Cekungan-Sumatera-Selatan.pdf

Geologi Regional Cekungan Sumatera Selatan Februari 12, 2008 in Indonesia Basin | Tags: Indonesia Basin

Secara fisiografis Cekungan Sumatra Selatan merupakan cekungan Tersier berarah barat laut – tenggara, yang dibatasi Sesar Semangko dan Bukit Barisan di sebelah barat daya, Paparan Sunda di sebelah timur laut, Tinggian Lampung di sebelah tenggara yang memisahkan cekungan tersebut dengan Cekungan Sunda, serta Pegunungan Dua Belas dan Pegunungan Tiga Puluh di sebelah barat laut yang memisahkan Cekungan Sumatra Selatan dengan Cekungan Sumatera Tengah.

Posisi Cekungan Sumatera Selatan sebagai cekungan busur belakang (Blake, 1989) Tektonik Regional Blake (1989) menyebutkan bahwa daerah Cekungan Sumatera Selatan merupakan cekungan busur belakang berumur Tersier yang terbentuk sebagai akibat adanya interaksi antara Paparan Sunda (sebagai bagian dari lempeng kontinen Asia) dan lempeng Samudera India. Daerah cekungan ini meliputi daerah seluas 330 x 510 km2, dimana sebelah barat daya dibatasi oleh singkapan Pra-Tersier Bukit Barisan, di sebelah timur oleh Paparan Sunda (Sunda Shield), sebelah barat dibatasi oleh Pegunungan Tigapuluh dan ke arah tenggara dibatasi oleh Tinggian Lampung.

Menurut Salim et al. (1995), Cekungan Sumatera Selatan terbentuk selama Awal Tersier (Eosen – Oligosen) ketika rangkaian (seri) graben berkembang sebagai reaksi sistem penunjaman menyudut antara lempeng Samudra India di bawah lempeng Benua Asia. Menurut De Coster, 1974 (dalam Salim, 1995), diperkirakan telah terjadi 3 episode orogenesa yang membentuk kerangka struktur daerah Cekungan Sumatera Selatan yaitu orogenesa Mesozoik Tengah, tektonik Kapur Akhir – Tersier Awal dan Orogenesa Plio – Plistosen.

Episode pertama, endapan – endapan Paleozoik dan Mesozoik termetamorfosa, terlipat dan terpatahkan menjadi bongkah struktur dan diintrusi oleh batolit granit serta telah membentuk pola dasar struktur cekungan. Menurut Pulunggono, 1992 (dalam Wisnu dan Nazirman ,1997), fase ini membentuk sesar berarah barat laut – tenggara yang berupa sesar – sesar geser. Episode kedua pada Kapur Akhir berupa fase ekstensi menghasilkan gerak – gerak tensional yang membentuk graben dan horst dengan arah umum utara – selatan. Dikombinasikan dengan hasil orogenesa Mesozoik dan hasil pelapukan batuan – batuan Pra – Tersier, gerak gerak tensional ini membentuk struktur tua yang mengontrol pembentukan Formasi Pra – Talang Akar. Episode ketiga berupa fase kompresi pada Plio – Plistosen yang menyebabkan pola pengendapan berubah menjadi regresi dan berperan dalam pembentukan struktur perlipatan dan sesar sehingga membentuk konfigurasi geologi sekarang. Pada periode tektonik ini juga terjadi pengangkatan Pegunungan Bukit Barisan yang menghasilkan sesar mendatar Semangko yang berkembang sepanjang Pegunungan Bukit Barisan. Pergerakan horisontal yang terjadi mulai Plistosen Awal sampai sekarang mempengaruhi kondisi Cekungan Sumatera Selatan dan Tengah sehingga sesar – sesar yang baru terbentuk di daerah ini mempunyai perkembangan hampir sejajar dengan sesar Semangko. Akibat pergerakan horisontal ini, orogenesa yang terjadi pada Plio – Plistosen menghasilkan lipatan yang berarah barat laut – tenggara tetapi sesar yang terbentuk berarah timur laut – barat daya dan barat laut – tenggara. Jenis sesar yang terdapat pada cekungan ini adalah sesar naik, sesar mendatar dan sesar normal. Kenampakan struktur yang dominan adalah struktur yang berarah barat laut – tenggara sebagai hasil orogenesa Plio – Plistosen. Dengan demikian pola struktur yang terjadi dapat dibedakan atas pola tua yang berarah utara – selatan dan barat laut – tenggara serta pola muda yang berarah barat laut – tenggara yang sejajar dengan Pulau Sumatera .

KERANGKA TEKTONIK DAN PERKEMBANGAN STRUKTUR CEKUNGAN SUMATRA SELATAN Kerangka Tektonik Sumatra Pulau Sumatra terletak di baratdaya dari Kontinen Sundaland dan merupakan jalur konvergensi antara Lempeng Hindia-Australia yang menyusup di sebelah barat Lempeng Eurasia/Sundaland. Konvergensi lempeng menghasilkan subduksi sepanjang Palung Sunda dan pergerakan lateral menganan dari Sistem Sesar Sumatra.

Gambar 1. Pembentukan Cekungan Belakang Busur di Pulau Sumatra (Barber dkk, 2005). Subduksi dari Lempeng Hindia-Australia dengan batas Lempeng Asia pada masa Paleogen diperkirakan telah menyebabkan rotasi Lempeng Asia termasuk Sumatra searah jarum jam. Perubahan posisi Sumatra yang sebelumnya berarah E-W menjadi SE-NW dimulai pada EosenOligosen. Perubahan tersebut juga mengindikasikan meningkatnya pergerakan sesar mendatar Sumatra seiring dengan rotasi. Subduksi oblique dan pengaruh sistem mendatar Sumatra menjadikan kompleksitas regim stress dan pola strain pada Sumatra (Darman dan Sidi, 2000). Karakteristik Awal Tersier Sumatra ditandai dengan pembentukkan cekungan-cekungan belakang busur sepanjang Pulau Sumatra, yaitu Cekungan Sumatra Utara, Cekungan Sumatra Tengah, dan Cekungan Sumatra Selatan (Gambar 1). Pulau Sumatra diinterpretasikan dibentuk oleh kolisi dan suturing dari mikrokontinen di Akhir Pra-Tersier (Pulunggono dan Cameron, 1984; dalam Barber dkk, 2005). Sekarang Lempeng Samudera Hindia subduksi di bawah Lempeng Benua Eurasia pada arah N20°E dengan rata-rata pergerakannya 6 – 7 cm/tahun.

Konfigurasi cekungan pada daerah Sumatra berhubungan langsung dengan kehadiran dari subduksi yang menyebabkan non-volcanic fore-arc dan volcano-plutonik back-arc. Sumatra dapat dibagi menjadi 5 bagian (Darman dan Sidi, 2000): 1. Sunda outer-arc ridge, berada sepanjang batas cekungan fore-arc Sunda dan yang memisahkan dari lereng trench. 2. Cekungan Fore-arc Sunda, terbentang antara akresi non-vulkanik punggungan outer-arc dengan bagian di bawah permukaan dan volkanik back-arc Sumatra. 3. Cekungan Back-arc Sumatra, meliputi Cekungan Sumatra Utara, Tengah, dan Selatan. Sistem ini berkembang sejalan dengan depresi yang berbeda pada bagian bawah Bukit Barisan. 4. Bukit Barisan, terjadi pada bagian axial dari pulaunya dan terbentuk terutama pada PermKarbon hingga batuan Mesozoik. 5. Intra-arc Sumatra, dipisahkan oleh uplift berikutnya dan erosi dari daerah pengendapan terdahulu sehingga memiliki litologi yang mirip pada fore-arc dan back-arc basin. Struktur Utama Cekungan Sumatra Selatan Menurut Salim dkk (1995) Cekungan Sumatra Selatan merupakan cekungan belakang busur karena berada di belakang Pegunungan Barisan sebagai volcanic-arc-nya. Cekungan ini berumur Tersier yang terbentuk sebagai akibat adanya interaksi antara Paparan Sunda sebagai bagian dari Lempeng Kontinen Asia dan Lempeng Samudera India. Daerah cekungan ini meliputi daerah seluas 330 x 510 km2, bagian barat daya dibatasi oleh singkapan Pra-Tersier Bukit Barisan, di sebelah timur oleh Paparan Sunda (Sundaland), sebelah barat dibatasi oleh Pegunungan Tigapuluh dan ke arah tenggara dibatasi oleh Tinggian Lampung. Menurut Suta dan Xiaoguang (2005; dalam Satya, 2010) perkembangan struktur maupun evolusi cekungan sejak Tersier merupakan hasil interaksi dari ketiga arah struktur utama yaitu, berarah timurlaut-baratdaya atau disebut Pola Jambi, berarah baratlaut-tenggara atau disebut Pola Sumatra, dan berarah utara-selatan atau disebut Pola Sunda. Hal inilah yang membuat struktur geologi di daerah Cekungan Sumatra Selatan lebih kompleks dibandingkan cekungan lainnya di Pulau Sumatra. Struktur geologi berarah timurlaut-baratdaya atau Pola Jambi sangat jelas teramati di Sub-Cekungan Jambi. Terbentuknya struktur berarah timurlaut-baratdaya di daerah ini berasosiasi dengan terbentuknya sistem graben di Cekungan Sumatra Selatan. Struktur lipatan yang berkembang pada Pola Jambi diakibatkan oleh pengaktifan kembali sesar-sesar normal tersebut pada periode kompresif Plio-Plistosen yang berasosiasi dengan sesar mendatar (wrench fault). Namun, intensitas perlipatan pada arah ini tidak begitu kuat. Pola Sumatra sangat mendominasi di daerah Sub-Cekungan Palembang (Pulunggono dan Cameron, 1984). Manifestasi struktur Pola Lematang saat ini berupa perlipatan yang berasosiasi dengan sesar naik yang terbentuk akibat gaya kompresi Plio-Pleistosen. Struktur geologi berarah utara-selatan atau Pola Sunda juga terlihat di Cekungan Sumatra Selatan. Pola Sunda yang pada awalnya dimanifestasikan dengan sesar normal, pada periode tektonik Plio-Pleistosen teraktifkan kembali sebagai sesar mendatar yang sering kali memperlihatkan pola perlipatan di permukaan.

