutches. A good example of this is the Audi A6 with the continuously variable Multitronic transmission. Pressure control and heat dissipation can be better achieved with a brake than with a clutch. It should therefore also be possible to obtain comfortable starting with the brake. Even during the gear changes, a slipping brake can remove the load from the other shifting elements in the same way as a converter. Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF) Automatic transmissions place exacting demands on the ATF (automatic transmission fluid): increased pressure-absorption capability, good viscosity-temperature characteristics, high resistance to aging,

17

low foaming tendency, compatibility with sealing materials, These requirements must be guaranteed in the oil pan in a temperature range of –30...+150°C. Temperatures of up to 400°C are briefly and locally possible between the clutch plates during a gearshift. The transmission fluid is specially adapted for fault-free operation of the automatic transmission. A series of chemical substances (additives) is added to the basic oil for this purpose. The main additives are: friction modifiers, which influence the frictional behavior of the shifting elements, antioxidants for reducing thermooxidative aging at high temperatures, dispersants for preventing deposits in the transmission, foam inhibitors for preventing the buildup of oil foam, corrosion inhibitors for preventing corrosion of transmission components when condensation water is formed, and seal-swell agents, which control the swelling of sealing materials (elastomers) under the influence of oil to defined levels.

ZF 6-speed 6HP26 automatic transmission (source: ZF Friedrichshafen)

1

2 3

4

5

6

7

8

æ UTS0230Y

3


Fig. 3 1 Transmission input from engine 2 Torque converter lockup clutch 3 Turbine 4 Converter 5 Multiplate clutches 6 Module for transmission control 7 Planetary-gear set 8 Transmission output

Robert Bosch GmbH 18



GM established the first specification for ATF back in 1949. Typical technical data for SAE viscosity classes in accordance with DIN 51 512 are: Flash point (> 180°C) Pour point (< –45°C) Viscosity index (VI > 190) Kin. viscosity: 37 cSt (at +40°C) 17 cSt (at +100°C) Dyn. viscosity: 17 000 cP (at –40°C) 13 300 cP (at –30°C) 11 000 cP (at –20°C) In the meantime, automatic transmissions are increasingly being filled with lifetime fluid, thus rendering unnecessary a change of fluid. Oil Pump The transmission requires an oil pump (Figure 4) to build up a control pressure. This pump is driven by the engine. At the same time, the oil-pump drive power reduces the transmission efficiency. The following equation applies here:

Pump output = pressure flow

4

Figure 5 shows the output characteristics of a gear pump (1) and a radial piston pump (2) in comparison. Possibilities for optimization in the oil-pump range are offered by a variable flow or a controllable pump pressure: Variable Pump Flow The particular features of variable pump flow are as follows: The design creates a sufficiently high flow to fill the clutch at idle speed. An additional displacement at higher speeds causes a loss of output. The variable-capacity pump enables the pump output to be adapted as required. However, variable pump flow has the drawback of being expensive and susceptible to failure. Controllable Pump Pressure The particular features of controllable pump pressure are as follows: The pump pressure is adapted to the torque to be transferred in each case. Main-pressure control allows effective operation (by means of the actuator) close to the clutch slipping point.

5

Crescent oil pump (section)

Oil pumps (pump outputs in comparison) kW

1

2

3

4 10

1

Pump output PP

8

Fig. 4 1 Pressure outlet 2 Crescent 3 Internal gear 4 Suction side 5 External gear, driven by engine 6 Drive lug

4

2

5

6

0 0

2,000

4,000

Engine speed nE

6,000 rpm

æ STS0233E

2

æ STS0232Y

Fig. 5 1 Gear pump 2 Radial piston pump

6


Torque Converter The torque converter (Figure 6) is a power take-up aid, which works as an additional gear in the start-up range and also serves to damp vibrations. It was the hydraulic converter with centripetal turbine which first enabled automatic transmissions to be used in passenger cars. The most important elements of a converter are: pump (driven by the engine), turbine, stator on the one-way clutch, and fluid (for the transfer of torque). 6

3

4

æ UTS0234Y

2

8 3

2.0

100 %

η

µ MT Torque conversion µ = ––– M

P

2

80 1.5 60 1.0 40 0.5

Torque conversion η

1

Fig. 6 1 Torque converter lockup clutch 2 Turbine wheel 3 Impeller 4 Stator

Torque converter (characteristic)

20

0

0 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8 1.0 n Speed ratio ν = –nT P

æ UTK0005-1E

Fluid flow in torque converter

æ UTS0235Y

7

19

The impeller sets the fluid from the hub in motion in an outward direction. There the fluid hits the turbine, which directs it inwards. The fluid from the turbine in the hub area then hits the stator, which diverts it back to the pump (Figure 7). In the converter area (ν < 85%), the turbine torque is increased by the reaction torque at the stator. In the clutch area, the stator one-way clutch is released and there is no further increase in torque. The maximum efficiency is < 97% (Figure 8). A transmission of power via the converter can only take place when slip occurs between the impeller and the turbine wheel. This is low in most vehicle operating states, ranging from 2...10%. However, this slip causes a loss in power output and thereby increased vehicle fuel consumption. A torque converter lockup clutch must therefore always cut in when the converter is not required for start-up or torque conversion (see also section “Controlled Torque Converter Lockup Clutch”). This is a multiplate clutch, which connects the impeller to the turbine wheel by frictional locking.

Torque converter (section)

1


Fig. 7 1 Turbine wheel 2 Stator 3 Impeller


Multiplate Clutches Multiplate clutches (Figure 9) facilitate shifting without an interruption of tractive force and support the torque in the gear in which they are being actuated.

The following problems can occur in connection with multiplate clutches: combustion at high temperatures, supply of fluid with rotating clutches, and pressure increase caused by rotation speed.

The lining and steel plates of the clutches and brakes take on the dynamic torque and the shifting energy during the gearshift and the load torque to be transferred after the gearshift. In order to ensure high gear-shift sophistication (convenience), the friction linings must demonstrate coefficients of friction which are as constant as possible and not dependent on temperature and load. The friction linings in automatic transmissions have a cellulose support structure (paper linings). Added aramide fibers (highstrength plastic) ensure temperature stability. Further constituents are mineral aggregates, graphite, or friction particles for influencing the coefficient of friction. The entire lining is soaked in phenol resin to give it its mechanical strength. The steel plates are made of cold-rolled sheet steel. The friction process occurs in the fluid layer between the lining and steel plates. The friction lining maintains this fluid layer through its porosity and by supplying cooling fluid.

Planetary-Gear Sets The planetary-gear set (Figure 10) is the heart of the automatic transmission. Its function is to adjust the gear ratios and to ensure constant power transmission. A planetary-gear set is made up of the following components: A central gear wheel (sun gear). Several (usually three to five) planet gears, which can rotate around their own axes and also around the sun gear. The planet gears are held in place by the planetarygear carrier, which can rotate around the central axis. An internal gear, which surrounds and encloses the planet gears. This internal gear can also rotate around the central axis.

9

Fig. 9 1 Fluid feed 2 Outer plate 3 Lining plate 4 Plate carrier 5 Return spring


10

Multiplate clutch (section)

1

3

2

4

Planetary-gear set (schematic)

1

2

æ UTS0236Y

5 Fig. 10 1 Planetary-gear carrier with planet gears 2 Sun gear 3 Internal gear

Planetary-gear sets are used in automatic transmissions for the following reasons: The power density of planetary-gear sets is very high since the power is transmitted in parallel via several planet gears. Planetary-gear sets are therefore highly compact and low in weight.

3

æ UTA0003-1Y

20


No free radial forces occur in the planetary-gear set. Rolling bearings can be replaced by cost-effective plain bearings. Multiplate clutches, multiplate brakes, band brakes, and one-way clutches can be arranged concentrically to the planetarygear set, thus providing more space for the hydraulic control system. Different planetary-gear set combinations are used in transmissions: Simpson (3-speed, two systems), Ravigneaux (4-speed, two systems), Wilson (5-speed, two systems). 11

2

3

Two types of planetary-gear set have been successfully used in automatic transmissions and are characterized by the following easyto-distinguish features: Ravigneaux Set In the Ravigneaux set (Figure 11), two different planetary sets and sun gears operate in a single internal gear. Simpson Set In the Simpson set (Figure 12), two planetary sets and internal gears run on one joint sun gear.

4

Fig. 11 1 Internal gear 2 Sun gear and planetary-gear set 1 3 Planetary-gear set 2 4 Sun gear 2

æ UTS0237Y

2

13

Simpson set (schematic)

1

2

3

4

Parking lock

1

2

Fig. 12 1 Planetary-gear set 1 and internal gear 1 2 Planetary-gear set 2 3 Internal gear 2 4 Sun gear

æ UTS0239Y

1

æ UTS0238Y

12

21

Parking Lock The function of the parking lock (Figure 13) is to secure the vehicle against rolling off. Its reliable operation is therefore fundamental to safety. The driver must press the brake pedal before the selector lever can be moved from the P (Park) position. This mechanism prevents the vehicle from being set in motion by accidental operation of the selector lever.

Ravigneaux set (schematic)

1


Fig. 13 1 Pawl 2 Parking-lock gear



Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)

Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) Application Drive concepts with continuously variable transmissions (CVT) are characterized by high driving convenience, outstanding ride characteristics, and low fuel consumption. VDT (Van Doorne’s Transmissie) has for many years specialized in developing CVT components and prototype transmissions. Since its takeover of VDT in 1995, Bosch now covers the entire field of CVT system developments through to complete drivetrain-management systems. All the continuously variable automatic transmissions listed in Table 1 are operated with a push-belt (Figure 1). One exception is the Audi Multitronic with a link-chain manufactured by LuK (Figure 2). The main components of a CVT can be activated by an electrohydraulic module. In addition to the push-belt – in mass production since 1985 – pulleys, pumps, and electrohydraulic modules are being developed for volume production launch. There are different types of push-belt for mid-range engine torques up to 400 Nm (e.g. Nissan Murano V6 with 3.5 l displacement and max. 350 Nm at 4000 rpm, with converter). The know-how within the Bosch Group provides the software for optimum CVT activation. Naturally there is full flexibility with regard to software sharing so that 1 vehicle manufacturers can also develop and implement special functions themselves.

1

Current availability (worldwide) of vehicles with CVT

Vehicle manufacturer

CVT designation

Vehicle

Audi

Multitronic

A4, A6

BMW

CVT

Mini

GM

CVT

Saturn

Honda

Multimatic

Capa, Civic, HR-V, Insight, Logo

Hyundai

CVT

Sonata

Kia

CVT

Optima

Lancia

CVT

Y 1.2l

MG

CVT

F, ZR, ZS

Mitsubishi

CVT

Lancer-Cedia, Wagon

Nissan

Hyper-CVT ICVT Extroid-CVT

Almera, Avensis, Bluebird, Cube Micra, Murano, Primera, Serano, Tino, Cedric Gloria

Rover

CVT

25/45

Subaru

ICVT

Pleo

Toyota

Super-CVT Hybrid-CVT

Previa, Opa Prius

1

CVT for front-wheel drive, transverse (section)

6

4 5 2 3

æ UTS0240Y

Fig. 1 1 Torque converter 2 Pump 3 Planetary-gear set with forward/reverse clutch 4 Push-belt 5 Variator 6 Control module


CVT for front-wheel drive, longitudinal (Audi Multitronic with link-chain, source: Audi)

æ UTS0241Y

2


Engine speed

Conflicting requirements can be satisfied A distinction is drawn within the CVT funcwith the aid of electronic control and tions between a basic functionality and an appropriate prioritization. expansion stage. All the functions of the first group have already been 3 Span of a CVT transmission compared with 5-speed automatic (characteristic) implemented and tested and are in use in various Low 1st gear 2nd gear 3rd gear 4th gear vehicles. rpm Suitable tools for effi5,000 5th gear cient representation and 4,000 5th gear testing such as ASCETOverdrive 3,000 SD are available and used 2,000 in joint projects. 0 0

50

100 Vehicle speed

km/h

150

Tractive force and running resistance (characteristics)

N 8,000

1st gear Running resistance

Low 6,000 2nd gear 4,000

3rd gear 4th gear

2,000

5th gear 5th gear Overdrive

0 0

50

100 Vehicle speed

150

km/h

æ UTS0243E

Tractive effort

Starting out from the span shown in Figure 3, this produces the allocation of the tractive force to the gear ratio shown in Figure 4.

æ UTS0242E

1,000

The large gear-ratio span of continuously variable transmissions moves the engine operating point into ranges that are 4 favorable to fuel consumption.

23



5


Mechanical variator adjustment (schematic)

a

b

a1

a2

Fig. 5 a “Low” ratio b “Overdrive” ratio

2

1

3

b1

a1, b1 “Low” ratio a2, b2 “Overdrive” ratio

6

b2

Variator adjustment (control principle)

Secondary speed Primary speed

Primary pulley

Command signal ratio Secondary pressure

Primary pressure

Command signal pressure force

æ UTS0245E

Modelbased variator control

Secondary pulley

7

Model-based variator adjustment

Nominal speed

Nominal ratio

Ratio controller

Secondary speed

Adaptive function

Gear ratio Engine torque Clutch / CC Engine speed Temperature

Primary current

–

Primary torque Pump control

Nom. pressure Max. adjustment speed

Secondarypressure controller

Secondary current

Secondary pressure

æ UTS0246E

2 3

Input (primary) pulley Push-belt or chain Output (secondary) pulley

æ UTS0244Y

1

Figure 5 shows the mechanical adjustment of the gear ratio from “low” to “overdrive”. The control setup shown in Figure 6 is used for this purpose. The model-based variator control system featured in Figure 7 processes the following operations: Adjustment of primary speed or gear ratio with PI controller. Adjustment of contact pressure for the primary and secondary pulleys. Coupling of the control of gear ratio and contact-pressure control and control of the pump. Adaptive function for compensating tolerances.


Design The converter or the multiplate clutch acts as the power take-up element, and the reverse gear is shifted via a planetary-gear set.

25

Features One advantage of CVT transmissions is that they do not cause any interruption of tractive force when the gear ratio is changed. These transmissions offer a high level of convenience since gearshifts are not necessary.

The gear ratio is continuously varied with V-pulleys and a belt or a chain (variator).

In the entire engine map, operation is matched to optimum fuel consumption/ maximum acceleration. A high ratio span is also possible.

High-pressure hydraulics provide the necessary contact pressure and variator adjustment. All the functions are controlled by the electrohydraulic control system. The various components of the CVT transmission are depicted in Figure 8.

Although the high-pressure pump requires a certain level of drive power, the overall efficiency is satisfactory.

Model-based variator control

4

3 1

5

2 6

7

8

9 10

11

æ UTS0247Y

8


Fig. 8 11 Engine 12 Pump 13 Converter 14 Planetary-gear set 15 Push-belt 16 Input (primary) pulley 17 Output (secondary) pulley 18 Differential 19 Electronic engine management 10 Electrohydraulic module (hydraulic valves, sensors, actuators) 11 Vehicle wiring harness




CVT Components Variator The variator consists of two V-pulleys which move in relation to each other (Figures 9 and 10). The pressure p of the transmission fluid moves the moving parts of the variator (1) in relation to each other. This alters the position of the push-belt (3) between the two pulleys and changes the gear ratio. As power transmission is based solely on the friction between the belt and the variator, this type of adjustment requires a high system pressure.

9

Push-Belt The company Van Doorne’s Transmissie holds a worldwide patent for the push-belt. Figure 11 shows the different types of belt and their areas of application in relation to the engine torque to be transferred. The push-belt (Figure 12) consists of push elements 2 mm thick and 24...30 mm wide, which are arranged at an inclination angle of 11° to each other. The chain is held by two packs, each with 8 to 12 steel belts. The coefficient of friction of the chain is at least 0.9. 11

Variator (view)

Product range of push-belts

Nm 400

30/12

Torque

300 200

VDT belt

24/12 24/9

30/9

30/9

10

0 Compact class

12

Variator (schematic)

æ UTS0250E

æ UTS0248Y

100

Mid-range Luxury-class class vehicles

Push-belt (view with excerpt)

1

p

3 4 1

p

2

æ UTS0251Y

Fig. 12 1 Push element 2 Steel-belt pack

2

æ UTS0249Y

Fig. 10 1 Moving pulley 2 Fixed pulley 3 Push-belt 4 Spring p Pressure of transmission fluid applied


Belt diameter Thickness of belts Number of belts Width of push elements in mm

Link-chain Instead of the push-belt usually used in CVT transmissions, Audi uses a link-chain manufactured by the company LuK in its Multitronic transmission (this chain is based on the pin chain manufactured by the company P.I.V. Reimers). This link-chain is made completely of steel and yet is almost as flexible as a V-belt. It is composed of various positions of links next to each other and therefore of such robust design that it can transfer very high torques (transferable engine torque 350 Nm) and forces. The chain (Figure 13) consists of 1025 individual links, each with 13...14 chain links lined up next to each other. Pins with a width of 37 mm and an inclination angle of 11° connect the links (1) to each other. The ends of the pins (2) press against the conical surfaces in the variator. The tractive force of the chain is transferred to the variator pulleys at the support points created. The mini slip created in the process is so minimal that the pins are subject to wear of no more than one to two tenths of a millimeter over the entire working life of the transmission. The link-chain has the further advantage that it can be routed over a circumference that is smaller still than other belts. By running on this minimum wrap diameter, it has the capacity to transfer maximum forces and torques. In this event, only nine pairs of pins are in contact with the inside surfaces of the pulleys. However, the specific contact pressure is so high that they do not slip even under maximum load.

13

Link-chain for Audi Multitronic (source: Audi)

2

1

æ UTS0252Y

24/12/1.5/208.8

27

CVT Oil Pump Since the process of adjusting the pulleys in the CVT requires a high fluid pressure, a high-power oil pump is used to generate this pressure (Figure 14).

14

CVT oil pump

æ UTS0253Y

The following nomenclature is used for the belt designations:


Fig. 13 1 Links 2 Pin


Toroid transmission

high-pressure hydraulics for preloading the torus wheels, and electrohydraulic control.

Toroid Transmission Application The toroid transmission is currently only used in Japan in the Cedric and Gloria models built by Nissan.

Features The main features are as follows: no interruption of tractive force, no gearshifts (high convenience), adapted operation in the engine map for optimum fuel consumption/maximum acceleration, can be used for high torques, rapid ratio adjustment, high drive power for the high-pressure pump (overall efficiency therefore only satisfactory), and special ATF (automatic transmission fluid) with high shear strength required.

Design As a special type of continuously variable transmission (Figures 1 and 2), the toroid transmission is also known as a friction-gear CVT. It is characterized by the following design features: converter as power take-up element, reverse gear via planetary-gear set, power transmission via torus wheels with intermediate rollers, continuously variable change of ratio by hydraulic angle adjustment of intermediate rollers, 1

Toroid transmission (schematic)

b

a 1

Fig. 1 a Half toroid b Full toroid

2

3

1

3

4

4

æ UTS0254Y

1 2 3 4

2

Input wheel Variator Output wheel Output

2

Toroid transmission (version)

1

Fig. 2 1 Input wheel 2 Variator 3 Output

2

3

æ UTS0255Y

28


29

Transmission history 2

Daimler/Maybach Steel-Wheel Carriage from 1889 with Four-Speed Transmission Power transmission in an automobile must guarantee the functions of starting, enginespeed, and torque conversion for forward and reverse travel. These functions call for actuators and shifting elements which intervene in the power-flow and perform engine-speed and torque conversion. In the very early days of automobile history, many vehicles transferred their engine’s motive force to the road with belt and chain drives. Only in the output stage, the final drive, were gear and chain drives soon to be in use due to the high torques involved. The steel-wheel carriage from Daimler and his designer Maybach from 1889 was the first four-wheel vehicle with an internal-combustion engine not to be simply a converted horsedrawn carriage, but to be conceived in its entirety specifically for motorized road traffic. The power-flow of its vertically mounted twocylinder V-engine with a power output of 2 HP (1.45 kW) was already transferred to the powered axle with a clutch, a four-speed manually shifted gear transmission, and a differential. A gear transmission could specifically carry out the conversion of rotational speed, torque, and direction of rotation in the tightest of spaces.


Daimler/Maybach steel-wheel carriage from 1889 with its four-speed transmission (source: DaimlerChrysler Classic)

The four-speed transmission to be operated using two shift levers consisted of different straight-toothed gear pairs, one pair of which could always be engaged with the aid of two sliding-gear clusters. The top speed that could be reached ranged between 5 km/h (1st gear) and 16 km/h (4th gear). For the purpose of starting and shifting, the power transmission from the engine to the transmission could be interrupted with a bevel clutch. Despite the introduction of the variable-ratio gear transmission, the belt drive maintained its position for some time as the power take-up element in the subsequent course of vehicle development because it permitted a certain starting slip and a greater spacing to the other drivetrain components. There were also combinations of belt drives, manual gear transmissions, and chain drives. The chain drive remained in use in passenger cars until roughly 1910. But as engine power output continued to increase, there was no longer any way past the variableratio gear transmission with bevel clutch on account of the high forces that were created. After 1920 the positive connection (with constantly engaged gears) was established by displacing dog clutches with low displacement travel. Then helical gears and synchronization became standard in manually shifted transmissions. Finally, there came the introduction of automatic transmissions, which are usually fitted with planetary-gear sets on account of the high power density.

1

2

3

æ UTS0357Y

æ UTS0356Y

1 2 3

Transmission input with bevel clutch Sliding-gear cluster 1 Sliding-gear cluster 2

Robert Bosch GmbH Electronic Transmission Control

Drivetrain Management

Electronic Transmission Control drivetrain-management system calculates the conversion into torque and engine speed and implements them. In order for such a strategy to be implemented, it is essential for the system to be equipped with an electrically actuated throttle valve (drive by wire).

In complicated traffic situations, unfamiliar surroundings, or poor weather conditions (e.g., heavy rain, snow, or fog), manual gear changing can distract car drivers to such an extent as to create situations that are difficult to control. This also applies to the annoying, incessant process of engaging and disengaging the clutch when driving in stop-and-go traffic. Automatic transmissions with electronic control assist drivers in these and other traffic situations so that they can concentrate fully on the road conditions and what is happening around them.

Figure 1 shows the organizational structure of drivetrain management as part of the overall vehicle structure. The vehicle coordinator forwards the requested propulsion movement to the drivetrain coordinator while taking into account the power requirements of other vehicle subsystems (e.g., body or electrical-system electronics). The drivetrain coordinator distributes the power demand to the engine, converter, and transmission. In the process, the various coordinators may also have to solve conflicts of interest that arise in accordance with defined priority criteria. A whole range of different external influencing factors (such as environment, traffic situation, vehicle operating status, and driver type) plays a role here.