Gambar 2. Elemen Struktur Utama pada Cekungan Sumatra Selatan. Orientasi Timurlautbaratdaya atau Utara-Selatan Menunjukkan Umur Eo-Oligosen dan Struktur Inversi Menunjukkan Umur Plio-Pleistosen (Ginger dan Fielding, 2005). Perkembangan Tektonik Peristiwa Tektonik yang berperan dalam perkembangan Pulau Sumatra dan Cekungan Sumatra Selatan menurut Pulonggono dkk (1992) adalah:



Fase kompresi yang berlangsung dari Jurasik awal sampai Kapur. Tektonik ini menghasilkan sesar geser dekstral WNW – ESE seperti Sesar Lematang, Kepayang, Saka, Pantai Selatan Lampung, Musi Lineament dan N – S trend. Terjadi wrench movement dan intrusi granit berumur Jurasik – Kapur.

Gambar 3. Fase Kompresi Jurasik Awal Sampai Kapur dan Elipsoid Model (Pulonggono dkk, 1992). 

Fase tensional pada Kapur Akhir sampai Tersier Awal yang menghasilkan sesar normal dan sesar tumbuh berarah N – S dan WNW – ESE. Sedimentasi mengisi cekungan atau terban di atas batuan dasar bersamaan dengan kegiatan gunung api. Terjadi pengisian awal dari cekungan yaitu Formasi Lahat.

Gambar 4. Fase Tensional Kapur Akhir Sampai Tersier Awal dan Elipsoid Model (Pulonggono dkk, 1992).



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Fase ketiga yaitu adanya aktivitas tektonik Miosen atau Intra Miosen menyebabkan pengangkatan tepi-tepi cekungan dan diikuti pengendapan bahan-bahan klastika. Yaitu terendapkannya Formasi Talang Akar, Formasi Baturaja, Formasi Gumai, Formasi Air Benakat, dan Formasi Muara Enim. Fase keempat berupa gerak kompresional pada Plio-Plistosen menyebabkan sebagian Formasi Air Benakat dan Formasi Muara Enim telah menjadi tinggian tererosi, sedangkan pada daerah yang relatif turun diendapkan Formasi Kasai. Selanjutnya, terjadi pengangkatan dan perlipatan berarah barat laut di seluruh daerah cekungan yang mengakhiri pengendapan Tersier di Cekungan Sumatra Selatan. Selain itu terjadi aktivitas volkanisme pada cekungan belakang busur.

Gambar 5. Fase Kompresi Miosen Tengah Sampai Sekarang dan Elipsoid Model (Pulonggono dkk, 1992).

APLIKASI SEKUEN STRATIGRAFI UNTUK DATA WELLLOG Sebelum masuk ke tema ini hendaknya dipahami mengenai sekuen stratigrafi dahulu. Sebagai referensi bisa dilihat di halaman http://ptbudie.wordpress.com/2010/12/17/sekuen-stratigrafi/. System tract secara genesa diasosiasikan dengan unit stratigrafi yang mengendap selama fase tertentu oleh siklus muka laut relatif (Posamentier, et al, 1988). Unit itu menjelaskan kembali rekaman batuan berupa tiga dimensi pembentuk fasies. Ketiga dimensi itu berupa tipe dari permukaan batas, posisi dalam sebuah sekuen, dan pola tumpukan parasekuen (Van Wagoner et al., 1988). Menurut Van Wagoner et al.(1987), system tract yang membentuk sebuah single depositional sequence adalah 1. Lowstand System Tract (LST) 2. Transgressive System Tract (TST) 3. Highstand System Tract (HST) 4. Shelf Margin System Tract (SMFT)

Berikut di bawah adalah diagram sequen stratigrafi yang normal tanpa ada ganguan struktur sekunder yang memberikan gambaran hubungan antara systems tract serta batas-batas yang memisahkan antar sytems tract tersebut.

Diagram Sikuen Stratigrafi (Tanpa Terganggu Oleh Adanya Struktur Sekunder) (Vail et al, 1987)

Log yang biasanya digunakan dalam analisis stratigrafi ini adalah log gamma ray (GR) dan Log Spontaneous Potentian (SP) yang merupakan log yang menceriminkan ukuran butir dari sedimen. Dalam pengapalikasian sekuen stratigrafi perlu diketahui marker-marker dalam sekuen stratigrafi yaitu seperti 1. Batas sekuen atau sequence boundary (SB); SB-1 dan SB-2 2. Transgressive Surface 3. Maximum Flooding Surface

Setelah diketahui marker-marker tersebut kemudian dapat dilakukan kronokorelasi untuk setiap system tract-nya. prinsip kronokorelasi adalah mengkorelasikan kejadian-kejadian geologi yang terekam pada batuan. Kejadian geologi bisa terjadi secara lokal, regional, dan global, dalam jangka waktu menit hingga ratusan juta tahun, sehingga rekaman kejadian ini digolongkan dalam beberapa orde. Pembagian orde-orde tersebut dapat dibaca di halaman sekuen stratigrafi sesuai link di atas. Setelah kerangka kronologi geologi diketahui kemudian dilakukan korelasi yang lebih detil biasanya adalah mengunakan prinsip litokorelasi seperti sand to sand correlation dan kemudian dapat dibuat peta isopach dan paleogeografinya. Berikut adalah aplikasi sekuen stratigrafi dalam data log:

HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT (EXXON)

TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT (EXXON)

LST-PROGRADING WEDGE (EXXON)

LST-SLOPE FAN COMPLEX (EXXON)

LST-BASIN FLOOR FAN (EXXON)

GEOLOGI REGIONAL CEKUNGAN SUMATERA SELATAN Stratigrafi Regional Sub Cekungan Jambi merupakan bagian Cekungan Sumatra Selatan yang merupakan cekungan belakang busur (back arc basin) berumur Tersier yang terbentuk sebagai akibat tumbukan antara Sundaland dan Lempeng Hindia. Secara Geografis Sub Cekungan Jambi dibatasi oleh Pegunungan Tigapuluh di sebelah utara, Tinggian Lampung di bagian selatan, Paparan Sunda di sebelah timur, dan Bukit Barisan di sebelah barat.

Tatanan stratigrafi Sub Cekungan Jambi pada dasarnya terdiri dari satu siklus besar sedimentasi dimulai dari fase transgresi pada awal siklus dan fase regresi pada akhir silkusnya. Secara detail siklus ini dimulai oleh siklus non marin yaitu dengan diendapkannya Formasi Lahat pada Oligosen Awal dan kemudian diikuti oleh Formasi Talang Akar yang diendapkan secara tidak selaras di atasnya. Menurut Adiwidjaja dan De Coster (1973), Formasi Talang Akar merupakan suatu endapan kipas alluvial dan endapan sungai teranyam (braided stream deposit) yang mengisi suatu cekungan. Fase transgresi terus berlangsung hingga Miosen Awal dimana pada kala ini berkembang Batuan karbonat yang diendapkan pada lingkungan back reef, fore reef, dan intertidal (Formasi Batu Raja) pada bagian atas Formasi Talang Akar. Fase Transgresi maksimum ditunjukkan dengan diendapkannya Formasi Gumai bagian bawah secara selaras di atas Formasi Baturaja yang terdiri dari Batu serpih

laut

dalam.

Fase regresi dimulai dengan diendapkannya Formasi Gumai bagian atas dan diikuti oleh pengendapkan Formasi Air Benakat yang didominasi oleh litologi Batu pasir pada lingkungan pantai dan delta. Formasi Air Benakat diendapkan secara selaras di atas Formasi Gumai. Pada Pliosen Awal, laut menjadi semakin dangkal dimana lingkungan pengendapan berubah menjadi laut dangkal, paludal, dataran delta dan non marin yang dicirikan oleh perselingan

antara batupasir dan batulempung dengan sisipan berupa batubara (Formasi Muara Enim). Tipe pengendapan ini berlangsung hingga Pliosen Akhir dimana diendapkannya lapisan batupasir tufaan, pumice dan konglemerat.

Batuan Dasar

Batuan Pra-Tersier atau basement terdiri dari kompleks batuan Paleozoikum dan batuan Mesozoikum, batuan metamorf, batuan beku dan batuan karbonat. Batuan Paleozoikum akhir dan batuan Mesozoikum tersingkap dengan baik di Bukit Barisan, Pegunungan Tigapuluh dan Pegunungan Duabelas berupa batuan karbonat berumur permian, Granit dan Filit. Batuan dasar yang tersingkap di Pegunungan Tigapuluh terdiri dari filit yang terlipat kuat berwarna kecoklatan berumur Permian (Simanjuntak, dkk., 1991). Lebih ke arah Utara tersingkap Granit yang telah mengalami pelapukan kuat. Warna pelapukan adalah merah dengan butir-butir kuarsa terlepas akibat pelapukan tersebut. Kontak antara Granit dan filit tidak teramati karena selain kontak tersebut tertutupi pelapukan yang kuat, daerah ini juga tertutup hutan yang lebat.Menurut Simanjuntak, et.al (1991) umur Granit adalah Jura. Hal ini berarti Granit mengintrusi batuan filit.

Formasi

Lahat

Formasi Lahat diendapkan secara tidak selaras di atas batuan dasar, merupakan lapisan dengan tebal 200 m - 3350 m yang terdiri dari konglemerat, tufa, breksi vulkanik andesitik, endapan

lahar,

aliran

lava

dan

batupasir

kuarsa.

Formasi ini memiliki 3 anggota, yaitu :

Anggota Tuf Kikim Bawah, terdiri dari tuf andesitik, breksi dan lapisan lava. Ketebalan anggota ini bervariasi, antara 0 - 800 m.

Anggota Batupasir Kuarsa, diendapkan secara selaras di atas anggota pertama. Terdiri dari konglomerat dan batupasir berstruktur crossbedding. Butiran didominasi oleh kuarsa.

Anggota Tuf Kikim Atas, diendapkan secara selaras dan bergradual di atas Anggota Batupasir Kuarsa. Terdiri dari tuf dan batulempung tufan berselingan dengan endapan mirip lahar. Formasi Lahat berumur Paleosen hingga Oligosen Awal.

Formasi Talang Akar

Formasi Talang Akar pada Sub Cekungan Jambi terdiri dari batulanau, batupasir dan sisipan batubara yang diendapkan pada lingkungan laut dangkal hingga transisi. Menurut Pulunggono, 1976, Formasi Talang Akar berumur Oligosen Akhir hingga Miosen Awal dan diendapkan secara selaras di atas Formasi Lahat. Bagian bawah formasi ini terdiri dari batupasir kasar, serpih dan sisipan batubara. Sedangkan di bagian atasnya berupa perselingan antara batupasir dan serpih.

Ketebalan Formasi Talang Akar berkisar antara 400 m – 850 m.

Formasi Baturaja

Formasi ini diendapkan secara selaras di atas Fm. Talang Akar dengan ketebalan antara 200 sampai 250 m. Litologi terdiri dari batugamping, batugamping terumbu, batugamping pasiran, batugamping serpihan, serpih gampingan dan napal kaya foraminifera, moluska dan koral. Formasi ini diendapkan pada lingkungan litoral-neritik dan berumur Miosen Awal.

Formasi

Gumai

Formasi Gumai diendapkan secara selaras di atas Formasi Baturaja dimana formasi ini menandai terjadinya transgresi maksimum di Cekungan Sumatera Selatan. Bagian bawah formasi ini terdiri dari serpih gampingan dengan sisipan batugamping, napal dan batulanau. Sedangkan di bagian atasnya berupa perselingan antara batupasir dan serpih.

Ketebalan formasi ini secara umum bervariasi antara 150 m - 2200 m dan diendapkan pada lingkungan laut dalam.

Formasi Gumai berumur Miosen Awal-Miosen Tengah.

Formasi Air Benakat Formasi Air Benakat diendapkan secara selaras di atas Formasi Gumai dan merupakan awal terjadinya fase regresi. Formasi ini terdiri dari batulempung putih kelabu dengan sisipan batupasir halus, batupasir abu-abu hitam kebiruan, glaukonitan setempat mengan dung lignit dan di bagian atas mengandung tufaan sedangkan bagian tengah kaya akan fosil foraminifera. Ketebalan Formasi Air Benakat bervariasi antara 100-1300 m dan berumur Miosen Tengah-Miosen Akhir. Formasi ini diendapkan pada lingkungan laut dangkal. Formasi

Muara

Enim

Formasi Muara Enim mewakili tahap akhir dari fase regresi tersier. Formasi ini diendapkan secara selaras di atas Formasi Air Benakat pada lingkungan laut dangkal, paludal, dataran delta dan non marin. Ketebalan formasi ini 500 – 1000m, terdiri dari batupasir, batulempung , batulanau dan batubara. Batupasir pada formasi ini dapat mengandung glaukonit dan debris volkanik. Pada formasi ini terdapat oksida besi berupa konkresikonkresi dan silisified wood. Sedangkan batubara yang terdapat pada formasi ini umumnya berupa lignit.

Formasi Muara Enim berumur Miaosen Akhir – Pliosen Awal.

Formasi

Kasai

Formasi Kasai diendapkan secara selaras di atas Formasi Muara Enim dengan ketebalan 850 – 1200 m. Formasi ini terdiri dari batupasir tufan dan tefra riolitik di bagian bawah. Bagian atas terdiri dari tuf pumice kaya kuarsa, batupasir, konglomerat, tuf pasiran dengan lensa rudit mengandung pumice dan tuf berwarna abu-abu kekuningan, banyak dijumpai sisa tumbuhan dan lapisan tipis lignit serta kayu yang terkersikkan.

Fasies pengendapannya adalah fluvial dan alluvial fan.

Formasi Kasai berumur Pliosen Akhir-Plistosen Awal.

Sedimen Kuarter

Satuan ini merupakan Litologi termuda yang tidak terpengaruh oleh orogenesa PlioPlistosen. Golongan ini diendapkan secara tidak selaras di atas formasi yang lebih tua yang teridi dari batupasir, fragmen-fragmen konglemerat berukuran kerikil hingga bongkah, hadir batuan volkanik andesitik-basaltik berwarna gelap. Satuan ini berumur resen

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Cekungan Bengkulu 2009 March 22 tags: Cekungan Bengkulu by admin

Cekungan Bengkulu adalah salah satu cekungan forearc di Indonesia. Cekungan forearc artinya cekungan yang berposisi di depan jalur volkanik (fore - arc; arc = jalur volkanik). Tetapi, kita menyebutnya demikian berdasarkan posisi geologinya saat ini. Apakah posisi tersebut sudah dari dulu begitu? Belum tentu, dan inilah yang harus kita selidiki. Publikasi-publikasi dari Howles (1986), Mulhadiono dan Asikin (1989), Hall et al. (1993) dan Yulihanto et al. (1995)—semuanya di proceedings IPA baik untuk dipelajari soal Bengkulu Basin. Berdasarkan berbagai kajian geologi, disepakati bahwa Pegunungan Barisan (dalam hal ini adalah volcanic arc-nya) mulai naik di sebelah barat Sumatra pada Miosen Tengah. Pengaruhnya kepada Cekungan Bengkulu adalah bahwa sebelum Misoen Tengah berarti tidak ada forearc basin Bengkulu sebab pada saat itu arc-nya sendiri tidak ada. Begitulah yang selama ini diyakini, yaitu bahwa pada sebelum Miosen Tengah, atau Paleogen, Cekungan Bengkulu masih merupakan bagian paling barat Cekungan Sumatera Selatan. Lalu pada periode setelah Miosen Tengah atau Neogen, setelah Pegunungan Barisan naik, Cekungan Bengkulu dipisahkan dari Cekungan Sumatera Selatan. Mulai saat itulah, Cekungan Bengkulu menjadi cekungan forearc dan Cekungan Sumatera Selatan menjadi cekungan backarc (belakang busur).