Drivetrain Management

æ STS0256E

Coordinator

As the number of electronic systems in the vehicle increases, so too does the complexity of the overall network of the various ECUs. Controlling such networked structures requires hierarchical order concepts, such as, for example, the “Cartronic” system from Bosch. Coordinated drivetrain management is integrated as a substructure in the “Cartronic” system. It facilitates optimally The Cartronic concept is based on an matched management of the engine and object-oriented software structure with transmission in the various vehicle operatphysical interfaces, e.g., torque as an intering conditions. face parameter of drivetrain management. The engine is operated as often as possible in the fuel-saving ranges of its program map. If the driver adopts a sporty driving style, however, the high, less economical speed ranges are increasingly utilized. Such a situation-dependent 1 Monitoring architecture of monitored drivetrain management mode of operation presupposes on the one hand that the driver command is recognized and on the Vehicle Drive other hand that its impleEnvironmental Torque Engine ? mentation is left to the variables electronic drivetrainVehicle Driving-condition Slip Converter ? motion variables management system and a higher-level driving Vehicle Body and TransGear ratio ? variable interior mission strategy. When the driver presses the accelerator User Electrical Provision of propulsion ? variables system power and power for other pedal, the system interloads/consumers prets this action as an acceleration request. From this request, the Coordinator

30


The statutory requirements relating to fuel consumption and exhaust-gas emissions will play a significant role in transmission development over the next few years. There follows a brief comparison of the requirements of the main markets for this purpose.

CAFE Requirements In contrast to Europe, the USA, the most important market for automatic transmissions, has seen no change in the CAFE fuelconsumption requirements (corporate average fuel efficiency) since 1990 (Figure 2). All attempts to bring about a tightening of these requirements have proven unsuccessful.

ACEA, JAMA and KAMA The ACEA (Association des Constructeurs Européens d’Automobiles, i.e. Association of European Automobile Manufacturers) has agreed to reduce the corporate average in CO2 emissions in the period from 2002 to 2008 from 170 mg CO2 to 140 mg CO2 (Figure 1).

1

g/km 200

CO2 emission

The Japanese and Korean manufacturers’ associations (JAMA and KAMA) have adopted the same limits for the year 2009. In order for this target to be achieved, the next few years will see an increased acceptance of transmission types such as the 6-speed transmission CVT (continuously variable transmission) and AST (automated shift transmission).

2

CO2-emission requirements

180

Current field of values 165…170

160 140

140 120 100 2000

Consumption leader VW Polo 3l 2002

2004

2006

2008

Year

2010

2012

æ STS0257E

Market Trends

Market Trends

CAFE fuel-consumption requirements (passenger cars, light commercial vehicles not included)

Standard

Current value

FE/mpg 30

20

15

10

5

0 1978

1990

Year

2000

æ STS0258E

Fuel consumption

25

31

Robert Bosch GmbH Control of Automated Shift Transmission AST

Control of Automated Shift Transmission AST Requirements Current market developments reveal a marked trend towards an increase in in-car safety and operating comfort and convenience. This is accompanied by an increase in vehicle mass and in the final analysis an increase in fuel consumption. The emission guidelines laid down by legislators (140 g/km CO2 by 2008) only intensify the situation.

The automated shift transmission (AST) combines the advantages of a manually shifted transmission with the functions of an automatic transmission. The automated version of the classic manual transmission is characterized by its high efficiency. Slip losses do not occur as in conventional torque-converter transmissions. Specific fuel consumption in the automatic mode is below the low level of the manual transmission. AST development is founded on the knowledge and findings gained in connection with electric-motor clutch management (ECM). Electric-Motor Clutch Management (ECM) Application Following initial experiences with hydraulic clutch management, users are now concentrating their efforts on the use of electric motors as clutch actuators in the small-car segment. This new approach allows for savings to be made on costs and weight, as well as providing a higher degree of integration. Corresponding ECM systems are used in the Mercedes A-Class, the Fiat Seicento, and the Hyundai Atoz. Fig. 1 MC Clutch torque ME Engine torque tD Declutching time S1 Signal for gearshift command

Design and Operating Concept The most important step in minimizing costs was switching from a hydraulic actuator to an electric-motor actuator. This step removed the need for a pump, an accumulator, and valves as well as the need for a travel

sensor in the clutch-release system. Instead the clutch-travel sensor is integrated in the electric-motor actuator. The small electric motor offers a low power density in comparison with a hydraulic pump and accumulator. The electric-motor actuator is therefore only suitable if it can achieve sufficiently short declutching times for rapid gearshifts. Shifting without Torque Correction In the conventional system without torque correction (Figure 1), the clutch torque is far in excess of the engine torque. The reason behind this is that the dry clutch, which has to transfer at least the engine torque under all extreme conditions, normally offers a reserve of 50 to 150%. The engine torque drops when the driver wishes to change gear and at the same time takes his foot off the accelerator pedal. Operating the shift lever initiates the intention to change gear, and the clutch must now be moved from the fully closed to the fully open position. This defines the declutching time. If the declutching time is too long, the clutch will still transfer torque while the next gear is being synchronized, a process which may result in rattling or damage to the transmission.

1

Shifting without torque correction

S1 tD

Nm 400

MC

300 200

ME

100 0 ¯100

0

2

4

Time t

6

8s

æ STS0259E

Electronic Transmission Control

Torque

32


Shifting with Torque Correction The most technically sophisticated solution for avoiding transmission damage is to combine a reduced-force clutch with torque correction. Figure 2 shows the shifting operation with torque correction, in which the clutch torque is only marginally above the engine torque. When the driver takes his foot off the accelerator pedal to change gear, the clutch torque drops as well as the engine torque. When the intention to change gear is initiated, the clutch is thus already almost open and the remaining declutching operation follows very rapidly. Figure 3 features a schematic representation of electric-motor clutch management (ECM) as a partial-automation solution, and the automated shift transmission (AST) as the complete automation of the manual transmission, both as add-on systems. Electric-Motor Automated Shift Transmission AST Application Today the AST is used primarily in the lower torque classes (e.g., VW Lupo, MCC Smart, Opel Corsa Easytronic, see also chapter entitled “Transmission Types”), where, in comparison to the fully automatic transmission, the cost benefit makes up for the downside of the interruption in tractive force.

Control of Automated Shift Transmission AST

33

Design and Operating Concept The electric-motor AST features the automated clutch operation of the ECM system. With an additional electric-motor actuator for the transmission, the driver is able to change gear without there being a mechanical connection between the selector lever and the transmission (shift by wire). In the case of the AST, all modifications to the transmission are to be avoided. This will enable the transmission manufacturer to mount either manual transmissions or ASTs on the production line. As the hardware for this system (e.g., for the Opel Corsa Easytronic), Bosch supplies the electric motors for clutch engagement, shifting, and selection (see chapter entitled “Transmission, Automated Shift Transmission”), and the ECU. Automated and cost-effective mass production is made possible by the use of standard components in all AST applications. 3

ECM and AST as add-on systems

a 1

2

3

Fig. 2 MC Clutch torque ME Engine torque tD Declutching time S1 Signal for gearshift command

4

2

Shifting with torque correction

Fig. 3 a ECM b AST

ECM S1

b

tD

Nm 400

AST 1

5

1 2

6

200

3 4

MC

100

ME ¯100

0

2

4

Time t

6

8s

7

æ STS0261E

0

æ STS0260E

Torque

300

5 6 7

Available signals Clutch actuator with integrated ECM ECU Gear recognition Shift-intention recognition on shift lever Clutch actuator with integrated AST ECU Transmission actuator Selector lever




Software Sharing The vehicle manufacturer (OEM), the supplier and if necessary a system integrator share the AST software tasks. The operating system, signal conditioning, and the hardware-specific routines for activating the actuators are provided by Bosch. Bosch’s extensive knowledge and experience in the field of automatic transmissions is also applied in establishing the AST target gears. This includes, among others, driver recognition, uphill/downhill recognition, cornering recognition, and other adaptive functions (see also chapter entitled “Adaptive Transmission Control, ATC”). The tasks of activating the transmission and coordinating the gearshift sequence (clutch, engine, transmission) are the responsibility of the OEM or the system integrator. This also applies to clutch control, significant parts of which can be taken over from the ECM system. Each vehicle manufacturer brings its marque-specific philosophy regarding shifting time, shifting points, and shifting sequences to bear.

4

Shifting Operation and Interruption of Tractive Force The basic problem associated with the AST is the interruption of tractive force. This is represented in Figure 4 by the “hollow” of the vehicle acceleration between the two shifted gears. In terms of what is required of the actuators, these phases can be divided into two blocks: phases which have an effect on the vehicle acceleration, phases which represent pure response times. In the phases which have an effect on the vehicle acceleration, it transpires that a throttle action is needed because excessively quick changes in vehicle acceleration are felt to be unpleasant. The optimum interaction of engine, clutch, and transmission intervention results in the best possible performance. The synchromesh can be supported for example by double-declutching. In the response times, however, the maximum speed of the actuators is demanded. It is important here that the synchromesh does not experience too hard a shock after the gear has been disengaged and the following rapid phase.

Phases of AST shifting operation

t1

∆M1 Torque reduction ∆M2 Torque increase t0 Tractive-force interruption t1 Shifting operation t2 Acceleration t3 Disengage and select gear t4 Synchronization t5 Shift through gear

t0

1

∆M1

2 t3

Time t

t4

t5

∆M2

æ STS0262E

Fig. 4 1 Current gear 2 Next gear

Acceleration a

t2


Figure 5 shows a comparison of the shifting times that can be achieved with a hydraulic system and an electric-motor system and the shifting time necessary for a comfortable shifting operation. The bar lengths equate to the times required for the individual phases and the same shading schemes are used. When the capacity of the actuators is exploited to maximum effect, the electricmotor system only demonstrates a time disadvantage compared with its hydraulic counterpart in the clutch-operation phase. This could be reduced in particular in the torque-reduction phase by an intelligent 5


35

control strategy such as torque correction or by the interaction of the engine and the clutch. It is important to highlight here that there is hardly any difference between the two systems in the phases for response time, gear disengagement, and gear engagement. The response times are not extended practically, even in the case of comfortable shifting. However, the phases relevant to acceleration must be two to four times as long as in the extreme case, both for the hydraulic and the electric-motor actuator systems.

Comparison of achievable shifting times

100 ms

Maximum hydraulic force

Maximum electronic force

Gear out

Torque reduction

Torque increase

Automated shift transmission (AST) in a diesel vehicle (example: system diagram)

1

8

2

9

3

11

10

CAN

4

5

6

12

7

æ UTS0207-1Y

6

Synchro- Gear nization in

æ STS0263E

Comfortable

Fig. 6 1 Engine electronics (EDC) 2 Transmission electronics 3 Transmission actuator 4 Diesel engine 5 Dry interrupting clutch 6 Clutch servo unit 7 Intarder electronics 8 Display 9 Driving switch (selector lever) 10 ABS/TCS 11 Transmission 12 Air supply ___ Electrics ---- Pneumatics ___ CAN communication


Control of Automatic Transmissions

Control of Automatic Transmissions Requirements The control system for an automatic transmission must fulfill the following essential requirements or functions: always shifting the correct gear or setting the correct gear ratio as a function of assorted influencing variables, executing the shifting operation through adapted pressure characteristics as comfortably as possible, implementing additional manual interventions on the part of the driver, detecting maloperations, e.g. by preventing non-permitted gearshifts, providing ATF oil for cooling, lubrication and for the converter.

Hydraulic Control The main function of the hydraulic-control system (Figures 1 and 2) is to regulate, boost, and distribute hydraulic pressures and volumetric flows. This includes generating the clutch pressures, supplying the converter, and providing the lubricating pressure. The housings of the hydraulic-control system are made from diecast aluminum and contain several precision-machined slide valves and electrohydraulic actuators. 2

Main control with hydraulic valves

æ UTS0265Y

Current control systems are exclusively electrohydraulic in nature.

1

Exploded view of a hydraulic-control system (example: GM HYDRA-MATIC 4L60-E)

æ UTS0264Y

36


Electrohydraulic Control Due to their extensive range of functions, all modern automatic transmissions with four to six gears and continuously variable transmissions are exclusively controlled by electrohydraulic means. In contrast to earlier, purely hydraulic control systems with mechanical regulators, the clutches are activated individually by pressure regulators, which facilitate precise modulation and regulated overlapping gearshifts (without a one-way clutch). Clutch Control Clutch control is always performed with either pilot-controlled or directly controlled pressure.

Pilot Control With pilot control, the required pressure and throughflow for rapid clutch filling are provided via a slide valve in the control housing. Pressure regulation is effected by pilot pressure acting on the sensing surface of the slide valve. An actuator generates this pilot pressure (Figure 3). This results in greater degrees of freedom in the packaging and the use of standardized actuators, high dynamics, and small electromagnets.

3

5

6

Load transfer with one-way clutch US

M

p1

Direct control (pictorial diagram)

1

nE

3

Time t

æ STS0268E

2

Fig. 3 1 Supply to actuator 2 Oil pan 3 Supply to slide valve 4 Actuator 5 Slide valve in control housing 6 Clutch

Fig. 4 1 Supply to actuator 2 Actuator 3 Clutch

p2

Speed n

4

Upshift Under Load Unlike in a manual transmission, throttling upshifts in an automatic transmission take place without an interruption of tractive force. The graphic in Figure 6 shows the time curve of the characteristic variables during an upshift into the direct gear (ratio 1). Shifting begins at time t0: The clutch is filled with fluid and the friction elements are pressed against each other. The clutch transfers a torque from time t1 onwards. As the clutch torque increases, so the torque supported at the one-way clutch decreases. The one-way clutch is released at time t2. Now the engine speed begins to change. The clutch torque increases to t3.

Pressure p

4

Shifting-Sequence Control Conventional Shifting-Sequence control The following two shifting scenarios are examples of conventional control of a simple 4-speed automatic transmission with one-way clutches (Figure 5).

Torque M

2

æ STS0266Y

1

37

Direct Control With direct control, the required pressure and throughflow for rapid clutch filling are provided directly by the actuator (Figure 4). This results in a compact clutch-control system with reduced hydraulic sophistication.

5

Pilot control (pictorial diagram)

æ STS0267Y

3


Fig. 5 p1 Pressure, cutting-in clutch p2 Pressure, cutting-out clutch nE Engine speed M Torque


Output One-way clutch Clutch Engine Transmission output

7

Time curve of a downshift

1 Torque M

1 2 3

2 3

pF

Pressure p

pS pC

pC

pF

4

4 5

t0

t1 t2 t3

t4 Time t

5 t0 t1

t2 t3 Time t

æ STS0270E

1 2 3 4 5

Pressure, torque and speed curve during an upshift

Downshift Under Load In contrast to upshifts, downshifts take place with an interruption of tractive force. Figure 7 shows the time progression. At t0 shifting begins with the clutch being drained. Engine torque is no longer transferred from t1 onwards and the engine revs up. At t2 the synchronization speed of the new gear is reached and the one-way clutch is engaged; up to t3 the converter slip is set according to the engine torque. The shifting operation is completed at t3. The gear-shift sophistication (ease of shifting) is determined by the torque drop in the phase t0...t1 and depends quite significantly on the torque increase between t2 and t2. All the shifting scenarios that occur are primarily controlled by the electronic system; the hydraulic system is left above all with the function of clutch power control. In all newer transmissions (5-speed and 6-speed types), one-way clutches are replaced by regular clutches for weight reasons. However, during the shifting operations, they require overlap control

Speed n

Fig. 7 pC Clutch pressure pF Filling pressure t0 Start of shift, clutch drains t1 End of torque transfer, engine revs up t2 Synchronization speed of new gear reached, one-way clutch engaged, converter operates with slip t3 Shifting operation completed

6

æ STS0269E

Output One-way clutch Clutch Engine Transmission output

Torque M

1 2 3 4 5

The progression of the output torque in the phase t1...t4 determines the gear-shift sophistication (ease of shifting). To ensure good shift quality, the clutch pressure must be set so that the output torque is between the level at t < t1 and the level at t > t4. The torque jump at t4 should also be as low as possible. The load on the friction elements is determined by the clutch torque and the slip time (t4 – t1). It is clear here that controlling the shifting sequence always involves a compromise.

Pressure p

Fig. 6 pC Clutch pressure pF Filling pressure pS Safety pressure t0 Start of shift t1 Start of torque transfer, clutch torque rises, one-way clutch torque drops t2 One-way clutch released t3 Clutch slips, clutch torque remains constant t4 Clutch sticks, clutch torque decreases, converter operates with slip


The clutch slips up to t4, after which it sticks. After the end of the shifting operation, the clutch pressure is controlled upward to a level of safety. The speed difference between the engine and the transmission output speed remaining after t4 is caused by the converter, which always operates with slip when locked up.

Speed n

38


Torque M

M

Pressure p

p1

p2

æ STS0271E

nE

Time t

9

Fill time

∆ntu

ntu tfill tshift

tvertex Time t

æ STS0272E

Adaptive Pressure Control The function of adaptive pressure control is to achieve a consistently good shift quality over the entire working life of the transmission and the accompanying changes in the friction coefficients at the clutch surfaces. It also compensates for any potential deviation of the calculated torque or the torque transferred by the engine which can occur on account of changes to the engine or manufacturing tolerances. In this case, an important role is played by pressure adaptation with the aid of the shifting times applied by the manufacturer. To this end, the applied shifting times are compared with the real shifting times that occur. If the measurements are repeatedly outside a pre-specified tolerance range, the pressure parameters pertaining to the shifting operation are incrementally adapted. A distinction is made here between the fill time and the slip time of the clutch.

39

Overlap control US

Speed n

The most important features of overlap control are: low mechanical complexity, minimal space requirement, multiple use for different gear steps possible, high control precision for load transfer required, high software complexity for torque control, in event of incorrect control: excessive speed (engine races) or onset of a braking torque (extreme case: transmission blocking).

8

Turbine speed ntu

for the clutches (Figure 8). This means that while clutch 1 opens for gear x, clutch 2 must close for gear y. Since this type of control is very elaborate and time-critical, it is necessary to provide considerably higher computing power in the ECU than for the simple shifting sequences with one-way clutch shifts (see also chapter entitled “ECUs”).


Fill-Time Measurement The fill time tfill (Figure 9) is the time from the start of the gearshift tshift to the start of synchronization (a drop in speed is identified during the upshift [US]): tfill = tvertex – tshift Slip-Time Measurement The slip time tslip (Figure 10) of the clutch is the time from recognition of the speed vertex (start of synchronization) to complete synchronization of the speed in the new gear.

Fig. 8 p1 Pressure, cutting-in clutch p2 Pressure, cutting-out clutch nE Engine speed M Torque

Robert Bosch GmbH

10


Shifting-Point Selection Conventional Shifting-Point Selection In the majority of automatic transmissions currently available, the driving program is selected using a selector switch or a button. The following driving programs are generally available in this respect: Economy (very economical), Sport, or Winter.

Slip time

Turbine speed ntu

tslip

ntu

tvertex

tsync Time t

æ STS0273E

∆ntu (sync)

tslip = tsync – tvertex The speed thresholds used for measuring the slip time tslip (Figure 10) are calculated in advance of the start of shifting, where the following relationship applies to upshifts: Start of fill-time measurement = start of shifting Vertex: A decrease in the turbine speed ntu by at least ntu (vertex) revolutions is detected. ntu (t – 1) – ntu (t) > ntu (diff) Synchronization speed: An increase in the turbine speed ntu by at least ntu (sync) revolutions is detected. ntu (t) – ntu (t – 1) > ∆ntu (sync)

Fig. 11 1 Upshift XE Economy mode XS Sport mode

Pressure Correction Pressure adaptation is only permitted within specific limits on account of operational reliability. The typical adaptation width lies in the range of ±10% of the modulation pressure calculated for the shift. The correction values are also still distinguished according to speed bands. The adaptation values are stored in a nonvolatile memory so that the optimum modulation pressure can be reapplied when the vehicle is restarted. The overall pattern of pressure adaptation can also be evaluated as a sign of changes in the transmission.

The individual programs differ in the position of the shifting points in relation to the position of the accelerator pedal and the driving speed. The Economy and Sport shifting maps of a 5-speed transmission are used here as examples (Figure 11). If the current driving speed or the accelerator-pedal position corresponding to the driver command (accelerator-pedal value) intersects the shift curve, a gearshift is triggered. A requested gearshift can be either canceled or converted into a double shift within a specific period of time (which depends on the hydraulic system of the automatic transmission) For example, the driver is driving in fifth gear on an interstate highway and would like to overtake. To do so, he presses the accelerator pedal to the floor, whereupon a downshift is requested. 11

US and DS characteristics in Economy mode (XE) and Sport mode (XS)

2-1 RS 1-2 HS XE XS XE XS

% 100

1

50

0

0

50 Vehicle speed υF

km/h

æ STS0274E


Accelerator-pedal position

40


When the accelerator pedal is firmly pressed to the floor, the 4-3 DS shift curve is intersected directly after the 5-4 DS shift curve, and a 5-3 double downshift is performed instead of a sequential downshift. Special shifting points for kickdown (forced downshift) allow the maximum possible engine power to be utilized at this point. Adaptive Transmission Control (ATC) All newer transmission-control systems have – instead of active driving-program selection by the driver – software which enables the driver to adapt to the special ambient conditions while driving. This includes first and foremost driver-type recognition and driving-situation recognition. Examples which are currently in use are adaptive transmission control (ATC) from BMW and the dynamic shift program (DSP) from Audi. Driver-Type Recognition A driver type can be identified by means of an evaluation of the actions he or she performs. This includes: kickdown operation, brake operation, and restriction via selector lever. For example, the kickdown evaluator counts the number of times the driver engages kickdown during a presettable period of time. If the counter exceeds a specific threshold, the driver-type recognition facility selects the next, more sporty driving program. It automatically switches back to a more economical driving program once this time has elapsed. Driving-Situation Recognition For driving-situation recognition, different transmission-control input variables are linked to conclusions about the present driving condition. The following situations can generally be recognized: uphill driving, cornering, winter operation, and ASC operation.


Uphill Driving Recognition of uphill driving by comparing the current acceleration with the requested acceleration by way of the engine torque, results in upshifts and downshifts at higher engine speeds and thus prevents gearshift hunting. Cornering This facility uses the difference in wheel speeds to calculate whether the vehicle is in a curve or bend. With active cornering recognition, requested shifts are delayed or prohibited in order to increase vehicle stability. Winter Recognition Winter operation is recognized on the basis of slip detection from analysis of the wheel speeds. This serves primarily to prevent the wheels from spinning and select a higher gear during starting so that less torque is transferred to the drive wheels, thereby preventing premature wheel spin. ASC Operation If the system detects while driving that the ASC ECU (anti-slipping control or traction control system, TCS) is in control mode, requested gearshifts are suppressed in order to support the ASC function.

41




Engine Intervention Application A precisely controlled time characteristic of engine torque during the shifting operations of an automatic transmission offers the possibility of optimizing transmission control with regard to gear-shift sophistication (convenience), clutch service life, and transferrable power. The engine management system implements the torque command (reduction) of the transmission control by retarding the moment of ignition. The theoretical principles, processes, and measurement results are presented using the example of engine intervention in ignition.

Symbols and Abbreviations C Spring stiffness of drivetrain i Gear ratio J Mass moment of inertia k Constant M Engine torque n Rotational speed q Specific lost work Q Lost work t Time W Running resistance x Spatial coordinate δ Temperature ω Angular velocity Φ Angle of rotation φ Angle of rotation, linearized Indices O V limit C kin E red s com 1 2

Output Vehicle Permitted limit value Clutch (friction element) Kinetic share Engine (transmission input) Reduced value Slip time Share of combustion energy (engine torque) Reference variable Clutch drive side Clutch output side

Requirements The ever-increasing demand for more economical fuel consumption in motor vehicles dictates to a significant degree the development objectives in the field of automatic transmissions as well. In addition to measures for improving the efficiency of the transmission itself (such as, for instance, the torque converter lockup clutch), these objectives include introducing transmissions with more gears. However, additional gear steps inevitably call for increased shift frequency. This in turn results in increased demands placed on gear-shift sophistication (convenience) and the load capacity of the friction elements. Engine intervention takes into account both requirements and institutes an additional degree of freedom for controlling an automatic transmission. “Engine intervention” covers all those measures which allow the engine torque generated by the combustion process during the shifting operation in the transmission to be specifically influenced and in particular reduced. Engine intervention can be used in both upshifts and downshifts. The primary aim of engine intervention in upshifts is to reduce the lost energy that occurs in the friction elements during the shifting operation. This is done by reducing the engine torque during synchronization without interrupting the tractive force. The margin acquired in this process can be used to: Increase the service life by shortening the slip time (if all other operating parameters in the transmission, such as clutch pressure and number of plates, remain unchanged). Improve the convenience by reducing the clutch torque, brought about by lowering the clutch pressure during the slip phase. Transmit higher power, provided the mechanical strength of the transmission permits this; in most cases, however, the power loss in the clutches is the limiting factor.


Naturally, it is also possible to adopt a sensible combination of these measures within the framework of the specified margin. The aim of engine intervention in downshifts is to reduce the jolt which occurs when the one-way clutch or a friction element engages at the end of the synchronization processes. This results in improved convenience and supported and improved synchronization in transmissions without one-way clutches. Interventions in the Mechanical Shifting Sequence The following explanations illustrate which possibilities present themselves for intervention in the mechanical shifting sequence. The individual phases of upshifts and downshifts are described in the section entitled “Shifting-Sequence Control”. Upshifts Engine intervention is discussed using the example of an upshift from the direct gear (i = 1) to overdrive (i < 1). The following simplifications serve to illustrate the physical relationships more clearly: The influence of the torque converter is disregarded. There is no overlap of friction elements, i.e., only one friction element participates in the gearshift. The engine torque remains constant during the gearshift, thereby providing linear speed characteristics. The vehicle speed during the gearshift is taken to be constant. The heating of the friction linings by briefly successive shifting operations is disregarded.

∆ω = ω1 – ω2

(1)

In relation to the lost energy which must be absorbed or forwarded by the friction elements during the shifting operation, the following equation applies: ts Q = MC (t) · ∆ω(t) · dt 0

(2)

Furthermore, the angular-momentum principle applies to the drive and output sides of the clutch. For the rotational masses of the drive side: ∆ω = ωO ·

1 – i ME – MC + ·t i JO

(3)

Under the above-mentioned preconditions, this produces: ∆ω = ωE – ωO = ωE (t = 0) – ωO + ωE · t or

Q = MC ωO ·

2

1–i M – MC t S · ts + E · i JE 2

From (1), (2), and (3), this produces for a time-constant clutch torque the lost energy as a function of the shifting-sequence parameters. . J1 · ω 1 = ME – MC The slip time itself is dependent on the clutch and engine parameters, where ts =

1–i JE ωO 1 – i = ωO · · (4) . · i ME – MC ω E i

This produces the lost energy to be absorbed by the friction element Q=

Upshifts take place without an interruption of the tractive force. Synchronization of engine and transmission takes place via a friction element in slipping-intervention operation. The following relative speed ensues between the drive and output side of the clutch:


2 1–i 1 MC · JE · · ωO 2 ME – MC i

2

(5)

i.e., the lost energy is dependent only on the clutch and engine torques, the driving speed, and the gear ratios. When the clutch torque determined by (4) is applied in (5), this produces the lost energy

43



as the sum of a share of the kinetic energy which is released when the rotational masses are braked to the synchronization speed and a share of the engine combustion energy:

12

Lost energy Qcom (a) and clutch torque MC (b) of a clutch as a function of slip time tS and engine torque ME

a

Nm

Qlimit

+2,000

S

Qcom/Qkin ≈ 1...4

Qkin=1,645

3 +400

0

b

Nm

400 600 Slip time ts

ms

Nm 200

400

8 300

ts limit

10

0 50

Clutch torque MC

200

M E=

MClimit Maximum clutch torque MCmin Minimum clutch torque ME Engine torque Qlimit Maximum permitted lost energy

A further significant aspect is derived from (6): Only the share of lost energy stemming from the combustion energy is dependent on the slip time tS. The decisive factor is the product of the engine torque and the slip time. This means, however, that the slip time can be extended accordingly when the engine torque is reduced without an increase in the total lost energy. In actual fact, the wear of the friction elements even decreases with constant total lost energy when the slip time is extended. The temperature of the friction linings corresponds to the load on the friction elements. Figure 12a shows the lost energy absorbed by the friction element as a function of the engine torque and the slip time. The maximum permitted lost energy Qlimit and the engine torque to be transferred during this gearshift determine the maximum slip time, for instance in accordance with point S. The maximum permitted energy Qlimit corresponds in accordance with (5) to the clutch torque determined by the slip time MClimit (point 1 in Figure 12b). To reduce the lost energy, the clutch torque in relation to point S would have to be increased and thereby the slip time shortened. However, this would lead in equal

5

+800

500 Fig. 12 a Lost energy Qcom b Clutch torque MC

50

ME =

+1,200

7 10 0

Lost energy Qcom

+1,600

Both these shares are roughly of the same order of magnitude. At speeds of n = 3000 rpm and typical values for the gear step and the engine-drag torque (i = 0.8, JE = 0.3 kg · m2, ME = 100 Nm, tS = 500 ms), this produces:

This clearly shows the possibilities of engine intervention for reducing the power loss in the friction elements.

200 Nm

2

ω2 1–i ω 1–i + ME · tS · O · (6) Q = Qkin +Qcom = JE · O · 2 i 2 i

200

MC min

100 0

0

1 2

200

MC limit

4

400 Slip time ts

6 600

æ UTS0275E

44

ms

measure to a reduction in gear-shift sophistication (convenience). A reduction of the clutch pressure is not permitted in this case, as otherwise Qlimit will be exceeded. It is now easy to tell from Figure 12 which possibilities are offered by engine intervention. It is taken that the engine torque to be transferred ME = 100 Nm can be reduced during the slip phase to an average of 50%. When first the case of constant clutch torque (shift quality) is considered, reducing the engine torque to 50 Nm results in a shortening of the slip time from 400 ms to 245 ms (point 1 point 2) with a simultaneous reduction in lost energy to 61% (point 3). If, on the other hand, the slip time is kept


constant, the clutch torque can be reduced from 179 Nm to 128.5 Nm (point 1 point 4) with a reduction in lost energy to 72% (point 5). The maximum sensible slip time is then obtained if the minimum clutch torque MCmin during the gearshift does not drop below the value after the end of the shift. On the one hand, a smaller engine torque as a result of engine intervention would result in a deterioration in convenience; on the other hand, the clutch torque for safety reasons should at any rate be so large that the non-reduced engine torque can be transferred by the friction element after the end of the shift. In this example, it is taken that the torque to be transferred at least by the clutch is 100 Nm in accordance with the engine torque (direct gear). This means that the slip time can be stretched from 400 ms to max. 625 ms (point 6), again with a simultaneous reduction in lost energy to 88% (point 7).

1


Numerical values for text examples and Figure 12

ME Nm

MredE Nm

MC Nm

ME Nm

t0 ms

Q/Q100 %

100 100 100 100 200 200

100 50 50 50 200 100

179 179 128.5 100 360 179

400 245 400 628 200 400

3740 2285 2693 3290 3740 3740

100 61 72 88 100 100

The results of this analysis are on the safe side in this respect because extending the slip time with constant lost energy results in reduced friction-lining temperature and thus protects the friction linings. Table 1 lists the numerical values for these examples. Downshifts In contrast to upshifts, downshifts take place in the throttling mode with an interruption of load. The engine is decoupled from the drivetrain and runs as a result of the torque it has generated up to the synchronization speed. Only after the one-way clutch or the friction element has engaged is the frictional connection re-established. The torque ratios when the synchronization speed is reached

Table 1

determine the gear-shift sophistication (convenience) to a substantial extent. For a better understanding of the characteristic relationships, damping in the drivetrain is disregarded in the following analysis. It also applies on the assumption that the overall vehicle dynamics can be reduced to engine mass, input-shaft rigidity, and vehicle inertia. In the case of all the moments of inertia relating to the transmission output, the engine and the vehicle are governed by the following: JE · ΦË = ME, JV · Φ¨V = –W

Finally, it can be gleaned from Figure 12 that even an engine torque of 200 Nm, which without intervention would require a maximum slip time of 200 ms with a minimum clutch torque of 360 Nm (point 8), can be traced back to the example with a torque of 100 Nm (point 1).

45

(9)

At the point when the one-way clutch engages, the drivetrain resembles a torsion damper (Figure 13, next page), and the motion equations are as follows: JE · ΦË = c (Φ¨V – ΦË) + ME

(10a)

JV · Φ¨V = c · (Φ¨V – ΦË) –W

(10b)

Since in this case it is not the absolute angle of rotation but rather only the deviations from the basic rotation (i.e., the rotation of the input shaft) which are significant, these two equations can combined. If the driving speed υ for the short time segments to be considered is taken as constant, this produces with ΦE = ΦEo + φE, ΦV = ΦVo + φF, Φ·Eo = Φ·Vo = υ = const. and ψ = φV – φE,




the motion equation

J1

ψ¨ + c ·

+

E

(12) produces the relative acceleration

1 · ψ = –ME JV

(11)

The natural frequency ω0 for this system as follows ω0 =

1 1 c· + JE JV

The general solution produces the acceleration acting on the driver: ψ = A · (sin ω0 · t) + B · cos (ω0 · t)

(12)

(9) produces as the end condition of the engine run-up phase: ME ψË = for t < t0 JE

Diagram of drivetrain during load interruption and establishment of frictional connection

a

W JV

ME

JE ME ΦV ΦE W

Mass moment of inertia of vehicle drivetrain Mass moment of inertia of engine Engine torque Angle of rotation of vehicle drivetrain Angle of rotation of engine Running resistance

JE

b

W JV ΦV ME

JE

ΦE

æ STS0276E

JV

and (10b) the vehicle acceleration M Φ¨V = · [1 + cos (ω0 · t)] JV

(14)

This means that, at time t0 when the oneway clutch engages, an acceleration jump takes place, namely from Φ¨V = 0 for t < t0 M to Φ¨V = 2 · for t = t0 JV

(15)

(13)

φEo = M c

Fig. 13 a Load interruption b Frictional connection

M cos (ω0 · t) c

followed by a drivetrain vibration damped in the real vehicle.

The energy to be applied here simply to accelerate the engine is transformed when the one-way clutch engages (at time t0) abruptly into a torque, which causes the input shaft to rotate:

13

2

ψ = ω0 ·

Similar conditions are present in a gearshift from friction element to friction element (overlapping gearshift), only this involves the additional problem of cutting in the friction element of the new gear exactly when the synchronization speed is reached. As the damping effects of the torque converter and the rest of the drivetrain have been disregarded in this analysis, the possibility which engine intervention offers is all the more clear: According to (13), the initial acceleration acting on the driver at time t0 is directly proportional to the engine torque and thus the engine acceleration during the run-up phase. With precisely timed control of the engine torque in the time segment t ≤ t0 to t >> t0, it is possible to create an almost continuous transition from the range of tractive-force interruption to the range of tractive-force transfer. Implementation takes the form of a marked reduction in engine torque at time t0 followed by renewed control-up in accordance with a time function. The convenience can be varied within broad limits with this control-up. There is an equally clear possibility in gearshifts without a one-way clutch of influencing the engine acceleration by control-


Sequence control, upshifts with engine intervention

S2 S1

a

nE1

nE2 nE3

nE

nE4 Fig. 14 1 Control-down phase 2 Control-up phase

nT

ME 1

t0

t1 t2 t3 Time t

2

t4 t5 t6

æ STS0277E

Upshifts The time curve of the characteristic variables for an upshift is depicted in Figure 14. The ratio of the old gear is retained up to the overrunning point t2; only then does only a slipping clutch intervene. For this reason, the engine torque cannot be reduced before the overrunning point is reached, otherwise this would entail an intensified dip in the output torque in the phase t1...t2.

14

Shift signal S

As engine intervention is directly linked to the shifting sequence, a speed sequence control system suggests itself. The characteristic variable that characterizes the shifting sequence exactly is the transmission input sequence. The engine speed is also suited with limitations to transmissions with hydrodynamic converters as the controlled variable. This is therefore important because it requires a separate sensor to record the transmission input speed, and not every transmission is fitted with this sensor for cost reasons. In the interests of clarity, the following text describes the control system with the transmission input speed as the characteristic variable and reference is made, where necessary, to the limitations or changes when the engine speed is used.

In order to determine the speed n3 at the start of control-up, the synchronization speed n4 = n1/i in the new gear is calculated from the maximum speed n1 at the overrunning point and the ratio jump i of the gear change to be carried out. A speed-dependent share ∆n is added to this synchronization speed in order to obtain a derivative action for control-up. When the speed n3 = n4 + ∆n is reached, torque control-up begins in accordance with a pre-specified time function. The end of the gearshift is identified as soon as the value of the non-corrected torque is achieved.

Acceleration a

Pure time control of engine intervention is not practicable because different variables which determine the sequence (such as clutch fill times, plate friction coefficients, and similar) fluctuate within broad limits depending on the temperature and the service life.

Speed n

Sequence Control The process of reducing the engine torque is essentially very simple. However, effective control requires precise coordination as the entire process only lasts approximately 500 ms.

47

The overrunning point is identified through continual monitoring of the transmission input speed in the time phase after t0. For this purpose, the maximum speed is calculated in the time phase t0...t3 as well as the speed gradient. The overrunning point is identified in the event of a reduction in the gradient by more than a pre-specified threshold value, and engine-torque control begins with controldown to a pre-specified value in accordance with a pre-specified time function.

Torque M

ling the engine torque in the time range t ≤ t0 and thereby reducing the time demands on the cut-in precision of the friction element at the synchronization point.


a Acceleration nT Transmission input speed nE Engine speed ME Engine torque S Shift signal




For upshifts in the upper load range (greater than half load), the engine speed is used as the controlled variable instead of the transmission input speed because here the shifting points are at such great engine speeds that the converter operates in the clutch range and is thus subject to roughly constant slip. Gearshifts at part load on the other hand take place in the converter range. This means that the slip can change very substantially during a gearshift. Here the engine speed is no longer suitable for determining the synchronization speed. In this case, a superimposed form of time control, which terminates engine intervention after a prespecified time, is suitable for the part-load range t3...t4. Downshifts The time curve of the characteristic variables for a downshift is depicted in Figure 15. Precise determination and recording of the synchronization speed are crucial to engine intervention in the case of downshifts because

S2

a

Speed n Torque M

Fig. 15 2 Control-up phase a Acceleration nT Transmission input speed nE Engine speed ME Engine torque S Shift signal

nE3

The different possibilities of torque reduction are now discussed in the following text.

nE nT ME

2

t0

t1

t2 t3 t4 Time t

t5

æ STS0278E

Acceleration a

S1

nE2 nE1

The synchronization speed is calculated via the gear step from the transmission input speed at the start of the gearshift. The engine torque is abruptly reduced approximately 200 rpm before the synchronization speed is reached until this speed is reached or slightly exceeded. Then the engine torque is slowly controlled up again. The synchronization speed cannot be calculated directly by means of the engine speed as a result of the slip at the hydrodynamic torque converter. A consideration of the converter program map with the requisite accuracy requires too much computation effort in the microcontroller. It is possible however to calculate the synchronization speed from the transmission output speed by multiplying it by the corresponding gear step. It is now possible to identify by means of the engine speed when the synchronization point is reached, since the speed difference between the engine and the turbine is approximately zero when the engine revs up freely (interruption of tractive force) to the synchronization point.

Sequence control, downshifts with engine intervention

Shiftsignal S

15

retarding the ignition angle too early extends the engine revving phase and thus the time of tractive-force interruption and engine intervention after the one-way clutch has engaged does not bring about any improvement in convenience, but rather a deterioration as this causes a dip in torque for the duration of the engine intervention.


Shifting the Ignition Angle The oldest version of engine intervention involves intervention through shifting of the ignition angle. This form of intervention offers the following advantages: continuous regulation of the engine torque within broad limits, short response time, and availability in all vehicles with gasolineengines. Figure 16 shows in schematic form the dependence of the engine torque on the ignition angle for different load conditions and engine speeds. It is clear from this figure that adjusting a pre-specified engine torque generally requires an ignition map as a function of engine load and engine speed.


49

Engine-Torque Specification In appropriately equipped vehicles with their CAN network of all the ECUs in the drivetrain (Figure 17), torque reduction is performed on the basis of a torque interface between engine management (TI-Motronic) and electronic transmission control (ETC). The torque reductions of the ABS and TCS ECUs must also be taken into consideration. Figure 18 shows how a current transmission-control system calculates the desired engine torque intervention (ETI_Etc). The next torque intervention is determined as a function of the available torque (actual torque). The torque M is the engine torque of the engine-management system without intervention by transmission control.

The response time τ between the initiation of engine intervention and the start of reduction in engine torque is specified by the ignition angle, therefore τ≈·

1 (z/2) · n E

where z is the number of cylinders and n E the engine speed. In the effective speed range n ≥ 2000 rpm, the maximum delay for a 6-cylinder engine is 10 ms for initiation and 30 ms for a complete reduction in engine torque. ECUs in the drivetrain

αF1

TIMotronic MF2 MP1 b MP2

25 °KW αP1 20 °KW

50 40 30 20 Ignition angle α

ETC High-Speed CAN

αF2

αP2

10 advance

ABS 0

10 °KW retard

TCS

æ STS0282E

a MF1 Engine torque ME

17

Engine torque as a function of ignition angle

æ STS0281E

16

Fig. 16 a Full load (index F) αF1, MF1 Ignition angle or engine torque without engine intervention αF2, MF2 Reduced ignition angle or engine torque with engine intervention b Part load (index P) αP1, MP1 Ignition angle or engine torque without engine intervention αP2, MP2 Reduced ignition angle or engine torque with engine intervention


18


Calculation of engine-torque intervention (ETI) in current transmission control

Torque without transmission intervention

Calculation of torque intervention from program maps and functions

Limitation of torque gradient Parameter of gradient limitation

Engine torque M

Gradient limitation

ETI_Dyn_Lim

Parameter of shift status

Status check

S_Phase

Shift-sequence phase

Calculate reduced torque

TI_State

Torqueintervention status

Key to Figure 18: ETI_Etc = f(ETI_Dyn_Lim, TI_State) where ETI_ETC: ETI_Dyn_Lim:

TI_State:

Engine-torque request of transmission control Dynamically limited engine torque (reduction of torque change in the engine to ensure convenience) Current status of torque intervention

No intervention

Torquerequest calculation Determination of torque intervention as a function of phase and status of shift sequence

Torque limitation

Limitation of torque intervention Desired torque intervention

æ UTS0279E

50

Torque Converter Lockup Clutch Application and Operating Concept The hydrodynamic converter is (necessitated by its operating principle) subject to a level of slip which is required particularly for convenience reasons during startup and in certain driving situations to increase torque. Since this slip also involves a simultaneous loss of power, the torque converter lockup clutch (TCLC) was developed with this in mind (see also section entitled “Torque Converter”).

It is only advisable to lock up the converter from a specific speed because at low speeds the irregular rotation of the engine would cause uncomfortable vibrations in the drivetrain. The controlled torque converter lockup clutch (CTCC) was developed in order to be able to utilize these ranges for lockup as well.


fied setpoint value and corrects the pressure continually. Special functions perform changeovers between the individual states and provide for a comfortable shift performance.

19

% 100 CTCC open

CTCC closed

50

CTCC controlled

CTCC open 0 0

CTCC closed

1,000 2,000 rpm 3,000 Engine speed nE

Tiptronic® shifting strategies (flowchart)

Measured variables

Level 1

Throttle-valve opening

These states are defined by means of characteristic curves, which are plotted like shift curves for each gear against throttle-valve opening and driving speed (Figure 19). As is the case with shift curves, fuel consumption and tractive force are crucial criteria for the torque converter lockup clutch. In slipping controlled operation, the speed differential between the converter impeller and turbine is constantly set to a low value. A closed control loop constantly compares the speed differential with a pre-speci20

Characteristic (pictorial diagram) of controlled torque converter lockup clutch (CTCC)

æ STS0280E

Controlled Torque Converter Lockup Clutch The controlled torque converter lockup clutch (CTCC) sets a very low level of slip (40...50 rpm) and thus an almost stationary state. In this way, it keeps unwanted vibrations away from the drivetrain. The converter lockup clutch therefore has three different states: open, controlled, and closed.


Throttle valve

Engine speed 3 2 1

4

Vehicle speed

5 6 7

120 80 40

160

200 240 280

Lateral acceleration

Linear acceleration

Adaptation of shift characteristics (transmission and torque converter lockup clutch) Measured-value summation Filtering Averaging Weighting

Modulation factor MF1... MF5 MFA

Shift/TCLC characteristics N %

SK1 SK2 V

SK3

SK4

SK5

2 Short-time influencing

Special function Gear holding in curves

Manual tip (nudge) shifting

P D

Active shifting Jump to SC5

Upshift during brake overrun to low µ

+ Upshift - Downshift

Computer-aided adherence to permitted speed limits

æ UTS0203-1E

3

Prevention of overrun upshifts ahead of curves

51



Control of Continuously Variable Transmission


Open and Closed-Loop Control Functions The aforementioned transmission equipment requires the following open and closed-loop control functions: contact-pressure control, ratio control, driving program, clutch activation, activation for converter and torque converter lockup clutch, pump activation, reverse-gear lock, and deactivation of limp-home function.

Requirements Continuously variable transmissions that operate according to the wrap principle have a whole variety of different equipment specifications (Table 1). The following equipment packages are widely used in compact and mid-range class vehicles: When the master/slave concept is used, the primary pulley (transmission input side) has double the surface of the secondary pulley (transmission output side). The pressure in the primary Contact-Pressure Control chamber can thus always be below the The belt contact pressure is adjusted in secondary pressure. accordance with the current load situation The converter with torque converter with the aid of the measured secondary lockup clutch as power take-up element pressure. To achieve a high level of effioffers very good starting convenience and ciency, the secondary pressure is reduced to facilitates a good starting response such an extent that the current engine through torque increase so that the large torque can still be transferred to a specific ratio span of the CVT is completely benedegree of safety and reliability without the ficial to the overdrive range. belt slipping. Two wet clutches for the forward and reverse gears. Variable-capacity pump. Convenient fail-safe and 1 Variations of CVT based on wrap principle limp-home strategies. Assembly, Variants function

In the event of a control-electronics failure, the fail-safe and limp-home requirements partially determine the hydraulic concept. Engine overspeeding and associated high slip at the driven wheels must be avoided at all costs. An adjustment in the overdrive direction would satisfy this requirement, but starting from a standing stop would no longer be possible.