Setting tektonik regional Sumatra (sumber: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/File:Sumatra_map.jpg) Sejarah penyatuan dan pemisahan Cekungan Bengkulu dari Cekungan Sumatera Selatan dapat dipelajari dari stratigrafi Paleogen dan Neogen kedua cekungan itu. Dapat diamati bahwa pada Paleogen, stratigrafi kedua cekungan hampir sama. Keduanya mengembangkan sistem graben di beberapa tempat. Di Cekungan Bengkulu ada Graben Pagarjati, Graben Kedurang-Manna, Graben Ipuh (pada saat yang sama di Cekungan Sumatera Selatan saat itu ada graben-graben Jambi, Palembang, Lematang, dan Kepahiang). Tetapi setelah Neogen, Cekungan Bengkulu masuk kepada cekungan yang lebih dalam daripada Cekungan Sumatera Selatan, dibuktikan oleh berkembangnya terumbu-terumbu karbonat yang masif pada Miosen Atas yang hampir ekivalen secara umur dengan karbonat Parigi di Jawa Barat (para operator yang pernah bekerja di Bengkulu menyebutnya sebagai karbonat Parigi juga). Pada saat yang sama, di Cekungan Sumatera Selatan lebih banyak diendapkan sedimen-sedimen regresif (Formasi Air Benakat/Lower Palembang dan Muara Enim/Middle Palembang) karena cekungan sedang mengalami pengangkatan dan inversi. Secara tektonik, mengapa terjadi perbedaan stratigrafi pada Neogen di Cekungan Bengkulu— yaitu Cekungan Bengkulu dalam fase penenggelaman sementara Cekungan Sumatera Selatan

sedang terangkat. Karena pada Neogen, Cekungan Bengkulu menjadi diapit oleh dua sistem sesar besar yang memanjang di sebelah barat Sumatera, yaitu Sesar Sumatera (Semangko) di daratan dan Sesar Mentawai di wilayah offshore, sedikit di sebelah timur pulau-pulau busur luar Sumatera (Simeulue-Enggano). Kedua sesar ini bersifat dextral. Sifat pergeseran (slip) yang sama dari dua sesar mendatar yang berpasangan (couple strike-slip atau duplex) akan bersifat trans-tension atau membuka wilayah yang diapitnya. Dengan cara itulah semua cekungan forearc di sebelah barat Sumatera yang diapit dua sesar besar ini menjadi terbuka oleh sesar mendatar (trans-tension pull-apart opening) yang mengakibatkan cekungan-cekungan ini tenggelam sehingga punya ruang untuk mengembangkan terumbu karbonat Neogen yang masif asalkan tidak terlalu dalam. Di cekungan-cekungan forearc utara Bengkulu (Mentawai, Sibolga, Meulaboh) pun berkembang terumbu-terumbu Neogen yang masif akibat pembukaan dan penenggelaman cekungancekungan ini. Dan, dalam dunia perminyakan terumbu-terumbu inilah yang sejak akhir 1960-an telah menjadi target-target pemboran eksplorasi. Sayangnya, sampai saat ini belum berhasil ditemukan cadangan yang komersial, hanya ditemukan gas biogenik dan oil show (Dobson et al., 1998 dan Yulihanto, 2000—proceedings IPA untuk keterangan Mentawai dan Sibolga Basins). Cekungan Bengkulu merupakan salah satu dari dua cekungan forearc di Indonesia yang paling banyak dikerjakan operator perminyakan (satunya lagi Cekungan Sibolga-Meulaboh). Meskipun belum berhasil menemukan minyak atau gas komersial, tidak berarti cekungan-cekungan ini tidak mengandung migas komersial. Sebab, target-target pemboran di wilayah ini (total sekitar 30 sumur) tak ada satu pun yang menembus target Paleogen dengan sistem graben-nya yag telah terbukti produktif di Cekungan-Cekungan Sumatera Tengah dan Sumatera Selatan. Cekungan Bengkulu akan merupakan harapan pertama untuk penemuan minyak di sistem Paleogennya. Sumur terdalam di cekungan ini yang dibor oleh operator Fina pada tahun 1992 (Arwana-1) menemukan oil shows dan menembus sedimen Oligo-Miosen yang berkualitas baik sebagai batuan induk minyak. Kemudian, berdasarkan data sumur ini pula, diketahui bahwa termal cekungan ini panas (4,5-5 F/100 ft) sebuah anomali bagi “cool basin“—sebutan yang terkenal untuk Cekungan-cekungan forearc. Gradient geothermal yang besar ini merupakan anomali pada sebuah forearc basin yang rata-rata di Indonesia sekitar 2.5 F/100 ft atau di bawahnya (Netherwood, 2000); Bila dibandingkan cekungan forearc lain, memang banyak publikasi menyebutkan thermal Cekungan Bengkulu di atas rata-rata. Itu pula yang dipakai sebagai salah satu pemikiran bahwa Cekungan ini dulunya bersatu dengan Cekungan Sumatera Selatan (pada Paleogen)—pemikiran yang juga didukung oleh tatanan tektonostratigrafinya. Gradient geothermal dipengaruhi konduktivitas termal masing-masing lapisan pengisi cekungan dan heatflow dari basement di bawah cekungan. Apabila basementnya kontinen, maka ia akan punya heatflow yang relatif lebih tinggi daripada basement intermediat dan oseanik. Selain itu, kedekatan dengan volcanic arc akan mempertinggi thermal background di wilayah ini dan berpengaruh kepada konduktivitas termal. Gradient geothermal yang diluar kebiasaan ini, tentu saja baik bagi pematangan batuan induk dan generasi hidrokarbon.

Sekuen syn-rift dan post-rift di cekungan ini belum tertembus, di situlah harapan akumulasi migas berada. Diperlukan data seismik yang lebih baik untuk target dalam dan diperlukan sumursumur dalam untuk menembus target-target Paleogen. Selain data seismik, rembesan minyak dipermukaan juga menjadi data yang sangat berharga apabila bisa diplot di peta geologi permukaan yang cukup detail, lalu dilihat penampang geologinya. Nanti akan diketahui dari batuan mana rembesan itu berasal. Yang tak kalah penting adalah melakukan serangkaian analisis geokimia kepada rembesan minyak itu, hal ini akan memberi tahu kita sifat batuan induk yang telah menggenerasikan minyak tersebut. Sejarah tulisan ini: Tulisan tentang Cekungan Bengkulu ini diawali dari kiriman Pak Awang HS pada medio Maret 2009 di iagi-net yang berupa jawabannya terhadap pertanyaan seorang mahasiswa tentang cara terbentuknya Cekungan Bengkulu. Kiriman ini ditanggapi oleh beberapa orang anggota milis. Dengan demikian, para anggota milis iagi-net yang berkontribusi—baik bertanya maupun menjawab—dalam diskusi mengenai Cekungan Bengkulu ini adalah: Awang HS, Junrial Hairul Huzaen, Bayu Nugroho dan Sigit Prabowo. Terima kasih juga untuk Yorris Wibriana atas informasinya tentang gambar setting tektonik regional Sumatra.

Geology Of South Sumatra Basin Filed under: Geology of Indonesia — haris @ 7:20 am

The South Sumatra basin is located to the east of the Barisan Mountains and extends into the offshore areas to the northeast and is regarded as a foreland (back-arc) basin bounded by the Barisan Mountains to the southwest, and the Pre-Tertiary of the Sunda Shelf to the northeast (de Coster, 1974). The South Sumatra basin was formed during east-west extension at the end of the Pre-Tertiary to the beginning of Tertiary times (Daly et al., 1987).

TECTONIC SETTING The structural features present in the basin are the result of the three main tectonic events. They are Middle-Mesozoic orogeny, Late Cretaceous-Eocene tectonism and the PlioPleistocene orogeny. The first two events provided the basement configuration including the formation of half grabens, horsts, and fault block. The last event, the Plio-Pleistocene orogeny, resulted in formation of the present northwest-southeast structural features and the depression to the northeast (de Coster, 1974). Structurally the 21 block is located in the Palembang High. This high is located at the southern edge of a positive feature in the eastern margin of South Sumatra Basin.

STRATIGRAPHY The sediments of the South Sumatra Basin comprise an economic basement of Pre-Tertiary rocks that is overlain unconformably by a thick Tertiary sequence. The first Tertiary sedimentation occurred during Early Oligocene and gave rise to the Lahat Formation consisting of mainly volcanic rocks, claystone and shale that was deposited locally in the graben areas. The Talang Akar Formation (Late Oligocene) overlies the basement where the Lahat Formation is missing. It is a transgresive sequence resulting from Late Oligocene to Middle Miocene subsidence. The later sedimentation during mid-Miocene to recent produced a regressive sequence (de Coster, 1974). In most parts of the Palembang High, sediment deposition started in Early Miocene, except in local low areas where terrestrial to nearshore sediments of Talang Akar Formation (Oligocene) and terrestrial sediments of Lahat and Lemat Formation (Eo-Oligocene) had been deposited. In many places, the Talang Akar, the Lahat and the Lemat Formations cannot be distinguished from each other and hence are called Pre-Baturaja clastics. During Early Miocene, carbonate sediments of the Baturaja Formation were developed either directly above the Pre-Tertiary basement or above a thin Talang Akar Formation. Off the Palembang High, hundreds of feet thick of the Talang Akar Formation are present (Ferianto et al., 2005).