Wrap element Variator principle Converter: – Converter clutch – Slip duration Clutch: – Type – Pressures – Slip duration Pump adjustment Limp home

Vehicle: – Class – Engine size – Type of drive Table 1

Band

Chain

Belt

Master/slave Fitted Yes Brief

Partner principle Not fitted No Permanent

Partner principle Not fitted No Permanent

Friction surfaces Low Brief Constant Not possible

Magnetic-powder High Permanent 2-stage Limited (loss of convenience)

Magnetic-powder High Permanent Continuous Unlimited (increased fuel consumption)

Small to Compact class mid-range class <3 l <2 l Front transversal Front longitudinal

Mid-range and Luxury class >2 l Rear


Ratio Control The gear ratio can be changed by means of the primary pulley. The enclosed fluid volume determines the axial position of the moving part of the primary pulley and thus the radius on which the belt circulates on the pulley. The primary pressure adjusts itself in response to the secondary pressure. The requirements of driveability determine the necessary adjustment speed. For example, in the case of kickdown, it is necessary to switch from overdrive to low within 1.5 s. On the other hand, the pump delivery limits the adjustment speed. Driving Program A driving program ascertains the desired gear ratio. In addition to different program maps for normal operation, in which there is the option of choosing between economical and sporty operation (see also section entitled “Adaptive Transmission Control, ATC”), it is also possible to implement special functions such as kickdown, downhill driving, etc. It is also possible to simulate range transmissions, where any intermediate variations between copying a manually shifted transmission and an automatic transmission are realizable (see also chapter entitled “Transmission for Motor Vehicles”). Clutch Activation The interrupting clutch between engine and drivetrain is designed as a function of the position of the selector lever (P-R-N-D), the engine speed, and the engine load. Activation of Converter and Torque Converter Lockup Clutch In order to achieve the greatest possible efficiency, it is essential for the converter to be locked up as early as possible. Depending on the power requirement, the torque increase is used up to different speeds for acceleration.


Pump Activation A variable-capacity pump must be used to ensure high transmission efficiency. This pump enables the delivery flow to be limited at high speeds. Suitable suction-throttled pumps which operate without additional activation have been in development for years, but have failed to make a breakthrough as yet. An initial step towards a “variable-capacity pump” has been taken in the form of a two-stage version, in which the more favorable delivery flow can be selected as a function of the current demand. Further concepts are feasible with continuously variable pumps, in which secondarypressure control and pump adjustment can be combined. Reverse-Gear Lock Engagement of the reverse gear is disabled during forward driving at speeds above a limit to be defined (e.g., 7 km/h). Deactivation of Limp-Home Function Limp-home is an emergency function which is shut down during normal control operation. The fail-safe function remains permanently activated so that engine overrevving is avoided even in the event of a partial failure or late identification of partial failures.

53


Sensors

Application in Motor Vehicles

Sensors Sensors record operating states (e.g. engine speed) and specified values (e.g. acceleratorpedal position). They convert physical variables (e.g. pressure) or chemical variables (e.g. exhaust-gas concentration) into electrical signals.

Application in Motor Vehicles Sensors and actuators form the interface between the vehicle with its complex drive, brake, chassis, suspension, and body functions and the electronic control units (ECUs) as processing units (e.g. engine management, ESP, ACC, electronic transmission control, climate control). As a rule, an adapter circuit in the sensor conditions the signals and amplifies them to allow them to be processed in the ECU. The field of mechatronics, in which mechanical, electronic, and data-processing components work in close conjunction with each other, is becoming increasingly important in relation to sensors as well. Sensors are integrated in modules (e.g. crankshaft sealing module with rotational-speed sensor or modules for transmission control).

less computing power required in the ECU, one standard, flexible, and bus-compatible interface for all sensors, direct multiple use of one sensor via the data bus, recording of smaller signals, and simple calibration of the sensor.

Integration levels of sensors

Sensors

Fig. 1 SE Sensor(s) SA Analog signal conditioning A/D Analog-digital converter SG Digital ECU MC Microcomputer (evaluation electronics)

Signal conditioning, analog-digital conversion, self-calibration functions, and in future a small microcomputer for further signal processing can, depending on the level of integration, already be integrated in the sensor (Figure 1). This provides the following benefits:

Transmission path

Conventional

SE

1st integration level

SE

SA

2nd integration level

SE

SA A

3rd integration level

SE

SA A

D

D

MC

ECU

Susceptible to interference (analog)

SA A

Multiple tap-off

Resistant to interference (analog)

A

Buscompatible

Immune to interference (digital)

SG

Buscompatible

Immune to interference (digital)

SG

D

D

SG

SG

æ UAE0037-1E

1

Sensors are constantly getting smaller. This is combined with an ever-increasing demand for more speed and accuracy since their output signals have a direct influence on engine power and torque and on the exhaust emissions, driveability, and safety of the vehicles in which they are installed. This is all made possible by a mechatronic approach.

Robert Bosch GmbH Speed Sensors

Transmission Speed Sensors Application Transmission rotational-speed sensors RS sense the rotational speed in AT, AST, and CVT transmissions. The sensors are designed to be resistant so that they can be immersed in automatic transmission fluid (ATF). The packaging concept provides for their integration in the transmission control module or a stand-alone version. The supply voltage UV is 4.5...16.5 V and the operatingtemperature range is –40...+150°C. Design and Operating Concept The active rotational-speed sensor has a differential Hall-effect IC with a 2-wire current interface. It must be connected to a power source (supply voltage UV) in order to be operated. The sensor can detect the rotational-speed signal from ferromagnetic gears, punching sheets, or gears with attached multipoles (air-gap range 0.1...2.5 mm), whereby it utilizes the Hall effect and delivers a signal of constant amplitude that is not dependent on the rotational speed. This allows speed recording to close on n = 0. The supply current is modulated in the rhythm of the increment signal in order to deliver the signal. The modulated current (low: 7 mA, high: 14 mA) can then be converted in the ECU with a

55

measuring resistor RM into a signal voltage URM (Figure 1). There are two types of transmission speed sensor (Figure 2): RS50 Data record: Rotational-speed information as a square-wave signal. Functional range: A frequency signal proportional to the sensor-ring speed, which triggers the sensor ring as it passes the sensor surface. RS51 Data record: Rotational-speed information as a square-wave signal with additional information which is transmitted in a pulse width modulation process (PWM). Functional range: Rotational-speed signal, detection of standstill, direction of rotation, air-gap reserve, and installation position.

2

Shape and information content of the output signal of sensor versions

Trigger wheel Tooth

Tooth gap

Magnetic multipole trigger wheel North Pole

South Pole

RS 50 (standard): Output signal

Hall sensor with 2-wire current interface (example)

RS51 (intelligent): Critical air gap US

IS

Driving forwards UV URM

When reversing

Installation limit (forwards)

Installation limit (reversing)

Standstill signal

æ SAE0908E

RM

æ SAE0907Y

1

Transmission Speed Sensors

Fig. 1 IS Sensor current (supply and signal) RM Measuring resistor (in ECU) RRM Signal voltage UV Supply voltage US Sensor voltage

Robert Bosch GmbH Micromechanical Pressure Sensors

Fig. 1 1 Diaphragm 2 Silicon chip 3 Reference vacuum 4 Glass (Pyrex) 5 Bridge circuit p Measurement pressure U0 Supply voltage UM Measurement voltage R1 Strain-gauge resistor (deflected) R2 Strain-gauge resistor (expanded)

Fig. 2 1, 3 Electrical connections with glassenclosed bushing 2 Reference vacuum 4 Measurement cell (chip) with electronic evaluation circuitry 5 Glass pedestal 6 Cap 7 Feed for measurement pressure p

1

1

Application Intake-Manifold or Boost-Pressure Sensor This sensor measures the absolute pressure in the intake manifold between the supercharger and the engine (typically 250 kPa or 2.5 bar) against a reference vacuum and not against the ambient pressure. This enables the air mass to be precisely determined and the boost pressure to be regulated in accordance with the engine demand.

Ambient-Pressure Sensor This sensor (also called the atmosphericpressure sensor) is located in the ECU or in the engine compartment. Its signal is used for magnitude-dependent correction of the setpoint values for the closed control loops, e.g. exhaust-gas recirculation and boostpressure control. This allows the varying atmospheric density to be taken into consideration. The ambient-pressure sensor measures the absolute pressure (60 … 115 kPa or 0.6 … 1.15 bar). Oil and Fuel-Pressure Sensor Oil-pressure sensors are installed on the oil filter and measure the absolute oil pressure so that the engine load can be determined for the service display. Their pressure range is 50 … 1000 kPa or 0.5 … 10.0 bar. On account of its high media resistance, the measurement cell is also used to measure pressure in the fuel low-pressure stage. It is installed in or on the fuel filter. Its signal is used to monitor the level of filter contamination/clogging (measurement range 20 … 400 kPa or 0.2 … 4 bar). Type with Reference Vacuum on the Structure Side Design The measurement cell is the heart of the micromechanical pressure sensor. It consists of a silicon chip (Figure 1, item 2), into which a thin diaphragm is micromechanically

Measurement cell of pressure sensor with reference vacuum on the structure side (schematic)

R2

R1 2

3 R1

p 4 R2

5

R1 UM

R1

2

R2

æ UAE0017-1Y

Micromechanical Pressure Sensors

U0

Measurement cell of pressure sensor with cap and reference vacuum on the structure side (layout)

1

4 5

2 6

7

3

p

3

æ UAE0648-2Y

Pressure Sensors

Measurement cell of pressure sensor with cap and reference vacuum on the structure side (view)

æ UAE0721Y

56

Robert Bosch GmbH Pressure Sensors

etched (1). The diaphragm incorporates four diffused strain-gauge resistors (R1, R2) whose electrical resistance changes under mechanical stress. A cap, under which the reference vacuum is enclosed, covers the measurement cell on its structure side and acts as a seal (Figures 2 and 3). The pressure-sensor housing can also accommodate a temperature sensor (Figure 4, item 1), whose signals can be evaluated independently. Just one sensor housing is therefore sufficient for measuring both temperature and pressure at a single point.

4


Micromechanical pressure sensor with reference vacuum on the structure side (layout)

1

2

3

4

5

6

The structure side of the diaphragm which is not subjected to the measurement pressure is exposed to a reference vacuum (Figure 2, item 2) with the result that the sensor measures the absolute pressure value. The electronic circuitry for signal conditioning is integrated on the chip and serves to amplify the bridge voltage, compensate temperature influences, and linearize the

1 cm

5

æ UAE0722Y

7

Micromechanical boost-pressure sensor (characteristic, example)

V

4.65

1.87

100 Pressure

250 kPa

æ UAE0719-1E

Output voltage

Operating Concept The diaphragm of the sensor cell is deflected to varying degrees (10 … 1000 µm), depending on the magnitude of the measurement pressure. The four strain-gauge resistors on the diaphragm alter their electrical resistance under the mechanical stresses generated (piezoresistive effect). The measuring resistors are arranged on the silicon chip in such a way that when the diaphragm is deflected the resistance of two of the measuring resistors increases while it decreases in the other two resistors. The measuring resistors are arranged in a Wheatstone bridge circuit (Figure 1, item 5). As the resistances change, so too does the ratio of the voltages to the measuring resistors. This causes the measurement voltage UM to change. This as yet unamplified measurement voltage is thus a measure of the pressure acting on the diaphragm. The Wheatstone bridge circuit produces a higher measurement voltage than when an individual resistor is evaluated, thereby increasing the sensitivity of the sensor.

57

pressure characteristic. The output voltage ranges between 0 and 5 V and is supplied to the engine control unit via electrical connections (Figure 4, item 5). The control unit calculates the pressure from this output voltage (Figure 5).

Fig. 4 1 Temperature sensor (NTC) 2 Lower housing section 3 Intake-manifold wall 4 Sealing rings 5 Electrical connection (connector) 6 Housing cover 7 Measurement cell

Robert Bosch GmbH Pressure Sensors


Type with Reference Vacuum in a Cavern Design The pressure sensor with the reference vacuum in a cavern (Figures 6 and 7) for use as an intake-manifold or boost-pressure sensor is simpler in design than its counterpart with the reference vacuum on the structure side: A silicon chip with an etched diaphragm and four strain-gauge resistors in a bridge circuit is located – like the pressure sensor with cap and reference vacuum on the structure side – in the form of a measure-

6

Micromechanical pressure sensor with reference vacuum in a cavern (layout)

1

5

2 3

Fig. 6 1 Intake-manifold wall 2 Housing 3 Sealing ring 4 Temperature sensor (NTC) 5 Electrical connection (connector) 6 Housing cover 7 Measurement cell

4 6

1 cm

Fig. 8 1 Protective gel 2 Gel frame 3 Glass pedestal 4 Ceramic hybrid 5 Cavern with reference vacuum 6 Measurement cell (chip) with electronic evaluation circuitry 7 Bonded connection p Measurement pressure

The pressure-sensor housing can also accommodate a temperature sensor. The temperature sensor projects openly into the air flow and reacts at great speed to temperature changes (Figure 6, item 4). Operating Concept Its operating concept, and thus the signal conditioning and amplification and the characteristic, are identical to that of the pressure sensor with cap and reference vacuum on the structure side. The only difference is that the diaphragm of the measurement cell is deflected in the opposite direction and therefore the strain-gauge resistors undergo a deflection in the opposite direction. 8

Micromechanical pressure sensor with reference vacuum in a cavern and integrated temperature sensor (view)

Measurement cell of pressure sensor with reference vacuum in a cavern (layout)

p

1 2

5 6

3

æ UMK1997Y

7

æ UMK1645-1Y

7

ment cell on a glass pedestal. But, unlike that sensor, the glass pedestal does not have a hole through which the measurement pressure acts from the rear side on the measurement cell. Instead, the silicon chip is pressurized from the side on which the electronic evaluation circuitry is situated. This side must therefore be protected by a special gel against environmental influences (Figure 8, item 1). The reference vacuum is located in the cavity (cavern) between the silicon chip (6) and the glass pedestal (3). The entire measuring element is supported on a ceramic hybrid (4), which has soldered surfaces for further contacting in the sensor.

4

7

æ UMK1644-1Y

58

Robert Bosch GmbH Temperature Sensors

2

Coolant-temperature sensor

2

3

4

5

6

Ω

1 cm

æ UMK0124-7Y

Resistance

1

59

Characteristic of an NTC temperature sensor

Temperature Sensors Applications The engine-temperature sensor in the coolant circuit (Figure 1) records the coolant temperature, from which the engine temperature is derived (measurement range –40...+130°C). The signal from the engine-oil temperature sensor is used to calculate the service interval (measurement range –40...+170°C). The ATF-temperature sensor records the transmission-fluid (ATF) temperature, with which the ECU compensates for example the variable fluid viscosity and thereby speeds up or delays shifting sequences, or adapts clutch pressures. The ATF temperature also determines adaptation of the pressure-flow characteristics for pressure-regulator parameter adaptation. The fuel-temperature sensor is located in the diesel-fuel low-pressure stage. Its signal serves to calculate the fuel quantity (measurement range –40...+120°C). The air-temperature sensor in the intake tract records the intake-air temperature for calculating the inducted air mass in conjunction with a boost-pressure sensor. In addition, setpoint values for closed control loops (e.g. exhaust-gas recirculation, boost-pressure control) can be adapted to the air temperature (measurement range –40...+120°C).

10 4

10 3

10 2 - 40

0

40 80 Temperature

120°C

æ UMK1998E

1

Measured Variables

The exhaust-gas temperature sensor is located at temperature-critical positions in the exhaust system for regulating the exhaust-gas treatment systems. The measuring resistor is mostly made from platinum (measurement range –40...+1000°C). Design and Operating Concept Temperature sensors come in various structural designs depending on the areas in which they are to be used. A temperaturedependent measuring resistor made from semiconductor material is installed in a housing. It usually has a negative temperature coefficient (NTC, Figure 2), or less commonly a positive temperature coefficient (PTC), i.e., its resistance decreases or increases drastically as the temperature rises. The measuring resistor forms part of a voltage-divider circuit powered with 5 V. The voltage measured at the measuring resistor is therefore temperature-dependent. It is read in via an analog-digital converter and is a measure of the temperature at the sensor. A characteristic which assigns an appropriate temperature to each resistance or output-voltage value is stored in the engine control unit.

Fig. 1 1 Electrical connection 2 Housing 3 Sealing ring 4 Screw-in thread 5 Measuring resistor 6 Coolant

Robert Bosch GmbH Position Sensor for Transmission Control

For security reasons, the position setting is coded (Figure 2) in such a way that two bit changes always have to be executed before a new position is detected.

Position Sensor for Transmission Control Application The position sensor records the positions of an actuator inside the automatic transmission. It is located partially or completely in fouled transmission fluid (ATF) and is therefore exposed to the ambient conditions prevailing inside the transmission, e.g. an operating temperature of –40...+150°C.

1 a

Design The position sensor (Figure 1) consists of four digital Hall-effect sensors and a linear-displacement, multipolar permanent magnet. The magnet is coupled to the linear-actuated selector valve (hydraulic slide valve in the transmission control plate) or parking-lock cylinder and activates the Hall cells. These cells are situated in an oil-tight housing which also assumes the magnet-guidance function.

Fig. 1 a Front view b Rear view 1 Encapsulated electronic circuitry 2 Connection to pressed screen 3 Encapsulated Hall elements 4 Carriage with permanent magnet 5 Locating pin

Position sensor for transmission control

1

b

Operating Concept In an automatic transmission with manual shifting, also known as M-shifting, the position sensor records the positions of the selector slide P, R, N, D, 4, 3, 2 and the intermediate ranges, and outputs them in the form of a 4-bit code to the transmission control. In an automatic transmission with electronic shifting, also known as E-shifting, the position sensor records only the positions of the parking-lock cylinder POn and POff and an intermediate range, and outputs them in the form of a 2-bit code to the transmission control. 2

2

3

4

æ UTS0363Y

Position Sensors

5

Coding of position setting

P

Z1

R

Z2

N

Z3

D

Z4

Shifting range and intermediate range Transition range (recording of two ranges possible)

4

Z4

3

Z4

2

æ UTS0364E

60

Robert Bosch GmbH Sensor-Signal Processing

Signal Conditioning

Sensor-Signal Processing Signal Conditioning (Evaluation IC) Before they are supplied for general digital evaluation (see section entitled “Data Processing”), the sensor signals need to be specifically conditioned. Where necessary, this signal conditioning (SC) can, for example, include the following functions: amplification (DC, AC), rectification (also phase-synchronized), threshold evaluation (also variable thresholds), pulse shaping, voltage/frequency conversion, pulse-duration modulation, frequency filtering including interference protection, A/D and/or D/A conversion, adjustment of offset and amplification (characteristic in general), analog, digital (including (E2)PROM)), linearization, adjustment of temperature compensation (analog, digital), automatic zeroizing, if necessary also calibration during operation, self-monitoring (on-board diagnosis, diagnostic output) and test functions, control for servo-controlled sensors (compensation principle), generation of alternating voltage for carrier-frequency sensor systems, stabilization of power supply, short-circuit- and overvoltage-proof output and driver stages, signal multiplexer, analog and/or digital serialization of signals, coding, incl. fault recognition, bus interface (e.g. CAN), etc. All these functions are available mostly as application-specific integrated circuits bearing the designation ASIC (application specific integrated circuits). These circuits tailored to the relevant sensor application can be integrated either on the sensor side (locally) or also on the ECU side. In many cases, the functions, where suitable, can even be shared on both sides. The advantage of

integrating the circuit locally on the sensor (Figure 1, first to third integration level) is that sensor and signal conditioning (SC) can be jointly adjusted and compensated. They form an inseparable, highly interferenceproof unit and are also replaced as a single unit in the event of the failure of a specific sub-unit. If the aforementioned function previously had to be implemented partially as separate control circuits (e.g. CMOS IC for signal processing, bipolar IC as the interferenceproof driver stage), current combined technologies (e.g. BICMOS, BCD) now also allow the entire function including any necessary digital, programmable memory locations (PROM) to be integrated in a single chip. There is basically the possibility in virtually all cases even of integrating sensor and signal conditioning in monolithic form (e.g. in the case of Si intake-manifold pressure and Hall sensors). However, the initial enthusiasm for this form of integration has abated in favor of more cautious, economical considerations. This has cleared the way now for other integration methods which are more cost-effective in accordance with current state-of-the-art technology (e.g. thickfilm hybrid, a common “leadframe” and a common chip housing). This more modular concept is also much more flexible because it can be more easily adapted to new tasks. The wealth of ASICs for sensor-signal conditioning created in this way by Bosch represents a veritable gold-mine; most sensors can only be operated in conjunction with these ASICs and their properties can only be defined in association with these integrated circuits. If sensors are to be produced not just for in-house systems but are also to be freely marketed, this should be only done if at all possible with the associated signal-conditioning circuits.

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Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

Operating Conditions, Design, Data Processing

Electronic Control Unit (ECU) Digital technology furnishes an extensive array of options for open and closed-loop control of automotive electronic systems. A large number of parameters can be included in the process to support optimal operation of various systems. After receiving the electrical signals transmitted by the sensors, the ECU processes these data in order to generate control signals for the actuators. The software program for openloop control is stored in the ECU’s memory. The program is executed by a microcontroller. The ECU and its components are referred to as hardware. The electronic transmission control ECU contains all of the algorithms for open and closed-loop control needed to govern the drivetrain-management processes (coordinated control of engine and transmission).

Operating Conditions The ECU operates in an extremely harsh and demanding environment. It is exposed to extreme ambient temperatures (ranging from –40 to +60...+140°C under normal operating conditions), abrupt temperature variations, exposure to fluids (oil, fuel, etc.), the effects of moisture, and mechanical stresses such as engine vibration. The ECU must continue to perform flawlessly during starts with a weak battery (cold starts, etc.) and at high charge voltages (onboard electrical-system fluctuations). Other requirements arise from the need for EMC (electro-magnetic compatibility). The requirements for resistance to electromagnetic interference and for suppressing EMI emissions from the system itself are both very high. More on the requirements for ECUs can be found in this chapter’s “editorial box”.

Design The printed-circuit board with the electrical components (Figure 1) is installed in a housing of plastic or metal. A four-pin plug (1) connects the ECU to the sensors, actuators, and electrical power supply. The power driver circuits (3), that provide direct control of the actuators, are specially integrated within the housing to ensure effective heat transfer to the housing and the surrounding air. Most of the electronic components are SMDs (surface-mounted devices). This concept provides extremely efficient use of space in low-weight packages. Only a few power elements and the plugs are mounted using conventional insertion technology. Hybrid versions combining compact dimensions with extreme resistance to thermal attack are available for mounting directly on the engine.

Data Processing Input Signals The sensors join the actuators as the peripheral components linking the vehicle and the central processing device, the ECU. The electrical signals from the sensors pass through the wiring harness and the plug (1) to reach the ECU. These signals can be in various forms:

Analog Input Signals Analog input signals can have any voltage level within a specific range. Examples of physical parameters monitored as analog data are battery voltage and transmissionfluid temperature. An analog-digital converter within the ECU’s microcontroller transforms the signal data into the digital form required by the microprocessor’s central processing unit. The maximum resolution of these analog signals is 5 mV. This translates into roughly 1,000 incremental graduations based on an overall monitoring range of 0...5 V.

Robert Bosch GmbH Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

Digital Input Signals Digital input signals have only two conditions: high (logical 1) and low (logical 0). Examples of digital input signals are switch control signals (on/off) and digital sensor signals such as the rotational-speed pulses from Hall-effect and magnetoresistive sensors. The microcontroller can process these signals without prior conversion. Pulse-Shaped Input Signals The pulse-shaped input signals with information on rotational speed and reference marks transmitted by inductive sensors are conditioned in special circuitry within the ECU. In this process, interference pulses are suppressed while the actual pulse signals are converted into digital square-wave signals.

Signal Conditioning Protective circuits limit the voltages of incoming signals to levels suitable for conditioning. Most of the superimposed interference signals are removed from the useful signal by filters. When necessary, the useful signals are then amplified to the input voltage required by the microcontroller (0...5 V). Some or all of this initial conditioning can be carried out in the sensor itself, depending on its level of integration. Signal Processing The ECU is the switching center governing all of the functions and sequences regulated by the electronic transmission-control system. The control algorithms are executed by the microcontroller. The input signals from sensors and interfaces linking other systems (e. g. CAN bus) serve as the input parameters. The processor runs backup plausibility checks on these data. The ECU program supports calculation of the output signals used to control the actuators.

ECU structure, using electronic transmission control (GS 8.60) as an example

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Data Processing

63


Data Processing

Microcontroller The microcontroller is the central component of an electronic control unit (ECU) (Figure 2). It controls the function sequence of the ECU. In addition to the CPU (central processing unit), the microcontroller contains not only the input and output channels, but also timer units, RAMs, ROMs, serial interfaces, and other peripheral assemblies, all of which are integrated on a single microchip. Quartz-controlled timing is used for the microcontroller. Program and Data Memory The microcontroller requires a program in order to carry out calculations; this is the software. The software is stored in a program memory in the form of binary numerical values arranged into data records. The CPU reads these values, interprets them as commands, and executes these commands in sequence.

ROM Program memories can be in the form of a ROM (read only memory). This is a memory whose contents have been defined permanently during manufacture and thereafter remain unalterable. The ROM installed in the microcontroller has a restricted memory capacity, which means that an additional memory is required for complex applications.

Signal processing in the ECU

ECU Actuators Output stages

Power supply

Microcontrollers

Input signals: Digital

Conditioning of input signals

EEPROM

FlashEPROM RAM

Analog A/D converter Pulse-type CAN

Interface with other systems Diagnosis interface

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2

The program is stored in a read-only memory (ROM, EPROM or flash EPROM). This memory also contains variant-specific data (individual data, characteristic curves, and program maps). This is non-variable data which cannot be changed during vehicle operation. It is used to regulate the program’s open- and closed-loop control processes. The program memory can be integrated in the microcontroller and, depending on the particular application, can be expanded by adding a separate component (e. g., an external EPROM or a flash EPROM).

Monitoring module

64


EPROM The data on an EPROM (erasable programmable ROM) can be erased by subjecting the device to UV light. Fresh data can then be entered using a programming unit. The EPROM is usually a separate component and is accessed by the CPU via the address/data bus. Flash EPROM (FEPROM) The flash EPROM can be erased electrically. The ECU can therefore be reprogrammed in service repair shops without having to open it. The ECU is connected to the reprogramming station using a serial interface. If the microcontroller is also equipped with a ROM, this contains the programming routines for the flash programming. Flash EPROMs are available which, together with the microcontroller, are integrated on a single microchip. Its crucial advantages have helped the flash EPROM to largely supersede the conventional EPROM. Variable-Data or Main Memory A random-access memory is needed in order to store such variable data (variables) such as the computational and signal values. RAM All current values are stored in the RAM (random access memory). If complex applications are involved, the memory capacity of the RAM integrated in the microcontroller is insufficient so that an additional RAM is required. It is connected to the microcontroller via the address/data bus. When the ECU is disconnected from the power supply, the RAM loses its complete stock of data (volatile memory). However, adaptation values (learned values relating to engine and operating status) must again be available when the ECU is restarted. They must not be deleted when the ignition is turned off. To prevent this from happening, the RAM is permanently supplied with voltage (continuous power supply). These values are lost, however, when the battery is disconnected.

Data Processing

EEPROM (also known as E2PROM) Data that must be retained when the battery is disconnected (e. g., important adaptation values, fault-memory data) must therefore be permanently stored in a non-volatile memory.The EEPROM is an electrically erasable EPROM in which (in contrast to the flash EPROM) each memory location can be erased individually. This means that it can be used as a non-volatile randomaccess memory. Some ECU variants also use separately erasable areas of the flash EPROM as a non-volatile memory. ASIC Modern semiconductor technology now enables a whole range of electronic functions to be integrated in “ASICs” (application specific integrated circuits). The ASICs used in the ECUs can be grouped into the following three categories: Power supply and monitoring, Signal conditioning, monitoring, and diagnostics and Power driver stages. This high degree of integration not only reduces the number of components and with it the amount of space required but also increases reliability. Monitoring Module The ECU is equipped with a monitoring module. The microcontroller and the monitoring module use a “question-and-answer session” to monitor each other. If an error is detected, both devices can initiate appropriate substitute functions independently of each other.

65


Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

Data Processing

Output Signals With its output signals, the microcontroller trigger driver stages, which are usually powerful enough to operate the actuators directly. It is also possible for specific driver stages to trigger a relay for particularly large current consumers. The driver stages are protected against short circuits to ground or battery voltage, as well as against destruction due to electrical or thermal overload. The driver stage IC detects such malfunctions and open-circuit lines as an error and reports this error to the microcontroller.

Switching Signals These are used to switch the actuators on and off (e. g., on/off valves). PWM Signals Digital signals can be output in the form of PWM (pulse-width modulated) signals. These signals are constant-frequency square-wave signals with variable on-times (Figure 3) and are used to shift actuators to any desired settings (e.g., PWM valve).

3

PWM Signals

a

Fig. 3 a Period duration (fixed or variable) b Variable on-time

a b

Time

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Signal voltage

b

Communication Inside the ECU Microcontrollers and external memories (flash, RAM) exchange data over parallel address/data lines. A current 32-bit system has a 32-bit data bus and a > 20-bit address bus. These buses are operated at the microcomputer’s cycle (~ 50 MHz).

The SPI bus has established itself as the standard (synchronous, serial 3-wire interface, cycle approx. 1 MHz) for communication with the ASICs (slow triggering signals, writing and reading of diagnostic information) or the external E2PROM. EOL Programming The extensive variety of vehicle variants with differing control programs and data records makes it imperative to adopt a system which reduces the number of ECU types needed by a given manufacturer. To this end, the flash EPROM’s complete memory area can be programmed at the end of production with the program and the variant-specific data record. This is referred to as EOL or end of line programming. A further possibility for reducing the variety of variants is to have a number of data variants available (e.g. engine variants), which can then be selected by special coding at the end of the line. This coding is stored in an EEPROM.


Very severe demands are made on the ECU

Basically, an ECU in a motor vehicle functions in the same way as a conventional PC. Data are entered from which output signals are calculated. As in a PC, the heart of an ECU is the printedcircuit board (PCB) with microcontroller using high-precision microelectronic techniques. However, there are a number of other requirements which an ECU must also fulfill: Real-Time Compatibility Systems for the engine and the transmission demand a very fast control response and the ECU must therefore be “real-time-compatible”. This means that the control’s reaction must keep pace with the actual physical process being controlled. It must be certain that the real-time system responds within a fixed period of time to the demands made upon it. This necessitates appropriate computer architecture and very high computer power. Integrated Design and Construction The weight of equipment and the installation space it requires inside the vehicle are becoming increasingly decisive. The following technologies, and others, are used to make the ECU as small and light as possible: Multilayer: The printed-circuit conductors are between 0.035 and 0.07 mm thick and are “stacked” on top of each other in layers. SMD components: These are very small and flat and have no wire connections through holes in the PCB. They are soldered or glued to the PCB or hybrid substrate, hence SMD (Surface Mounted Devices). ASIC: Specifically designed integrated component (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) which can combine a large number of different functions. Operational Reliability Very high levels of resistance to failure are provided by integrated diagnosis and redundant computing processes (additional processes, usually running in parallel on other program paths).

Environmental Influences Notwithstanding the wide range of environmental influences to which it is subjected, the ECU must always operate reliably. Temperature: Depending on the area of application, the ECUs installed in motor vehicles must perform faultlessly during continual operation at temperatures ranging between –40°C and + 60 ... 140°C. In fact, due to the heat radiated from the electronic components, the temperature at some areas of the substrate is considerably higher. The temperature change involved in starting from cold and then running up to hot full-load operation is particularly severe. EMC: The vehicle’s electronic circuitry has to undergo severe electromagnetic-compatibility testing. That is, the ECU must remain completely unaffected by electromagnetic interference emanating from such sources as electromechanical actuators, or radiated by radio transmitters or cellular phones. In turn, the ECU itself must not negatively affect other electronic equipment. Resistance to vibration: ECUs which are mounted in the transmission must be able to withstand vibrations of up to 30 g (i.e., 30 times the acceleration due to gravity!). Sealing and resistance to operating mediums: Depending on its installation position, the ECU must be able to withstand damp, moisture, chemicals (e.g. oils), and salt spray. The above factors and other demands mean that the Bosch development engineers are continually faced with new challenges in their endeavors to economically realize the ever-increasing range of functions.

Hybrid substrate of an ECU

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Very severe demands are made on the ECU.

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Electronic Control Units (ECUs)

ECUs for Electronic Transmission Control

ECUs for Electronic Transmission Control Application In implementing electronic transmission control, engineers can choose to locate the ECUs in different positions in the vehicle. There are, for example, separate, combined, mounted, or integrated ECUs (Figure 1). The way in which these ECUs are distributed in the vehicle is essentially determined by the ratio of vehicles with automatic transmissions to vehicles with manually shifted transmissions and the demands made by the transmission on the control system (performance of the microcontroller used). In Europe, the market is still dictated by the separate printed-circuit-board ECUs ME 1

and TC (Figure 1a). In the USA, on the other hand, it is predominantly the combined drivetrain ECU (MEG) that is used for 4-speed and 5-speed automatic transmissions (Figure 1b), the reason for this being that automatic transmissions dominate the market in America with a market share of over 85 %. The newer 6-speed or 7-speed transmission types and the increasing demands on engine-management systems (emission-control legislation, CARB requirements) have now started a trend in the USA moving away from combined ECUs in favor of separate ECUs. This trend is consolidated still further by the latest generation of 6-speed transmissions. These transmissions are already equipped with electronic modules with integrated electronic circuitry.

Possible distribution of ECUs in the drivetrain

a

ABS control unit

TCS EC

Wheel brakes Separate ECUs

CAN Engine control unit (ME)

Transmission control unit (TC)

or alternatively:

Add-on ECU (ME) or integrated ECU (TC)

ME TC

Engine

Transmission

b CAN Combination ECU or alternatively:

MEG

Combination ECU and intelligent power driver stages

Engine

Transmission

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Fig. 1 a Layout with separate ME and TC printed circuit board ECUs b Layout with combined drivetrain ECU

Drivetrain ECU (MEG)

Robert Bosch GmbH Electronic Control Units (ECUs)

Design and Operating Concept The various ECUs and their technical and functional details will be discussed below.

The ECU acquires the transmission-fluid temperature as an analog input signal because the properties of the fluid have a significant effect on shift quality, especially when the engine is cold. The ECU acquires the position of the selector lever in the form of a digital signal. The following information can also be obtained and evaluated via the CAN interface: accelerator-pedal position (driver command), kickdown switch, engine temperature, and engine torque.

Printed Circuit Board ECUs The most widely used ECUs currently are printed circuit board (PCB) units. Figure 2 shows an ECU with a 32-bit microcontroller (Motorola 683xx) for a ZF 5-speed transmission. This transmission has been in mass production at BMW for some years now. The figure depicts the essential layout and the data flow of the ECU in a block diagram. The ECU itself can be roughly divided into three sections:

2. Computer Core The computer core comprises microcontroller, flash, RAM, EEPROM, analog-digital converter, and CAN bus system.

1. Input side The input side comprises the power supply (terminals 15 and 30), signal acquisition, and the communication interface. The input signals include the signals for engine speed, turbine speed, output speed, and wheel speeds. The transmission control unit usually receives the engine-speed and wheel-speed signals via the CAN interface from the acquiring ECUs (engine and ABS control units).

3. Output Side The output side features the driver stages for the on/off valve, ASICs, current control (CG205), and low-level signal driver stages.

Printed circuit board ECU for electronic transmission control (block diagram)

Ignition Internal power supply Battery voltage

Interface engine management Vehicle-speed signals Analog voltage signals Diagnosis

Microcontroller µC

ASIC for current-controlled high-power driver stages

CAN interface

Rotational frequency Interface for analog signals Serial interface for diagnosis

On/Off solenoid valves

Actuators

FEPROM RAM ADC EEPROM CAN

Digital input signals

Interface for digital signals

Low-power driver stages

Interface to vehicle

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4

BMW drivetrain ECU from 1983

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Drivetrain ECUs MEG drivetrain ECUs (MEG = engine ETC/EGAS transmission) are based on the standard printed circuit board ECUs for engine and transmission, and are commonly used in the USA. As the block diagram in Figure 3 shows, the main advantage of this ECU lies in the fact that specific electronic components only have to be fitted once, thereby reducing costs. An MG ECU (MG = engine/transmission) was the first example of electronic transmission control to be mass-produced. This ECU was developed back in 1983 for BMW for use with a ZF 4HP22 automatic transmission (Figure 4).

3

MEG drivetrain ECU for electronic transmission control (block diagram)

ME 7

Voltage regulator

Memory

CAN

Motronic µC

Diagnosis Motronic inputs

EGAS Controller µC

Voltage regulator

Memory

CAN

EGS µC

ETC inputs

Memory

Motronic output driver stages

EGS

ETC output driver stages

Diagnosis

MEG 7

Watchdog

Not necessary in MEG 7 integrated ECU

Voltage regulator

Motronic µC

Motronic output driver stages

CAN

Diagnosis

Motronic + ETC inputs

EGAS Controller

EGS µC

Memory

ETC output driver stages

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MG7.9 combined drivetrain ECU

1

Development of computer performance

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5

71

Figure 5 shows the current configuration of a drivetrain ECU for the block diagram in Figure 3. Since then, the demands on ECU computing power and memory capacity have changed dramatically (see Figure 6 and Table 1). As the figures in Table 1 demonstrate, these demands are constantly rising and there is no end in sight to their development.

Computer

Memory

RAM

Year 1983 1988 1992 1996 199x 1996 2001 2003 2005

Computer Cosmac 80515 80517 80509 C167 683xx MPC555 MPC555 ?

Memory 8 k ROM 32 k ROM 64 k ROM 128 k flash 256 k flash 256 k flash 448 k flash 1 MB flash 1.5 MB flash

RAM 128 byte 256 byte 256 byte 2k 4k 8k 28 k 28 k 66 k

Table 1

Increasing demands on ECU computing power and memory capacity

8-Bit (80519) 64k ROM

32-Bit (MPC555) 448k Flash 8-Bit (8051) 8k ROM

8-Bit (80515) 32k ROM 1983

1987

32-Bit (683xx) 256k Flash 1992

1996

2001

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Computing power/memory capacity

6

Year

Year



Microhybrid ECUs The introduction of new transmissions (such as the ZF 6HP26) has seen a transformation in the type of ECU from the PCB to the microhybrid. This development has been influenced by the changing demands, mainly because of the environmental conditions under which the ECU is used (Table 2). The microhybrid ECU basically contains the same circuitry as the PCB, but now with unencapsulated semiconductor components being used, i.e. as “bare” silicon chips. Electrical contacting is provided by wire bonding (in the PCB ECU with soldering). Passive components are electrically 2

PCB

Microhybrid

Installation location Temperature Vibration Protection

Interior or engine compartment –40...+85/+105°C ...5 g IP 40 / IP 69

In transmission

Figure 7a shows the ABS computer bond zones (44 bonds) on an LTCC standard substrate compared with the 32-bit controller in the diesel-control system (240 bonds) on LTCC-fine-line in Figure 7b. In addition, Figure 8 shows a comparison of the wiring density of the inner layers (Figure 8a) and the reverse side of the hybrid with the integrated resistors (Figure 8b).

–40...+140°C ...30 g IP6K9K in ATF

8

Bondzone microcontroller LTCC compared with LTCC-fine-line

Hybrid wiring densities

a

a

b

b

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Fig. 8 a Inner layers b Reverse side with resistors

The previous bondland grid of 450 µm would require four bond rows and at least three wiring layers to route the computer core. With the via grid of 260 µm used, two bond rows are sufficient, and this even with a reduced space requirement and only two wiring layers.

Technical limits for PCB and microhybrid

Type

7

Fig. 7 a On LTCC standard substrate b On LTCC-fine-line substrate

contacted by means of conductive bonding agents. In contrast to the currently mass-produced circuits with LTCC (low-temperature cofired ceramics), finer layout structures are used in the new systems with 32-bit processors. This relates in particular to the via density and the bondland size.

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The following significant measures were taken to bring about an improvement in the process for microhybrid ECUs: use of finer punch needles, finer screens, adaptation of the pastes used, and tolerance optimization through adapted process management. This compression of the layout makes it possible to produce the circuit for transmission control on an area measuring 2 x 1.2≤. In other words, a substrate with the working format of 8 x 6≤ alone can process 20 circuits in parallel.


Figure 9 shows the complete microhybrid in its housing. The following procedures are used for the assembly process: All the components are bonded with conductive bonding agent. Bonding is carried out using a 32 µm gold wire and a 200 µm aluminum wire. The hybrid is bonded to the steel plate with heat-conducting bonding agent. The connection to the glass bushing is made by a 200 µm aluminum bond. The housing is hermetically sealed tight.

For optimum cooling of ICs subject to high heat loss, thermal vias with a diameter of 300 µm are filled in parallel to the function vias. This increases the thermal conductivity of the substrate from approx. 3 W/mK to effectively 20 W/mK. Microhybrid ECU in steel housing

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ASIC Chips In addition to computer and memory chips, application-specific integrated circuits make up a significant proportion of the electronic components in the ECUs. Different functions have been combined into ASIC chips for the purpose of reducing costs and standardizing the electronic design of transmission-control systems. These ASICs are available in encapsulated and unencapsulated form and used for both microhybrid and PCB ECUs. Transmission control features various ASICs which are currently in volume production; the three ASICs used in the microhybrid ECU are discussed in the following.

Current-Regulator ASIC CG205 The current-regulator ASIC CG205 with integrated shunt was developed for highprecision pressure control in the transmission. It achieves a control precision of 1% over the entire temperature range.

10

Watchdog ASIC CG 120 Due to the fact that the 6-speed transmission with integrated electronic module no longer has a mechanical connection between the selector lever and the transmission, the control system requires specific safety mechanisms. This function is performed by the ASIC CG120 (Figure 10b), which monitors the function of the microcontroller (see also the chapter entitled “Diagnostic functions”). The ASIC CG120 performs the following functions:

power supply with 5 or 3.3 V, sensor supply, watchdog, serial interface, CAN interface, ISO 9141 interface, and programmable via SPI interface.

ASIC chips

a

CG

I/O ASIC CG115 In order to achieve the high level of integration in the microhybrid, it is necessary to combine as many functions as possible in one ASIC. Achieving this with individual components would therefore take up too much space on the substrate.

205

The following functions are integrated in the I/O ASIC CG115 (Figure 10c):

b

CG

CG

120

voltage monitoring, inputs and outputs for digital signal transmission, 2 inputs for inductive Hall-sensor signals, 8-channel analog multiplexer, serial interface, and programmable via SPI interface.

115

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c Fig. 10 a Current-regulator ASIC CG205 b Watchdog ASIC CG120 c I/O ASIC CG115

Figure 10a shows the encapsulated ASIC, as is used in PCB ECUs. There is also the option of adjusting the current range and the PWM output frequency with the aid of an external circuit.


Dissipating the heat losses generated in the ECUs represents a prime consideration in the design of mechatronic modules, particularly in those cases where “hotspots” cause a highly uneven distribution of the heat losses. Figure 1 shows the heat-dissipation model in an ECU to the point of a heat sink which is situated in the valve housing in this example. This is an LTCC microhybrid in a welded steel housing which is mounted on the aluminum housing of the hydraulic main control stage.

1

Figure 2 shows an area of thermal vias. The production process creates these heat-dissipating thermal vias (heat spreaders) in parallel to the electrical connections. Essentially, the terms “power loss”, “depletion-layer/junction temperature”, and “heat dissipation” define the limits for a microhybrid ECU. The power loss Pl can be described in simplified form for stationary operation as follows:

2 1 3

4

TJu RCh RKl RSu RKl RBo RKo RVe TUm 5

2

Effective heat management of the IC necessitates a close contact between the chips and the housing. Materials with high thermal conductivity are suitable for use in this respect. As other tests on the various substrates for high-temperature applications have shown, these materials demonstrate very different thermal-conductivity properties. LTCC glass ceramic shows itself to be less effective than aluminum-oxide ceramic (Al2O3) by a factor of almost 10. However, this drawback is compensated by thermal vias in the microhybrid to such an extent that LTCC technology demonstrates equally good levels of thermal conductivity as aluminum-oxide technology.

75

Heat-dissipation model in the housing of a microhybrid ECU

6

7

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1

Cross-section through a 4-layer microhybrid with thermal vias

1 mm

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Thermo-Management

Thermo-Management

Pl = (Tj – Ta) / Rjth where Tj Junction temperature Rjth Thermal internal resistance Ta Ambient temperature The thermal resistance Rjth (auxiliary quantity) is dependent on the geometric parameters and the specific thermal conductivity of the material and is determined from measurements. The maximum permitted junction temperature Tj determines the maximum permitted power loss Plmax, where Tj is dependent on the material (for silicon Tjmax = 150...200°C). Current specifications laid down by microcontroller manufacturers establish an upper limit of Tjmax = 150°C.

Fig. 1 1 Bonding agent 2 Substrate 3 Si chip 4 Thermal vias 5 Al valve housing 6 ATF 7 Steel housing base



3

Thermo-Management

Comparison of thermal resistance of aluminum-oxide and glass ceramics (LTCC)

a 1

2

4

The design of the ASICs for transmission control described in the “ASIC Chips” section is suitable for maximum junction temperatures of Tjmax = 175°C.

b 1

3

Since Tj is also dependent on the design, a consideration of design rules is important for optimization of the junction temperature, e.g.: Circuit sections subjected to thermal load should not be designed in accordance with the otherwise applicable minimum criteria, rather affected driver-stage areas (transistors/pn junctions), for example, should be geometrically enlarged. “Hotspots” should not be positioned in the corners of the ICs, this enables the IC substrate material to act in all directions as a heat spreader.

4

In relation to the complete microhybrid system, designers are working towards optimizing the level of sophistication between increasing IC size, using thermal vias, and mounting on special substrates such as DBC or PCs. Explanation of abbreviations: DBC (direct bonded copper): copper-coated ceramic and PCs (power chips): chips soldered onto copper plates. c

Figure 3 shows a comparison of the thermal resistance of aluminum oxide (Figure 3a) and glass ceramic, i.e., LTCC (Figure 3b), and also specifically in chart form (Figure 3c).

Chip Al2O3 LTCC (thermal vias) Aluminum

20 3

15

10 2

5 0

5

10

15

20

Thermal vias, surface

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1 2 3 4

Thermal resistance

Fig. 3 a Aluminum-oxide ceramic Rth = 12 K/W (CS 200 on aluminum) b LTCC Rth = 10...11 K/W (CS 200 in ABS 5.3) c Comparison

th

25 K/W

25 % 30


Processes and Tools Used in ECU Development Simulation Tools Simulation of individual components and of the complete system is playing an increasingly important role in improving and stepping up the development process. The advantages of mathematical modeling over actual physical models (prototypes) are as follows: frequent reproducibility as desired, deeper understanding of system behavior, individual parameter analyses possible, lower costs, less time required for model modifications, and flexible application in all technical fields.