Approximately 17.5 MYBP the sea level dropped, and the Baturaja carbonates were exposed and subject to diagenetic processes that led to development of good secondary porosity. Afterward, the sea level rose again and the Telisa marine shales (Early-Mid. Miocene) were

deposited. In around 15.5 MYBP the sea level gradually dropped again and nearshore to terrestrial sediments of Palembang Formation (Upper Miocene-Pliocene) were deposited (Ferianto et al., 2005). Plio-Pleistocene orogeny (in 2.8 MYBP) created the current structures in the region. A NW-SE striking monocline dipping to SW is the predominant feature there. The detail Stratigraphy of South Sumatra Basin is described in other literature, such as De Coster (1974) (Ferianto et al., 2005). Regional sediment sources were generally from the Sunda Plate to the north and Palembang or Lampung High to the east (Sitompul et al., 1992). Maximum transgression in the middle Miocene deposited the marine Gumai Shale Formation seal across the region before uplift and compression resulted in deposition of shallow marine and continental sandstones and shales. Development of the Barisan Mountains, and possible volcanic islands to the south and southeast, further decreased and then cut off and overwhelmed marine influences and added new clastic and volcaniclastic sources from those directions. Erosion of northwest trending anticlines that were formed during compression resulted in local Plio-Pleistocene continental deposits within the intervening synclines. Continued volcanic activity has covered much of the surface of the South Sumatra Basin (Bishop, 2000).

PETROLEUM SYSTEM SOURCE ROCK Hydrocarbons in South Sumatra Province are derived from both lacustrine source rocks of the Lahat Formation and terrestrial coal and coaly shale source rocks of the Talang Akar Formation. The lacustrine source rocks were deposited in a complex of half-grabens whereas the subsequent coal and coaly shales were deposited in and extended beyond the limits of the half-grabens. The Batu Raja Limestone and the Gumai Formation shales may also be mature and have generated hydrocarbons in local areas (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989, Bishop, 2000).

The middle to late Eocene through early Oligocene Lahat or Lemat Formation includes the Benakat Shale with oil prone Type I and II kerogen and gas prone Type III kerogen. Organic material in the late Eocene through middle Miocene Talang Akar Formation contains oil- and gas-prone Type I, II and III kerogen. The general temperature gradient in South Sumatra is 49o Ckm-1 (Hutchinson, 1996 in Bishop, 2000).

TRAP TYPES Northwest to southeast trending anticlines were the first traps explored and remain the most important traps in the

South Sumatra basin. Drape, facies-change, and stratigraphic traps are also important and may be attractive future targets (Bishop, 2000). RESERVOIR ROCK There are several formations in the South Sumatra Basin which play as reservoir rocks, event basement rocks. They are basement rocks, Lahat Formation, Talang Akar Formation, Batu Raja Formation, Gumai Formation, Air Benakat Formation, and Muara Enim Formation (Bishop, 2000).

Uplifted areas and paleohighs of Mesozoic and Eocene fractured and weathered basement granite and quartzite are effective reservoirs, in ten fields in South Sumatra (Sardjito et al., 1991; Bishop, 2000). The Eocene to Oligocene Lahat Formation is composed of synrift deposits that are as much as 1,070 m thick. Although locally absent, this formation, is in most locations, more than 760 m thick. The formation was deposited in continental, lacustrine, and brackish lacustrine depositional settings (Hutchinson, 1996 in Bishop, 2000). The Talang Akar Formation is as much as 610 m thick. It is a late synrift to post-rift formation that is thick where the underlying Lahat Formation is thickest. The Talang Akar Formation unconformably overlies the Lahat Formation. It onlaps the Lahat and the basement, extending farther outside of the depositional basins than the depositional limits of the Lahat Formation. This reservoir consists of quartzose sandstones, siltstones, and shales deposited in a delta plain setting that changed basinward, generally to the south and west, into marginal marine sandstones and shales (Hutchinson, 1996 in Bishop, 2000). Specific depositional environments that have been identified include open marine, nearshore, delta plain, delta, distributary channel, fluvial, and beach (Hutapea, 1981 in Bishop, 2000). The Batu Raja formation consists of widespread platform carbonates, 20—75 m thick, with additional carbonate buildups and reefs, from 60—120 m thick. The Basal Telisa is shale and calcareous shale deposited in deeper water as the carbonates were being developed on the platforms and highs. Reservoir porosity ranges from 18—38% and reservoir permeability is as much as 1 Darcy. Porosity has been enhanced in the upper parts of the formation due to subaerial exposure late in the early Miocene, at approximately 17.5 Ma, and also because of only partially cemented fractures (Hartanto et al., 1991; Bishop, 2000). The Oligocene to middle Miocene Gumai Formation, is composed of fossiliferous marine shales with thin, glauconitic limestones that represent a rapid, widespread maximum transgression. The thickness of the Gumai Formation varies and is as much as 2,700 m thick in basins. The formation thins at basin margins and across highs. The Gumai Formation is the regional seal for the Batu Raja Limestone in South Sumatra but also contains some reservoir intervals (Hutchinson, 1996 in Bishop, 2000). The middle Miocene Air Benakat Formation was deposited during the regression that ended deposition of the Gumai Shale. The Air Benakat Formation changes upward from deep marine to shallow marine conditions. Marine glauconitic clays decrease in frequency and marine sands increase. The formation ranges from 1,000—1,500 m thick. Coal beds mark the upper

contact with the overlying Muara Enim Formation. The average porosity of the sandstone is 25% (Bishop, 2000). The Late Miocene to Pliocene Muara Enim Formation, also known as the Middle Palembang Formation, was deposited as shallow marine to continental sands, muds, and coals. The formation thins to the north from a maximum of 750 m in the south. Uplift of the Barisan Mountains provided source terrains for clastics from the south and southwest during deposition of the Muara Enim Formation (Bishop, 2000).

SEAL ROCK The Gumai Formation represents the maximum highstand transgression following development of Batu Raja carbonates. Shales of this regional formation seal carbonate reservoirs and locally seal a series of stacked sandstone reservoirs of the Talang Akar Formation (Hartanto et al., 1991). Hydrocarbons that are found above the regional seal either have migrated there due to faults that broke the seal during the compression phase or were generated by the Gumai Formation shales in local areas where this formation might be mature. Intraformational seals within the Talang Akar consist of shallow marine and overbank shales that are important seals that compartmentalize the sandstones (Bishop, 2000). References: Argakoesoemah R.M.I., Raharja M., Winardhi S., Tarigan R., Maksum T.F., Aimar A., 2005, Telisa Shallow Marine Sandstone As An Emerging Exploration Target In Palembang High, South Sumatra Basin, In proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association, Thirtieth Annual Convention, Jakarta Bishop M. G., 2000, South Sumatra Basin Province, Indonesia: The Lahat/Talang AkarCenozoic Total Petroleum System, U.S. Department of The Interior U.S. Geological Survey, http://geology.cr.usgs.gov/energy/WorldEnergy/OF99-50S/province.html De Coster G. L., 1974, The Geology of the Central and South Sumatra Basins. In proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association, Third Annual Convention, Jakarta, pp. 77 – 110.

Dally M. C., Hooper B. G. D., and Smith D. G., 1987, Tertiary Plate Tectonics and Basin Evolution in Indonesia. In proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association, Sixteenth Annual Convention, Jakarta, pp. 399-428. Feriyanto, Kamil F., Kusnandar Y., and Yanto Y, 2005, Successful Identification of Thin Carbonate On Paleo-Basement High: Special Case In Palembang High, South Sumatra Basin, In proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association, Thirtieth Annual Convention, Jakarta.

Hartanto, Karsan, Widianto, Eko, and Safrizal, 1991, Hydrocarbon prospect related to the local unconformities of the Duang area, South Sumatra Basin:Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association Twentieth Annual Convention, October, 1991, p. 17-36.

Kamal A., 1999, Hydrocarbon Potential in the Pasemah Block, A Frontier Area in South Sumatra, In proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association, Twenty Seventh Annual Convention, Jakarta, pp. 49-63. Sarjono, S., and Sardjito, 1989, Hydrocarbon source rock identification in the South Palembang sub-basin:Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association Eighteenth Annual Convention, October, 1989, p. 427-467. Sardjito, Fadianto, Eddy, Djumlati, and Hansen, S., 1991, Hydrocarbon prospect of the preTertiary basement in Kuang area, South Sumatra:Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association Twentieth Annual Convention, October, 1991, p. 255-278. Sitompul N., Rudiyanto, Wirawan A., and Zaim Y., 1992, Effects of Sea Level Drops During Late Early Miocene To The Reservoirs In South Palembang Sub Basin, South Sumatra, Indonesia, Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association Twenty First Annual Convention,