Processes and Tools Used in ECU Development

Circuit Simulation with SABER Before a circuit is built with real components, it is possible to test its function using the SABER® simulation tool. Many component manufacturers already offer the data on their products in a SABER library for this purpose (Figure 2).

These data can be used to test the circuit with regard to its robustness, thermal properties, worst-case performance, and EMC behavior and thereby facilitate any necessary circuit optimization at a very early stage in its development. This approach can reduce the number of redesigns.

The following text deals briefly with some tools for simulation that are used. Figure 1 shows by way of example the thermo-simulation of a microhybrid ECU. It clearly shows the high temperature of the hotspots in the electronic circuitry which in this case occurs at a voltage regulator. This simulation is used to optimize the positioning of the thermal vias and the distribution of the components before the real ECU is built.

Simulation with SABER

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Thermo-simulation of a microhybrid layout

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77


Software Development

Software Development A study of the current series projects together with the use of development capacities demonstrate that approximately 60% of the time spent on ECU development has to be devoted to creating the necessary software. For this reason, it is absolutely essential that modern tools and processes be used.

QA2F When: After function implementation What: Review of each individual function and checking of following documents: specification, function description, source code, data definitions, and test documentation.

Development Process Definition of Development Process A depiction of the development steps in the form of a V-model (Figure 1) serves as the basis for all software-development activities. This model is used to detail the process steps which facilitate implementation within a product-development department.

QA2 When: What:

Quality Assessment Quality assessments are scheduled at defined points of the development process (Figure 2) for the purpose of process monitoring:

An essential part of the development process is also the distinction between specification and implementation. This separation allows programming by contract, whereby project teams use the software knowledge of ReUse teams who implement the functions (e.g. Keyword 2000 protocol) for various customers. To this end, the project teams write out function contracts which establish the boundary conditions of implementation. The scopes and levels of testing of the individual functions are determined in the project-specific quality plan (PQSP) with the customer requirements in mind.

QA1F When: Prior to function implementation What: Function specification check

1

2

Simplified V-model

Specification

QA3 When: What:

Prior to software delivery Review of all QA2F documents

Prior to start of series production Series-production review for hardware and software

Development process in detail

System initialization

Test

System delivery

Function analysis specification

QA2 System integration/test

QA1 Function initialization

Implementation

Function delivery

Function analysis specification QA1F

QA2F Function integration/test

Function development

æ UTS0326E

QA1 When: At the start of the project What: Resource check (capacity, development environment, responsibility)

æ UTS0325E

78


This also includes determining the QA x F scopes. The PQSP is a central element of project implementation and should be fully discussed between vehicle manufacturer and supplier. It lays down, among others things, the responsibilities, the customer relationships, the development tools, the scopes of testing and documentation, etc. The process in the ReUse team is set out as follows: The person in charge of the project formulates the task (if necessary, adoption of customer request). The function contract is drawn up (with details of task, project, desired date, scope, and reference documents) and given to the ReUse teams.

The persons in charge of ReUse and the project discuss the application and establish the scopes and deadlines together.

The person in charge of ReUse decides on the variant and version handling and implements the task. All documents are handed over to the person in charge of the project on completion. In order to ensure that the created software can be reused to the greatest possible extent, there are C-programming guidelines binding an all programmers which are called up in the relevant reviews (e.g. QA2F).


Programming Guidelines In any heterogeneous system of development that is spread over countries and continents, a standardized procedure for creating software is a vital and integral part of the time to market process. These guidelines address the following points and are binding for all programmers:

general guidelines (terminology, vocabulary, variation handling), guidelines for software developments in C (templates, structure), definitions and declarations (include, defines, typedefs), check instructions (if, for, while, break, return ...), coding specifications and instructions (typecast, arithmetic, pointer), particular features when using variables (alignment, address), instructions on data consistency (preemptive), and instructions on resource relief. These guidelines also serve as a source of knowledge for effective code configuration in order to counteract the limitations in relation to memory capacity and run time in the programming of microcontrollers.

79

Robert Bosch GmbH Software Development

Tools for Creating Software As well as the formal aspects such as process and programming guidelines, it is crucially important to ensure that the tools are subject to constant support in the interests of product quality. Figure 3 provides an overview of the tools currently used for the various development phases. Significant features of this tool chain are: constant support throughout the entire development process and product-specific, optimized solutions with tools partly developed in-house.

3

As the wide variety of tools demonstrates, the process involved in creating the software for an ECU of the latest generation is highly complex. Figure 4 provides a simplified overview of the interplay between the individual tools from the specification through to the finished ECU program. By way of example, two component parts of the tool chain will now be explained in closer detail: Design with ASCET-SD and Vehicle simulation with TCM-Simutec.

4

Tools in the development process

Organization: MS Project

Simplified process sequence

Design ASCET-SD

Design ASCETSD StP

Prototyping ASCETSD

Implementation ESPRIT Innovator Codewright DAMOS++ ASCET-SD

Documentation: MS Word

Test

Function model Object model

Prototyping INCA-PC TCMLabCar ASCETLabCar

ASCET-SD

Source files

Code generation ESPRIT

ETC program

Test/application INCA/PC

advanced simulation and control engineering tool ASCET-SD: ASCET software developer StP: software through pictures (Aonix) for OO modeling ESPRIT: engineering software-production user interface for tools Innovator: Software-development environment (MID) Codewright: Software-development environment (Premia) DAMOS: database for microcontrolleroriented systems INCA-PC: integrated car application system TCM-Simutec: Vehicle simulator ASCET-LabCar: Vehicle simulator for HiL simulation ClearCase: Configuration-management tool

æ UTS0328E

Key: ASCET:

5

Function design with ASCET-SD

æ UTS0329Y


æ UTS0327E

80


Design with ASCET-SD ASCET-SD (Figure 5) offers the following functions for designing software: interactive creation of function descriptions and function models, a graphical user interface, support of object-oriented design, dataflow-oriented design and state machines. The ERCOSEK operating system is an integral part of the development environment, and facilitates real-time simulation of the function model. ASCET-SD offers the following support for the rapid prototyping of functions: ASCET-SD operates as a bypass computer for the series ECU, i.e., individual ECU functions run on the PC, while the other functions continue to be executed by ETC (Figure 6). The connection is established via the CAN or the INCA probe. The next step is the automatic C-code creation and the creation of the corresponding data files for the application from the models. For further information, log on to http://www.etas.de

2

81

Vehicle simulation with TCM-Simutec To test the functions of a transmissioncontrol system in the laboratory, there is a simulator for the vehicle and transmission environment which provides the input signals for ETC. One such simulator is shown in Figure 7. The front panel of the simulator is equipped with assorted rotary potentiometers, switches, and pushbuttons which enable input variables such as output speed, selector-lever position, transmission temperature, etc., to be specified. The top of the simulator accommodates a breakbox which permits access to every ECU pin. Measuring instruments can be easily connected to these sockets to enable, for example, a PWM signal of a pressure-regulator output to be viewed on an oscilloscope. The laboratory car also contains computer cards which simulate the other ECUs in the vehicle network (e.g. ECUs for engine management, for ABS, etc.) and also their signals. Process and Maturity Model A clear definition of the development process and the corresponding implementation in the projects are made possible by a software development which can be evaluated with a maturity model such as CMM (capture maturity model).

7

Test setup for ASCET-SD in bypass

TCM-Simutec (laboratory car)

4

1

æ UTS0311Y

3

æ UTS0330Y

6


Fig. 6 1 ASCET-SD and INCA-PC 2 ASCET hardware (ETAS ES 1000.2) 3 ETK 4 ETC-Simutec (laboratory car)


8


The operating system with its services and the hardware-compatible software are implemented on this hardware:

Software layer model

Transmission software from vehicle manufacturer or Bosch

ERCOSEK (OS)

Program library Component driver Operating system

Hardware

Software Structure The software structure described in closer detail in the following is implemented within the transmission-control system. This layer model (Figure 8) comprises the application software (transmission software) with program library provided by the vehicle manufacturer or supplier (in this case by Bosch), the operating system, the component driver, and the hardware.

The separation of hardware and application software ensures that the software can be easily ported to new hardware platforms. Only the second layer, consisting of the operating system and component driver (BIOS), has to be adapted. The contents of the individual layers will now be broken down in the following: The ECU hardware, the first layer of the software layer model, consists of the microcontroller (here, by way of example, the MPC555), the memory, the interfaces (SPI, CAN and UART), and the peripheral chips (ASICs): CPU core timer and

SPI

TPU

Memory, hardware, driver, etc.

MIOS

CAN (2)

EEPROM driver

Hardware KWP 2000 Input/Output driver

Device driver

Device driver

Device driver

The interface layer and program library for the application software contain:

æ UTS0331E

82

UART (2)

Diagnosis handling EEPROM handling

Diagnosis monitoring functions KWP2000 application

Security software (SSK) Shift by wire functions

The application software (customized software) comprises: e.g. ASIS (RB/ZF) AGS (BMW)

Transmission software

Software sharing (interface)

Operating System It is absolutely essential to use an OSEKconforming operating system to fulfill the current real-time demands on an ECU. The ERCOSEK operating system from ETAS is used in Bosch transmission control units (available for all kinds of microcontroller).

An operating system is subdivided into processes and tasks (Figure 9): A process is a function which has no call or return parameters. A task consists of different processes and is characterized by the sequential execution of processes, the allocation of processes task, each task being assigned a priority, tasks being assigned to a time base. For task changing, there is either cooperative scheduling or preemptive scheduling (task management): Cooperative Scheduling In the case of cooperative scheduling, a task can only be interrupted between two processes by a higher-priority task (Figure 10).


The advantages of this procedure are low memory requirement (register banks, stack), simple management, and data consistency. The disadvantages are the limited response time (dependent on the process run time) and the jitter over the task period. Preemptive Scheduling Owing to the drawbacks of cooperative scheduling, preemptive scheduling is used in operating systems which operate as realtime systems. With this form of scheduling, a higherpriority task can interrupt a lower-priority task at any time (Figure 11). The advantages of this procedure are the very short response times, the minimal jitter over the task 9

period, and a response time that is not dependent on process implementation. The disadvantages are increased memory requirement (stack, register banks) and data-consistency problems. Mixed Scheduling ERCOSEK offers the option of mixing both types of scheduling in one application. A combination of hardware and software scheduling serves this purpose. Figure 12 shows the distribution between cooperative and preemptive using the priorities assigned to the tasks. A software call starts the operating system. It can support different application modes (e.g. different task sets for initializa11

Processes and task


Preemptive task change

Activation and start Task B

Task

Task B Task

Process 1 Process 2

p1B p2B p3B p4B

Prozess n

10

Task A Time t

12

Cooperative task change

Priority distribution

Hardware-based scheduling

Activation Task B Start Task B

p3A p4A

Time t

æ STS0333E

p1A p2A Task A

Software-based scheduling

Priority

Task

Task B p1B p2B p3B p4B

p3A p4A

æ STS0334E

æ STS0332E

p1A

preemptive

cooperative

Distribution

æ STS0335E

…

Process 3

83


13


tion, operation and ECU run-on, Figure 13). Each application mode consists of an initialization phase and an execution phase. Interrupts are prohibited during initialization of an application mode. Further documents on the subject of ERCOSEK / OSEK can be found on the Internet at: http://www.etas.de http://www.osek-vdx.org

Application-mode change

Application Mode n+1

Mode n

Mode

Execution

Init

Execution

æ STS0336E

Init

Zeit t

14

Hardware access in the layer model

User layer

via global RAM cells

as direct access (function call)

Configuration layer Configuration: Access to hardware channels

Filtering: Elimination of malfunctions

Coherence: Data timing

Scaling: Conversion into physical variables

Hardware layer

ADC

DIO

PWM

SPI

Serial

"Low-level"-channels

Freq

Acquisition of Input and Output Variables Access to the hardware is obtained within the framework of the software layer model in accordance with three layers (Figure 14): user layer, configuration layer, and hardware layer.

The first implementation example to be featured is access (A) via global RAM cells. Table 1 describes the name of the RAM cell, the signal direction (input or output), the signal type (analog, digital, frequency, or PWM), the description, and the physical conversion. The second example featured is access via (B) function interfaces. Table 2 is structured along the same lines as Table 1, but here the global RAM cell is replaced by a function call. The objective in the configuration layer is to obtain independence from platform and project in the conversion of the hardware accesses into real software. This is achieved on the one hand by using tools which automatically create the C-code for access to the hardware, and on the other hand by using C-macros which are then resolved on a processor-specific basis.

Access to hardware capsule:

æ STS0337E

84


I/O

Type

ugt_Batt CGT ccu_Chip fgt_Fet fpo_L1 fpr_PinM NAB NAB32 NTU NTU32 hmv1 idr1s

In In In Out In In In In In In Out Out

ANA ANA ANA DIG DIG DIG FREQ FREQ FREQ FREQ PWM ANA

2

85

Hardware access via global RAM cells

RAM cell

16 bit 8 bit 8 bit 8 bit 8 bit 8 bit 16 bit 8 bit 16 bit 8 bit 16 bit 16 bit

Content

Scaling

Battery voltage Oil temperature Substrate temperature Status HSD-Fet Selector lever pos 1 M button Output speed Output speed/32 Turbine speed Turbine speed/32 Solenoid-valve output Nominal current pressure regulator

0...25 000 mV –40...+215°C –40...+215°C 0.. 1 (On/Off) 0..1 (On/Off) 0..1 (On/Off) 0...20 000 rpm 0...255 rpm/32 0...20 000 rpm 0...255 rpm/32 0...1000 per mil 0..12 000 mA Table 1

Hardware access via functions

Software function

I/O

Return value

Content

Scaling

GetHWIO_U_IgnRunCrnk()

In

Battery voltage

0...32 V

GetHWIO_T_TransOil()

In

Oil temperature

–40...+215°C

GetHWIO_b_HSD()

In

Status HSD-Fet

0...1 (on/off)

GetHWIO_e_TapUpDwnReq()

In

Tip (+/–) function

0 x 00...0 x 40

TsHWIO_PRNDL GetHWIO_s_PRNDL(void) TsHWIO_FreqParams GetHWIO_s_NTU(void) TsHWIO_NAB_DualEdgeParams GetHWIO_s_NAB_DualEdge()

In

ANA 16 bit ANA 16 bit ANA 8 bit ENUM 8 bit DIG 8 bit FREQ struct FREQ struct

Transmission control panel

0...1

Turbine speed

SetHWIO_e_NAB_DualEdgeCptr Mode( BYTE )

Out

Time stamp + counter value Time stamp + counter value + operating edge Rising, falling, both

In In

–

A further signal-acquisition component involves the exchange of signals via the communication interface. The CAN bus (controller area network) has gained acceptance in this field in the last few years. CAN replaces the conventional wiring harness or the previously standard network of ECUs (Figure 15). The bus system must satisfy the following requirements here: Real-time updating for safety functions: 10 ms Convenience functions: 10...100 ms Maximum cable length: 40 m

Output speed, edge can be changed over nout Edge changeover

15

Table 2

ECU network

a

ECU 1

ECU 2

ECU 3

ECU 4

ECU 1

ECU 2

ECU 3

ECU 4

b

CAN - Bus

æ STS0338E

1


Fig. 15 a Conventional b With CAN



3


Bit rates as a function of cable (bus) length Maximum bit rate kbit/s

Bus length m

1000 500 250 125 40

40 100 250 500 1000

The system must also be resistant to temperature and moisture. The CAN bus has also gained acceptance in the field of automation technology. Table 3 lists the maximum possible data rates for different cable lengths. Figure 16 shows the circuit-engineering implementation of the CAN interface in an ECU.

Table 3

In the microcontroller itself, message handling is conducted via a dual-port RAM (Figure 17). Since this RAM chip, as the name suggests, can be described from two sides (CAN transceiver and microcontroller), the CPU workload is substantially relieved for signal transfer.

CAN interface

Microcontroller

CAN controller TX0 TX1

RX0 RX1

TxD

RxD Ref Rs +6V VCC

100nF

Gnd CAN_L

CAN_H

17

RT

CAN-BUS CAN_L

BUS termination

19

Use of dual-port RAM with the CAN bus

CAN standard data frame Standard Data Frame

18

Arbitration Control Field Field

20 recessive

7

3 Intermission

End of Frame

CRC Delimiter ACK Slot ACK Delimiter

Data Field

CPU workload Host CPU

CAN-bus arbitration

Bus idle

1 1 1

CRC Sequence

Message management

15

dominant RTR Bit (D) IDE Bit(D) (reserved (D)) Data Length Code

Acceptance filter

1 11 1 1 1 4 0…64 Identifier Field

Message n

recessive

high

Start of Frame

CANBus

low

æ UTS0340E

Message 1 Message 2

Inter Frame Space

CRC Acknowledge Field Field

CAN extended data frame Extended Data Frame

Inter Frame Space

NODE A

recessive

dominant

Arbitration Field

Control Field

CRC Acknowledge Field Field

Bus idle

CRC Sequence CRC Delimiter ACK Slot ACK Delimiter End of Frame Intermission

Data Field

dominant

NODE B loses the arbitration switches to receive mode

Start of Frame Identifier SRR Bit (R) IDE Bit(R) Extended Identifier RTR Bit(D) (2 reserved (D)) Data Length Code

NODE B

3 dominant

recessive

æ UTS0341E

Bus idle

1 11 1 1 18 1 2 4 0…64 15 1 1 1 7

æ UTS0343E

RT BUS termination

æ UTS0339E

CAN_H

Complete arbitration (message organization, who sends what when) on the CAN bus is performed automatically by the CAN transceiver. It does not require any computing power in the microcontroller (Figure 18). A distinction is made within CAN messages between standard and extended data frames (Figures 19 and 20).

æ UTS0342E

CAN transceiver

Bus idle

16


21

1-2 US shift curve

S


km/h

æ STS0344E

0

km/h

æ STS0345E

1

50

0

22

1-2 H

2-1 RS

% 100

1-2 curve with several driving programs

S XS

1

50

0

1-2 H

S XE 1-2 H

2-1 RS XS

% 100

2-1 RS XE

Gear Selection and Adaptive Functions Transmission control has undergone various phases or expansion stages within the framework of development. The basic functions and the adaptive programs for shifting points and pressure control are now standard in the field of electronic transmission control (ETC). Where the various marques and vehicles differ is in the different strategies employed in the automatic adaptation of the transmission to the driving style and the traffic situation. This also represents an area of software which is being increasingly taken up by the vehicle manufacturer directly and which is no longer in the hands of a supplier. The adaptive functions for shiftingpoint control and pressure control have already been discussed in the chapter sections entitled Shifting-Sequence Control and Adaptive Pressure Control. The following text will now deal with Bosch-specific implementations of automatic adaptations (learn functions). The adaptive shifting strategy determines a gear cyclically from the driver command, the vehicle status, and the driving situation. It is adaptive in relation to the driver type (sportiness) and also takes into account automatic or manual gear preselections (tip/nudge operation, as is familiar, for example, from Porsche Tiptronic© or BMW Steptronic©). The complete software package has been modeled with an object-oriented approach for optimum reuse.


In contrast, the extended data frame (Figure 20) has the following characteristic data: Data capacity: 0...8 bytes Identifier length: 29 bits Message length: max. 150 bits

87

Object-Oriented Approach Vehicle Control As an introduction, Figure 21 shows the 1-2 US and 2-1 DS shift curves for a driving program. The shift curves shown in Figure 22 extend this system for different driving programs from super economy (XE) to super sport (XS). They clearly show that the upshift point in the sporty driving program moves towards higher vehicle speed or higher engine speed and thereby achieves optimum utilization of engine performance.


The standard data frame is characterized by the following data (Figure 19): Data capacity: 0...8 bytes Identifier length: 11 bits Message length: max. 130 bits


0


Fig. 21 and 22 1 Upshift



To select a shift curve using the driver type and the total running resistance, it is necessary for them first to be recorded and evaluated once. The overall structure of vehicle control shown in Figure 23 serves this purpose. On the one hand, there are the variables which determine the vehicle and its status: transmission control panel (TCP), the transmission itself, the engine, the accelerator-pedal position, and the vehicle variables (e.g. vehicle speed, wheel speed, etc.). 23

Overall structure of vehicle control

On the other hand, there are the variables which are crucial to shifting-point selection: driver type, driving situation, and driving program. This is made clearer with the newly arranged graphic overall structure of gear selection in Figure 24. Each of these variables is then further divided into different sub-evaluations. The driver-type evaluation specifies whether the current driving style is economical or sporty. The driver-type determination as featured in Figure 25 can be shown for this purpose.

Determine Cyclical ()

Determine status ()

Determine driver type ()

Transmission control panel

Driver type

Engine

Determine drive situation ()

The result of the driver-type determination is a driver-type counter (Figure 26) with an allocated driving program (XE to XXS).

Driving situation

Transmission Vehicle variables

Set transmission () Drive program

æ STS0346E

Accelerator pedal Vehicle control

24

Driver-type evaluation is followed by hill recognition (based on the vehicle running resistance), which distinguishes between different types of uphill and downhill driving with the following allocation (Figure 27): B0 Downhill 2 B1 Downhill 1 B2 Level B3 Uphill 1 B4 Uphill 2 25

Overall structure of gear selection

Driver-type determination

Vehicle variable Accelerator pedal Transmission control panel

Gear selection

Engine

Driving situation Driver type

Electronic stability program Display Transmission


Give driver type ()

Administrator

Determiner

Startup evaluation SESP Gradient evaluation Kickdown evaluation Linear-acceleration evaluation Special evaluation Lateral-acceleration evaluation

Counter

Driver-type recognition

æ STS0348E


æ STS0347E

88


This is followed by determination of the driving situation (Figure 28). Ratio Criteria (RC) Driver type and driving situation form one of three ratio criteria (RC), all of which demonstrate different functions: RC Driver Type RC driver type makes a gear suggestion using a shift curve, depending on the relevant driver type. The driver thus serves as the ratio supplier (RS). RC FastOff RC FastOff prevents upshifts if FastOff has been detected, i.e., a shift prevention (USP, DSP) takes place.


Summary The following features can be summarized for the object-oriented adaptive driving strategy: cyclical determination of the gear, consideration of driver command, vehicle status, driving situation, adaptive in relation to driver type (sportiness), division into static and dynamic driving programs, automatic and manual gear preselection (tip/nudge operation), new, flexible prioritization procedure, and object-oriented structure. 27

RC TCP RC TCP changes the order of priority of the ratio supplier in accordance with operation of the transmission control panel (TCP). An RC selection adapted to the shift situation (SS) takes place.

Hill recognition

B2 B3

B1

B4 B0 B1

28

Driver-type counter

Driving situation

Determine drive situation ()

Startup evaluation Gradient evaluation Lateral-acceleration evaluation "Kick Fast" evaluation Special evaluation

Coordinator

Driver-type counter 0.....255

XE

E

S

XS

XXS

Drive program (characteristics)

Hot mode

Curve

Urban driving

Winter

Variable shifting sequence

Hill

Fast Off

Warm-up

Driving situation

æ STS0351E

Determine status ()

æ STS0349E

26

æ STS0350Y

B2

89




Diagnostic Functions As well as the actual transmission-control functions, monitoring functions are taking up an ever-increasing percentage of the software. At present, approximately 30% of the software stored in the ECU is assigned to diagnostics. Full diagnostics serves to enhance driving safety and also with the aid of substitute functions to increase system availability. Diagnostic management must make the following functions available: management of the fault memory, CARB fault management, applicable to each individual fault code (only specific faults alter the vehicle’s exhaust characteristics and are therefore relevant to CARB), filtering (time- and event-controlled), requirement of measures (substitute functions, limp-home), provision of data for the application of diagnostic management for each individual fault type, monitoring functions call up diagnostic management; this therefore only has a few calls in the task lists.