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

SOUTH SUMATRA BASIN PROVINCE, INDONESIA: THE LAHAT/TALANG AKAR-CENOZOIC TOTAL PETROLEUM SYSTEM by Michele G. Bishop1

Open-File Report 99-50S 2000

PROVINCE GEOLOGY The province covers an area of approximately 117,000 km2 primarily onshore Sumatra, Indonesia (Fig. 1). Exploration efforts have been concentrated onshore with only a few dry holes drilled in offshore areas (Petroconsultants, 1996). The Palembang or Lampung High or

arch separates the South Sumatra basin from the Sunda Basin of the Northwest Java Province 3824 (Fig. 2). This high served both as a barrier to sediment dispersal and as a sediment source terrain from Mesozoic through most of the Tertiary (de Coster, 1974). The South and Central Sumatra Basin Provinces (3828, 3808) are divided at the Tigapuluh Mountains (Fig. 2). The western margin is the Plio-Pleistocene Barisan Mountains (Fig. 2). South Sumatra is divided into sub-basins: Jambi, North Palembang, Central Palembang, South Palembang, and Bandar Jaya Basin (Fig. 2) (Williams and others, 1995; Suseno and others, 1992). Most of the published data is from the South Palembang sub-basin. Tectonics In the center of the South Sumatra Basin Province, are Permian to Carboniferous metamorphic and igneous rocks crop out in a northwest to southeast trend. These consist of phyllites, slates, argillites, quartzites, gneisses and granites (Adiwidjaja and de Coster, 1973). In the northwest, and south of the Permo-Carboniferous trend, are areas of Mesozoic metamorphic rocks with local granite intrusions (Adiwidjaja and de Coster, 1973). In a broad trend south of the Permo-Carboniferous and Mesozoic rocks are Mesozoic metasediments and limestones, which have been dated as Jurassic or Cretaceous, together with mafic igneous rocks (Adiwidjaja and de Coster, 1973). To the north of the Permo-Carboniferous trend near the city of Palembang, is a northwest to southeast trending area described as micritic limestone of Cretaceous age (Adiwidjaja and de Coster, 1973). The South Sumatra basin was formed by three major tectonic phases: 1) extension during late Paleocene to early Miocene forming north-trending grabens that were filled with Eocene to early Miocene deposits; 2) relative quiescence with late normal faulting from early Miocene to early Pliocene; and 3) basement-involved compression, basin inversion, and reversal of normal faults in the Pliocene to Recent forming the anticlines that are the major traps in the area (Suhendan, 1984). Many of the normal faults that formed the depositional basins in South Sumatra have been reactivated and some have been reversed during Miocene to Plio-Pleistocene compression and basin inversion (Sudarmono and others, 1997; Zeliff and others, 1985; Moulds, 1989). The emergent Sunda Shelf plate (platform, craton, or Malay micro-plate now mostly beneath the Java Sea) was confined on the east by oceanic crust and spreading centers, to the west by continental crust and to the south by Cretaceous oceanic and continental crust (Pulunggono, 1985; Ponto and others, 1988). Sundaland, or the Sunda Shelf Plate, is considered to be composed of a mosaic of continental and oceanic microplates accreted and sutured together in the Late Triassic (Pulunggono, 1985; Cole and Crittenden, 1997). Since the early Tertiary, the Sunda Shelf plate has generally tilted southward and has been subsiding (Ponto and others, 1988). The current subduction system, located offshore west of Sumatra and south of Java, began in the late Oligocene. Uplift of the Barisan Mountains, resulting from the subduction, began in late Miocene but primarily occurred in the Plio-Pleistocene (Hamilton, 1979; Sudarmono and others, 1997). In the Eocene to Oligocene, tectonic stress and extension, resulting from northward movement of both the Australian tectonic plate to the east and the India plate to the west, and rotation of Borneo, formed rifts or half-graben complexes along much of the southern margin of the Sunda Shelf plate (now Sumatra and Northwest Java) (Hall, 1997a, b; Longley, 1997; Sudarmono and others, 1997). These rift basins overlie an unconformity formed on a variety of pre-Tertiary rocks. The grabens and major faults of the South Sumatra Basin Province are oriented north-northwest to south-southeast. This is a similar alignment to the grabens of Central Sumatra but they are deeper and larger basins (Fig. 3). The Palembang Basin in South Sumatra is greater than 4,500 m deep (Hutchinson, 1996). The fault-bounded Benakat Gulley connects the major basin complexes of the Lematang Depression and the Palembang Depression (Fig. 2) (Hutchinson, 1996; Moulds, 1989). The north—south Benakat Gulley is similar in trend to the Bengkalis depression in Central Sumatra, the fault zone that forms the eastern coast of Sumatra, the Sunda and Asri Basins offshore, and the grabens of Northern Sumatra (Hutchinson, 1996; Pulunggono and others, 1992; Moulds, 1989). A fault zone that trends southwest to northeast, the Tembesi Fault, forms the northwestern edge of the Jambi Depression (Fig. 2). Deposition The overall Tertiary depositional fill of the South Sumatra Basin began in the Eocene with deposition of continental sediments derived from local erosion (Cole and Crittenden, 1997; Courteney and others, 1990). Characteristic halfgraben-style locally derived deposits began to fill these basins in response to the half-graben architectural style and subsidence of the basins (Bishop, 1988; Wicaksono and others, 1992). Additional synrift deposits of tuffaceous

sands, conglomerates, breccias and clays were deposited in faulted and topographic lows by alluvial, fluvial, and lacustrine processes (Fig. 4). Marine transgression occurred in some areas possibly as early as the late Eocene (Courteney and others, 1990). Widespread marine transgression from the south and southwest in the late Oligocene to Miocene resulted in onlap of clastic deposits onto basement rocks, development of platform carbonates, and carbonate build-ups on fault-block highs. Carbonate and sands were also deposited around emergent islands (Cole and Crittenden, 1997; Courteney and others, 1990; Sitompul and others, 1992; Hartanto and others, 1991; Hutapea, 1981; Tamtomo and others, 1997; Hamilton, 1979). The overall transgression was punctuated by lowstands. This resulted in development of secondary porosity in some of the carbonates. Lowstands also resulted in submarine fans within the marine shale strata (Cole and Crittenden, 1997; Courteney and others, 1990; Sitompul and others, 1992; Hartanto and others, 1991; Hutapea, 1981; Tamtomo and others, 1997; Hamilton, 1979). Regional sediment sources were generally from the Sunda Plate to the north and Palembang or Lampung High to the east (Sitompul and others, 1992). Maximum transgression in the middle Miocene deposited the marine Gumai Shale Formation seal across the region before uplift and compression resulted in deposition of shallow marine and continental sandstones and shales (Fig. 4) (Courteney and others, 1990; Cole and Crittenden, 1997; de Coster, 1974). Development of the Barisan Mountains, and possible volcanic islands to the south and southeast, further decreased and then cut off and overwhelmed marine influences and added new clastic and volcaniclastic sources from those directions (de Coster, 1974; Cole and Crittenden, 1997; Hamilton, 1979). Erosion of northwest trending anticlines that were formed during compression resulted in local Plio-Pleistocene continental deposits within the intervening synclines (de Coster, 1974). Continued volcanic activity has covered much of the surface of the South Sumatra Basin (van Bemmelen, 1949). History of Exploration Early exploration was guided by surface seeps that were associated with anticlines, and led to the discovery of Kampung Minyak Field in South Sumatra in 1886 (Fig. 2) (Macgregor, 1995). This field reportedly contained reserves of 31.3 MMBOE in the deltaic Pliocene Muara Enim Formation (Fig. 4) (Zeliff and others, 1985). Numerous surface anticlines have been mapped in South Sumatra, generally with a northwest to southeast trend, and are more tightly folded in the north than the south (Fig. 2) (van Bemmelen, 1949). Until 1921 the exploration target was sandstone in the Air Benakat Formation and the deepest penetration had been the Gumai Formation (Zeliff and others, 1985). In 1921 Nederlandsche Koloniale Petroleum Maatschappij (NKPM), formed by Standard of New Jersey (SONJ), discovered the Pendopo/Talang Akar Field (Fig. 2) (Zeliff and others, 1985). This discovery in the Talang Akar Formation sandstone is the largest oil field in South Sumatra with estimated reserves of 360 MMBOE (Zeliff and others, 1985; Ford, 1985). More recent estimates have increased these reserves by more than 15 percent (Petroconsultants, 1996). This discovery reportedly occurred due to communication delays, since the drillers were being paid by the foot, they drilled ahead after reaching the target Air Benakat Formation, not having been told to stop (Ford, 1985). Royal Dutch Shell (BPM), Standard of New Jersey, Socony Vacuum (Standard of New York (Mobil)), and Pertamina were all companies involved in the early exploration of South Sumatra (Zeliff and others, 1985). In 1933 SONJ (Exxon) and Socony Vacuum each held 50% interest in Standard Vacuum Oil Company (Stanvac) that took over NKPM’s oilfields and refineries and Socony’s marketing in the Asia Pacific region (Ford, 1985).