Fault Memory The fault memory is divided into different subsections, which are handled differently in relation to the memory location and according to the input of the “ignition off ” signal. Primary Fault Memory (PFM) The primary fault memory (PFM) exhibits the following features: saved in the non-volatile memory (EEPROM), typically 10 memory locations, contains fault code/type, environmental conditions, CARB/“warm-up” counter, and flags. Secondary Fault Memory (SFM) The secondary fault memory (SFM) exhibits the following features: one memory location for each fault code (only in the volatile RAM),

contains filters, time stamps, and assorted flags, controls the internal program run via the flags. Backup Fault Memory (BFM) The backup fault memory (BFM) exhibits the following features: optional use, ring memory, saved in the non-volatile memory, typically 5 to 10 memory locations, contains fault entries which have been deleted from the PFM. Snapshot Memory The snapshot memory is optional and contains further environmental conditions for the first PFM entry. The entries in this fault memory can be read out in the workshop with the diagnosis tester, and provide important information relating to vehicle repair. Monitoring Functions The following text deals with the most important monitoring functions in a transmission-control system:

Solenoid-Valve Monitoring The following conditions apply to monitoring a solenoid valve in the transmission: activation in PWM mode, alternatively on/off function (100%/0% PWM), PWM with fundamental frequency 1 kHz, pulse-to-no-current ratio dependent on the supply voltage, jump from approx. 95% to 100% in PWM mode, analog feedback for diagnosis, separate for “on” and “off ” states, general test condition: battery voltage ≥ threshold (7 V), fault detection as per Table 4.


SCGO

SCG

O

SCP

0 0...5 5...95 95...100 100 Key: PWM SCGO

– – – – HW

HW SW SW – –

HW SW SW – –

– – SW SW HW

SCG O SCP HW SW

Pulse width modulation Short circuit to ground or open circuit Short circuit to ground Open circuit Short circuit to positive Diagnosis by hardware Diagnosis by software

A further method of solenoid-valve monitoring is ISIG evaluation (inductive signature). This method serves to monitor the voltage characteristic at the solenoid valve and evaluates the drop (UISIG) which occurs when the spool is moved (Figure 29). The objective here is to monitor the function of the on/off valve. Since the voltage drop is only very small and very short (tISIG), a special evaluator circuit must be used here. Pressure-Regulator Monitoring The pressure regulator must be permanently monitored because its function is crucial to the function of the transmission. Program-Run Check (PRC) The program-run check (PRC) ensures that the following incidents are detected: mix-up of components, double execution of code parts, and skipping of code parts. Each module or each safety-relevant code part must have a check point at the beginning and the end in order to ensure a correct run with maximum high probability. The numbers represent the relevant module (function or process) and range from 0 to 9. The checksum algorithm (MISR procedure) ensures the sequence relationship. Each reference (every 10, 20, and 30 ms reference) has its own enumerator and delivers its own part answer. The last checked

Table 4

If faults occur in the PRC, i.e. are detected, an incorrect complete part answer of the PRC is formed, which for its part causes an incorrect complete answer to be sent to the monitoring module (watchdog in the external ASIC, see also section entitled “ASIC”). This increases its fault counter by 1 (a faultfree complete answer results in a decrease to the minimum fault-counter content 0). The monitoring module shuts down the driver stages when the fault-counter content 5 is reached and initiates a reset at fault-counter content 7.

29

ISIG signal characteristic

tISIG ≈ 10 ms

Time t

æ STS0352E

PWM (%)

point in a PRC section must be followed by a “complete check” which generates the relevant PRC part answer with the aid of correction values. The part answers are XORed and form the complete part answer of the PRC to the question/answer communication. The current question serves as the input variable into the PRC (or, more precisely, into each of the PRC parts), i.e., the program run is monitored on a question-dependent basis. A dummy must simulate the PRC-monitored points during the initialization phase because these points are not run through during initialization.

91

UISIG ≈ 10 mV

Solenoid-valve monitoring

Voltage U

4


Fig. 29 UISIG Voltage drop tISIG Time interval for voltage drop

Robert Bosch GmbH

92

Electrohydraulic Actuators

Application, Function, and Requirements

Electrohydraulic Actuators Electrohydraulic actuators form the interface between electrical signal processing (data processing) and the system process (mechanics). They convert the low-power command signals into an actuating force with the increased power required for the process.

Application and Function The transmission types most commonly in use today (AT, CVT, AST) are equipped with actuators to perform the most varied of functions. Table 1 provides an overview of the most important applications and highlights the link between the transmission functions and the actuator types that can be used. 1

Transmission functions and associated actuators

Automatic transmission (AT)

PR-S

X

X X

X

X X

X

X X

On/Off

PR-F

Control main pressure Initiate gear change: 1-2-3-4-5-6 Modulate shift pressure Control torque converter lockup clutch Reverse-gear lock Safety functions

Actuator type PWM

Function

X

X X X

X

Continuously variable transmission (pulley CVT)

Automated shift transmission (AST) Standard electric-motor actuation: Initiate gear change Actuate clutch Safety functions (fail-safe) Table 1

PR-S

X

X X X

X X X

On/Off

PR-F

Adjust gear ratio Control belt tension Control start-up clutch Reverse-gear lock

Actuator type PWM

Function

X

The actuators are important switching and control elements in an electrohydraulic transmission-control system. They control the oil (fluid) flow and the pressure characteristics in the hydraulic control plate. The following different actuator types are available: 1. On/off solenoid valves (on/off, o/o) 2. Pulse-width modulated solenoid valves (PWM) 3. Pressure regulators (spool-type) (PR-S) 4. Pressure regulators (flat-seat-type) (PR-F) In most automatic transmissions, these actuators currently serve as pilot-control elements, whose outlet pressure or volumetric flow is boosted in the hydraulic control plate before operating the clutches. In contrast, direct-action control elements without this boosting facility supply the clutches with suitably high pressure and volumetric flow.

Requirements The installation location (on the transmission inside the oil pan) gives rise to farreaching requirements and demanding operating conditions for the actuators that are used. Figure 1 provides a summary of these requirements. As ever more transmissions are now being filled with lifetime oil (i.e., they do not need to have their oil changed) abrasion and dirt particles from breaking-in remain in the oil system throughout the entire operation of the transmission. Even central intake filters and individual filters on the actuators can only retain particles over a specific size. Excessively fine filters would soon clog up. In addition to these considerations, the working life of transmissions is being increasingly extended: Transmissions in standard passenger cars are now expected to last at least 250,000 km (155,000 miles), and much more for taxis and similar applications. In contrast to many other electromagnets (e.g. in ABS valves), actuators used in trans-

Robert Bosch GmbH


Design and Operating Concept

1

Automatic transmissions require switching valves for the simple on/off switching operations and/or proportional valves for infinitely variable pressure control. Figure 2 shows different ways of converting an input signal (current or voltage) into an output signal (pressure). Basically, actuators can be designed with proportional or inversely proportional performance characteristics. On/off valves are usually voltage-controlled, i.e., the battery voltage is applied to the copper winding. The hydraulic section

Boundary conditions for actuator development

Dirt tolerance

Fatigue limit

(rubbed-off elements, residues)

…5000 h (250,000 km)

Media resistance

ON time

(ATF with additives and water content)

100%

Vibration strength Temperature load

of engine: up to 30 g

Miniaturization

(¯40…160°C)

(mass and space reduction)

Temperature change External mounting

(splash water, salt spray, industrial climate)

Actuators (typical characteristics for switching and proportional valves)

n.c. Output (Pressure p) n.o.

Time t

Time t

Duty factor

Pressure-control valve

Current I

æ STS0285E

Input (Current I)

Pulse-width-modulated (PWM) valve

Current I

On/Off valve

Proportional-control valve

Pressure p

Switching valves

Pressure p

2

of the valve is designed as either a normally closed contact (n.c.) or as a normally open contact (n.o.). PWM switching valves are suitable because of their pulse-width-modulated input signal (constant-frequency current, variable ratio of ON to OFF time) for use as pressure actuators, whose outlet pressure is proportional or inversely proportional to the pulse duty factor. The characteristic curve is referred to as rising or falling. Pressure-control valves finally are operated with a controlled input current and can likewise be designed with a rising or falling characteristic. These valves are activated by analog means whereas PWM valves are activated digitally.

æ STS0286E

mission-control applications must be designed over the entire temperature range for 100% ON time, because, for example, they have to maintain the pressure while the gear is held or control a torque converter lockup clutch during driving. This creates a need to limit the power loss and to implement copper windings of suitably generous dimensions. Vehicle and transmission-specific function characteristics (switching performance, control response, technical characteristic data), electrical and hydraulic interfaces tailored to individual applications, and the drive towards miniaturization and reducing costs are further boundary conditions for developing actuators for transmissioncontrol applications.

Requirements, Design and Operating Concept

93

Robert Bosch GmbH

Actuator Types

Overview The following types are examples of actuators commonly used for transmission-control purposes together with their characteristic values and features (overview, Figure 1). The examples are pilot-control actuators which operate within a pressure range of 400 to approx. 1000 kPa and act on a booster element in the transmission’s hydraulic control system. Spool plungers in the hydraulic control system boost the pressure and/or the volumetric flow.

The actuators described can be designed in any concrete application at their interfaces in line with the conditions in the transmission, e.g. mechanically (mounting), geometrically (installation area), electrically (contacting), or hydraulically (interface to control plate).

On/Off Solenoid Valves On/off solenoid valves (Figure 2) are most commonly used as simple 3/2 valves (3 hydraulic ports/2 positions). They are clearly simpler in design than the 4/3-valves more commonly found in stationary hydraulics, and are therefore inexpensive. Nor do they have the drawbacks of 2/2 valves (such as high leakage or limited flow rate, necessitated by their action in combination with an external restrictor).

2

On/off solenoid valves (view and oil flow)

a

æ UTS0313Y

Actuator Types

b Fig. 2 a View as switching valve with ball seat b Oil flow in valve 1 Return to tank Fmag Magnetic force Ffeed Feed-pressure force pfeed Feed pressure pclutch Clutch pressure

The function data must be constructively adapted to the requirements in the transmission, particularly with regard to feed pressure and dynamics (i.e., reaction speed and control stability).

1

Fmag 1 pclutch pfeed

Ffeed

æ UTS0287E


Actuators (overview with examples)

Solenoid valves Switching valves

PWM valves

Hydraulic module

Pressure regulators Flat-seat valves

Spool valves

æ UTS0288E

94

Robert Bosch GmbH


On/off solenoid valves are mainly used in simple 3-speed or 4-speed transmissions without overlap control. However, they are being used increasingly less in progressive or complex transmission-control systems (possibly still for safety functions). A pressure regulator controls the gearshift. In the 3/2 switching valve (n.o.) depicted in Figure 3, the feed pressure pfeed generated by the transmission pump is applied before the flange (P) and seals the ball seat. This feature is referred to as self-sealing. Since no pressure is applied at zero current in the working-pressure channel (A), the valve is closed at zero current. In this state, the working pressure, which in the end supplies the consumer (e.g. a clutch), is directly connected to the return line to the tank (oil pan) so that a pressure that is applied there can reduce or an oil volume contained therein can drain. When current is applied to the switchingvalve winding, the magnetic force generated reduces the working air gap, and the armature moves with its permanently connected push rod towards the ball and opens it. Oil flows to the consumer (from P to A) and builds up the pump pressure there. The return line to the tank is closed off at the same time.

A switching valve of this type offers the following features: low costs, non-susceptible to dirt and contamination, low leakage, and simple actuation electronics. Areas of application for On/off switching valves are: Gear change with multiple use of the same main pressure regulator. Safety functions e.g. hydraulic disabling of the reverse gear during forward travel. Torque converter lockup clutch Cutting in and out (often controlled with a PWM valve or pressure regulator for economy or convenience reasons). Changeover of register pump Selected for two different flow-rate ranges via o/o (mainly for CVT transmissions). Fig. 3 A Working-pressure channel P Feed T Return to tank pfeed Feed pressure

3/2 switching valve (characteristic with switching cycles) kPa

A

600

T

Pressure p

500

P pfeed

95

Figure 4 shows the characteristic of the 3/2 switching valve with the pressure switching cycles.

4

3/2 switching valve (sectional view)

400 300

100 0 0

10

20

30 Time t

40 ms

æ UTS0290E

200

æ UTS0289E

3

Actuator Types

Characteristic data (typical example): Feed 400...600 kPa pressure Flow rate > 2.5 l · rpm Operating 9...16 V voltage Resist12.5 Ω ance Number 2 · 106 of switching cycles

Robert Bosch GmbH

96


Actuator Types

PWM Valves PWM valves (Figure 5) have essentially the same design as switching valves. Since they operate with a frequency of 30...100 Hz, they must be designed for a higher switching speed (dynamics) and higher mechanical load (wear). The latter is particularly applicable if a PWM valve is used for main-pressure control and is operated throughout the life of the vehicle.

5

æ UTS0312Y

PWM valve (view and oil flow)

Fig. 5 a Sectional view of PWM valve b Oil flow in valve 1 Return to tank

b

Fmag 1

These requirements are reflected in the design. The sectional view in Figure 6 shows the incorporation of a rim on the armature, which ensures a high magnetic force and a high hydraulic damping action when closing. The relatively long push rod absorbs pulse forces. An annular seat seals the feed pressure in the zero-current state shown against the working-pressure channel. Compared with the ball seat, the advantage of this type is that the feed pressure acts only on minimal surface areas. These surfaces are still pressure-compensated to the greatest extent, i.e., the applied feed pressure has an opening and closing effect such that essentially the compression spring ensures reliable closing. Only minimal opening forces have to be applied here, which results in high dynamics (switching speed) and keeps the coil size and inductance low. Additional requirements in relation to the accuracy of the characteristics place stricter demands on precision during the manufacture of the valve components and during their installation than is the case in a pure on/off switching valve.

pfeed

6

æ UTS0287E

pclutch Fmag Magnetic force Ffeed Feed-pressure force pfeed Feed pressure pclutch Clutch pressure

Ffeed

7

3/2 PWM valve with rising characteristic (sectional view)

3/2 PWM valve (with rising characteristic)

1

æ STS0293E

Fig. 6 1 Feed from pump 2 Return to tank pwork Working pressure

2

æ UTS0292E

pwork

Robert Bosch GmbH


97

The ends of the characteristic demonstrate slight discontinuity. This is caused by the transition from the switching to the holding operating state (when closed or open). This inaccuracy is tolerable in these closely limited areas.

In all, PWM valves exhibit the following features: low costs, non-susceptible to dirt and contamination, free from hysteresis, low leakage, and simple actuation electronics. However, drawbacks are pressure pulsation and dependence of the characteristic on the feed pressure. Areas of application for the PWM valves with rising characteristic or high flow rate described in the following are: control of the torque converter lockup clutch, clutch control, and main-pressure control. 3/2 PWM Valve with Rising Characteristic The pressure-compensated tubular design of the closing element of this PWM valve (Figure 6) results in low inertial forces. Even this circumstance meets the demand for fast switching times, low noise emission, and long service life. The pronounced linearity of the characteristic (Figure 7) in a broad characteristic and temperature range is an important advantage for use in the vehicle. 8

Actuator Types

3/2 PWM Valve with High Flow Rate The PWM valve with high flow rate has essentially the same design as the standard PWM valve described above, but provides larger opening cross-sections with a greater diameter and a longer opening stroke of the closing element (comparison in Table 1). This design calls for a larger copper winding with a higher magnetic force (Figures 8 and 9).

1

Technical data of PWM valves in comparison

PWM valve type Feed pressure Flow rate (at 550 kPa) Timing frequency Coil resistance Dimensions Diameter Free length

kPa 300…800 l · rpm > 1.5 Hz 40…50 Ω 10 mm 25 mm 30

400…1200 > 3.9 40…50 10 30 42 Table 1

9

3/2 PWM valve with high flow rate (sectional view)

Rising With high characteristic flow rate

3/2 PWM valve with high flow rate (characteristic)

2 1

æ UTS0294E

pwork

800 600 400 200 0

0

20

40

60 80 Duty factor

100

%

æ STS0295E

Working pressure pwork

1000 kPa


Robert Bosch GmbH


Actuator Types

Pressure Regulator Two principles are used in the analog valves for pressure control (Figure 10):

The spool-type pressure regulator opens a metering notch at the feed port and simultaneously closes a metering notch to the tank return line (two-notch regulator). The position of the regulator plunger is derived from the equilibrium of forces, depending on the stamped magnetic force, the regulated pressure, and the spring force. The flat-seat pressure regulator operates as an adjustable pressure relief valve (single-notch regulator). With both principles, the regulated pressure intervenes directly in the equilibrium of forces, which is why complete closed control loops are provided. The following text explains the flat seat and spool principles by way of examples. 10 a Fhyd

D30 spool-type pressure regulator (view and oil flow)

a

pfeed 1

æ UTS0303Y

Fmag

Fspring

preg

2 Fhyd = Fspring+ Fmag b

Fig. 11 a Cutaway view of spool-type pressure regulator b Oil flow in valve 1 Feed from pump 2 Return to tank preg Regulated pressure to clutch pfeed Feed pressure from pump

11

Pressure regulator (basic layout)

pfeed

b

1

Fhyd pfeed 1

preg

Fmag

Fspring 2 Fhyd = Fspring+ Fmag

æ UTS0296E

Fig. 10 a Spool type b Flat-seat type 1 Feed from pump 2 Return to tank Fspring Spring force Fhyd Hydraulicpressure force Fmag Magnetic force preg Regulated pressure to clutch pfeed Feed pressure from pump

Spool-Type Pressure Regulator PR-S The spool-type pressure regulator (Figures 11 to 13) operates as a two-notch regulator. The regulated pressure is tapped between inlet and outlet metering notches, and is produced as a function of their opening ratio. Maximum pressure is obtained with the inlet opened and the outlet closed, while zero pressure is obtained under reversed conditions. In between these settings, this pressure regulator changes its plunger position in the equilibrium between force of pressure, spring force, and magnetic force in proportion to the current passing through the coil and adjusts the control pressure accordingly. The recirculation of the regulated pressure to the end face of the plunger via an oilway in the transmission control plate closes the closed control loop (external recirculation). The regulated pressure can also be included by means of a stepped plunger or other measures as a resulting force in the equilibrium of forces and thus in the closed control loop (internal recirculation).

preg 2

æ UTS0297E

98

Robert Bosch GmbH


Flat-Seat Pressure Regulator PR-F Like its spool-type counterpart, the flat-seat pressure regulator is also a proportional valve. The magnetic force is proportional to the current passing through the coil. The hydraulic pressure acts via the sensing surface on the equilibrium of forces. The pressure regulator can also be fitted with a compression spring to be able to achieve a defined initial state. The regulated pressure is established by a pressure drop caused by oil flowing back to the tank through a varying cross-section.

kPa kPa mA Hz

700…1600 typical 600…0 typical 0…1000 ≤ 600

mm mm

32 42

Table 2

D30 spool-type pressure regulator (sectional view)

pwork 1

æ UTS0298E

By combining a frictionless mounting (diaphragm spring) with a Teflon-coated plain bearing, this pressure regulator ensures minimum hysteresis and optimum accuracy. The presence of a spool makes the regulator largely resistant to the influences of system leakage, fluctuations in feed pressure, or temperature changes. The spool-type pressure regulator shown in Figures 11 and 12, with its typical technical data listed in Table 2, exhibits none of the drawbacks of the flat-seat pressure regulator discussed below, but is more expensive than the latter due to its higher-quality individual parts (expensive flange, precision-machined plunger). As with the flat-seat pressure regulator, there are versions available with rising and falling characteristics (Figure 13).

Feed pressure Regulated pressure Current range Activation frequency Dimensions Diameter Free length

12

99

Technical data of spool-type pressure regulator PR-S (typical)

2

13

Spool-type pressure regulator (falling characteristic)

kPa 200

400

200

0

0

0.2

0.4 0.6 Current I

0.8 A 1.0

æ STS0299E

The disadvantages of the spool-type pressure regulator are: expensive production of the precision components, and precision electronics required.

2

Regulated pressure pwork

The advantages of the spool-type pressure regulator are: high accuracy, non-susceptible to influencing quantities, low temperature sensitivity, non-susceptible to system leakage, low leakage, and zero pressure can be achieved.

Actuator Types

The flat-seat-type pressure regulator is therefore essentially an adjustable pressure limiter with a hydraulic control function. The essential features of the flat-seat pressure regulator are: high accuracy, inexpensive, non-susceptible to influencing quantities,

Fig. 12 1 Feed from pump 2 Return from tank pwork Working pressure

Robert Bosch GmbH


Actuator Types

non-susceptible to dirt and contamination, high leakage, residual pressure present (dependent on temperature), and expensive electronics.

(of the variable restrictor at the flat seat) can be more precisely matched with the upstream permanent restrictor. Suitable measures can be used even to compensate temperature sensitivity to a certain extent.

Flat-seat pressure regulator, falling characteristic Figures 14 to 16 show the example of a D30 flat-seat pressure regulator with falling characteristic. The pressure regulator operates in conjunction with a restrictor (diameter 0.8... 1.0 mm) which is either arranged externally in the hydraulic-control system or integrated directly in the pressure regulator. The advantage of the latter type of restrictor lies in the fact that the pressure-regulator characteristic

This pressure regulator described by way of example has been specially optimized such that the pressure/current characteristic exhibits low hysteresis and a narrow tolerance range. These properties are achieved by using high-quality magnetic-circuit materials and modern manufacturing procedures. Since the ratio of the hydraulic resistance of both restrictors cannot be indiscriminately small, the pressure/current characteristic of a typical flat-seat pressure regulator exhibits a residual pressure which increases as the temperature decreases. The hydraulic-

14

15

D30 flat-seat pressure regulator, falling characteristic (view and oil flow)

D30 flat-seat pressure regulator, falling characteristic (sectional view)

a

pwork 2

16

1 2

4

æ UTS0300Y

3 Fig. 15 1 Feed from pump 2 Return to tank pwork Working pressure

Flat-seat pressure regulator (falling characteristic)

600 kPa

b Regulated pressure pwork

Fig. 14 a Cutaway view of flat-seat pressure regulator b Oil flow in valve 1 Feed from pump 2 Restrictor 3 Clutch 4 Return to tank

æ UTS0301E

æ UTS0365Y

1

400

200

0

0

0.2

0.4 Current I

0.6

A

æ STS0302E

100

0.8

Robert Bosch GmbH


101

istic precision while taking up the minimal amount of space. 17

D20 flat-seat pressure regulator, rising characteristic (cutaway view)

18

D20 flat-seat pressure regulator, rising characteristic (sectional view)

æ UTS0314Y

control system of the transmission must take this circumstance into account; accordingly, the effective range for control does not begin at 0 kPa, but rather at a suitably higher pressure. Another drawback of the flat-seat pressure regulator manifests itself particularly when several of these pressure regulators are used in a transmission: The system dictates that there is a permanent return oil flow through the opened pressure regulator to the oil pan, which results in energy losses and under certain circumstances may require the use of a transmission-oil pump with increased volumetric flow. These drawbacks can be avoided by increasing the level of sophistication in the actuator or in the hydraulic-control system. However, this cancels out to some extent the main benefits of the flat-seat pressure regulator (simple design and low costs). The options offered by the closed-end function are discussed in the following.