PETROLEUM OCCURRENCE Numerous oil and gas seeps occur in South Sumatra in the foothills of the Gumai and Barisan mountains and are associated with anticlines (Fig. 2) (Macgregor, 1995; Zeliff and others, 1985). The largest fields, however, are not associated with seeps in South Sumatra and there are no seeps associated with fields in the adjacent and prolific Central Sumatra Basin. However, the occurrence of seeps promoted interest and early exploration for hydrocarbons

throughout Sumatra (Macgregor, 1995, Zeliff and others, 1985, Van Bemmelen, 1949; Ford, 1985). Petroleum exploration in South Sumatra has been primarily guided by surface anticlines, sometimes found by digging trenches (in the absence of outcrop) to map dips (Ford, 1985). Therefore the early distribution of fields follows the trend of the anticlines. The same compression that formed the inverted rift-basin anticlines reversed the motion of many normal faults resulting in monoclines and anticlines over keystone type fault blocks (Moulds, 1989). These structures, as well as stratigraphic pinchouts and onlaps trapped hydrocarbons that migrated from mature source rocks in adjacent lows (Courteney and others, 1990). The earliest fields were discovered in shallow Air Benakat and Muara Enim reservoirs and located near the Gumai and Barisan mountain fronts (Moulds, 1989; Ford, 1985; Zeliff and others, 1985). Later discoveries occurred further away from the mountains in older and deeper reservoirs (Ford, 1985). Fields in the carbonate reservoirs of the Oligocene to Miocene Batu Raja Limestone (Fig. 4) are also aligned generally northwest to southeast since these buildups are located on basement highs or fault-block relief associated with the rifted basins (Zeliff and others, 1985). Much of the oil in the basin is paraffinic and low in sulfur content (Petroconsultants, 1996; ten Haven and Schiefelbein, 1995). Both lacustrine and terrigenous facies on the margins of lacustrine environments have been interpreted as sources for the oils in the South Sumatra Basin. An additional carbonate source rock is suggested by one oil sample (ten Haven and Schiefelbein, 1995). Gravity of oil and condensate produced from sandstone reservoirs is reported to range from 21—55 API with gas to oil ratios (GOR) ranging from less than one hundred to more than 55,000 (Petroconsultants, 1996). CO 2 content of the natural gas can be as much as 90 % (Courteney and others, 1990). Batu Raja Limestone reservoirs contain oils and condensates with gravity from 27—58 API and GOR ranging from approximately 200 to more than 88,000 (Petroconsultants, 1996). Oil gravity, from more than 30 Talang Akar sandstone reservoirs in the Raja Field alone, ranges from 15 to 40 API (Hutapea, 1981). Oils analyzed by GeoMark from the South Sumatra Basin are plotted with oils from the Northwest Java area (Fig. 5). Oil samples from the adjoining Northwest Java Basin Province separate into two geochemical clusters, 1) lacustrine, 2) coaly and mixed regions, that agree with the literature on the origins of oils in this region (Bishop, 2000 figure 6). By comparison, South Sumatra Basin oil samples show data points transitional between the terrestrial coal/coaly shale and lacustrine clusters of Northwest Java (Fig. 5). Hydrocarbon migration occured along carrier beds updip from the deep rift basins, where the source rocks are mature, and then along faults to overlying anticlines that form the majority of traps (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989). Migration may have begun in late middle Miocene in the South Palembang sub-basin (Fig. 2 and Fig. 6) (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989). Fault breaches in the Gumai Formation regional seal, allowed hydrocarbons to migrate into middle and late Miocene reservoirs (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989). SOURCE ROCK Hydrocarbons in South Sumatra Province, Lahat/Talang Akar-Cenozoic (382801) TPS (Fig. 6), are derived from both lacustrine source rocks of the Lahat Formation and terrestrial coal and coaly shale source rocks of the Talang Akar Formation (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989; Todd and others, 1997; Katz, 1991; Sladen, 1997; Suseno and others, 1992; Schiefelbein and others, 1997; Schiefelbein and Cameron, 1997; Sosrowidjojo and others, 1994). The lacustrine source rocks were deposited in a complex of half-grabens whereas the subsequent coal and coaly shales were deposited in and extended beyond the limits of the half-grabens (Fig. 3). The Batu Raja Limestone and the Gumai Formation shales may also be mature and have generated hydrocarbons in local areas (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989). The middle to late Eocene through early Oligocene Lahat or Lemat Formation, in the south Palembang area, includes the Benakat Shale with oil prone Type I and II kerogen and gas prone Type III kerogen depending on its locale (Suseno and others, 1992). The Benakat Shale Member is found in the deep portions of the basins and consists of grey-brown shales with tuffaceous shale, siltstones, sandstones, and coals (Hutchinson, 1996). The depositional environment is described by Hutchinson (1996) as brackish water. Total organic carbon (TOC) content of the Lahat Formation varies from 1.7—8.5 wt% (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989) and locally as much as 16.0 wt%

(Suseno and others, 1992). Hydrocarbon index (HI) values are 130—290 mg hydrocarbon (HC)/g TOC (Suseno and others, 1992). Thermal maturity of the Lahat Formation ranges from 0.64—1.40% Ro (Suseno and others, 1992). The Lahat Formation generated oil in most locations and oil and gas where more deeply buried (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989). Organic material in the late Eocene through middle Miocene Talang Akar Formation contains oil- and gas-prone Type I, II and III kerogen, identical to the Lahat Formation, and very similar to the Talang Akar source rocks of the Northwest Java Ardjuna area (Suseno and others, 1992). The Gritsand Member of the Talang Akar is described by Cole and Crittenden (1997) as deposited in intramontane lacustrine, lowland marine-influenced lacustrine, and fluvial-lacustrine-lagoonal settings and contains oil-prone Type I kerogen with the addition of Type II due to local facies changes. The Talang Akar Formation has good to very good source rock potential with a TOC range of 1.5—8 wt% in areas of the South Palembang sub-basin (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989) ranging locally up to 50.0 wt% (Suseno and others, 1992). The range of HI is 150—310 mg hydrocarbon (HC)/g TOC (Suseno and others, 1992). Thermal maturity of the upper Talang Akar in the South Palembang sub-basin ranges from 0.54—0.60 Ro and from 0.82—1.30 Ro in the lower Talang Akar (Suseno and others, 1992). The general temperature gradient in South Sumatra is 49 Ckm-1 (Hutchinson, 1996). This gradient is lower than in Central Sumatra and consequently the oil window is deeper (Hutchinson, 1996). The Oligocene to Miocene Batu Raja Limestone and the Oligocene to Miocene Gumai Formation are mature to early mature for thermal gas generation in some of the deep basins and therefore may contribute gas to the petroleum system (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989). Gas at MBU-1 field has been attributed to mature Gumai Shale source rocks in the adjacent low (Fig. 2) (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989). In the Bandar Jaya Basin area (Fig. 2) several grabens contain rich Lahat source rocks (Williams and others, 1995). The lacustrine source rocks are oil prone Type I and II kerogen and the coaly lake margin and deltaic source rocks contain Type III kerogen (Williams and others, 1995). Several wells have tested reservoirs and source rocks in some of these half-grabens, encountering gas and oil shows but without commercial success (Petroconsultants, 1996). Analyses of these source rocks indicate that they are just entering the oil window (Williams and others, 1995). OVERBURDEN ROCK Marine flooding from the south resulted in deposition of the Gumai Formation in the basins while Batu Raja Limestone was deposited on platforms and highs with maximum transgression reached during the early middle Miocene (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989). Clastic deposition increased during the late middle Miocene regression forming claystone, sandstone, and siltstone in a shallow marine environment (Sarjono and Sardjdito, 1989). Shallow marine and terrestrial depositional settings continued. Between 1000—3000 m of overburden was deposited until a widespread late Pliocene through Pleistocene orogeny caused folding and faulting (Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989). TRAP TYPES Northwest to southeast trending anticlines were the first traps explored and remain the most important traps in the South Sumatra basin (van Bemmelen, 1949). Oil and gas reserves found in anticlines total 3.1 BBOE ultimate recoverable reserves (Petroconsultants, 1996). These fields have primarily sandstone reservoirs with some limestones and calcareous sandstones and include every producing formation in the basin (Petroconsultants, 1996). The anticlines formed as a result of compression that began as early as the Miocene but was most pronounced between 2—3 Ma (Fig. 6) (Courteney and others, 1990). Stratigraphic pinch-outs and carbonate buildups locally combine with folds and anticlines to enhance the effectiveness of the primary trap type. Recoverable reserves of 178 MMBOE are found in bioherms and carbonate buildup type traps and 688 MMBOE in fault traps (Petroconsultants, 1996). Drape, facies-change, and stratigraphic traps are also important and may be attractive future targets. RESERVOIR ROCK Basement Rocks

Uplifted areas and paleohighs of Mesozoic and Eocene fractured and weathered basement granite and quartzite are effective reservoirs, with up to 7% porosity, in ten fields in South Sumatra with gas reserves totaling 106 MMBOE ultimate recoverable reserves (Sardjito and others, 1991; Petroconsultants, 1996). Lahat (Lemat, Old Lemat, Young Lemat) Formation The Eocene to Oligocene Lahat Formation (Fig. 4) is composed of synrift deposits that are as much as 1,070 m thick. Although locally absent, this formation, is in most locations, more than 760 m thick (Hutchinson, 1996). The formation was deposited in continental, lacustrine, and brackish lacustrine depositional settings (Hutchinson, 1996). This reservoir accounts for nearly 88 MMBOE of ultimate recoverable reserves (Petroconsultants, 1996). The Kikim Tuffs, also known as Old Lemat, are tuffaceous sandstones, conglomerates, breccias, and clays, of locally derived provenance, deposited in faulted and topographic lows (Hutchinson, 1996). The Kikim is interpreted to by Late Cretaceous to Paleocene in age and occurs in outcrop and at depth in the southern region (Hutchinson, 1996). The oldest facies of the Young Lemat is granite wash overlain by coarse clastic deposits that consist of sandstones and breccias with abundant rock fragments, claystones, coals, and tuffs (Hutchinson, 1996). The Benakat Member is a grey to brown shale with tuffaceous shale, siltstone, sandstone, coal, carbonate stringers and glauconitic sandstones that occurs in the deep portion of the half-graben basins (Hutchinson, 1996). This member was deposited in fresh to brackish water lakes and conformably overlies the coarse clastics of the lower Lemat Formation (Hutchinson, 1996). Talang Akar Formation The late Oligocene lower Talang Akar Formation is also referred to as the Gritsand Member and the Oligocene to early Miocene upper Talang Akar Formation as the Transition Member (Sitompul and others, 1992; Tamtomo and others, 1997). The Talang Akar Formation is as much as 610 m thick (Hutchinson, 1996). It is a late synrift to postrift formation that is thick where the underlying Lahat Formation is thickest (Fig. 3). The Talang Akar Formation unconformably overlies the Lahat Formation. It onlaps the Lahat and the basement, extending farther outside of the depositional basins than the depositional limits of the Lahat Formation (Hutchinson, 1996). This reservoir consists of quartzose sandstones, siltstones, and shales deposited in a delta plain setting that changed basinward, generally to the south and west, into marginal marine sandstones and shales (Adiwidjaja and de Coster, 1973; Hutchinson, 1996; Eko Widianto and Nanang Muksin, 1989). Specific depositional environments that have been identified include open marine, nearshore, delta plain, delta, distributary channel, fluvial, and beach (Hutapea, 1981). Talang Akar Formation sandstones, which were deposited during marine transgressions and regressions, form important stratigraphic traps (Tamtomo and others, 1997). These shoreline sands are generally aligned east to west, are supplied with sediment from the Sunda Shelf to the north and the Palembang High (Lampung High) to the east, can be laterally restricted, and thicken and thin in response to topography at the time of deposition (Adiwidjaja and de Coster, 1973; Hamilton, 1979; Hutapea, 1981; Sitompul and others, 1992). Other shoreline sandstones that surround basement highs are productive reservoirs for several fields (Tamtomo and others, 1997). Here the quality of the reservoir depends on the type of basement rock eroded to provide the clastics. The Talang Akar Formation reservoir accounts for more than 75% of the cumulative oil production in South Sumatra (Tamtomo and others, 1997). Approximately 2 BBOE ultimate recoverable reserves have been found in Talang Akar reservoirs (Petroconsultants, 1996). Porosity of this reservoir rock ranges from 15—30 % and permeability is as much as 5 Darcies (Tamtomo and others, 1997; Petroconsultants, 1996). Porosity of the Gritsand Member is primarily secondary and averages 25% (Sitompul and others, 1992). Porosity of the Transitional Member is also primarily secondary and caused by the dissolution of grains and detrital clays. This cleaner and more mature sandstone has 25% average porosity (Sitompul and others, 1992). Clays in both members include smectite, illite, and abundant kaolinite (Sitompul and others, 1992). Batu Raja Limestone The early Miocene Batu Raja Limestone is also known as the Basal Telisa Limestone (Hutchinson, 1996). The formation consists of widespread platform carbonates, 20—75 m thick, with additional carbonate buildups and reefs, from 60—120 m thick (Hutchinson, 1996; Hartanto and others, 1991). The Basal Telisa is shale and calcareous shale

deposited in deeper water as the carbonates were being developed on the platforms and highs (Courteney and others 1990). At outcrop the Batu Raja is 520 m thick in the Garba Mountains area of the Barisan Mountains (Fig. 2) (Hutchinson, 1996). Discoveries in Batu Raja limestone and sandy limestone total over 1 BBOE ultimate recoverable reserves, with gas comprising just over half of that amount (Petroconsultants, 1996). Oil gravity ranges from 26—61 API (Petroconsultants, 1996). Reservoir porosity ranges from 18—38% and reservoir permeability is as much as 1 Darcy (Petroconsultants, 1996). Porosity has been enhanced in the upper parts of the formation due to subaerial exposure late in the early Miocene, at approximately 17.5 Ma, and also because of only partially cemented fractures (Courteney and others, 1990; Hartanto and others, 1991; Sitompul and others, 1992). Gumai Formation The Oligocene to middle Miocene Gumai Formation, also known as the Telisa Formation, is composed of fossiliferous marine shales with thin, glauconitic limestones that represent a rapid, widespread maximum transgression (Fig. 4) (Hartanto and others, 1991; Hutchinson, 1996). The transgression was toward the northeast, and water depths were shallow in the northeast and bathyal in the southwest (Hamilton, 1979). Fine-grained sandstones and siltstones occur on the basin margins (Hutchinson, 1996). The thickness of the Gumai Formation varies and is as much as 2,700 m thick in basins. The formation thins at basin margins and across highs (Hartanto and others, 1991; Hutchinson, 1996). The Gumai Formation is the regional seal for the Batu Raja Limestone in South Sumatra but also contains some reservoir intervals. These carbonates contain 130 MMBOE ultimate recoverable reserves (Petroconsultants, 1996). These reserves average 33—52 API gravity and are found primarily in shoreline and shallow marine sandstones with 20% porosity, however, Hartanto and others (1991) have used well logs to identify turbidites and suggest that these sands could be exploration targets in the basins. Thee turbidites suggest that a rapid drop in sea level occurred at the end of Gumai deposition in middle Miocene time (Hartanto and others, 1991). Air Benakat Formation The middle Miocene Air Benakat Formation, also known as the Lower Palembang Formation, was deposited during the regression that ended deposition of the Gumai Shale. The Air Benakat Formation changes upward from deep marine to shallow marine conditions. Marine glauconitic clays decrease in frequency and marine sands increase (Hartanto and others, 1991). The formation ranges from 1,000—1,500 m thick (Hutchinson, 1996). Coal beds mark the upper contact with the overlying Muara Enim Formation (Hutchinson, 1996). Ultimate recoverable reserves discovered in shallow marine and deltaic sandstone reservoirs within the Air Benakat Formation total 647 MMBOE (Petroconsultants, 1996). The average porosity of the sandstone is 25%. The reservoirs contain oil with average 47 API gravity and some gas (Petroconsultants, 1996). Muara Enim Formation The late Miocene to Pliocene Muara Enim Formation, also known as the Middle Palembang Formation, was deposited as shallow marine to continental sands, muds, and coals. The formation thins to the north from a maximum of 750 m in the south (Fig. 4) (Hutchinson, 1996). Oil reserves of 179 MMBOE ultimate recoverable are located in Muara Enim sandstone reservoirs with 30% average porosity (Petroconsultants, 1996). Uplift of the Barisan Mountains provided source terrains for clastics from the south and southwest during deposition of the Muara Enim Formation (Hamilton, 1979). Kasi Tuff Continental tuffaceous sands, clays, gravels, and thin coal beds of the Kasi Tuff, also known as the Upper Palembang Formation, are found in valleys and synclines formed during deformation of the Barisan Mountains. These sediments are derived primarily from these mountains (Courteney and others, 1990; Hutchinson, 1996). SEAL ROCK The Gumai Formation represents the maximum highstand transgression following development of Batu Raja carbonates (Fig. 3 and 4) (Hartanto and others, 1991). Shales of this regional formation seal carbonate reservoirs and locally seal a series of stacked sandstone reservoirs of the Talang Akar Formation (Martadinata and Wright, 1984;

Hartanto and others, 1991). Hydrocarbons that are found above the regional seal either have migrated there due to faults that broke the seal during the compression phase or were generated by the Gumai Formation shales in local areas where this formation might be mature. Intraformational seals within the Talang Akar consist of shallow marine and overbank shales that are important seals that compartmentalize the sandstones (Courteney and others, 1990). UNDISCOVERED PETROLEUM BY ASSESSMENT UNIT One assessment unit, the South Sumatra assessment unit (38280101), is recognized in the Lahat/Talang AkarCenozoic petroleum system (Fig. 1). The primary exploration targets in the South Sumatra Basin have been anticlines and carbonate buildups. This play is fairly mature. Although the basin as a whole has had a similar depositional history, there is a great deal of local variation within and around the half-grabens and half-graben complexes that could yield many targets for exploration. Future exploration targets would include smaller traps associated with more subtitle structures, stratigraphic traps associated with lowstand fan deposits, shoreline onlap onto basement highs, and synrift clastic fluvial, deltaic, and possibly deep-water deposits deeper in the half-grabens. Basin inversion could form traps in some of these synrift deposits. Due to the complex and varied nature of the province numerous prospects may remain to be explored

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