Actuator Types

1

Flat-seat pressure regulator, rising characteristic (miniature version) Thanks to the use of high-precision plastic technology, the D20 flat-seat pressure regulator (Figures 17 to 19) has undergone a significant reduction in both size and cost. With a diameter of little more than 20 mm, it achieves a high level of character-

Pressure-regulator type

D30 D20 falling rising characteristic characteristic

Feed pressure

kPa 500…800

500…800

Regulated pressure typical

kPa 40...540

40...540

Current range typical

mA 150…770

150…770

Activation frequency

Hz 600...1000

Chopper frequency

Hz

Dimensions Diameter Free length

19

mm 30 mm 33

600...1000 23 42

æ UTS0304E


D20 flat-seat pressure regulator (rising characteristic)

600 kPa

400

200

0

0

0.2

0.4 Current I

0.6

A

0.8

æ STS0305E

Technical data of flat-seat pressure regulators in comparison

2

Regulated pressure pwork

3

pwork

Table 3

Robert Bosch GmbH

102


Actuator Types

Deciding on the Pressure-Regulator Type The decision as to whether a flat-seat pressure regulator, a spool-type pressure regulator, or even a PWM valve is used in the transmission depends on a whole range of considerations. Some technical criteria have already been discussed in the descriptions of the individual types. These criteria are again set out and compared in Table 4. The figures in this table representing accuracy are not absolute, but only relative to each other. They are only approximate values and the conditions may differ completely according to the vehicle type used, for example depending on constructive details such as variability of the equilibrium of forces, variability of the magnetic force, use of special tools in the magnetic circuit, gap between feed pressure and maximum control pressure, and system-conditioned criteria such as type of control, damping properties of the follow-up system, 4

However, selection criteria such as the following are not to be underestimated: The user’s own experience with a particular type (familiarity level, risk). In-house user traditions which can also lead to a wealth of single-sided experiences. Existing control-system concepts, for which the reworking expense in changing the regulator type is deemed to be too great. A cost analysis is conducted partly from a standpoint of reducing outsourcing costs. An analysis of the overall costs including, for example, the expenditure in internal production on control-plate machining is difficult for the user (existing equipment . . .).

Criteria for actuator selection

Criterion

Spool-type pressure regulator PR-S

Flat-seat pressure regulator PR-F

3/2 PWM valve

Sophistication in hydraulic system

non-susceptible to fluctuations in feed pressure

Constant feed pressure

Constant feed pressure

Feed restrictor

Damping

≈ 7% (recirculation) ±5...±25 kPa (dependent on characteristic range)

≈ 11 % ±5...±30 kPa (dependent on characteristic range)

≈ 13% (control) ±20 kPa (constant)

Influence of feed pressure at pfeed = 800 ±50 kPa

pC = 400 ±0.2 kPa

∆pC ≈ 0.2 · ∆pfeed

∆pC ~ ∆pfeed

Leakage

typ. 0.3 l · rpm

0.3...1.0 (...0) l · rpm

0...0.5...0 l · rpm (without elasticity)

Noise

–

–

If necessary damping required

Costs

High

Medium

Low

Accuracy: Comparison value (manufacturing tolerance)

Table 4

installation position (horizontal, vertical), installation location (above or below oil level or varying), adjustability of the closed control loop (end of line programming), and dirt concentration and dirt composition.

Robert Bosch GmbH


Simulations in Development Requirements The development times (time to market) for new transmission generations are getting ever shorter. Testing-compatible actuators must be available with function data specific to the transmissions virtually immediately after the start of any project. The strict demands on quality and reliability necessitate comprehensive tests and trials with prototypes. The previously standard iterative method using recursions and modifications will in future not be practicable from time and cost standpoints. In future, function prognoses and analyses of conspicuous features in the product-creation process using virtual prototypes will increasingly take place at an earlier stage and will at least support experimental development. Simulation of flow characteristic and pressure distribution in a PR-F pressure regulator

b

103

Computer-aided design of magnetic and hydraulic circuits thus forms the basis for simulation of the static and dynamic properties of the actuators in the transmission system. This simulation can be used to optimize functions and analyze properties under limit conditions. Function Simulation 1D simulation enables, for example, the properties of pressure-control valves to be simulated in their system environment. These include pressure/current characteristics, temperature sensitivity, dynamics, etc., under different boundary conditions or geometric variables.

Function simulation of the actuator in the (sub)system is performed for example for the variables: characteristic, dynamics, temperature influence, influence of feed-pressure fluctuations, and worst-case studies, manufacturing tolerances. Flow Simulation The Fire tool used by Bosch to calculate hydraulic losses and flow forces enables, for example, the geometries of the hydraulic section of a pressure-control valve to be optimized is such a way that flow influences on the pressure/current characteristic are minimized under all operating conditions and flow cross-sections are optimized.

0…21.7 m·s-1

a

By way of example, Figure 1 shows the simulated flow characteristic and the pressure distribution in a flat-seat pressure regulator.

c

55.5…350 kPa

æ STS0306E

1

Simulations in Development

Fig. 1 a Pressure regulator (hydraulic section) b Flow characteristic c Pressure distribution

Robert Bosch GmbH

104



Magnetic-Circuit Calculation A finite-element program (such as MAXWELL 2D or Edison) is used to design the magnetic circuit and thus the pressure/ current characteristic of a pressure-control valve. But it can also be used to utilize to optimum effect the available space (size reduction) and the material of a magnetic circuit (magnetic-force increase, Figure 2) or to adapt the force/travel characteristic to the requirement.

The magnetic force is simulated, for example, for: dimensioning, the layout for the magnetic-force characteristic, eddy-current losses, and manufacturing tolerances.

With the variables FM magnetic force, Fp pressure force, FFl flow force, FFr frictional force, FD damping force, and FS spring force

Ftot = mx·· + dx· + cx

Optimization of magnetic force with MAXWELL 2D (example)

a

Ftot = ∑(FM + Fp + FFl + FFr + FD + FS) = 0

or according to Figure 3:

The following improvements have been implemented as the result of the simulation (example in Figure 2): position and shape of the working air gap, optimized cross-section for a stronger magnetic flux, and reconfiguration of the working air gap and parasitic air gap (geometry, position). 2

Basic Principles of 1D Simulation Motion Equation with Force Balance The motion equation with force balance is as follows:

With the variables m moving mass, d damping, x·· acceleration, x· velocity, x travel, c spring rate.

3

“Force balance” model

b

Fp

FFr

FM

x ¯

˙

x

x

d

FFl

FM = 5.8 N

FM = 10.2 N

æ STS0308E

Fig. 2 a Basic model b Optimization FM Magnetic force

æ STS0307E

c

Robert Bosch GmbH


Pressure Calculation in a Chamber Pressure calculation in a chamber is governed by:

4


“Chamber pressure” model

dp β = oil · Q dt Voil QE

Where: βoil compression module of pressurized fluid, Voil chamber volume, Q cumulative volumetric flow.

ΣQ

β Vol

dp dt

p

æ STS0309Y

QA

The cumulative volumetric flow flowing into the chamber, which is responsible for the pressure build-up, is calculated from (Figure 4): 5

“Restrictor flow” model

Q = (QE – QA)

Flow-Rate Calculation at a Restrictor The volumetric flow at a restrictor is calculated from (Figure 5): Q = αf · Ao ·

2 · ∆p ; ρ

where ∆p = p1 – p3 And where: αf flow-rate coefficient, Ao cross-sectional area of a restrictor, ρ density of medium, ∆p pressure differential, p1 pressure at point 1, p3 pressure at point 3.

Q

1

0

2

3

æ STS0310Y

Where: Q cumulative volumetric flow, QA outlet volumetric flow, QE inlet volumetric flow.

105

Robert Bosch GmbH Modules for Transmission Control

Application

Modules for Transmission Control Modules are compact function and constructional units that enable different standardized components to be integrated with the minimum component and space requirements and simplified interfaces. Hydraulic, electronic, and electrohydraulic modules are available to suit the level of integration required.

Application Mechatronic Modules Since the number of sensors and actuators deployed in the automatic transmission is increasing while the amount of space available to accommodate them is diminishing, the drive towards ever-increasing integration suggests itself not just for cost reasons. Mechatronic modules can be used to combine actuators and sensors, their contacting and if necessary even an ECU into a single control system. The level of integration, or the scope, of a mechatronic module is dictated by the requirements of the relevant vehicle manufacturer (Figure 1). Improvement Potential Modular technology offers comprehensive potential for improvement in comparison with individual components (Figure 2).

1

Modules exhibit the following advantages over individual components: reduced space requirement, reduced mass, fewer individual parts, increased reliability, standardization of the components integrated in the module, and thus reduced costs. These advantages are essentially provided by simplifications to the mechanical and electrical interfaces between the individual components and the transmission. There is in future still further potential for reducing costs in this field. However, any further increase in module complexity could also lead to drawbacks; this is because a manufacturer of modules must demonstrate competence over the entire spectrum of the components contained therein. Since it is more difficult to separate the components in the event of a fault, there is the danger that increased follow-up costs may be incurred in the event of both assembly errors and repairs. Mechatronic systems therefore place strict demands on quality and reliability in the manufacturing process and necessitate precautionary measures to ensure that subsequent repairs can be carried out.

Variable scope of a mechatronic module

Electronic control unit • Single unit • Mounting • Integrated • Combined

Sensors • Temperature • Pressure • Rotational speed • Position

Actuators • on /off • PWM • Pressure regulator • (Stepping motor)

Electronic module (EM) Hydraulic module (HM) Electrohydraulic module (EHM)

æ STS0291E

106


107

Improvement potential through modular system

Transmission manufacturer Purchasing

Vehicle manufacturer

Assembly

Final inspection

Individual components ECU

ECU

Wiring harness

Wiring harness

Wiring harness

4 to 8 actuators

4 to 8 actuators

4 to 8 actuators

4 to 8 sensors

4 to 8 sensors

4 to 8 sensors

Electrohydraulic module


• Reduced expenditure on electronics • Optimized development • Only one partner for development and supply

• Reduced logistics • Reduced costs

Purchasing/Assembly Individual components ECU

Transmission

Transmission

Transmission system

Transmission system

Module

Module


Improvement potential

Improvement potential

• Simple assembly • Lower wiring-harness scope • Reduced costs

Module Types Hydraulic Modules (HM) The hydraulic module (HM) (example, Figure 3) represents the first step towards the simplified assembly of modules. This module type comprises the following components (primarily sensors and actuators): pressure regulator (1), PWM valve (2), integrated switching valves (4), transmission connector matched to the vehicle type, temperature sensor, electrical connections, and joint filter seal between module housing and adapter plate with hydraulic channels (5).

3

1

• Better adjustment • Increased reliability

• Reduced logistics • No ECU mounting • Lower wiring-harness scope • Space saving

æ STS0315E

Development

HM 5R55 hydraulic module (example: Ford)

2

3

4

4

5

æ UTS0283Y

2

Module Types

Fig. 3 1 Pressure regulator 2 PWM valve 3 Transmission connector 4 Integrated switching valves 5 Adapter plate with hydraulic channels

Robert Bosch GmbH Module Types

Electronic Modules (EM) Design The next stage of development involves the fusion of mechanics and electronics into the mechatronic electronic module (EM), consisting of sensors and ECU. In many cases, it offers the possibility for system simplification and cost reduction. Electronic modules already come in different types and versions. What they all have in common is their optimum adaptation to their environment, as the examples in Figures 4 to 6 demonstrate.

Bosch module for ZF transmission The highly developed transmission functions with real-time calculations require a 32-bit microcontroller (Motorola MPC555). This means that up to 250 connections have Siemens-VDO electronic module

æ UTS0316Y

4

5

to be routed, depending on the application. As well as sensitive signal conditioning, the electronic transmission-control system requires power electronics with a high-precision current regulator (1 A with 1% accuracy) for pressure control and semiconductor relays for currents of up to 8 A. Further functions are: power supply, safety monitoring, and CAN bus system for data transfer. The system also includes: electrically actuated pressure-control valves and solenoid valves, position sensor, rotational-speed sensors, temperature sensor, and transmission connector. The environmental conditions which impact on the transmission pose a particular challenge. The temperature temporarily reaches 140°C and acceleration values of up to 30 g occur. In addition, the electronic circuitry is completely immersed in transmission fluid, which contains contaminants, abrasion particles, and chemical additives (see also chapter entitled “Automatic transmissions AT” section “Automatic transmission luid/ATF”). 6

Conti-TEMIC electronic module

Bosch electronic module for ZF 6HP26

æ UTS0284Y

Modules for Transmission Control

æ UTS0317Y

108


Electrohydraulic Modules (EHM) Expanding the components of the electronic module with the additional integration of actuators results in the electrohydraulic module (EHM).

An electrohydraulic module therefore comprises sensors, actuators, and ECU.

7

Module Types

109

Figure 7 shows an electrohydraulic module: A three-piece component carrier made of plastic holds the components integrated in the module. A pressed screen, located between the plastic components to provide protection against dirt and metal shavings, contains the electrical wiring. The components in the pressed screen are contacted by laser welding or special insulation-displacement connection technology.


1

4

2

5

æ UTS0223Y

3

Fig. 7 1 Transmission connector 2 Pressure-control valves 3 Rotational-speed sensor 4 Microhybridtechnology ECU 5 Position sensor


Robert Bosch GmbH Index of technical terms

Index of technical terms Technical Terms 1D Simulation, 104 A ACEA, 31 Acquisition of Input and Output Variables, 84 Activation of Converter and Torque Converter Lockup Clutch, 53 Actuator selection, 102 Actuator Types, 94 ff Adaptive Pressure Control, 39 Adaptive Transmission Control (ATC), 41 Add-on systems, 33 Air-temperature sensor, 59 Application in Motor Vehicles, 54 ASC Operation, 41 ASIC, 65 ASIC Chips, 74 AST Components, 10 ATF-temperature sensor, 59 Automated manual transmissions, 8 Automated Shift Transmission (AST), 8 Automatic Transmission (AT), 14 Automatic transmission fluid, 17 Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF), 17 f Automatic transmissions, 14 B Backup Fault Memory, 90 Basic Principles of 1D Simulation, 104 Benz patent motor carriage, 5 Bit rates, 86 C CAFE, 31 CAN interface, 86 Cartronic, 30 Circuit Simulation with SABER, 77 Clutch Activation, 53 Clutch Control, 37 Clutch management, 32 Clutch Servo Unit, 10 Comfort and Convenience, 6 Communication Inside the ECU, 66 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT), 22 Continuously variable transmissions, 22, 52 Control of Automated Shift Transmission AST, 32 Control of Automatic Transmissions, 36

Control of Continuously Variable Transmission, 52 Control, clutch, 37 Control, electrohydraulic, 37 Controlled Torque Converter Lockup Clutch, 51 Conventional Shifting-Point Selection, 40 Cooperative Scheduling, software development, 82 Cornering, 41 “Crescent” oil pump, 18 Current-Regulator, 74 CVT, 22 CVT Components, 26 f CVT Oil Pump, 27 D Daimler/Maybach Steel-Wheel Carriage, 29 Data Processing, ECU, 62 DC Motors, 10 f Deciding on the Pressure-Regulator Type, 102 Design and Operating Concept, 93 Design with ASCET-SD, 81 Design, ECU, 62 Development Process, software development, 78 Diagnostic Functions, software development, 90 Direct Control, 37 Downshift Under Load, 38 Downshifts, 45, 48 Driveability, 6 Driver Type, 89 Driver-type determination, 88 Driver-type evaluation, 88 Driver-Type Recognition, 41 Drivetrain, 4 Drivetrain ECUs f, 70 Drivetrain Management, 30 Driving Program, 53 Driving situation, 89 Driving-Situation Recognition, 41 Dual-Clutch Transmission (DCT), 12 Dunashift, 9 E Easytronic, 9 EC Motors, 11 ECU, 67 ECU Development, 77 ECUs for Electronic Transmission Control, 68 EEPROM, 65

111


Index of technical terms

Electric-Motor Automated Shift Transmission AST, 33 Electric-Motor Clutch Management (ECM), 32 Electrohydraulic Actuators, 92 Electrohydraulic Control, 37 Electrohydraulic Modules (EHM), 109 Electronic control unit, 10 Electronic Control Unit (ECU), 62-63 ff Electronic Modules (EM), 108 Electronic Transmission Control, 30 Energy balance in the drivetrain, 4 Engine Intervention, 42 ff Engine-oil temperature sensor, 59 Engine-temperature sensor, 59 Engine-Torque Specification, 49 Environmental Influences, ECU, 67 EOL Programming, 66 EPROM, 65 Examples of AST in Series Production, 9 Exhaust-gas temperature sensor, 59 Extroid-CVT, 22 F Fault Memory, 90 Fill-Time Measurement, 39 Flash-EPROM, 65 Flat-Seat Pressure Regulator, 99 f Flow Simulation, 103 Friction-gear CVT, 28 Fuel Consumption, 6 Fuel-temperature sensor, 59 Function Simulation, 103 G Gear Selection and Adaptive Functions, 87 H Hall sensor, 55 Hardware access, 85 Hill recognition, 88 Hybrid-CVT, 22 Hydraulic Control, 36 Hydraulic Modules (HM), 107 Hyper-CVT, 22 I I/O-ASIC, 74 ICVT, 22 Input Signals, ECU, 62 Installation Space, 6 Integrated Design and Construction, ECU, 67

Integrated ECU, 10 Integration levels of sensors, 54 J JAMA, 31 K KAMA, 31 L Lepelletier planetary-gear set, 15 Link-chain, 27 M Magnetic-Circuit Calculation, 104 Manually Shifted Transmission, 7 Market Trends, 31 Mechatronic Modules, 106 Microcontroller, 64 Microhybrid ECUs, 72 f Micromechanical Pressure Sensors, 56-58 Mixed Scheduling, software development, 83 Module Types, 107 Modules for Transmission Control, 106 Monitoring Functions, software development, 90 Monitoring Module, 65 Multimatic, 22 Multiplate Clutches, 20 Multitronic, 22 Multitronic with link-chain, 23 O Object-Oriented Approach, 87 Oil Pump, 18, 27 On/Off Solenoid Valves, 94 f Open and Closed-Loop Control Functions, 52 Operating Conditions, ECU, 62 Operating System, software development, 82 Operational Reliability, ECU, 67 Output Signals, ECU, 66 Overall structure of gear selection, 88 Overall structure of vehicle control, 88 P Parking Lock, 21 Phases of AST shifting operation, 34 Pilot Control, 37 Planetary-Gear Sets f, 20 Position Sensor for Transmission Control, 60 Power Take-Up Elements, 16

Robert Bosch GmbH Index of technical terms

Power-flow in a standard drive, 7 Power-shift transmissions, 14 Preemptives Scheduling, software development, 83 Pressure Correction, 40 Pressure Regulator, 98 ff Pressure-Regulator Monitoring, 91 Primary Fault Memory, 90 Printed Circuit Board ECUs, 69 Process and Maturity Model, 81 Processes, 77 Production Costs, 6 Program and Data Memory, 64 Program-Run Check, 91 Programming Guidelines, 79 Pump Activation, 53 Pump Pressure, 18 Push-Belt, 26 PWM Valves, 96 f R RAM, 65 Ratio Control, 53 Ravigneaux set, 14, 21 Real-Time Compatibility, ECU, 67 Requirements, actuators, 92 Reverse-Gear Lock, 53 ROM, 64 Rotational-speed sensor, 55 S SAE viscosity classes, 18 Secondary Fault Memory, 90 Sensor-Signal Processing, 61 Sensors, 54 Sequence Control, 47 Sequentronic, 9 Shifting the Ignition Angle, 49 Shifting times, 35 Shifting with Torque Correction, 33 Shifting without Torque Correction, 32 Shifting-Point Selection, 40 f Shifting-Sequence Control, 37 Signal Conditioning (Evaluation IC), 61 Signal Conditioning, ECU, 63 Signal Processing, ECU, 63 Simpson set, 21 Simulation Tools, 77 Simulations in Development, 103 Slip-Time Measurement, 39 Software Development, 78 ff Software Sharing, 34 Software Structure, 82 Solenoid valves, 94 Solenoid-Valve Monitoring, 90 f Spool-Type Pressure Regulator, 98 f

Super-CVT, 22 Switching valve, 95 T Temperature Sensors, 59 Thermo-Management, 75 f Thermo-Simulation, 77 Tools, 77 Tools for Creating Software, 80 Tools for simulation, 77 Toroid Transmission, 28 Torque Converter, 19 Torque Converter Lockup Clutch (TCLC), 16, 50 Transmission Control, 30 Transmission in the Drivetrain, 4 Transmission Requirements, 6 Transmission Speed Sensors, 55 Transmission with Lepelletier Planetary-Gear Set, 15 Transmission with Ravigneaux Planetary-Gear Set, 14 Transmissions for Motor Vehicles, 4 U Uphill Driving, 41 Upshift Under Load, 37 Upshifts, 43 V Variator, 26 Vehicle simulation with TCM-Simutec, 81 W Watchdog, 74 Winter Recognition, 41

113


Index of technical terms

Abbreviations

Abbreviations A ABS: Antilock Braking System ACEA: Association des Constructeurs Européens d’Automobiles (Association of European Automobile Manufacturers) AMT: Automated Manual Transmission ASC: Anti-Slipping-Control ASIC: Application Specific Integrated Circuit AST: Automated Shift Transmission AT: Automatic Transmission ATC: Adaptive Transmission Control ATF: Automatic Transmission Fluid B BIOS: Basic Input Output System C CAFE: Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency CAN: Controller Area Network CARB: California Air Resource Board CMM: Capture Maturity Model CTCC: Controlled Torque Converter Lockup Clutch CVT: Continuous Variable Transmission D DC: Direct Current DCT: Dual-Clutch Transmission DS: Down Shift DSP: Down Shift Prevention E ECM: Electronic Clutch Management EHM: Electrohydraulic Modules EM: Elektronicmodule EOL: End Of Line ETC: Electronic Transmission Control

F FE: Fuel Efficiency

R RC: Ratio Criteria

H HM: Hydraulic module

S SAC: Self Adjusting Clutch SW: Software

I IC: Integrated Circuit ISIG: Inductive Signature J JAMA: Japan Automotive Manufactures Association K KAMA: Korean Automotive Manufactures Association L LTCC: Low-Temperature Cofired Ceramic M M: Torque (German: Moment) MEG: Engine ETC/EGAS transmission MV: Solenoid valve (German: Magnetventil) N n.c.: normally closed n.o.: normally open P PCB: Printed Circuit Board PRC: Programm-Run Check PR-F: Pressure Regulators Flat-seat-type PR-S: Pressure Regulators Spool-type Q QA: Quality Assessment

T TC: Transmission control TCLC: Torque Converter Lockup Clutch TCP: Transmission Control Panel TCM: Transmission Control Module TCS: Traction Control System TI: Torque Intervention U US: Up Shift USP: Up Shift Prevention

Electronic Transmission Control ETC 2004

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